T& 
 
V 
 
 AN ITALIAN GRAMMAR 
 
 WITH EXERCISES 
 
 BY 
 
 MARY VANCE YOUNG 
 
 <i 
 
 Professor of Romance Languages, Mount Holyoke College 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 1904 
 
1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 • • • •, 
 • • * 
 
 « . . • • • • • 
 
 Copyright, 1904, 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This book is intended for class use and reference. 
 Practical utility has been considered more than harmony 
 of. design. This will explain what might be taken for a 
 lack of plan. For instance, the general rules for the 
 inflection of adjectives being given in the first chapter, 
 the chapter on adjectives is placed after those on verbs 
 and pronouns. In order that regular verbal inflection 
 may be thoroughly learned before irregular forms are 
 taken up the chapter on irregular verbs is rather widely 
 separated from that on the regular, and for the same 
 reason the regular conjugations are given before the 
 auxiliaries (the present tenses of the principal auxiliaries 
 being familiar to the pupil from the first lesson) ; the 
 chapter on the modification of nouns by means of pre- 
 fixes and suffixes does not follow that on nouns, and 
 numerals are treated of quite at the end of the book. 
 Numerals belong rather to the dictionary than to the 
 grammar and may conveniently be learned in connection 
 with reading or oral exercises. This chapter, as well 
 as that on prepositions, is intended largely for reference. 
 
 Although every part of the book has been independently 
 worked out, it in no way claims to be a work of investiga- 
 tion. Among grammars consulted in its preparation 
 should be mentioned Moise's Regole ed Osservazioni della 
 Lingua Italiana, from which material for the lists of 
 
 iii 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 prepositions, etc., has been drawn, and Mariotti's Gram- 
 mar; and for certain parts Meyer-Liibke's, Grandgent's, 
 Sauer's, and Benelli-Marucelli's have also given hints. 
 The dictionaries of Rigutini-Fanfani and of Edgren, 
 Josselyn's Etude sur la phouetique italienne , and the section 
 on the Italian language in Grober's Grundriss der Romani- 
 schen Philologie have been helpful. 
 
 The author returns thanks to Mr. T. Comba, who furnished 
 the material for several exercises and read most of the 
 book in manuscript; to Mr. Freeman Josselyn, Jr., who 
 read the chapter on phonetics and made valuable sug- 
 gestions; to Mr. Grandgent and Messrs. D. C. Heath & Co., 
 by whose permission a device for representing to the eye 
 the irregularities of certain verbs, similar to that em- 
 ployed in Mr. Grandgent's Grammar was adopted; to 
 Mr. Ramsey, by whose permission the paragraphs on 
 the correspondences between Italian and English words 
 have been borrowed from his Spanish Grammar; and to 
 Messrs. Fraser and Squair, whose French Grammar fur- 
 nished the model for No. 190 seq. in the chapter on prepo- 
 sitions. 
 
 The material for the exercises has been gathered from 
 various sources. In that taken from an Italian school 
 history no responsibility for facts is assumed. Only 
 a few oral exercises are furnished, since the teacher will 
 usually prefer to make his own from the vocabulary in 
 the exercises. 
 
 The author hopes that this Grammar may be useful to 
 her Romanic fellow workers, and that they in return will 
 kindly point out its defects. 
 
 Mary Vance Young. 
 
 Mount Holyoke College, September, 1903. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pronunciation, Orthography, and Graphic Signs i 
 
 CHAPTERS 
 
 I. First Principles. Articles and Nouns 27 
 
 II. Articles with Prepositions. Syntax of the Ar- 
 ticle 29 
 
 III. Nouns, their Gender and Number 37 
 
 IV. Regular Verbs 48 
 
 V. Auxiliary Verbs 56 
 
 VI. Personal Pronouns. Disjunctive Personal Pro- 
 nouns 65 
 
 VII. Conjunctive Personal Pronouns. Reflexive Verbs 72 
 
 VIII. Adjectives and Participles 82 
 
 IX. Possessives 98 
 
 X. Demonstratives. Relatives. Interrogatives. In- 
 definites 102 
 
 XT. Prefixes and Suffixes 111 
 
 XII. Irregular Verbs. Impersonal Verbs. Defective 
 
 Verbs 116 
 
 XIII. Prepositions. Dependent Infinites 123 
 
 XIV. Conjunctions. Moods and Tenses 142 
 
 XV. Adverbs. Numerals and Numerical Values. In- 
 terjections 156 
 
 Irregular Verbs by Conjugations 171 
 
 Alphabetical Table of Irregular Verbs 198 
 
 Exercises 207 
 
 Italian-English Vocabulary 244 
 
 English-Italian Vocabulary 258 
 
 Index 269 
 
 v 
 

 UNIVE . , 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 PRONUNCIATION ORTHOGRAPHY, AND GRAPHIC 
 
 SIGNS. 
 
 i. The following tables contain all the sounds ordi- 
 narily used in spoken Italian, classified according to 
 the locality and to the manner of their production. 
 
 (a) Vowels are distinguished with reference to their 
 locality only, as front and back vowels. (/?) Consonants 
 are classified (a) according to locality, as: (i) bi- 
 labials, formed by the upper and lower lips; (2) labio- 
 dentals, formed by the lower lip and the upper teeth; 
 
 (3) linguo -dentals, by the tongue and upper teeth; 
 
 (4) front-palatals, by the tip of the tongue against 
 the front part of the hard palate; (5) back-palatals, 
 by the ridge of the tongue against the back part of 
 the hard palate; (6) gutturals, by the ridge of the 
 tongue against the soft palate; (b) according to 
 manner of production, as: (1) stops, to form which 
 the breath is stopped by the actual touching or closing 
 of the organs, as in p\ (2) continuants, in which the 
 breath is only squeezed, not stopped, as in /; (3) 
 liquids, which differ from other continuants in that 
 they partake more of the character of vowels, as /. 
 These classes of consonants must also be subdivided 
 into voiceless, in the production of which the vocal 
 cords do not vibrate, and voiced, in which they do 
 vibrate. For instance, p is the voiceless bi-labial 
 stop, i.e., in forming it the breath is stopped by the 
 
' , - 
 
 \ ,■ : : .; i'italian grammar. 
 
 t < > i 
 
 //touching 'of; the upper 'against the lower lip, the vocal 
 ' ' cOfds not vibrating,' and b is the same with vibration of 
 the vocal cords. 1 An Italian key-word is given for each 
 sound, the letter representing the sound in question 
 being printed in heavy type. The approximate English 
 correspondent in each case is given below (5, 12 sq. 2 ). 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 Front Vowels. 
 
 1 (inni) 
 i (inni) 
 
 e (fremere) 
 e (fremere) 
 § (fremere) 
 a (ama) 
 a (ama) 
 
 Back Vowels. 
 u (una) 
 u (rumore) 
 popolo) 
 o (popolo) 
 '9 (popolo) 
 
 CONSONANTS, 
 (a) Simple Consonants. 
 
 
 Bi-labial. 
 
 Labio-dental. 
 
 Linguo-dental. 
 
 
 Voiceless. 
 
 Voiced. 
 
 Voiceless. 
 
 Voiced. 
 
 Voiceless. 
 
 Voiced 
 
 Stops 
 
 Continuants. . . . 
 Liquids 
 
 p (pena) 
 
 b (babbo) 
 u (uomo) 
 
 f (fango) 
 m (mano) 
 
 v (vero) 
 
 t (tento) 
 
 d (donna) 
 
 
 Front-palatal. 
 
 Back-palatal. 
 
 Guttural. 
 
 
 Voiceless. 
 
 Voiced. 
 
 Voiceless. 
 
 Voiced. 
 
 
 Continuants 
 
 Liquids 
 
 s (so) 
 
 s (rosa) 
 
 n (nina) 
 1 (lotto) 
 r (rima) 
 
 k (corte) 
 
 £ (gola) 
 
 sh (sciagura) 
 
 j (pieno) 
 
 T (taglio) 
 fi (nialigno) 
 
 ng* (vcngo) 
 
 * This sound can as yet be only tentatively classified. 
 
 1 Any simple work on phonetics may serve to further elucidate 
 the tables. 
 
 2 Heavy-face figures refer to paragraphs. 
 
CONSONANTS. 
 
 (b) Compound Consonants. 
 
 Front-palatal. 
 
 Voiceless. 
 
 Voiced. 
 
 c (cielo) 
 z (zio) 
 
 g (gente) 
 
 z (zelo) 
 
 2. These thirty-six sounds are graphically repre- 
 sented by twenty-two letters, k, w, x, and y not occur- 
 ring in the Italian alphabet. Otherwise it is the same 
 as the English. 
 
 3. The letters of the alphabet and their Italian 
 names are as follows: 
 
 a a 
 
 g S 1 
 
 n §nne 
 
 t ti 
 
 b bi 1 
 
 h acca 
 
 9 
 
 u u 
 
 c ci 
 
 ■ • 
 
 1 1 
 
 P Pi 
 
 v ve or vi 
 
 d di 
 
 j je or i lungo 
 
 q cu 
 
 z zeta 
 
 e e 
 
 1 §lle 
 
 r §rre 
 
 
 f effe 
 
 m e,mme 
 
 s §sse 
 
 
 (a) K, x, y, w, occurring only in foreign words, are 
 called cappa, iccase or ics, ipsilon, doppio vu. 
 
 (b) The names of the letters are the same in the plural 
 as in the singular: i bi, the b's; gli a, the a's. 
 
 (c) The gender of the letters of the alphabet is some- 
 what variable, but in general a and e and the consonant 
 ending in a and e are feminine (la zeta, "the z" ; l , §nne = la 
 §nne with elision of the a — "the n"), while the other let- 
 ters, i.e., i, 0, u, and the consonants ending in i, 0, or n, are 
 masculine. 
 
 4. The number of sounds being so much in excess 
 of that of the letters used to represent them, it is evi- 
 
 1 These names being Italian words, the pupil should refer to 5 
 and 12 sq. before attempting to pronounce them. 
 
4 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 dent that one character must be used to represent 
 more than one sound. The Italian orthography, how- 
 ever, is much more nearly phonetic than is the Eng- 
 lish or French, and with care and instruction every 
 student should acquire a really good pronunciation 
 of the language. The rules given below (5 sq.) will 
 be found useful, although the pupil should always 
 bear in mind that the comparisons therein made with 
 sounds already known to him are only approximate, no 
 Italian sound being quite the same as the English sound 
 most nearly resembling it. The sound should be 
 learned by imitation. The teacher is therefore advised 
 to pronounce the Italian key-word slowly, the pupil 
 noting carefully his pronunciation. 
 
 VALUE OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. 
 
 (a) Value of the Vowels. 
 
 5. I has approximately the sounds of English ee l 
 in "meet". 
 
 I has approximately the sounds of English i in 
 11 pin", or, when at the end of a word (as in poi), of y 
 in ' ' hurry " . 2 
 
 E, called "close e", has approximately the sound 
 of English a in " mate". 3 
 
 E, called the "open e", has approximately the 
 sound of English e in " met". 
 
 1 That is, of the first part of the ee in "meet". This, as all 
 English vowels, is really a diphthong, while the Italian vowels 
 are pure. 
 
 2 The two i's will not be graphically distinguished in this book; 
 the pupil may learn them by ear and by imitation. The first i 
 will in the meantime answer all purposes. 
 
 3 That is, of the first part of the sound. Cf. above, foot-note 1. 
 
1 > 
 
 t > 
 
 VALUE OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. 5 
 
 A has approximately the sound of a in " father". 
 
 A is a more neutral a difficult to describe. The 
 pupil may at first content himself not to distinguish 
 between these two sounds. Later his ear, if he has 
 the apportunity of hearing Italians speak, will detect 
 the difference. 
 
 9, called "open o", has no English equivalent. It 
 is a sound between the a in " paw " and the o in " pop 
 nearly that given in parts of Maine to the in " road 
 "coat". The sound, although difficult of explana- 
 tion, may be readily learned by imitation. 
 
 0, called "close 0", has approximately the sound 
 of o in " pope". 
 
 U has approximately the sound of 00 in "too". 
 
 U has approximately the sound of 00 in 'toot". 
 
 Between the open and the close e, the open and the 
 close o, there is an intermediate sound which the stu- 
 dent may detect by ear and learn by imitation, such 
 subtle shades of sounds not being capable of defini- 
 tion. 
 
 6. Attention is called to the fact that the vowel 
 sounds, produced alone and in the order given in para- 
 graph 1 , beginning with i and going down the left side 
 of the triangle, then up the right, recede continually 
 and regularly in the mouth. Therefore the i-e-a 
 series is called the front, the a-o-u the back series. 
 From a to u the lips are also regularly more and more 
 rounded. 1 
 
 1 Mr. Josselyn (Etude sur la phonetique italienne, p. 13) for this 
 reason calls the a-o-u series the labial, giving to the i-e-a series 
 the name of anterior. His anterior therefore =our jro)it, his labial 
 our back series. 
 
6 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 7. All vowels as well as all consonantal sounds 
 are produced in a quicker, more energetic manner in 
 Italian than in English (although the former are some- 
 what less energetic than the French vowels). One 
 must really work harder in pronouncing them. 
 
 The vowels never tend to become neutral, nor do 
 the consonants ever take after them a neutral vowel, 
 as is the case in English. 
 
 This is what gives to spoken Italian its peculiarly 
 staccato effect. 
 
 8. The only real difficulty offered by the vowels 
 is the distinction of open and close e and o. 
 
 In words of popular development, i.e., such as have 
 always been a part of the spoken language, the Latin 
 e or 1 is represented generally in Italian by an e, the 
 Latin e or ae by an §, 6 or u by 0, 6 or au by 9. 
 
 It follows that accented e and o in the groups 1 ie 
 and uo are open: 
 
 Pi§de, foot (<pedem); buQno, good (<b6num). 
 
 But: godere, to enjoy (<gaudere); capello, hair 
 ( < capillum) ; loro, their (<illorum); volto, face (<vul- 
 tum). 
 
 MORE SPECIAL RULES FOR THE QUALITY OF THE VOWELS. 
 
 9. E is close: 
 
 (1) In unaccented syllables. 2 
 
 (2) In monosyllables, 3 whether standing alone or 
 in composition with other words: 
 
 1 The first element in these groups being a consonant, they can- 
 not be called diphthongs. See 28, Rem. (1), also table of conso- 
 nants, where the i is registered as j, the u as w. 
 
 2 This e is really medium close, but for practical purposes may 
 be regarded as close. 
 
 3 Words which are not normally monosyllabic but which have 
 
VALUE OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. 7 
 
 Me, me; meco, with me (a compound of me and the 
 preposition con); e, and; i tre re, the three kings; che, 
 
 that, which. 
 
 Exceptions: §,* is; §h! (exclamation); ch§, nonsense!; 
 re, (musical note); be, (imitation of the bah of sheep). 
 Also words of foreign origin; as, il t§, tea. 
 
 (3) In oxytones ending in a vowel, 2 which vowel 
 is regularly marked by the grave accent (see 32 a) : 
 
 Perche, why, because; teme, he feared. 
 Exceptions: (a) Proper names; as, Mos§, Moses; 
 Giosu§, Joshua. 
 
 (b) Nouns of foreign origin 3 ; as, caff§, coffee; canap§, 
 sofa. 
 
 (c) The interjections ahime, imm§, ohim§; also cio§, 4 
 "that is, that is to say". 
 
 (4) In the accented ending of the infinitive, imper- 
 fect indicative and subjunctive, and of the preterite 
 indicative of -ere and of '-ere verbs. (See 67 (2).) 
 
 (5) In the endings -remo, -rete of verbs of all con- 
 jugations: 
 
 Mostreremo, we shall show; temerete, you shall fear. 
 
 (6) In the adverbial ending -mente and the sub- 
 stantive ending -mento : 
 
 Felicemente, happily; andamento, going, gait. 5 
 10. is close: 
 
 become so by contraction naturally do not come under this rule. 
 Ex.: s§' (notse'), for sfi, " thou art ". 
 
 1 Notice that this has the grave accent to distinguish it from e 
 conj. Or, more exactly, the conjunction does not take the grave 
 to distinguish it from the verbal form (32 (b) (1)). 
 
 2 But not in pi|, contraction of pi§de. Cf. note to 9 (2). 
 
 3 These never conform to rule. 
 
 4 Notice the compounding with e, "is". 
 
 5 In cases not covered by the rules the e is open. 
 
8 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (i) In unaccented syllables. 1 
 
 (2) In monosyllables ending with a consonant 2 : 
 
 Con, with; non, not. 
 
 11. But in monosyllables and in oxytones ending in 
 a vowel, i.e., where accented o ends a word, that o 
 is open 2 : 
 
 S9, I know; hg, I have; mostrerg, I shall show. 
 
 Exceptions: Lo, definite article and pronoun; also 
 contractions. 
 
 [BUT 3 In all cases not covered by the first rule (para- 
 graph 9 (1) and paragraph 10 (1)), i.e., all accented 
 e's and o's, will in this book have their quality indi- 
 cated by diacritic signs, e and indicating the close, 
 § and 9 the open pronunciation. 
 
 (b) Value of the Consonants. 
 
 12. P, b, f, v, m, n, 1, and q 3 are pronounced approxi- 
 mately as in English, the stops being, however, more 
 explosive, 4 and the n and 1 being made farther forward 
 in the mouth. • 
 
 13. T and d are so much farther forward as to come 
 into a different sound-category. They are not, as in 
 English, post-dentals, but linguo-dentals, the tip of 
 the tongue touching the back of the teeth in producing 
 them. 
 
 1 Cf. 9 (1). Not where the o is a contraction of uo in cQr, for 
 cupre, " heart". 
 
 2 Notice the difference between e and o. 
 
 3 Q is not to be found in the table of consonants because it is 
 not a simple consonant but equals k followed by w. The Italian 
 q always represents this sound, like English q in "quick". It 
 never represents k. 
 
 «Cf. 7- 
 
VALUR OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHA MET. 9 
 
 14. C and g represent two quite different sounds. 
 Before the back vowels, a, o, u, they represent the 
 
 back-palatal stops, c the voiceless, somewhat as in 
 English 'cat", 'kid", g the voiced, somewhat as in 
 English ' ' got ' ' : 
 
 Canto, I sing (c as in English "can"); 
 
 gola, throat (g as in English "go"). 
 
 15. But before the front vowels, e and i : 
 
 (a) C represents a sound somewhat like that of 
 English ch, i.e., it passes into the category of com- 
 pound consonants: 
 
 Cielo, sky (c pronounced like ch in 'chain'*); cercare, 
 to look for (the first c pronounced ch, the second k). 
 
 (b) G also becomes a voiced compound consonant, 
 corresponding to the voiceless c and represents a 
 sound like that in English 'gentle", but more forci- 
 ble: 
 
 Gentile, nice (g almost as in the cognate "gentle"); 
 
 legislatura (g almost as in the corresponding English 
 word). 
 
 Remark. Cc, gg before e and i have the same sound 
 as the simple consonant, only prolonged: 
 
 Caccio, I hunt (cc like tch in 'catch", but prolonged); 
 saggio, wise (gg like g in "sage", but prolonged). 
 
 16. Where a c or g representing the back-palatal 
 stop stands before one of the front vowels, an h is 
 inserted to indicate the voiceless pronunciation: 
 
 Chiave, key (the initial sound as in the English 
 word). 
 
 Ghirlanda, garland (the initial sound as in the English 
 word). 
 
 Ch never has the sound given to it in English " chin". 
 
 17. Ng is like the English sound in, for instance, 
 
io ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 "coming", with a distinct hard g after it, the two, 
 however, forming but one sound : 
 
 Vengo, I come (pronounced vcnggo); lingua, tongue 
 (litiggua). 
 
 This same ng sound is given to an n alone before 
 the stop c or before q : 
 
 Ancora, again (angkora); dunque, therefore (dungkwe). 
 
 1 8. Consonantal u, i.e., unaccented u followed by a 
 vowel, x has almost the sound of English w : 
 
 Ucjmo, man (u almost like w in "woman"); 
 guanto, glove (gwanto). 
 
 U never has the sound given to it in English "museum", 
 which might be written "mew". 
 
 19. S has two sounds in Italian: (1) it is voiceless 
 as in English "see", 'hearse"; (2) it is voiced like 
 the s in "hears", or the z in "maze". The general 
 rule is: 
 
 S initial followed by a vowel or by one of the voice- 
 less consonants c, f, p, q, t; s medial followed by a 
 voiceless consonant, also ss, are voiceless as in " see": 
 
 Santo, saint; sasso, stone; spiare, to spy; fresco, fresh; 
 asfalto, asphalt. 
 
 S medial between vowels, 2 s medial or initial before 
 
 the voiced consonants b, d, g, m, n, 1, r, are voiced as 
 
 << »» /. 
 
 in use : -^-^ 
 
 Sgridare, to scold; museo, museum. 
 
 But intervocalic s is voiceless: 
 
 (a) After the prefixes de, di, pre, pro, re, ri, tra 
 
 (where the s is really initial) : 
 
 1 Accented u followed by a vowel retains its vowel sound. Ex.: 
 due, ''two" (u as in the English "duel"). 
 
 2 This rule does not apply to cases like dicesi, "they say", where 
 the s is really initial, = si dice. In compounds like girasole, "sun- 
 flower", the s is also initial. 
 
VALUE OF TH^ LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. n 
 
 Desalare, to soak, to remove salt ( = de + salare) ; disotto 1 
 ( = di-f sotto), beneath; presentire 2 ( - pre-f sentire), to 
 foresee; proseguitare 3 ( = pro + seguitare), to continue; 
 reservare,to reserve; resurgere (or risurgere) , to rise again; 
 trasapere, to know a great deal; trasentire, to hear wrong. 4 
 
 (b) In the endings -oso (applied to adjectives) and 
 -ese (applied to adjectives and substantives) : 
 
 Pensoso, thoughtful; sdegnoso, disdainful; Bolognese, 
 Bolognese, of Bologna; inglese, English. 
 
 Exceptions: Cortese, courteous; francese, French; 
 lucchese, of Lucca; marchese, marquis; paese, country; 
 palese, manifest; also a few rare words. 
 
 (c) In those parts of the verbs ascondere (or nas- 
 condere), chi§dere, chiudere, porre, radere, ridere, rima- 
 nere ; rispondere, rodere, and their compounds where 
 the combinations -ese-, esi-, and -oso- occur: 
 
 Nascosi, I hid; chi§sero, they asked; roso, gnawed. 
 
 Exceptions: Those words, really compounds of chiu- 
 dere, which show the Latin cl instead of the ch of the primi- 
 tive (which are, that is to say, learned words) 5 ; as, escluso, 
 "excluded"; clausura, "closing"; 'cloister", deposito, 
 and other learned compound of porre and the adjectives 
 derived from rodere, such as corrosivo, "corrosive". 
 
 {d) In the words asino, "ass" ; casa, 'house"; co,sa, 
 "thing"; cosi, "thus"; desid^rio, "desire"; fuso, 
 
 1 Such words as this are to be distinguished from those like 
 disordine, "disorder" ( =dis +ordine) , disgrazia, etc. 
 
 2 But presentare, "to present", has the voiced s. 
 
 3 But proseggiare, "to write prose" (from prosa), has a voiced s. 
 
 4 But trasandare, "to go beyond", with z sound (from trans-, not 
 tra+andare. Although tra came originally from transV 
 
 5 Words which have always existed as part of the spoken lan- 
 guage are developed more in accordance with the laws of pho- 
 nology than those taken from book Latin at a comparatively late 
 date. 
 
 
MM Mussulm.-nnv ' Mu 
 
 parastto Pisa 
 
 susmo ' pi 
 
 Sc befoi i 
 
 • ■ 
 
 S*ic'.'::i ■ <\\ ■■■'■' ' ■ s< 
 
 ic4toU 
 
 ik ' • • ■ 
 
 ••..-..■■ 
 
 \n cl Kc h ' ■ i 
 
 ■ • • ' •■ 
 
 tes this sound 4 
 
 r 
 
 ; ; J tS CHI- 
 
 a§ut, 
 
 • '■:• ..' to. . 
 
 «4«fctt* 
 
 - 
 
 ■ 
 
 - 
 
VALtJB OF THB LETTERS OF THE xi.i'ii \iu. i [3 
 
 24. (ii indicates usually the Liquid 1, a sound some 
 
 what 1 i 1< i v that oi in in "brilliant", or oi ii in ' Brazil 
 
 » » 1 
 i.in ' : 
 
 Brij»lia, In-idle; ^li (article and pronoun), 
 
 (./) But in tieglfgere, "to neglect", and its derivativi 
 the k' ,:; sounded as in English, also in Angli, Anglicano, 
 geroglffico, glicerlna, and & few other rare word 
 
 These words are not thoroughly [talianized. 
 
 .»5- Gte represents liquid n, a sound winch bears ili< - 
 same relation i<> »» as does liquid 1 to l. Ii. somewhal 
 resembles the sound <»i nl in "union", 'onion", 01 
 that 1 »i nj; in French montagne ' 
 
 VergQgna, shame; agngllo, lamb. 
 
 26. z ;iikI zz usually represent 8 ti very energeti 
 cally enunciated, but sometimes the corresponding 
 voiced sound dz. 
 
 In general a z derived from Latin t, ct, or pt has 
 the voiceless (is) sound, one from Latin <i or (deck 
 { the voiced (dz) : 
 
 Grdzia, ju-.k-c, f.-ivor ( gratiam); azione, action < ai 
 
 tidneui); no/.zc, w<-< l« Inn; ( QUpti&f) all Willi Is iOUnd. 
 
 But; rozzo, rude ( rudum); zona, /one with dz 
 sound. 
 
 The following rule:; may also be helpful. 
 
 The s< lund is v< licelessi 
 
 (a) Generally when it is initial or when it is medial 
 after a consonant: 
 
 1 Thia comparison, as well as thai given below foi the liquid o, 
 1. very Inadequate. Tin- sounds .in- ww/>/r In forming them 
 the middle oi the tongue lies almost flat against the hard palate 
 and makes the ordinary a, 1 In withdrawing the tip from Its po 1 
 tion near 1 he bacl< 1 ii 1 he uppei teeth. 
 
 '* See note to 24. 
 
14 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 i < 
 
 Zio, uncle; avanzo, remainder. 
 
 (6) When it is followed by i plus a vowel : 
 
 Prezioso, precious; gzio, leisure; avarizia, avarice. 
 
 It is voiced: X 5 
 
 (a) In verbs of more than four syllables ending in 
 -izzare : ^ <, 
 
 Armonizzare, to harmonize; utilizzare, to utilize. 
 
 Exceptions: Attizzare, dirizzare, guizzare, rizzare, 
 stizzare have on the contrary the voiceless z. Their 
 compounds, such as in dirizzare, keep this voiceless sound. 
 
 (b) In z§lo, "zeal", and its compounds; in azzurro, 
 'azure"; bazar, "bazaar"; dozzina, 'dozen"; m§zzo, 
 'middle", and its compounds; orizzonte, "horizon"; 
 
 pranzo, 'dinner"; ribrezzo, "shivering"; zeffiro, 
 'zephyr"; zona, "zone", and some rare words. 1 
 
 27. H is silent in Italian. It is found as initial only 
 in the verbal forms hg, "I have"; hai, "thou hast"; 
 ha, 'he has"; hanno, "they have", and in a few 
 exclamations such as hura (really not Italian). It 
 serves graphically to indicate the pronunciation of cer- 
 tain combinations (see 16 and 21), and sometimes 
 to show that two vowels coming together preserve 
 each one its separate value, as in ahi. 
 
 Vowel Groups. 
 
 28. Diphthongs and triphthongs exist apparently in 
 great number in Italian, but there are in reality few 
 diphthongs and no triphthongs at all, many of the 
 vowels having consonantal value, and many diph- 
 thongs in appearance being really dissyllables. 
 
 1 For which sec Moise. — It will be noticed that the words given 
 under (b) either have the Latin d (<z) or are of foreign extraction. 
 
VALUE OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. 15 
 
 In bugno, figliuglo, for instance, the u before o is a 
 consonant (=w), and the i after gl is a part of the 1 
 (cf. 24). In other combinations given under 22, 
 foot-note 3, i is a mere sign. 
 
 In bugi the u is a consonant and the final i forms a 
 syllable. 
 
 A real diphthong is two vowels produced by one and 
 the same breath-impulse, one of which receives the 
 accent. 1 A diphthong in which the second element 
 is the accented is called a rising diphthong, one in 
 which the first bears the accent a falling diphthong: 
 
 Ex.: (c7) Rising diphthongs: paese, country; paura 2 , 
 fear. 
 
 (b) Falling diphthongs: ass£i, very; dura, breeze, air; 
 l§i, she, to her; stoico, stoic. 
 
 Remarks, (i) In all (apparent) rising diphthongs in 
 which the first member is i or u, that first member is con- 
 sonantal: 
 
 Piede, foot; butjno, good. 
 
 (2) In compounds where the principal accent is removed 
 from the diphthong, that diphthong becomes dissyllabic, 
 i.e., the two vowels form each a separate syllable, thus 
 dissolving the diphthong: 
 
 Paese (ae diphthong) , paesano (ae dissyllabic); paura, 
 pauroso. 
 
 Syllabication. 
 
 29. With the few exceptions of the diphthongs and 
 vocalic dissyllables (see 28), Italian words have as 
 many syllables as vowels, and the syllables are divided 
 
 1 Cf. Hempl, German Orthography and Phonology- , 146 
 
 2 Care must be taken in the pronunciation of au. The sound 
 is not aw or ow, but ah-oo, pronounced very rapidly. 
 
1 6 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 in such a way that each begins with a consonant. In 
 the division 
 
 (i) A consonant between two vowels goes with the 
 second 1 : 
 
 A-mo, I love; zo-na; 119-mo. 
 
 Exceptions: Compound words, which are divided into 
 their component parts. Ex.: Mal-a-ge-vo-le, "difficult", 
 from mal and agevole; ab-u-sare, "to abuse" (ab+usare). 
 
 (2) Double consonants are divided: 
 An-no, year; mez-zo; doz-zi-na. 
 
 (3) Usually in medial groups of two or more con- 
 sonants one goes with the preceding, the other one 
 or two with the following: 
 
 Al-to, high; al-tro, other. 
 
 Exceptions 2 : (i) In groups composed of a stop or a 
 continuant plus a liquid (i.e., of p, b, t, d, c, g, f, v, plus 
 1 or n) both members go with the following syllable : 
 
 Ma-dre, mother; a-cri-mo-ni-a, acrimony; te-a-tro, 
 theatre; a-pri-re, to open; se-gre-to, secret. 
 
 (2) In the case of c-\-q there is difference of usage: 
 a-cquistare and ac-quistare. 
 
 Groups of 5 followed by one more consonant (5 impura) 
 are usually said also to make exception; but while the 
 question is scarcely decided, it is probable that they are 
 divided in the usual way : 
 
 1 The syllables must be sharply divided, and the pupil must 
 resist a tendency to attach a consonant between two vowels to 
 the first. He has been accustomed to say, for instance, mcd-i- 
 cine, the d belonging decidedly to the first syllable, the c (5 sound) 
 more to the second than to the third. He must in Italian divide 
 the same word thus: me-di-ci-na. 
 
 2 The liquid n and / being simple sounds go with the following 
 syllable according to the general rule. Ex.: i-gnu-do, "naked"; 
 bri-glia, "bridle". 
 
VALUE OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. 17 
 
 os-cu-ro, "dark" (not o-scu-ro) ; riKjs-tro, "I show" 
 (not 1119-stro). 
 
 Accentuation. 
 
 30. The large majority of Italian words are strongly- 
 accented on the penult (that is, the syllable before 
 the last) : 
 
 mano, hand ; castigo, punishment. 
 
 There are, however, many words bearing the tonic 
 accent on the antepenult or even farther back; also 
 a considerable number bearing it on the last syllable: 
 
 Mostr^, 1 he showed; mostrarono, they showed; con- 
 siderano, they are considering; virtu, virtue; propriety, 
 property. 
 
 Graphic Accents. 
 
 31. Three graphic accents, the grave, the acute, and 
 the circumflex, are used in Italian. The grave is much 
 more frequent than the others. 
 
 32. The grave accent is placed: 
 
 (a) On a final vowel stressed in pronunciation: 
 Mostrera la sua bonta. He will show his goodness. 
 
 (b) On monosyllables by nature or by contraction 
 ending in a vowel: 
 
 Gia, already; piu, more; |, is; si, yes; pi§ (contracted 
 from pie,de), foot. 
 
 Exceptions: (i) A number of homonyms (that is, 
 words the same in appearance and often in sound, but 
 different in meaning), such as: 
 
 1 Receives the grave accent. See following paragraph. 
 
1 8 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 e, and, to distinguish it from e, is; 
 
 se, if, 
 
 si, self, one, 
 
 di, of, 
 
 ne, of it, 
 
 la (dcf. art.), 
 
 li " 
 
 da, from, 
 
 n 
 < < 
 
 se, self; 
 si, yes; 
 di, day; 
 ne, neither; 
 la, there ; 
 li, there ; 
 da, he gives, 
 
 (2) Certain verbal forms , as : fa, he does, makes; va, he 
 
 * 
 
 goes; sta, he stands ; sa, he knows; (but PU9, he can). 
 (c) Also often as a distinguishing mark on: 
 
 (1) Shortened forms of the preterite to distinguish 
 them from shortened forms of the infinitive: 
 
 mostrar (for mostrarono), 1 they showed; mostrar (for 
 mostrare), to show. 
 
 temer (for temerono), they feared; temer (for temere), 
 to fear. 
 
 partir (for partirono), they departed; partir (for par- 
 tire), to depart. 
 
 (2) Other verbal forms which have homonyms 2 : 
 dai, thou givest; dai (prep, plus art.). 
 
 danno, they give; danno, damage, harm. 
 VQi (for vugi), thou wishest; voi, you. 
 abitino, let them dwell; abitino, 3 little dress. 
 
 (3) The accented penult of polysyllables ending in 
 two vowels: 
 
 1 This and the following (corresponding) forms of the other 
 conjugations are accented, in speaking, on the antepenult: mos- 
 trarono, temerono, partirono. 
 
 2 This usage is optional and arbitrary. Some writers use the 
 acute accent in these cases. 
 
 3 Accented on the penult according to the general rule. 
 

 VALUE OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. 19 
 
 balia, power; balia, nurse; stropiccio, rubbing; stro- 
 piccio, I rub. 
 
 Also when the word has no homonym ; as, pazzia, " folly ". 
 
 (4) The open vowel of the penult of words which, 
 when that vowel has the closed sound, have a differ- 
 ent meaning: 
 
 §ra (for aura), zephyr; ora, hour. 
 
 33. The acute accent is used: 
 
 (a) Sometimes instead of the grave in the cases 
 enumerated 32 (c), (2) and (3). 
 
 (b) Rarely instead of the grave on the final vowel 
 of oxytones (i.e., words stressed on the last syllable), 
 
 cf . 32 (a) : 
 
 Perche (for perche), why; teme (for teme), he feared. 
 
 (c) In poetry to indicate the accentuation of a 
 syllable usually not accented: 
 
 Umile (usually with the accent on the first syllable), 
 humble ; 
 
 cel^bre (usually with the accent on the first syllable), 
 celebrated. 
 
 34. The circumflex accent is placed: 
 
 (a) On o in contracted forms of the infinitive to 
 distinguish them from homonyms: 
 
 C§rre (for c^gliere), to gather; corre, he runs. 
 
 Tgrre (for tggliere), to take away; torre, tower. 
 But not all o verbs take this accent. Porre (for 
 ponere), "to put", has become the usual form. And 
 contracted verb -forms accented on a vowel other than 
 o never show it: 
 
 Condurre (for conducere), to conduct; trarre (for traere, 
 but also much more common than the older form), to 
 draw; bere (for bevere), to drink; scerre (for scegliereV 
 to choose. 
 
20 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (b) Sometimes on the i, plural of the noun and ad- 
 jective ending -io 1 : 
 
 Studi, studies; necessari, necessary. 
 
 35. It will be observed that there is a good deal of 
 latitude and some lack of unanimity among Italians 
 as to the use of the graphic accents. Sections 32 (a), 
 (b), and exceptions, and 34 (a) cover the ordinary 
 usage. 151^ In this book the acute accent will be 
 employed only to show the stressing in pronunciation 
 of a syllable other than the penultimate or than the 
 ultimate bearing the grave accent. 2 This indication, 
 together with the marking of the closed and open e 
 and o (see note under 11), is peculiar to it. The 
 accent and marking are to be observed in pronuncia- 
 tion, but not to be employed in writing the exercises. 
 
 Elision, Contraction, Truncation, etc. 
 
 36. Besides lo, la, gli, le, una (article 3 ), lo, la, gli, 
 le, mi, ti, ci, 4 vi, ne, si (pronominal), the preposition 
 di and the conjunctions se and che 5 are regularly 
 elided before a vowel. All words of more than one 
 syllable ending in an unaccented vowel may elide that 
 vowel if another vowel follows, 6 or truncate it before 
 
 1 '-io not -10. Special attention should be paid to the accentu- 
 ation of words ending in -io, -ia. No rule can be given for it. 
 A good dictionary should be the guide. 
 
 2 The acute will also be placed on all words ending in -ia, -io, 
 whether the i be stressed or unstressed. 
 
 3 For which see 41 . 
 
 4 Which becomes c only before e and i, since it would other- 
 wise lose its proper sound. Cf. 14. 
 
 5 Preferably only before e and i. 
 
 8 Elision is much more frequent in poetry than in prose. 
 
VALUE OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. 21 
 
 any initial consonant except s followed by another 
 consonant; but compounds of the conjunction che, 
 as dacche, giacche, benche, are the only oxytones 
 which elide their accented vowel, ('on tractions such 
 as a' (for ai), p9* (pqco) are common. 
 
 (a) The conjunctions e and and the preposition a 
 often add d before a vowel; the preposition su adds r: 
 ed, od, ad, sur. 
 
 (b) A word beginning with s impure, when preceded by 
 a consonant prefixes i: scugla, school; in iscugla, in school. 
 
 Use of Capitals. 
 
 37. Capitals are employed as in English save that: 
 
 (a) The pronoun io, 'I", is not written with a 
 capital unless it begins a sentence, whereas Lei, Ella, 
 "you", are often capitalized. 
 
 (b) Adjectives of nationality are not written with 
 a capital. The same words used as nouns are usually 
 capitalized : 
 
 ]£cco un libro italiano. Here is an Italian book. |) 
 Italiano. He is an Italian. 
 
 (c) The names of months and of days of the week 
 are usually written with a small letter, also titles such 
 as signor, " Mr". 1 
 
 (Exercise I.) 
 
 Correspondence between Italian and English. 
 
 38. There are in Italian a large number of words 
 corresponding so nearly both in form and meaning to 
 the English ones that they may be easily recognized 
 
 1 Greater individual freedom in the use of capitals exists in 
 Italian than in English. 
 
22 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 by the pupil. The following lists of corresponding 
 terminations will aid in this recognition. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 (The letter / or m at the beginning of the line indicates the gender.) 
 
 f . ade becomes ata : brigata, cascata. 
 
 m. age becomes aggio: paggio, personaggio. 1 
 
 m. al becomes ale: animale, canale {or alio: corallo, 
 cristallo, metallo). 
 
 m. alt adds o: asfalto, cobalto. 2 
 
 m. an adds o: cristiano, veterano. 
 
 m. ant adds e : diamante, instante. 
 
 m. arian becomes ario : centenario, unitario. 
 
 m. ate becomes ato : carbonato, stato. 
 
 m. ator adds e: creatore, oratore. 
 
 m. ce becomes cio (zio, zzo) : comme^rcio or commerzio, 
 palazzo (sometimes palaccio), precipizio. 3 
 
 m. cle becomes *culo, 4 colo, or chio: circolo (or cir- 
 culo) or (more commonly) cerchio, ostaculp. 
 
 m. ct becomes tto : contatto, eff§tto, intelle,tto. 5 
 
 f. cy becomes zia: aristocrazia, pot§nzia. 
 
 m. ent adds e: accid§nte, age,nte, ori§nte; or adds o: 
 contento, conv§nto, tal§nto. 
 
 m. ge becomes *gio: privil§gio, vestigio. 
 
 m. gen adds o: nitrogeno. 6 
 
 1 Many others in which the correspondence is not so, perfect 
 are yet easily identified, as: viaggio, "voyage", "journey"; corag- 
 gio, ''courage"; oltraggio, "outrage", etc. 
 
 2 Also assalto, "assault", etc. For the f in asfalto see p. 26, 
 Rem. 3 (b). 
 
 3 Also solazzo, "solace", spazio, "space", etc. 
 
 4 Terminations marked with an asterisk indicate that words so 
 ending arc accented on the antepenultimate syllable. 
 
 5 Also prodotto, "product". 
 
 6 Idrogeno, "hydrogen", ossigeno, "oxygen", etc. 
 
VALUE OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. 23 
 
 m. graph becomes grafo: autografo, fonografo. 1 
 f. ic adds *a: aritmetica, musica, lggica. 
 f . ice becomes izia : avarizia, malizia. 
 f. ine becomes ina: disciplina, medicina. 
 f. ion adds e: confusione, religione. 
 m. isan becomes igiano : artigiano, partigiano. 2 
 m. isk becomes isco : asterisco, basilisco. 
 m. ism adds : despotismo, pessimismo. 
 m. ist adds a: artista, dentista. 
 m. ite becomes ito : appetito, granito, sito. 
 m. wewJaddso: fragmento (orframmento), monumento. 
 m. meter becomes *metro : anemometro, gasometro. 
 f . mony becomes monia : ceremonia, parsimonia. 
 f. nee becomes nza: danza, intellig§nza, sci§nza. 3 
 m. on adds e : barone. sermone. 
 m. or adds e: errore, splendore, vapore. 4 
 f. ose becomes osa: glucosa, rQsa. 
 m. ot adds a: despota, patri§ta (patri§tta). 
 m. phone becomes *fono : gramdfono, telefono. 
 m. ry becomes *rio : consistgrio, mist§rio. 
 m. scope becomes scopio : microscopio, telescopic 
 f. sis becomes si: crisi (or crise), sinopsi. 5 
 m. ter or tre becomes tro : c§ntro, ministro, registro. 
 f. tion becomes zione: condizione, nazione. 
 f . tude becomes *tudine : amplitudine, multitudine, soli- 
 tudine. 
 
 1 This ph regularly becomes f : filosofo, etc. Cf. Remark (3) 
 (6), p. 26. 
 
 2 Also cortigiano, "courtesan", etc. 
 
 3 Also eccellfnza, "excellence", circonferenza, "circumference", 
 etc. In other cases nee gives ncia; as, provincia, "province", etc. 
 
 4 Alsoautore, "author", onpre, "honor", etc. 
 5 Also tesi, "thesis," etc. 
 
24 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 f . ty becomes ta : etemita, societa. 1 
 m. ule becomes *ulo: capsulo (or capsolo), gl§bulo. 
 f . lire becomes ura : figura, natura. 
 m. um becomes o : museo, premio. • 
 m. us becomes o : ce,nso, genio. 
 
 f. y (not otherwise provided for above) becomes 
 ia: anatomia, energia, geografia, zoologia. 
 
 Adjectives. 2 
 
 acious becomes ace : capace, sagace, verace. 
 
 al adds e : centrale, immortale. 
 
 an adds o : americano, pagano. 
 
 ant adds e : dominante, vacante. 
 
 ar adds e : circolare, solare. 
 
 arious becomes ario : prec£rio, vicario. 
 
 ary becomes ario : contrario, ordinario. 
 
 ate becomes ato : duplicato, ornato. 
 
 ble becomes *bile : nubile, notabile, solubile. 
 
 ct becomes tto : intatto, perf^tto. 
 
 ense becomes enso : de,nso, imm§nso. 
 
 ent adds e: evid§nte, prud§nte (oro: cont§nto). 
 
 est adds o : manifesto, on§sto. 
 
 eous becomes *eo : calcareo, erroneo, i^eo. 
 
 ferous becomes *fero : aurifero, carbonifero. 
 
 ic or ical becomes ico : misantr§pico, satirico. 3 
 
 ique becomies ico : antico. 
 
 id adds *o: rapido, s^lido, valido. 
 
 He remains unchanged : facile, fertile, fragile. 
 
 1 Also cittk, "city", etc. 
 
 2 Only the masculine singular of the Italian adjectives is given. 
 
 3 Also pubblico, "public", etc. But musicale as given above 
 under al. 
 
VALUE OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. 25 
 
 ine becomes ino: aquilino, divino. 
 zte becomes ito: erudito, infinito. 
 ive becomes ivo: decisivo, definitive 1 
 lent adds o : viol§nto. 
 nal becomes no: diurno, et^rno. 
 ocious becomes oce : atroce, feroce, precoce. 
 cry becomes orio: meritQrio, preparatories 2 
 ose or ous becomes oso: verboso, famoso, furioso, 
 luminoso. 3 
 
 tial becomes ziale : potenziale. 
 
 und becomes ondo : moribondo, rubicondo. 
 
 ure becomes uro : futuro, puro. 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 ate becomes are : calcolare, investigare. 
 
 fy becomes ficare: fortificare, magnificare. 
 
 ize becomes izzare : civilizzare, organizzare. 
 
 e becomes often are : cominciare, continuare, curare, 
 etc. 4 
 
 Remarks, (t) The fact that most Italian words 
 end in a vowel is evident. 
 
 (2) It will further be observed that (a) English x 
 (which is not a simple consonant, =ks) is replaced 
 by c or s: eccellfnza, 'excellence"; ossigeno, ' oxy- 
 .gen". (6) Ou or u are often replaced by o: corrag- 
 gio, "courage"; cortigiano, 'courtesan"; circolare, 
 "circular", (c) In combinations of two stops assim- 
 
 1 Also attivo, "active", etc. 
 
 2 Preparativo is, however, more used. 
 
 3 Also giocoso, "jocose", lussurioso, "luxurious", etc. 
 
 4 These English e verbs are mostly derived from French verbs 
 of the first conjugation, i.e., er verbs. The comparison here of 
 the three languages with the Latin is interesting. 
 
26 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ilation occurs: perf§tto, 'perfect"; manifattore, 
 
 ' manufacturer". (d) H is omitted: onore, " honor"; 
 
 teatro, 'theatre"; reumatismo, 'rheumatism" (cf. 
 
 27). 
 
 (3) In words of Greek origin: 
 
 (a) Y becomes i: simpatia, "sympathy"; tipo- 
 grafic o , typographical ' ' . 
 
 (b) Ph becomes f: filosofo, "philosopher"; orto- 
 grafia, ' ' orthography ' ' . 
 
 (c) Initial pn, ps, and pt drop the p: neumatico, 
 'pneumatic"; salmista, " Psalmist" ; Tolomeo, "Ptol- 
 emy". 
 
 (4) It is not unusual in Italian to find two develop- 
 ments of the same termination, or two forms of the 
 same word: palacio and palazzo, circolo and circulo. 
 
 (5) There are in Italian many words beginning with 
 consonant groups strange to the English, which never- 
 theless correspond to English words: sviluppare, 'to 
 develop"; smontare, "to dismount". The develop- 
 ment of the words may be made clear by the consider- 
 ation of such doublets as sviare and the older disviare, 
 " to lead out of the way", etc. 
 
 ISir 3 Words corresponding in the two languages, or 
 which may be understood and formed by the help of 
 the foregoing directions, will be spaced in the exercises 
 in this book and will not appear in the vocabularies. 
 Where two or more Italian terminations correspond 
 to one English one, the Italian word will be given, 
 but it is hoped that the table will even in these cases 
 help to impress the word upon the memory. 
 
FIRST PRINCIPLES. 27 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES. 
 
 Articles and Nouns. 
 
 39. All nouns in Italian are either masculine 1 r 
 feminine. Their gender and number are indicated 
 by their form and by that of the accompanying article. 
 
 There are, as in English, two numbers, singular and 
 plural, and two articles, the definite and the indefinite. 
 
 40. The definite article has the following forms: 
 Masculine : 
 
 (a) Singular il, plural i, before a wx>rd beginning with 
 any consonant except impure s 1 and z. 2 
 
 (b) Singular lo, plural gli, before a word beginning 
 with any vowel, or with impure s 1 or z. 3 
 
 Lo is contracted into V before any vowel, gli into gl' 
 only before i : 
 
 II maestro, the teacher, master; i maestri, the masters. 
 
 1 That is, s followed IJ^Panother consonant. Italians find diffi- 
 culty in pronouncing three consonants in succession, hence the 
 differentiation in the use of the article forms. This differentia- 
 tion is of comparatively modern origin. The same effort to avoid 
 a group of consonants difficult of pronunciation and hence con- 
 sidered inharmonious is shown in the forms: la strada, "the 
 street"; but in istrada, "in the street"; scuola, "school", but 
 in iscuola. Cf. 36 (6). 
 
 2 The older article form li is sometimes found instead of il 
 in dates: II or li cinque maggio. 'the fifth of May". 
 
 3 Either il or lo may be used before z, but il may never be used 
 before impure s. Lo is used with pseudonimo, "pseudonym". 
 II is used with dio, "god", but the plural takes either i or gli: 
 il dio, gli or i dei (or dii). 
 
28 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 N Lo scolare, the scholar; gli scolari, the scholars. 
 v L' 1191110, the man; gli ugmini, the men. 
 \! L* Italiano, the Italian; gP Italiani, the Italians. 
 
 Feminine : 
 
 Singular la, plural le. 
 
 La becomes V before any vowel, le may become 1' 
 before e only 1 : 
 ^La mano, the hand; le mani, the, hands. 
 v-L* §rre, the letter R; 1' §rre, the R's. 
 
 1/ economia, the economy; 1' economie, the economies. 
 J L' epistola, the epistle; V epistole, the epistles. 
 
 41. The forms of the indefinite article are: 
 Masculine : 
 
 (a) Un, corresponding to il and accordingly used 
 before any consonant except impure s and z. The 
 same form is used before all vowels. 2 
 
 (b) Uno, 3 corresponding to lo, and used like it be- 
 fore impure s and z 4 : 
 
 4 Un libro, a book; uno scolare, a scholar; un ugmo, a 
 man. 
 
 Feminine : 
 
 una, contracted to un* before a y^vel : 
 v Una ragazza, a girl; un' gra, an^Bur. 
 
 42. From the foregoing paragraphs and examples 
 is abstracted the following general rule for gender and 
 number : 
 
 1 This is the rule for ordinary prose. 
 
 2 Strictly speaking the form when used before a vowel is uno 
 with contraction of the o, but since the contraction is never indi- 
 cated by an apostrophe it seems best to consider it as identical 
 with un. 
 
 3 Compare the use of English "a" and "an". 
 
 4 The indefinite article has no plural. "Some" =alcuni. 
 
 *< 
 
ARTICLES WITH PREPOSITIONS 
 
 29 
 
 The sign of the masculine singular is o ; of the mas- 
 culine plural i. 
 
 The sign of the feminine singular is a; of the femi- 
 nine plural e. 
 
 This general rule applies to articles, nouns, pro- 
 nouns, and adjectives. 
 
 Exceptions will be noted la}er. 
 
 {Exercises II and III.) 
 (Read II and write III.) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ARTICLES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 
 Syntax of the Article. 
 
 43. Italian nouns are not inflected. Their rela- 
 tions are indicated by the use of prepositions. When 
 the definite article is used with a preposition the two 
 are usually contracted into one word. The contrac- 
 tions are: 
 
 
 il 
 del 
 
 i 
 
 lo 
 
 gli 
 
 la 
 
 le 
 
 V 
 
 di, of 
 
 dei (de») 
 
 dello 
 
 degli 
 
 della 
 
 delle 
 
 dell' 
 
 a, to 
 
 al 
 
 ai (a') 
 
 alio 
 
 agli 
 
 alia 
 
 alle 
 
 all' 
 
 da, by 
 
 dal 
 
 dai (da') 
 
 dallo 
 
 dagli 
 
 dalla 
 
 dalle 
 
 dall' 
 
 in, m 
 
 nel 
 
 nei (ne') 
 
 nello 
 
 negli 
 
 nella 
 
 nelle 
 
 nelP 
 
 con, with 
 
 col 
 
 coi (co') 
 
 collo 
 
 cogli 
 
 colla 
 
 colle 
 
 coll' 
 
 su, on 
 
 sul 
 
 sui (su') 
 
 sullo 
 
 sugli 
 
 sulla 
 
 sulle 
 
 sull' 
 
 per, for 
 
 pel 
 
 pei (pe») 
 
 pello 
 
 pegli 
 
 pella 
 
 pelle 
 
 pell' 
 
 Remarks, (i) Per is less often contracted than 
 the other prepositions. 
 
30 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (2) The forms de', a', etc., are pronounced almost as 
 though written dei, ai, 1 etc. : 
 -II libro del ragazzo. The boy's book. 
 II libro dello scolare § sulla tavola. The scholar's book 
 is on the table. 
 j L* immagine nello sp§cchio. The image in the mirror. 
 
 Syntax of the Definite Article. 
 
 Remark. It is advised that only the rules given in 
 coarse print be learned at this point, although others may 
 be referred to. 
 
 44. The definite article is used in Italian where it 
 would not be in English: 
 
 (1) Before abstract nouns and nouns denoting a 
 whole class of beings as objects: 
 
 / L' attenzione § necessaria. Attention s necessary. 
 J La carita § una virtu. Charity is a virtue, 
 v L' ugmo § mortale. Man is mortal. 
 i/GP Italiani amano la musica. Italians love music. 
 
 (2) Before a title followed by a proper name: 
 
 * II re Vittgrio Emanu§le. King Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 > II signor Bernasconi. Mr. B. 
 
 1 La contessa Cesaresco. Countess C. 
 Exceptions: (a) Where the title is a vocative. 
 (b) Often before papa, re, conte, and maestro 2 : 
 Papa or il Papa Innoc^nzio, Pope Innocent. 
 
 1 De la, etc., often seen of late, are pronounced as though written 
 della, etc. The ear often decides as to whether a form should or 
 should not be contracted. Ex.: Domand^ con un cert' atto tras- 
 curato ma col cuor sospeso, e con 1' orrecchio all' erta.- Con gli occhi 
 stralunati (Manzoni, I Promessi Sposi, Cap. II). 
 
 2 But the article can never be omitted before imperatore, " em- 
 peror". 
 
ARTICLES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 31 
 
 (c) In the titles Carlo magno, "Charlemagne"; Ales- 
 sandro magno, 1 'Alexander the Great"; Maria Vergine, 2 
 "the Virgin Mary". 
 
 (3) Before the surnames of well-known persons 3 : 
 v II Machiav§lli § morto. Machiavelli is dead. 
 
 La Duse § attrice. Duse is an actress. 
 
 (4) Before the given names of women: 
 |)cco 1' Albina. Here is Albina. 4 
 
 Remark. This rule is sometimes extended to the given 
 names of well-known men, to given names in the vocative 
 preceded by the possessive, and often to diminutives: 
 
 Dante, or il Dante. 5 
 
 Parlami, il mio ptjvero Enrico! Speak to me, my poor 
 Henry ! 
 
 II Carlino. Charlie. 
 
 (5) Before the names of continents, countries, prov- 
 inces, mountains, lakes, seas, rivers, but not cities c : 
 
 1 But notice that magno is really a Latin word, and an adjective, 
 not a title, and that Carlo, Alessandro, are baptismal, not family 
 names. (See following rules.) 
 
 2 But la Vergine Maria. — Where the words Madama, Madami- 
 gella are followed by a title the article comes between as in 
 French (the words being borrowed from that language) : Madama 
 la Contessa Cesaresco, Madam the Countess C. 
 
 3 There is in these cases an adjective implied such as 'well 
 known", etc. Compare rule (6), below. — Neither is this rule 
 always observed by good writers: Senza aver gran cognizipne di 
 Condillac. Without having great knowledge of C. II sfcolo di 
 Voltaire, Voltaire's century (Pellico, Le Mie Prigioni Cap XXI). 
 The article is not used where the given name and the surname 
 are expressed. 
 
 4 Here again one might supply "our", "our good", etc. 
 
 5 Notice, however, that Dante is properly speaking not a sur- 
 name. 
 
 6 Exceptions: il Cairo, la Mirandola, la Bastia, la Mecca, la Rot- 
 cella, 1' Aia. 
 
32 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 j Abitiamo V America del Nord. We live in North America. 
 ^ L' Italia § una penisola. Italy is a peninsula. 
 v 11 Piemonte § una parte dell' Italia. Piedmont is a part 
 of Italy. 
 
 y Il Tevere § un flume pr§sso Roma. The Tiber is a river 
 near Rome. 
 
 But: 
 j Fire.nze § una be, 11a citta. Florence is a beautiful city. 
 Exceptions: The article is omitted: 
 
 (a) After in, meaning either going to or dwelling in 
 a country: 
 
 v Vado in Italia. I am going to Italy. 
 |)ccomi in Francia. Here I am in France. 
 
 (b) After di, where the preposition and name of 
 country could be replaced by an adjective of nation- 
 ality : 
 
 II parlamento d' Inghilt§rra. The English parliament. 
 L' imperatore di Germania. The German emperor. 
 II Piemonte § una provincia d' Italia. Piedmont is an 
 Italian province. 
 
 (c) Before Candia, Cipro, Corfu, Ischia, Malta. 
 
 (6) ■ The article is generally used before a noun 
 qualified by a possessive or a possessive-relative 1 
 pronoun, or by any adjective excepting one of 
 quantity : 
 
 v I mi§i libri. My books. La Sua mano. Your hand. 
 vLa ragazza la di cui mamma § qui. The girl whose 
 
 mother is here. 
 
 I bu<mi ragazzi sono studiosi. Good boys are studious. 2 
 ]Jcco la mia mano d§stra. This is my right hand. 
 
 (7) After the verb avere in descriptions of physical or 
 spiritual characteristics : 
 
 1 Compare 134, 135, 147 (a). 
 
 2 This example would also fall under rule (1). 
 
ARTICLES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 33 
 
 L' Albina ha Je mani piccole. A. has small hands. 
 Ernestino ha il cuore buono. Little E. has a good heart. 
 
 (8) Instead of the possessive in cases where there is no 
 danger of ambiguity (see 137 (1)): 
 
 Io apro la mano. I open my hand. 
 
 Chiudo i pugni. I close my fists. 
 
 M9Stri il braccio sinistro. Show your left arm. 
 
 (9) Before an infinitive or other part of speech used as 
 a noun: 
 
 /L' andare ed il tornare. The going and returning. 
 /Il bene e il male. Good and evil. 
 
 (10) Before numerals indicating the year without in- 
 dication of month, etc., also before those indicating the 
 day of the month, and the hour of the day: 
 
 J JJra nel mille otto cento (or nel 1800). It was in 1800. 
 
 / 1) il 13 s§ttembre. It is the 13th of September. 
 
 t La lezione comincia alle nove. The lesson begins at nine 
 
 o'clock. 
 
 v Sono le undid. It is eleven o'clock. 
 
 (11) Distributively : 
 
 (a) In specifying price, etc., where in English the in- 
 definite article is used: 
 
 Bu^o lire il metro. Two liras a meter. u+J- 
 J Uo,va a trenta soldi la dozzina. Eggs at thirty cents a 
 dozen. 
 „ Una volta la settimana. Once a week. 
 
 (b) Before the names of the days of the week where in 
 English the plural would be used to indicate a certain day 
 of every week : 
 
 j H9 una lezione il mercoledi e il sabato. I have a lesson 
 on Wednesdays and on Saturdays. 
 
 (12) Before the names of the months when a certain 
 month is specifically indicated 1 : 
 
 1 Notice the indication of time in (10), (11), and (12). 
 
34 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 v Nell' ottobre mille otto c§nto. 1 In October (of the year) 
 1800 
 
 45. The definite article being so much more fre- 
 quent in Italian than in English, it may be easier for 
 a begmner to recollect first the substantive construc- 
 tions in which it does not occur. It is, as we have 
 seen, not used before the names of cities, or before 
 those of countries after in and di with certain mean- 
 ings It is further not used: 
 
 (1) Before a vocative: 
 
 ^Buon giorno, signor Bernardo. Good morning, Mr. B. 
 Se,nta, amico mio. Listen, my friend 
 
 (2) Before the name of a near relative in the singular 
 and without other modifiers than a possessive: 
 
 •/ Mia madre, mio padre e il mio amico. My mother, 
 father, and friend. 
 
 v Mio irate.Ho e le mie sor§lle. My brother and sisters. 
 Remark. But the article is used with diminutives, or 
 where the noun has other modifiers than the possessive: 
 
 II mio fratellino § colla mia cara madre. My little 
 brother is with my dear mother. 
 
 (3) Before a noun qualified by a demonstrative or 
 numeral adjective: 
 
 Mostro quell' uomo. I am pointing at that man. 
 Ha parecchi libri. He has several books. 
 Ho due braccia. I have two arms. 
 
 (4) Before nouns having a very vague, general'sense : 
 Vende carta e penne. He sells paper and pens. 
 
 (a) In certain set phrases. Cf. 136 (2). 
 
 (5) Before ordinal numbers used with names of 
 
 1 One might also say: In ottobre del mille otto cento, or Nel mese 
 d' ottobre mille otto cento, but not Nell ottobre del mille otto cento 
 Compare rule (10). It will be seen that regard for euphony plays 
 a certain role here. 
 
ARTICLES WITH PREPOSITION'S. .35 
 
 rulers where we employ the article in English: (Ob- 
 serve that this is the only case where we employ it 
 when the Italian does not.) 
 Carlo nono. Charles the Ninth. 
 
 (6) Before Maesta, Altezza, Eccellenza: 
 Sua Maesta parla. His Majesty is speaking. 
 
 (7) Before nouns preceded by di, meaning "on", 
 or "of" in the sense of cause: 
 
 / Vivo di pane. I live on bread. 
 
 ,/ Morivano di fame. They were dying of hunger. 
 
 46. The article must be repeated before each one of 
 a series of nouns, where in English the repetition 
 would not be necessary: 
 
 • Gli ugmini, le donne ed i bambini vgngono. The men, 
 women, and children are coming. 
 
 v 5 CC0 una lavagna e un lapis. Here are a slate and pen- 
 cil. 
 
 {Exercises IV and V .) 
 
 The Partitive. 
 
 47. The definite article in combination with di is 
 used in Italian to express a sense often not expressed 
 in English, but best rendered by 'some' or "any". 1 
 
 Ha dei libri? Have you anv books? 
 
 C9sa ha? Dei libri? What have you? Books? 
 
 Si, dei libri. Yes, books. 
 v E L§i, C9sa ha? And you, what have you? 
 vHg del pane e dell' acqua. I have bread and water. 
 s Ha scritto delle gpere maravigliose. He has written 
 (some) marvellous works. 
 
 1 Di used alone has sometimes an analogous sense. Ex.: Man- 
 gio di questo pane. I eat (some of) this bread, I eat of this bread. 
 
 Cf. English, "I taste of it". 
 
36 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 48. This partitive form is, however, not used where 
 the English "some" or "any" add nothing to the 
 sense : 
 
 >Vugle pane? Do you want (some) bread? 
 x/Vugle del pane? Do you want some (of the) bread ? 
 
 Remarks, (i) The partitive is not used in a neg- 
 ative sentence: 
 
 v Ha qualche cgsa per me? Have you something for me? 
 yHg della carta, non I19 lapis. I have some paper. I 
 have no pencils. 
 vNon abbiamo fiori. We haven't any flowers. 
 
 (2) The construction is less frequent in Italian than 
 in French. Its use is seldom obligatory and often 
 arbitrary, varying greatly with the individual. 
 
 Syntax of the Indefinite Article a 
 
 49. The indefinite article is never used in Italian 
 where it would not be in English. 
 
 It is, on the contrary, omitted in Italian where it 
 would be expressed in English: 
 
 (1) Before a predicate noun, expressing occupation, 
 rank, or nationality, without qualifiers, and following 
 the verbs essere (to be) and fare (to make, do) : 
 
 (Also divenire, diventare, nascere, morire, mostrarsi, 
 pare re, proclamare, sembrare, e*ssere dichiarato.) 
 J % Italiano. He is an Italian. 
 
 ^ anche principe. He is also a prince. 
 
 Si fara impiegato. He will become an official. (Lit- 
 erally, "he will make himself.") 
 
 Remark. But a noun accompanied by an adjective, 
 or a noun answering the question "who is he?" (it will be 
 observed that in the examples under (1) all answer "what 
 is he?") takes the article: 
 
NOUNS, THEIR GENDER AND NUMBER. 37 
 
 *■ l£ un Italiano patri^tico. He is a patriotic Italian. 
 / |) un bu<m principe. He is a good prince. 
 v Chi | quell' 1191110? § un me'dico. Who is that man? 
 He is a doctor ( = That is a doctor). 
 
 (2) Before a noun in apposition: 
 
 y/ II Tevere flume pr§sso Roma. The Tiber, a river near 
 Rome. 
 
 Ce>are Bgrgia, ugmo s<mza miseric^rdia. Caesar. Borgia, 
 a man without pity. 
 
 y Dante, gran po§ta d' Italia. Dante, a great Italian poet. 
 
 (3) After da, meaning ''as", "like" 1 : 
 / Parlo da amico. I speak as a friend. 
 
 Si travesti quattro vglte, da pellegrino, da marinaio, da 
 soldato, da acrobata. He disguised himself four times, as 
 a pilgrim, as a sailor, as a soldier, as an acrobat. 
 
 (4) Before the numerals c§nto , ' ' hundred ' ' , mille , ' ' thou- 
 sand" 2 : 
 
 V Sono ce,nto u^mini. They are, there are, a hundred men. 
 y Dopo mille anni. After a thousand years. 
 
 (5) In certain adverbial expressions, such as: 
 
 y A casa, "at home"; a scuola {or in iijscuola), "at 
 school"; in camera, "in the bedroom". 
 
 (6) In certain exclamations, for which see 157. 
 
 (Exercises VI and VII.) 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 NOUNS, THEIR GENDER AND NUMBER. 
 
 50. All Italian nouns are either masculine or femi- 
 nine (cf. 39). The gender and number are usually 
 indicated by the ending, singular o, plural i being 
 the typical masculine endings, singular a, plural 
 
 1 Cf. French je parle en ami. 2 Cf. 291 (c). 
 
38 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 e the feminine. However, not all masculine nouns 
 end in o, neither do all those ending in o take i in the 
 plural, nor are these endings always proof that the 
 noun exhibiting them is masculine. 
 
 GENDER. 
 General Rules for Gender. 
 
 (i) Nouns denoting male and female beings usually 
 keep their natural genders: 
 y II re, the king; la regina, the queen. 
 
 Un lavandajo, a fuller; una lavandaja, a washerwoman. 
 
 II toro, the bull; la mia gallina, my hen. 
 
 Tuo padre, thy father; ngstra madre, our mother. 
 
 Exceptions: Guardia, "guard"; guida, "guide"; 
 recluta, ' ' recruit ' ' ; sentine.Ha, ' sentinel ' ' ; spia, ' ' spy ' ' , 
 are feminine in spite of the fact that they usually 
 designate male beings. Here the grammatical gender 
 prevails over the natural (compare following para- 
 graph) . 
 
 (2) Nouns ending in o are masculine, in a feminine. 1 
 
 These are, as already noted, the typical endings of 
 the two genders: 
 
 V L' abito, the coat •/ la camicia, the shirt, blouse. 
 U I1 naso, the nose; la bocca, the mouth. 
 v II muro, the wall; la stanza, the room. 
 
 Exceptions: (a) Feminine nouns which are mas- 
 culine in ending: 
 
 1 Latin masculines and feminines as a rule retain their gender. 
 The common masculine accusative singular -um gives -o, the 
 feminine accusative singular -am>a. Nouns coming from Latin 
 neuter singulars are usually masculine, those from the plurals 
 feminine, the endings being here decisive. Templum >(il) tempio, 
 folia<(la) f<?glia. Masculine nouns in o with a plural in a are rem- 
 nants of the Latin neuter declension. Cf. 63 and 64. 
 
NOUNS, THEIR GENDER AND NUMBER. 39 
 
 ' La mano, 1 "the hand". Also §co, 'echo", and a 
 few other rare words: 
 
 (b) Masculine nouns of feminine ending: 
 v II po§ta, "poet",!l duca, "duke",ll monarcQ, "mon- 
 arch". Also y col§ra, " cholera"/ sofa, "sofa", and a 
 few other words of foreign extraction 2 ; enigma, 
 "enigma"/ problema, "problem", and other words in 
 -ma derived from the Greek, many geographical 
 names, and qualcosa, "something" (properly a phrase, 
 not single word). 
 
 (3) Nouns ending in u are feminine: 
 
 "la virtu, "virtue"; Ma gioventu, 3 'youth"; 17 la gru, 
 
 «< > > 
 
 crane . y 
 
 Exceptions: A few foreign words, such as bambu, 
 
 "bamboo", also other parts of speech used as nouns, as 
 
 vilpiu, 4 "more"; and bau, "dog's bark"; meu, "fennel"; 
 
 vPeru, "Peru". 
 
 More Special Rules for Gender. 
 
 51. Of nouns ending in e and i some are masculine, 
 some feminine. 5 The meaning of the word may de- 
 cide. 
 
 (a) Masculine are: 
 
 1 From Latin manus, manum, which, though a feminine of the 
 fourth declension, exactly resembles in form the masculines of the 
 
 second. 
 
 2 Notice that words imperfectly Italianized usually make ex- 
 ceptions. Cf. following paragraph, exceptions, also 24 (a), foot- 
 note 5, p. 11, etc. 
 
 3 Notice that these nouns are names of abstractions. Cf. 51 
 
 (b) (1). 
 
 «Cf. 51 (a) (2). 
 
 5 Since all really Italian nouns end in a vowel, the above classi- 
 fication includes all but a very few substantives, such as il lapis, 
 " lead pencil ", etc. 
 
40 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (i) Names of trees, metals, generally of mountains, 
 months, and days: 
 
 V II limone, lemon-tree. y Il rame, copper. II San Salva- 
 tore, (mountain of) San S. " L' Aprile, April. "II martedi, 
 Tuesday. 
 
 Remark. This rule is constantly crossed by that given 
 in 50 (2) (p. 38). For instance, le Alpe, or Alpi, 'the 
 Alps", probably because the first form would suppose a 
 singular, Alpa. Most names of mountains end in o, or 
 else monte, "mount", "mountain", is understood: 
 
 L' |)tna, or Monte IJtna, "Etna". 
 
 All the days of the week are masculine except la domenica, 
 "Sunday", and all names of metals except la latta, " tin". 
 
 (2) Other parts of speech used as nouns: 
 / L' andare e il venire. Going and coming. 
 vfl mangiare e buorio. The food is good. 
 v Mi dava del si e del nq. He would give me no positive 
 answer. (Literally, "he gave me yes and no".) 
 
 (b) Feminine are: 
 
 (1) Names of abstractions: 
 
 La specie, the species. L y ambizione, ambition. La 
 quie,te, quiet, rest. 
 
 (2) Many names of fruits, 1 the same word used as 
 a masculine indicating often the tree : 
 
 v/ II noce, the walnut-tree. La noce, walnut, nut. 
 
 Exceptions: In a certain number of cases the same 
 masculine word designates as well the fruit as the tree that 
 bears it : 
 \/ II limone, lemon-tree, lemon. 2 
 
 1 This rule is also crossed by 50 (2), the names of many fruits 
 being feminine by termination: L' arancia, "the orange"; una 
 mela, "an apple". But there exists also the masculine arancio, 
 meaning as well the tree as its fruit. 
 
 2 Fico and dattero, both masculine by termination, also mean 
 both tree and fruit. 
 
NOUNS, THEIR GENDER AND NUMBER. 41 
 
 52. A certain number of nouns are indifferently 
 masculine or feminine; as, il or la fine, 'end". 
 
 Remark. The pupil is advised to connect imme- 
 diately with every substantive learned, whether its 
 gender be according to ordinary rule or exceptional, 
 its appropriate article, and to make them one concept. 
 
 Gender of Compound Nouns. 
 
 53. Most compound nouns retain the gender of their 
 second component: 
 
 La mappa, flat piece of cloth, table-cover. 
 II mondo, world. II mappamondo, map of the world. 
 Exceptions: There are many, but they are usually 
 explained by an analysis of the word : 
 ^11 capo, head, chief; v la caccia, hunt; il capocaccia, 
 master of the hunt, v/ Salvare, to save -/la gente, people-/ il 
 •/salva-ge,nte, life-preserver. ^ Battere, to beat, thresh out; 
 ^la lana, wool; il battilana, wool-comber. (Cf. 51 (a) (2).) 
 
 Formation of the Feminine. 
 
 54. (1) Many masculines in o and some in e form 
 a feminine in a: 
 
 * II ragazzo, the boy^ la ragazza, the girl. 
 " Lo zio, the uncle; la zia, the aunt. „ 
 ~11 padrone, the master, proprietor; la padrona. 
 
 (2) Those in a and some in e take essa: 
 
 L' arciduca, the archduke; V arciduchessa, archduchess. 
 ^11 dottore, doctor; la dottoressa. 
 
 II po§ta, poet ; la poetessa. 
 ^11 profeta, prophet ; la profetessa. 
 
 (3) Most of those in -tore take -trice (dottore being an 
 exception) : 
 
 y L' imperatore, the emperor; V imperatrice, the empress. 
 v II direttore, the director; la direttrice. 
 
42 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (4) But many masculines and feminines bearing a 
 certain relation to one another are totally different in 
 form : 
 v 1/ u9mo, man; la dcmna, woman. 
 
 NUMBER. 
 General Rules for the Formation of the Plural. 
 
 55. Masculines in o and a, masculines and feminines 
 in e form their plural by changing these terminations 
 to i: 
 
 II libro, i libri ; un ragazzo, tre ragazzi ; il po§ta, i poe, ti ; 
 lo zio, gli zii; il padre, i padri; la madre, le madri; uno 
 scolare, gli scolari 1 ; la lezione, the lesson, le lezioni; P ape, 
 the bee, le api, bees ; P ipocrita, hypocrite, gP ipocriti ; il mio 
 nome, my name, i nostri nomi, our names. 
 
 Remarks, (i) Also la mano, le mani. 
 
 (2) In nouns in -io the plural may be written i, i, 
 ii, or j. In any case only one i is pronounced: 
 /Studio, study; plural studi, studi, studii, studj. 
 
 56. Feminines in unaccented a form their plural in e : 
 H \>2l tavola, the table. *£>elle tavole, some tables. 
 
 rLa tua penna, thy pen. jLe vostre penne, your pens. 
 
 57. Monosyllables and nouns accented on the last 
 syllable (whether the word end in a vowel or con- 
 sonant), also nouns ending in i (stressed or unstressed) 
 and ie, do not change in the plural: 
 
 y II brindisi, the health, toast. 'Fare molti brindisi, to 
 
 drink many toasts. v Un di, a day; s§tte di, seven days. 
 
 j Un barbagianni, an owl ; i barbagianni. - II re d' Italia, 
 
 the king of Italy. ^1 tre re, the three kings, i Una me- 
 
 1 These words being familiar to the pupil are not translated. 
 
NOUNS, THEIR GENDER AND NUMBER. 43 
 
 < 
 
 Mnjpoli, a metropolis; delle metr^poli. Una b§lla citta; 
 delle b§lle citta. ^ 
 
 II mio lapis § qui. My pencil is here. Dove sono i 
 ngstri lapis? Where are our pencils? Una spexie, a species. 
 Due specie di virtu. Two kinds of virtues. La gru, crane. 
 Ifcco due gru. There are two cranes. II caos, chaos; i 
 caos." L' estremita, the extremity; V estremita, the ex- 
 tremities. 
 
 58. Adjectives form their plural according to the 
 same general rules as nouns (sing, o or e, pi. i; sing, a, 
 
 pi. e) 1 : 
 
 JJcco il mio piccolo libro inglese.* Here is my little Eng- 
 lish book. Dove sono i tuoi piccoli libri inglesi ? Where 
 are thy little English books? II libro § verde. The book 
 is green. I libri sono verdi. La lezione § lunga e difficile. 
 The lesson .is long and difficult. Ma no, le lezioni non 
 sono ne lunghe ne difficili. No, the lessons are neither long 
 nor difficult. 
 
 (Exercises VIII and IX) 
 
 More Special Rules for the Formation of the Plural. 
 Irregular Plural Forms. 
 
 59. Masculines in -ca form their plural in -chi, the h 
 being inserted to indicate the quality of the c 2 : 
 
 II duca, the duke, i duchi; il monarca, the monarch, i 
 monarchi. 
 
 60. Feminines in -ca and -ga also show an h in the 
 plural : 
 
 L' arnica, the (female) friend, le amiche; un' oca, a 
 goose, delle oche; Ta verga, the rod, le verghe 
 
 61. On the same principle nouns of both genders 
 
 1 Cf. 42. For more detail see Chapter VIII. 
 
 2 See 16. 
 
44 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 which have an i in the singular only to indicate the 
 nature of a c or g omit that i in the plural 1 : 
 
 II linguaggio, the language, dialect; i linguaggi d' Italia. 
 
 L' arancio § bello, the orange-tree is beautiful; gli aranci 
 sono belli. 
 
 La caccia, the chase, hunt; le cacce. 
 
 Una guancia rosea, a rosy cheek; le sue guance, 2 her 
 cheeks. 
 
 62. In the case of masculines in -co and -go the qual- 
 ity of the c or g sometimes remains the same in the 
 plural and sometimes changes. In most cases the 
 accentuation may serve as a guide, nouns stressed 
 on the penult taking -chi, -ghi, those stressed on the 
 antepenult -ci, -gi: 
 
 Un giucico, a game; i giugchi dei bambini, children's 
 plays. 
 
 II castigo severo, severe punishment, i castighi. 
 
 Un Franco, a Frank; i Franchi. II fugco, fire; i fugchi. 
 
 But: 
 
 II medico, the physician; i m^'dici tastano il polso, doctors 
 feel the pulse. II fisiglogo, the physiologist; i fisiglogi. 
 
 II coll§gio, the college ; i colle.gi. 
 
 L* equivoco, ambiguous expression, gli equivoci. 3 
 
 1 See 22, foot-note. This rule of course does not apply to 
 nouns in which the i is accented, as il leggio, "reading-desk" 
 pi. leggii; zio, zii; la farmacia, "pharmacy", pi. farmacie. In 
 nouns like pcchio, "eye", studio, "study", etc., where the i al- 
 though not accented is sounded, the orthographical usage varies. 
 Formerly occhj, studj were commoner, now occhi, studi are more 
 usual. Occhii, studii are also seen. 
 
 2 But provincie, audacie retain the unnecessary i. 
 
 *The adjective equivoco is treated in the same way, and 
 adjectives in general follow the rule as given for nouns: pubblico, 
 "public", pi. piibblici, fern, pubbliche; cattplico, "Catholic", 
 cattolici, cattpliche; diplomatico, "diplomatic", diplomatici, diploma- 
 tiche. Cf. 116. 
 
NOUNS, THEIR GENDER AND NUMBER. 45 
 
 Exceptions: There are many exceptions to this 
 rule. Words in -go follow it more uniformly 1 than 
 those in -co. The student is advised to learn each 
 word and its article in the singular and plural forms. 
 The following are the commonest exceptions: 
 
 (a) Words in -co stressed on the penult, yet form- 
 ing their plural in -ci : 
 
 Un mio amico, a friend of mine; i ngstri amici, our 
 friends. 
 
 ]£cco il nemico, here is the enemy; i mi§i nemici lo 
 dicono, my enemies say so. II porco, the pig; due porci. 
 
 (b) Words in -co stressed on the antepenult, yet 
 forming their plural in -chi: 
 
 IJcco il suo carico, it is his charge ; i carichi. 
 
 Un gran fondaco, a large warehouse; molti fondachi. 
 
 II manico del colte.Ho, the knife-handle; i manichi. 
 
 Lo stomaco, the stomach; gli stomachi. Lo stgrico 
 della gu§rra civile, the historian of the civil war; gli stcj- 
 richi. 
 
 Iltossico, the poison; dei tossichi forti. II traffico della 
 ferrovia, railway-traffic; i trafnehi. 2 
 
 Remarks, (i) Gre,co as a noun takes -ci, as an 
 
 adjective chi: 
 
 Un Gr§co, a Greek; i Gr§ci, the Greeks. 
 
 Un vino gr§co, a Greek wine; vini grexhi, Greek wines. 
 
 So also mago in the sense of 'wizard' takes a 
 
 1 Yet all those accented on the antepenult excepting sparago, 
 "asparagus", taking -gi in the plural, possess besides the forms 
 in -gi parallel ones in -ghi. Sparago has only sparagi. Catalogo, 
 "catalogue", has only cataloghi. 
 
 2 Other exceptions are so rare as scarcely to belong here. The 
 student is advised to consult his dictionary for plurals of such 
 nouns. 
 
46 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 plural maghi, but in the expression 'the three wise 
 men" it takes magi, i tre re magi. 1 
 
 (2) Fisico, "natural philosopher", and musico, "musi- 
 cian ", take either ci or chi. 
 
 63. A certain number of masculines in o form their 
 plural irregularly in a and become feminine. They 
 
 are: 
 
 II centinaio, the hundred (about a hundred); ne v§ngono 
 delle centinaia, hundreds of them are coming. 
 
 Un migliaio, a thousand or thereabouts; due migliaia. 2 
 
 Un paio, a. pair; due paia. 
 
 Un miglio, a mile; due miglia. 3 
 
 64. Many other masculines in o have two plural 
 forms, one in a and one in i : 
 
 II dito, finger; le dita (i diti). 
 
 II braccio, the arm; I19 due braccia (bracci). 4 
 
 II calcagno, the heel; le calcagna (le calcagne, i cal- 
 cagni). 
 
 II gingcchio, the knee; le gin^cchia (gingcchie) (i gin- 
 Qcchi) . 
 
 II labbro, the lip; le labbra (i labbri). 
 
 1 Observe that this latter form is preserved by the Biblical 
 phrase, i.e., magi is the Latin plural, maghi being made after the 
 singular whose hard g it keeps. Naturally a plural is made after 
 a singular only where the latter is the oftener used. In the case 
 of greco, the noun plural was often used, the adjective less often, 
 so only the latter was re-formed. 
 
 2 Mile, "a thousand", takes also le mila. 
 
 3 Notice that these are all nouns designating number in a rather 
 vague way. Centinaj, miglia j, are sometimes seen. 
 
 4 The plural most commonly used is placed first. Braccia, gin^c- 
 chia, labbra, orecchie (notice this latter in e) are generally em- 
 ployed to denote two arms, etc., of the same body. The termina- 
 tion a (e) has here a sort of collective sense. Compare German 
 nouns beginning with Ge. 
 
NOUNS, THEIR GENDER AND NUMBER. 47 
 
 II membro, the member; le membra (membrej, (i mem- 
 bri). 
 
 L' orecchio, the ear; le orrecchie (orecchia), (gli orecchi). 
 
 L' 9SS0, the bone; le gssa (osse), (gli gssi). 
 
 L' ugvo, the egg; le U9va (gli ugvi). 1 
 
 Remark. In some cases the two forms are differ- 
 entiated in meaning : 
 
 II frutto, fruit; le frutta, fruits; i frutti, profits. 
 
 II legno, wood ; i legni, carriages, ships ; le legna, firewood. 
 
 II muro, wall; i muri, walls; le mura, city- walls. 
 
 II membro, the member. 
 
 Le braccia sono mgmbri del cgrpo umano. The arms are 
 members of the human body. Una commissione di sette 
 membri. A committee of seven members. 
 
 But: 
 
 Le membra del cgrpo. The members (all the members) 
 of the body. 
 
 65. Plurals altogether irregular. 
 L' ala, the wing; le ali (le ale). 
 Ilbue, ox; ibugi. 
 
 II dio, god ; gli d§i or dii (with which the article is always 
 
 gli)- 
 
 La moglie, wife ; le mogli 
 
 L' ugmo, man ; gli ugmini. 
 
 PLURAL OF COMPOUND NOUNS. 
 
 66. Most compound nouns change their ending in 
 the regular way, i.e., the second component is made 
 plural, the first remaining unchanged: 
 
 II mappamondo, map of the world; i mappamondi. 
 
 II parafugco, fire-screen; i parafugchi. 
 
 1 There are many other nouns which ma}- take the two plurals. 
 Observe that such are usually Latin neuters which have their 
 plural in a. In such the i forms arc later. But the f< imati< n has 
 extended to other words. Cf. 50, (2) foot-note. 
 
48 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Exceptions : There are many, most of which may, 
 however, be explained by an analysis of the word 
 
 (cf.53): 
 
 II capocaccia, master of the hunt ; i capicaccia. 
 
 II battilana, wool-comber ; i battilana. 
 
 II portal§ttere, the letter-carrier; i portalg'ttere. 
 
 But in other cases the explanation must be sought 
 in the fact that in some compounds the components 
 are still felt to be independent words and are inflected 
 as such, while in others one or both of them has lost 
 its individual life. In other words, the fusion is more 
 or less complete: 
 
 II sordomuto, the deaf-mute; i sordomuti. 
 
 But: 
 
 La mezza-luna, crescent; le mezze-lune. 
 
 La madreperla, mother-of-pearl; le madreperle or 1§ 
 madriperle. 
 
 II sottolume, lamp-mat; i sottolumi. 
 
 II rompicapo, tormentor ; i rompicapo. 
 
 {Exercises X and XI.) 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 REGULAR VERBS. 1 
 
 67. All Italian verbs end in the present infinitive 
 in -re. The vowel preceding this syllable may be a, 
 
 1 The regular verbs are placed before the auxiliaries because the 
 latter are irregular and it is considered desirable for the student 
 to familiarize himself first with the regular forms. Teachers who 
 prefer to do so may take Chapter V before this one. The present 
 tenses of the auxiliaries have been given (Vocabulary to Exercises 
 I and II), and isolated participial forms are also given in other 
 vocabularies. It being taken for granted that the student of 
 Italian knows the parts, moods, tenses, etc., of verbs, no explana- 
 tion of such matters is given. 
 
REGULAR VERBS. 49 
 
 e (accented or unaccented), or i. This vowel, which 
 is called the characteristic vowel, recurs throughout 
 the conjugation. 
 
 Verbs are divided according to their characteristic 
 vowel into: 
 
 (i) -are verbs, or first conjugation. 
 
 (2) -ere and '-ere verbs, or second conjugation. 
 
 (3) -ire verbs, or third conjugation: 
 
 Mostrare. To show, point out. Temere, to fear. P§r- 
 dere, to lose. Partire, to go away, set out {also to divide). 
 
 68. The role played by the characteristic vowel, 
 which constitutes, as we have seen, the main differ- 
 ence between the conjugations, is seen in the follow- 
 ing tables. The part of the infinitive preceding the 
 characteristic vowel is the stem, the characteristic 
 vowel and what follows it the ending of the infinitive. 
 The various parts of the verb are formed by adding 
 various terminations to the stem. 
 
 TABLE OF VERBS. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Mostr are Tern ere P§rd ere Part ire 1 
 
 Present Participle mostr ando- tern §ndo 2 perd endo part endo-' 
 Past Participle mostr ato 3 tern uto 4 perd uto part ito 
 
 1 Sometimes transitive = "to divide", but usually intransitive = 
 "to depart". 
 
 2 There are also forms mostr ante, tern ente, part ente, which, 
 though really representing the Latin participles (the forms in 
 -ando, -endo being gerunds), are much less frequent, and which 
 may be regarded as verbal adjectives. Cf. III. Iente for -ente 
 (=endo) appears only in finiente, impediente, leniente, obbediente, 
 partoriente, sometimes aperiente and moriente. 
 
 3 The past participle of a few verbs of the first conjugation is 
 sometimes contracted, especially in poetry, showing o for -ato, 
 desto =destato, etc. For compound tenses cf. 76. 
 
 4 Notice that this is the only one of the three conjugations show- 
 ing a past participle with an accented vowel other than its char- 
 acteristic vowel. 
 
5° 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Indicative 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I 1 show, am showing, etc. 
 
 mpstr o 1 
 
 tern o 
 
 perd o 
 
 m9str i 2 
 
 tern i 
 
 perd i 
 
 m9str a 2 
 
 tern e 
 
 perd e 
 
 mostr iamo 
 
 tern iamo 
 
 perd iamo 
 
 mostr ate 2 
 
 tern ete 
 
 perd ete 
 
 m9str ano 3 
 
 tern ono 
 
 pfrd ono 
 
 part o, I depart, or 
 
 part isco, I divide 
 
 part i or part isci 
 
 part e or part isce 
 
 part iamo 
 
 part ite 
 
 part ono or part iscono 
 
 mostr ava 4 
 mostr avi 
 mostr ava 
 mostr avamo 
 mostr avate 
 mostr avano 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 I showed, was showing, etc. 
 
 tern eva 5 perd eva, 6 etc. part iva 5 
 
 tern evi part ivi 
 
 tern eva part iva 
 
 tern evamo part ivamo 
 
 tern evate part ivate 
 
 tern evano part ivano 
 
 1 The subject pronoun is omitted. Cf. 88. 
 
 2 For the use of these forms ("you show") cf. 91. 
 
 8 This -o, as also final -no in the third plural future of all con- 
 jugations, is often dropped: mpstran, "they show", temeran, 
 "they will fear", etc. 
 
 4 is very frequently used (indeed almost universally' where 
 there is danger of ambiguity) instead of this -a as the final vowel 
 of the first singular imperfect of all conjugations. 
 
 5 Verbs of the second and third conjugations (never of the 
 first) often drop the v of the imperfect: io temea, egli partia, etc. 
 
 8 It being sufficiently evident that pfrdere is conjugated precisely 
 like tem6re, the forms of the latter only will henceforth be given. 
 (For the parallel irregular form of pfrdere see alphabetical table, 
 p. .) The second conjugation comprises the verbs of both the 
 second and third Latin conjugations. In other words, the second 
 conjugation in Italian comprises verbs different in the infinitive 
 but alike in all other parts. The third, on the contrary, comprises 
 verbs alike in all parts save the present indicative and subjunc- 
 tive, but different in these, i.e., it consists of: (a) verbs of the 
 Latin fourth conjugation; (b) Latin inchoatives. The latter are 
 now much the more numerous, i.e., most -ire verbs have passed 
 into the inchoative conjugation. 
 
REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 5 1 
 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 
 mostr ai 
 
 tern ei or tern etti 
 
 part ii 
 
 mostr asti 
 
 tern esti 
 
 part isti 
 
 mostr 9 ' 
 
 tern e 1 or tern ette 
 
 part i l 
 
 mostr ammo 
 
 tern emmo 
 
 part immo 
 
 mostr aste 
 
 tem este 
 
 part iste 
 
 mostr arono 
 
 tern erono or 
 tem fttero 
 
 Future. 
 
 part irono 
 
 mostr er§ 2 
 
 tem er§ 
 
 part ir9 
 
 mostr erai 
 
 tem erai 
 
 part irai 
 
 mostr era 
 
 tem era 
 
 part ira 
 
 mostr eremo 
 
 tem eremo 
 
 part iremo 
 
 mostr erete 
 
 tem erete 
 
 part irete 
 
 mostr eranno 
 
 tem eranno 
 
 Conditional. 3 ' 
 
 part iranno 
 
 mostr erf i 
 
 tem erei 
 
 part irei 
 
 mostr eresti 
 
 tem eresti 
 
 part iresti 
 
 mostr erebbe 
 
 tem erfbbe 
 
 part ir§ bbe 
 
 mostr eremmo 
 
 tem eremmo 
 
 part iremmo 
 
 mostr ereste 
 
 tem ereste 
 
 part ireste 
 
 mostr er^bbero 
 
 tem erfbbero 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 part ir§bbero 
 
 mpstr a, 4 show (thou) 
 
 tem i 
 
 part i 
 
 mostr ate 5 
 
 tem ete" 
 
 part ite 
 
 Negative form: 
 
 
 
 non mostrare 
 
 non temere 
 
 non partire 
 
 non mostrate 
 
 non temete 
 
 non partite 
 
 1 This accent is regularly written. Cf. 32 (a). 
 
 2 Notice that only the first conjugation here shows another than 
 its characteristic vowel, i.e.,er§ for ar9. Since it takes instead that 
 of the second conjugation, the first and second are identical in these 
 two tenses. 
 
 3 Some grammarians consider this rather a separate mood than 
 a tense of the indicative. 
 
 4 The infinitive is used for the negative imperative second singu- 
 lar of all verbs. Cf. below. 
 
 6 For the other persons the corresponding ones of the present 
 subjunctive are used: impstr i, "let him show", etc. 
 
52 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 
 Present 
 
 
 m9str i : 
 
 tern a 
 
 
 ( part a, I may depart, 
 ( part isca, I may divide 
 
 m9str i 
 
 tern a 
 
 
 j part a, thou mayest depart, 
 ( part isca, thou mayest divide 
 
 mostr i 
 
 tern a 
 
 
 j part a, he may depart, 
 ( part isca, he may divide 
 
 mostr iamo 
 
 tern iamo 
 
 
 part iamo 
 
 mostr iate 
 
 tern iate 
 
 
 part iate 
 
 mQstr ino 
 
 tern ano 
 
 
 { part ano, they may depart, 
 ( part iscano, they may divide 
 
 
 Imperfc 
 
 :ct. 
 
 mostr assi 
 
 tern essi 
 
 
 part issi 
 
 mostr assi 
 
 tern essi 
 
 
 part issi 
 
 mostr asse 
 
 tern esse 
 
 
 part isse 
 
 mostr issimo 
 
 tern essimo 
 
 
 part issimo 
 
 mostr aste 
 
 tern este 
 
 
 part iste 
 
 mostr assero 
 
 tern Assero 
 
 
 part issero 
 
 Remarks on Regular Verbs of the First Conjugation. 
 
 69. (1) Verbs ending in -care and -gare insert an 
 h after the c or g before endings beginning with e or i 
 in order to mark the preservation of the hard sound 2 : 
 
 Dimenticare, to forget; non dimentichi, do not forget; 
 dimenticher§, I shall forget. Pagare, to pay; non desidero 
 che paghiate ni§nte, I do not desire that you pay anything; 
 paghino loro, let them pay. 
 
 (2) Verbs in -ciare, -giare, sciare in which the i is 
 inserted merely to keep the c, g, sc soft before the 
 next sounded vowel, which is a, drop this i in parts 
 where the termination contains an i or an e 3 : 
 
 Cominciare, to begin, commence; comincio, I am be- 
 
 1 The subjunctive present is indicated by a change of the charac- 
 teristic vowel, the first conjugation taking that theretofore char- 
 acteristic of the third, the third with the second, that of the first. 
 
 2 Cf. 16 and 59. 
 
 8 Cf. 22, foot-note 3> and 61. 
 
REGULAR VERBS. 53 
 
 ginning; comincerebbe, he would begin. Passeggiare. to 
 take a walk; passe'ggino, let them go to walk ; passeggerg 
 anch' io, I shall also take a walk. Lasciare, to leave, 
 let; lasci stare, let it alone. Bruciare, to burn; brucera, it 
 will burn. 
 
 (3) Verbs in -chiare and -gliare drop the i only 
 before an i in the termination, not before an e : 
 
 Picchiare, to knock; picchi (not picchii), thou knockest, 
 but picchier^, I shall knock. 1 Consigliare, to counsel; con- 
 siglier§bbe, he would advise; consigli, let him advise. 
 
 (4) Of other verbs in -iare those retain this i: 
 
 (a) In which it has in the infinitive a secondary accent, 
 the secondary accent becoming in the indicative present 
 first singular the principal one: 
 
 Desiare, 2 to desire; io desio, tu desii. Spiare, to spy, io 
 spio, che spiino. 
 
 (b) In which there might be confusion with another 
 verb: 
 
 Odiare, to hate, tu gdii, not 90H, which latter = " thou 
 nearest" (from udire). 
 
 (c) Appropriare, contrariare, sentenziare, spaziare, strabili- 
 are also commonly show the ii. Others drop the i before 
 an ending beginning with i, retaining it before e: 
 
 Annoiare, 3 to annoy; tu anngi, tu annoierai. 
 
 (5) Certain verbs having an open o in the first syl- 
 lable diphthongize it where it receives the accent (i.e., 
 in the three persons of the singular and third person 
 plural of the present indicative and subjunctive and 
 in the imperative second person singular) : 
 
 Giocare, 4 to play, io giuoco. 
 
 1 The second i in picchien) is distinctly heard. 
 
 2 That this i has a secondary accent is evident from the fact 
 that the verb is a contracted form of desiderare. 
 
 3 This i is really a semi-consonant. 
 
 4 Besides giocare, arrolare, infocare, rotare, and sonare exhibit 
 
54 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Remarks on Regular Verbs of the Second Conjugation. 
 
 70. (1) Verbs ending in -cere and -gere insert an i 
 to keep the c or g soft before the u of the past partici- 
 ple, not, however, before terminations beginning with 
 a or o, in which latter case the c or g becomes hard : 
 
 Pascere, 1 to feed, pasture, pasco, ch' egli pasca, pasciuto. 
 
 (2) There are but few regular verbs in this conju- 
 gation, 2 and these present, for the most part, the 
 double forms given in the table for the preterit. The 
 forms in -ei, -e, -erono are really the regular ones, cor- 
 responding to the -ai of the first conjugation, -ii of the 
 third. The following verbs and their compounds take 
 only the -ei, -e, -erono: battere, comp^tere, conv§rgere, 
 div§rgere, lucere, mescere, mi§tere, pascere, prudere, rip§- 
 tere, stridere, t§ssere, tondere 3 ; also compiere and empi- 
 ere when of this conjugation (they are frequently in- 
 flected according to the third). 
 
 this change, also frequently rinnovare and tonare, and, rarely, 
 provare and trovare. Notare, "to notice", never does, in order, 
 probably, not to be confused with nuotare, "to swim". The same 
 may be said of votare and vuotare. 
 
 1 This and mescere are the only regular verbs exhibiting all 
 these forms. Of the irregular some exhibit them all, as, crescere, 
 cresco, cresciuto (but pret. crebbi) ; conoscere, conosco, conosciuto 
 (but pret. conobbi) ; others only a part, as tacere, taccio, taeiuto; 
 piangere, piango, pret. piansi; past participle pianto, etc. See 
 Table of Irregular Verbs. 
 
 2 The entirely regular are: battere, cedere, compftere, credere, 
 fendere, gemere, godere, mescere, miftere, pascere, p§ndere, pfrdere, 
 premere, ricevere, rifl^ttere, ripftere, splfndere, temere, tondere, vfn- 
 dere, also cdmpiere and fmpiere when of this conjugation. See 
 Table. It will be seen later that the great majority of the irregu- 
 lar verbs are '-ere verbs of this conjugation. 
 
 3 Many of these verbs are defective. 
 
REGULAR VERBS. 55 
 
 (3) Some verbs having an open o in the first sylla- 
 ble present the same phenomenon remarked under 
 
 69, (5): 
 
 Cu^cere or cgcere, to cook; C119C0, coceva. Mu^vere or 
 
 m^vere, to move; muQVO, moveva. 
 
 These verbs are otherwise irregular. 
 
 Remarks on Regular Verbs of the Third Conjugation. 
 
 71. Most verbs of this conjugation take in the pres- 
 ent indicative and subjunctive the -isco endings, not 
 having the -o, -i, -e endings at all. The following is 
 the model for their present tenses. 
 
 Capire, to understand. 
 
 capisco, I understand, capiamo 
 
 capisci capite 
 
 capisce capiscono 
 
 capisca, I may understand, capiamo 
 
 capisca capiate 
 
 capisca capiscano 
 capisci, understand (thou). 1 
 
 (a) The following regular verbs take the o forms 
 only: 
 
 Dormire, to sleep ; fuggire, to fly, flee; partire in the sense 
 of "to depart"; pentire, 2 sentire, to feel, hear; servire, to 
 serve; sortire, 3 in the sense of "to go out"; vestire, to 
 clothe. 
 
 1 These forms are derived from the Latin inchoatives, hence per- 
 haps their use in the present only, "I understand, — am beginning 
 to understand". 
 
 2 Pentire is a reflexive verb. Sec 106. 
 
 3 Sortire, "to draw lots", as partire, "to divide", takes the -isco 
 forms. Notice that in both cases it is the transitive verb that 
 takes the -isco forms. 
 
56 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (b) The following verbs may take either termina- 
 tion, but usually take -isco : 
 
 Abborrire, to abhor; bollire, to boil; inghiottire, to swal- 
 low; languire, to languish; mentire, to lie; muggire, to 
 bellow; nutrire, to nourish; ruggire, to roar; sorbire, to 
 sip; tossire, to cough; also verbs in -vertire, as avvertire, 
 divertire, etc. 1 
 
 (c) Proseguire, "&o prosecute, pursue", has usually 
 pros^guo, but sometimes proseguisco. 
 
 72. The verb is more interrogative by placing the 
 pronoun (if expressed) or other subject after it: 
 
 Voi mostrate, you show; mostrerete voi? Shall you 
 show? 
 
 Non partira vgstro frat§llo? Will not your brother go 
 away? 
 
 73. The imperfect tense is used to express unfin- 
 ished, habitual, or repeated action, the preterit to 
 express that which was finished at a certain time, 
 which time is quite past 2 : 
 
 Io mostravo il libro quando entrg. I was showing the 
 book when he entered. 
 
 (Exercises XII and XIII.) 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 74. The principal auxiliary verbs in Italian are 
 §'ssere, "to be", and aver e, "to have". Both are irregular, 
 but especially the first. 
 
 1 A number of irregular verbs, such as aprire, coprire, offrire, 
 soffrire, cucire, and its compounds, also belong to this class. See 
 Table. 
 
 2 Cf. 226 and 228. 
 
AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 57 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 l£ssere 
 
 
 Present Participle. 
 
 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 
 ess^ndo 
 
 
 
 stato 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect, 
 
 
 Preterite. Future. 
 
 sono 
 
 e,ra 
 
 
 fui 
 
 sar9 
 
 se,i 
 
 eri 
 
 
 fosti sarai 
 
 1 
 
 era 
 
 
 fu 
 
 sara 
 
 siamo 
 
 eravamo 
 
 fummo saremo 
 
 si§te 
 
 eravate 
 
 
 foste sarete 
 
 sono 
 
 §rano 
 
 
 furono saranno 
 
 ( 
 
 :ONDITIONAL. 
 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 
 sar§i 
 
 
 sii ( 
 
 sia), be (thou) 
 
 
 saresti 
 
 
 siate, be (you) 
 
 
 sar§bbe 
 
 
 
 
 
 saremmo 
 
 
 
 
 
 sareste 
 
 
 
 
 
 sarfbbero 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 
 sia 
 
 
 
 fossi 
 
 
 sia 
 
 
 
 fossi 
 
 
 sia 
 
 
 
 fosse 
 
 
 siamo 
 
 
 
 fossimo 
 
 
 siate 
 
 
 
 fpste 
 
 
 siano 1 
 
 
 
 fossero 
 
 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 Avere 
 
 
 
 Present Participle. 
 
 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 
 av§ndo 
 
 
 
 avuto 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 Present 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 
 Future. Conditional 
 
 ho 
 
 aveva 2 
 
 ebbi 
 
 
 avrp avre, i * 
 
 hai 
 
 avevi 
 
 avesti 3 
 
 
 avrai avresti 
 
 ha 
 
 aveva 
 
 §bbe 
 
 
 avra avr^bbe 
 
 abbiamo 
 
 avevamo 
 
 avemmo 
 
 
 avremo avremmo 
 
 avete 
 
 avevate 
 
 aveste 
 
 
 avrete avreste 
 
 hanno 
 
 avevano 
 
 §bbero 
 
 
 avranno avrfbbero 
 
 1 Sieno is also used. 
 
 2 These forms are regular. 
 
 3 This and the first and second plural are regular. 
 
 These forms are regular, averfi being contracted into avrei, etc. 
 Cf. 174 and 177. 
 
5* 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 abbi 
 abbiate 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 abbia 
 
 abbi (abbia) 
 abbia 
 abbiamo 
 abbiate 
 abbiano 
 
 Imperfect. 1 
 
 avessi 
 
 avessi 
 
 avesse 
 
 avessimo 
 
 aveste 
 
 avessero 
 
 75. Each of these verbs forms its compound tenses 
 by compounding with itself. 
 
 Sono stato qui. I have been here. 
 
 Sono state qui le Sue sore,lle? Have your sisters been here? 
 
 Aveva avuto il denaro. He had had the money. 
 
 Use of Auxiliary Verbs. 
 
 76. Avere + the past participle forms the compound 
 tenses of all transitive and of most intransitive verbs. 
 Following is a synopsis of the compound tenses of 
 mostrare : 
 
 avere mostrato, to have shown. 
 ave,ndo mostrato, having shown, 
 ho mostrato, / hare shown, etc. 
 aveva mostrato, / had shown , etc. 
 avr§ mostrato, I shall have shown, 
 
 etc. 
 avre,i mostrato, / should have 
 
 shown, etc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Past indefinite, abbia mostrato, / may have shown, etc. 
 Pluperfect. avessi mostrato, / might havi shown, etc. 
 
 77. Essere + the past participle forms the compound 
 tenses of all reflexive and reciprocal verbs and of some 
 
 1 Which is regular throughout. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Past participle. 
 Past indefinite. 
 Pluperfect. 
 Future anterior. 
 
 Conditional anterior. 
 
AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 50 
 
 intransitives. The passive voice of transitive verbs 
 is also formed from §'ssere-Lthe past participle. 
 
 Following arc synopses of a passive verb and of the 
 compound tenses of an intransitive which takes e'ssere: 
 (For reflexive verbs, see 102.) 
 
 (a) Model passive verb: 
 
 Infinitive. e'ssere amato, to be loved. 
 
 Present participle. ess^ndo amato, being loved. 
 
 Past participle. esse,ndo stato amato, having been 
 
 loved. 
 
 Present. 
 Imperfect. 
 Preterite. 
 Future. 
 
 INDICATIVK. 
 
 sono amato, / am loved, etc. 
 §ra amato, / was loved, etc. 
 fui amato, / was loved, etc. 
 sar$ amato, / shall be loved, etc. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 sii (sia) amato, be thou loved; siate 
 amato, be ye {yon) loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present. sia amato,' / may be loved, etc. 
 
 Imperfect. fossi amato, / mightbe loved, etc. 
 
 (b) Model intransitive compounding with e'ssere: 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Past participle. 
 
 Past indefinite. 
 Pluperfect. 
 Past anterior. 
 Future anterior. 
 Conditional anterior 
 
 §'ssere andato, to have gone. 
 esse.ndo andato, having '/our. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 sono andato, / have gone, etc. 
 e,ra andato, / had gone, etc. 
 fui andato, / had gone, etc. 
 sari) andato, / shall have gone, etc. 
 sare,i andato, / should have gone, 
 etc. 
 
60 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Past indefinite. sia andato, / may have gone, etc. 
 
 Pluperfect. fossi andato, / might have gone, etc. 
 
 Remarks, (i) It will be observed that g'ssere is 
 more frequent than the English "to be", although it 
 is not used to express the progressive present, English 
 " I am showing", etc., which is to be translated simply 
 mostro. 1 
 
 (2) A past participle used with §ssere to form the 
 passive always agrees with the subject of the verb. 
 If the verb be intransitive by nature (compounding 
 with §ssere in the sense of "to have") it also agrees 
 with the subject. In the case of reflexive or recip- 
 rocal verbs it may, but does not always, agree. (Cf. 
 103 and 114.) 
 
 |) molto amata. She is much beloved. 
 
 Sono partiti. They have departed. 
 
 Ci siamo amati. We have loved one another. 
 
 Auxiliary with Intransitive Verbs. 
 
 78. All really transitive verbs, i.e., all verbs that 
 require a direct object to complete their meaning, 
 form their compound tenses with avere, and have a 
 passive voice formed from §ssere. All reflexive -or 
 reciprocal verbs form their compound tenses with 
 §'ssere. (Cf. 102.) All really intransitive verbs, i.e., 
 verbs which cannot take a direct object and which 
 have no passive voice, form their compound tenses 
 with §ssere, with the exception of the verbs: 
 
 1 Stare and andare, however, are sometimes used to express the 
 progressive action. Cf. 81 (a) and (J) (1). 
 
AUXILIARY VKRBS. 6l 
 
 desinare, to dine. sbadigliare, to yawn. 
 
 dormire, to sleep. sonnecchiare, to sjumber, doze, 
 
 passeggiare, to walk. sternutare, to sneeze. 
 
 79. The commonest necessarily intransitive verbs 
 which always take §'ssere are : 
 
 andare , to go . morire , to die . 
 
 arrivare, to arrive. nascere, to be born, 
 
 avvenire, to happen. parere, to appear. 
 
 cadere, to fall. pervenire, to arrive. 
 
 comparire, to appear. rimanere, to remain. 
 
 cdrrere, to run. riuscire, to succeed. 
 
 divenire, to become. uscire, to go out. 
 
 venire, to come. 
 
 (a) A certain number of intransitive verbs com- 
 pound sometimes with avere and sometimes with §ssere, 
 the general distinction being that they take avere when 
 action is denoted, while §ssere denotes the state or 
 condition resulting from action. With avere the verb 
 has usually an object, often an infinitive, to complete 
 its meaning, with §ssere it has not. 
 
 80. Verbs which take either avere or §'ssere are : 
 camminare, to walk. partire, to depart, divide, 
 cessare, to cease. passare, to pass. 
 crescere, to grow. perire, to perish. 
 degenerare, to degenerate. ritornare, to return. 
 dimorare, to dwell. scappare, to escape. 
 fuggire, to flee. scendere, to descend. 
 giungere, to arrive. succ^dere, to succeed, happen. 
 invecchiare, to grow old. tacere, to be silent. 
 
 vivere, to live. 
 
 La gu§rra § cessata. The war has ceased. 
 
 La gu§rra ha cessato di devastare i paesi. The war has 
 
 ceased to devastate the lands. 
 
62 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Other Verbs Used as Auxiliaries. 
 
 81. Other verbs sometimes used instead of §ssere for 
 English "to be" are: 
 
 (a) Stare, "to stand", which always expresses a 
 state, frequently a state of health. 
 
 Stava parlando. I was talking. 
 Come sta ? How are you, how do you do? 
 Sta male. He is not well. 
 
 Stare per or §ssere per (followed by an infinitive) means 
 "to be about to do a thing". 
 
 Sto per mostrarlo. I am just going to show it. 
 
 (b) Venire, "to come", which is sometimes used in 
 the formation of the simple tenses of the passive 1 : 
 
 L'ombre.llo venne trovato. The umbrella was found. 
 
 (c) Rimanere, "to remain", is used like venire, but 
 less frequently: 
 
 Rimango arrestato. I am arrested ( = 1 remain in a 
 state of arrest). 
 
 (d) Andare, 2 "to go", is used to express: 
 (i) A state or condition: 
 
 Che andate cercando ? What are you looking for? 
 (Literally, "What do you go seeking?") 
 
 (2) Duty or obligation: 
 
 Non va detto cosi. That must not be said, it cannot be 
 so expressed. 
 
 Se aveva fattob§ne,andava incorragito. If he had dene 
 well he ought to have been encouraged. 
 
 1 Venire expresses the action indicated by the principal verb more 
 than does fssere, and is often preferred to it in elegant style. Neither 
 venire nor rimanere are ever used in the compound tenses. II libro 
 § venuto trovato, for § stato trovato, would be barbarous. 
 
 2 Notice that, like stare, andare when it expresses a state takes 
 the present participle. 
 
AUXILIARY VERBS. 63 
 
 L' amicizia va coltivata con tutta la possibile delicatezza. 
 1/ amore va superato cglla forza. Frienclsliip must be cul- 
 tivated with all possible delicacy. Love must be con- 
 quered by force. 
 
 82. Dovere, 'to owe", potere, 'to be able", volere, 
 "to wish", fare, 'to do", "make", and sometimes 
 sapere, "to know", must be classed as modal auxil- 
 iaries, since they have, when followed by an infinitive, 
 a sort of auxiliary function. "Ought", 'should", 
 "must", etc., are rendered by the appropriate tenses 
 of dovere; "may", 'might", 'can", 'could", by 
 those of potere; 'will", 'would", when they express 
 volition, not simple futurity, by those of volere ; ' can ", 
 "could", etc., by those of sapere. These verbs are all 
 irregular, 1 but not defective as are the English modal 
 auxiliaries, so that shades of meaning, as well as time 
 of action, may be more exactly rendered by them than 
 by the English equivalents 2 : 
 
 D§vo partire. I ought to go, must go (in the present). 
 
 Dovr§i partire. I ought to go (which does not mean " I 
 must go ", and is less precise as to time than devo partire) 3 . 
 
 Doveva partire. I had to go. 
 
 Avr§i dovuto partire. I ought to have gone. 
 
 Pgsso partire ? May I go ? 
 
 Vgglio partire. I will go. 
 
 Non so, nuotare. I cannot swim. 
 
 II bambino non sapeva ancora discorrere. The child 
 could not yet talk. 
 
 1 See Table of Irregular Verbs. 
 
 2 Compare the German modal auxiliaries kbnnen. mbgen. etc., 
 which are also complete in their conjugations. 
 
 3 One would say devo partire perhaps on rising to go, dovrei par- 
 tire without going immediately. 
 
64 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Remark. The same idea of ability rendered in the 
 last two examples by sapere is sometimes idiomatically 
 expressed by g'ssere bugno a: 
 
 Sono bugna a sonare il pianofgrte. I can play the 
 piano. 
 
 83. Fare, "to do", "to make", and lasciare, "to 
 let", are auxiliaries in such expressions as: Farg fare 
 un abito, "I am going to have a coat made"; lascia 
 fare, "let it be done", "let it be"; V hg fatto fare, "I 
 have had it done". 
 
 Remarks, (i) Fare is used to express the idea 
 rendered in English by the verb "to be" in such ex- 
 pressions as molto tempo fa, "it is a long time ago": 
 fa bgl tgmpo, "it is beautiful weather". But g'ssere 
 is used in: § 1' una, "it is one o'clock" ; sono le undici, 
 "it is eleven o'clock". 
 
 (2) "There is", "there are", must be translated 
 where §cco is not used by vi e, vi sono, c' 1 ^, ci sono : 
 
 Vi sono tre bottiglie. There are three bottles. C'e 
 molto da fare. There is a great deal to do. 
 
 Idiomatic Uses of Avere. 
 
 84. Avere is used in the following expressions where 
 the English uses the verb "to be": 
 
 avere bisogna (di) 2 , to be avere freddo, to be cold. 
 
 in need of, to need. avere paura, to be afraid. 
 
 avere fame, to be hungry. avere vergogna, to be ashamed. 
 
 avere sete, to be thirsty. avere qualche cosa, to be the 
 
 avere caldo, to be warm. matter with. 
 
 Avevate paura? Were you afraid? Ng, aveva fame. No, 
 
 I was hungry. 
 
 1 For ci, cf. 36, note 4. 2 Cf. 212 (2). 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 65 
 
 C9s' ha? Non I19 nie,nte. What is wrong with you? 
 Nothing. 
 
 Also: 
 
 (a) In expressions denoting age: 
 
 Che eta ha? How old is he? Ha s§tte anni. He is 
 seven. 
 
 (6) With da and an infinitive to express obligation, 
 = " to have to " : 
 
 Hg da parlare. I must speak. 
 
 Aveva da partire. He had to go. 
 
 {Exercises XIV and XV.) 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. DISJUNCTIVE PERSONAL 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 85. There are in Italian two kinds of personal pro- 
 nouns: (1) the tonic or stressed; (2) the atonic or 
 unstressed. The tonic may be separated in the sen- 
 tence from the verb, or may appear without a verb. 
 This fact that they are not joined to the verb has given 
 them the name of disjunctive, absolute, or independent 
 pronouns. The atonic forms are so -dependent on the 
 verb that they always appear joined to it. They are 
 therefore called conjunctive or dependent personal pro- 
 nouns. I 
 
 Remark. The nature of these two classes of pronouns 1 ] 
 may be made clearer by the following examples: Mgstro, 
 
 1 Which are simply the different forms of one and the same Latin 
 word, developed under different circumstances, me emphasized 
 giving me, unemphatic mi. Cf. the different pronunciation of 
 English "me" and "him" in "give it to me", "give it to him", 
 and "give it to me, not to him". 
 
66 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 " I am showing" . Chi mostra? "Who is showing?" Io! 
 Io mgstro. "I! I am showing." Che C9sa mgstra? 
 "What are you showing?' Mgstro me, 1 "I am showing 
 myself." All of these pronouns, emphasized in English, 
 are rendered in Italian by the disjunctive forms. But in 
 Mi Bistro, " I am showing myself" ; Che co,sa fai?" What 
 are you doing?' Mi ti m9Stro, "I am showing myself to 
 you", there is no stress laid upon the pronoun, therefore 
 in Italian the conjunctive forms are used. 
 
 Disjunctive Personal Pronouns. 
 
 86. The disjunctive pronouns are 2 : 
 
 io, I noi, we, us 
 
 me, me 
 
 tu, thou voi, you 
 
 te, thee 
 
 egli, 3 lui, esso, he eglino, 6 loro, essi, they 
 
 lui, esso, him loro, essi, them 
 
 ella, 4 le,i, essa, 5 she (you) elleno, 5 loro, esse, they 
 
 le,i, essa, 5 her (you) loro, esse, them 
 
 se, himself, herself, themselves 
 
 87. These forms are always more or less emphatic. 
 They are used: 
 
 (a) As the subject of a verb. 
 
 (b) As the object either emphasized or governed by 
 a preposition. 
 
 1 Or me stesso. 
 
 2 The personal pronouns are the only real declension forms left 
 in Italian. 
 
 3 Sometimes shortened into ei or gli. 
 
 4 Sometimes shortened to la: Ti raccomando una bupna s^dia. — Se 
 la vi sara. Be careful to get a good carriage. — If there is one. 
 
 5 Ella, l§i, are used for " you", but essa is not. 
 Seldom used in modern Italian. 
 
DISJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 67 
 
 (c) Absolutely, ie., standing alone: 
 
 Chi § stato li ? Who has been there ? 
 
 Io vi sono stato. I have been there. 
 
 Chi ha visto? Whom did you see? (Literally: "Have 
 you seen"?) 
 
 H9 visto lui e l§i. I have seen him and her. 
 
 V§nga con me. Come with me. Io ! Ma che pensa ? 
 I ! But what are you thinking of ? 
 
 Remarks on the Disjunctive Pronouns. 
 
 88. Since the Italian verb indicates by its ending the 
 number and person of its subject, a pronominal sub- 
 ject is usually not expressed. 1 Where it is expressed 
 there is always more or less emphasis. (See 85, 
 Remark, and 87, with examples under both.) 
 
 89. The personal pronoun agrees with its antecedent 
 in person, gender, and number. Since all Italian 
 nouns are either masculine or feminine (39), a pro- 
 noun referring to an inanimate object must be of the 
 gender of that object: 
 
 E i mied abiti, dove sono? And my clothes ? Where are 
 they? Essi sono qui. They are here. 2 
 
 90. A pronoun having two antecedents of different 
 gender is put in the masculine plural: 
 
 Dove sono la penna e il lapis? Essi sono sulla tavola. 
 
 91. The pronouns of the second person w T ere origi- 
 nally tu, "thou", for the singular, and voi, 'ye", 
 
 1 The antecedent is supposed to be as clearly pointed out by the 
 verb as by a pronoun. 
 
 2 It is not often necessary to express a pronoun referring to an 
 inanimate object. Egli, ella may be used as well as esso, essa, 
 though strictly speaking the former should rather refer to persons. 
 The latter refer to both persons and things. 
 
68 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 "you", for the plural. At present the following are 
 
 in use: 
 
 tu 
 
 q- V9i Plur ! V9i 
 
 Sin S- Ella 1 JLoro 1 
 
 [Up 
 
 Of these tu (generally to be translated 'you") is 
 used in addressing a near relative, an intimate friend, 
 or a child; also in elevated or poetical language and 
 to express anger or scorn ; voi as a plural in addressing 
 two or more relatives, friends, or children, also as a 
 singular somewhat less familiar than tu yet less formal 
 than Ella, Le,i, used, for instance, in addressing ser- 
 vants. Its use is also frequent in poetry, and in the 
 south of Italy it is more frequently employed than 
 Ella even in speaking with strangers. Excepting in 
 the south the ordinary form of address is Ella, plural 
 Loro. These forms were originally of the third per- 
 son, representing some such antecedent as Signoria, 
 Vossignoria, "Your Highness", Eccell§nza, Altezza, 
 etc. All such words being feminine, the pronoun was 
 naturally feminine. 2 (Cf. 89.) 
 
 Vossignoria vuol cenare? Your Highness wishes to sup ? 
 
 Ella § servita. She is served (i.e., "you are served"). 
 
 (a) Ella is the proper grammatical form in this case, 
 but Le,i, really a dative form, has come into common 
 use, supplanting Ella, especially in conversation. 
 
 Loro (Lor signori, Lor signore) is the corresponding 
 plural : 
 
 Loro verranno. You will come. 
 
 1 Also written with a small initial, ella, lei, loro. 
 
 2 An adjective or participle qualifying Ella, Lei takes the gender 
 of the person represented by that pronoun. Thus one would say 
 in speaking to a man: L§i § troppo bu9no {not bu9na). 
 
DISJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 69 
 
 This use of the third for the second person corre- 
 sponds in origin to our own formal usage, but is much 
 more extended and not really formal now. It is the 
 ordinary form of address and the only one the for- 
 eigner is likely ever to hear addressed to him or t< > need 
 when speaking. He should learn to recognize all 
 the forms and the shades of meaning conveyed by 
 them, but should in practice confine himself to the 
 Ella, L§i, Loro forms: 
 
 E tu figliucilo mio, che diventerai? And what will be- 
 come of you, my son? figli mi§i, voi che siete stati la 
 mia speranza. O my children, you who have been my 
 hope. 
 
 Come state, poverino? How do you do, you poor man? 
 
 E L^i, 1 Signor Bardi, come sta? And how do you do, 
 Mr. B.? 
 
 Stanno bene Loro tutti? Are you all well? 
 
 92. Me, te, se are often compounded with the prepo- 
 sition con: meco, "with me", seco, l by himself" 2 , 
 etc. Occasionally con is placed also before this com- 
 pound 3 : 
 
 Vi§ni meco (con meco). Come with me. 
 
 (a) Esso may also be used redundantly with meco, teco, 
 seco; (con) noi, voi, lui, lei, loro: 
 
 Restate con esso noi. Stay with us. 
 
 E con esso lui se n' and§ nel giardino. And he went 
 away with him into the garden. 
 
 1 This pronoun is omitted under the same circumstances as the 
 others, the context showing whether the verb is to be translated 
 with "you", "he", or "she" as subject. 
 
 2 Seco may = con lui: Ho inteso, parlerQ seco. I understand, I 
 shall speak with him. Corresponding forms of the plural are the 
 rare, poetical nosco and vpsco (compounds not of noi and voi, but 
 of the archaic nos, vos. 
 
 3 Cf. Spanish conmigo, contigo, consigo. 
 
70 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (b) Altri is frequently added to noi, voi, in speak- 
 ing of a whole class of persons 1 : 
 
 Venite meco voialtri. Come with me, all of you. 
 
 Noi altri (or noialtri) Romani siamo altieri. We Ro- 
 mans are proud. 
 
 93. The reflexive se is objective only. The subject 
 forms "I myself", "we ourselves", etc., are rendered 
 by adding the adjectives stesso or medesimo to the 
 pronoun : 
 
 Andr§ io medesimo. I shall go myself. 
 
 Loro stessi sono qui. They themselves are here. 
 
 Ma signore, Loro medesime l'hanno detto! But, ladies! 
 you said so yourselves. 
 
 But: 
 
 L' ha fatto da se. He (she) did it by himself (herself). 
 
 Sono partiti da se. They have gone away by themselves 
 (or: of their own free will). 
 
 94. "It", the subject of an impersonal verb, never 
 being in the slightest degree emphatic, is not expressed 
 in Italian 2 : 
 
 Pigve, non § vero? 3 It is raining, isn't it? 
 
 95. Although these pronouns have distinct case 
 
 1 Cf . Spanish nosotros, vosotros, now meaning simply "we", 
 "you". The "we'uns", "you'uns" of the Tennessee moun- 
 taineer might also be adduced. 
 
 2 But a somewhat less impersonal "it" may be rendered by gli 
 (86, foot-note 3): Gli e teco cortesia lesser villano (Orlando Furioso, 
 27, 77). "It is courtesy to be rude with thee" (literally, "it, the 
 being rude with thee, is courtesy"). Ella (la) is also used in a sort 
 of neuter sense: In verita, ella § cosi. 'In truth it is so". La 
 ser§bbe b§lla. "That would be nice " (sarcastically) . 
 
 3 This expression, non § vero, literally "is it not true", is con- 
 stantly used in Italian. It is a mere call for assent on the part of 
 the hearer, which call is rendered in English by repeating the verb. 
 
DISJUNCTIVK PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 7 1 
 
 forms for the subjective and objective, the objective 
 
 is often used as subject. It is so used : 
 
 (a) With the verb e>sere in phrases where there 
 might be some uncertainty as to the construction, as 
 in the case of predicate pronouns and where the sub- 
 ject is really understood with the verbal form and 
 then repeated for the sake of emphasis (redundant con- 
 struction) . Observe also the almost constant use of 
 Lei, "you", as a nominative (91 (a)) : 
 
 Costui che § un altro me. That one who is my other 
 
 self. 
 
 Esso credeva ch' io fossi te. He thought I was you. 
 
 Ma te, tu s§i piu giovane di me. But you are younger 
 than I. 
 
 Tanto i suo,i frat§lli che lui sono molto cortesi. Both he 
 and his brothers are very polite. 
 
 Sta b§ne L§i ? Are you well ? 
 
 But where there is no uncertainty as to the con- 
 struction, i.e., where there is a verb expressed with 
 only one pronoun near it, the construction is like the 
 English one: 
 
 Sono io. 1 It is I. Sono essi. It is they. 
 
 (b) Absolutely, i.e., where there is no verb expressed, 
 with the pronouns of the third person only : 
 
 Sfortunata Le,i! You unfortunate one! 
 Studiosi come lui non conosco altri. I know no one else 
 as studious as he (is). 
 
 (Exercises XVI and XVII.) 
 
 1 Contrast French c'est moi. The objective for subjective is 
 oftener used in conversation than in writing. The substitution is 
 oftenest made in the forms for the third person. Cf. below, (b). 
 
12 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. REFLEXIVE 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 96. Pronominal particles or conjunctive personal 
 pronouns, as their name indicates, cannot be separated 
 from the verb of which they are the object, either 
 direct or indirect, without a preposition. 
 
 The forms found correspond to the unstressed ac- 
 cusative and dative cases. They are : 
 
 mi = disjunctive me, a me, me, myself, to me, to my- 
 
 self 
 
 te = te, a te, thee, thyself, to thee, to thy- 
 
 self ' 
 
 lo 1 = " lui, esso, him, it 
 
 gli 5=3 " a lui, to him 
 
 la = " l§i, essa, her (you) 
 
 le <= " a le,i, to her (to you) 
 
 si «= " se, a se, himself, herself, themselves, 
 
 to himself, to herself, to themselves 
 
 ci 2 = " noi, a noi, us, ourselves, to us, to our- 
 
 selves 
 
 vi = " voi, a voi, you, yourself, yourselves, 
 
 to you, to yourself, to yourselves 
 
 gliorli 3 = " loro, them, to them (masculine) 
 
 le = " loro, them, to them (feminine) 
 
 loro 4 = " a loro, to them 
 
 1 II is sometimes used in place of this lo, especially in older 
 Italian and in poetry. Both forms must be carefully distinguished 
 from the article il, lo. 
 
 2 Ne is sometimes used instead of this ci, especially in older 
 Italian. 
 
 3 Gli is the indirect object, li the direct, but gli is often used 
 instead of li before a vowel, a liquid consonant, h, or s impure. 
 
 * The right of this form to be called conjunctive may be dis- 
 
CONJUNCTI YK PKRSONAT. I'ROXOIXS. 73 
 
 97. To these must be added the pronominal ad- 
 verbs: ne, 1 of it, of him, of her, of them, some, any, 
 hence, thence; ci, 2 vi, 2 ' 3 to it, here, there. 
 
 Mi vede. He sees me. Mi lavo. I am washing my- 
 self. Mi da un fiore. He gives me ( = to me) a flower. 
 Ti dicono. They tell thee. Lo vedo. I see him. Gli do. 
 il calamaio. I give him ( = to him) the ink-stand. Le 
 parlavi ? Did you speak to her? Si vede. He sees him- 
 self, he is seen, people see him. 4 Si parlano. They are 
 talking to one another. Ci cercano. They are looking 
 for us. Vi vedeva di rado. I seldom saw you. Ne ho 
 (orn'hq). I have some of it. Vi§ (orv' §, c J e'). Thereis 
 (some). 
 
 N.B. To be emphasized these pronouns must all 
 be replaced by the corresponding disjunctive forms, 
 as: vede me non te, "he sees me, not you"; partir9 
 con lui. 
 
 Remarks on the Conjunctive Pronouns. 
 
 98. (1) Lo 5 and ne, and less often other conjunc- 
 tives, are sometimes used where in English they would 
 be pleonastic: 
 
 puted. It must always follow the verb (cf. 99V It is loro dis- 
 junctive, but used without a preposition: Gli dico, or (more em- 
 phatic) dico loro, or (still more emphatic) dico a lpro, "I tell 
 them". 
 
 1 = French en (<inde). 
 
 ? In function as in meaning both forms = French y. 
 
 3 All the monosyllabic forms are subject to elision, lo, gli, la, le 
 (these last also when =" you", "to you") under the same circum- 
 stances as when articles; mi, ti, si, vi, ne before any vowel, ci only 
 before e and i. Cf. 36. 
 
 4 Cf. 104 and 105. 
 
 5 This lp is one of the very few neuter forms left to the Italian. 
 It may represent a whole clause: Sperava che verr^bbe ma non lp 
 
74 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 § stanco? Are you tired? Lo sono, I am. Ne abbiamo 
 dei libri. 1 We have some books. La t&Vola Pho vista. 
 
 I have seen the table. 
 
 (2) The pronominal particles are often used with 
 the articles in place of possessives (cf. 137 (2)) : 
 
 Mi duQle la t§sta. My head aches. 
 
 Le gettai le braccia al cgllo. I threw my arms around 
 her neck. 
 
 Si ruppe una gamba. He has broken his leg. 
 
 Mi § mcjrto un amico. A friend of mine has died, I 
 have lost a friend. 
 
 (3) Two particles, one of which is really a dative, 
 are often used together where in English a preposition 
 would be necessary : 
 
 Glielo 2 cercherg. I will look for it for you. 
 
 (4) Ci, vi, and ne as pronouns are to be distinguished 
 from ci, vi, ne as adverbs 3 by the context: 
 
 Ci vede. He sees us. Ci va. He is going there. 
 N' ha. He has some. Ne vi§ne. He is coming from 
 there. 
 
 (5) A verb maybe accompanied by two conjunctive 
 
 pronouns only when one is a direct, the other an in- 
 
 sapeva, "I hoped you would come, but did not know it" (i.e., that 
 you would come). La, le, and una are also neuter in idiomatic 
 phrases where they represent an indefinite object not expressed: 
 Darla a gamba, "to run away"; Ha fatto una delle sue, "he has 
 committed one of his ordinary blunders", "that is like him"; 
 Non ce ne perdonava una, "he treated us all alike". The appar- 
 ently feminine form is explained by comparison with the Latin 
 neuter plural. 
 
 1 The repetition here gives emphasis. The Italian phrase may 
 mean much more than the English — "we have indeed some books, 
 yes indeed, we have some". In the second example lp is really an 
 adverb. 
 
 2 Cf. 101. 
 
 3 Etymologically the words arc identical. 
 
CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 75 
 
 direct object. Where there are two direct or two in- 
 direct objects the disjunctive forms must be used: 
 
 Lo cercava. I was looking for him. 
 
 Cercava lui e l§i. I was looking for him and for her. 1 
 
 Gli regalai una penna. I made him a present of a pen. 
 
 Regalai dei libri a lui e a l§i. 
 
 Sentence Structure with Conjunctive Pronouns. 
 
 99. Conjunctive pronouns immediately accompany 
 the verb on which they depend. With the exception 
 of loro they immediately precede it unless that verb 
 be a positive imperative, an infinitive, a present parti- 
 ciple, or a past participle used without an auxiliary, 3 
 in all of which four cases they follow and are joined to 
 the verbal form, i.e., the two are written as one word. 
 The word §cco, "behold!", 'there is", etc., is treated 
 also as an affirmative imperative, the particle being 
 compounded with it in the regular w r ay. Loro always 
 follows the verb, but is never joined to it. 
 
 In the compounds: 
 
 (a) The infinitive loses its final vowel, or if it ends 
 in -rre it may lose its final syllable : 
 
 Voleva mostrarlo. He wanted to show it. 
 
 Vedo dei fiori e V9glio c§rli (for co,rre, contracted form of 
 c^gliere). I see some flowers and I want to pick them. 
 
 1 " Him " and " her " are somewhat emphasized, otherwise we 
 should use "them", representing both. 
 
 2 With the negative imperative the order is not reversed: Npn 
 lo dire, "do not (thou) tell it". Cf. model regular verbs, p. 51 
 and note 4. 
 
 3 The same construction is sometimes extended to other verbal 
 forms accented on the last syllable: Parlogli, "he spoke to him": 
 temerollo, "I shall fear it"; diranne, "they will tell it" (diranno 
 having lost its last syllable and remaining an oxytone). 
 
76 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (b) The conjunctive pronouns except gli (and glie = 
 gli or le, for which see 101) double their initial con- 
 sonant when the verbal form to which they are added 
 is a monosyllable or a polysyllable ending in an 
 accented vowel, 1 as cominciQllo, "he began it" ; dhxmi 
 (di' from dire, "to say", "to tell"), "tell (thou) me" 2 : 
 
 Mgstragli il giornale. Show (to) him the newspaper. 
 Ijxcolo. Here it is. 
 
 E mostratolo vi§ni qua a parlarmi. And when you have 
 shown it (literally, "and it having been shown") come 
 here to talk to me. 
 
 Mostrandolo se,i stato obbedi§nte. In showing it you 
 were obedient. 
 
 Dammi la mano, vcjglio condurti 3 a spasso. Give me 
 your hand, I will take you to walk. 
 
 Parliamo loro. Let us talk to them. 
 
 Remark. A conjunctive pronoun depending upon a 
 dependent transitive infinitive may either be united to 
 the infinitive or may precede the principal verb: 
 
 Desidero sentirlo or lo desidero sentire. I desire to hear 
 him. (Since an intransitive verb cannot take a direct ob- 
 ject, it follows that where the dependent infinitive is in- 
 transitive the object always belongs to the principal verb. 
 Therefore phrases like "I see him coming" must be trans- 
 lated lo vedo venire, or lo vedo venendo, or lo vedo che 
 vie,ne, but never vedo venirlo.) But there is not always 
 this freedom of choice; the following cases must be distin- 
 guished : 
 
 (a) When the principal verb is impersonal the pronoun 
 must always go with the infinitive: 
 
 1 This doubling in composition is not confined to this compound. 
 Da + ci = dacci, etc. 
 
 2 In these as in all the above compounds the verbal form is ac- 
 cented as usual, the pronoun unaccented. 
 
 3 =condurre tje. 
 
CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 77 
 
 Bisogna sentirlo. One must hear him (not lo bisogna 
 sentire). 
 
 (b) Where in Italian a preposition must stand between 
 the principal verb and its dependent infinitive, the pro- 
 noun must go with the infinitive: 
 
 Andr§ a farlo. I shall go to do it (not lo andr§ a fare). 
 
 (c) Where the principal verb has already a pronominal 
 object of its own it takes also that of the dependent infini- 
 tive, which it governs directly 1 : 
 
 Me 1' ha visto fare. He has seen me do it. 
 
 (d) In case the principal verb is fare and the dependent 
 infinitive has a pronominal direct object, the object of fare 
 is made indirect and placed before it, and the infinitive 
 keeps its object attached to it: 
 
 Gli fa l^ggerlo. He makes him read it. 2 
 
 (e) Lasciare, sentire, udire, and vedere may also take 
 this construction, and lasciare usually does: 
 
 Gli lascer9 vederlo. I shall let him see him. 
 
 ioo. Where two conjunctive pronouns accompany 
 one verb 3 the indirect object precedes the direct: 
 
 Mi vi mostrava. He was showing you to me. Mostra- 
 tomivi. Having pointed you out to me. 
 
 Exception : Infringements of this rule are not un- 
 common. Loro regularly comes last: 
 
 Vi mostrava loro. He showed you to them. 
 
 Mostratovi loro. Having pointed you out to them. 
 
 Me gli accostai. I drew near him. 
 
 io i. Mi, ti, si, ci, vi, when they are followed by lo, 
 la, li, le, ne, change their i to e. Gli and le, 'to him' 
 
 1 I.e., without a preposition between it and the infinitive. Cf. 
 ib) above. 
 
 2 This is an extension of the principle that a transitu v verb can 
 have only one direct object, lfggere being in the exam] le the direct 
 object of fa. This construction is found also in French. 
 
 3 Cf. 98 (5). 
 
78 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 and "to her" ("to you"), before the same forms be- 
 come glie, and are written as one word with the other 
 particle : 
 
 Te lo mgstro; c§ lo mostrava; ve ne parlo; gliene par- 
 ler^ 1 ; egli me li aveva mostrati. 
 
 Exercises XVIII and XIX. 
 
 Reflexive Verbs. 
 102. Any transitive verb may be made reflexive by 
 giving it throughout the appropriate conjunctive pro- 
 nouns, i.e., those of the same person as the subject. 
 Following is a synopsis of a reflexive verb : 
 
 Infinitive. vestirsi, to dress one's self 
 
 Present participle. vest§ndosi 
 Past participle. vestitosi 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 (io) mi v§sto, I dress myself 
 
 
 (tu) ti v§sti, thou dresses.t thyself 
 
 
 (egli) si v§ste, he dresses himself 
 
 
 (noi) ci vestiamo, we dress our- 
 
 
 selves 
 
 
 (voi) vi vestite, you dress yourselves 
 
 
 (§ssi) si v§stono, they dress them- 
 
 
 selves 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 mi vestiva, etc. 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 mi vestii, etc. 
 
 Future. 
 
 mi vestir§, etc. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 mi vestir§i, etc. 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 
 v^stiti 
 
 
 vestitevi 
 
 1 The context will in such cases show whether the meaning is 
 " I shall speak to him about it" or " I shall speak to her about it". 
 
REFLEXIVE VERBS. 
 
 79 
 
 Present. 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Past indefinite. 
 Pluperfect. 
 Past anterior. 
 Future anterior. 
 Conditional. 
 
 Past indefinite. 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 mi ve,sta, etc. 
 mi vestissi, etc. 
 
 Compound Tenses. 1 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 mi sono vestito, etc. 
 mi 2 §ra vestito, etc. 
 mi fui vestito, etc. 
 mi sar§ vestito, etc. 
 mi sar§i vestito, etc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 mi sia vestito, etc. 
 mi fossi vestito, etc. 
 
 Remarks on Reflexive Verbs. 
 
 103. As has been already observed (77), all re- 
 flexive verbs form their compound tenses from §'ssere + 
 the past participle. The past participle agrees often- 
 est with the direct object (which is of course of the 
 same number and gender as the subject) 3 : 
 
 La signora mi disse che s* §ra alzata alle se,tte. The 
 lady told me that she had gotten up at seven o'clock. 
 
 Ess§ndosene vergognata molto la pgvera piccina. The 
 poor little girl having been much ashamed of it. 
 
 Remark. There is no distinction of form between 
 reflexive and reciprocal verbs, but V un V altro, ' one 
 another", may be added in order to avoid ambiguity: 
 
 Le dcmne s' amano le une le altre. The women love one 
 another. 
 
 1 Cf. 78 and 103. 
 
 Or m' $ra vestito. s Cf. also 114. 
 
80 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 104. The third person of the reflexive is often used 
 with (a) a passive sense; (b) an impersonal (neutral) 
 sense. 
 
 (a) In the first ease the verb is naturally always a 
 transitive one (since only a transitive may become 
 passive), and the verb agrees with its subject, si being 
 its direct object: 
 
 Questi libri si cdmprano dappertutto. These books are 
 sold everywhere (literally, " sell themselves"). 
 
 II libro che mi si di§de. The book which was given to 
 me. 
 
 (b) In the second case the verb may be and often is 
 intransitive. It has no subject expressed, and the si 
 which accompanies it, although it is not its subject, 
 may conveniently be translated 'one", 'they", 
 "people", "we": 
 
 Si dice. It is said, they say. 
 
 Se ne parla. People are talking about it. 
 
 Si ballera. There will be dancing. 
 
 Se ne va. People are leaving. 
 
 Io sperava che e-ggi si sare,bbe stati allegri insie,me. 
 I hoped that we would have been happy together 
 to-day. 
 
 105. The fact that there are these two constructions 
 with the reflexive and that they are not clearly under- 
 stood by all has given rise to a certain amount of con- 
 fusion. Where the subject follows and the si precedes 
 the verb the latter is often made singular as though si 
 
 were its subject: 
 
 Queste C9se non si pcjssono fare. These things cannot 
 be done. 
 
 Or: 
 
 Non si pu§ fare queste ce-se. 
 
REFLEXIVE VERBS. 81 
 
 (a) Or a verb in the singular may be followed by a 
 plural noun or adjective: 
 
 Quando si § costretti. When one is constrained. 
 
 Si die.de nuQve P9C0 consolanti. 1 Tliere was bad news. 
 
 (b) Si may serve with a passive to mark a change of 
 tense : 
 
 5 creduto. It is believed. Si § creduto (=§ stato credu- 
 to). It has been believed. 2 
 
 106. Many verbs are reflexive in Italian which are 
 not so in English, and there are many essentially re- 
 flexive verbs, i.e., verbs which are never used except 
 as reflexives, as pentirsi, 'to repent", accgrgersi, 'to 
 perceive", etc. Many reflexive verbs require a prepo- 
 sition to complete their meaning, as : 
 
 abituarsi a, to get accustomed to. 
 rallegrarsi di, to rejoice over, etc. 3 
 
 107. The verb andarsene, "to go away", deserves 
 special mention, as it takes two conjunctive pronouns 
 throughout : 
 
 me ne vado, I am going away. 
 
 se ne andava, he was going away. 
 
 se ne andranno, they will go away. 
 
 vatene, go (thou) away; andatevene, go (ye, you) away. 
 
 non se ne vadano, let them not go away. 
 
 ess§ndosene andati, they having gone away, etc. 
 
 (Exercises XX and XXI.) 
 
 1 Literally, "news little consoling". 
 
 2 For this curious usage cf. Moise, Regole ed Osservazioni delta 
 Lingua Italiana, §332, p. 298. 
 
 3 Cf. lists under 211 (3) and 212 (2). 
 
82 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 
 
 1 08. Adjectives and participles used as adjectives 
 agree with their nouns in number and gender. Gen- 
 erally speaking, this agreement is indicated by the 
 termination. 1 
 
 (a) An adjective or participle qualifying two or 
 more nouns of different number and gender is usually 
 made masculine plural, but it may agree only with 
 the noun nearest to it : 
 
 Signore, signori, do,nne del pgpolo, operai, ufficiali, no,nne, 
 s§rve, tutti coi ragazzi per una mano e i libretti di promo- 
 zione nell* altra, empivan la stanza d' entrata e le scale. 
 Ladies, gentlemen, women of the lower classes, workmen, 
 officials, grandmothers, servants, all holding boys by one 
 hand and the certificates of promotion in the other, filled 
 the entrance and the stairways. 
 
 II padre, i frat§lli e le sore, lie sono partite. The father, 
 brothers, and sisters have gone. 
 
 (b) A plural, noun may take two or more adjectives 
 in the singular in cases where in point of fact each 
 adjective should be accompanied by a noun in the 
 singular : 
 
 Le lingue francese e ted§sca sono lingue mode,rne. The 
 French and German languages are modern languages. 
 
 109. All adjectives (with the exception of those few 
 mentioned under 118) end in the masculine singular 
 in either o or e. Those in o have a corresponding form 
 in a, and both masculine and feminine form their plural 
 
 1 Cf. 42. 
 
ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 83 
 
 in the same way as nouns (cf. 55 and 56). They 
 thus have in all four forms. 
 
 Adjectives in e have no distinctive form for the femi- 
 nine either in the singular or the plural, i.e., they 
 distinguish by their termination the plural from the 
 singular, but not the feminine from the masculine (cf. 
 
 55): 
 
 L' u9mo g bugno. Anche la dgnna g bugna. 1 
 
 Gli ugmini sono bugni. Anche le dgnne sono buQne. 
 
 L* ugmo g prudgnte. La dgnna g prudgnte. 
 
 Gli ugmini sono prudgnti. Anche le dgnne sono pru- 
 dgnti. 
 
 Remarks, (i) Most adjectives may be used sub- 
 stantively : 
 
 I bugni non sono sgmpre felici. The good are not al- 
 ways happy. 
 
 (2) A certain number of adjectives partake also of 
 the nature of pronouns: 
 
 Ha visto le mie fotografie ? Have you seen my photo- 
 graphs ? 
 
 Alcune si, non tutte. Some, not all. 
 
 Molti ugmini. Molti lo dicono. 
 
 no. A participle used as an adjective takes the dif- 
 ferent forms of an adjective: 
 
 Sono bambini bgn amati. They are much-beloved chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Che valli ridgnti! What smiling valleys! 
 
 IJcco una ragazza trascurata. There is a neglected little 
 girl. 
 
 1 The pupil should be able to understand such examples as these 
 without translation, therefore none is given. 
 
84 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Remarks on the Participles. 
 
 in. The present participle in -ante, -ente, where 
 it has not become a noun is always an adjective and 
 so takes the forms of an adjective: 
 
 |) una ragazza amante. She is an affectionate girl. 
 
 Le ragazze sono amanti. 
 
 I derid§nti ogni cred§nza lo dicono. Those who scoff 
 at all belief say so. 
 
 (a) There is a large class of words made up of these par- 
 ticiples substantivized; as, amante, cantante, comandante, 
 rappresentante, etc. Deride, nti in the last example above 
 is almost a substantive. 
 
 112. The present participle in -ando, -endo is never 
 used as an adjective, but always with verbal force, 
 and is therefore invariable: 
 
 Ess§ndo ammalati non p^ssono andare a trovarlo. Being 
 ill ( = since they are ill) they cannot go to see him. 
 
 Dic§ndo cosi essa mi lasci^. Thus saying she left me. 
 
 113. The past participle may be either an adjective 
 or a verb: 
 
 (a) Used with §ssere (venire, rimanere — cf. 81) it 
 is a predicate adjective and as such agrees with its 
 noun, i.e., with the subject of e'ssere: 
 
 II libro vi§ne mostratq. The book is (being) shown. 
 I libri sono stati mostrati. 
 
 (b) Used with avere the past participle is a verb. 1 
 
 1 The difference of function of the participle when used with 
 these two verbs may be made clear by turning the phrase under 
 consideration into a question. Thus, taking the examples given 
 at the end of the paragraph : I have shown the books. What have 
 I done ? I have shown (which is an action) . Here arc the books 
 which I have shown. What books are these? They are the books 
 which I have shown. (No action here, "shown" qualifying 
 
ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 85 
 
 As such it may remain invariable (i.e., in the mascu- 
 line singular). 
 
 But it is evident that the action is done toihc direct 
 object of avere, so the past participle may agree with 
 that direct object. 
 
 It usually agrees with a personal pronoun preceding 
 the verb, and often with an object other than a per- 
 sonal pronoun when it precedes the verb : 
 
 H9 mostrato i libri. 1 
 
 ]j)cco i libri che ho mostrato (or mostrati). 
 
 Ifcco i libri, li ho mostrati. 2 
 
 114. The case of reflexive and reciprocal verbs is 
 somewhat different from either of those mentioned 
 above. 3 The verb is here §'ssere, which has, however, 
 an active sense. The past participle is therefore a 
 verb, not a predicate adjective, and as such it may 
 agree with a direct object preceding it. As noted 
 above, it usually does agree when this object is a 
 personal pronoun: 
 
 Ci siamo amati. We have loved one another (or our- 
 selves). 
 
 Le dgnne si sono amate. The women have loved one 
 another (or themselves). 
 
 But the reflexive pronoun is frequently not the 
 direct object: 
 
 "books", just as any other adjective might.) Taking the two 
 questions: " He is — what?" "Hehasdone — what ?" it is clear that 
 the answer to the first is a noun or adjective, that to the second a 
 verb. 
 
 1 H9 mostrati i libri is very unusual. 
 
 2 Li ho mostrato would be very unusual. It is. however, evi- 
 dent that the tendency is in Italian to make the past participle 
 with avere invariable. 
 
 3 Cf. 103. 
 
86 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ci siamo parlati. We have spoken to one another. 
 
 In this case, where there is no direct object ex- 
 pressed, the participle usually agrees with the subject 
 (or the indirect object, it would be difficult to say 
 which, since with these verbs the same person per- 
 forms and receives the action). But where there is a 
 direct object expressed the participle may agree either 
 with that or with the subject, or may remain invari- 
 able: 
 
 Ci siamo detti (detta, detto) la verita. We have told 
 one another the truth. 1 
 
 (a) The qualifiers of two or more nouns either singular 
 or plural, not of the same gender, are made masculine 
 plural : 
 
 L* ugmo e le dgnne sono venuti. The man and the 
 women have come. 
 
 II frat§llo e la sorglla sono be, Hi tutt' e due. Both the 
 brother and the sister are handsome. 
 
 Forms of Adjectives. 
 
 115. Bgllo, grande, and santo drop their final sylla- 
 ble, bugno its final vowel before a singular masculine 
 noun beginning with a consonant : 
 
 Un b§l libro. Un gran ragazzo. Un bugn cane. 
 
 San Carlo. Saint Charles. 
 
 (a) Before a singular masculine beginning with a 
 vowel bgllo becomes bgll' ; grande, grand'; santo, 
 sant' ; bugno, bugn 2 : 
 
 literally, "We have said to one another the truth". It is 
 probable that we have here a case of mental confusion, the speaker 
 not knowing what the participle qualifies. But the latitude of 
 the Italians in this matter lightens it for the foreigner. 
 
 2 Note that there is no apostrophe. Cf. 41, note 2. Compare 
 throughout the forms of the definite article. 
 
ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 87 
 
 Un bglP U91110, un grand' 1191110, un sant' uomo, un bu9n 
 amico. 
 
 (b) Before impure s or when predicated the regular 
 forms are used: 
 
 Un b§llo sps'cchio. L' u9mo 9 grande. 
 
 (c) The plural forms are: 
 
 (1) For D9I, gran, san, bu9n : b§i, grandi, santi, bu9ni. 
 
 (2) For b9ll', grand', sant', btu^n: b§gli, santi, grandi, 
 bu9ni. 
 
 (3) For b9llo, grande, santo, bu9no : b^lli, santi, grandi, 
 bu9ni. 
 
 Remarks, (i) These latter are the regular forms. 
 It will be observed that b§llo is much more irregular 
 than the others, being the only one irregular also in 
 the plural. 
 
 (2) Gran for grande also occurs in the feminine singular, 
 especially as qualifier of a noun ending in e 1 , and some- 
 times takes the place of grandi in the masculine plural: 
 
 Una gran nazione. La gran Brettagna. 
 
 La gran via. The highroad. I gran casi. Great events. 
 
 Tutti oltre alia grande patria, alia gran madre che ci 
 racc9glie sotto le sue ali, abbiamo una piccola patria : la 
 citta od il villaggio che ci ha visti nascere. We all have 
 besides the great native land, the great mother who gathers 
 us under her wings, a little country — the city or village 
 which witnessed our birth. 
 
 116. Adjectives in -co and -go form their plurals 
 according to rules closely resembling those given for 
 nouns having these terminations (cf. 62). 
 
 (1) Adjectives in -go may always, and do usually, 
 form their plural in -ghi : 
 
 1 Also in the expressions una gran b^lla C9sa, una gran bruttB 
 cosa, "a very good thing", "bad thing". 
 
SS ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 I casi analoghi (or analogi). Analogous cases. 
 Uno stivale largo. A wide boot. Stivali larghi. 
 
 (2) All feminines, as well in -ca as in -ga, likewise 
 preserve the quality of the guttural: 
 
 Cucina casalinga. Home cooking, middle-class cookery, 
 homelike food. Abitudini casalinghe. Domestic habits. 
 Una larga camera A wide room. Camere larghe. 
 
 (3) Adjectives in -co having the accent on the penult 
 take in the plural -chi; those stressed on the ante- 
 penult -ci ! : 
 
 II v§nto § fresco. The wind is fresh. V§nti freschi. 
 
 L' U91110 § caduco. The man is feeble. 5 CC0 due u^mini 
 caduchi. 
 
 ^ un gusto animalesco. It is an animal taste, the taste 
 of an animal. Gusti animaleschi. 
 
 Sente un qualche sucpo armonico ? Do you hear some 
 kind of a harmonious sound ? Si, s§nto dei sugni armonici. 
 
 5 V opinione d' un ugmo laico. That is the opinion of a 
 layman. 
 
 Siamo tutti laici qui. 
 
 Un autore classico. Degli autori classici. 
 
 Un po§ma lirico. Dei po§mi lirici. 
 
 117. Adjectives in -io also follow the rules given 
 for nouns of the same termination: 
 
 II cavallo § restio. This horse is restive. Cavalli restii. 
 
 Un fiore fldscio. A faded flower. Dei fiori flosci. 
 
 ■ ■ ■ ■ a ■ 
 
 Un pezzo di legno marcio. A bit of rotten wood. 
 Acque marce. Putrid waters. 
 
 II ragazzo non § sazio. The boy is not satisfied. Le 
 ragazze sono sazie. 
 
 1 Cf. 61 and foot-note. In accordance with this rule all adjec- 
 tives in -esco take -eschi, those in '-ico take '-ici. So eccfntrico 
 i, filantrQpico -ci, magnifico -ci, peripdico -ci, pratico -ci, prob- 
 lematico -ci, but antico, antichi. Pudico is an exception, forming 
 pudichi. 
 
ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 89 
 
 118. Quite irregular adjectives are: 
 
 (a) Pari, 'equal"; imparl, 'unequal"; ogni, 
 "every". Pari and impari have only the one form 
 for both genders and numbers. Ogni has naturally 
 no plural; it has also no formal distinction of gender. 
 These three are the only adjectives in i. 
 
 (b) Qualche, "some", has no plural form, and nouns 
 used with it remain singular even though their mean- 
 ing be plural l : 
 
 Comprer9 qualche fiore. I shall buy some flowers. 
 
 (c) Parecchi, "some", 'several", has no singular. 2 
 Its feminine is parecchie. 
 
 (d) Fu and gia, "formerly" (the first a part of the 
 verb §'ssere, the second an adverb of time), are in- 
 variable : 
 
 La Signora Bianco fu (or gia) Cesarotti. Mrs. B., whose 
 maiden name was Cesarotti. 
 
 (e) Dabbe,ne, dapp9co are adverbial phrases and 
 therefore invariable : 
 
 Un ugmo dabbe,ne. A well-meaning man, a good man. 
 
 (Exercises XXII and XXIII.) 
 
 Comparison of Adjectives. 
 
 119. The quality expressed by an adjective may be 
 affirmed as simply existing or as existing in a certain 
 degree. The simple affirmation, i.e., the simple form 
 of the adjective, implies no comparison, although it 
 has often been called the positive degree (as compare 
 
 1 The implication with qualche is "a few", whereas dei fipri 
 might mean a great many. 
 
 2 It is in fact the plural of parecchio, "like", with change 1 t 
 meaning. There is also an adverb parecchio. 
 
90 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 with the comparative and superlative degrees) . There 
 
 are five possible degrees of comparison, expressive of: 
 
 (i) Comparative equality (in comparing two things). 
 
 (2) superiority (in comparing two 
 
 things). 
 
 (3) inferiority (in comparing two 
 
 things) . 
 
 (4) superlativeness (in comparing more 
 
 than two things). 
 
 (5) Absolute superlativeness (in which the quality 
 is affirmed as existing in a superlative degree, and yet 
 without comparison). 
 
 This may be made clear by the following English exam- 
 ples: 
 
 (1) This rose is as beautiful as that. (2) This rose is 
 more beautiful than that. (3) This rose is less beautiful 
 than that. (4) This is the most beautiful rose of all. 
 (5) This is indeed a most beautiful rose. 1 
 
 120. All these degrees may be and usually are ex- 
 pressed in Italian analytically, i.e., by the use of 
 adverbs, the form of the adjective itself remaining 
 unchanged (cf. 122, 125). 
 
 Comparison of Equality. 
 
 121. The comparison of equality is expressed by 
 cosi — come, tanto — come, tanto — che, tanto — quanto, 2 
 come or quanto alone: 
 
 |) cosi grande come suo frate.Ho. He is as large as his 
 brother. 
 
 1 In "This rose is beautiful" we have the so-called "positive 
 degree". 
 
 2 Cosi-quanto is rather antiquated, also si-quanto (si being simply 
 the abbreviation of cosi) . Altrettanto = tanto. 
 
ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 9 1 
 
 |) tanto be.Ho quanto l'altro. It is as pretty as the other. 
 
 Questo libro § interessante quanto 1' a'tro. This book 
 is as interesting as the other. 
 
 Essa § pura come un angelo. She is as pure as an angel. 
 
 Comparison of Inequality. 
 
 122. The comparison of superiority is expressed by 
 prefixing piu, "more", to the adjective. Piu alone 
 makes the adjective comparative, il (la, i, le) piu ex- 
 presses the superlative : 
 
 ]j)cco un b§l bambino. That is a beautiful child. 
 
 IJccone uno piu b§llo. Here is a prettier one. 
 
 II piu b§llo non § ancora qui. The prettiest one is not 
 here yet. 
 
 (a) When the superlative follows the noun it takes no 
 article, that preceding the noun being considered as quali- 
 fying both. It is often difficult in this case to know 
 whether the comparative or the superlative is intended. 
 The context must decide: 
 
 ]jxco V albero piu grande. This is the larger (largest) 
 tree. 
 
 Gli ugmini piu saggi lo dicono. The wisest men say so. 
 
 §cco le piu b§lle donne or le dgnne piu belle. 
 
 123. Although this analytical mode of expressing 
 comparison is the one ordinarily used, a certain num- 
 ber of forms derived from the Latin synthetic system 
 still remain. The commonest are: 
 
 alto, high, superiore, higher, supremo or sommo or il 
 superiore, highest; 
 
 basso, low, inferiore, V inferiore or infimo; 
 buono, good, migliore, 1 il migliore or gttimo; 
 cattivo, bad, peggiore, 1 il peggiore or p^'ssimo; 
 
 1 Which must be carefully distinguished from the corresponding 
 adverbs, meglio, pfggio. Cf. 249. 
 
02 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 grande, large, great, maggiore, il maggiore or massimo; 
 piccolo, little, minore, il minore or minimo. 
 
 (a) All these adjectives may also be compared regu- 
 larly: alto, phi alto, il piu alto, etc. (cf. 122). The 
 forms have become differentiated by usage, superiore, 
 inferiore, being usually employed to signify " superior", 
 " inferior"; piu alto, piu basso, to mean "higher", 
 "lower", in the material sense. Migliore and peggiore 
 do not differ in meaning from piu buo.no and piu cat- 
 tivo, but are oftener used than these latter forms. 
 Qttimo and p^ssimo have become so dissociated from 
 the group that they may be regarded as independent 
 adjectives meaning "very good", "very bad", being 
 thus absolute, not comparative, superlatives. 1 The 
 same may be said of massimo and minimo, 'very 
 large ", " very small", sommo, "very high, great", and 
 infimo, "very low, base". 
 
 Maggiore and minore have usually the sense of 
 
 'older", "younger"; piu grande, piu piccolo meaning 
 
 'larger", "smaller". 2 
 
 124. The adjectives in -§rrimo and -issimo must also 
 be regarded as remnants of the Latin system. They 
 are absolutely superlative in meaning. 3 Those in 
 -§rrimo are rare, those in -issimo very common, any 
 adjective being made an absolute superlative by cut- 
 ting off its final vowel and adding this ending. The 
 
 1 That is, the quality described is in full measure without thought 
 of comparing that measure with any other. 
 
 2 Estfrno, esteriore, estremo; int§rno, interiore, intimo; ulteripre, 
 iiltimo, can scarcely be regarded as still building groups of com- 
 parison. 
 
 3 As is natural, adverbs are also frequently used to form the 
 absolute superlative: $ molto b§llo, assai b§Uo, oltremQdo b$llo ; etc. 
 
ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 93 
 
 c or g preceding this final vowel does not change its 
 quality : 
 
 jj un poeta celeb^rrimo. He is a very celebrated poet. 
 
 Scrive dei versi dolcissimi. He writes very sweet verses. 
 
 Pochissimi poeti scrivono cosi b§ne. Very few poets write 
 so well. 
 
 (a) Adjectives ending in -dico and -fico (flee) have an 
 -issimo superlative which might seem irregular: maledico, 
 maledicentissimo , benefico, beneficentissimo. 
 
 These forms are really derived from maledice.nte (pres- 
 ent participle), beneficente. 
 
 Adjectives in -evole have similar forms: malevole , male- 
 volentissimo. 
 
 125. The comparison of inferiority is formed in the 
 same manner as that of superiority, using meno, 
 "less", instead of phi: 
 
 5 la meno bella delle sorelle. She is the least beautiful 
 of the sisters. 
 
 Esse sono men fgrti che gli ugrnini. They are less strong 
 than men. 
 
 Manco 1 infelice di me. Less unhappy than I. 
 
 Comparison by means of di and che. 
 
 126. 2 "Than" in comparisons whether of superiority 
 or of inferiority is rendered by di or che. 
 (a) Di is used in comparisons of: 
 
 (1) Nouns accompanied by articles (or demon- 
 strative pronouns). 
 
 (2) Nouns or pronouns by means of their adjectives. 
 
 1 Manco is oftenest used in the adverbial expression manco male, 
 "not so bad", "not so badly". 
 
 2 This paragraph, for the sake of completeness, goes beyond the 
 subject of adjectives and includes comparison also of other parts of 
 speech. 
 
94 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (3) Numerals (i.e., between piu or meno and a nu- 
 meral) . 
 
 (b) Che is used in comparisons of: 
 
 (1) Nouns without articles. 
 
 (2) Nouns or pronouns by means of their verbs. 
 
 (3) Adjectives. 
 
 (4) Verbs. (See also 127.) 
 
 (5) Adverbs, and in all cases where "than" means 
 ' ' rather than ' ' * : 
 
 Mi piace questo vino piu delP altro. I like this wine more 
 than the other (a, 1). 
 
 Mi piace piuttosto questo vino che V altro. This wine 
 pleases me rather than the other (b, 2). 
 
 II vino § meno chiaro dell' acqua. Wine is less clear 
 than water (a, 2). 
 
 II vino § piu buono che bello 2 (b, 2, or b, 5). 
 
 Meglio dormire che tormentarsi. It is better to sleep 
 than to worry (6, 4). 
 
 Non P9SS0 dormire piu di sette ore. I cannot sleep more 
 than seven hours (a, 3). 
 
 Tu s§i piu giovane di me. You are younger than I (a, 2). 
 
 Lavora piu in fretta che b§ne. He works rather fast 
 than well (b, 5). 
 
 5 meglio tardi che mai. Better late than never (b, 5). 
 
 |) piu fortunato che felice. He is more fortunate than 
 happy (b, 3, or b, 5 — "rather fortunate than happy"). 
 
 Egli ne recav§ piu danno che utile. He got more harm 
 than good out of it (b, 1, or b, 5 — "rather harm than 
 good"). 
 
 1 Che may be used to avoid a repetition of di, as: Villari § indaga- 
 tore sagace non meno de' mali presenti che delle passate vicende 
 d' Italia. V. is a wise investigator not less of the present ills than 
 of the past vicissitudes of Italy. 
 
 2 Or: piuttqsto buono che bello. 
 
ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 95 
 
 Remark. It is evident that di is used in compari- 
 sons of nouns and pronouns wherever the comparison 
 is between them or their qualities and not between ac- 
 tions done or suffered by them ; che in comparisons of 
 qualities in themselves, i.e., considered apart from the 
 beings to whom they are ascribed, between actions done 
 or suffered, and between whole concepts. 
 
 But it is sometimes difficult to decide whether the 
 comparison turns on the noun or on the verb : 
 
 II suo umore § piu mutabile che V onda. His humoi is 
 more changeable than the wave (is). 
 
 Un giorno mi comparisti davanti meno che figlio e meno 
 che uo,mo. One day you appeared before me less than a 
 son (is) and less than a man (is). 
 
 I due anni rappresentarono per noi piu che due s§coli 
 di esperi§nza. The two years represented for us more 
 than two centuries of experience (represented). 
 
 127. Where the comparison takes place between in- 
 flected verbs " than "is rendered either by che non or 
 di quel che : 
 
 Spe,nde piu che non guadagna {or sp§nde piu di quello che 
 guadagna). He spends more than he earns. 1 
 
 128. Words which are sometimes adjectives and 
 sometimes adverbs are: molto, po,co, quanto, tanto, 
 
 trgppo 2 : 
 
 Molti utjmini lo dicono. Many men say so. 
 Ne sono molto infelice. I am very unhappy about it. 
 P§che persone son venute. Few people have come. 
 Sono andati pQ;ca distanza. They went a short distance. 
 |) un p9* piu sicuro. It is a little surer. 
 
 1 This is really a crossing of the two constructions: 'He spends 
 more than he earns " and " He does not earn as much as he spends ". 
 
 2 Cf. 156. 
 
96 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ne sono tanto felici. They are so happy over it. 
 
 Vi sono tanti libri. There are so many books. Quanti ? 
 How many ? 
 
 Trgppi. Too many. If trgppo lontano. It is too far. 
 
 (a) Adverbial phrases such as : "I returned them just as 
 I received them" ( = "in the state in which they were when 
 I received them") are to be rendered by the adjectives 
 tale , quale : 
 
 Li hg renduti tali quali li ho recevuti. 
 
 Place of Adjectives. 
 
 129. Numerals and pronominal adjectives, most ad- 
 jectives of size and quantity, adjectives of emotion, 
 also (usually) bgllo and bugno precede the noun : 
 
 Hg tre libri. Questi 1 libri sono grandi. IJcco i migi 
 grandi libri. 
 
 Hg ancora molti libri. Mgstro i migi bgi libri al mio 
 caro amico. 
 
 130. Participles used as adjectives, adjectives modi- 
 fied by an adverb or a suffix, adjectives of nationality, 
 shape, color, and of material qualities generally, fol- 
 low the noun : 
 
 5 un figlio amato. § una cgsa bgn conosciuta. It is 
 a well-known thing. Sono libri italiani. |) uno spgcchio 
 rotondo. 
 
 §cco un abito nero. L' ugmo § cieco. Un bgll* uccgllo. 
 
 But: 
 
 Un uccgllo bellino. 
 
 131. Euphony often decides as to the placing of the 
 adjective. In general one of fewer syllables than its 
 noun precedes, as is the case with bello and bugno 
 mentioned above (129). Where two or more ad- 
 
 1 -"these". 
 
PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 97 
 
 jectives qualify one noun they usually follow, although 
 sometimes one precedes and the other follows: 
 
 jj un uo,mo onesto. He is an honest man. 
 
 ]J un ucjmo onesto e simpatico. He is an honest and con- 
 genial man. 
 
 Sente il profumo delle rQse primaverile ? Do you smell 
 the perfume of the Spring roses? 
 
 Vedete pure la bell' erba verde ! Only see the beautiful 
 green grass! 
 
 132. A certain number of adjectives take a different 
 meaning when placed elsewhere than is usual. When 
 out of their usual place, whether that be before or 
 after the noun, they have ordinarily the literal mean- 
 ing x : 
 
 Un uomo grande. A large man. Un grand* U9mo. A 
 great man. 
 
 Un ugmo galante. A gallant man. Un galantuQmo. 
 An honorable man. 
 
 Un caro amico. A dear friend. Una casa cara. A 
 costly house. 
 
 Una doppia scrittura. A double copy. La scrittura 
 doppia. Double-entry book-keeping. 
 
 |) la sola miafiglia. She is my only daughter. Mia figlia 
 sola l'ha sentito. Only my daughter has heard it. 
 
 {Exercises XXIV and XXV.) 
 
 1 Cf. 130, also the French usage of the same adjectives. 
 
98 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 POSSESSIVES. 
 
 133. Possessives are either adjectives or pronouns 
 according to their use in the sentence. In ecco il mio 
 libro, mio is an adjective and is treated as such. But 
 in §cco il mio, mio is a pronoun representing an ante- 
 cedent (this being in the above case libro) . In Italian, 
 however, the form of the possessive is the same, 
 whether its function be adjective or pronominal. In 
 other words, "my" and "mine" are rendered in 
 Italian by one and the same word 1 : 
 
 |) il suo fazzoletto, newero ? This is your handkerchief, 
 isn't it? 
 
 Ma no, non § il mio. No, it is not mine. 
 
 134. The article being used with most nouns (cf. 
 44), it follows that it in most cases immediately pre- 
 cedes the possessive qualifying the noun. The pro- 
 nominal possessive, representing a noun, is treated as 
 a noun, that is, it also usually takes the article. Thus 
 the possessive is seldom found without an article, and 
 that article being generally the definite, the latter is 
 given with the forms of the possessive, which are: 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 masc. 
 
 (il) mio 
 
 (i) miei 
 
 fern. 
 
 (la) mia 
 
 (le) mie 
 
 masc. 
 
 (il) tuo 
 
 (i) tuoi 
 
 fern. 
 
 (la) tua 
 
 (le) tue 
 
 masc. 
 
 (il) suo 
 
 (i) suoi 
 
 fern. 
 
 (la) sua 
 
 (le) sue 
 
 my, mine. 
 > thy, thine (your, yours), 
 f- his, her, hers (your, yours). 
 
 1 Cf. French mon and le mien, which more resemble the English. 
 
POSSESSIVES. 99 
 
 our, ours. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 masc. (il) ngstro (i) n9stri 
 
 fem. (la) rostra (le) ngstre 
 
 masc. (il) v 9 stro (i) v 9 stri ) 
 
 fem. (la) v9stra (le) V9stre \ * 
 
 masc. (il) loro (i) loro ) theirs 
 
 fem. (la) loro (le) loro ) w 7 
 
 II mio amico § malato. My friend is ill. 
 Dov' | tua madre ? Where is your mother? 
 Di chi sono le armi che porta ? Whose arms are you 
 carrying ? 
 
 I suoi, signore. Yours, sir. 
 
 135. The article is omitted with the possessive in 
 the cases mentioned, 45, (1), (2), (3), and (5): 
 
 Parlami, amico mio. Cosa vuo,le, signorino mio ? 
 
 II bambino ama suo padre. II mio buon padre me 1' ha 
 detto, a me ed al mio fratellino. 1 
 
 Essa fu presentata a Sua Maesta. 
 Mia moglie § qui. Le presenter^ la mia consorte. 2 
 Ha visto mio frateho? N9, non hg visto il suo germane 2 
 Exceptions: (a) The article may never be omitted 
 with loro: 
 
 ■ 
 
 II loro padre lo crede. 
 
 (b) Sometimes in addressing a person of rank the 
 possessive is placed after the noun, in which case the 
 article is placed before it: 
 
 Sono obbligatissimo all* Eccellenza Vo,stra. I am under 
 great obligations to Your Excellency. 
 
 136. The article is also omitted: 
 
 (1) Where the noun has an indefinite, partitive, or 
 limited sense: 
 
 Non § amico mio. He is no friend of mine. 
 
 1 Why are the articles used in this example? Cf. 45 (2) , Remark. 
 
 2 Why the article before cons9rte, germano, and not before 
 moglie, fratello? 
 
ioo ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Queste sono mie figlie. These are my daughters ( = 
 daughters of mine, some of my daughters). 
 
 But: 
 
 Queste sono le mie figlie. These are my daughters ( = 
 all of my daughters). 
 
 Quel libro § mio. That book is mine (=it is one of my 
 books, not of yours). 
 
 Quelli sono i mie,i libri. Those are my books (=all the 
 books now in question). 
 
 5 Sua questa casa ? Do you own this house? 
 
 |) la Sua casa ? Is this your home? * 
 
 (2) In a number of set phrases, such as: 
 
 Con vgstra lic§nza. By your leave. 
 
 Non I colpa mia. It is not my fault. 
 
 Per causa vostra. On your account. 
 
 Da parte mia. For my part. 
 
 Vado in tua vece. I go in your stead. 
 
 137. The use of the possessive is much more re- 
 stricted in Italian than in English, it being replaced 
 by (1) the definite article; (2) the definite article and 
 a conjunctive pronoun. 
 
 (1) Where the subject of the sentence is the pos- 
 sessor, or where for other reasons there could be no 
 ambiguity, the definite article is used instead of the 
 possessive 2 : 
 
 Pr§ndo il quad§rno nella mano. 3 I take the copy-book 
 in my hand. 
 
 Portami il soprabito. Bring me my overcoat. 
 
 Dammi la mano. Give me your hand. 
 
 1 However, casa mia is often used for "at home" without the 
 
 article. 
 
 2 Cf. 44(8). 
 
 3 Sometimes even the article is omitted: Prendo il quaderno in 
 
 mano. 
 
POSSESSIVEvS. ioi 
 
 Hg freddo ai pi§di or H9 i pie,di freddi.. .My feet are 
 
 cold. 1 - 
 
 II bambino cerca la mamma. The child is looking: f.or his 
 mother. 
 
 (2) With reflexive verbs, or with verbs not reflexive 
 but accompanied by a conjunctive personal pronoun 
 indicating the person to whom, the possessive is re- 
 placed by an article 2 : 
 
 Si lavi la faccia. Let him wash his face, he must wash 
 his face (literally, "let him wash to himself the face"). 
 
 Mi sono rotto una gamba. I have broken my leg (one 
 of my legs). 
 
 Le hanno tagliato i capelli. They have cut off her hair. 
 
 138. The possessive agrees in person with the pos- 
 sessor, in gender and number with the noun denoting 
 the object possessed. It follows that suo padre means 
 as well "her father" as "his father", sua madre, "his 
 mother" or "her mother". The meaning is in most 
 cases made clear by the context, but where the sense 
 might be ambiguous di lui, di l§i are used instead of 
 the possessive of the third person singular : 
 
 Egli non ha mai conosciuto la di lui madre ; ama molto 
 la di l§i. He never knew his mother; he loves hers dearly. 
 
 (Exercises XXVI and XXVII.) 
 *Cf. 84. 2 Cf. 98 (2). 
 
102 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 *.«■ 
 
 'CHAPTER X. 
 
 ifel&ONSTRATIVES, RELATIVES, INTERROGATIVES, 
 
 INDEFINITES. 
 
 139. Demonstratives, like possessives, may be either 
 adjectives or pronouns. They have forms which may 
 be used as either and forms which are always used 
 pronominally and only to represent persons. 
 
 1. Adjective or Pronominal Forms. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 masc. questo questi j these _ 
 
 fern, questa queste ) 
 
 masc. cotesto 1 cotesti 
 
 fern, cotesta coteste 
 
 masc. quello quelli, quegli, quei 2 
 
 fern, quella quelle 
 
 that, those. 
 
 2. Pronominal Forms (used only of Persons). 
 
 questi, this man. costoro, these men, these 
 
 costui, this man, often in a quegli t ) . [women. 3 
 
 contemptuous sense, this colui, ) 
 
 fellow. col§i, that woman, [women. 
 
 cost§i, this woman. coloro, those men, those 
 
 140. To these must be added cio, "this", "that", 
 
 1 Or codesto, codesti, etc. 
 
 2 Sometimes shortened into que'. 
 
 3 Notice that the forms meaning "this" all have some trace of 
 the Latin Tste, those meaning "that", with the single exception of 
 cotesto, some trace of llle. For the contemptuous sense of costui 
 cf. that of iste. Costei, costoro, colui, colei, coloro, sometimes, but 
 not frequently, have this contemptuous sense. 
 
DEMONSTRATIVES. 103 
 
 which is an invariable pronoun, representing not a 
 person or thing, but a concept or phrase: 
 
 IJcco ci9 che I19 detto. That is what I said (=that 
 which I said). 
 
 Remarks on the Demonstratives. 
 
 141. Questo and cotesto usually drop final o before 
 a vowel. Quello is inflected like b§llo (115) : 
 
 Quest' UQmo ; cotest' ugmo ; quell' uomo ; quest' (Jpera ; 
 quello z§lo ; in questi campi e in quelli. 
 
 142. Questo and quello are vised like English "this" 
 and "that", questo for that which is near the speaker, 
 quello for that which is remote. But the existence of 
 two words for "that" allows of greater perspicuity 
 than in English, cotesto being used of that which is 
 near the person spoken to, quello of that which is remote 
 from him: 
 
 Prendete questo libro e datemi cotesto, e pgi cercatemi 
 quell' altro per piacere. Take this book (which is near me) 
 and give me that one (which is near you), and then look for 
 that other one (which is remote from both) for me, please. 
 
 143. Quello and quegli are also used for "the former", 
 questo and questi for "the latter" : 
 
 Desidera i fiori azzurri i fiori rossi? Desidero questi 
 (=i fiori rossi), non quelli (=i fiori azzurri). 
 
 144. The forms which are both adjectives and pro- 
 nouns are not used in the singular as subject pronouns 
 representing nouns, the corresponding pronominal 
 forms being then preferred. They are, however, used 
 in the singular as objectives and in the plural either 
 as subjects or as objects, to represent persons as well 
 as things: 
 
104 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 H9 parlato con Alessandro, e ho capito che questi (or 
 questo Alessandro, but not questo alone) ti vuol b§ne. I 
 
 have spoken with Alexander and I understood that he 
 (=this one, this Alexander of whom we are speaking) is 
 well inclined towards you. 
 
 Hai parlato con quegli altri? Have you spoken with 
 those others? 
 
 Quelli (or coloro) che ho visto non hanno voluto parlare. 
 Those whom I saw did not want to talk. 
 
 Relatives. 
 
 145. The relatives are: 
 che, who, whom, that, which. 
 
 il quale, i quali, la quale, le quali, who, whom, that which. 
 cui, whom, to whom, whose. 
 chi, the one who, any one who, whoever. 
 onde, of whom, of which, with whom, with which, by 
 whom, by which, etc. 
 
 (a) These forms are all pronouns, although il quale is 
 sometimes used with a noun : 
 
 II quale padre Crist^foro. This Father Christopher. 
 
 (b) The first three are much more frequent than the 
 others. 
 
 Remarks on the Relatives. 
 
 146. Che is invariable. It is generally used only as 
 subject or direct object. II quale, which is inflected 
 throughout by combination with the various forms of 
 the article, is used for all cases. As a subject or direct 
 object che 1 is preferred to it excepting where ambiguity 
 might result from its invariableness of form: 
 
 1 Che is a noun in the expressions: un bel che, un gran che. 
 
RELATIVES. 105 
 
 V 1191110 che parla § mio padre. The man who is speak- 
 ing is my father. 
 
 II giovane che vede li § il mio amico. The young man 
 whom you see there is my friend. 
 
 L' ugmo del quale parliamo § il suo nemico. The man of 
 whom we are speaking is your enemy. 
 
 IJcco r ugmo colla dgnna la quale abbiamo vista i§ri. 
 There is the man with the woman whom we saw yesterday. 
 (IJcco 1' ugmo colla donna che abbiamo visto would be 
 ambiguous, since che might refer either to the man, the 
 woman or both.) 
 
 Sono i figli della signora la quale abbiamo incontrata. 
 They are the children of the lady whom we met. 
 
 (a) Che, meaning "which" and referring to a whole 
 clause, is a sort of neuter. It usually takes the definite 
 article 1 : 
 
 L§i non dice ni§nte, il che vuol dire che non n' § cont§nto 
 You say nothing, which indicates that you are not pleased 
 about it. 
 
 147. Cui is invariable. It is used as an indirect 
 object, generally but not always with a preposition. 2 
 It is interchangeable in many cases with del quale, 
 della quale, dei quali, al quale, etc.: 
 
 La signora cui (a cui, alia quale) parla § mia zia. The 
 lady to whom he is talking is my aunt. 
 
 IJcco la persona cui (di cui, della quale) Le I19 parlato. 
 Here is the person of whom I spoke to you. 
 
 Questa § la ragione per cui presto partir risolvo. This 
 is the reason on account of which I am resolved to go away 
 at once. 
 
 1 It is found in older Italian without it. 
 
 2 Cui is sometimes found instead of il quale as direct object, but 
 this usage is rare and is really contrary to the nature of cui. Cf. 
 note 1, p. 106. 
 
106 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (a) When cui, meaning "whose", is used without 
 the preposition di, it should be placed between the 
 noun qualified and the article belonging to that noun : 
 
 L' autore le cui (Jpere abbiamo l§tto, or L' autore di cui 
 abbiamo l§tto le (Jpere. 
 
 In this example the difference in the use of cui and il 
 quale is clear. One could substitute for the latter phrase: 
 L y autore del quale abbiamo l§tto le (jpere, but one could 
 not say : L' autore i quali (Jpere abbiamo le, tto. Cui com- 
 prehends in itself a notion of some prepositional relation- 
 ship. 1 which il quale does not, therefore the preposition 
 which may be omitted with the former must be expressed 
 with the latter. 
 
 148. Chi is invariable. It is less frequent, but 
 where used often more elegant, than colui che, col§i 
 che, coloro che, which have the same meaning: 
 
 Chi ama, teme (or colui che ama, teme). He who loves, 
 fears. 
 
 Chi cerca trovera. He who seeks shall find. 
 
 Consigliatevi con chi ha esperie,nza. Take counsel with 
 those who have had experience. 
 
 Troverai chi t' aiutera. You will find somebody who will 
 help you. 
 
 (a) Chi . . . chi is to be rendered by "some . . . some", 
 "some . . . others", "the one . . . the other", or the like: 
 
 Chi va, chi vi§ne. Some are going, some coming. 
 
 Chi ride, chi piange. One laughs, the other weeps. 
 
 149. Onde is invariable. It always has a sense of 
 prepositional relationship : 
 
 L' anima gloriosa onde si parla (or della quale si parla). 
 The glorious soul of which we are speaking. 
 
 1 It is the Latin dative, which expresses the notion of possession, 
 the notion of the preposition "of" as well as that of the preposi- 
 tion "to". Cf. French: A qui est ce chapeau? 
 
INTERROGATIVES. 1 07 
 
 ^cco V tiscio onde (or pel quale) §ra entrato. This is the 
 door through which he had entered. 
 
 (a) Onde is the least frequent of the relatives, but 
 like chi it is in some cases more concise and more ele- 
 gant than the forms of il quale which must otherwise 
 be used. 1 
 
 150. The relative can never be understood in Italian 
 as in English, but must be always expressed : 
 
 L' ugmo che hg visto e le me.rci che hg comprato da lui. 
 The man (whom) I saw and the goods (which) I bought of 
 him. 
 
 151. English ' what" =" that w T hich' is usually to 
 be rendered by quell o or cig followed by che ; ' what ' ' 
 = " all that which ' ' by quanto : 
 
 5cco cig che hg detto. This is what (=that which) I 
 said. 
 
 Cig § quanto mi ha detto. This is all (that which) he 
 told me. 
 
 Aiuta quanti pug. He helps all (those whom) he can. 
 
 Interrogatives. 
 
 152. The interrogatives are: 
 
 chi, who, whom. 2 quale, 3 which, what. 
 
 che, what. quanto, how much, how many. 
 
 Remarks on the Interrogatives. 
 
 153. Chi is always a pronoun. It is invariable. It 
 is used only of persons : 
 
 1 It is derivatively an adverb (unde) , and might be called an 
 adverbial relative or a relative adverb. Cf. the pronominal ad- 
 verbs ne, ci, vi, 97. 
 
 2 Di chi, "whose". See examples. 
 
 3 It does not take the article, as does quale relative. 
 
108 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Chi §? Who is it? Chi sono queste d9nne? Who are 
 these women? 
 
 Di chi parlate? Of whom are you speaking? 
 
 Di chi sono questi fiori? Whose flowers are these? 
 
 154. Che is sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an ad- 
 jective. It is always invariable. As a pronoun it is 
 used only of things, as an adjective it may also be used 
 of persons: 
 
 Che cerca? What are you looking for? 
 Che persona ha visto? (less common than Chi ha visto?) 
 What person have you seen? 
 
 (a) Che co,sa is frequently used for "what": 
 Che co,sa ha visto? 
 
 155. Quale is either a pronoun or an adjective. It 
 is in either case inflected like any adjective ending in e. 
 It is used both of persons and things : 
 
 Quale dei due ragazzi § la? Which of the two boys is 
 there ? 
 
 jj un ugmo che aspgtta. It is a man who is waiting. 
 
 Qual ugmo? What man? 
 
 Quali ragioni ha per crederlo? What reasons have you 
 for thinking so ? 
 
 156. Quanto is either a pronoun, an adjective, or an 
 adverb. 1 Except in the latter case it is inflected like 
 any adjective ending in o : 
 
 Quanto vuo,le? How much do you want ? 
 Quante s§die sonvi? How many seats are there? 
 (a) Tutto quanto (-i, -a, -e) means "all": 
 Li ha visti tutti quanti. He has seen them all. 
 
 157. All these interrogatives except chi may also be 
 used in exclamations. They are not accompanied by 
 the article as in English: 
 
 1 Cf. 121 and 128. 
 
INDEFINITES. 109 
 
 Che peccato! What a pity! 
 
 Qual 1191110 ! What a man ! 
 
 Quanti dispiaceri! How many troubles! 
 
 Indefinites. 
 
 158. The following are the principal indefinite pro- 
 nouns : 
 
 alcuno, -i, -a, -e, some, any. ni§nte, nulla, nothing. 
 
 altri, another (altri . . . altri, ognuno, everybody. 
 
 one . . . another). parecchi, several, 
 
 altrui, of another, to another, piu, i phi, most, the most. 
 
 of others, to others. qualchecgsa, something, any- 
 
 altro, something else, any- thing. 
 
 thing else. qualcuno, qualcheduno, any 
 
 certuno, 1 a certain person. one. 
 
 ciascuno, ciascheduno, every, taluno, 3 such an one. 
 
 every one. tutto, -i, -a, -e, everything, 
 
 checchesia (checchessia), every one, all. 
 
 checche, 2 whatever, any veruno, nobody. 
 
 whatever. uno, one. 
 
 chiunque, chicchesia, who- 1' uno e V altro, gli uni e gli 
 
 ever, any one whatever. altri, 4 both. 
 nessuno, niuno, no one. 
 
 1 Rare. This, like ciascuno, nessuno, etc., is a compound of uno, 
 "one". 
 
 2 Not often used in modern Italian. Observe that this is formed 
 from che + che, checchesia from che + che + sia, chicchesia from chi 
 + che + sia, etc. 
 
 3 Rare. 
 
 4 Fern. Puna e l'altra, le une e le altre. Ambedue also means 
 "both", but the commonest expression is tutti e due. "All 
 three" =tutti e tre, "all four" =tutti e quattro, etc. 
 
HO ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Remarks on the Indefinite Pronouns. 
 
 159. Altri 1 is used as either subject or object, altrui 
 always denotes some prepositional relationship. Both 
 are used of persons only, altro only of things: 
 
 Altri § li§to, altri misero. One is happy, the other (an- 
 other) miserable. 
 
 Io non v9glio (la) rgba altrui (or d' altri). I do not want 
 other people's property. 
 
 Non ha detto altro? No, ni§nte di piu. Did he not say 
 anything else? No, nothing more. 
 
 160. Checchesia and chicchesia being really phrases 
 are not used as the subject of a verb. Other phrases 
 meaning " whatever ' ' are: qualsivoglia, qualsiasi, tutto 
 quel che, quale che sia, per quanto, 2 etc. : 
 
 Non lo dir§ a chicchesia. I shall not tell it to any one 
 whatever. 
 
 Non dirg checchesia. I shall not say anything whatever. 
 
 Quali che siano i suoi talenti, non parla b§ne. Whatever 
 his talents may be, he does not speak well. 
 
 Chiunque tema torni a casa. 
 
 Per quanti tale,nti abbia, non lavora. Whatever talents 
 he may have, he does not work. 
 
 161. Nessuno is commoner in every-day Italian than 
 niuno or veruno, and ni§nte than nulla. Nulla is more 
 adapted to the elevated style. Non is often used with 
 all these negatives: 
 
 Vi § nessuno in casa? Is there nobody at home? 
 Non vi § nessuno. There is nobody. 
 Che cgsa dice? Ni§nte. What are you saying? Noth- 
 ing. 
 
 1 A feminine, altra, is also found. 
 
 2 Most phrases of like meaning are followed by the subjunctive. 
 Cf. 232 (4) (a). 
 
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. in 
 
 Non ne so nulla. I know nothing about it. 
 
 Vergogna e dovere sono un nulla per lui. Shame and 
 duty are nothing to him. 
 
 (a) Alcuno with non also means "no one": 
 
 Non v' § alcuno che capisca. There is no one who under- 
 stands. 
 
 162. Many indefinite adjectives are sometimes used 
 as nouns. Alcuno, ciascuno, nessuno, ognuno, may also 
 be used as adjectives: 
 
 Ho comprato alcuni giornali illustrati. I have bought 
 some illustrated newspapers. 
 
 Non trovo nessun rime'dio. I find no remedy. 
 
 Ho visto quel tale. I have seen that individual. 
 
 Molti sono partiti, ma non tutti. Many have gone away, 
 but not all. 
 
 Ogni and qualche are always adjectives. Cf. 118, 
 (a) and (b). 
 
 (Exercises XXVIII and XXIX.) 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 
 
 163. The meaning of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs 1 
 is frequently modified in Italian by the use of prefixes 
 and suffixes, especially the latter. 
 
 164. The prefixes arci-, sopra-, sovra-, and stra- are 
 used with nouns and adjectives. They all have a super- 
 lative meaning. They are not very frequent 2 : 
 
 1 Adverbs are less often modified than adjectives, and adjectives 
 less often than nouns. 
 
 2 All these prefixes are also used with verbs, and most of the 
 forms produced by compounding with them are considered as 
 separate words. They belong therefore to word-building and to 
 the province of the dictionary, not to the grammar. 
 
H2 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Arcibe.Ho, very beautiful; arcibriccone, arch-scoundrel; 
 soprabbondevole, superabundant; sopraeccitabile, very ex- 
 citable; sopraeccitabilita, overexcitability ; sopraccarico, 
 overburdened, overloaded; il sovrappiu, the excess ; sovrap- 
 pi§no, overfull; strata, an unusual, unreasonable hour; 
 stragrande, very large. 
 
 165. Suffixes are very numerous. They may ex- 
 press shades of meaning so various and sometimes so 
 elusive that only wide reading can enable the foreigner 
 fully to understand their use. They constitute, how- 
 ever, one of the great charms of the language. 
 
 Suffixes may be classified according to their meaning 
 as diminutives, augmentative 's, as terms expressive of 
 endearment, of disparagement, or of deteriority. 1 
 
 166. The principal diminutives are (those oftenest 
 used being placed first) : -ino (-cino, 2 -icino, -iccino, 
 -olino) ; -etto (-osetto) (often with a sense of endear- 
 ment) ; -e,llo (-c§llo, -ar§llo, er§llo, -ic§llo) ; -uccio (often 
 with a pejorative sense) ; -U9I0 (-9I0, -eruglo, -ettu9lo, 
 -iciottalo, -icolo, -iccu9lo) ; ~9tto (used as a noun di- 
 minutive only in speaking of the young of animals 
 cf. 167); -9ccio; -ognolo, -fccio; -igno; -astro, -ticolo, 
 -uzzo, -uzzolo (all four pejorative) 3 : 
 
 Ragazzo, boy; ragazzino, 4 ragazzu9lo, little boy; ragaz- 
 zetto, dear little boy; ragazzuccio, naughty little boy. 
 
 1 In Italian: diminutivi, accrescitivi, vezzeggiativi, peggiorativi 
 (dispregiativi) . 
 
 2 Cf. 171 (b). 
 
 3 Added to adjectives of color -astro is a diminutive: giallo, "yel- 
 low"; giallastro, "yellowish". Otherwise it is pejorative. -Iccio, 
 -igno, and -ognolo are all used with adjectives: gialliccio, 'yel- 
 lowish"; asprigno, "somewhat harsh". 
 
 ' Words to which a suffix has been added are accented as though 
 that suffix were an integral part of them: ragazzino, etc. 
 
PREFIXES AXD SUFFIXES. 113 
 
 Fiume, river; fiumicello, little river; flumicolo, insig- 
 nificant little stream. 
 
 Figlio, son ; figliu9lo (which has lost its diminutive sense), 
 figliuolino, little son. 
 
 Braccio, arm; bracciuglo, arm of chair. 
 
 Via, street; viuzza, narrow street, alley. 
 
 Cane, dog; cagnolino, pretty little dog. 
 
 Aquila, eagle; aquillgtto, eaglet. 
 
 Orso, bear; orsacchio^to, bear's cub. 
 
 Grande , large ; grandino, somewhat large. 
 
 Caro, dear; carino, winning, Deary (epithet). 
 
 Pallido, pale; paliduccio, rather pale. 
 
 Grazioso, graceful, pleasing; graziosetto, graziosettino, 
 pretty, charming. 
 
 Grasso,fat; grass^ccio, plump. 
 
 Verde, green; verdastro, greenish. 
 
 Piano, softly; veniva pianino, he came quite softly, 
 quietly. 
 
 167. The principal augmentatives are : -one (-done, 
 -accione, -oncione), -gtto, 1 and for adjectives -uto: 
 
 Do,nna, woman; il donnone, the big woman. 
 
 Ragazzo^to, big strong boy. 
 
 Naso, nose; nasuto (adj. formed from it), long-nosed. 
 
 168. The principal suffixes indicative of endearment 
 are -ino, -olino, -etto, already mentioned under dimin- 
 utives. The context shows whether the meaning is 
 endearing or diminutive. 
 
 169. The principal pejoratives are -accio, -astro, 
 -azzo, and those already mentioned under diminutives 
 (-ucolo, -uzzo, etc.) : 
 
 Poeta, poet; poetastro, poor poet, poetaster. 2 
 
 1 Added to the names of animals -9tto is, as stated in 166, a 
 diminutive. 
 
 2 Which is in fact the Italian word. 
 
H4 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Giovine, young man; giovinastro, dissolute youth. 
 St^fano, Stephen; Stefanaccio. naughty Stephen., 
 Amore, love; amorazzo, illicit love. 
 Frate, monk; fratuzzo, monk of bad habits. 
 
 170. The suffixes have in many cases lost their origi- 
 nal meaning: 
 
 Conte, count, contessa, countess; il contino e la contes- 
 sina, the young (not "little") count and countess (for in- 
 stance, the son and daughter-in-law of the conte). 
 
 Casa, house; casino, country-house, club-house. (Casetta, 
 casuccia — "little house" — the latter usually "wretched lit- 
 tle house".) 
 
 (a) In the same way frat§llo, originally a diminutive 
 from frate (which latter now means only "brother in a 
 religious order", "monk"), means "brother", and a 
 new diminutive formed from it, fratellino — "little 
 brother". In figliastro, "stepson", there is no sense 
 of disparagement, just as there is none of the diminu- 
 tive in matrigna, "stepmother", or in matrina, "god- 
 mother " . 1 
 
 171. The final vowel is usually dropped before a 
 suffix : 
 
 Testa, head; testolina, little head. 
 
 Pazzo, fool; pazzerello. Contadina, peasant woman; 
 contadinetta, strong peasant woman. 
 
 (a) If the consonant preceding this final vowel be a 
 c or a g it retains its quality : 
 
 P9C0, little; pochino, a little bit. 
 
 Fresco, fresh, cool. Per non scendere giu. in chiesa, a 
 mattutino, quando faceva freschetto, avevano ordinato la 
 
 1 In all these words the suffixes have simply been incorporated, 
 being used as an element for word-building. In others, as scod^lla, 
 "dish", -the diminutive sense of the sullix was probably lost in 
 Latin. 
 
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 115 
 
 costruzione d' un a'tro C9ro, chiamato Co,™ di n9tte, in 
 me,zzo al convento. In order not to have to go down into 
 the church early in the morning, when it was rather cool, 
 they had ordered the construction of another choir called 
 the night choir, in the central portion of the convent. 
 
 (b) Euphony must be considered in choosing the 
 suffix. The latter should never be identical in sound 
 with the termination of the noun. It is euphony 
 which decides also in what cases -cino, -icino, etc., 
 should be used instead of -ino, etc. : 
 
 Contadina, contadinella, not contadinina. 
 
 Capp§llo, hat, cappellino, not cappellello. 
 
 Cappone, capon, capponcione, not capponone, fat capon. 
 
 (c) A modified adjective is not often used with a 
 modified noun: 
 
 Un bell' uccellino or un uccello bellino, but not un uccel- 
 lino bellino. 
 
 172. Most suffixes are made feminine quite regu- 
 larly by changing their final o into a. However the 
 masculine form is not infrequently added to a feminine 
 noun, which then becomes masculine: 
 
 La tavola, il tavolino. 
 
 The suffix -one usuallv makes all nouns to which it is 
 
 • J 
 
 added masculine, the feminine form -ona being very rarely 
 used: 
 
 La sala, il salone. La dgnna, il donnone. 
 
 {Exercises XXX and XXXI.^ 
 
n6 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 173. We have seen (67 and 68) that regular verbs 
 form their tenses by adding certain endings, which vary 
 with the conjugation (67) to a stem which is invari- 
 able. 1 In many irregular verbs the stem is variable. 2 
 The variations of the stem are the result of: (a) con- 
 traction; (b) the stressing of the stem-vowel. 3 
 
 All irregular verbs except §ssere have certain parts 
 which remain regular. 
 
 174. Contraction of the infinitive may occur espe- 
 cially where the initial vowel of the infinitive ending 
 is unstressed, that is to say, in '-ere verbs: 
 
 Dire, to say (contracted from dicere). 
 
 One cannot call the form dire itself irregular, yet 
 the fact that parts of the verb are quite regularly 
 formed from the uncontracted infinitive dicere 4 give 
 the whole system an appearance of irregularity : 
 
 Dic-eva. He was saying. 5 
 
 175. The future and conditional being formed from 
 the infinitive, e exhibit, where the latter is contracted, 
 the same contracted form: 
 
 1 In other words, regular verbs are weak. Irregular verbs are 
 for the most part strong. 
 
 2 Some grammarians prefer to say that the verb has several 
 stems. 
 
 3 The secret of all variations is really change of stress. 
 
 4 Which does not exist in modern Italian. 
 
 5 Which is in fact a perfectly regular form. 
 
 6 These tenses are composed of the infinitive followed by the pres- 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 117 
 
 Dir§. 1 shall say. Direbbe. He would say. 
 But they may be contracted when the infinitive is 
 not and cannot be : 
 
 Tenere, to hold. Terrg. I shall hold. 1 
 
 176. Those parts of the verb in which the accent 
 falls on the stem, i.e., the present, indicative and sub- 
 junctive (except the second person plural), the singular 
 imperative, and the preterite (except the second person 
 singular and the first and second persons plural) are 
 the parts oftenest irregular. The past participle is 
 also frequently irregular: 
 
 Trarre, to draw (contracted from traere); 
 
 Traggo, I draw; Trassi, I drew. 
 
 But: Traeva, I was drawing, etc., regular. 
 
 177. As we have seen (173), Italian irregular verbs 
 are, with the single exception of §ssere, regular in cer- 
 tain parts. In the model irregular verbs given below 
 those which are regular in all irregular verbs (except 
 those mentioned under 180) are marked with an 
 asterisk. 
 
 (a) Trarre (contracted from traere) , to draw, drag. 
 
 Present Participle. 
 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 *tra§ndo 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 tratto 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 traggo traiamo 
 
 trarro 3 
 
 trarremo 
 
 trai (traggi) 2 *traete 
 
 trarrai 
 
 trarrete 
 
 trae (tragge) traggono 
 
 trarra 
 
 trarranno 
 
 ent or the preterite of avere — mostrare + ho > mostrerp (literally, 
 "I have to show"), servire + §bbe> servirebbe ("he had to serve"). 
 
 1 This is because the accent, which in the infinitive falls on the 
 antepenult, preventing contraction (tenere), is in the compound 
 thrown on the penult — tenere +ho> tenere? > terrQ. Tener9 does 
 not exist in modern Italian. 
 
 2 The forms bracketed are less frequent. 
 
 3 Regularly formed from the infinitive trarre. 
 
n8 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 *traeva* *traevamo 
 
 *traevi *traevate 
 
 *traeva *traevano 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 trassi *traemmo 
 
 *traesti *traeste 
 
 trasse trassero 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 trarrei 2 trarremmo 
 
 trarresti trarreste 
 
 trarrebbe trarrfbbero 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 trai 
 
 traete 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. 
 
 tragga tragghiamo *traessi *traessimo 
 
 tragga tragghiate *traessi *traeste 
 
 tragga traggano *traesse *traessero 
 
 (6) Venire, to come. 
 
 
 Present Participle. 
 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 
 *venendo 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 venuto 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 vengo 
 
 veniamo 
 
 verr§ 
 
 verremo 
 
 vieni 
 
 *venite 
 
 verrai 
 
 verrete 
 
 viene 
 
 vfngono 
 
 verra 
 
 verranno 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 *veniva *venivamo 
 
 *veniva *venivate 
 
 *veniva *venivano 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 venni *venimmo 
 
 *venisti *veniste 
 
 venne vennero 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 verrei verremmo 
 
 verresti verreste 
 
 verrebbe verrfbbero 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 vieni venite 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. 
 
 venga (vegna) veniamo 3 *venissi *venissimo 
 
 venga (vegna) veniate *venissi *veniste 
 
 venga (vegna) vfngano (vfgnano) *venisse *venissero 
 
 1 These parts are regularly formed from the infinitive traere. 
 
 2 These parts are regularly formed from the infinitive trarre. 
 
 3 Sometimes v§nghiamo. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 119 
 
 178. In these verbs are seen three modifications of 
 the stem, or, if one prefers to call them so, three stems: 
 (1) The present stem, from which are formed the 
 present indicative and subjunctive and the impera- 
 tive; (2) The preterite stem, from which is formed 
 only the preterite, and only a part of the preterite; 
 (3) The infinitive stem, formed by a contraction of the 
 infinitive and often found where the infinitive itself 
 remains uncontracted, in the future and conditional 
 (which are irregular only in so far as they exhibit this 
 contraction). To these might be added: (4) The im- 
 perfect stem, which is in fact the original and regular 
 infinitive stem . Whether the infinitive itself or only the 
 future and conditional be contracted, the imperfect 
 indicative and subjunctive, the present participle, the 
 second person plural present indicative, the second 
 person singular and plural and the first person plural 
 of the preterite are formed from this uncontracted in- 
 finitive (or imperfect stem), and so are regular in all 
 irregular verbs. 
 
 (a) The past participle may be, but is not always, 
 irregular. The Latin forms often explain and impress 
 upon the memory the Italian irregularities : 
 
 tratto < tractum , detto < dictum , etc. 
 
 (b) The second person plural present indicative 
 might be called irregular only in the verbs dare, dire 
 (s'ssere 1 ), fare, stare, for which see 180. The impera- 
 tive usually follows the present indicative. It may 
 be, although it is not often, irregular. Where it is 
 so, as, for instance, in the verb sapere, it follows the 
 present subjunctive: 
 
 1 Which is entirely irregular. 
 
120 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 sapete, you know; sappiate, you may know. 
 sappiate, know (ye). 1 
 
 (c) It will be observed that in the model verbs as 
 in many others, the first person singular and the 
 third person plural of the present differ slightly in 
 their irregularity from the other persons of that tense, 
 and that the present subjunctive follows these two 
 forms: 
 
 Traggo, traggono, tragga; vengo, v§'ngono, venga, etc. 
 
 (d) It will also be observed that all the irregular 
 forms except the future and conditional (which are 
 simply contracted forms) are strong, i.e., stressed on 
 the stem. Cf. 176. 
 
 Constructing Irregular Verbs. 
 
 179. By observing for certain verbs the remarks 
 under 180, any irregular verb (except §'ssere) may be 
 constructed after these models, the infinitive, the par- 
 ticiples, the present indicative, and the first person 
 singular of the preterite and future 2 being known. 
 
 The first person singular of the present indicative 
 gives the third person plural, 3 and the present sub- 
 junctive, except, in some verbs, the first and second 
 persons plural. The second person singular of the 
 present indicative gives the singular imperative. (Cf. 
 also 180 (3).) The first person singular of the preterite 
 gives the third persons singular and plural. 
 
 'Cf. 180(3). 
 
 2 This latter is necessary only with verbs which contract the 
 future but leave the infinitive uncontracted. Otherwise the future 
 may be formed from the infinitive. 
 
 3 Except in the verbs andare, avere, dare, fare, sapere, and stare. 
 
IRRKOULAR VKRBS. 121 
 
 Other Irregularities of Certain Verbs. 
 
 180. §ssere is, as before noted, entirely irregular, 
 and must be considered as a case apart (cf. 74). 
 It must further be remarked that : 
 
 (1) Dire (for dicere) and fare (for facere) have in 
 the second person plural of the present indicative dite 
 and fate, 1 and dare, stare, have date, state. 
 
 (2) Dare, fare, stare, form in the future and condi- 
 tional dar9, dar§i; farp, far§i; star§, star§i. This is 
 explained by the fact that these verbs are only appar- 
 ently, not really, of the first conjugation. 2 
 
 The ordinarily regular persons of the preterite and 
 the whole of the imperfect subjunctive are also slightly 
 irregular in dare and stare, the a changing to e : desti, 
 "thou gavest", demmo, "we gave", dessi, 'I might 
 give", etc.; also stesti, stemmo, steste, stessi, etc. 
 
 (3) The imperative, which ordinarily follows the 
 present indicative, is in the verbs avere, sapere, and 
 volere like the present subjunctive: abbi, abbiate; 
 sappi, sappiate; vogli, vogliate. 
 
 Verbs whose stem ends in 1, n, or r frequently drop 
 the final i of the singular imperative : 
 
 Pon ! Put it down ! 
 , Vie,n qua! Come here! 
 
 An dare, dare, dire, fare, and stare also drop this i — 
 va', da\ di', fa', sta\ 
 
 (4) Most compound verbs follow the irregularities 
 of their primary. Those that differ from it in any way 
 
 1 Cf. French dites, faites. 
 
 2 Cf . the Latin forms. 
 
122 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 are given special mention (cf . Table of Irregular Verbs, 
 fare, stare, etc.). 
 
 Impersonal Verbs. Defective Verbs. 
 
 181. A defective verb is one only certain forms of 
 which exist. 1 An impersonal verb is one used only 
 in the third person singular. Even this form has no 
 real subject (although gli is sometimes the apparent 
 subject; cf. 86, foot-note 3, and 94), since the verb 
 precludes all idea of any person or thing producing or 
 receiving the action which it denotes. Impersonal 
 verbs are either essentially so or occasionally so used. 
 Verbs essentially impersonal are: pigvere, "to rain"; 
 avvenire, "to happen"; bisognare, " to be necessary", 
 etc. 
 
 Verbs often used impersonally are: convenire, "to 
 be fitting"; parere, "to appear"; bastare, "to be 
 enough", etc.; also §ssere and fare: 
 
 Piove? No, n§vica. Is it raining? No, it is snowing. 
 
 Faceva caldo i§ri e tonava molto. It was warm yester- 
 day and it thundered a great deal. 
 
 Le piace questo po§ma? Do you like this poem? 
 
 Punto. Pare che V autore sia uno stupido. Not at all. 
 It seems as though the author were a blockhead. 
 
 |) meglio cosi. It is better thus. 
 
 (Exercises XXXII, XXXIII, and XXXIV.) 
 1 The defective verbs are included in the alphabetical list, p. 198. 
 
 * 
 
PREPOSITIONS. DEPENDENT INFINITIVES. 123 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. DEPENDENT INFINITIVES. 
 
 182. There are in Italian simple and compound prep- 
 ositions. 1 The latter may also be called prepositional 
 locutions. Many words are sometimes prepositions, 
 sometimes adverbs. 2 
 
 Simple prepositions (i.e., such as are never followed 
 by another preposition) are : 
 
 a, ad, 3 to, at. di, of, from. 
 
 con, 4 with. in, 4 in. 
 
 da, from. per, 4 for, through. 
 
 (a) To these might be added : 
 
 durante, during. malgrado, in spite of. 
 
 ecce,tto, except. mediante, by means of. 
 
 giusta, according to. salvo, except. 
 
 lungo, along, by. secondo, according to, as. 
 
 These words (under a) are not all pure prepositions, as 
 are a, con, etc. Ecce,tto is sometimes an adjective, giusta 
 an adverb, etc. 
 
 (b) Su, 5 "on", "above", only rarely takes a prepo- 
 sition after it. Cf. 187 (6). 
 
 183. Other prepositions used alone except when 
 governing a personal pronoun, in which case they are 
 followed by di, 6 are: 
 
 1 The lists, etc., in this chapter are intended for reference only. 
 
 2 All prepositions were originally adverbs. 
 
 3 A before a consonant, ad usually before a vowel. Cf. 36 (a) 
 
 4 After con, in, and per a word beginning with impure s usually 
 prefixes an i: Con iscorno, in iscuola. Cf. 36 (6). 
 
 5 Sur before a vowel. Cf. 36 (a). 
 
 6 Cf. 186. 
 
124 ITALIAN GRAMMAR 
 
 contro, 1 against. fra (tra), among, between. 
 
 dopo, after. senza, without. 
 
 verso, toward. 
 
 (a) The usage of di before a personal pronoun is not 
 obligatory with fra (tra) and verso : 
 
 Lo far$ dopo pranzo. I shall do it after dinner. 
 
 Sono venuti dopo di me. They came after me. 
 
 |) rimasto senza danaro. He was without money. 
 
 Mia figlia non pu§ andare senza di me. My daughter 
 cannot go without me. 
 
 II loro astio era tanto acre contro di lei quanto contro 
 Raimondo. Their wrath was as fierce against her as 
 against Raymond. 
 
 But: Fra noi or fra di noi, "among us"; Verso lui or 
 v§rsodilui, "toward him". 
 
 184. The following prepositions are usually followed 
 
 by a: 
 
 accanto, 2 ) , . . attraverso, across. 
 
 , \ beside, near. J ' ... . . 
 
 accgsto, ) avanti (davanti), m front 
 
 addgsso, 3 upon (one's back), (of). 
 
 about. conforme, according (to). 
 
 allato, beside. davanti, ) , . 
 
 _ ,. . . ,. -. . \ before. 
 
 a m§zzo (111 mezzo), m the dinanzi, ) 
 
 midst (of). dintorno (intorno), around. 
 
 appetto, facing, opposite. dirimpetto, opposite. 
 
 appresso, near, beside. entro, within (of time). 
 
 attorno, around. fino, 4 until, as far as. 
 
 ^f. 186. 
 
 2 Takes also di. 
 
 3 Also an adverb. Used in many idioms where it cannot be trans- 
 lated, as: Ha f§bbre addpsso, "he has fever". 
 
 4 Used also with da and with in: Andrg fino a Fir^nze, "he will 
 go as far as Florence"; Non 1' ho visto fino da i§ri, "I have not 
 seen him since yesterday"; Vado fino in cima, "I am going to 
 the top". 
 
PREPOSITIONS. DEPENDENT INFINITIVES. 125 
 
 innanzi, before. [around, inquanto, ) 
 incirca (or circa), about, in riguardo, - in regard (to). 
 in faccia, opposite. in risp§tto, ) 
 
 in fondo, at the end, bottom, ras^nte, close (to, by), 
 in the midst. vicino, near (by). 
 
 (a) Insi§me, "together ", usually takes con, occasionally a. 
 
 185. The following prepositions and prepositional 
 locutions are usually followed by di : 
 
 a causa, ) a malgrado, notwithstand- 
 a motivo, > on account (of). 1 ing. 
 
 a ragione, ) appi§, at the foot (of). 
 
 al di la, on the other side ad onore, in honor (of). 
 
 (of). ad onta, in spite (of). 
 
 al di qua, this side (of). in cambio, in exchange. 
 
 a dispetto, in spite (of). . in luogo, \ instead (of) 
 
 a favore, in the favor (of). invece, j 
 
 a fcjrza, by means (of), with per m§zzo, by means (of). 
 
 much. prima, before. 
 fuqri or alP infugri, outside (of). 
 
 186. The following take either a or di, di preferably 
 before a personal pronoun 2 : 
 
 contro (contra), against. oltre, beyond, besides. 
 
 dentro, within. pre,sso, near, close by. 
 
 di§tro, behind. sopra, above. 
 
 in m§zzo, in the midst. sotto, beneath. 
 
 187. The following take da : 
 
 di la, that side. di qua, this side. 
 
 (a) The following take da or di: 
 
 giu, down. lontano, ) r 
 
 , . > far. 
 lungi, ) 
 
 (b) Giu, ''down' and su, "up", may also be fol- 
 owed by per, especially if they are preceded by di : 
 
 1 It will be observed that many of these take "of" in English. 
 
 2 Cf. 183. 
 
126 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Correvano giu per la scesa. They were running down 
 the slope. 
 
 Egli ha preso di su per la collina. He has taken the up- 
 hill road. 
 
 1 88. Prepositions regularly precede the word gov- 
 erned. The simple prepositions are usually repeated 
 before each of several substantives governed 1 : 
 
 II padre di Giovanni e di Giuseppe. The father of John 
 and Joseph. 
 
 Carico d* anni e d J onori. Loaded with years and honors. 
 
 Idiomatic Distinctions. 
 
 189. The usage and meaning of prepositions is in 
 all languages most idiomatic. It can be thoroughly 
 learned only by careful observation and long practice. 
 The following paragraphs show different renderings for 
 the commoner English prepositions. 
 
 190. About. 
 
 (1) In the sense of "around" = attorn o a, intorno a, 
 dintorno a: 
 
 Andava solo attorno alia chi§sa. He went alone about 
 the church. 
 
 (2) In the sense of "concerning" = di, a: 
 Parlavamo di lui. We were talking about him. 
 A che C9sa pensa? What are you thinking about ? 
 
 (3) In the sense of ' approximately "= circa, pr§sso 
 a pQco, su, in su, da: 
 
 V* §'rano circa due ce,nto ugmini. There were about two 
 hundred men. 
 
 Che ora §? Sono le undid pr^sso a poco. What time is 
 it? About eleven. 
 
 1 Cf. 46. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. DEPENDENT INFINITIVES. 127 
 
 Verra sul fare del giorno. He will come about day- 
 break. 
 
 Aveva in tasca da ottoc§nto lire. He had about eight 
 hundred lire in his pocket. 
 
 191. After. 
 
 (1) Denoting place and time = dopo, dopo di: 
 Uno dopo Paltro. One after the other. 
 
 Dopo tre o,re. After three hours. 
 
 Chi verra dopo di me? Who will come after me? 
 
 Dopo di aver esitato lungamente — Che hai? domandg. 
 After having hesitated a long time he asked: What is 
 wrong with you? 
 
 (2) In the sense of "according to" =a, secondo: 
 Alia mo, da di Francia. After the French fashion. 
 Secondo l'uso ordinario. After the ordinary custom. 
 
 (3) Unclassified: 
 
 Di giorno in giorno. Day after day. 
 In somma (in fine). After all. 
 
 192. At. 
 
 (1) Denoting time = a, less often in: 
 Ven*9 alle die,ci. I shall come at ten o'clock. 
 Alia fine ! At last ! 
 
 5 m9rto in eta di venti anni. He died at the age of 
 twenty. 
 
 (2) Denoting place = a, in: 
 
 A (or in) casa ngstra. At our house. 
 La figtta § in mare. The fleet is at sea. 
 
 (3) In the sense of "at the house of " =da: 
 
 Sta dalla Signora Stardi. He is living (or staying) at 
 the house of Mrs. S. 
 
 (4) Unclassified : 
 
 A ragione di die,ci per ce,nto. At the rate of ten per cent. 
 Ci va dell* onor mio. My honor is at stake. 
 
128 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 193. Because of. 
 
 = a causa di, per motivo di: 
 A causa della sua stanchezza. Because of her fatigue. 
 
 194. Before. 
 
 (1) Denoting time = prima di, innanzi (a), di- 
 nanzi a: 
 
 Parti prima di me. He left before me. 
 
 Innanzi quel tempo, or innanzi a quel tempo. Before 
 that time. 
 
 Dinanzi a me non fur cgse create. Before me was noth- 
 ing created. 
 
 (2) Denoting place = davanti, dinanzi: 
 
 Davanti {or dinanzi) al giudice. Before the judge, in 
 the presence of the judge. 
 
 195. By. 
 
 (1) Denoting the agent after a passive = da: 
 
 Lo scolare venne punito dal maestro. The pupil was pun- 
 ished by the teacher, 
 (a) Or descriptive = di : 
 Fu ferito di una spada. He was wounded by a sword. 
 
 (2) Denoting way, means, etc. =per: 
 |) venuta per la posta. It came by post. 
 Viaggia per te,rra. He is traveling by land. 
 
 Lo afferr^ pel vestito. He seized him by his clothes. 
 
 (3) Denot'ng measure = di, su: 
 
 Piu grande di due pie,di. Bigger by two feet. 
 Due metri su quattro. Two meters by four. 
 
 (4) Denoting manner = da : 
 
 L' ho fatto da me. I did it by myself. 
 
 (5) In the sense of '"beside" =accanto a: 
 |)ra seduto accanto a lui. I was sitting beside him. 
 
 (6) Unclassified: 
 Di giorno e di notte. By day and by night. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. DEPENDENT INFINITIVES. 129 
 
 Lo conosco di vista. I know him by sight. 
 A due per vglta. Two by two. 
 Imparatelo a mente. Learn it by heart. 
 Mugiono a migliaia. They are dying by thousands. 
 La riconosco al color dei capelli. I know her by the color 
 of her hair. 
 
 196. For. 
 
 (1) In the sense of "instead of", "on account of" = 
 per: 
 
 L' hQ fatto per l§i. I did it for you. 
 L' ho, preso per suo frate.Ho. I took him for his brother. 
 IJccone uno per voi. Here is one for you. 
 Bisogna partire per Pisa. We must start for Pisa. 
 I mi§i consigli li serbo per me. I keep my own counsel, 
 I keep my opinions to myself. 
 
 (2) Denoting duration of past time = da: 
 
 Dimora a Roma da molti anni. He has been living in 
 Rome for many years. 
 
 Li cercava da tre mesi. He has been looking for them 
 for three months. 
 
 (3) Denoting duration of present time = per, durante 
 — or " for" is often not rendered at all in Italian : 
 
 Gemmati §ra andato a Pistoia per un paio di giorni. G. 
 had gone to Pistoia for a couple of days. 
 Durante s§i anni. For six years. 
 Restera quattro mesi. He will remain for four months. 
 
 197. From. 
 
 (1) Denoting separation = da, di 1 : ' 
 V§ngo da Parigi. I come from Paris. 
 
 Partii subito di casa. I left home at once. 
 
 (2) Denoting the time from which = fin da: 
 
 1 The separation is more forcibly expressed by da. Cf. 213, 
 Remark 2. 
 
130 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Fin da quel momento non ne parlg piu. From that mo- 
 ment he spoke no more of it. 
 (3) Denoting cause =di: 
 Soffre di nevralgia. She is suffering from neuralgia. 
 
 198. In, into. 
 
 (1) Denoting time or place = in: 
 
 * Avenne in marzo. It happened in March. 
 
 5 andato in campagna. He has gone into the country. 
 Mettetevelo in tasca. Put it in your pocket. 
 
 (2) In the sense of "within" in speaking of time = 
 
 fra: 
 
 Verranno fra due giorni. They will come in two days. 
 
 (3) Denoting place after a superlative, also the time 
 of day (morning, afternoon, etc.) =di: 
 
 |) il piu b§l paese del mondo. It is the most beautiful 
 country in the world. 
 
 IJrano le tre del dopopranzo. It was three in the after- 
 noon. 
 
 (4) In description = di : 
 
 IJrano vestite di bianco. They were dressed in white. 
 
 (5) Unclassified: 
 
 |) a casa? Is he in? 
 Avanti! Come in! 
 
 ]Jra ci§co da un (Jcchio. He was blind in one eye. 
 Stava colla spada alia mano. He stood sword in 
 hand. 
 
 199. Of. 
 (i)=di: 
 
 Alcuni di loro sono degP ingrati. Some of them are un- 
 grateful. 
 
 |) un ugmo d* ingegno. He is a man of talent. 
 
 (2) Unclassified: 
 
 II cugre mi batteva come ad un ragazzo di quindici 
 anni. My heart beat like that of a lad of fifteen. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. DEPENDENT INFINITIVES. 131 
 
 200. On. 
 
 (1) =su sur before a vowel), sopra fsovra) 1 : 
 
 II quaderno § sulla tavola. |) sur un altro quaderno. 
 
 (2) Unclass fled : 
 
 Alia d§stra. On the right. 
 Suona il violino. He plays (on) the violin. 
 II pranzo § in tavola. Dinner is on the table. 
 Tutti gli Qcchi §ran fissi in lui. All eyes were fixed on him. 
 Vive di pane. He lives on bread. 
 In punto di pi§di. On tiptoe. 
 
 II progr§sso e la verita. sono dalla parte ngstra. Progress 
 and truth are on our side. 
 
 201. Out of. 
 
 (1) =di: 
 
 Toglietevelo di t§sta. Get it out of your head. 
 
 (2) =da 2 : 
 
 B§vo da una tazza. I am drinking out of a cup. 
 
 (3) In the sense of ''no longer of" ^futjri di: 
 Quello § fuQri dell' uso. That is out of use, obsolete. 
 
 202. Through. 
 
 (1) Denoting passage = per, a trav§rso : 
 
 Se passa per Roma faccia una visita alia mia cognata. If 
 you pass through Rome pay my sister-in-law a visit. 
 
 Una palla ha passato a trav§rso il co,rpo. A ball has 
 passed through the body. 
 
 ]Jra ritornato per le scorciatoie. He had come back 
 through (by) the short cuts. 
 
 (2) In the sense of ''because of" =per: 
 
 L J ho, fatto per trascuranza. I did it through careless- 
 ness. 
 
 Questa politica riusci per la profonda necessita di riposo 
 sentita da tutta V Eurgpa. This political policy succeeded 
 on account of the profound need of rest felt by all Europe. 
 1 Sopra also="over". 2 Cf . 213, Remark 2. 
 
132 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 203. Till, until. 
 = fino a, sino a: 
 
 Vi star§ fino a domani alia sera. I shall stay there until 
 to-morrow evening. 
 
 204. To. 
 
 (1) Denoting the indirect object = a (ad before a 
 vowel) : 
 
 L' I19 dato ad un mio amico. I gave it to a friend. 
 
 (2) Denoting the end of motion often = in : 
 
 Sono andati in 1 Francia. They have gone to France. 
 |) caduto in t§rra. It has fallen to the ground. 
 
 (3) In the sense of "to the house of " or to a person 
 = da: 
 
 Sono andati dal Signor Bardi. They have gone to Mr.B.'s. 
 
 (4) In the sense of "towards" =ve,rso: 
 
 Con amore verso Dio e vgrso gli ugmini. With love to 
 God and man. 
 
 (5) In the sense of " within" =fra: 
 Dissi fra me. I said to myself. 
 
 205. Towards. 
 
 = verso. Cf. 204 (4). 
 
 206. Under, underneath. 
 = sotto, di sotto: 
 
 |) sotto la tavola. Guardate sotto di voi. Cf. 186. 
 
 207. With. 
 
 (1) In the sense of "along with "= con or insifme 
 con 2 : 
 
 Vanno con noi, or Vanno insie,me con noi. 2 They are 
 going with us. 
 
 ( 2 ) Denoting instrumentality = con : 
 
 1 In is so used before the name of a country, never before that 
 of a city: Sono andati a Parigi. 
 
 2 Or insieme a. Cf. 184 (a). 
 
PREPOSITIONS. DEPENDENT INFINITIVES. 133 
 
 L' ha fatto con una semplice matita. He did it with an 
 
 ordinary pencil. 
 
 (3) Descriptive = a, da, di, or con: 
 
 L' uo,mo ai (dai, coi) capelli canuti. The gray-haired man. 
 Col suo pugnale del manico b§llo. With his dagger with 
 the beautiful handle. 
 
 Cammina a capo chino. He walks with bowed head. 
 
 (4) In the sense of 'at the house of", etc. =da: 
 Dimorava molti anni da 1 noi. He lived many years with 
 
 us. 
 
 (5) "With" of specification = di : 
 
 Fu punito di mgrte. He was punished with death. 
 
 (6) In the sense of "from", "on account of", and 
 after a number of verbs and adjectives =di: 
 
 Piangeva di rabbia. She was weeping with rage. 
 § dotato di molti talenti. He is endowed with many 
 talents. 
 
 (7) Unclassified: 
 
 Che fece delle f^rbici? What did she do with the 
 scissors ? 
 
 208. Within. 
 
 (1) In the sense of 'inside of" = dentro (di, a) : 
 Dentro di me. Within me. 
 
 ■ ■ 
 
 Dentro al mio cuo,re. Within my heart. 
 
 ( 2 ) In the sense of ' ' between " , "in the course of " = 
 fra (tra), dentro: 
 
 Fra 2 (or dentro a) queste mura. Within these walls. 
 Fra tre giorni. Within three days. 
 
 209. Without. 
 
 (1) In the sense of "outside of" =fu9ri di: 
 Fugri delle mura. Without the walls. 
 
 (2) Denoting deprivation =senza: 
 
 *Cf. 213. »Cf. 204 (5). 
 
134 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Senza l'assistenza di nessuno. Without the assistance of 
 anybody. 
 
 Use of a, di, and da. 
 
 210. Since a, di, and da are the prepositions oftenest 
 used, and since they are often used where they have in 
 English no equivalent, special instruction concerning 
 their use is necessary. 
 
 211. A is used in general to express an idea of direc- 
 tion towards, often where there is no such notion in 
 English. It is used: 
 
 (i) To indicate the indirect object, — that to or for 
 which the action is performed: 
 Datemelo a me. Give it to me. 
 Fammi questo favore a me. Do me this favor. 
 
 (2) Before an infinitive after verbs of motion, also 
 after verbs of accustoming, attaining, beginning, com- 
 pelling, continuing, hastening, helping, learning, pre- 
 paring, and teaching. All these verbs express direc- 
 tion towards some goal. A in this case renders English 
 "to" or "and": 
 
 Andiamo a vederlo. Let us go and see him. 
 
 M' §ra abituato ad andarvi. I was in the habit of going 
 there. 
 
 Cominciarono a parlarne. They began to speak of it. 
 
 Seguitava a seccarmi. He went on boring me. 
 
 I piccini imparavano a scrivere. The children were 
 learning to write. 
 
 Insegno a mio frat§llo a l§'ggere. I am teaching my 
 brother to read. 
 
 (3) In general after verbs which imply direction 
 towards, as: 
 
 Avvicinati a me. Come near me. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. DEPENDENT INFINITIVES. 135 
 
 Si appgggia al muro. He is leaning against the wall 
 And especially after the verbs: 
 
 abituarsi, to accustom one's parlare, to speak. 
 
 self (to). 
 darsi, to become addicted 
 
 (to). 
 domandare, to ask, demand 
 
 of a person, [cards, etc.). 
 giuocare, to play (games, 
 
 Domandi al padrone. Ask the master. 
 
 Parliamo a quell' ugmo. Let us speak to that man. 
 
 Pensate a noi. Think of us. 
 
 Oggi tocca a loro. It is their turn to-day. 
 
 (4) Before the following adjectives (which, it will 
 be observed, express also in English the relation "to" 
 or "for"): 
 
 pensare, 1 to think of (a per- 
 son). 
 
 riflgttere, to reflect. 
 
 sopravvivere, to outlive. 
 
 toccare, 1 to concern, to fall 
 to the lot of. 
 
 attgnto, attentive. 
 atto, apt, fit. 
 awezzo, accustomed. 
 bugno (in the sense of 
 
 "able". Cf. 82, Remark). 
 caro, dear. 
 
 conforme, like, conformable. 
 contrario, contrary, inimical. 
 conveniente, convenient, 
 
 suitable. [ing. 
 
 corrispondente, correspond- 
 dannoso, prejudicial. 
 disposto, disposed. 
 eguale, equal. 
 fedele, faithful. 
 grato, pleasing. 
 
 harmful. 
 
 inclinato, inclined. 
 inferiore, inferior. 
 necessario, necessary. 
 nocevole, ) 
 nocivo, ) 
 ngto, known. 
 odioso, hateful. 
 pericoloso, dangerous. 
 preparato, prepared. 
 pronto, ready. 
 
 proporzionato, proportioned. 
 prgprio, proper, peculiar. 
 simile, similar. 
 superiore, superior. 
 utile, useful. 
 vicino, near. 
 
 1 Only when the verb has this sense. 
 
136 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (5) After a noun followed by another noun descrip- 
 tive of or limiting the first (but not indicative of 
 material, in which case di is used, 212, or purpose, 
 which is expressed by da, 213). 
 
 Usually the two nouns form in English a compound 
 noun: 
 
 Una barca a vela. A sailboat. 
 
 ■ 
 
 Una scala a lumaca. A winding stairway. 
 Uno sgab§llo a tre pi§di. A three-legged stool. 
 Una macchina a vapore. A steam-engine. 
 
 (6) In a number of idioms, such as: 
 L§ggere ad alta voce. To read aloud. 
 Averselo a male. To take a thing ill. 
 A prima giunta. At first. 
 
 Non potere a meno di. Not to be able to help. 
 
 212. Di expresses in general a sense of possession. 
 It is used to indicate the person possessing, also some 
 quality possessed, as the material of which an article 
 is made, its origin, nationality, or other character- 
 istic : 
 
 La casa del mio amico. My friend's house. 
 
 Un an§llo d* gro. A gold ring ( = ring of gold). 
 
 Vino di Sciampagna. Champagne ( = wine from Cham- 
 pagne). 
 
 L' ambasciatore di Svizzera. The Swiss ambassador. 
 
 (a) The sense of description, of a quality possessed, 
 is also expressed in many cases where the first noun is 
 modified by a second : 
 
 Un chilogramma di burro. A kilogram of butter. 
 
 Una tazza di t|. A cup of tea. 
 
 Un bambino di cinque anni. A child of five years. 
 
 La strada di Roma. The road to Rome. 
 
 Un maestro di scugla. A schoolmaster. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. DEPENDENT INFINITIVES. 
 
 137 
 
 Male di te,sta. Headache. 
 
 Col suo pugnale del manico be,llo. With his dagger with 
 the beautiful handle. 
 It is further used : 
 
 (1) Before an infinitive after all verbs except those 
 specified under 211 (2) and 214: 
 
 Cerc9 di richiamare gV Italiani all' indipende,nza. He 
 sought to recall the Italians to a state of independence. 
 
 Sapeva che suo padre smetteva di scrivere a mezzan^tte. 
 He knew that his father stopped writing at midnight. 
 
 (a) In some cases the di may be omitted : 
 
 Non sapete, o fingete non saper in quale stato voi n.i las- 
 ciate. C§rto, fingo di non saperlo, ma so,. 1 
 
 (2) After the following verbs (and others less com- 
 mon) : 
 
 abbisognare, j to have 
 
 avere bisogno, ) need (of). 
 
 abbondare, to abound (in). 
 
 abusare, to abuse, make an 
 ill use (of). 
 
 burlarsi, to make fun (of). 
 
 congratularsi, to congratu- 
 late (one on something). 
 
 contentarsi, to content one's 
 self (with). 
 
 divertirsi, to amuse one's 
 self (with). 
 
 dubitare, to doubt (of). 
 
 fidarsi, to trust, have confi- 
 dence (in). 
 
 impadronirsi, to take pos- 
 session (of). 
 
 take 
 
 upon 
 
 incaricarsi, to 
 
 one's self. 
 informarsi, to inform one's 
 
 self (of). 
 int§ndersi, to understand, 
 
 have skill (in). 
 lagnarsi, ) to complain 
 lamentarsi, } (of). 
 maravigliarsi, to wonder 
 
 (at). 
 occuparsi, to occupy one's 
 
 self (with). 
 pentirsi, to repent (of). 
 profittare, to profit (by). 
 ricordarsi, to remember. 
 ridere, to laugh (at). 
 ridersi, to make fun (of). 
 
 1 Goldoni, II Vero Amico, 11,3. 
 
138 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (3) After many adjectives, such as: 
 
 abbondante, abundant, rich meritevole, deserving. 
 
 (in). pago, contented (with). 
 
 ammalato, ill. pi§ n o, full (of). 
 
 avido, greedy, desirous (of), ptjvero, poor (in). 
 
 capace, 1 capable (of). • ricco, rich (in). 
 
 certo, 1 certain (of). soddisfatto, satisfied (with). 
 
 contento, contented (with). vestito, clothed (with). 
 
 degno, worthy (of). vugto, empty. 
 fecondo, fruitful. etc. 
 
 (4) To express the partitive sense (cf . 47 and 48) : 
 Ho dei fiori. I have some flowers. 
 
 ■ • 
 
 (5) In comparisons (cf. 126) : 
 
 Mi piace questo vino piu dell' altro. I like this wine bet- 
 ter than the other. 
 
 Se n' and§, facendo a d<jn Abbondio un inclino men pro- 
 fondo del s^lito. He went away, making Don A. a less pro- 
 found bow than usual. 
 
 (6) Before a noun in apposition: 
 
 Quel benedett* uomo del signor curato! That blessed 
 curate ! 
 
 (7) In many adverbial expressions, such as: 
 
 Di ngtte. At night. Dire di si, di 119. To say 
 
 Di primavera. In Spring- yes, no. 
 Di vista. By sight, [time. etc. 
 
 213. Da denotes (a) the agency by which. It also 
 expresses in general (b) a sense of removal, of sepa- 
 ration from: 
 
 (a) |) una macchina fatta da lui. It is a machine made 
 by him. 
 
 Essa § lodata da tutti. She is praised by every one. 
 
 1 Also incapace, incejrto. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. DEPENDENT INFINITIVES. 139 
 
 (b) Sono partiti i§ri da Roma. They left Rome yester- 
 day. 
 
 Essendo lontano dalla patria. Being far from my native 
 land. 
 
 Remarks, (i) It is evident that da is frequently used 
 (a) with passive verbs; (b) with verbs denoting departure, 
 or separation (also with adjectives denoting deprivation 
 and the like; cf. (/) below). 
 
 (2) There are many cases in which either da or di may 
 be used. There is, however, a shade of difference. In 
 Sono partito di Roma, Rome is thought of principally as 
 the point of departure, whereas in Sono partito da Roma, 
 more stress is laid upon the fact of the removal, the sepa- 
 ration from Rome. There are also cases where either di, 
 da, or a may be used. 1 
 
 Da is further used : 
 
 (c) To denote motion towards or rest by a person 2 : 
 V^glio andare da mio ngnno. I want to go to my grand- 
 father's. 
 
 Sta da noi. He is stopping at our house. 
 
 (d) To express adaptation, destination, fitness, etc. : 
 Una camera da letto. A bedroom. 
 
 Carta da scrivere. Writing-paper. 
 
 Una ragazza da maritare. A girl of marriageable age, 
 a marriageable girl. 
 
 Una tazza da t§. A tea-cup. (Cf. tazza di t§, " cup of 
 tea"). 
 
 If uo,mo da farlo. He is a man capable of doing it, he 
 is the man to do it. 
 
 Dammi da bere. Give me something to drink. 
 
 (e) Also in a peculiar way, where it can best be ren- 
 dered into English by "as a", "like a" 3 : 
 
 Parlate da scio,cco. You are talking like a fool. 
 
 ' Cf . 207 (3) • 2 Cf . 192 (3) , and 207 ( 4 ) • 3 Cf. 49 (3) • 
 
140 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ha veduto la Duse da Camelia? Have you seen Duse as 
 
 Camille ? 
 
 Egli ti fara da padre. He will be a father to you. 
 
 (/) With adjectives of separation, deprivation, and 
 the like, as 1 : 
 
 ali§no, foreign, averse. indipendente, independent. 
 
 distante, distant. lontano, far, remote. 
 
 diverso, different. 
 
 Dependent Infinitives. 
 
 214. The following verbs rule a dependent infinitive 
 directly, i.e., English "to" is not to be translated: 
 
 ardire, to dare. parere, to appear, seem. 
 
 bastare, to suffice. occorrere, to be necessary. 
 
 bisognare, to need. osare, to dare. 
 
 convenire, to be suitable. potere, to be able. 
 
 desiderare, to desire. sapere, to know. 
 
 dovere, to owe, must, ought, sentire, to feel, hear. 
 
 §'ssere d* ugpo, ) to be need- vedere, to see. 
 
 §ssere mesti§ri, ) ful. volere, to wish. 
 
 lasciare, to let, allow. udire, to hear. 2 
 
 It will be observed that most of these verbs might 
 be called modal auxiliaries in the wider sense of the 
 term. 
 
 Bisogna farlo subito. It must be done at once, it is 
 necessary to do it at once. 
 
 N9, non conviene farlo. No, it is not proper to do it. 
 
 Desidera partire ade^sso? Do you desire to go now? 
 
 N9, vcjglio partire alia sera. No, I want to go in the 
 evening. 
 
 1 Cf. (b) above. 
 
 2 Bramare, "to long for", and dubitare, "to doubt", also some- 
 times rule the infinitive directly. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. DEPENDENT INFINITIVES. 141 
 
 I bambini non sanno ancora discorrere. The children 
 cannot yet talk. 
 
 S119I venire alle s§i. He usually comes at six. 
 
 Avremmo dovuto saperlo. We ought to have known it. 
 
 215. After verbs of motion and those others men- 
 tioned under 211 (2), English "to" before an infinitive 
 is to be rendered by a, otherwise by di (212 (1)), except: 
 
 (a) "to" in the sense of "in order to", i.e., denot- 
 ing purpose, which = per 1 ; 
 
 (b) "to" in the sense of "something to", also "to' 
 denoting duty or necessity, which = da 2 : 
 
 D§vo partire subito per arrivare a t§mpo. I must leave 
 at once in order to arrive in good time. 
 
 C §rano scale da scendere e salire, lunghi corridoi da 
 percorrere, cortili da attraversare. There were stairs to 
 be descended and ascended, long corridors to be passed 
 through, courtyards to be crossed. 
 
 V^ngano tutti, non c' § da temere! Come, all of you! 
 There is nothing to be afraid of ! 
 
 Aspettavamo per vedere il tramonto. We were waiting 
 to see the sunset. 
 
 Quello che ha da fare § cgsa di poco tempo. What he 
 has to do is an affair of a short time. 
 
 Non m' ha da pr^mere la mia vita. My life need not be 
 a burden to me. 
 
 Quanti conti s' ha da r^ndere ! How many accounts must 
 be given ! 3 
 
 Io gli dava da bere. I gave him something to drink. 
 
 1 Stare or §ssere per = "to be about to do anything". Cf. 81 (a). 
 It is evident that after a verb of motion either a or per may often 
 
 be used. 
 
 2 Cf . avere da = " to have to " , 84 (b) . 
 
 3 This construction is often best translated by an English pas- 
 sive. 
 
142 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ha qualche 095a da fare? Si, ho. moltissimo da fare. 
 
 Have you anything to do? Yes, I have a great deal to do. 
 
 216. A preposition placed after a verb often modi- 
 fies its meaning: 
 
 assistere, to aid; assistere a, to be present at. 
 
 cercare, to seek; cercare di, to seek after. 
 
 credere, to believe; credere a, to believe in (a person). 1 
 
 domandare, to ask; domandare a, to ask of (a person); 
 domandare di, to ask after (a person). 
 
 giocare, to play; giocare a, to play at (a game). 
 
 pensare, to think; pensare a, to think of (a person); pen- 
 sare su, to reflect. 
 
 toccare, to touch; toccare a, to be the turn of, etc. 
 
 (Exercises XXXV and XXXVI.) 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS, MOODS AND TENSES. 
 
 217. Following are the simple conjunctions: 
 
 anche, also. 2 0, or (0 . . . 0, either . . . or). 
 
 che, that. ma, ) , 
 
 but. 
 
 
 come, as. per $, 
 
 e, and (e . . . e, both . . . and), pure, yet. 
 
 ne, neither (ne . . .n§, neither se, if, whether. 
 .. .nor). 
 
 2 18. Following are the principal secondary conjunc- 
 tions, also words sometimes conjunctions and some- 
 times relative adverbs and conjunctional locutions: 
 
 1 But credere in Dio, in Cristo. 
 
 2 Anche, che, also nemmeno and neppure elide the final vowel 
 before e and i. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS, MOODS AND TENSES. 
 
 J 43 
 
 after, 1 dopo che (dop chfc), 
 P9scia che. 
 
 although, ancorche, avvegna 
 che, benche, non stante 
 che, quantunque, sebb§ne. 
 
 as, 2 siccome ; as ... as, cosi . . . 
 come, quale . . . tale, tanto 
 ... .quanto, etc. (Cf. 121.) 
 
 the more so as, tanto piu che. 
 
 as for, in quanto a. 
 
 as if, come se, comecche, 
 quasi. 
 
 as long as, tanto, tantoche, 
 fin tanto. 
 
 because, perche, perciocche. 
 
 but rather, but indeed, 
 bensi. 
 
 even, anche, anzi, pure. 
 
 even, if, anche se, ancorche, 
 quando anche. 
 
 except, salvo che, fuorche, 
 ecc§tto che non. 
 
 except that, se non che. 
 
 for, che. 
 
 given that, granted that, 
 dato che, semprechfe. 
 
 however, per quanto, quan- 
 tunque, tuttavia. 
 
 if, se, quando. 
 
 if only, soloche. 
 incase,caso,incaso,casomai. 
 in spite of the fact that, mal- 
 
 grado che. 
 in order that, accioche, affin- 
 
 che, affine di, perche. 
 nevertheless, nondimeno, 
 nulladimeno, tuttavia, ci^ 
 non ostante. 
 nor. . . either, nemmeno, nep- 
 
 pure. 
 notwithstanding that, non- 
 ostante che, malgrado che. 
 on condition that, a condi- 
 
 zione che, a patto che. 
 or, ovvero, ossia. 
 or else, ossia. 
 provided that, purche. 
 rather, anzi, anzi che. 
 rather than, piuttosto che. 
 since (causal), giacche, poi- 
 
 che. 
 since (temporal), dacche. 
 so, and so, so then, adunque, 
 
 dunque. 
 so that, di modo che, sicch^. 3 
 supposing that, posto che, 
 
 supposto che. 
 than, che, di. 4 
 
 1 The English equivalent is placed first to facilitate reference. 
 
 2 For "as" = "while", "as" ="since", cf. "while", "since". 
 In other cases "as" =" that which": Fece quel che la madre le 
 comand9. She did as her mother bade her. 
 
 3 Cf. also "in order that" above. 
 
 4 Cf. 126. 
 
144 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 until, finche, finche non, sino 
 
 a che, infino a. 
 whence, per !o che. 
 whereas, considerando che. 
 whether, se, sia, sia che. 
 while, whilst, mentre che. 
 yet, nulladimeno,pure, perg. 
 
 that che; that is, cio§. 
 therefore, dunque, perci9, 
 
 quindi. 
 though, benche, ancorche, 
 
 quantunque. 
 unless, a meno che, a meno 
 
 7 ■ ■ * ■ 
 
 che non, ecettuato che, se 
 non. 
 
 m 
 
 219. The following are sometimes followed by the 
 subjunctive, sometimes by the indicative (cf. 233) : 
 anche se, even if. onde, wherefore. 
 
 ■ 7 ■ * 
 
 appena che, as soon as. quando, ) r 
 
 di modo che, so that. se, i 
 
 dopoche, after. tantoche, as long as. 
 
 finche, until. tostoche, as soon as. 
 
 • 7 ■ * 
 
 220. The following are always followed by the sub- 
 junctive (cf. 232 (5)): 
 
 accioche, ) . , , - - ) notwith- 
 
 _ ,, }• m order that. malgrado che, ,. 
 
 arnnche, V > standing 
 
 ' . ' , . , , non ostante che, I ^ 
 
 a condizione che, provided ' ; that. 
 
 that. perche, in order that. 
 
 a meno che non, unless. posto che, supposing that. 
 
 ancorche, even if. prima che, before. 
 
 a patto che, on condition purche, provided that. 
 
 that. 
 avanti che, before. 
 awegna che, ) „, 
 
 bencS, ' J" alth0Ugh 
 caso (che), in case. 
 
 come se, as if. 
 
 dato che, granted that. 
 
 eccetto che non, unless. 
 
 finche non, until. 
 
 quandanche, even if. 
 quantunque, although. 
 quasi, as if. 
 sebbene, although. 
 sempreche, provided. 
 senza che, except. 
 soloche, if only, provided 
 
 that. 
 supposto che, supposing that. 
 
MOODS AND TENSES. 145 
 
 MOODS AND TENSES. 
 The Infinitive. 
 
 221. The infinitive is a verbal noun. As a noun it 
 may be accompanied by an article and governed by a 
 preposition, and as a verb it mav at the same time 
 rule an object: 
 
 II l§'ggere dei buoni libri § utile alia gioventu. Reading 
 good books is useful to the young. 
 
 Mi secca ol suo ete,rno chiacchierare. She bores me with 
 her ceaseless chattering. 
 
 II non aver egli risposto mi fece dubitare. His not hav- 
 ing answered made me feel doubtful. 
 
 (a) The infinitive used as a noun is usually to be 
 rendered in English by the present participle. Cf. 222. 
 
 (b) The article may be omitted with the infinitive 
 as with any other noun (Cf. 45 (4)). It is also usually 
 omitted after the prepositions di, dopo di, invece di, 
 prima di, and senza: 
 
 Cominciare § mostrare, a pnjprio rischio e pericolo, una 
 via non battuta e da battersi. To begin is to point out, at 
 one's own risk and peril, an unbeaten road, a road that 
 must be beaten. 
 
 Scrive invece di venire. He writes instead of coming. 
 c) The infinitive after the words che, chi, come, 
 donde, dove, orms with them one substantive con- 
 cept, which may then be used as the object of a verb, 
 etc. : 
 
 Non so dove andare, ne che fare. I do not know where 
 to go nor what to do. 
 
 (d) In the same way an infinitive after § with an 
 adjective or adverb forms one concept: 
 
146 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 5 meglio non dirlo. It is better not to say it (i.e., "not- 
 to-say-it is better"). 
 
 The student should reason out the cases presented. For 
 instance : 
 
 |) piu facile criticare che far meglio. It is easier to crit- 
 icise than to do better (i.e., criticism is easier than doing 
 better). Therefore the phrase should be ats above and not: 
 |) piu facile di criticare che di far meglio. 
 
 (e) An English infinitive is often to be rendered in 
 Italian by the subjunctive. Cf. 232 (1). 
 
 The Present Participle. 
 
 222. Neither the present participle in -ante, -e,nte, 
 nor that in -ando, -endo, may ever be used as a noun. 1 
 The English present participle where it is a verbal 
 noun must be rendered by the only verbal noun exist- 
 ing in Italian, i.e., by the infinitive (cf. above, 221 
 and (a)). The question occurs with regard every 
 such English construction: Is the participle really a 
 verb or a noun? 
 
 Three categories may be distinguished : 
 
 (1) Where the participle is evidently a verb: 
 
 I saw him going to the city ( = I saw him. He was going 
 to the city). 
 
 In this case the corresponding verbal form, i.e., the 
 participle in -ando, -endo, is used: 
 
 V hg visto andando alia citta. (Or L* ho visto che andava 
 alia citta.) 
 
 (2) Where the participle is apparently, but not 
 really and necessarily, a noun. In this case it is in 
 English governed by a preposition, but an attempt 
 
 x Cf. in and 112. The -ante, -ente forms where not adjectives 
 become nouns, but they are never verbs used as nouns. 
 
MOODS AND TENSES. 147 
 
 to render the thought in another form will show that 
 the preposition is not absolutely necessary: 
 
 One learns by teaching (^Teaching one learns). 
 
 In such cases, where the preposition may be omitted, 
 although the omission may make the construction 
 awkward, the Italian participle is used as above (i) : 
 
 Inse nando s' impara. 
 
 (3) Where the English participle is necessarily a 
 noun, i.e., where it is accompanied by a preposition 
 necessary to the sense: 
 
 Before leaving he gave me a letter. 
 
 He went away without speaking to me. 
 
 I am in the habit of saying what I think. 
 
 Keep him front breaking his neck. 
 
 They are tired of so much traveling. 
 
 In this case the Italian infinitive, usually with the 
 definite article, is to be employed 1 : 
 
 Prima di partire mi di§de una l§ttera. 
 
 Se n* and§ senza parlarmi. 
 
 Ho P abitudine di dire lo che credo. 
 
 Impeditelo dal rompersi il collo. 
 
 Sono stanchi dal tanto viaggiare. 
 
 There are of course cases where either construction 
 is possible: 
 
 ColP insegnare s* impara. ) _ , „ . 
 
 , . . \ One learns (bv) teaching. 
 
 Insegnando s' imp ra. ) 
 
 1/ appetito vi§ne nel mangiare. ) Appetite comes with 
 
 L' appetito vie.ne mangiando. ) eating. 2 
 
 1 Cf . above, 221 (a) and (6). 
 
 2 But never Coll' insegnando s' impara; L' appetito vi§ne nel man- 
 giando. 
 
148 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 The Past Participle. 
 
 223. The English past participle when it follows a 
 transitive, especially a verb of perceiving, also g'ssere, 
 fare, lasciare, is to be rendered by the Italian infini- 
 tive. An English passive infinitive is also rendered 
 by the active infinitive after lasciare and often after 
 
 the preposit on da : 
 
 L' hg sentito dire. I have heard it said. 
 
 Lo vidi ammazzare. I saw him killed. 
 
 Hg fatto fare un abito. I have had a coat made. 
 
 |) un ugmo da temere. He is a man to be feared. 
 
 Non si lasciano mai vedere. They never let themselves 
 be seen. 
 
 Che cgsa § da fare? What is to be done ? 
 
 (a) The use of the passive is avoided 1 in many other 
 cases in Italian by using the infinitive : 
 
 Credevo gsser severamente ferito. I thought I was 
 severely wounded. 
 
 224. A whole protasis, relative clause, or the like, 
 is often, and elegantly, expressed in Italian by a pres- 
 ent participle, a past participle, or an infinitive: 
 
 Essgndo malata mia madre non pgsso venire. My mother 
 being ill (or: Since my mother is ill) I cannot come. 
 
 Guardandolo bgne, ne sargbbe sicuro. If he looked at 
 it well he would be sure of the matter. 
 
 Disse gsser lui ugmo ricco. He said that he was a rich 
 man. 
 
 Vedutagli tale disposizione, un fratgl suo lo tglse con se 
 a bottega. A brother of his who had seen his bent took 
 him into the shop with him. 
 
 Passata questa settamana, non m' appagherg piii di chiac- 
 
 1 The passive is much less frequent in Italian than in English. 
 Cf. 104 (a). 
 
MOODS AND TENSES. t + 
 
 chiere. Once this week is over I shall no longer content 
 myself with talk. 
 
 Dette che §bbe queste parc-le se ne and$. As soon as he 
 had said these words he went away. 
 
 A vederlo se lo credergbbe un mendicante. From his 
 appearance one would think him a beggar. 
 
 Mio padre diceva §sser difficile salvar un U91110 che non 
 voleva salvarsi lui. My father used to say that it was 
 hard to save a man who did not want to save himself. 
 
 Rendering of Past Tenses in Italian. 
 
 225. An action represented as unfinished and still 
 continuing is often expressed by the present tense: 
 
 Quant* § che si§te qui ? How long have you been here ? 
 
 Sono in Italia da s§i mesi. I have been in Italy about 
 six months. 
 
 (a) A past action if finished in the past is more 
 vividly described by the use of the present tense : 
 
 Aspettavo un' ora piu meno, eppoi §ccolo che viene. I 
 waited an hour, more or less, and then he came. 
 
 226. An action represented as: 
 
 (1) Incomplete; 
 
 (2) Habitual; 
 
 (3) Going on when some other past action took place ; 
 is expressed by the imperfect tense : 
 
 10 1' aspettava ancora. I was still waiting for him. 
 Dormivo se,mpre b§ne allora. I always slept well then. 
 
 11 cagnino seguiva ordinariamente. The little dog 
 usually followed. 
 
 Leggevo d alta voce quando egli entr^. I was read- 
 ing aloud when he entered. 
 
 227. An action represented as having taken place 
 in the past, but in a past either recently or not yet 
 
w 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 aitirely elapsed, and at a moment not definitely in- 
 dicated, is rendered by the past indefinite: 
 
 Glien' I19 parlato. I have spoken to him about it. 
 Le ha viste? Have you seen them ? 
 
 228. An action entirely past, completed in the past, 
 and which happened at a fixed time in the past, is 
 rendered by the preterite. 1 This is the Italian narra- 
 tive tense. It is more used in books or formal public 
 address than in conversation or easy correspondence: 
 
 Gli parlai un mese fa. I spoke to him a month go. 
 
 Le vidi in ottcjbre. I saw them in October. 
 
 Che be,lla gita feci ieri con mio padre ! What a delight- 
 ful excursion I took yesterday with my father! 
 
 (a) The difference in the usage of these tenses may 
 be made clearer by the following examples: 
 
 Ha perduto la sua borsa ? Have you lost (at a time not 
 indicated) your purse? 
 
 Si, ma V hq ritrovata. Yes, but I found it again. 
 
 La perdei la settimana passata, e la ritrovai i§ri V altro. 
 I lost it last week and found it again day before yesterday. 
 
 The usage of all tenses is best learned by careful 
 reading. 
 
 The Future 
 
 229. The future is used in Italian where it is not in 
 English 2 : 
 
 (1) In dependent clauses in which in English the 
 present tense really expresses futurity: 
 
 Partir§ domani se fara b§l te,mpo. I shall leave to-mor- 
 row if the weather is fine. 
 
 1 It follows that the preterite must be used after appena ch$, 
 t9sto che, "as soon as", and the like. 
 
 2 For the future of impending action, cf. 81 (a) and 215 (a). 
 
MOODS AND TENSES. 151 
 
 Quando avr§ l^tto 1 la l§ttera, ve la render^. When I have 
 read the letter I shall return it to you. 
 
 Remark. The present is used in Italian where the 
 future would be in English to describe an action more 
 vividly (cf. 225 (a)): 
 
 Vado in Germania. I shall go to Germany. 
 
 (2) To express a supposition or uncertainty: 
 Sara un riccone. He must be a very rich man. 
 Saranno se,i anni che § meco. He must have been with 
 
 me six years. 
 
 (3) Sometimes with imperative force: 
 
 Padre e madre onorerai. Thou shalt honor thy father 
 and thy mother. 
 
 Mi dirai tutto domattina. You must tell me everything 
 to-morrow morning. 
 
 The Conditional. 
 
 230. The conditional, besides denoting result de- 
 pendent on condition (i.e., what would happen in case 
 something else were to happen) is employed in Italian : 
 
 (1) To express in a reserved way a wish, request, or 
 statement : 
 
 Vorr§i andarvi. I should like to go there. 
 
 Avr§bbe la bonta di dirmelo? Would you have the good- 
 ness to tell me? 
 
 |) in casa? Non sapre.i. Is he at home ? I do not know 
 ( = he may be, but I cannot tell you). 
 
 (2) In a general way to express uncertainty: 
 Dovr§i conoscere questa signora. I ought to know this 
 
 lady ( = it seems to me I ought — do I know her?). 
 
 (a) The imperfect ind : cative is sometimes used 
 where we should expect the conditional : 
 
 The future anterior comes under the same rule as the future. 
 
152 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Se m' interrogava, gli rispondeva di ng. If he had asked 
 me I should have answered him no. 
 
 (b) The conditional anterior is often used where we 
 should expect the simple tense: 
 
 La scala distava dal davanzale un bugn tratto. Come 
 avr§bbero potuto attaccarvisi ? The ladder was quite a 
 distance from the window-sill. How could they get hold 
 of it? 
 
 Imbarcandolo a Gf'nova sul finir d' aprile, i sugi non avevan 
 pensato che in America egli avre,bbe trovato V inv§rno, e 
 1' avevan vestito da estate. His family, putting him on 
 board ship in Genoa at the end of April, had not reflected 
 that in America he would find winter, and had dressed him 
 suitably for summer. 
 
 The Imperative. 
 
 231. The imperative is used as in English, i.e., to ex- 
 press a command. The missing persons are supplied 
 from the present subjunctive: 
 
 Non lo faccia. Do not (you) do it. 
 
 Che non paiano. Let them not appear. 
 
 Non domandare che quello che ti § necessario. Ask only 
 what is necessary for you. 
 
 (a) The imperfect subjunctive may also express com- 
 mand. Cf. 232. 
 
 The Subjunctive. 
 
 232. A verb expressing an action indicated by what 
 has gone before as in some way doubtful is made sub- 
 junctive. 
 
 It follows that the subjunctive is usually found in a 
 subordinate clause. It is used : 
 
 (1) After verbs express' ve of command, consent, 
 
MOODS AND TENSES. 153 
 
 denial, desire, fear, hearsay, hope, ignorance, necessity, 
 opinion (belief, approval, disapproval, etc.), preference, 
 surprise, will, wonder, and the like: 
 
 Desidero che v§nga siibito. I want him to come soon. 
 
 Si dice che essa sia partita per Inghilte.rra. They say that 
 she has gone to England. 
 
 Vorr§i solamente che mi credessero. I only want them 
 to believe me, only wish that they would believe me. 
 
 Non mi piace che facciano cosl. I do not like them to 
 do so. 
 
 Mi maraviglio che siate ancora qui. I am surprised that 
 you are still here. 
 
 Credevo che fossero partiti. I thought they had gone. 
 
 Pensi L§i quanto ci§ mi affliggesse. Think how much 
 this (must have) distressed me. 
 
 Bisogna che ci scrivano. They must write us. 
 
 Non vorrej. mai che credeste ch* io avessi scritto per pas- 
 sione. I should never wish you to think that I had written 
 out of passion. 
 
 (2) In expressions of emotion or sentiment: 
 Peccato che non sia arrivato! What a pity that he has 
 
 not come! 
 
 Volesse Dio ! 1 God grant it ! Would to God ! 
 
 Potessi scoprir 1' arcano ! l Could I but discover the 
 secret ! 
 
 (3) When the antecedent is qualified by a com- 
 parative superlative or by solo, unico, primo, or ultimo : 
 
 |) la prima vo,lta che 1' abbia visto. It is the first time 
 that I have seen it. 
 
 Tu se,i l'unico amico di cui pc;ssa fldarmi. You are the 
 only friend in whom I can confide. 
 
 (4) After a qualifying or restrictive relative clause : 
 
 1 This is an example of what is sometimes called the ' ' independ- 
 ent subjunctive", or "subjunctive in a principal clause". 
 
154 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Cerco (P tin s§rvo che parli inglese. I am looking for a 
 servant who speaks (= can speak) English. 
 
 Scelga un allgggio dov' Ella pgssa stare piu tranquillo. 
 Choose a dwelling where you can be quieter. 
 
 (a) Also after indefinite relatives such as chiunque, " any 
 one", " whosoever", and indefinite adjectives such asqual- 
 unque, "whatever": 
 
 Chiunque sia, non vgglio vederlo. Whoever he may be, 
 I do not want to see him. 
 
 (5) After the conjunctions given tinder 220: 
 
 Andr§ dovunque sia egli. I will go wherever he is. 
 
 Gli scriver§ prima che parta. I shall write him before he 
 leaves. 
 
 Lo dico accioche ne sappiano la verita. I say it in order 
 that they may know the truth about the matter. 
 
 Quand' anche non 1* avessi detto. Even if I had not said it. 
 
 233. After the conjunctions given under 219 and in 
 many other cases * the question, Shall the indicative or 
 the subjunctive be employed? is to be decided by 
 determining whether or not the action is indicated as 
 doubtful : 
 
 Se studiera, suo padre sara cont§nto. If he studies, his 
 father will be satisfied. 
 
 Se studiasse suo padre sar§bbe ccont§nto. If he would 
 study (but often he does not), his father would be satisfied. 
 
 Si da per c§rto che la pace sia fatta. They say for cer- 
 tain that peace is made. 
 
 |) c§rto che la pace § fatta. It is certain that peace is 
 made. 
 
 |) la piu b§lla dgnna che io abbia mai vista. She is (as far 
 
 1 In some cases of so-called "subjunctive in a principal clause" 
 one of these conjunctions is understood: Fosse anche un magistrate) 
 sar§i contrario alia sua opinione. Were he (=if he were) a magis- 
 trate I should not agree with him. 
 
MOODS AND TENSES. 155 
 
 as I can recollect) the most beautiful woman I have ever 
 seen. 
 
 § senza dubbio la piu be,lla do,nna ch* io ho mai vista. 
 She is certainly the most beautiful woman I have ever seen. 
 
 Puo salvarci quando vugle. He can save us when he 
 wishes. 
 
 Puo salvarci quando V9glia. He can save us if he wishes. 
 
 Sequence of Tenses. 
 
 234. If the principal verb is present (indicative, 
 imperative, or subjunctive) or future, the verb in the 
 dependent clause is made present subjunctive: 
 
 Non so, chi sia quell* ugmo. I do not know who that 
 man is. 
 
 Far§ in mani§ra che tutto sia pronto. I shall see to it 
 that everything is ready. 
 
 Gli dica che v§nga da me. Tell him to come to me. 
 
 (a) The present tenses and the future may, how- 
 ever, be followed by the past tenses of the subjunctive 
 in sentences in which, if the dependent clause were in- 
 dependent, its verb would be in a past tense: 
 
 Crede ch' egli abbia scritto questo? Do you believe he 
 wrote this? 
 
 (b) Pure futurity (where there is no doubt) is ex- 
 pressed by the future l : 
 
 Credo che verra domani. I think he will come to- 
 morrow. 
 
 235. If the principal verb is past or conditional, the 
 dependent one is made imperfect subjunctive : 
 
 Lo fece senza ch' io lo sapessi. He did it without my 
 knowing it. 
 
 S' aspettava che entrassero i dodici ragazzi per pprgere 
 
 1 Cf. above, 233. 
 
156 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 gli attestati. They were waiting for the twelve boys to 
 come in to bestow the certificates. 
 
 Avr§i piu fiducia in lui se avesse piu vgglia d' imparare. 
 I should have more confidence in him if he had more desire 
 to learn. 
 
 (a) The compound tenses in general follow the rules 
 laid down for the primary ones, the auxiliary being 
 reckoned as the verb: 
 
 Hg dubitato che v^ngano. I have doubted whether they 
 would come. 
 
 Aveva dubitato che venissero. I had doubted whether 
 they would come. 
 
 (6) The past definite may, however, be followed by 
 either the present or the imperfect subjunctive, de- 
 pending on whether the action related in the secondary 
 clause is represented as taking place in present or in 
 past time : 
 
 Iddio ci ha dato la ragione, affinche ce ne serviamo. God 
 has given us reason in order that we may make use of it. 
 
 E come si vendicasse il Buondelmonte lo avete saputo. 
 And you know, you have heard before, how B. avenged 
 himself. 
 
 (Exercises XXXVII and XXXVIII.) 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 ADVERBS. NUMERALS AND NUMERICAL VALUES. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 236. Adverbs may be distinguished as: (1) Adverbs 
 of manner; (2) Adverbs of place; (3) Adverbs of de- 
 gree and of comparison; (4) Adverbs of affirmation 
 
ADVERBS. 157 
 
 and of negation; (5) Adverbs of time; (6) Numeri- 
 cal adverbs. 
 
 Adverbs of Manner. 
 
 237. Most adverbs of manner are formed from ad- 
 jectives by adding -mente to the feminine 1 singular: 
 
 c§rto, certain; certamente, certainly. 
 
 franco, frank; francamen'e, frankly. 
 
 on§sto, honest; onestamente, honestly. 
 
 sinc§ro, sincere; sinceramente, sincerely. 
 
 (a) Adjectives ending in e 2 when that e is preceded 
 by any consonant except 1 and r simply add -mente ; 
 those ending in e preceded by 1 or r drop the e and 
 add -mente 3 : 
 
 felice, happy; felicemente, happily. 
 
 fgrte, strong; fortemente, strongly. 
 
 facile, easy; facilmente, easily. 
 
 difficile, difficult ; dirncilmente, in a difficult manner, with 
 difficulty. 
 
 particolare, particular; particolarmente, particularly. 
 
 (6) Altrimenti, "otherwise " (from altro-a), and parimenti 
 "in like manner" (pari), are irregular, isolated forms, and 
 guarimente, "(not) much", "(not) long", quasimente, 
 " almost " ; are remarkable as showing -mente added to an 
 adverb. 
 
 238. Other adverbs of manner, fewer in number, 
 end in e or i : 
 
 b§ne, well. male, badly. 
 
 cosi, thus, in this manner. volentie,ri, gladly. 
 
 etc. 
 
 1 Mens, mente, being a Latin feminine. 
 
 2 Which have but one termination for masculine and feminine. 
 Cf. 109. 
 
 3 Adjectives in -lie do not drop the e: mplle, "soft"; molle- 
 mente, "softly". 
 
158 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (a) A certain number ending in o are really adjectives 
 used as adverbs l : 
 
 alto, loud. pr§sto, quickly. 
 
 basso, low. subito, suddenly, at once. 
 
 etc. 
 
 239. Another class of adverbs is formed by means 
 of the suffix -one (-oni), added usually to nouns: 
 
 ]J caduto boccone. He has fallen on his face. 
 Andar brancolone (or tastone). To grope one's way. 
 Andar carpone. To go on all fours. 
 Star gomitoni. To lean on one's elbows. 
 
 In the same way: 
 
 cavalcione, astride. rotolone, rolling. 
 
 ginocchioni, kneeling. sdrucciolone, slipping. 
 
 etc. 
 
 240. Adverbial locutions are common, as : 
 
 a gara, competing. indarno, ) . 
 
 6 ' F .„. . . m vain, 
 
 a malincugre, unwillingly, invano, ) 
 
 a vice,nda, by turns. in fretta, in haste. 
 
 adagio, slowly. senza dubbio, doubtless. 
 
 etc. 
 
 (a) Such locutions are found also among the other 
 classes of adverbs: 
 
 appena, as soon as, hardly. d' ora innanzi, henceforth. 
 di quando in quahdo, from fra poco, soon. 
 
 time to time. per t§mpo, betimes, early. 
 
 di rado, seldom. talvglta, sometimes. 
 
 etc. 
 
 1 Some adjectives from which the -mente adverb has been regu- 
 larly formed are yet used in their adjective forms in certain ex- 
 pressions: Parlar chiaro, "to speak plainly"; Vivere felice, "to 
 
 live happily". 
 
ADVERBS. 159 
 
 Adverbs of Place. 
 
 241. The principal adverbs of place are: 
 
 avanti (avante), before (also ci, qua, qui, here. 
 
 = comein). vi, ivi, li, la, costa, cola, 
 
 donde, ) , there. 
 
 y where 
 dove, ) ne, indi, quindi, d' onde, di 
 
 addietro, ) , , . , la, thence. 
 
 .... } behind. 
 mdi§tro, j 
 
 242. Ci, "here" ("there"), vi, "there", and ne, 
 " thence", are used in speaking of a place already men- 
 tioned and never when the idea of place is at all em- 
 phasized. * They occupy the same position with regard 
 to the verb, change their form, and are elided like the 
 conjunctive pronouns ci, vi, ne (cf. 97 and 101). They 
 precede conjunctive pronouns beginning with 1 or n, 
 otherwise they follow the conjunctive forms: 
 
 Ce ne vi§ne. It comes to us from there. 
 
 Ce n' § molto. There is a great deal of it. 
 
 Va alia citta? N9, ne v§ngo. Are you going to the city ? 
 No, I am coming from there. 
 
 (a) "Here it is", "here she is", etc. =§ccolo, 
 §ccola, etc. : 
 
 IJccoci arrivati. Here we are. 
 
 243. When the idea of place is at all emphasized 
 qui or qua is used for "here", li, la, ivi, costa, costi, 
 for "there". In general costi and costa indicate a 
 place near the person addressed, li and la a place re- 
 mote from both the person speaking and the person 
 spoken to: 
 
 1 They are often used where they would in English be super- 
 fluous. 
 
160 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ven' § molti. There are a great many of them. 
 
 Viene dalla citta? No, vi torn a. Is he coming from the 
 city? No, he is returning to it. 
 
 Venite qua. — Andate li. Come here. — Go there. 
 
 Fatti in costa. Go that way (the way near you). 
 
 Mia moglie § di la. My wife is there (e.g., in the next 
 room). 
 
 Adverbs of Degree and of Comparison. 
 
 244. The principal adverbs of comparison are cosi, 
 come, 1 phi, meno, 2 di, and che. 3 
 
 Following are the principal adverbs of degree (some 
 times called adverbs of quantity) : 
 
 abbastanza, enough, sum- po,co, little. 
 
 ciently. quanto, how much, as much. 
 
 alquanto, somewhat. tanto, so much. 
 
 assai, very. trgppo, too much. 4 
 
 molto, much. 
 
 etc. 
 
 Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation. 
 
 245. The principal adverbs of affirmation are: 
 
 si, I davvero, indeed, truly, of 
 
 . v > yes. 
 gia, ) course. 
 
 sicuro, yes indeed, of course, 
 (a) Gia 5 is used in assenting to a self-evident truth ; 
 in other cases si is employed : 
 Pigve? Si. Is it raining? Yes. 
 Pio,ve a catinglle. — Gia. It is pouring. — Quite true. 
 
 »Cf. 121. 
 
 2 Cf. 122 and 125. 
 3 Cf. 126. 
 
 4 For molto, poco, quanto, tanto, trpppo, adj., cf. 128. 
 6 Gia gia sometimes = " almost": II sole toccava gia gia la cima 
 del monte. The sun was almost touching the mountain peak. 
 
ADVERBS. 1 6 1 
 
 246. The principal adverbs of negation are: 
 
 119, no, not. mai, ) 
 
 non, not. giammai, v never. 
 
 non-mica, \ non-mai, ) 
 
 non-punto, v not at all. non-piu, no longer. 
 nignte affatto, ) 
 
 (a) Ng is sometimes used in the sense of non. It 
 is then placed after the noun or the statement of fact 
 which is made negative: 
 
 Ha denari ma amici ng. He has money but not friends. 
 Saparlare, pensare ng. He can talk, he cannot think. 
 
 (b) Non always immediately precedes the verb 1 un- 
 less the latter is accompanied by a conjunctive pro- 
 noun, which then stands between. In the locutions 
 non-mica, non-mai, etc., the verb stands between the 
 two members: 
 
 Non parla — Non dice nignte. 
 
 Non g mica tardi. Non ha mai detto cosi. 1 
 
 Non lo farg mai piu. 
 
 (c) Non has not a negative value in the che non of 
 comparison, 2 nor in finche non, "until 7 ', se non che, 
 "except that", etc.: 
 
 Hg piu di denaro che non credevo. I have more money 
 than I thought. 
 
 Lo studierg finche non V avrg imparato. I shall study it 
 until I have learned it. 
 
 Non ne ha che due. 3 He has only two. 
 
 1 In a compound tense the auxiliary is considered the verb. 
 Cf. 235 (a). 
 2 Cf. 127. 
 3 ="he has not but two". 
 
l62 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Adverbs of T me. 
 247. The principal adverbs of time are : 
 
 adesso, 
 
 3 y now. 
 ora, 
 
 allora, then. 
 
 dibu 9 n'ora,| 
 per tempo, J 
 
 domani, to-morrow. 
 
 i§ri, yesterday. 
 
 9ggi, to-day. 
 
 quando, when. 
 se,mpre, always. 
 subito, at once. 
 talv9lta, sometimes. 
 tardi, late. 
 tgsto, soon. 
 ultimo, at last. 
 prima, at first. 1 
 
 etc. 
 
 Comparison of Adverbs. 
 
 248. Adverbs are regularly compared like adjec- 
 tives (cf. 1 19-127) : 
 
 Lo fa cosi f acilmente come suo fratello. 
 
 ■ ■ ■ j 
 
 Lo fa piu facilmente che suo frate.Ho. 
 
 Lo fa meno facilmente. Lo fa il piu facilmente di tutti. 
 
 Lo fa molto facilmente. Lo fa manco male di me. 
 
 ■ a ■ ■ ■ 
 
 249. The following are compared irregularly: 
 
 bene, well 
 
 male, badly 
 
 meglio, better 
 
 pfggio, worse 
 
 il meglio, 2 best 
 
 benissimo, ) .. 
 
 > very well 
 ottimamente, ) J 
 
 il pfggio, worst 
 
 malissimo, ) 
 
 molto, much (very) 
 ppco, little 
 
 pessimamente, { yer y badl y 
 piu, more il piu, most 
 
 moltissimo, very much 
 meno, less il meno, ) least, 
 
 pochissimo, f very little 
 
 1 Che is an adverb of time = quando in sentences like: lo 1' ho 
 visto che faceva ancpr piu. caldo. I have seen it when it was still 
 hotter. 
 
 2 Meglio is an adjective-noun in such expressions as: Questo gli 
 parve il meglio o il meno male, "this seemed to him the best course, 
 or the least bad". In fare alia meglio it is again an adjective, 
 maniera or some such noun being understood. 
 
ADVERBS. 163 
 
 (a) Adverbs of superlative meaning are also formed 
 by adding -mente to the -issimo (-e"rrimo) forms of 
 adjectives cf. 124) : 
 
 sapi§nte, learned; sapientemente, sapientissimo, sapien- 
 tissimamente. 
 
 grande, maggiore, maggiormente. 
 
 salubre, salub^rrimo, saluberrimamente. 
 
 These latter forms are not so often used as are the 
 
 forms in -issimo. 
 
 (b) Suffixes are also used with adverbs, although 
 less often than with nouns and adjectives. The num- 
 ber with which they can be used is restricted to the 
 class mentioned under 238, and not all of those are so 
 modified : 
 
 Parla benino. He speaks rather well. 
 Benone! 1 Very good! Exceedingly well done! 
 
 (c) The repetition of an adverb makes it superla- 
 tive. This is a common method in Italian 2 : 
 
 L' ha fatto ben b§ne. He has done it very well, with 
 much care. 
 
 Don Abbondio tornava bel b§llo dalla passeggiata. Don 
 A. was coming peacefully home from his walk. 
 
 Parlate pian piano ! Speak very softly. 
 
 Position of Adverbs. 
 
 250. The Italian is rather free in regard to the posi 
 tion of adverbs. 
 
 Excepting non (246 (b)) they oftenest follow thv. 
 verb qualified. They need not, however, follow it im 
 
 1 This -one is the suffix mentioned in 167, and has nothing to do 
 with the adverbs in -one in 239. 
 
 2 This practice is extended also to adjectives. 
 
164 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 mediately. An adverb qualifying an adjective, another 
 adverb, or a phrase usually precedes it: 
 
 Rarissimamente incontravano due o tre viaggiatori a 
 cavallo. They met at very long intervals two or three 
 travelers on horseback. 
 
 Appena arrivati sono venuti a trovarmi. They came to 
 see me as soon as they arrived. 
 
 Essa § alquanto piu attempata. She is somewhat older. 
 
 L' han fatto apposta. They have done it purposely. 
 
 Egli guardava il ragazzo s§mpre piu fissamente. He 
 looked always more fixedly at the boy. 
 
 NUMERALS 
 Cardinal Numerals. 
 251. The cardinal numerals are : 
 
 1 uno 
 
 
 18 diciotto 
 
 60 
 
 sessanta 
 
 2 due 
 
 
 19 diciann9ve 
 
 70 
 
 settanta 
 
 3 tre 
 
 
 20 venti 
 
 80 
 
 ottanta 
 
 4 quattro 
 
 
 21 ventuno 2 
 
 90 
 
 novanta 
 
 5 cinque 
 
 
 22 ventidue 
 
 100 
 
 cento 
 
 6 sei 
 
 
 23 ventitre 
 
 IOI 
 
 centuno 5 
 
 7 sette 
 
 
 24 venti quattro 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 8 9U0 
 
 
 25 venticinque 
 
 120 
 
 cento venti, 
 
 9 nove 
 
 
 26 ventisei 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 10 dieci 
 
 
 27 ventisftte 
 
 200 
 
 dugento (duec§nto, 
 
 1 1 undici 
 
 
 28 ventotto 3 
 
 
 ducento) 
 
 1 2 dodici 
 
 
 29 ventinpve 
 
 300 
 
 trecento 
 
 13 tredici 
 
 
 30 trenta 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 14 quattordici 
 
 
 31 trentuno 4 
 
 1000 
 
 mille 
 
 1 5 quindici 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 2000 
 
 due mila 
 
 16 sedici 
 
 
 40 quaranta 
 
 
 
 1 7 diciasette' 
 
 
 50 cin quanta 
 
 
 
 (a) Uno 
 
 is 
 
 the only cardinal w 
 
 hich has a feminine 
 
 1 Or diciass 
 
 ette 
 
 3 Or vent' otto. 
 
 
 5 Or cent' uno. 
 
 2 Or vent' uno. 
 
 * Or trent' uno. 
 
 
 
NUMERALS. 165 
 
 form: una. 1 If the noun modified by ventuno, trent- 
 uno, etc., follows the numeral, it is made singular; if 
 it precedes it, it is regularly made plural: 
 
 Ventuna settimana. Twenty-one weeks. 
 
 Lire centuna. One hundred and one liras. 
 
 (b) Millione, 'million", billione, 'billion", trillione, 
 "trillion", etc., are nouns of number, having a regu- 
 lar plural, millioni, billiori, etc.; the plural mila has 
 already been given. With these exceptions and that 
 of uno, the cardinals are indeclinable. 
 
 (c) No article is used with cento, 'a hundred", and 
 mille, " a thousand". No conjunction is used between 
 the different parts of a number : 
 
 Cento quarantacinque (centoquarantacinque). one hun- 
 dred and forty-five. 
 
 (d) ' ' Eleven hundred, ' ' twelve hundred ' ' , etc. , must 
 be translated "one thousand one hundred", etc., and 
 not counted by hundreds: 
 
 Nell' anno mille ngve cento due. In the year nineteen 
 hundred and two. 
 
 0) " Both" =tutti e due or i due, " all three" =tutti e 
 tre or i tre, etc. 
 
 (/) The numerals after twenty may be written as 
 two words or as one (ventidue or venti due) except 
 when the second number is one or eight, in which case 
 they must be written as one: 
 
 Trentuno or trent' uno, trentotto, etc. 
 
 From one hundred and forty on cento may be 
 shortened into cen: 
 
 Cenquaranta, censettanta, etc. 
 
 252. The ordinal numbers are: 
 
 1 As an adjective it has the plural forms: gli uni, le une. 
 
1 66 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ist primo 21st ventesimo primo or 
 
 2d secondo ventunesimo 
 
 3d tfrzo 2 2d ventesimo secondo or 
 
 4th quarto ventiduesimo 
 
 5th quinto etc. 
 
 6th sesto 30th trentesimo 3 
 
 7 th sfttimo 40th quarantesimo 3 
 
 8th ottavo etc. 
 
 9th nono 1 ooth centesimo 
 
 10th dfcimo 110th centodfcimo 4 
 
 nth undfcimo or dfcimo primo 1 115th cento quindicesimo 
 
 1 2th duodecimo or df cimo secondo 1 etc. 
 
 13th tredfcimo or dfcimo terzo 200th dugentesimo or ducen- 
 
 14th quattordicesimo or tesimo or duecen- 
 
 dfcimo quarto tesimo 
 
 15th quindicesimo or dfcimo quinto 300th trecentesimo 
 
 1 6th sedicfsimo or dfcimo sesto etc. 
 
 17th diciassfttimo or df cimo sf ttimo 1000th millesimo 
 
 1 8th diciottesimo or dfcimo ottavo 2000th duemillesimo 
 
 19th diciannovesimoordfcimon9no etc. 
 20th ventesimo 2 1000000th millionesimo 
 
 etc. 
 
 (a) The ordinals are all adjectives: 
 
 La trentesima parte di novanta § tre. The thirtieth of 
 ninety is three. 
 
 (b) Fractions are expressed by the regular ordinal num- 
 bers except "one half" = un me,zzo, una meta. Of these 
 m§zzo is an adjective, me' a a noun: 
 
 In m§zzo minuto ci salgo. In half a minute I shall come 
 up there. 
 
 Datemene solamente la meta. Give me only half of it. 
 Un quinto, J. Due dfcimi, T 2 Tr . Due e me,zzo, 2\. 
 
 (c) "Firstly", " secondly "= primo, secondo, or pri- 
 mieramente, secondariam nte, etc. 
 
 1 Undicesimo, dodicesimo, also exist. 
 
 2 Vigesimo is also found. 
 
 8 Trigesimo, quadragesimo, are rare. 
 
 4 Centesimo dfcimo, etc., are not allowable. 
 
NUMERICAL VALUES. 167 
 
 253. Multiplicatives (which are adjectives) are: 
 ddppio, double. triplo, 1 triple. quadruple* ( etc.: 
 Una doppia vittgria. A double victoria. 
 
 254. Collectives are the adjectives: 
 ambo, ambedue, y 
 
 entrambo, ) 
 
 And the nouns : 
 
 una C9ppia, a couple. una dozzina, a dozen. 
 
 un paio, a pair. una ventina, a score. 
 
 un terno, a combination of un centinajo, 4 (about) ahun- 
 
 three numbers. dred. [sand. 
 
 una decina, 3 half a score, ten. un migliajo, (about) a thou- 
 
 NUMERICAL VALUES. 
 
 Dates. 
 
 255. In dates where the number representing a year 
 is preceded by a preposition and not by the name of a 
 month, the definite article must be used with it : 
 
 Accadde nel mille trecento ottantuno. It happened in 
 
 1.381. 
 
 Fino dal 18 12 avea presentato a suo padre una trag^dia 
 
 in tre atti Even in 181 2 he had presented to his father a 
 tragedy in three acts. 
 
 Dal 1870 in pgi. From 1870 on. 
 
 (a) It is frequently used also where the name of a 
 month precedes: 
 
 Nacque il 29 giugno del 1798. He was born the 29th of 
 June, 1798. 
 
 1 Also triplice, quadruplice, etc. 
 2 Cf. 251 (s). 
 
 3 Sestina, "a poem of six stanzas, stanza of six lines", is not now 
 a collective. 
 
 4 Cf. 63. Di is used after these collectives: Un centinaio di u^mini. 
 
1 68 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Questi 1119SSO a compassione deir amico, nell' ottobre del 
 1833 lo meng seco a Napoli. Moved with compassion for 
 his friend, in October 1833 he took him with him to Naples. 
 
 (b) The definite article is used before the numeral 
 indicating the day of the month as in English, but it 
 is not omitted in dating letters etc., as it is in English: 
 
 Quanti abbiamo del mese? Qggi § il di§ci. What day 
 of the month is it? To-day is the tenth. 
 
 Allora scriviamo : Fire,nze, il 10 (or il die,ci) maggio, 1902. 
 Then let us write: Florence, May 10, 1902. 
 
 (c) Primo is the only ordinal used in indicating the 
 days of the month; otherwise the cardinals are em- 
 ployed : 
 
 II 1 primo (di) maggio, il due maggio, il di tre di maggio. 
 
 Time of Day. 
 
 256. The definite article is used with numerals indi- 
 cating the time of day and ora, ore, is understood with 
 all. It follows that the article is feminine, and that, 
 except in the case of " one o'clock", the verb is plural: 
 
 Che ora §? Sono le undici. Sono le ngve. Sono le 
 gtto e mezzo. 
 
 Sono le cinque meno die,ci. 
 
 (a) II tocco is commonly used instead of V una, " one 
 o'clock".' 
 
 (b) M§zzo giorno = "noon", mezzangtte = "mid- 
 night". Antimeridiano = " in the morning", "a.m."; 
 pomeridiano = " in the afternoon", "p.m.": 
 
 Arrivano alle cinque pomeridiane. They will arrive at 
 
 5 p.m. 
 
 1 Li or ai may also be employed: Vifnna li cinque (ai cinque) 
 aprile. "Vienna, April 5." 
 
NUMERICAL VALUES. 169 
 
 Numerical Titles. 
 
 257. Ordinals are used in the numerical titles of 
 rulers, also in indicating a book', chapter, etc., "but no 
 article intervenes as in English : 
 
 Carlo quinto. Charles the Fifth. 
 
 Libro quarto, capitolo t§rzo, paragrafo 119110. Book the 
 Fourth, chapter three, paragraph nine. 
 
 Luigi de_'cimo se.sto e.ra un re sfortunato molto. Louis 
 the Sixteenth was a very unfortunate king. 
 
 Duration of Time. Age. 
 
 258. The verb avere is used to denote age : 
 
 Che eta (or Quanti anni) ha suo figlio? Ha cinque anni 
 etremes'. How old is your son? Five years and three 
 months. 
 
 Avrg sessantadue anni nell' aprile dell' anno venturo. 
 Cosi rono adesso nel mio sessantesimo secondo anno. I 
 shall be sixty-two years old next April. So I am now in 
 my sixty-second year. 
 
 259. The verb fare, or less often §ssere, is used to de- 
 note duration of time: 
 
 Un anno fa, or § un anno. A year ago. 
 
 Dodici anni fa, or Sono dodici anni. Twelve years ago. 
 
 |) molto t§mpo che § mo,rto. He died a long time ago. 
 
 Miscellaneous Numerical Idioms. 
 
 260. "Twice two are four" =due via due, quattro. 
 "Two and two are four" =due e due fanno quattro. 
 " Six minus three leaves three" =se,i meno tre, tre. 
 
 " A table . . . long by . . . broad" =una tavola della 
 iunghezza di . . . e della larghezza di . . . . 
 
i 7 o ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 261. The commoner interjections and expressions 
 used as interjections are: 
 
 (1) Expressive of joy, admiration, approval, and 
 
 the like: 
 
 Ah! Ah! Oh! Oh! Bene! Well! Good! Bravo! 1 
 Good ! Well done ! Che ! 2 What ! 
 
 (2) Grief, pain, fear, pity, and the like: 
 
 Ah! Ahi! Ohi! Ahim§ (or Ohim§) ! Alas! Ahimisero! 
 Oh pQvero me ! Wretched being that I am ! 
 
 Peccato (or Che peccato) ! What a pity ! 
 
 Pieta! Pity! Mercy! Oh, poverino! Oh, poor thing! 
 Den ! Alas ! Woe ! 
 
 (3) Surprise: 
 
 OhbeUa! Curioso! Strange! Ehi! Ahi! E cosi! Per 
 Bacco ! Man ! 
 
 (4) Disdain, disgust, disapproval: 
 
 Oib§! Fie! Vergogna! Shame! Guai! Beware! Woe! 
 Eh, via, sciocchezze! Oh, come, nonsense! Questa § 
 b§lla! A fine state of affairs! 
 
 (5) Encouragement: 
 
 Orsu! Come now! Animo! Courage! Di su! Speak 
 out! 
 
 Via! via! cheimpgrta? Come, come, what does it mat- 
 ter? 
 
 (6) Enthusiasm, applause: 
 
 Evviva! Hurrah! Viva V Italia! Long live Italy! 
 
 1 This is an adjective. Thus to two persons one would say, 
 Bravi!; to a woman, Brava! 
 
 2 Che or O che is oftcd used, especially in Tuscany, to introduce 
 a question implying doubt: Che V abbia gia fattol "Can it be that 
 he has already done it!" 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 171 
 
 Largo! largo! che passa i re! Room! room! the king 
 is passing! 
 
 (7) Silence: 
 
 Zitto ! Piano ! ' Hush ! Gently ! Basta ! Enough ! 
 
 (8) Miscellaneous: 
 
 Grazie! Tante grazie! Mille grazie ! Thanks! So many 
 thanks! A thousand thanks! 
 
 §h giusto ! Per P appunto ! Just so ! Exactly so ! 
 
 Addio ! Good-by ! Arrivederci ! Good-by ! Till we meet 
 again ! 
 
 B§n venuto ! B§n trovato ! Welcome ! 
 
 Diamine ! The dickens ! The deuce ! 
 
 Sta fresco ! He is in a nice fix ! 
 
 {Exercises XXXIX and XL) 
 IRREGULAR VERBS, 
 
 ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR CONJUGATIONS. 1 
 
 262. All the parts necessary in order to construct the 
 verb, using as models trarre, p. 117, and venire, p. 118, 
 are given below. Where the present participle is given 
 the following forms, if not given, are to be constructed 
 from its stem 2 : the first and second persons plural of the 
 present indicative, the second person singular and plural, 
 and the first person plural of the preterite, the whole of 
 the imperfect indicative and subjunctive. If the present 
 participle is not given, it, as well as the forms mentioned 
 above is to be constructed from the infinitive with the 
 regular endings of the appropriate conjugation. If the 
 future is given, the conditional is to be constructed from 
 
 1 See alphabetical list, p. 198 sq. 
 
 2 Observe that all these forms are weak, i.e., stressed on the end- 
 ing. 
 
172 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 it ; if the future is not given, it and the conditional are 
 to be constructed from the infinitive. 
 
 For the construction of the preterite see 178 and 179. 
 
 The imperative, unless otherwise stated, is like the 
 corresponding forms of the present indicative. 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the First Conjugation. 
 
 There are but four irregular verbs of the first conju- 
 gation. 1 
 
 1. Andare, to go, andato; andai; andr§ (ander^). 2 
 
 Present Indicative. Imperative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 Vado or vo andiamo Vada andiamo 
 
 vai andate Va' andate vada andiate 
 
 va vanno vada vadano 
 
 Like andare: 
 
 riandare, to go back again, to examine again. 
 
 trasandare, to go beyond, to neglect. 
 
 2. Dare, to give, dato; di§di or d§tti, dar§. 
 
 Pres. Ind. 
 
 Pret. Ind. Imperative. 
 
 DQ diamo 
 
 di§di or detti demmo 
 
 dai date 
 
 desti deste da' date 
 
 da danno 
 
 difde or d§tte 3 difdero or dfttero 
 
 
 Present Subjunctive. Imperfect Subjunctive. 
 
 
 dia diamo dessi dessiamo 
 
 
 dia diate dessi deste 
 
 
 dia diano or dieno desse dSssero 
 
 Like dare : 
 
 ridare 
 
 , to give again. sdare, to become idle. 
 
 Remark. The first and third sing. ind. pres. (rid§, 
 rida) take the written accent. 
 
 1 Really only one, dare; fare and stare not belonging here origi- 
 nally, as their preterites show. (Cf. Latin forms.) 
 
 2 Forms bracketed are for reference and are not to be learned 
 for use in exercises. Forms preceded by "or" are alternate. 
 
 3 Di£ also exists, pi. dier, diero, or didrono. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 173 
 
 3. Fare, to do, make, fac§ndo, fatto; feci, far§ 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 fa' fate 
 
 Present Indicative. 
 
 faccio or fo facciamo 
 
 fai x fate 
 
 fa l fanno 
 
 Present Subjunctive. 
 faccia facciamo 
 faccia facciate 
 f&ccia f&cciano 
 
 Like fare: 
 
 affarsi, to suit, become. 
 assuefarsi, to accustom one's 
 
 self. 
 confarsi, to be suitable. 
 contraffare, to counterfeit. 
 disfare (sfare), to undo. 
 
 liquefare, to liquefy. 
 malfare, to do mischief. 
 mansuefare, to tame. 
 rifare, to do again. 
 soddisfare, to satisfy. 
 
 Remark. All these verbs take the written accent 
 on the 1st and 3d sing. ind. pres.: disfa, rifa, etc. 
 4. Stare, to stand, be; stato, stetti, star§. 
 
 Pres. Ind. Pret Ind. Imperative. 
 
 stg stiamo 
 stai state 
 sta stanno 
 
 Like stare 
 
 Pret Ind. 
 
 stetti stemmo 
 stesti steste 
 stette stf ttero 
 
 Present Subjunctive. 
 stia stiamo 
 sta' state stia stiate 
 
 stia, stiano or stieno 
 
 ristare, to cease. sovrastare, to stand over, to 
 
 soprastare, to stand over, to tarry. 
 
 command. sottostare, to be subject. 
 
 Rista, etc., are accented like the compounds of dare 
 and fare. 
 
 (a) Distare, " to be distant," is regular in the present 
 and has no present participle ; otherwise it is like stare ; 
 constare, contrastare, instare, ostare, etc., are regular 
 verbs. 
 
 (Exercises XLI and XLII.) 
 
 1 Faci, face, are also found. 
 
174 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation. 
 
 263. The great majority of the verbs of the second 
 conjugation are more or less irregular. 1 Of those end- 
 ing in -ere, only two, godere and temere, are perfectly 
 regular, i.e., have all the regular forms without alter- 
 nate irregular ones. 
 
 The following 2 are all the '-ere verbs that are per- 
 fectly regular: 
 
 battere 
 
 mescere 
 
 prgmere 
 
 spl§ndere 
 
 credere 
 
 mi§tere 
 
 ricevere 
 
 tdndere 
 
 ■ 
 
 fremere 
 
 pascere 
 
 rifl§ttere 3 
 
 v^ndere 
 
 gemere 
 
 p§ndere 
 
 rip^tere 
 
 
 (a) Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation in -6re. 
 
 264. Most of these verbs are strong, i.e., stressed on 
 the stem-vowel, only in the present indicative and sub- 
 junctive, and in the preterite, 4 the past participle being, 
 except in persuadere and rimanere, weak, i.e., ending 
 regularly in -uto. The infinitive, the vowel of the 
 antepenult being stressed, is never contracted ; the im- 
 perfect tenses may therefore be formed directly from 
 it. The future and conditional are in some verbs con- 
 tracted. 
 
 Verbs irregular in the present tenses, 5 but having 
 the regular weak preterite : 
 
 1 Conversely, the great majority of all irregular verbs are of the 
 second conjugation. 
 
 2 And their compounds. 
 
 3 In the sense of " to meditate." See 68, p. 184. 
 
 4 Some have the weak preterite. 
 
 8 Sometimes with contracted future. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 175 
 
 5. Dovere, to owe; dovuto, dovei fdov§tti), dovrj. Im- 
 perative lacking. 
 
 Present Indicative. 
 devo (debbo, dfggio) dobbiamo (deggiamo) 
 
 devi (debbi) dovete 
 
 deve (debbe) d^vono (dfbbono, dfggiono) 
 
 Present Subjunctive. 
 debba (deva, d^ggia) dobbiamo 
 
 debba " " dobbiate 
 
 d§bba d§bbano (d§vano, d^ggiano) 
 
 6. Potere, to be able, potuto; potei, poti-9. No impera- 
 tive. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 posso possiamo possa possiamo 
 
 pu9i potete ppssa possiate 
 
 pug p9ssono ppssa p9ssano 
 
 7. Sedere, to sit, seduto; sedei or sedftti, seder§. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 si§do or seggo sediamo (seggiamo) sieda or segga sediamo(seggiamo) 
 siedi sedete " " " sediate 
 
 si§de sifdono or sfggono si| dano or sfggano 
 
 Like sedere : 
 
 ■ 
 
 possedere, to possess. soprassedere, to supersede. 
 
 risedere, to reside. 
 
 (Exercise XLIII.) 
 
 II. 
 
 Verbs irregular in the present and having a redu- 
 plicated preterite l : 
 
 8. Cadere, to fall, caduto; caddi, 2 cadr§. 
 
 Present Indicative Present Subjunctive. 
 
 cado (caggio) cadiamo (caggiamo) cada (caggia) cadiamo(caggiamo) 
 cadi cadete cadiate (caggiate) 
 
 cade cadono (caggiono) cadano (caggiano) 
 
 1 Avere belongs to this class, but has already been given (74). 
 Like avere: riavere, etc. 
 
 2 The other forms of the preterite are to be constructed from this, 
 by the aid of 179: caddi, cadesti, cadde, cademmo, cadeste, cad- 
 dero. 
 
176 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Like cadere: 
 
 ■ 
 
 accadere, to happen. ricade*re, to fall again, 
 
 decadere, to decoy. scad6re, to fall off. 
 
 9. Sapere, to know, saputo; s§ppi, sapr§. 
 
 Present Indicative. Imperative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 so sappiamo sappia sappiam® 
 
 sai sapete sappi sappiate sappiate 
 
 sa sanno " sappiano 
 
 10. Tenere, to hold, tenuto; tenni, terr$. 
 
 Present Subjunctive. 
 
 tenga teniamo (tenghiamo) 
 teniate 
 " tfngano 
 
 ottenere, to obtain. 
 rattenere, to detain. 
 ritenere, to detain, to retain, 
 sostenere, to sustain. 
 trattenere, to entertain, keep 
 waiting. 
 
 Present Indicative. 
 
 tengo teniamo (tenghiamo) 
 tieni tenete 
 tifne tfngono 
 
 Like tenere: 
 appartenere, to belong, [to. 
 attenersi, to belong, to hold 
 contenere, to contain. 
 intrattenere, to entertain, 
 
 delay. [keep. 
 
 mantenere, to maintain, 
 
 11. Volere, to wish, voluto; vglli or vglsi, vorr^. 
 
 Present Indicative. Imperative. Present Subjunctive 
 
 v$glio vogliamo v^glia vogliamo 
 
 vupi volete v^gli vogliate " vogliate 
 
 vuole v9gliono v^gliano 
 
 Like volere : 
 
 ■ 
 
 disvolere (svolere) not to rivolfre, to wish again, to 
 wish, to refuse. have a mind to do again. 
 
 III. 
 Preterites in -si : 
 
 12. Calere, to matter, make a difference, caluto, calse. 
 
 Impersonal. Imperative, present participle, future and 
 conditional lacking. 1 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 cale c&glia 
 
 1 Moise gives carra (calera) and carrebbe (calerebbe), but they 
 are not in use. Caluto is also almost never used. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 177 
 
 13. Dolere, to grieve, hurt, doluto; dolsi, dorr$. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 d9lgo (dQglio) dogliamo d9lga (d9glia) dogliamo (dolghiamo) 
 
 du9li dolete dogliate 
 
 du9le d9lgono (d9gliono) " d^lgano (d9glianoj 
 
 Like dolere: 
 
 condolere, to condole. ridolere, to grieve again. 
 
 14. Persuadere, to persuade, persuaso; persuasi. 
 Regular except in the preterite and past participle. 
 Like persuadere : 
 
 dissuadere, to dissuade. 
 
 15. Rimanere, to remain, rimasto (or rimaso) ; rimasi, 
 rimarr^. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 rimango rimaniamo (riman- rimanga rimaniamo (rimanghi- 
 
 ghiamo) amoj 
 
 rimani rimanete rimanga rimaniate 
 rimane rimangono rimangano 
 
 Like rimanere: 
 
 permanere, to remain. 
 
 16. Valere, to be worth, valuto (valso) ; valsi, varr^. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 valgo (vaglio) vagliamo (val- valga (vaglia) vagliamo (valghi- 
 
 ghiamo) amo) 
 
 vali valete vagliate 
 
 vale valgono (vaglione) valgano (vagliano) 
 
 Like valere : 
 
 equivalere, to be equivalent, invalere, to become valid. 
 
 of the same worth. rivalere, to recover, avail 
 prevalere, to prevail. one's self again. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Preterite in -vi : 
 
 17. Parere, to seem, appear, paruto or parso ; parvi, parr J. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 paio paiamo or pariamo paia paiamo or pariamo 
 
 pari parete paiate 
 
 pare paiono paiano 
 
178 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 V. 
 
 Preterite in -cqui * : 
 
 18. Giacere, to lie, giaciuto; giacqui, giacer§. 
 
 Present Indicative. 
 
 giaccio giacciamo 
 giaci giacete 
 glace giacciono 
 
 Like giacere: 
 
 piacere, to please. 
 
 Present Subjunctive. 
 
 giaccia giacciamo 
 giacciate 
 " giacciano 
 
 tacere, to be silent. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Solere and vedere are somewhat different from any 
 of the other irregular verbs of this conjugation : 
 
 19. Solere, to be in the habit of, sglito, 2 has no impera- 
 tive, preterite, future, nor conditional. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. Imperfect Subjunctive. 
 
 s<?glio sogliamo sdglia sogliamo solessi, etc. 
 
 suoli solete sogliate 
 
 suole s<?gliono " s9gliano 
 
 20. Vedere, to see, veduto or visto; vidi (v§ddi), vedr§. 
 
 Present Indicative. 
 
 vedo (veggo, veggio) 
 
 vedi 3 
 
 vede 
 
 Like vedere : 
 
 ■ 
 
 antivedere, 4 to foresee. 
 awedersi, to perceive, re- 
 mark. 
 divedere, 5 to convince. 
 prevedere, to foresee. 
 
 Present Subjunctive. 
 
 vediamo (veggiamo) 
 
 vedete 
 
 vedono (veggono, veggiono) 
 
 provvedere, 6 to provide. 
 ravvedere, to improve, re- 
 form, [again. 
 rivedere, to see, examine 
 travedere, to see indistinctly. 
 
 {Exercises XLIV and XLV .) 
 
 1 Cf. Class (6), nascere, 114, p. 190. 
 
 2 Used only as an adjective. Ex. : era splito, "I was accustomed." 
 
 3 Sometimes shortened into /e' in familiar conversation. The 
 imperative singular may also become ve\ 
 
 4 Past participle only anteveduto. 
 6 Only the infinitive is used. 
 
 6 Future and conditional provvedero, provvederei. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 179 
 
 (b) Irregular and Defective Verbs of the Second Conju- 
 gation in '-ere. 
 
 265. As we have seen (263), a large majority of these 
 verbs are more or less irregular. For e>sere, which is 
 not included in the classification below, see 74. 
 
 I. 
 
 Verbs forming their past participle in -so, preterite 
 in -si : 
 
 21. Acc§ndere, to light, acceso; accesi. 1 
 
 Like acc^ndere: 
 
 riacc§ndere, to relight. 
 
 22. Algere, to be cold. Preterite alsi. Defective. Rare. 
 
 23. Alludere, to allude, alluso; allusi. 
 
 Like alludere: 
 
 colludere, to play into some- eludere, to elude. 
 
 one's hands. ludere, 2 to play. 
 
 deludere, to delude. 
 
 24. App§ndere, to hang, appeso; appesi. 
 Like app^ndere: 
 
 dip§ndere, to depend. vilip§ndere, to vilify. 
 
 imp^ndere, to hand. sosp^ndere, to suspend. 3 
 
 25. Ardere, to burn, arso; arsi, ardr§ or arder^. 
 
 26. Arnjgere, to add, arroso or arrgto; arrgsi. Has no 
 subjunctive nor imperative. Only arrgge, pres. ind., and 
 arrgse used, and they rarely. 
 
 27. Assidere, to besiege, assiso; assisi. Rare. 
 
 28. Avellere, to uproot, avulso; avulse. Defective. 
 Rare. 
 
 1 All parts not given are either regular or to be formed after the 
 models (pp. 117 and 118). So: accesi, accendesti. etc. 
 
 2 This, the primitive of the group, is rarely used. 
 
 3 The primitive p^ndere is regular. 
 
180 ITALIAN GRAMMAR 
 
 29. Chiudere, to close, chiuso; chiusi. 
 Like chiudere: 
 
 accludere, to enclose. includere, to include. 
 
 concludere, to conclude. precludere, to preclude. 
 
 escludere, to exclude. 
 
 30. Collidere, to collide, colliso; collisi. Rare. 
 
 31. Conquidere, to conquer, conquiso; conquisi. Rare. 
 
 32. Contendere, to bruise, contuse- ; contusi. 
 
 33. Correre, to run, corso; corsi. 
 Like correre. 
 
 ■ 
 
 accorrere, to run in haste, percorrere, to pass rapidly, 
 concorrere, to flock, to com- run through. 
 
 pete. ricorrere, to have recourse to. 
 
 discorrere, to discourse. soccorrere, to succor. 
 
 incorrere, to incur. scorrere, to pass away. 
 
 occorrere, to happen. trascorrere, to run over. 
 
 34. Decidere, to decide, deciso; decisi. 
 
 Like decidere: 
 
 circoncidere, to cut round. precidere, to cut off. 
 coincidere, 1 to coincide. recidere, to cut. 
 
 incidere, to cut into. 
 
 35. Dif§ndere, to defend, difeso; difesi. 
 
 Like dif §ndere : 
 
 ofr^ndere, to offend. 
 
 36. Dividere, to divide, diviso; divisi. 
 
 37. Elidere, to elide, eliso; elisi or elidei. 
 
 38. Esp^llere, to expel, espulso; espulsi. 
 
 Like esp§llere: 
 
 comp^llere, to compel. 2 rep^'llere, to repel. 
 
 imp§llere, to impel. 
 
 39. Esplgdere, to explode, esplc;So; esplgsi. 
 
 1 Also regular. 2 Rare. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 181 
 
 40. Evadere, to evade, evaso; evasi. 
 
 Like evadere: 
 
 invadere, to invade. 
 
 41. Fondere, to melt, fuso (fonduto) ; fusi (fondei). 
 
 Like fondere: 
 
 confdndere, 1 to confound. 
 
 42. Imm^rgere, to immerse, imme.rso; imme.rsi. 
 Like imm§rgere: 
 
 m§'rgere, 2 to plunge. 
 
 43. Intridere, to dilute, intriso (intrito) ; intrisi. 
 
 44. Intrudere, to intrude, intruso; intrusi. 
 
 45. L§dere, to hurt, offend, l§so; l§si. Rare. 
 
 46. Molcere, to soothe. Pret. mulse. Defective. Rare. 
 
 47. Mgrdere, to bite, mcjrso; mcjrsi. 
 
 Like mgrdere: 
 
 rimgrdere, to grieve. 
 
 48. P§rdere, to lose, p§rso (oftener perduto) ; p§rsi 
 (oftener perdei or perd§tti). 
 
 49. Pr§ndere, to take, preso; presi. 
 
 Like prgndere: 
 
 appre*ndere, to learn. riprgndere, to retake. 
 
 compr§ndere, to comprehend. sorpr§ndere, to surprise. 
 
 50. Radere, to shave, raso; rasi. 
 
 Like radere : 
 
 sorradere, to graze. 
 
 51. R^ndere, to render, reso (renduto) ; resi (rendei, ren- 
 detti). 
 
 Like r§ndere: 
 
 arrg'ndere, to yield, surrender. 
 
 1 Which does not have the weak forms exhibited by its primitive. 
 3 This, the primitive, is rarely used. 
 
1 82 ITALIAN GRAMMAR 
 
 52. Ridere, to laugh, riso; risi. 
 Like ridere: 
 
 arridere, to smile upon, to favor. 
 sorridere, to smile. 
 
 53. Rodere, to gnaw, roso; rosi. 
 
 Like rodere : 
 
 corrddere, to corrode. 
 
 54. Scendere (discendere 1 ), to descend, sceso; scesi. 
 
 Like scendere: 
 
 ascendere, to ascend. 
 
 55. Sparge re, to strew, sparso (sparto, poetical); sparsi. 
 
 Like spargere: 
 
 cospargere, to sprinkle. 
 
 56. Sp§ndere, to spend, speso; spesi. 
 
 57. Sp§rgere, to scatter, sperso; spersi. Rare. 
 
 Like spargere : 
 
 asp§rgere, ) ^ - nkle disp§rgere, to disperse. 
 
 cospargere, ) ^ 
 
 58. T§ndere, to extend, teso; tesi. 2 
 
 Like t§ndere : 
 
 attgndere, to attend, wait. ost§'ndere, to show. 
 
 contendere, to contest. st^ndere (dist§ndere) , to ex- 
 
 intgndere, to understand. tend. 
 
 59. T§'rgere, to wipe, t§rso; tersi. Rare. 
 
 Like t^rgere : 
 
 ast§rgere, to absterge. Rare. 
 
 60. Uccidere, to kill, ucciso; uccisi. 
 
 Like uccidere: 
 
 ancidere, to kill. Rare. 
 
 1 Discendere is the older form of scendere. 
 
 2 This is the transitive verb ; the intransitive is regular, but has 
 no past participle. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 183 
 
 II. 
 
 Past participle in -sso, preterite in -si: 
 
 61. Mettere, to put, messo; misi (messi). 
 
 Like mettere: 
 
 ammettere, to admit. premettere, to premise. 
 
 commettere, to commit. promettere, to promise. 
 
 compromettere, to compro- rimettere, to remit. 
 
 mise. scommettere, to wager, 
 
 framm^ttere, to interpose. smettere (dismettere), to 
 manomettere, to lay hands quit. 
 
 upon. sottomettere, to submit. 
 
 permettere, to permit. trasmettere, to transmit. 
 
 III. 
 
 Past participle in -sso, preterite in -ssi: 
 
 62. Ann^ttere, to annex, annesso; ann§ssi. 
 
 Like ann^ttere: 
 
 conn§ttere, to connect. Has also connettuto, 
 connettei. Rare. 
 
 63. C§dere, to yield, ceduto or c§sso; cedei or c^ssi. 1 
 
 Like c§dere: 
 
 conc§dere, to concede. 1 succ§dere, to succeed. 1 
 
 interc§'dere, to intercede. 
 
 64. Comprimere, to press, compre.sso; compre,ssi. 
 
 Like comprimere 2 : 
 
 deprimere, to depress, de- opprimere, to oppress, 
 preciate. reprimere, to repress. 
 
 esprimere, to express. sopprimere, to suppress. 
 
 imprimere, to impress. 
 
 1 Generally a weak verb in modern Italian. 
 
 2 The primitive primere (oftener prf mere) is regular, although 
 pre,sso instead of premuto exists. 
 
ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 : Ksctitat " . - iiscuaBO; jjmhhm 
 
 Like dis:_:e:f 
 
 coz:_:r:r - past participle concoaN) 
 
 incutrrr - inspire mfnse. 
 
 66 Fendere. :; split, fenduto :e=5o: fendei fendftti 
 Eessi 
 
 -- Figgere figere . t: fix, fisso w fitto: fissi fisi . 
 [ike tljggere: 
 
 5:~:i£rre - ::vt hide me'sseU 
 - Fiertere. tc bend, Hesse rlessi. 
 Like ::"::: 
 genufl$ttere tc kneel Rare 
 rif.r::r:r to reflect Alsc reflettuto an 1 riflettei. : 
 69. Influere be influence, influsso : infioss • 
 -: Mgvere muovere to mcve. movendo. mosso: moss. 
 Like in u overe 
 comm u overe be affect rim u overe. :o remove. 
 
 prom u overe - - mote. s:mm o overe. fee ?::r up. 
 
 -: Scindere - - sdsBQ scindei . s::?s. 
 
 -: S;::e:e scuotere : 5 ....-.-. BCfSSO scossi. 
 BC D ::ere 
 perc u otere , tc sti rise u otere | a shake (up) . 
 
 -: Suggere. bo sock ~ rticiple. Preterite 
 
 boss snggei re 
 
 s_:: : sugga. etc 
 
 5_£r. --■:: 
 
 IV. 
 - rl ". -to ret in -si: 
 
 -_ A;:orgere accorgersi ,to pes accorto: accgrsi. 
 
 accorgerr 
 
 , ; : rgere to pe~ e. 
 -I. weak when t means Strang 
 
 gh\ CI 36,3 
 
 lird conjugation, is oft ener used. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 75. Ass^lvere, to absolve, assglto or assoluto; assolvei, 
 assolvetti or assglsi. 1 
 
 Like ass^lvere : 
 
 ris^lvere. to melt, dissolve. 
 
 76. Ass^rbere. to absorb, ass9rto; ass9rsi. Rare. 
 
 77. Assumere, to assume, assunto. assunsi. 
 
 Like assumere: 
 
 consumere, to consume. presumere, to presume. 
 
 78. Cingere (cignere), to gird, cinto . cinsi. cinger^ 
 (cignerj). 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 cingo (cigno) cingiamo (cigniamo> cinga (eigne cingiamo (cigniamo) 
 cingi (cigni) cingete (cigneto cingiate 'cigniate 
 
 cinge (eigne) cingono (cignono) cingano (cignano; 
 
 Imperative. 
 cingi (cigni) cingete (cignete) 
 
 Like cingere : 
 
 giungere (giugnere), to ar- pungere (pugnere), to prick, 
 
 rive, giunto. giunsi. punto: punsi. 
 
 raggiungere, to rejoice. sp^'gnere ^spengere), 2 to ex- 
 mugnere (mungere), to milk, tinguish, sp§nto; spensi. 
 
 munto: munsi. spingere (Spignere), to push, 
 
 piangere (piagnere), to weep, stringere (strignere), to 
 
 pianto. piansi. brush, stretto or strinto; 
 
 compiangere, to bewail. strinsi. 3 
 
 rimpiangere, to regret. tingere itignere), to dve. 
 
 pingere (pignere), to paint. lignere (lingere), to anoint, 
 dipingere (dipignere), to unto; unsi. 
 
 paint. 
 
 1 The strong forms are poetical. For riscUvere, "to determine ", 
 cf. solvere, 122, p. 191. 
 
 2 The forms with gn are, however, quite as common as those with 
 
 ng 
 
 3 This differs from cingere only in having the past participle 
 stretto. 
 
1 86 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 79. Cggliere (cgrre), to gather, cogli§ndo, cglto, cglsi, 
 coglierg (corrg). 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 c9lgo (coglio) cogliamo (colghiamo) C9lga (c9glia) cogliamo (colghi- 
 C9gli cogliete cogliate [amo) 
 
 C9glie c9lgono (c9gliono) C9lgano (c9gliano) 
 
 Imperative like present indicative. 
 
 Like cggliere: 
 
 accggliere, to receive, wel- raccggliere, to collect. 
 
 come. sciggliere (scigrre, asciggli- 
 
 prosciggliere, to absolve. ere, disciggliere) , to untie. 
 
 Also with change of vowel (e for o throughout) : 
 prescegliere, to choose be- scegliere (scerre) , to choose. 
 
 fore, select with care. trascegliere, to select. 
 
 And 
 stggliere (stgrre, distggliere) 1 , tggliere (tgrre) , to take, take 
 
 to dissolve, divert from. away. 
 
 80. Cglere, to revere, colto or culto. Defective. Only 
 present indicative C9I0 and cgle in use. Rare. 
 
 81. Distinguere, to distinguish, distinto; distinsi. 
 
 Like distinguere: 
 
 estinguere, to extinguish. 
 
 82. JJrgere, to erect, §rto; §rsi. Rare. 
 
 83. Fingere, to feign, finto; finsi. 
 
 84. Frangere (fragnere), to break, franto; fransi. 
 
 Like frangere: 
 
 infrangere, to crush, infringe. 
 
 85. Fulgere, to shine. No present participle. Preterite 
 fulsi. Rare. 
 
 Like fulgere: 
 
 rifulgere, to shine. Also rare, defective, and 
 poetical. 
 
 1 Here, as always, the present participle is formed from the un- 
 contractcd infinitive: scegli^ndo, togliendo, etc. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 187 
 
 86. P6rgere, to offer, pQrto; pgrsi. 
 
 Like p^rgere : 
 
 sp^rgere, to project, stretch out. 
 
 87. Redimere, to redeem, red§nto; red§nsi fredimei). 
 
 88. Scicjlvere (asci^lvere), to breakfast, scicjlto; sci9lsi or 
 sciolvetti. Rare. 
 
 ■ 
 
 89. Soffolcere (soffolgere) , to support, soffolto; soffolse. 
 Defective. Rare. 
 
 90. Sorgere (assorgere, surgere), to rise, sorto; sorsi. 
 
 Like sorgere: 
 
 risorgere, to rise again. 
 
 91. Spandere, to spill, spanto (spaso, spasso) ; spandei or 
 spand^tti, spasi, spansi. 
 
 92. Sv§llere (disvellere, sv§gliere, sv§rre), to uproot, 
 sv§lto; sv§lsi; sveller9 (sverr9 or svelger^). 
 
 Present Indicative. 
 
 sv§llo or svflgo svelliamo (svelgiamo) 
 
 svelli (svelgi) svellete 
 
 sv§lle (svelge) svfllono or sv^lgono 
 
 Present Subjunctive. 
 
 sv$lla or svelga svelliamo (svelgiamo) 
 
 svelliate (svelgiate) 
 sv^llano or svflgano 
 
 Like sv^'llere : 
 
 v§llere (v§rre), to tear up. (This is the primitive, 
 but not all the forms given above are in use.) 
 
 div^'gliere (div^llere) (div§rre), to pull up. 
 
 93. Tjjrcere, to twist, t9rto; t9rsi. 
 Like t^rcere : 
 
 att^rcere, to twist. 
 cont^rcere, to contort. 
 
 rit^rcere, to twist back, twist again. 
 
 st^rcere (dist^rcere) , to writhe. 
 
 94. Vincere, to conquer, vinto; vinsi. 
 
 Like vincere: 
 avvincere, to clasp. convincere, to convince. 
 
1 88 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 95- V^lgere or v(Jlvere, to turn, vglto; vglsi. 
 Like v^lgere : 
 awglgere (awglvere), to invglgere, to wrap up. 
 
 wrap. rivglgere, to turn, revolve. 
 
 devglvere, to devolve (past sconvglgere, to overturn, 
 participle devoluto). svglgere, to unfold. 
 
 V. 
 
 Past participle in -tto^ preterite in -ssi: 
 
 96. Affligere, to afflict, affiitto; afflissi. 
 
 97. Condurre, to conduct, conduc§ndo, condotto; con- 
 
 dussi. 
 
 Like condurre: 
 
 addurre, to bring, allege. introdurre, to introduce. 
 
 dedurre, to deduct (dedotto produrre, to produce. 
 
 or dedutto). ridurre, to reduce. 
 
 ducere 1 , to conduct. sedurre, to seduce. 
 
 indurre, to induce. tradurre, to translate. 
 
 98. Corrgggere, to correct, corr§tto; corr§ssi. 
 Like correjggere: 
 
 dirigere, to direct. rgggere 2 , to govern. 
 
 erigere, to erect. 
 
 99. Cgcere (cugcere), to cook, cocgndo, cgtto; cgssi. 3 
 
 100. Friggere, to fry, fritto; frissi. 
 
 1 01. Lgggere, to read, lgtto; lgssi. 4 
 Like lgggere: 
 
 elgggere, to elect. 
 
 prediligere, to have a partiality for. 
 
 102. Lucere, to shine. Defective. No past participle. 
 Preterite lusse. Rare. 
 
 Like lucere: 
 
 rilticere, to shine. Pret. rilussi or rilucei. 
 
 1 This, the primitive, is used only in poetry. The infinitive is 
 not often contracted into durre. Dutto, "duct", is etymologically 
 its past participle. 
 
 2 The primitive, but much less used than corrfggere. 
 8 Cf.7o(3). 4 Cf. 70. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 189 
 
 103. Negligere, to neglect, negl§tto; negl^ssi. 
 
 104. Prot^ggere, to protect, prot§tto; protgssi. 
 
 105. Scrivere, to write, scritto; scrissi. 
 Like scrivere: 
 
 ascrivere, to ascribe, [scribe. prescrivere, to prescribe. 
 
 circoscrivere, to circum- proscrivere, to proscribe. 
 
 descrivere, to describe. sottoscrivere, to subscribe. 
 
 inscrfvere, to inscribe. trascrfvere, to transcribe. 
 
 106. Struggere (distruggere) , to destroy, dissolve, strutto; 
 strussi. 
 
 107. Trarre (traere), to draw, tra§ndo, tratto; trassi, 
 trarr§. 
 
 Like trarre: 
 
 attrarre, to attract. estrarre, to extract. 
 
 contrarre, to contract. protrarre, to protract. 
 
 detrarre, to detract. ritrarre, to draw back. 
 
 distrarre, to divert from. sottrarre, to subtract. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Past participle in -sto, in -si : 
 
 108. Chigdere, to ask, chi§sto; chie,si or chiedei. 
 Like chi^dere: 
 
 inchi§dere, to inquire. rfe^^dere, to request. 
 
 109. Nascondere, to hide, nascosto; nascosi. 
 Like nascondere : 
 
 ■ 
 
 ascondere 1 , to hide, 
 no. Porre (ponere) 2 , to put, pone,ndo, posto; posi. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 pongo poniamo ponga poniamo 
 
 poni ponete poniate 
 
 pone pongono pongano 
 
 1 The primitive, but less used than nasc<3ndere. 
 
 2 This, the uncontracted form, is still used. 
 
190 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Like porre : 
 anteporre, to prefer. intraporre, to interpose. 
 
 apporre (apponere), to affix, opporre, to oppose. 
 
 impute. posporre, to postpone. 
 
 disporre, to dispose. preporre, to prefer. 
 
 esporre (esponere, sporre), riporre, to replace. 
 
 to expound. sopporre, to place under. 
 
 imporre, to impose. supporre, to suppose, 
 
 in. Rispondere, to respond, risposto; risposi. 
 Like rispondere: 
 
 corrispondere, to correspond. 
 
 VII. 
 Verbs showing reduplication in the preterite. 
 
 (a) Preterite in -bbi, past participle regular : 
 
 112. Condscere, to know (by the senses), conosciuto; 
 conobbi. 
 
 Like condscere: 
 ricondscere, to recognize. 
 sconpscere (discondscere) , not to know. 
 
 113. Crescere, to grow, cresciuto; crebbi. 
 Like crescere: 
 
 ■ 
 
 accrescere, to increase. increscere, ) 
 
 , . . . y to be sorry. 
 
 decrescere, to decrease. rincrescere 1 , ) J 
 
 (b) Past participle regular or in -to, preterite in -cqui 2 : 
 
 114. Nascere, to be born, nato; nacqui. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. Preterite. 
 
 nasco nasca, etc. nacqui 
 
 nasci, etc. nacesti, etc. 
 
 115. N^cere (nugcere), to harm, nociuto; nocqui. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 nuQco or mjiccio nociamo nuoca or n^ccia nociamo 
 
 nu9ci nocete [ciono " nociate [ciano 
 
 nu9ce nu9cono or 119c- " nu^cano or n9c- 
 
 (c) Past participle in -tto, preterite in -ppi : 
 
 1 Impersonal. 2 Cf. giacere, 18, p. 178. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 191 
 
 116. Rompere, to break, rotto; ruppi. 
 Like rompere: 
 
 corrompere, to corrupt. interrompere, to interrupt. 
 
 dirompere, to break, bruise. irrompere, to break in. 
 erompere, to break forth. prorompere, to burst forth. 
 
 (d) Past participle regular, preterite in -wi : 
 
 117. Bere (bevere), to drink, bev§ndo; bevuto (beuto); 
 bewi (bevei or bev^tti). 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 bevo or beo beviamo or beiamo beva or bea be(v)iamo 
 
 bevi or bei bevete or beete be(v)iate 
 
 beve or bee bevono or beono be(v)ano 
 
 118. Pi^vere, to rain, piovuto, pigvve. Impersonal. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Verbs irregular in the past participle only: 
 
 119. Assistere, to be present, to assist, assistito. 
 Like assistere 1 : 
 
 consistere, to consist. persistere, to perish. 
 
 desistere, to desist. resistere, to resist. 
 
 esistere, to exist. sussistere, to subsist. 
 
 insistere, to insist. 
 
 120. Concepere, to conceive, conc§tto. 
 Like concepere 2 : 
 
 percepere, to perceive. 
 
 121. Esigere, to exact, esatto. 
 Like esigere: 
 
 transigere, to transact. 
 
 122. Solvere, to undo, soluto. 
 Like solvere: 
 
 diss^lvere, to dissolve. risglvere, to determine. 
 
 1 These verbs are irregular only in having the participial form 
 proper to the -ire conjugation. 
 
 2 Concepire, percepire, are the verbs commonly used. 
 
192 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 IX. 
 
 123. Vivere, to live, vissuto (vivuto), vissi, viver§ or 
 vivrg. • 
 
 Like vivere : 
 
 convivere, to live together, "eat or drink together. 
 ri vivere, to revive. 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the Third Conjugation. 1 
 
 I. 
 
 (a) Verbs irregular in the present tenses but having 
 the regular weak preterite: 
 
 124. Cucire, to sew, cucito, cucii. 
 
 Present indicative cucio or cucisco, etc. Present sub- 
 junctive cticia or cucisca, etc. (This verb inserts i before 
 a and o, but not before e and i.) 
 Like cucire : 
 
 sdrucire (sdruscire) or scucire, to rip. 
 
 125. Empire or §mpiere, to fill, empi§ndo, empito, empii. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 fmpio (empisco) empiamo fmpia empiamo 
 
 §mpi (empisci) empite empiate 
 
 fmpie (empisce) fmpiono (empiscono) ^mpiano 
 
 These irregular forms are from §mpiere. 
 Like empire: 
 
 adempire (ad§'mpiere), to accomplish. (This verb 
 has also the past participle adempiuto.) 
 
 compire (cgmpiere), to perfect. (Past participle 
 compiuto. Cdmpito is used as an adjective.) 
 
 1 For verbs which do not show, or do not always show, the -isco 
 forms see 71. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 193 
 
 126. Salire, to ascend, salito, salii or salsi. 
 
 . . Present Indicative. 
 salgo (salisco) saliamo (sagliamo, salghiamo) 
 
 sali (salisci) salite 
 
 sale (salisce) salgono (saliscono) 
 
 Present Subjunctive. 
 
 saiga (salisca) saliamo (sagliamo, salghiamo) 
 
 sagliate 
 sale (salisce) salgano (saliscano) 
 
 Like salire: 
 assaiire, to assail. risalire, to reascend. 
 
 127. Seguire, to follow, seguito, seguii. 
 
 The stem e may diphthong under the accent : s§guo 
 or si^'guo, etc. 
 
 128. Udire, to hear, udito, udii, udh-9, or udr§. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 odo udiamo oda udiamo 
 
 odi udite " udiate 
 
 ode 9dono " 9dano 
 
 129. Uscire (escire), to go out, uscito, uscii. - 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 fsco usciamo esca usciamo 
 
 esci uscite " usciate 
 
 §sci fscono " fscano 
 
 Like uscire: 
 
 riuscire, to succeed, to turn out. 
 
 (b) Verbs irregular in the present and preterite : 
 
 130. Sparire, to disappear, sparito, sparii or sparvi. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 spaio or sparisco spariamo spaia or sparisca spariamo ' 
 
 spari ot sparisci sparite [riscono " spariate [cano 
 
 spare or sparisce spaiono or spa- " spaiano or sparis- 
 
 Like sparire: 
 
 apparire, to appear, apparito comparire, to appear, com- 
 er apparso, apparvi, ap- parso or comparito, com- 
 parsi, apparii. parsi, comparvi, comparii. 
 
194 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 131. Venire, to come, venuto, venni, verr^. 
 
 Present Indicative. 
 vengo (vegno) veniamo (ven- 
 
 ghiamo) 
 vieni venite 
 
 viene vfngono (veg- 
 
 nono) 
 
 Like venire : 
 
 avvenire, to happen. 
 convenire, to agree, [come. 
 divenire (devenire), to be- 
 intervenire, to intervene. 
 invenire, to find out. 
 
 Present Subjunctive. 
 
 venga (vegna) veniamo (ven- 
 
 ghiamo) 
 
 veniate 
 
 vfngano (vfg- 
 nano) 
 
 4« 
 
 prevenire, to hinder. 
 provenire (provvenire) , 
 
 proceed from. 
 sovvenire, to relieve. 
 svenire, to faint. 
 
 to 
 
 (c) Verbs irregular in the present and past participle, 
 or present, past participle, and preterite : 
 
 132. Morire, to die, mQrto; morii, morrg or morh-9. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 mugio (muoro) * moriamo or muo- muQia (muora) moriamo or muo- 
 
 iamo iamo 
 
 muori or muoi morite " muoiate 
 
 muore mugiono (mug- " mugiano (muo- 
 
 rono) rano) 
 
 133. Dire, to say, dice,ndo, detto; dissi, dirg. 
 
 Present Indicative. Imperative. 
 
 dico diciamo 
 
 dici dite di' dite 
 
 dice dicono 
 
 Like dire : 
 
 addire, to assign. 
 
 benedire (benedicere), to 
 
 bless. 
 
 disdire (sdire) , to deny. 
 
 Present Subjunctive. 
 
 dica diciamo 
 
 diciate 
 dicano 
 
 indire, to announce. 
 maledire, to curse. 
 predire, to predict. 
 ridire, 2 to repeat. 
 
 1 In all forms where the diphthong uo occurs o is sometimes found 
 replacing it. 
 
 2 Redire, "to return", (poetical,) has nothing to do with dire. 
 Cf. 153, P- IC A 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 195 
 
 II. 
 
 Verbs regular in the present tenses: 
 
 134. Aprire, to open, ap§rto; aprii or ap§rsi. 
 
 135. Convertire, to. convert, convertito or convfrso; con- 
 verts or conv§rsi. 
 
 136. Coprire, to cover, cope,rto; coprii or cop§rsi. 
 Like coprire : 
 
 scoprire, to discover. 
 
 137. Costruire (construire), to construct, co(n)struito 
 or co(n)strutto; co(n)strussi or co(n)struii. 
 
 This verb has the -isco forms in the present. 
 Like costruire: 
 
 istruire, to instruct. 
 
 138. Digerire, to digest, digerito or dig§sto; digerii. 
 Present digerisco, etc. 
 
 139. Esaurire, to exhaust, esaurito or esausto; esaurii. 
 Present esaurisco, etc. 
 
 140. Offrire (offerire), to offer, offerto; offrii or offersi. 
 Present §ffro or offrisco, etc. 
 
 Like offrire: 
 
 soffrire (sofferire), to suffer. 1 
 
 141. Orire, to be born, 9rto. Defective. Rare. 
 Seppellire (sepellire), to bury, sepolto or sep(p)ellito; 
 
 sep(p)ellii. 
 
 Present sep(p)ellisco, etc. 
 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 NOT INCLUDED IN ABOVE LIST. 
 
 143. Acquisire, to acquire. Only past participle acqui- 
 sito is found. 
 
 144. Capere, to comprehend. Only cape and capia 
 
 found. Capire is commonly used instead. 
 
 1 Conferire, differire, inferire, and trasferire have the regular past 
 participle. 
 
196 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 145. Comp§tere, to compete. No past participle. Other- 
 wise regular. 
 
 146. Conv^rgere, to converge. No past participle. 
 Otherwise regular. 
 
 147. Delinquere, to be delinquent. No past participle. 
 Otherwise regular. Poetical. 
 
 148. Div§rgere, to diverge. No past participle. Other- 
 wise regular. 
 
 149. Estgllere, to extol. Only estglle found. 
 
 150. F§'rvere, to be hot. No past participle. Used only 
 in the third person. 
 
 151. Fi§dere, to wound. No past participle. Otherwise 
 regular. Poetical. Rare. 
 
 152. Gire, to go, gito. 
 
 Present Indicative. Imperfect. Imperative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 giamo giva (gia) , etc. giamo 
 
 gite gite giate 
 
 Future and conditional gir$, gir§i, etc., regular. 
 
 Poetical. 
 
 153. Ire, to go, ito. 
 
 
 
 Present Indicative. Imperfect. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Imperfect Subjui 
 
 iva ivamo 
 
 
 
 ite ivi 
 
 ite 
 
 iste 
 
 iva 
 
 
 isse issero 
 
 Preterite Indicative. 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 iremo 
 
 isti iste 
 
 
 irete 
 iranno 
 
 Like ire: 
 
 redire, to return. 
 
 154. Illanguidire, to grow faint. No past participle. 
 Otherwise regular. 
 
 155. Lambire, to lick. No past participle. Used only 
 in the third person. 
 
 156. Lecere (licere), to be lawful, lecito (licito). 
 
 Present Indicative 
 lece (lice) 
 
 No other parts found. Poetical. 
 
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 197 
 
 157. Olire, to smell. Only imperfect indicative oliva 
 and olivano used. 
 
 158. Perire, to perish. No present participle. Other- 
 wise regular. 
 
 159. Priidere, to itch. No past participle. Used only 
 in the third person. 
 
 160. Ri§dere, to return. 
 
 Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 ri§do 
 ri§di 
 ri§de rifdono ri§da rifdano (Poet.) 
 
 161. Stridere, to shriek. No past participle. Otherwise 
 regular. 
 
 162. Tangere, to touch. Has only tange. 
 
 163. Urgere, to urge. Has only urge, urgeva, urgesse. 
 
 164. V§rtere, to turn. Regular, but used only in the 
 indicative present and imperfect. 
 
 Like v§rtere: 
 
 controv§rtere, to controvert. 
 
 165. Vigere, to be in force, to nourish. No past parti- 
 ciple. Used only in the third person. 
 
INDEX OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 Verbs conjugated in the same manner as some other verb are in 
 this index set in from the margin. The commoner compound 
 verbs are so placed. Rare compounds, obsolete and very unusual 
 verbs, are not included here. 
 
 Accadere, 8 
 Accfndere, 21 
 
 Accludere, 29 
 
 Acc^gliere, 79 
 Acc^rgere, 74 
 
 Accdrrere, 33 
 
 Accrescere, 113 
 Acquisire, 143 
 
 Addire, 133 
 
 Addurre, 97 
 
 Ad§mpiere (adempire), 125 
 
 Affarsi, 3 
 Affliggere, 96 
 Algere, 22 
 Alludere, 23 
 
 Ammettere, 61 
 
 Ancidere, 60 
 Andare, 1 
 Ann§ttere, 62 
 
 Anteporre, no 
 
 Antivedere, 20 
 
 Apparire, 130 
 
 Appartenere, 10 
 App^ndere, 24 
 
 Apporre, 1 10 
 
 Apprfndere, 49 
 Aprire, 134 
 Ardere, 25 
 
 Arr^ndere, 51 
 
 Arridere, 53 
 
 Arr^gere, 26 
 
 Ascendere, 54 
 AsciQgliere, 79 
 Asciplvere, 88 
 Ascdndere, 109 
 Ascrivere, 105 
 Aspfrgere, 57 
 Assalire, 126 
 
 Assidere, 27 
 
 Assistere, 119 
 
 Ass^lvere, 75 
 
 Ass^rbere, 76 
 
 Assuefarsi, 3 
 
 Assumere, 77 
 
 Astfrgere, 59 
 Att^ndere, 58 
 Attenersi, 10 
 Att9rcere, 93 
 Attrarre, 107 
 
 Avfllere, 28 
 
 Avere, cf. § 74 
 
 Avvedersi, 20 
 Avvenire, 133 
 Avvincere, 94 
 Avv9lgere, 95 
 
 Benedire, 133 
 Bere (bevere), 117 
 
 Cadere, 8 
 
 198 
 
INDEX OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 1 99 
 
 Calere, 12 
 Capere, 144 
 Cfdere, 63 
 Chifdere, 10S 
 Chiudere, 29 
 Cignere (cingere), 78 
 
 Circoncidere, 34 
 
 Circoscrivere, 105 
 C9cere (cupcere), 99 
 C9gliere (c9rre), 79 
 
 Coincidere, 34 
 Cglere, 80 
 Collidere, 30 
 
 Colludere, 23 
 
 Commettere, 61 
 
 Comm(u)9vere, 70 
 
 Comparire, 130 
 
 Compfllere, 38 
 Comp^tere, 145 
 
 Compiangere, 78 
 
 Compr§ndere, 49 
 Comprimere, 64 
 
 Compromettere, 61 
 
 Concfdere, 63 
 
 Concepere, 120 
 
 Concludere, 29 
 
 Concorrere, ^^ 
 
 Concutere, 65 
 
 Condolere, 13 
 Condurre, 97 
 
 Confarsi, 3 
 
 Confondere, 41 
 
 Connfttere, 62 
 Conoscere, 112 
 Conquidere, 31 
 Construire (costruire) , 119 
 
 Consumere, 77 
 
 Contendere, 58 
 
 Contenere, 10 
 
 Cont9rcere, 93 
 
 Contraffare, 3 
 
 Contrarre, 107 
 
 Controv^rtere, 163 
 Contendere, 32 
 
 Convenire, 131 
 Convertire, 135 
 
 Convincere, 04 
 Coprire (cuoprire), 136 
 C9rre (c9gliere) , 79 
 Corr^ggere, 98 
 Correre, 33 
 
 Corrispondere, 1 1 1 
 
 Corrodere, 53 
 
 Corrompere, 1 16 
 Conv^rgere. 146 
 
 Cospargere, 57 
 
 Cospfrgere, 57 
 Crescere, 114 
 Cucire, 124 
 
 Dare, 2 
 
 Decadere, 8 
 Decidere, 34 
 
 Decrescere, 1 13 
 
 Dedurr:,, 97 
 Delinquere, 147 
 
 Deludere, 23 
 
 Deprimere, 64 
 
 Descrivere, 105 
 
 Desistere, 1 19 
 
 Detrarre, 107 
 
 Dev9lvere, 95 
 Diffndere, 35 
 Digerire, 138 
 
 Dip^ndere, 24 
 
 Dipingere, 78 
 Dire, 133 
 
 Dirigere, 98 
 
 Discendere (scendere") , 54 
 
 Disci9gliere (sci9gliere) , 79 
 
 Disconoscere (sconoscere), 
 112 
 
 Discorrere, ^^ 
 Discutere, 65 
 
200 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Disdire, 133 
 
 Disfare, 3 
 
 Dismettere (smettere), 61 
 
 Dispfrgere, 57 
 
 Disporre, no 
 
 Disrompere, 116 
 
 Dissplvere, 122 
 
 Dissuadere, 14 
 
 Distare, 4 
 
 Distfndere, 58 
 Distinguere, 81 
 
 Distpgliere (distprre), 79 
 
 Distprcere, 93 
 
 Distrarre, 107 
 
 Distruggere, 106 
 
 Disvfllere (svfllere), 92 
 
 Divedere, 20 
 
 Divfgliere (div^llere) (di- 
 v§rre), 92 
 
 Di venire, 131 
 Divfrgere, 148 
 Dividere, 36 
 Dolere, 13 
 Dovere, 5 
 
 Dticere, 97 
 
 Elfggere, 101 
 Elidere, 37 
 
 Eludere, 23 
 
 Equivalere, 16 
 ]£rgere, 82 
 
 Erigere, 98 
 
 Er6mpere, 116 
 Esaurire, 139 
 Escire (uscire), 130 
 
 Escltidere, 29 
 Esigere, 121 
 Esistere, 120 
 Esp§llere, 38 
 Esplpdere, 39 
 
 Esporre, no 
 
 Esprimere, 64 
 
 Essere, § 74 
 
 Estinguere, 81 
 Est<?llere (estogliere) , 149 
 
 Estrarre, 107 
 Evadere, 40 
 
 Fare, 3 
 F^ndere, 66 
 F^rvere, 150 
 Fifdere, 151 
 Figgere (figere), 67 
 Fingere, 83 
 Fl§ttere, 68 
 Fdndere, 41 
 
 Frammettere, 61 
 Frangere, 84 
 Friggere, 100 
 Fdlgere, 85 
 
 Genufl^ttere, 68 
 Giacere, 18 
 Gire, 152 
 
 Giungere (giugnere), 78 
 
 Illanguidire, 154 
 
 Illtidere, 23 
 Imm^rgere, 42 
 
 Impfllere, 38 
 
 Impfndere, 24 
 
 Imporre, no 
 
 Imprimere, 64 
 
 Inchifdere, 108 
 
 Incidere, 34 
 
 IncMdere, 29 
 
 Incdrrere, 33 
 
 Increscere, 113 
 
 Incutere, 65 
 
 Indire, 133 
 
 Indurre, 97 
 Infliiere, 69 
 
 Infrangere, 84 
 
 Insistere, 119 
 
INDEX OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 201 
 
 Inscrivere (iscrivere), 105 
 
 Instruire, 137 
 
 Int§ndere, 58 
 
 Intercfdere, 63 
 
 Interrpmpere, 116 
 
 Intervenire, 131 
 
 Intrapprre, no 
 
 Intrattenere, 10 
 Intridere, 43 
 
 Introdurre, 97 
 Intrudere, 44 
 
 Invadere, 40 
 
 Invalere, 16 
 
 Invenire, 131 
 
 Invplgere, 95 
 Ire, 153 
 
 Irrdmpere, 116 
 
 Lambire, 155 
 Lecere, 156 
 L§dere, 45 
 Lfggere, 101 
 
 Liquefare, 3 
 Lucere, 102 
 
 Ludere, 23 
 
 Maledire, 133 
 
 Malfare, 3 
 
 Manomettere, 61 
 
 Mansuefare, 3 
 
 Mantenere, 10 
 
 M^rgere, 42 
 Mettere, 61 
 Mplcere, 46 
 Mprdere, 47 
 Morire, 132 
 Mpvere (mup vere) , 70 
 
 Mtingere (mugnere), 78 
 
 Nascere, 114 
 Nascpndere, 109 
 Negligere, 103 
 
 N^cere (nu^cere), 116 
 
 Occdrrere, 33 
 
 Offfndere, 35 
 Offerire (offrire), 140 
 Olire, 157 
 
 Oppprre, 1 to 
 
 Opprimere, 64 
 Orire, 141 
 
 Ost^ndere, 58 
 
 Ottenere, 10 
 
 Parere, 17 
 Percipere, 120 
 
 Percprrere, ^^ 
 
 Percptere (percuptere), 72 
 Pfrdere, 48 
 Perire, 158 
 
 Permanere, 15 
 
 Permettere, 61 
 
 Persistere, 119 
 Persuadere, 14 
 
 Piacere, 18 
 
 Piangere (piagnere) , 78 
 
 Pingere (pignere), 78 
 Pip vere, 119 
 Pprgere, 86 
 Porre (ppnere), no 
 
 Pospprre, 1 10 
 
 Possedere, 7 
 Potere, 6 
 
 Precidere, 34 
 
 Precludere, 29 
 
 Prediligere, 101 
 
 Predire, 133 
 
 Premettere, 61 
 Pr§ndere, 49 
 
 Pre porre, no 
 
 Prescifgliere, 79 
 
 Prescrivere, 105 
 
 Presumere, 77 
 
 Prevalere, 16 
 
202 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Prevedere, 20 
 
 Pre venire, 131 
 
 Produrre, 97 
 
 Promettere, 61 
 
 Prompvere (promupvere), 70 
 
 Prorpmpere, 116 
 
 Proscipgliere, 79 
 
 Proscrivere, 105 
 Protpggere, 104 
 
 Protrarre, 107 
 
 Provenire (prov venire) , 131 
 
 Provvedere, 20 
 Prudere, 159 
 
 Pungere (pugnere), 78 
 
 Raccpgliere, 79 
 Radere, 50 
 
 Raggiungere, 78 
 
 Rattenere, 10 
 
 Ravvedere, 20 
 
 Recidere, 34 
 Redimere, 87 
 
 Redire, 153 
 
 Rpggere, 98 
 R^ndere, 51 
 
 Reppllere, 38 
 
 Reprimere, 64 
 
 Resistere, 119 
 
 Riaccpndere, 21 
 
 Riandare, 1 
 
 Ricadere, 8 
 
 Richi^dere, 108 
 
 Riconpscere, 112 
 
 Ricprrere, t,^ 
 
 Ridare, 2 
 Ridere, 52 
 
 Ridire, 133 
 
 Ridolere, 13 
 
 Ridurre, 97 
 Rifdere, 160 
 
 Rifare, 3 
 
 Riflfttere, 68 
 
 Rifulgere, 85 
 
 Rilucere, 102 
 Rimanere, 15 
 
 Rimettere, 61 
 
 Rimordere, 47 
 
 Rimpiangere, 78 
 
 Rimpvere (rimupvere), 70 
 
 Rincrescere, 113 
 
 Ripr^ndere, 49 
 
 Riporre, no 
 
 Risalire, 126 
 
 Riscuptere, 72 
 
 Risedere, 7 
 
 Risolvere, 75 and 126 
 
 Risprgere, 90 
 Risppndere, in 
 
 Ristare, 4 
 
 Ritenere, 10 
 
 Ritprcere, 93 
 
 Ritrarre, 107 
 
 Riuscire, 129 
 
 Rivalere, 16 
 
 Rivedere, 20 
 
 Rivenire, 137 
 
 Rivivere, 123 
 
 Rivolere, n 
 
 Rivplgere, 95 
 Rpdere, 53 
 Rpmpere, 117 
 
 Salire, 126 
 Sapere, 9 
 
 Scadere, 8 
 
 Scfgliere (scerre), 79 
 Scendere, 54 
 Scindere, 71 
 
 Scipgliere (sciprre), 79 
 Sciplvere, 88 
 
 Scommettere, 61 
 
 Sconpscere, 112 
 
 Sconvplgere, 95 
 
 Scoprire, 137 
 
INDEX OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 203 
 
 Scprgere, 74 
 
 Scprrere, 38 
 Scrivere, 105 
 Scptere (scuptere), 72 
 
 Sdare, 2 
 
 Sdire, 134 
 
 Sdrucire (sdruscire), 124 
 Sedere, 7 
 
 Sedurre, 97 
 Seguire, 127 
 Sepellire (seppellire), 142 
 
 Smettere, 61 
 
 Soccprrere, 33 
 
 Soddisfare, 3 
 
 Sofferire (soffrire), 140 
 
 Soffiggere, 67 
 Soffplcere, 89 
 Solere, 19 
 Solvere, 126 
 
 Somm(u)pvere, 70 
 
 Soppprre, no 
 
 Sopprimere, 64 
 
 Soprassedere, 7 
 
 Soprastare, 4 
 Sprgere, 90 
 
 Sorpr^ndere, 49 
 
 Sorradere, 50 
 
 Sorridere, 52 
 
 Sosp§ndere, 24 
 
 Sostenere, 10 
 
 Sottomettere, 61 
 
 Sottoscrivere, 105 
 
 Sottostare, 4 
 
 Sottrarre, 107 
 
 Sovrastare, 4 
 
 Sovvenire, 131 
 Spandere, 91 
 Spargere, 55 
 Sparire, 130 
 Sp^gnere (spfngere), 78 
 Spandere, 56 
 
 Spfrgere, 57 
 
 Spignere (spingere), 78 
 
 Spprgere, 86 
 
 Spprre, no 
 Stare, 4 
 
 Stfndere, 58 
 
 Stpgliere (stprre), 79 
 
 Stprcere, 93 
 
 Stridere, 161 
 
 Strignere (stringere), 78 
 Strilggere, 106 
 
 Succfdere, 63 
 Stiggere, 73 
 
 Suppprre, no 
 
 Supprimere, 64 
 
 Sussistere, 119 
 Svfllere (sv§gliere, svfrre), 92 
 
 Svenire, 131 
 
 Svolere, 11 
 
 Svplgere, 95 
 
 Tacere, 18 
 Tangere, 162 
 Tfndere, 58 
 Tenere, 10 
 Tfrgere, 59 
 
 Tignere (tmgere), 78 
 
 Tpgliere (tprre), 79 
 Tprcere, 93 
 
 Tradurre, 97 
 
 Transigere, 121 
 Trarre (traere), 107 
 
 Trasandare, 1 
 
 Trascegliere, 79 
 
 Trascprrere, 33 
 
 Trascrivere, 105 
 
 Trasmettere, 61 
 
 Trattenere, 10 
 
 Travedere, 20 
 
 Uccidere, 60 
 Udire, 128 
 
204 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ugnere (ungere), 78 
 Urgere, 163 
 Uscire, 129 
 
 Valere, 16 
 Vedere, 20 
 
 V§llere (v§rre), 92 
 Venire, 132 
 
 V§rtere, 164 
 Vigere, 165 
 
 Vilipfndere, 24 
 Vincere, 94 
 Vivere, 124 
 Volere, 11 
 V^lgere (v^lvere), 95 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
EXERCISE I. 
 
 (For drill in pronunciation.) 
 
 I. Vowels. 
 
 i: inni, bibita, indi, minimo, nimico; e: avere, me, e, averemo, 
 Hymns, draught, thence, least, enemy; to have, me, and, we shall 
 consapevolmente, fidele; §: pssere, §, fbbe, semto, l'anello; 
 have, consciously, faithful; to be, is, he had, I feel, the ring, 
 a: amare, amava, amai, scale, l'Alamanna, l'ala; 9: np, cpsa, to 
 love, I was loving, I loved, stairs, the German, the wing; no, thing, 
 sp, sprte, mpdo, vi^ttola; p: dolore, curipso, curiosita, 
 I know, fate, manner, narrow way; pain, curious, curiosity, 
 dopo, doveva; u: utile, punto, nulla, studiare, ultimo. 
 afterwards, I ought; useful, not at all, nothing, to study, last. 
 
 II. Consonants. 
 
 Pevere, b§ne, finire, mplto, npbile, tutto, temere, nptte, 
 Pepper, well, to finish, much, noble, all, to fear, night, 
 prometto, tedesco, dico, medico, dpsso, adornare, capo, l'acca, 
 I promise, German, I say, doctor, back, to adorn, head, the h, 
 caccia, accid§nte, bacchetta, bacchiata, npce, nocchiere, 
 hunt, accident, wand, blow with a stick, walnut-tree, pilot, 
 duchessa, arciduca, cip, pago, pagina, dugento, gente, castigo, 
 duchess, archduke, this, I pay, page, two hundred, people, punish- 
 ment, castighi, ghiaccio, casa, mese, rpsa, scpglio, scegliere, pascere, 
 punishments, ice, house, month, rose, rock, to choose, to graze, 
 raschiare, pesci, vpglio, paglia, gli specchi, magnifico, pgni, 
 to scrape, fish, I wish, straw, the mirrors, magnificent, every, 
 bagno, mfzzo, guizzare, z§lo, azzurro, alzare. 
 bath, middle, to dart, zeal, blue, to lift. 
 
 III. Vowel Combinations. 
 
 Bupno, pi§de, maestoso, aria, chiama, causa. 
 
 Good ; foot, majestic, air, he calls, cause. 
 
 IV. Accent. 
 
 Calamita, calamita, metafora, metafprico, metallo, metallico. 
 Magnet, calamity, metaphor, metaphorical, metal, metallic. 
 
 207 
 
208 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 il ragazzo, the boy, pi. i ragazzi 
 la ragazza, the girl, pi. le ragazze 
 lo scolare, the pupil, pi. gli 
 
 scolari (fern, la scolare, le 
 
 scolari) 
 il signpre , the gentleman (signor, 
 
 sir, Mr.) , pi. i signori 
 la signora, the lady, pi. le signore 
 l'uomo, the man, pi. gli u^mini 
 inglese, English, pi. inglesi (fern. 
 
 the same, cf. 109) 
 
 io sono, I am 
 
 tu sei, thou art 
 
 egli §, he is 
 
 noi siamo, we are 
 
 voi siete, ye (you) are 
 
 essi sono, they are 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 piccolo, small, piccoli; piccola, 
 
 piccole 
 quanto, how much, pi. quanti, 
 
 how many (fern, quanta, 
 
 quante) 
 §cco, here is, here are (literally 
 e, and ["behold") 
 
 due, two 
 non, no, not 
 si, yes 
 fssere, to be; avere, to have 
 
 io ho, I have 
 
 tu hai, thou hast 
 
 egli ha, he has 
 
 noi abbiamo, we have 
 
 voi avete, ye (you) have 
 
 essi hanno, they have 
 
 sono io? 1 
 sei tu?, etc. 
 
 INTERROGATIVE. 
 
 ho io?, etc. 
 
 NEGATIVE. 
 
 io non ho, etc. 
 
 10 non sono 
 tu non sei, etc. 
 
 Remarks. (1) The pronouns are usually not expressed. 3 
 
 Sono. I am. 
 
 Ha. He has. 
 
 Non hanno i libri? Haven't they the books? 
 
 (2) The second person singular of these and all verbs (tu) is used 
 in addressing a near relative, an intimate friend, or a child, its 
 plural, voi, in addressing two or more relatives, friends, or children, 
 but this usage of voi is in the south of Italy often extended even 
 to strangers. Tu and voi are also much used in poetry, but the 
 ordinary form of address is the feminine 3d sing. 4 , Ella or Lei §, Lei 
 ha, 3 etc. 
 
 1 Cf. 72. 2 For fuller explanations see 87 and 88. 
 
 3 Cf. 91. * Only the third person singular will be used in the first 
 exercises, the other forms being introduced later. 
 
EXERCISES. 209 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 fJcco un ragazzo. II ragazzo ha un libro. $ un libro i tali an o? 1 
 Si, § un libro i tali an o. Ipcco una ragazza. Ha due libri. Sono 
 libri itali ani ? No, non sono i t ali ani, sono inglesi. La ragazza § 
 Americana, 1 il ragazzo § It ali ano. La ragazza americana 2 
 ha libri inglesi, il ragazzo itali ano ha libri it ali ani. II ragazzo 
 I uno scolare. II ragazzo e la ragazza sono scolari. Gli scolari 
 hanno libri. L' uomo ha un libro, § uno scolare? No, non § uno 
 scolare. Ipcco lo scolare. i£cco due scolari. Gli scolari hanno 
 libri it ali ani. Gl' I tali ani sono scolari. § scolare Lei? 
 Si, sono uno scolare, e ho un libro. Lo scolare itali ano § piccolo. 
 Ij) piccola la ragazza americana? Si, § piccola. Quanti libri ha 
 Lei, signor professor e? Ho due libri. Gli u9mini hanno libri. 
 
 1 For the capitalization see 37. 
 
 2 Note the position of the adjective. 
 
 EXERCISE III. 
 
 (1) Here is a book. (2) Here are two books. (3) They 1 are 
 
 English books. (4) The American boy has two Italian books. 
 
 (5) He is a pupil. (6) Is the man a pupil? (7) Yes, he is a pupil 
 
 and he has a book. (S) Is the girl a pupil? (9) Yes, she is a 2 
 
 pupil. (10) She has two Italian books. (11) The boy and the 
 
 girl are pupils. (12) The pupils have English books. (13) Have 
 
 you books? (14) Yes, I have two Italian books. (15) I am a 
 
 (2) (0 
 pupil. (16) The men are not pupils. (17) The men have no 3 
 
 books. (18) Yes, they 1 have I tali ah books. (19) Are the men 
 
 Italians? (20) Yes, they 1 are Italians. (21) Have the 
 
 Italians English books? (22) They x have Italian books and 
 
 English books. 
 
 Note. — The pupil should in writing use only accents, etc., com- 
 monly employed in Italian, not the diacritical signs used in this 
 book to indicate the pronunciation. 
 
 1 Omit. 
 
 2 Una-scolare — taking the logical gender. 
 
 3 In translating arrange words in order as numbered. 
 
2IO 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. — Before beginning Exercise IV the pupil should learn the 
 present indicative of the model verb of the first conjugation, mo- 
 strare, "to show, point" (68). 
 
 Like mostrare: 
 salutare, to salute, say good- 
 morning to 
 dimorare, to live, dwell 
 am are, to like, love 
 guardare, to look at 
 il giorno, the day 
 bupno, good 
 
 bupn 1 giorno, good-day, good- 
 morning 
 il maestro, the master, teacher 
 il ritratto, the picture, portrait 
 il re, the king 
 
 il paese, the country, i paesi 
 il fhime, the river, i fhimi 
 1' indice, the index finger 
 P pcchio, the eye, gli pcchi 
 la mano, the hand, le mani 
 la tavola, the table, le tavole 
 mio, my, mine, miei; fern, mia, 
 
 mie 
 loro, their, theirs (does not 
 
 change its form either in fern. 
 
 or in pi.) 
 destro, right, destri; fern, destra, 
 
 destre 
 altro, other, altri; fern, altra, 
 
 altre 
 mprto, dead, morti; fern, morta, 
 
 morte 
 mplto, much, very much, molti, 
 
 many; fern, mplta, molte 
 bel, 1 bello, beautiful; fern, bella, 
 terzo, third [belle 
 
 utile, useful, pi. utili (fern, like 
 
 masc.) 
 Vittprio Emmanu§le, Victor 
 
 Emmanuel 
 Chiara, Clara 
 Italia, Italy 
 1' Eurppa (fern.) 
 il Tevere, the Tiber 
 dove, where 
 da, with, at the house of, among 
 
 l Cf. 115. 
 
 EXERCISE IV. 
 
 Saluto i miei scolari. Bupn giorno, signpre e signori. Buon 
 giorno, signor maestro! Hanno i loro libri ? Si, abbiamo i libri. 
 §cco il mio libro. Ho il libro nella mano destra. II libro § sulla 
 tavola. Mostro il libro coll' indice della mano destra. Guarda il 
 libro, Carlo ? Si, guardo il libro cogli occhi. § il libro del signor 
 mafstro. Ecco un altro libro. Ip il libro della ragazza. § un libro 
 it alia no. Ecco un ritratto d' un re it alia no, del re Vittprio 
 Emmanuele I. 1 ^ mprto il re Vittprio Emmanuele? Si, ^ mprto. 
 Dove dimpra il re d' Italia? Dimpra in Italia. L'ltalia | un bel 
 paese. II Tevere § un flume dell' Italia. Ama 1' Italia? Si, amo 
 1' Italia. Dimpra Dante in Italia? Np, Dante § mprto. E la 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 211 
 
 Beatrice? Si, la Beatrice § m9rta. Amano gl' Italiani il Dante? 
 Si, amano il Dante. 
 
 1 Read primo. 
 
 EXERCISE V. 
 
 (i) Where is Italy? (2) Italy is a country of Europe. (3) Has 
 
 Italy a king? (4) Yes, Italy has a king. (5) Victor Emmanuel III. 
 
 is king of Italy. (6) I am showing the king's picture. (7) It is 
 
 in the little boy's book. (8) Where is the book? (9) I have the 
 
 book in my 1 right hand. (10) Do you like books? (11) Yes, I 
 
 (1) (3) (-P (s) (2) (*) 
 
 love pictures and books very much. (12) I have an Italian 
 
 book for the boy. (13) Here is the Italian's book. (14) Books 
 
 are useful. (15) Has Clara a book? (16) Yes, she is showing the 
 
 book to the little boy. (17) Little boys like books and pictures. 
 
 (2) (1) 
 
 (18) The Italian books are from Italy. (19) Clara is in Italy. 
 
 (20) She ! is living with 2 Mrs. B. 
 
 Omit 
 
 2 Use da 
 
 il pofta, the poet 
 
 il padre, the father 
 
 il politico, the politician 
 
 il calamaio, the ink-stand 
 
 V emisfero, the hemisphere, gli 
 emisffri 
 
 1' inchipstro (mas.) , the ink 
 
 la penna, the pen 
 
 la carta, the paper 
 
 la scuola, the school, school- 
 room 
 
 la lingua, the language, tongue 
 
 la cosa, the thing, object 
 
 la provincia, the province 
 
 la citta, the city 
 
 la casa, the house 
 
 la bpeca, the mouth 
 
 1' ppera, the work 
 
 1' America, America 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 V America del Nord, North Amer- 
 ica 
 
 la Toscana, Tuscany 
 
 Firenze, Florence 
 
 toscano, Tuscan, toscani; tos- 
 cana, toscane 
 
 tedesco, German, tedeschi; te- 
 desca, tedesche 
 
 francese, French, francesi 
 
 grande (gran) 1 , great 
 
 9 vest, western, west 
 
 insegnare, to teach 
 
 parlare. to speak 
 
 vi §. there is; vi sono, there are 
 
 anche, also 
 
 con, with 
 
 adesso, now 
 
 dentro, within, inside 
 
 1 Cf. 115. The feminine is like the masculine. 
 
212 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISE VI. 
 
 Siamo in Italia? No, siamo in America, paese dell' emisfero 
 dell' 9vest. L' America del Nord § un gran paese. Vi sono degl' 
 Italiani nell' America del Nord? Si, vi spno molti I tali an i, 
 Vi sono degl' Italiani npbili. Vi sono anc'he dei Tedeschi e dei 
 Francesi. Hanno gP Italiani in America libri italiani? Si, 
 §cco dei libri italiani sulla tavola. Sono le Qpere del Dante 
 Non vi | altra cosa? Si, vi § un calamaio con dell' inchigstro 
 dentro. Ho anche delle penne per gli scolari. Non hanno lapis 
 gli scolari? Si, hanno dei lapis, ma non penne. Sono Italiani 
 gli scolari? No, sono American i. Hanno dei libri italiani, 
 e anche degl'inglesi, : Hanno della carta e dell' inchipstro. Io sono 
 il ma§stro. II padre del ragazzo col libro inglese § anche maestro, 
 |p un buon maestro di lingua francese. Insegna il francese, lingua 
 bella e molto music ale. Ha degli scolari? Si, ha degli scolari 
 americani, non ha scolari italiani. Non § a scuola adesso, § 
 a casa. 
 
 1 ="some English ones." 
 
 i t> j 
 
 EXERCISE VII. 
 
 (i) Have you any ink? (2) No, I have no 1 ink; I have some 
 paper and some pencils. (3) I have some books too, some Italian 
 books. (4) I have some of the works of Dante. (5) Dante was 
 a poet. (6) Was Dante a Frenchman? (7) No, he was an Italian; 
 he was an Italian poet. (8) He lived in Florence. (9) Florence 
 is a city of Italy. (10) It is in Tuscany, a province of Italy. 
 (11) Dante was a Tuscan. (12) He was a politician. (13) He 
 speaks as 2 a 2 poet and as 2 a 2 politician. (14) tie speaks for Italy. 
 (15) Italy speaks with the mouth of Dante. (16) They 3 say 3 that 3 
 Dante was not a noble. 
 
 1 ="I have not ink" — placing "not" before "have". 
 
 2 Cf. 49 (3). 3 Si dice che. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 il piede, the foot la direttrice, the directress 
 
 il leone, the lion la maestra, the mistress, teacher 
 
 il mare, the sea, ocean V §ssere, the being 
 
 il fratello, the brother V insetto, the insect 
 
 il direttore, the director V autore, the author 
 
EXERCISES. 213 
 
 la pittura, 1 the picture questo, this 
 
 la montagna, the mountain suo his, her, suoi, fan. sua. sue 
 
 la s<?dia, the seat nostro, our 
 
 la panca, the bench corto, short 
 
 la lavagna, the blackboard, slate lungo, long, lunghi; lunga, 
 
 la matita, the pencil, crayon lunghe 
 
 la lezione, the lesson umano, human 
 
 la settimana, the week spagnuolo, Spanish 
 
 la spugna, the sponge cinque, five 
 
 1 ala, the wing, le ali poichfc, for, since 
 
 1' ape the bee come, like, as 
 
 la regina, the queen studiare, to study 
 
 le Alpe (or Alpi) , the Alps danno, they give (from dare, irr.) 
 
 tutto, all 
 
 1 Cf. 38, ure, and Remark 2 (c). 
 
 EXERCISE VIII. 
 
 Sulla mia tavola vi sono libri grossi e piccoli, italiani, inglesi, 
 francesi, spagnuoli, e tedeschi. £cco un libro di Shakespeare. Lo 
 Shakespeare § un autore inglese, Dante e V Ari9sto sono autpri 
 italiani. E il Goethe? § un autore tedesco. Tutti questi autori 
 sono fa mo si. ]£ cco un ritratto dello Shakespeare. Ha anche 
 ritratti di Dante e dell' Ariosto? Si, sono nei libri. Dove sono i 
 libri? Nella scupla, sulla tavola. Siamo in una scupla, vi sono 
 molte scuQle in questo edificio. Nella nostra scuola vi sono sedie, 
 panche, tavole e lavagne. Vi sono anche delle penne e dei lapis, 
 delle matite e una spugna. Vi § dell' inchiostro nei calamai. Gli 
 scolari diligenti 1 stiidiano. Studiano una lezione italiana. 
 Hanno anche delle lezioni inglesi e delle lezipni di geografia. 
 Hanno una corta lezione di geografia. Hanno cinque lezioni 
 la settimana. 
 
 1 Observe the position of the adjective. 
 
 EXERCISE IX. 
 
 (1) Here is our school. (2) There are many classrooms in 1 it 1 . 
 (3) The scholars have Italian books. (4) There are a great many 
 tables. (5) Here are the director and directress of the school. 
 (6) They give the lessons to the scholars. (7) The girl on the 
 bench is diligent. (S) The two boys, her brothers, are also 
 diligent. (9) They have long English lessons and short Italian 
 lessons. (10) Here are pictures of two kings of Italy, (n) Here 
 
214 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 is a picture of the Alps. (12) The scholars are in school five days 
 
 (2) (3) (1) 
 
 of the week. (13) The teachers (masters and mistresses) 2 also. 
 
 (14) The boys and girls 2 have desks, 3 pencils, pens, books, paper, 
 and ink. (15) They are 4 studying 4 geography. (16) Geog- 
 raphy speaks of continents, countries, oceans, rivers, mountains, 
 and cities. (17) Zoology speaks of animals. (18) The lion 
 is the king of ani mals. (19) For animals, like human beings, 
 have kings. (20) Bees have queens, not kings. (21) Bees are 
 insects, but insects are animals. (22) Bees have wings, men 
 have feet. 
 
 Omit. 
 
 * Cf. 46. s Tavole. 
 
 they study" — sttidiano. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 il polso, the pulse 
 
 il mfdico, the doctor, i mfdici 
 
 il singolare, the singular 
 
 il plurale, the plural 
 
 il nome, the name 
 
 il ppllice, the thumb 
 
 il dito annulare, the ring-finger 
 
 il duco, the duke, i duchi 
 
 1' Egiziano, the Egyptian 
 
 il monarca, the monarch, i mo- 
 
 narchi 
 il figliuolo, the little son 
 1' uomo dabbe, ne, the good man 
 
 (lit. the man of good) 
 
 V amico, the friend, gli amici 
 
 V inimico, the enemy, gl' inamici 
 1' ucc^llo, the bird 
 
 1' §st, the east 
 
 1' unghia, the nail, le unghie 
 la gamba, the leg 
 1' estremita, the extremity, le 
 estremita 
 
 V eccezione, the exception, 1' ec- 
 cezioni 
 
 P §rre, the "r", V §rri 
 la rf gola, the rule 
 
 la prontincia, the pronunciation 
 la guancia, the cheek, le guance 
 la Scarpa, the shoe [period 
 
 superiore, superior, upper, su- 
 attaccato, attached, attaccati; 
 
 attaccata, attaccate (p. part. 
 
 of attaccare) 
 sinistro, left, sinistri; sinistra, 
 
 sinistre 
 irregolare, irregular, irregolari 
 difficile, difficult, difficili 
 forte, strong, forti 
 povero, poor, p9veri; p<?vera, 
 
 p9vere 
 roseo, rosy, rosei; rosea, rosee 
 antico, ancient, antichi; antica, 
 
 antiche 
 nessuno, no, none, nessuni; nes- 
 
 suna, nessune 
 savio, wise, savi; savia, savie 
 tastare, feel (first conj.) 
 imparare, to learn (first conj.) 
 vede, you see, pi. vedono (from 
 
 vedere, to see, irr.) 
 si unisce, is united (lit. "unites 
 
 itself"), from unire 
 
EXERCISES. 215 
 
 fatto, made, done (p. part, of se,mpre, always 
 
 fare) tre. three [narily 
 
 avuto, had (p. part, of avere) ordinariarmente, usually, ordi- 
 
 lftto, read (p. part, of l^ggere) quale, what 
 
 mostri, show (imperative of mo- di, of 
 
 strare) . cio§. that is, that is to say 
 
 qualche volta, sometimes non e vero, is not true 
 
 spesso, often piu...di, more... than 
 
 EXERCISE X. 
 
 Vedono 1 la mano? II braccio? II dito anulare? Le cinque dita? 
 Vedono le braccia? Sono le membra superiori, e le gambe sono 
 le membra inferiori. Le braccia sono forti. Le mani sono attaccate 
 alle braccia, e i pie,di sono attaccati alle gambe. La mano si unisce 
 al braccio col polso. Io tasto il polso. I mfdici lo tastano ordi- 
 nariamente. Tasto il polso del braccio sinistro cplle dita della mano 
 de,stra. Non colle unghie. L' unghia (pi. le unghie) § all'estremita 
 del dito. I£ cco le unghie. Impariamo 2 i nomi delle dita. Mpstri 
 il pgllice. Quanti pgllici ha? Hanno gli ucce,lli le dita? Quale 
 I il singolare di dita? | un nome irregolare, non § vero? Dite 
 il plurale di labbro. § anche irregolare. E il plurale di due a? 
 Sono eccezipni. Le rfgole hanno eccezioni. L' eccezioni sono 
 difficili. 5 difficile la proniincia dell' italiano? La pronuncia 
 dell' erre | difficile. 
 
 1 Really the third person plural of the verb. Used in address- 
 ing several persons to one of whom the third person singular 
 would be used. 
 
 2 Means as w T ell "let us learn" as "we learn ". 
 
 EXERCISE XI. 
 
 (2) (1) 
 (1) Oxen are strong. (2) They have large bones. (3) Oxen 
 
 are stronger 1 than men, but men are more intelligent than oxen. 
 
 (4) Many animals are very strong. (5) Men have sometimes made 
 
 gods of animals. (6) The ancient Egyptians made gods of bulls 
 
 and of birds. (7) The ancient Greeks had hundreds of gods. 
 
 (8) Do you see the man with the large book on his knees? (9) He 
 
 is a friend of my father's. (10) He has had two wives. (11) He 
 
 is poor. (12) Parsons are often poor. (13) His little son has not 
 
 two pairs of shoes. (14) But he is a good man. (15) He has no 2 
 
 enemies and he has many friends. (16) His little daughter 3 has 
 
 rosy cheeks. (17) Kings are not always good men, are they? 4 
 
2l6 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (18) No, monarchs are not always good men. (19) Have you read 
 about 5 the three wise men? That is to say, the three kings of the 
 East. 6 
 
 1 Piu forti di (with art.). 2 Non ha nessuni. 
 
 Construct from the word given for "little son" by changing 
 the ending. 
 
 4 ="is it not true?" 6 ="of." 6 Cf. 62, Remark 1. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 il levare, the rising, sunrise (the 
 infinitive used as a substan- 
 tive, cf. 51 (a) (2)) 
 
 il sole, the sun 
 
 il collo, the neck 
 
 il cane, the dog 
 
 il coraggio, the courage 
 
 il sentimento, the sentiment 
 
 Torino, Turin 
 
 la Spagna, Spain 
 
 la porta, the door, gate [corner 
 
 la svoltata, the turn, street- 
 la strada, the street 
 
 la via, the way, road 
 
 la spesa, the cost 
 
 la tranquillita, the tranquillity 
 
 la vita, the life 
 
 noi, we, us 
 
 essa, she 
 
 me, mi, me, myself 
 
 se, himself, herself, itself 
 
 giovane, young 
 
 oggi, to-day 
 
 il mercoledi, Wednesday 
 
 quando, when 
 
 benchfc, although (followed by 
 subjunctive) 
 
 cosi, so, thus 
 
 perp, but, however 
 
 fra, within, to 
 
 subito, soon, quickly 
 lentamente, slowly 
 volenti^ri, gladly 
 davvero, indeed, truly 
 altre volte, formerly 
 fino a, as far as, until 
 insi^me, together 
 consigliare, to counsel 
 pensare, to think 
 sperare, to hope 
 mancare, to lack 
 accompagnare, to accompany 
 singhiozzare, to sob 
 gettare, to throw, cast 
 restare, to remain, stay 
 tornare, to return 
 picchiare, to knock 
 dimenticare, to forget 
 passeggiare, to walk 
 viaggiare, to travel 
 chiamare, to call 
 incontrare, to meet 
 lasciare, to leave, let 
 lamentarsi, 1 to complain 
 stare, to be (of health), 3d pers. 
 
 sing. ind. pres. sta, pi. stanno 
 risppndere, to reply (irr. pret. 
 
 risposi) 
 piangere, to weep 
 abborrire, to abhor 
 
EXERCISES. 217 
 
 aprire, to open sentire, to feel 
 
 dire, to say (irr. pret. dissi, I capire, to understand 
 
 said) tossire, to cough 
 
 flnire, to finish §ra, I was 
 
 1 Si is the reflexive pronoun. Cf. 96 and 102. 
 
 EXERCISE XII. 
 
 Mancava un' pra al levar del sole quando partii. Mia madre 
 m M accompagnp alia porta. Io, singhiozzando, le 2 gettai le braccia 
 al collo e dissi: No, mamma! Npn parto! Resterp con te! Comin- 
 ciava a 3 piangere anche lei, e temeva di 3 parlare. Io restava un 
 momento in istrada 4 a guardare la casa, la porta. Picchierp? 
 Chiamerp la mamma ad aprire? Ma no, dicevo fra me, ma np, 
 lascia stare, mostra che s§i upmo, parti subito! Coraggio! E pas- 
 seggiavo lentamente per la via. Incontrai alia svoltata d' una 
 strada un mio amico. 5 — Ma come, mi domandp, partite? — Si, — 
 risposi, — parto per la Spagna. — Capisco, ma perch§ npn siete con- 
 tfnto di partire? Viaggerei sfmpre io, se non temessi le grandi 
 spese. Lascerfi pggi la casa, e senza lamentarmi. — E davvero, 
 quando vi 6 p§nso adesso finisco per dire 7 : Com' ero sciocco! E mi 
 sfnto, perp, sfmpre lo stesso! Capisco ancora i sentimenti del bam- 
 bino d' allpra. Abbprro il momento del partire. E consiglier^i a 
 tutti di restare in casa, benche viaggiassi mplto quando e,ra gipvane. 
 Perdiamo mplto tutti, perd§ndo la tranquillita della vita di casa. 
 Cosi, non viaggiamo piu! 
 
 1 M' for mi before a vowel. 
 
 2 Le . . . al collo =" around her neck". Cf. 98 (2). 
 
 3 For the use of a and di before a dependent infinitive cf. 211 (2), 
 212 (1). 
 
 4 Istrada for strada because preceded by in. Cf. 36 (b). 
 
 5 "A friend of mine." 6 "Of it." 7 " Bv saving." 
 
 '&• 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 (1) Quanto tempo mancava al levar del sole quando parti il 
 ragazzo? 
 
 (2) Chi V accompagnp alia pprta? 
 
 (3) Che cpsa faceva part^ndo, e che cpsa diceva? 
 
 (4) Ha parlato la mamma? 
 
 (5) Perche np? 
 
 (6) Restava ancora qualche tempo in istrada? 
 
 (7) Cpsa voleva fare? Cpsa diceva fra se 1 ? 
 
218 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (8) Chi incontrp e dove? 
 
 (9) Che domandp P amico? 
 (10) Che cosa risppse 2 ? 
 
 (n) Perche npn parte 1' amico per la Spagna? 
 
 (12) Lascerebbe Lei la casa per viaggiare? 
 
 (13) Teme le grandi spese? 
 
 (14) Capisce i sentimenti del ragazzo? Abborrisce il 
 moment o del partire? 
 
 (15) Ha viaggiato mplto? 
 
 (16) Viaggerebbe ancpra volentieri? Viaggerebbe volentieri con 
 me? 
 
 (17) Quando partiremo? 
 
 1 ="to himself." 
 
 7 From risppndere — preterite third person singular. 
 
 EXERCISE XIII. 
 
 (1) It is still an hour before sunrise. (2) I sleep well, and so I 
 did not hear when you knocked. (3) Who accompanied you ! to 
 the house? (4) Your brother; he 2 travelled with me. 3 (5) Oh, I 
 understand. You met him 13 in Turin, did 4 you 4 not 4 ? (6) When 
 did you 5 leave Turin? (7) I left 6 Turin yesterday, but I left home 
 on 2 Wednesday. (8) I hope that you will stay with us a 2 long 7 
 time. (9) I shall stay a week, then I shall travel as far as Rome. 
 (10) Let us hope, then, that you will return to us. (11) Do not 
 forget your friends. (12) I shall not forget. (13) I shall show 
 you 8 that I do not forget. (14) Let us speak of your mother and 
 of your brothers; are they well? (15) Yes, they are well. (16) My 
 mother coughs a little, but she feels 9 well. (1 7) Shall we take 10 a 10 
 walk 10 together? (18) Yes, I will gladly take a walk. (19) My 
 brother will accompany us. 11 (20) There is a dog; do not be 
 afraid 12 of 2 him. 13 (21) I am not afraid of him. (22) My sister 
 used 14 to be afraid 14 of dogs, but now she does 15 not fear them. 16 
 (23) Let us return to the house now. (24) We shall not go out 
 any 2 more to-day. 
 
 1 T' before verb. 2 Omit. 3 Me. 4 =" Is it not true?" 
 
 5 Use second person plural preterite. 
 
 8 Use partire followed by di. 7 = " much." 8 Ti before verb. 
 
 9 Supply si before verb. 10 =" walk." n Ci before verb. 
 12 =" fear." 13 Lp before verb. 
 
 14 =" feared formerly." Use imperfect. 
 
 lb =" fears no more." 16 Li before verb. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 219 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 il carattere, the character 
 
 il triumviro, the' triumvir 
 
 il soldato, the soldier 
 
 il terreno, the ground, land 
 
 il colono. the colonist 
 
 il periodo, the period, time 
 
 il luogo, the place 
 
 il tempo, the time 
 
 il diritto, the right, privilege 
 
 il figlio, the son 
 
 il bambino, the baby 
 
 il sonno, the sleep 
 
 avere sonno, to be sleepy 
 
 l'anno, the year [ity 
 
 l'estremo, the extreme, extrem- 
 
 1'anfiteatro, the amphitheatre 
 
 l'impero, the empire 
 
 la parte, the part 
 
 la st<?ria, the history 
 
 la repubblica, the republic 
 
 la colQnia, the colony 
 
 la traccia, the trace 
 
 la piazzetta, the little square, 
 
 open space 
 la dipendenza, the dependence 
 Porigine, the origin 
 Pedificazione, the edifice 
 la Grfcia, Greece 
 San 1 Simone, Saint Simon 
 Colombo, Columbus 
 ciascuno, each, each one 
 
 l Cf. 115. 
 
 ogni, every 
 
 chi, who 
 
 caro, dear 
 
 sicuro, ccrtairl 
 
 militare, military 
 
 etrusco, Etruscan 
 
 primo, first 
 
 assoluto, absolute 
 
 occidentale, western 
 
 contento, content, glad 
 
 naturalmente, naturally 
 
 maggiore, 2 greater, larger 
 
 quando, when 
 
 piii, more 
 
 ancora, still 
 
 male, badly 
 
 fin da, from 
 
 perche, because 
 
 ascoltare, to listen 
 
 assegnare, to assign 
 
 emigrare, to emigrate 
 
 cambiare, cambiarsi, to change 
 
 andare, to go (irr. va, he goes) 
 
 credere, to believe 
 
 divenire, to become (irr. p. part. 
 
 divenuto) 
 condurre. to > conduct (irr. p. 
 
 part, condotto) 
 dividere, to divide (irr. p. park. 
 
 diviso) 
 conoscere, to know (a person) 
 
 2 Cf. 123. 
 
 EXERCISE XIV. 
 
 Firfnze, e con Firfnze la maggipr 1 parte delle citta antiche, va 
 perdfndo ogni giorno il suo carattere antico. Npn dimentichiamo 
 mai la stpria di questa cara npstra citta. 2 Abbiamo per cosa 
 sicura che 3 nelP anno 40 4 avanti Gesu Cristo, quando la repubblica 
 
220 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 romana §ra agli estremi, fu da Ottavio e dagli altri due trhimviri 
 condotta una col9nia militare a Firenze, e a ciascuno dei soldati 
 venne 5 assegnata una porzione di terreno. Essendo numerosi 
 questi coloni la citta 9 divenuta stibito molto piu grande. Vi spno 
 ancora molte traccie delle edificazioni del periodo. Cost nel lupgo 
 dove 9ggi sono le piazzette di San Simone e dei Peruzzi v' era un 
 anfiteatro r o m an o . Firenze, fin dai primi tempi, ebbe molti diritti, 
 §ra pen) in uno stato di dipendemza assoluta da Roma, e le C9se di 
 Roma andavano male. Fu alia m9rte dell' imperatore Teodosio in 
 395 che V imp^ro venne diviso fra i su9i due figli. Fir§nze §ra 
 naturalmente della parte Occidentale dove fu signore Onorio. 
 
 1 Cf. 36. 2 "This dear city of ours." 
 
 3 "We hold it as certain that." 4 Read quaranta. Cf. 251. 
 
 5 Third person singular preterite indicative of venire. Cf. 81 (b). 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 (1) % una citta antica Firenze? 
 
 (2) Che C9sa va perd§ndo? 
 
 (3) ^ interessante la st9ria dell' origine di Fir§nze? 
 
 (5) Da chi fu condotta la col9nia militare a Firenze nell' anno 
 40 avanti Gesu Cristo? 
 
 (6) Ch' §ra allora la condizione della repubblica romana? 
 
 (7) I£rano numerosi i col9ni? 
 
 (8) § divenuta grande la citta di Firenze? 
 
 (9) Sonvi ancora traccie delle edificazioni del periodo? 
 
 (10) Vi §ra un anfiteatro romano? Dove? 
 
 (11) E* a indipend^nte la citta? 
 
 (12) Quando venne diviso 1' imp^ro romano? 
 
 (13) Di che parte e,ra Firenze? 
 
 (14) Chi fu signore della parte occidentale? 
 
 (15) Dimenticheranno i Fiorentini la st9ria dell' origine della 
 citta? 
 
 EXERCISE XV. 
 
 (1) Are you sleepy? No! (2) Then let us talk about l the his- 
 tory of Florence. (3) I should be 2 very glad to listen. 2 (4) I have 
 not been in Florence long, 3 but I love it. 4 (5) It is an old city, but 
 it is changing 5 very 6 much. (6) It was an old city when Columbus 
 was a baby. (7) So it has had a very 7 long history. (S) We should 
 
 (1) (3) (4) (2) 
 have to study a long time (in order) to know its history well. (9) A 
 
EXERCISKS. 
 
 221 
 
 Roman colony was brought to Florence by Octavius. (10) But 
 there were men in the city who were not Romans, (u) Listen! 
 It is believed that the Etruscans were from Greece. They emigrated 
 into Italy. (12), Fiesole was an Etruscan city, and the first colonists 
 of Florence were from Fiesole. (13) We have spoken of Fiesole — 
 but who that 8 has not been in Florence knows Fiesole? (14) And 
 who does not know Florence? (15) FJ§sole was, but Florence 
 is — and will be, let us hope! 
 
 1 ="of." 2 =" listen gladly/' 
 
 3 = "much time." 4 L' before verb. 
 
 5 Cambiandosi. For the rendering of " is " cf. foregoing exercise. 
 
 6 Omit. 7 Molto. 8 Che. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Io str§ pito, the noise 
 
 il genitore, the parent 
 
 il piacere, the pleasure 
 
 per piacere, as a favor, please 
 
 il cugino, the cousin 
 
 la zia, the aunt 
 
 la grazie, the grace, favor; 
 
 grazie, thanks 
 tranquillo, quiet 
 piccino, little, little child 
 tan to, such a, so much 
 niente, nothing 
 nemmeno, nor . . . either 
 da, to (a person) 
 
 qui, here 
 
 li, there 
 
 volere, to wish (irr. voglio, vuoi, 
 
 I wish, thou wishest) 
 venire, to come (irr. vieni, come 
 
 thou) 
 giocare (giuocare) , to play 
 rincrescere (impersonal) , to be 
 
 sorry 
 rincrescere di, to be sorry for 
 ridere, to laugh 
 ridere di, to laugh at 
 star(e) buono, to be good, quiet 
 
 EXERCISE XVI. 
 
 Parla Lei? No, parla lui. Dica loro per piacere che non voglio 
 tanto strfpito. — Nemmeno io. Voi, bambini, state tranquilli ! E 
 tu, Carlino, vieni con me. Cosi. Starai buono adesso tu? II 
 cugino ride di te. — No, no, zia, non ride di me! Essi ridono, ma 
 ridono di se, non di me. — Non fa niente. Io vado dalla mamma, 
 vuoi venire con me? Si, si, vieni anche tu. — Io no, vedo li il mio 
 amico Enrico, voglio giocare con lui. — Oh, cattivo! E i genitpri, 
 non saresti contento di vederli 1 ? Mi rincresce. 2 — Ebbene, venite 
 
222 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 voialtri — Grazie, signora, Lei § molto buona, studierp bene adesso 
 io, senza di lpro. — Vedete, piccini? $ lui che § contento. 
 
 1 Li =" them" — a conjunctive form. 
 
 2 " I am sorry" — a conjunctive form. 
 
 EXERCISE XVII. 
 
 (i) Who is talking so much? (2) It is they, not I; children, it 
 is you, isn't it? (3) You, Charlie! Be quiet! I want to study. 
 
 (4) Be quiet now, please, you (=thou) and he and all of you! 
 
 (5) He is quiet, and so is she. (6) The two little girls are very 
 good. (7) Yes, they are good — but you! (8) Mrs. Baretti, where 
 are you? (9) I? I am here; don't you see me 1 ? (10) We are all 
 here; talk with us. (1 1) How do you do? And your brother, how 
 is he? (12) I am well, but he has been ill. (13) Oh you poor 
 thing 2 ! (14) We were speaking of him yesterday, of you and of 
 him. (15) I am so sorry for him. (16) Let us speak to them 
 about him. They 3 will be so sorry too. 
 
 1 Non mi vede — mi being a conjunctive form. 2 Omit. 
 
 3 Translate ' ' to them " . Cf . Exercise XVI . 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 la voce, the voice 
 
 ad alta voce, aloud 
 
 la vista, the sight 
 
 a prima vista, at (first) sight 
 
 la lettura, the reading 
 
 V immagine, the picture, cut 
 
 interessante, interesting 
 
 solamente, only 
 
 ebbene, well, very well 
 
 allora, then 
 
 poco (p9') , little 
 
 ma, but 
 
 gia, already 
 
 assicurare, to assure 
 
 scusare, to excuse 
 
 spiegare, to explain 
 
 dare, to give (irr.) 
 
 sapere, to know (a thing), (irr. 
 
 so, I know) 
 potere, to be able (irr. posso, I 
 
 can, puQ, he can) 
 piacere, to please (irr. and often 
 
 used impersonally — mi piace, 
 
 I like) 
 prfndere, to take (irr. p. part. 
 
 preso) 
 
 EXERCISE XVIII. 
 
 Dov' § il libro? — Eccolo. — Datemelo. — Grdzie! Ne parleremo un 
 P9'. — Oh, signor maestro, np! La prego di scusarmi, poich^ npn 
 1' ho, letto. E perch^ no? — Non ne I19 avuto il tempo. — Ebbene, 
 
EXERCISES. 223 
 
 ^ccovene un altro che § piu facile, solamente, non avendolo letto, 
 non p9sso assicurarvi che sia interessante. Ma S9 che potrete If g- 
 gerlo a prima vista. Lp leggeremo insi^me e ve lo spieghierp. — 
 Come sono cont^nto di poterne capire molto da me solo! — Vi fara 
 bene l§ggerlo ad alta voce, e allora vpstro fratello 1' ascoltera. Gli 
 farebbe b§ne anche a lui. — Lo farp volentieri, la lettura ad alta voce 
 mi piace molto. — Non Le piace, signorina? — Si, signore, mi piace 
 tanto, e ne farp la mia parte. — Avete visto le b$lle immagini? — Nos- 
 signpre. 1 — Allora guardatele. Esse spno davvero bflle. Mostratele 
 anche ad Ernesto. — Non § qui? Chiamalo, Carlo, per piacere. — 
 Oh, eccolo! Ma ad§sso dpv' ^ il libro. Dammelo, ti prego, glielo 
 mostrer^. 
 
 1 Frequently used for np signore. 
 
 EXERCISE XIX. 
 
 (1) Show me your hands. (2) Here 1 they are. (3) Show them 
 to him and say: I am showing them to you. (4) Take the book. 
 (5) I have taken it. (6) Give it to them. (7) They are showing 
 him the pictures. (8) We have already seen them. (9) Show 
 them to me. (10) I have seen them, and I shall show them to him 
 and to her. (11) I will show them to them at once. (12) Show 
 me some. (13) We were talking about it. (14) I have not seen 
 him. (15) I knew it. I told her so, but she would 2 not listen to 
 me. (16) Have you seen them to-day? (17) Yes, and I have 
 spoken to them. (18) I have talked to her about it, but it does not 
 please her. 
 
 1 Use §cco. 2 Cf. 82. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 il npnno, the grandfather la dolcezza, the sweetness, mild- 
 
 il nippte, the grandson ness 
 
 il gusto, the pleasure, delight la domanda, the demand 
 
 il mpdo, the manner, way la carezza, the caress [scolding 
 
 in mpdo da, in such a manner as la tiratina, the contention, 
 
 il fpndo, the bottom 1' assenza, the absence 
 
 in fpndo, at heart 1' arditezza, the boldness 
 
 il cprso, the course certo, certain 
 
 lo studio, the study rispettpso, respectful 
 
 la sera, the evening rosso, red 
 
 la cpsa, the thing, matter, affair matto, mad, immoderate 
 
224 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 vispo, merry, lively 
 stesso, same, the very 
 affinche, that, in order that 
 durante, during 
 npn — mai, never 
 pra, now 
 
 allentare, to loosen 
 buttare, to throw 
 contrariare, to vex 
 saltare, to jump 
 esclamare, to exclaim 
 abbassare, to lower, cast down 
 sbacciuccare, to kiss repeatedly 
 ripigliare, to resume 
 
 cercare, to seek 
 
 liberare, to free 
 
 osservare, to observe, notice 
 
 crollare, to shake 
 
 applicarsi, to apply one's self 
 
 contentarsi, to content one's self 
 
 farsi, to become 
 
 accomiatarsi, to take leave 
 
 stringere, to press, draw close 
 
 fingere, to feign 
 
 interrpmpere, to interrupt (irr. 
 
 p. part, interrotto) 
 proseguire, to continue 
 pentirsi, to repent 
 
 EXERCISE XX. 
 
 Durante la vpstra assenza-disse il npnno ai tre gipvani-parlerp io 
 un pp' di cpse fiorentine a' npstri ragazzi. — che se ne ricprda Lei 
 di certi studj? — domandp Adolfino con arditezza poco rispettpsa: 
 II npnno abbasso gli pcchi' si fece un pp' rosso e disse con dolcezza 
 ad Adolfo, il quale gia s' era pentito della sua domanda inconsiderata. 
 Si, figliuplo, me ne ricprdo. Ai miei tempi si studiavano meno cpse, 
 ma quelle ppche s' imparavano bene, in mpdo da npn dimenticarle 
 mai piu. Oh, frano altri tempi quelli! Ora 
 
 Ppvero signor Leoppldo! Npn gli fu possibile proseguire la 
 sua tiratina. Adolfo gli era saltato sulle ginpcchia, gli aveva 
 buttate le braccia al cpllo e se lo sbaciucchiava tutto, come se fosse 
 stato un bambino. II npnno fingendo d' esser contrariato, cercava 
 di liberarsi da quelle carezze tumultupse; ma in fpndo ci aveva 
 un gusto matto, e si sarebbe ben guardato di allentare le braccia 
 del vispo nipotino. — ^Se il npnno sara 1 contento di vpi — disse il signor 
 Leone, accomiatandosi — § mplto p r o b a b i 1 e ch' io vi faccia venir 
 da me per un paio di giprni. Torneremo a Firfnze insieme. — Oh 
 bene, oh bene! — esclamarono i due fanciulli, e strettisi J al npnno, lp 
 pregarono affinch^ la sera stessa ripigliasse il cprso di quelle con- 
 versazioni, cosi presto interrotto. 
 
 1 ' ' having pressed up close to ' ' ,past participle of stringersi. Cf . 1 02. 
 
 2 Cf. 229. 
 
 EXERCISE XXI. 
 
 (1) " Let us talk (to one another) about the affairs of Florence." 
 (2) " Oh yes, grandfather, let us talk together (i.e., to one another) 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 225 
 
 about them." (3) "Well, boys, do you remember what you have 
 studied about Florentine history? " (4) " We do not remember it as 
 you do, 1 grandfather ", said little Adolph. (5) " I have noticed that ", 
 said their grandfather. (6) Adolph grew rather red. (7) He 
 repented his remark. (8) " More things are studied now", said he. 
 (9) The old man shook his head. (10) But Adolph jumped on his 
 knees and threw his arms about his neck. (11) The old man freed 
 himself from those stormy caresses. (12) But he really took great 
 pleasure in them. (13) " Well ", said the grandfather, " let us con- 
 tent ourselves with what we have." (14) " Let us go away now; 
 since Mr. Leo is taking leave, let us go with him." (15) " We will 
 apply ourselves to the study of Florentine history when we come 
 back." 2 (16) "These things cannot be done in a moment." 
 
 1 Omit. 
 
 2 Translate "when we shall come back." 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 il danno, the damage, loss, cost 
 
 il fatto, the fact 
 
 il p9polo, the people, nation, race 
 
 il potere, the power 
 
 il regno, the kingdom 
 
 il veleno, the poison 
 
 il sogge,tto, the subject 
 
 il caso. the case 
 
 il famigliare, the familiar, inti- 
 mate friend 
 
 1' invasore, the invader [age 
 
 V animo, the mind, heart, cour- 
 
 il verso, the verse 
 
 il Longobardo, the Longobard 
 
 il Franco, the Frank 
 
 1a gente, the race, nation 
 
 la signoria, the rule, lordship 
 
 la salvatichezza, the wildness, 
 rudeness 
 
 la pieta, the piety 
 
 la grandezza, the greatness 
 
 la vivacita, the vivacity 
 
 la violf nza, the violence 
 
 la caduta, the fall 
 
 le armi, arms 
 
 la Germania, Germany 
 
 br§ve, brief, short 
 
 scellerato, wicked 
 
 illegale, unlawful 
 
 barbaro, barbarous, barbarian 
 
 restio, restive 
 
 analogo, analogous 
 
 sfortunato, unfortunate 
 
 vfrso, towards 
 
 subito, soon, quickly 
 
 solo, alone, only 
 
 prima, at first 
 
 indi, afterward, from there 
 
 uscire, to go (or come) out 
 
 cade*re, to fall (irr. p. part, ca- 
 
 duto, pret. caddi, etc.) 
 tggliere (torre), to take, take 
 
 away, to carry off or away 
 distruggere, to destroy (irr. p. 
 
 part, distrutto) 
 ammansirsi, to grow mild 
 
226 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 arrichirsi, to enrich one's self narrare, to narrate, tell 
 
 avvicinarsi, to approach lodare, to praise 
 
 fermarsi, to stop intitolare, to entitle, call 
 
 conservare, to keep guidare, to guide 
 
 passare, to pass fondare, to found 
 
 EXERCISE XXII. 
 
 Chi §rano i Longobardi, caro npnno? — domandg Adolfo. — |prano 
 gente pagan a — rispose il bugn vf cchio, — usciti 1 dalla Pannonia. 
 Guidati dal loro f eroce re Alboino, si fermarono prima nella parte 
 superiore dell' Italia, che per questo fatto ha conservato il nome 
 di Lombard! a; e indi, passati gli Appennini, si avvicinarono 
 verso la Toscana, che in gran parte cadde subito in loro potere. 
 Presere Firenze. Ma breve fu il regno dello scellerato Alboino; 
 poich^ il veleno, datogli, come si narra, da un suo famigliare, lo 
 tglse di vita dopo soli cinque anni di signoria. — Ne sono contenta! — 
 esclam.9 V Adalgisa. — Ma col tempo s' ammansi la feroce salvati- 
 chezza dei Longobardi ed ebbero re lodati per pieta, valore e gran- 
 dezza d' animo. La loro dominazione cadde per le armi dei Franchi, 
 altri pQpoli barbari — Scusi, n9nno, — domandc? con molta vivacita 
 Adolfino — i Franchi non avevano per re il fa mo so Carlomagno, 
 figlio del re Pipino? — E, nQnno — esclam9 V Adalgisa, divenendo un 
 P9' rossa — la bella tragfdia di Alessandro Manzoni intitolata 
 A dele hi parla della caduta dei Longobardi, non § vero? — Si. — 
 Oh la bella tragfdia, n9nno! Oh i bei versi! 
 
 1 As a collective gente may take a plural modifier. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIII. 
 
 (i) The good old man was talking to his grandsons about the 
 Longobards. (2) They were listening, they were 1 attentive. 
 (3) A large part of Italy had fallen into the power of the wicked 
 Longobards. (4) They had drawn near to Tuscany, beautiful 
 Tuscany. (5) But their unlawful dominion, being 2 founded upon 
 violence, was destroyed by violence. (6) The Franks, a race come 
 forth in ancient times from Germany, came from France into Italy. 
 (7) The Franks were no longer a heathen people. (8) They had 
 a king called Charlemagne, a great 3 man and a very wise 4 king. 
 (9) He tamed the wild ferocity of his restive subjects. (10) The 
 Franks were called the liberators of Italy, but liberation 
 means, in this case and in analogous cases, only a new invasion 
 
KXKRCISKS. 
 
 227 
 
 (2) (1) 
 
 of barbarians. (11) These were calamitous times for poor 
 
 (2) (1) 
 
 Italy. (12) The barbarian invaders enriched themselves at the 
 
 cost of the unfortunate Italians, but they were never satisfied. 
 
 1 Use stare. 
 
 2 Omit. 
 
 : ' Cf. 132. 
 
 *Ci. 130. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 il confronto, the comparison 
 
 il predicatore, the preacher 
 
 il frato, the brother, monk 
 
 il discprso, the discourse, sermon 
 
 il mpndo, the world 
 
 1' pro, the gold 
 
 1' an^ddoto, the anecdote 
 
 P ampre, the love 
 
 1' istinto, the instinct 
 
 la stile, the style 
 
 lp scrittpre, the writer 
 
 Id statuto, the statute 
 
 la comm§dia, the comedy 
 
 la trag^dia, the tragedy 
 
 la sfrie, the series 
 
 la fede, the faith 
 
 la parpla, the word 
 
 P opera, the work 
 
 P origine, the origin 
 
 P affezipne, the affection 
 
 saggio, wise 
 
 spmmo, very great 
 
 profpndo, profound 
 
 prezipso, precious 
 
 sublime, sublime 
 
 onorabile, honorable 
 
 nominare, to name 
 
 raccontare, to relate, tell 
 
 cominciare, to begin 
 
 giurare, to swear 
 
 acquistarsi, to gain for one's self 
 
 scrivere, to write (irr. p. part 
 
 scritto) 
 intfndere, to mean (what one 
 
 says) 
 circa, about, concerning 
 piu, more 
 i piu, most, the most 
 
 EXERCISE XXIV. 
 
 Mi dica, 1 signer Ugo, il npme della grande ppera di Dante. — La 
 Divina Commedia. — Npmini per piacere un grande scrittpre 
 francese. — II Racine. Che cpsa ha scritto? — La bellissima trag^dia 
 di Atala. — Questi autpri spno f amp si, npn § vero? — Si, signpre, 
 si spno acquistati 2 grandissima fama. Quale dei due § piu grande? 
 Dante § piu grande del Racine. Ha lp stile piu sublime che il poeta 
 tragi co francese. Ma ha un b§llo stile anche il Racine. II con- 
 
 1 Subjunctive used as an imperative. For the form see verb 
 dire in table. 
 
 2 "They have gained for themselves." Could the form of the 
 participle be other than it is? 
 
228 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 fronto tra grandissimi upmini, tra sommi poeti, e difficile, npn § 
 vero? Ha sentito 1' an^ddoto del frate predicatore che faceva un 
 discprso su Sant' Antonio ? Ecco il discprso. " San Paolo, fratelli 
 miei, era un gran santo, e San Pietro, cari fratelli miei, era un 
 grandissimo santo. Ma Sant' Antonio ! . . . wh . . . wh . . . fiuuiiiu!! 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 (i) Chi § 1' autore della Divina Comm§dia? 
 
 (2) Ha scritto il Racine delle comm§die? 
 
 (3) Nomini un fampso autore tedesco. 
 
 (4) Chi I piu grande, il Goethe o il Racine? 
 
 (5) l£ facile il confrpnto tra upmini grandissimi? 
 
 (6) Era facile pel frate predicatore il confrpnto tra certi santi? 
 
 (7) Raccpnti 1' anfddoto del suo discprso. 
 
 EXERCISE XXV. 
 
 (1) Victor Emmanuel II. was a great man, a good man, a man of 
 generous instincts. (2) He is often called " the honorable king." 
 
 (3) And he was indeed more honorable than certain other kings. 
 
 (4) Here is the anecdote related concerning the origin of his well- 
 known name. (5) Massimo d' Azeglio, a poet and a politician, and 
 a man of Spartan character, had a profound affection for the 
 young monarch. (6) He remarked one day to the king: "Honor- 
 able kings have not been numerous in the world." (7) It would 
 be beautiful to begin the series, would it not? (S) Victor Emmanuel 
 was younger than many monarchs, but wiser than most. (9) He 
 never said more than he meant. (10) He had sworn faith to the 
 Statute, and his word was more precious to him than gold, more 
 dear than power. (11) " I shall keep my word," he said. (12) The 
 word of a smaller man than Victor Emmanuel is as precious as his 
 word was. (13) The wisest men feel that. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVI. 
 
 (For this and the following exercises no special vocabulary is 
 
 given. The pupil is expected to use the general vocabulary found 
 
 at the end of the book and the table of irregular verbs, pp 198 and 
 
 245 sq.) 
 
 Roma, 2 marzo 1900. 
 Caro Carlo, 
 
 La tua cara l^ttera 1' ho ricevuta ptto giprni fa. Npn hp 
 
 potuto nsppnderti presto perche mi spno fatto male alia mano. Ed 
 
 §cco cpme. II babbo ha un cosi bel temperino, mentre che il mio 
 
EXERCISES. 229 
 
 § un orrore, un vero orrore. Gli ho detto parecchie V9lte: Pap& 
 mio, prestami il tuo temperino, voglio aguzzare i miei lapis. E 
 finalmente me 1' ha dato in mano e — mi spno tagliato subito 1' indice 
 della destra. 1 Ma adesso sta quasi bene. — II nostro viaggio mi 
 ha fatto tanto piacere. Anche ai miei genitori. La citta di Roma 
 mi piace moltissimo, coi suoi vecchi palazzi, colle sue grandi vie e 
 col suo bel sole sopra tutto. Lo zio Andrea ci ha condotti, le sorel- 
 line e me, al Campidoglio e al Vaticano. Ci fu detto che Sua 
 Santita Leone XIII faceva precisamente la sua passeggiata in 
 carrozza in mezzo alle sue guardie ma naturalmente non abbiamo 
 potuto vederlo. Siamo andati dai tuoi amici gli Altavilla. II signor 
 Altavilla | stato molto bupno per noi. Ci ha detto — casa mia ^ casa 
 vostra. — -Sua moglie § tanto gentile. Anche i loro figli mi spno 
 simpatici. Abbiamo parlato di te e della tua famiglia. Come 
 stanno i tuoi cugini? Ho comprato dei libri per loro. Non abbiamo 
 visto Sua Maesta il re Umberto, ma abbiamo visto la sua camera 
 da letto. Abbiamo visto tante belle cose che ne sono stance 
 Buona notte! 
 
 II tuo affmo. 2 amico, 
 
 Enrico. 
 
 1 =mano destra. 
 
 2 For affettionatissimo, the ordinary Italian abbreviation. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVII. 
 
 (1) Where is your brother? (2) Is my little sister with him? 
 (3) I have lost my little sister. (4) Have you my book, my pen, 
 and my pencils? (5) My friend has cut his finger. (6) I am look- 
 ing for my mother. (7) Your parents are not here, they are with 
 their friends. (8) Where are our hats ? (9) Mine is here, but I 
 do not see yours. (10) Is not this your hat? (11) No, it is his. 
 (12) I have seen His Excellency the Governor and his wife. (13) I 
 like her face. (14) Is this one of your dogs? (15) Yes, the two 
 dogs are mine. (16) Give me your hand. (17) Have you a book 
 under your arm? (18) Yes, but it is yours, not mine. (19) Thy 
 friends (feminine) are here. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVIII. 
 
 II libro che cerchi non c' §. — Non ne sono sicuro, lo cercher^ 
 ancora un po\ — Non puoi 1 adoperarne qualche altro? — No, nessun 
 altro servira, solamente quello li. Bisogna ben 2 trovarlo, | quello 
 che devo avere per preparare la mia lezione. Chi 1' ha avuto 
 
230 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 1' ultimo? Sara 3 quello che me 1' avra 3 perduto. — Chi § quell' amico 
 a cui lo imprestasti i§ri 1' altro? § il figlio della signora la quale ci 
 ha fatto 4 visita questa mattina. Avra 3 mai dimenticato di r^nderlo? 
 — § sempre possibile, glielo domanderp, e se § davvero lui che 1' ha, 
 npn glielo impresterp piu per un p§zzo. Chi non pe,nsa a r^ndere 
 non dovrebbe 5 pigliar in pr^stito. — Ma guarda dalla finestra, non § 
 lui che vifne adesso? — Ma si, e col mio libro sotto il braccio. — Me 
 n? rallegro per te come se il libro perduto fosse mio. — Buon giorno, 
 Enrico, §ccoti il libro che mi hai imprestato. Te ne ringrazio e ti 
 prfgo di perdonarmi la mia dimenticanza. Avr§i 6 dovuto 8 ripor- 
 tartelo gia i§ri. Ma hg avuto una visita di mio cugino, il che m' ha 
 fatto restare in casa tutto ieri. Quale cugino §ra? — Non lp conosci 
 tu. $ fratfllo di quello ch' §ra da noi P anno scorso, quello che 
 aveva il cane da cui fui morso. Ma con tutto cip §ra un bel cane, 
 quello, vero? E parlando di cani, di chi § quello che ho visto nel 
 vostro giardino? — 5 m i°> n 9 n I v ? r0 cn ? I bello? Mio padre me 
 1' ha dato. 7 Tutte le cose che mi da 7 sono belle. Ha gusto lui! 
 Vieni con me e lo vedremo, quel cane! Chi vuol vederlo venga 8 
 con noi. 
 
 1 "Can you not" — second person singular indicative present of 
 the irregular potere. 
 
 2 "I must really." 
 
 3 Future of probability — "it must have been he who." Cf. 
 229 (2). 
 
 4 " Made", from fare. 8 "Ought not to borrow. " 
 B "I ought to have." 7 From dare. See tables. 
 8 "Let him come." See venire in tables. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIX. 
 
 (1) Who is knocking? (2) It is I, Henry, and nobody else; 1 
 who did you think it was? (3) I thought it was 2 my cousin whom 
 I have been expecting. (4) I am glad to see you; I wanted 3 to 1 
 speak to you about that new boy who is in our class now. (5) That 5 
 one 5 who is so pale and thin? (6) Yes, that is the one. (7) We 
 ought 6 to 4 do something for him, we who are more fortunate than 
 he. (8) My father was speaking about him to my mother, and she 
 said she would go to 7 see his mother. (9) He who does not think 
 of the misfortunes of others does not deserve to 8 be happy himself, 
 as our copy-book says. (10) Who was it who was asking you 
 yesterday about that other poor boy, the one with 9 the ragged coat? 
 
EXERCISES. 231 
 
 (n) John said something about it. (12) Every boy in the school 
 has noticed that coat, but nobody had ever spoken of it. 
 
 1 =" nobody other." 2 Use subjunctive imperfect. 
 
 3 Voleva. 4 Omit. 6 Quel tale. fi Dovremmo. 
 
 7 A. 8 Di. "Translate "of ". 
 
 EXERCISE XXX. 
 
 Oh mamma, siamo prpprio arrivati alia campagna? Si, cara 
 mia Rosina, e spero che impareremo qui tante belle cosine! Sulla 
 terra tutto § meritevole d' osservazione e di studio, perfino le piu 
 piccole erbicelle, perfino la pietruzza che guardi li. Tu sei un 
 ragazzetta nella terza classe adesso, e Ricciardetto avra prossima- 
 mente sette anni. § vero che Naldo e anc9ra un bambinticcio 
 molto piccino — e anche molto chiasspne — ma ha v^glia d' imparare, 
 poverino. Eccolo adesso! E che £ria d' omino! 1 Ah capisco! 
 lp il primo giorno che indossa la giacchetta e i calzoncini. Oh 
 riverito, signor Rinaldo! Come sta? Lei si | dunque fatto un 
 giovinotto, 2 un uomo! — Oh mammetta! Perch^ mi dai del lei 3 ? — 
 Ma, carino, | per far onore alia tua giacchetta e a' calzoncini. Non 
 sono cosi lunghi come i calzoncioni del papa, e vero, ma sono 
 abbastanza lunghi per le tue gambette. Bravo Naldinol Vieni 
 colla sorellina e con me per vedere gli uccelletti. 
 
 1 Uomo+-ino == omino. 
 
 2 "You have become a young man " (lit. "have made yourself"). 
 
 3 Why do you call me lei, not tu? See 91. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXI. 
 
 (1) Here is a pretty-little-stream; let us walk on the bank. 
 (2) Leave your big-ugly-books! 1 (3) The trees are getting-green. 2 
 (4) How 3 beautiful the weather is to-day! (5) And yesterday it 
 was nasty-weather! (6) Are you pretty-well 4 to-day? (7) I am 
 quite well, 5 thanks! (S) You are plump. (9) You are also rather- 
 tall. (10) You will be a big-man, like your father. (11) Here is 
 your pretty-little-dog. (12) He loves his little-master. (13) He 
 is afraid of the country-boy. 8 (14) Look at the dear-little-flowers! 
 (15) But where is your little-dog? (16) He is running away, 7 the 
 little-rascal! (17) He is afraid of the peasant-boy's big-stick, poor- 
 little-thing! (18) What a bad road! (19) Full of ugly-stones! 
 (20) The dog is running away very-fast. 8 (21) Call him, deariel 
 
2J2 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (22) He will hear. (23) The little-old- woman 9 is bringing him. 
 (24) Let us rest I0 now on the short- grass (25) I am a- little tired. 
 
 1 Use actio. 2 Translate ' are greenish". 3 Che. 
 
 4 Bfne with -ino. 5 B§ne with one. 
 
 6 Contadino with a diminutive suffix. 7 Scappare. 8 Prestissimo. 
 
 9 Omit "woman", using only the appropriate word formed from 
 Vfcchio. 
 
 10 Reflexive. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 dire, to say, speak, tell dicemdo 
 parere, 1 to appear, seem 
 piacere, 1 to please 
 uscire, 1 to go out 
 volere, to wish 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Pres Part. Past Part. Preterite 
 
 detto dissi 
 paruto or parso parvi 
 
 piaciuto piacqui 
 
 uscito uscii 
 
 voluto volli 
 
 Future. 
 
 parrQ 
 
 1 Compounds with f ssere. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXII. 
 
 Note. — All forms required are to be constructed from those given 
 by the rules given in 179. The present participle and future when 
 not given are regular. 
 
 (1) He was saying. (2) It 1 pleases me. (3) They have gone 
 out. (4) It had seemed to me. (5) They wished. 2 (6) Will you 
 go out ? (7) Wishing and having wished. (8) They said. (9) 
 They had said. (10) They would say. (n) They might go out 
 (imperfect subjunctive) . (12) They appeared. 2 (13) They would 
 appear. (14) It appears to me. (15) Would they go out? 
 (16) Pleasing me. (17) Did you say 2 so? (18) They wished 3 it. 
 (19) He will go out. (20) It has pleased me. (21) I have said so. 3 
 (22) Does it seem to you? (23) Did they wish it? (24) Would it 
 please you? (25) It might please you (imperfect subjunctive). 
 (26) They wished to say it. (27) She has gone out. 
 
 Omit. 
 
 Express in two ways. 
 
 3 ='*I have said it.' 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIII. 
 
 La Signora Carniola, direttrice di una scu9la, mi raccontava re- 
 centemente questo fatto: aveva visto in una delle sue classi un 
 p9vero bambino di 9U0 anni con i piedi che uscivano dalle scarpe, 
 e aveva fatto in m9do di procurargliene un paio dal Patronato 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 233 
 
 scolastico. II bambino chiamato in Direzipne a ricevere queste 
 scarpe, rosso di gioia, ringraziava con tanta effusione che la diret- 
 trice, commossa della sua ingfnua riconosc^nza, gli regalp due 
 soldi. II giorno dopo il bambino va in Direzione tutto cont^nto, 
 batt^ndo i tacchi sul pavimento, e con un pacchettino in mano. 
 " Signora direttrice, la mia madre le manda questo con tante rive- 
 re,nze." La signora apre e trpva nel pacchettino quattro biscotti — 
 di quelli buoni per i canarini ! Dopo qualche giorno la madre 
 vie,na a ringraziare la direttrice del paio di scarpe, e la direttrice, 
 scherm^ndosi, la vuole ringraziare del gentile pensiejo del pacchetto 
 di biscotti. "Ma che b-scotti?": la ppvera donna dice non saperne 
 nulla: si interroga il bambino, il quale tutto rosso conffssa che li 
 aveva comprati lui con i due soldi della direttrice. — Gli §ra parsa la 
 forma piii adatta di dimostrar la sua riconosce-nza: non un fiore, 
 n| un' immagine, che avrejbbe pure potuto acquistare con i due 
 soldi, ma i biscottini, che ess^ndo la cosa piu desiderata per lui, gli 
 pareva dovesse §sserlo anche per la direttrice. E questa gentilezza 
 egli 1' aveva voluto fare a nome della madre, perche gli sembrava 
 m§glio ch' essa partisse da una persona piu importante di lui. Cosi 
 aveva rinunciato per l§i all' onore e al piacere della sua iniziativa. 
 
 (1 
 (2 
 (3 
 (4 
 
 (5 
 
 (6 
 
 (7 
 (8) 
 
 (9 
 (10 
 
 (11 
 (12 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE 
 
 Chi raccontava V an^ddoto del ppvero bambino riconosc^nte? 
 
 Che eta (quanti anni) aveva il bambino? 
 
 Era cont§nto d' avere le b§lle scarpe nupve? 
 
 Come ringiazip la direttrice? 
 
 Che cpsa gli regal<? essa? 
 
 Cpsa ti^ne in mano il giorno dopo quando va in Direzione? 
 
 Cosa dice? 
 
 Ch' §ra nel pacchettino? 
 
 Quando vifne la madre e perche? 
 
 Chi aveva regalato i biscotti alia signora direttrice? 
 
 Con che denari li aveva comprati ? 
 
 Perche ha scelto dei biscotti ? 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIV. 
 
 (1) I will tell you an anecdote, if you like. (2) It is a fact told 
 me recently by the directress of a school. (3) She said that there 
 was in one of the classes a poor little girl of six years who came to 
 school with her 1 feet coming through her shoes. (4) The teacher 
 
234 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 managed to get her a pair of new ones. (5) The child came to 
 school a few days after red with joy, clicking the heels of her 1 new 
 shoes on the floor. (6) She was carrying in her hand some flowers 
 and a little picture of Saint Catherine of Sienna. (7) She went 
 into the directress' room and made her a present of them. 2 (8) This 
 appeared to her the best way to show her gratitude. (9) The 
 picture was very beautiful to her and it seemed to her that it must 
 be so also to the directress. (10) But the flowers were really more 
 beautiful than the picture, and the kindly thought more beautiful 
 than the flowers. (11) I like flowers very much; do you like 
 them too? 
 
 1 How is this to be translated? 
 
 2 Regalare takes a direct object. Cf. Exercise XXXIII. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXV. 
 
 Note. — The pupil will explain the use of the prepositions found 
 in this extract, referring to the paragraphs above. This and 
 Exercises XXXVI, XXXVII, and XXXVIII are an adaptation of 
 De Amicis' Vlnfermigre di Tata. {Cugre.) 
 
 La mattina d' un giorno piovoso di marzo, un ragazzo vestito da 
 campagnuolo, tutto inzuppato d' acqua e infangato, con un involto 
 di panni sotto il braccio, si presentava al portinaio dell' Ospedale dei 
 Pellegrini di Napoli, e domandava di suo padre, presentando una 
 lfttera. Aveva un bel viso ovale d' un bruno p alii do, gli occhi 
 pensierosi, e due grosse labbra semiaperte, che lasciavan vedere i 
 denti bianchissimi. Veniva da un villaggio dei dintprni di Napoli. 
 Suo padre, partito di casa 1' anno addietro per andare a cercar lavoro 
 in Francia, era tomato in Italia e sbarcato pochi di prima a Napoli 
 dove, ammalatosi improvvisamente, aveva appena fatto in tempo 
 a scrivere un rigo alia famiglia per annunziarle il suo arrivo e dirle 
 che entrava all' ospedale. Sua moglie desolata di quella notizia, 
 non potendo moversi di casa perche aveva una bimba inferma e 
 un piccino, aveva mandato a Napoli il figluolo maggiore, con 
 qualche soldo, ad assistere suo padre. II ragazzo aveva fatto 
 dieci miglia di cammino. II portinaio, data un' occhiata alia 
 l^ttera, chiamp un infermiere e gli disse che condusse 1 il ragazzo 
 dal padre. 
 
 — Che padre? — domando 1' infermiere. 
 
 II ragazzo, tremante 2 per il timore d' una trista notizia, disse 
 il nome. 
 
EXERCISES. 235 
 
 L' infermiere npn si rammentava quel nome. 
 
 — Un v^cchio operaio venuto di fuore?— domandi). 
 
 — Operaio si — rispose il ragazzo, sempre piu ansioso; — non tanto 
 vfcchio. 
 
 — Entrato all* ospedale quando? — domandp 1' infermiere. 
 
 II ragazzo difde uno sguardo alia l^ttera. — Cinque giorni fa, credo. 
 
 L' infermiere stette un po' pensando, poi, come ricordandosi ad un 
 tratto : — 
 
 Ah! disse, — il quarto camerone, il letto in fondo. 
 
 — $ malato molto? Come sta? — domando affanosamente il 
 ragazzo. 
 
 L' infermiere lo guardi), senza rispondere. Poi disse: — Vi§ni 
 con me. 
 
 1 Cf. 231 (a) and 232. 
 
 2 Cf. in. Could another form be used here? 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVI. 
 
 (1) There were two flights of stairs to be ascended, then they 
 passed through a long corridor and found themselves at last opposite 
 the open 1 door of a large- room, where were ranged two rows of 
 beds. (2) "Come," repeated the nurse, entering 2 the room. 
 (3) The boy took courage and followed him, gazing to the 3 right 
 and to the 3 left upon the white faces of the sick. (4) Some of these 
 had their eyes closed, others were looking into space 4 with great 
 staring eyes. (5) The big-room was dark, the air impregnated 
 with an odor of medicines. (6) Having come 5 to the end of the 
 great room the nurse stopped at a little-bed and said: "Heie is 
 your 6 father." (7) The boy laid his head on the sick-man's 
 shoulder and began to weep. (S) The sick-man looked at 3 him, 
 but his lips did not move. 7 (9) Poor papa, how 8 changed he was! 
 (10) His face was swollen 9 and very red, he was breathing with 
 difficulty. (11) His son would never have recognized him. 
 
 (12) " Father, father! " said the boy, " do you not know 10 me?" 
 
 (13) The sick-man did not move, he continued breathing 11 pain- 
 fully. (14) "Papa! What is wrong with you? I am your son 
 Beppo!" (15) Then bursting into tears the boy took a seat and 
 waited, 12 without raising 13 his eyes from his father's face. (16) He 
 was lost 14 in his own sad thoughts, recalling so many things about 
 his good father — the day of his departure, the last good-by, the 
 hopes which the family had founded on this journey of his, the 
 
236 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 desolation of his mother at the arrival of the letter. (17) And he 
 thought of death, 15 he saw his father dead, his mother dressed in 19 
 black, the family in misery. 
 
 I =" opened." 2 =" entering in." 3 Omit. 
 4 Translate ' ' through air. " 5 = " arrived. ' ' 
 
 8 What pronoun would be used? 7 Reflexive. 8 ="how much." 
 
 9 = "Hehad the face swollen." 10 ="recognize." Use vpi. 
 
 II ="to breathe." 12 Use stare with the present participle. 
 
 13 Cf. 222 (3). 14 Translate with reflexive verb "to sink one's self ". 
 15 Cf. 216. 16 Cf. 198 (4). 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVII. 
 
 E st§tte molto t§mpo cosi. Quando una mano leggifra gli toccp 
 una spalla, ed ei si riscpsse: era una mpnaca. — Che cps' ha 1 mio 
 padre? — le domandp subito. — ^ tuo padre?— disse la supra, dolce- 
 mente. — Si, § mio padre, son venuto. Che cos' ha? Coraggio> 
 ragazzo, — risppse la supra, pra verra il mfdico. — E s' allontanp, 
 senza dir altro. 
 
 • Dppo m§zz' pra vide entrare in fpndo al camerpne il mfdico, 
 accompagnato da un assistfnte; la supra e un infermiere li segui- 
 vano. Cominciaron la visita, fermandosi a pgni letto. Finalmente 
 arrivdrono al letto vicino. Prima ch' il m§dico si staccasse da 
 questo il ragazzo si levp in pie, di, e quando gli s* avvicinp, si mise a 
 piangere. — ^ il figliuplo del malato, disse la supra. Fatti animo, 
 figliuplo, disse il medico. 1$ grave, ma c' § ancpra speranza. II 
 ragazzo avr§bbe voluto domandar altro; ma non osp. E allpra 
 comincip la sua vita d' infermiere. 
 
 Npn potfndo far altro accomodava le cop^rte al malato, gli dava 
 da bere. II malato lp guardava qualche vplta; ma npn dava segno 
 di ricondscerlo. Senonch^ il suo sguardo si arrestava s§mpre piii 
 a lungo sppra di lui. E cosi passp il primo giprno. II giprno dppo 
 parve che gli pcchi del malato rivelassero un principio di cosci§nza. 
 Alia voce carezzevole del ragazzo pareva che un' espressipne 
 vaga di gratitu dine gli brillasse un momento nelle pupille, e 
 una vplta mpsse un ppco le labbra come se volesse dir qualche cpsa. 
 Dppo pgni breve assopimento, riapr§ndo gli pcchi, sembrava che 
 cercasse il suo piccolo infermiere. Vfrso sera, avvicinandogli il 
 bicchi^re alle labbra, il ragazzo credftte di veder sulle labbra gpnfie 
 un leggierissimo sorriso. E allpra comincip a riconfortarsi, a 
 sperare. E con la speranza d' ^ssere inteso, almeno confusamente, 
 gli parlava, gli parlava a lungo, e lp esortava a farsi animo. E 
 
EXERCISES. 237 
 
 bench§ dubitasse sovente di non esser capito, pure parlava, perchfc 
 gli pareva che, anche npn comprendendo, il malato ascoltasse con 
 un c§rto piacere la sua voce. 
 
 1 Cf. 84. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVIII. 
 
 (1) And so passed the second 1 day, and the third, and the fourth. 
 (2) The hours, the days passed, and the boy was always there with 
 his father, palpitating at his every sigh, tossed without ceasing 
 between hope and discouragement. (3) The fifth day, unex- 
 pectedly, the sick-man grew worse. (4) The doctor when 2 inter- 
 rogated shook his head, as if 2 to 3 say that it was finished. 4 (5) The 
 boy wept and yet one thing consoled him. (6) In spite of 2 the 2 
 fact 2 that he was growing worse it seemed to him 5 that the sick-man 
 was 6 slowly regaining a little intelligence. (7) He looked 
 always more fixedly at 2 the boy, he wished to take his medicine 
 only from him, and he often made a movement of the lips as if he 
 wished to say something. (S) And the boy continued to watch 
 him. (9) Suddenly about four in 7 the afternoon a man entered the 
 room, followed by one of the sisters. (10) On seeing him the boy 
 gave a sharp cry, the man turned 8 and also 9 gave a cry — " Father ! " 
 — "Bfppo! My little Beppo! " — (11) "But how is this," exclaimed 
 the father, looking at the sick-man, " they have taken you to the 
 bed of another!" (12) "Oh, how glad I am! how glad I am!" 
 stammered the boy. (13) And he could say no more. (14) " And 
 now, my son, I am well, come, let us go home. (15) We can still 
 reach home this evening." (16) The boy turned 8 to look at the 
 sick-man, who at that moment opened his eyes and looked at 2 
 him. (17) " No, papa," said he, " wait — I cannot. (18) There is 10 
 that old man. 2 (19) I have been 11 with him about five days. (20)1 
 thought he was you. (21) He always looks at me, he looks at 2 me 
 and then I give him something 2 to 12 drink. (22) I do not know who 
 he is, but he wants me, he would die alone; let me stay here, dear 
 papa!" (23) "Stay," said the father, "stay; you have a heart. 
 
 (24) I shall go home at once to relieve your mother of anxiety. 
 
 (25) Here is money for your needs. Good-by, my brave son." 
 
 1 Cf. 252 and 129. 2 Omit. 3 Cf. 215 (a). 
 
 4 Use feminine form. This and similar cases are a sort of neuter. 
 
 5 Use disjunctive form. Why? 6 Cf. 81 (d). 7 Cf. 198 (3). 
 8 Reflexive verb. 9 Place "he also " at end of sentence. 
 
 10 C $. Cf. 242. » Cf. 225. 12 Cf. 213 (d). 
 
238 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIX. 
 
 Quante vplte la settimana hanno lezione d' italiano? — Quattro 
 V9lte, il lunedi, il martedi, il giovedi e il venerdi. Npn abbiamo lezione 
 il mercoledi, ne il sabato, e la Dominica § f§sta. — Quanti abbiamo 
 del mese? — l£ oggi il quindici. Qggi § venerdi. Domani 1' altro § 
 Dominica. Mercoledi prpssimo sara il venti luglio, § 1' anniver- 
 sario della nascita del po§ta Petrarca. Ha le <$pere del Petrarca, 
 signorina? — Sissignpre, 1 ne ho qui un volume. J^ il secondo. 
 l£cco il mio sonetto predile,tto alia pagina dug§nto trentas§tte. 
 L§ggo spesso il Petrarca. — Mi dica qualche cosa della sua vita. — 
 Volentiejri, ma capira che npn ppsso aver sulla punta delle dita 
 tutti i particolari piii minuti della vita di mess§r Francesco. Egli 
 nacque in Ar§zzo. — Allora non ejra fiorentino? — Man! Arfzzo § 
 cosi vicino a Fir§nze! Neppur Giovanni Boccdccio § nato a 
 Fir§nze, ma chi oser§bbe npn chiamar fiorentine le sue nov§lle 
 immortali ? — Bravo! Continui. — Ebb§ne, Francesco Petrarca nac- 
 que ad Arezzo il venti luglio del milletrecento quattro. Suo padre, 
 amico di Dante e anch' esso del partito ghibellino, § ra stato bandito 
 da Fire, nze, dove esercitava un mod^sto ufficio pubblico. Ripa- 
 ratosi a Pisa, affidp i primi studj del figlio suo, allora in eta di sftte 
 anni, ad un vfcchio grammatico di quella citta. Due anni dppo, 
 av§ndo la mprte dell' imperatpre Enrico sfttimo tplta pgni speranza 
 ai Ghibellini, il padre del Petrarca condusse la sua famiglia ad 
 Avignpne, dove Clem§nte quinto aveva trasferito la cprte pontifi- 
 cia. Nel milletrecentoventisftte, il Petrarca, che aveva ventitrfc 
 anni, s' invaghi d' una bellissima gipvane avignonese, chiamata 
 Laura. Se ella fosse stata libera, cfrto il Petrarca npn avrejbbe 
 esitato un m omen to a farla sua mpglie, ma §ra sppsa ad Ugo 
 di Spde. Nulladimeno, secondo V usanza di quel sf colo e special- 
 mente di quel paese, comincip a scrivere per l§i poesie che subito 
 lp rSsero illustre. Due amori dominano tutta la vita del Petrarca, 
 
 V ampre di Laura e quello della patria. Fu trovato mprto il dici- 
 otto luglio del milletrecentosettantaquattro nella sua bibliot^ca 
 ad Arqua. Aveva la t§sta piegata sppra un libro ap§rto, che §ra 
 
 V Eneide di Virgilio. 
 
 1 Frequently used for si signpre. 
 
 EXERCISE XL. 
 
 (1) The fourteenth century was the golden age of Italian litera- 
 ture. (2) Dante was born in Florence in the month of May, 1265, 
 
EXERCISES. 239 
 
 and died at Ravenna on the 13th of September, 1321. (3) Petrarch, 
 who was younger than Dante, was the second of the great trio, and 
 Boccaccio was the third and last. (4) Giovanni Boccaccio was born 
 in Paris in 1313 and died in Certaldo the 21st of December, 1375. 
 (5) So Boccaccio was eight yean old and Petrarch was seventeen 
 when Dante died. (6) Petrarch and Boccaccio were intimate friends. 
 (7) Petrarch was a model for Boccaccio. (S) Petrarch died one year 
 five months and three days before Boccaccio. (9) Every Italian 
 child ought to know the dates of the birth of Dante, of Petrarch, 
 and of Boccaccio, and almost every Italian child does know them. 
 (10) The four-hundredth anniversary of the birth of Dante was 
 celebrated in 1865. (11) The five-hundredth anniversary will be 
 celebrated in 1965. (12) Professor Bernardi lectures on Dante on 
 Wednesdays and Saturdays from nine to ten. (13) Let us go and 1 
 hear him to-morrow. (14) I should like to go, but unfortunately 
 I have a lesson, so I cannot. (1 5) Let us go this afternoon, then, to 
 see the statue of Dante in the court of the Uffizi Palace. (16) Thank 
 you, I will go with pleasure! At what hour shall I expect you? 
 (17) At half-past three or twenty minutes to four. (18) Well, then, 
 good-byl 2 
 
 1 Translate " to ". 2 Arrivederla. 
 
 EXERCISE XLI. 
 
 Com'§ bfl tempo 9ggi! Facciamo una passeggiata. — Che ne dite, 
 figliupli miei ? Andremo in campagna, e staremo li tutto il giorno. 
 Si, si, mamma! Andiamo! — Siete pronti ? — Sta bfne, vado io a 
 pr^ndere il cappfllo. Dammi 1 quel mantellino per piacere. E 
 adesso mettiamoci 2 in cammino. — Si va un po' a vedere ci9 che vie, n 3 
 coltivato nel campo vicino alia strada ? Queste sono rape: come 
 son bu9ne! C9tte 4 insieme con la carne di b9ve col riso, rifscono 5 
 molto saporite; qui da noi se ne fa un gran consumo, e date di 
 tanto in tanto alle vacche, procurano loro una grande abbondanza 
 di latte. Ci danno il latte per il caff§ della mattina. — Ma fa caldo 
 nevvero, mamma? Ecco una bella qu^rcia. Andiamo a riposarci 
 li s9tto. Come si sta bene qui! Stemmo qui, sotto questa qufrcia 
 gia una V9lta, n' |, Carlino? Si, me ne ric9rdo, §ra un anno fa. 
 Feci qui un bel giu9co con Giovannino. Vanno in collfgio adesso 
 lui e Andrea, non stanno phi con n9i. Me ne andrg in coll^gio 
 anch' io, mamma ?— Si, pensava di fartici entrare anche quest' anno, 
 ma poich$ n9n stavi bene al momento di pensarvi, non 1' I19 
 fatto. — Stiamo sempre cosi insieme, mamma mia, far§ tutto per 
 
240 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 imparare b§ne, e il parroco mi dara le lezione. — Posso far cos! 
 anch' io, mamma? Faremo il possibile tutt' e due, non fateci 
 andar via! — Ebbe,ne, ne parleremo un' altra volta, vi si§te riposati, 
 facciamo ancora un p9 di passeggiata. 
 
 1 Cf . 99 (b). 2 See mtetere, 61. 3 From venire, 132. 
 
 4 From c(u)9cere, 99. 5 From riuscire, 130. 
 
 EXERCISE XLII. 
 
 (1) It was very beautiful weather yesterday. (2) Did you take 1 a 
 walk ? (3) Yes, we took a walk together, Andrew and I. (4) We 
 went 1 into the country and stayed there all day. (5) Do you remem- 
 ber that day, two years ago, when you and I went to Fifsole together ? 
 You and Charles and I. (6) Yes, we all remember that, I am sure, 
 and shall remember it always. (7) Now we are going to school 
 together, all three of us. (8) Our parents were thinking of enter- 
 ing us two years and a half ago, but Charles was not well then. 
 (9) The rector gave him lessons at home until he was well enough 
 to go away. (10) But he did all that he could at home. (11) We 
 will all do our best 2 in school so that our parents may be proud of 
 us and glad when we go 3 home. (12) Do they give you long les- 
 sons? (13) Yes, they gave us very long lessons last year, but we 
 had time also to take a walk every day. (14) It does one good to 
 take a walk every day. (15) We often went into the country and 
 stayed there all day. (16) We rested under the trees and had 
 beautiful games, then when we were rested we walked on 4 a little 
 farther. 5 (17) How pleasant it is under the trees after one 4 has 
 had 6 a walk ! 
 
 1 Preterite. 2 " = possible." 3 Use future. 
 
 4 Omit. B =" yet a little." 6 =" to have had." 
 
 EXERCISE XLIII. 
 
 (1) Sit down. (2) Why are you so troubled? (3) Because I 
 am going to my sick friend's house. 1 (4) I must go there some- 
 time or other, although I cannot bear the thought of it. (5) Can 
 you go with me ? (6) Yes, but I have to finish my letter first. 
 (7) I can 2 do it in a few minutes. (8) I ought to have 3 written it 
 yesterday, but I could not do so 4 because my little brother was 
 slightly-ill 5 and I had to amuse him the whole afternoon, (q) I 
 will wait. (10) Very well. We can go in ten minutes, can we 
 not? (11) Yes. — Now I am ready. 6 (12) I am so glad that you 
 can go with me; I really could not :i have gone alone. 
 
 1 Da. 2 Future. 3 Cf. 82. 4 "it." 5 Cf. 166. " Use § ceo. 
 
EXERCISES. 241 
 
 EXERCISE XLIV. 
 
 Anche il cammello § un animale molto i m p or tan te-npn si 
 sa qui in Europa come' § important e. Noi non abbiamo che 
 quelli che ci vengon fatti vedere ne' serragli, e si suole pensarvi 
 come a curiosita. Perp non sono animali piu utili agli abitanti 
 di certi paesi che i camelli. Paiono fatte queste ppvere bfstie per 
 quei vasti deserti sabbipsi, che non pffrono al ppvero viaggia- 
 tore nb un sorso d' acqua, ne un filo d' erba, ne un asilo che valga 
 a diffnderlo da' raggi cocenti del sole. Ma i mercanti che d^bbono 
 portare le lpro merci da un paese all' altro, debbon pure traversarli 
 que' piani desolati; guai a lpro perp se non avessero i cammelli! 
 Ppssono questi sopportar la sete molti giorni e non ne dpgliono 
 come dorrfbbero per es^mpio i cavalli. Dopo un giorno di viaggio 
 faticosissimo giacciono tutta la notte sulla sabbia senza dolersene. 
 P<jrtano con un movimento che piace a molti le persone sedute sul 
 dosso. Si pup chimarli, e con ragipne, le navi del deserto. Ma 
 dovremmo sapere che anche queste navi fanno alle vplte naufragio. 
 Esauriti finalmente cadono su quella sabbia cocente dove rasso- 
 migliano a quelle altre navi naufragate che si vedono sugli scpgli 
 pericolpsi e sulle piagge crudeli, battute, mezzo coperte dall' 
 elemento che una vplta era per lpro solo un cammino sptto i 
 piedi. 
 
 EXERCISE XLV. 
 
 (1) (3) 
 
 (1) We 1 Europeans do not know how important an 2 animal 2 
 
 (4) (5) (2) 
 the camel is. (2) We are wont to think of the horse as the most 
 
 useful animal. (3) We see camels only in menageries; never- 
 thelesss we ought not to think of them as mere curiosities. (4) Many 
 poor travelers would be 3 lost in the great sandy deserts where no 
 horse could live, were it not that these pocr beasts seem made for 
 such countries. (5) A merchant, an inhabitant of a dry, sandy 
 land, told me that his camel did not suffer from thirst during many 
 days of most wearisome travel, and that it bore his wares over those 
 desolate plains without complaining. (6) The motion of the 
 camel was also very agreeable to him, as to many people. (7) By 
 day he traveled seated on his camel's back, and by night he lay on 
 the sand by its side. (S) There were no trees which could defend 
 him from the scorching rays of the sun, and his 4 head ached some- 
 times from the heat, (y) But it mattered nothing to the camel; 
 
242 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 it seemed as though he did not notice 5 the heat. (10) The desert 
 is wont to inspire fear in 6 Europeans who do not know that the 
 camel is a ship which can cross it safely, (n) And yet it some- 
 times happens that these curious and interesting ships make 
 shipwreck. (12) I have seen some which had fallen upon the hot 
 sand and were lying there like the wrecks seen on cruel reefs by 
 the seashore. (13) These ships belong to the desert and at last are 
 conquered by their proper element — that is, the sand — as those 
 other ships belong to the sea and at last fall, conquered by the 
 water. (14) I have wished 7 to see the ships of the desert, and now 
 I am 3 content. (15) I know they can with reason be called so. 
 
 (16) If I am ever obliged to cross the desert I shall choose a faithful 
 camel as my ship, and I shall not be silent concerning 2 its virtues. 
 
 (17) I am not silent concerning 2 them now. (18) Did it please you 
 to hear about these animals? (19) We ought to know more 
 about them than we generally do. 8 
 
 1 Noialtri. 2 Omit. 3 Use rimanere. i Use glL 
 
 6 Use badare. 6 ="to." 7 Preterite. 8 Repeat sapere. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 adj. 
 
 adjective 
 
 num. 
 
 numeral 
 
 adv. 
 
 adverb 
 
 part. 
 
 participle 
 
 art. 
 
 article 
 
 pers. 
 
 person — personal 
 
 aug. 
 
 augmentative 
 
 Pi 
 
 plural 
 
 conj. 
 
 conjunction 
 
 poss. 
 
 possessive 
 
 contr. 
 
 contraction 
 
 pp. 
 
 past participle 
 
 def. 
 
 definite 
 
 pr. 
 
 proper 
 
 dent. 
 
 demonstrative 
 
 prep. 
 
 preposition 
 
 dim. 
 
 diminutive 
 
 pres. 
 
 present 
 
 /• 
 
 feminine noun 
 
 pron. 
 
 pronoun 
 
 indef. 
 
 indefinite. 
 
 ref. 
 
 reflexive 
 
 inf. 
 
 infinitive 
 
 rel. 
 
 relative 
 
 interj. 
 
 interjection 
 
 sing. 
 
 singular 
 
 interrog 
 
 . interrogative 
 
 v. 
 
 verb 
 
 m. 
 
 masculine noun 
 
 va. 
 
 active verb 
 
 n. 
 
 noun 
 
 vn. 
 
 neuter verb 
 
 Irregular verbs are preceded by an asterisk. 
 
 Where m., /., follow the second of two nouns both are of the 
 same gender. 
 
 Where va., vn., follow the second of two verbs both are active 
 or neuter as indicated. 
 
 A dash indicates the repetition of the subject- word. 
 
 244 
 
ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 a, prep., at, to 
 
 a' =ai, cf. art. il, 40, 43 
 
 abbassare, va., to lower; — gli 
 9cchi, to cast down the eyes 
 
 abbastanza, adv. and n., enough, 
 sufficiently 
 
 abbondanza, /., abundance 
 
 abitante, m., inhabitant 
 
 aborrire, va., to abhor 
 
 accomiatare, va., to take leave 
 
 accomodare, va., to accommo- 
 date, to put in order, to ar- 
 
 range 
 
 va., to accom- 
 
 accompagnare, 
 pany 
 
 acqua, /., water 
 
 acquistare, va., to obtain, to gain 
 
 adatto, adj., suitable 
 
 addietro, adv., behind 
 
 adesso, adv., now 
 
 adoperare, va., to use, to make 
 use of 
 
 affanno, m., grief 
 
 affannosamente, adv., with diffi- 
 culty 
 
 affetuoso, adj., affectionate 
 
 affezione, /., affection 
 
 affidare, va., to entrust 
 
 affinche, adv., in order to, to the 
 end that 
 
 aguzzare, va., to sharpen 
 
 ala, /., wing 
 
 allentare, va., to loosen 
 
 allontanarsi, va., to go away 
 
 allpra, adv., then 
 
 almeno, adv., at least 
 
 Alpe, /. pi., the Alps 
 
 altro, adj., other, different, any 
 
 thing else 
 am are, va., to love, to like 
 amico, m., friend 
 ammalare, vn., to fall ill 
 ammansire, va., to tame; vn., to 
 
 become mild 
 amore, m., love, affection 
 analogo, adj., analogous 
 anche, adv., also 
 ancora, adv., still, yet 
 *andare, vn., to go 
 an^ddoto, m., anecdote 
 anfiteatro, m., amphitheatre 
 animo, m., mind, courage, heart; 
 
 fare — -, to take courage 
 anniversario, m., anniversary 
 anno, m., year 
 annunziare, va., to announce 
 ansioso, adj., anxious, uneasy 
 antico, adj., ancient, old 
 anulare, in., ring-finger 
 ape, /., bee [culty 
 
 appena, adv., scarcely, with dirfi- 
 *appr§ndere, va., to learn 
 *aprire, va., to open 
 arditezza, /., boldness 
 aria, /., air, look, mien 
 arrestarsi, v. ref., to stay, to rest 
 arrichirsi, v. ref., to grow rich 
 arrivare,r;z., to reach, to arrive at 
 arrivo, ;;;., arrival 
 
 245 
 
246 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ascoltare, va., to listen 
 asilo, m., asylum, refuge 
 assegnare, va., to assign 
 assenza, /., absence 
 assicurare, va., to assure 
 assistente, in., one who assists, 
 
 an attendant 
 *assistere, va., to assist 
 assoluto, adj., absolute 
 assopimento, m., drowsiness, 
 
 coma 
 attaccare, va., to attach, unite 
 autore, in., author 
 avanti, adv., before 
 *avere, va., to have; — sonno, 
 
 to be sleepy 
 Avignone, pr. n., Avignon 
 avvicinarsi, v. re]., to approach 
 
 B 
 
 badare, vn., to notice 
 
 bambino, m., baby, child 
 
 banca, /., bench 
 
 ban dire, va., to banish 
 
 barbaro, adj., barbarous 
 
 battere, va., to beat, strike 
 
 bfllo, adj., beautiful 
 
 benchfc, adv., although 
 
 be,ne, adv., well 
 
 *bere (bevere), va., to drink 
 
 bfstia, /., beast 
 
 bianco, adj., white 
 
 bibliotjca, /., library 
 
 bicchi§re, m., tumbler, glass 
 
 bimbo, in., infant 
 
 biscotto, m., biscuit 
 
 bisognare, vn., must, to be neces- 
 sary 
 
 bocca, /., mouth 
 
 braccio, m., arm 
 
 bravo, adj., brave, skillful; in- 
 ter j., expressive cf approval 
 
 breve, adj., brief, short 
 brillare, vn., to shine 
 bruno, adj., brown, dark 
 bue, in., ox; carne di — , beef 
 buono, adj., good, kind 
 buttare, va., to throw, fling 
 
 *cadere, vn., to fall 
 
 caduta, /., fall 
 
 caff§, in., coffee 
 
 calamaio, m., inkstand 
 
 caldo, adj., warm, hot 
 
 calzoni, in. pi., trowsers 
 
 cambiare, va., to change 
 
 camera, /., room, chamber 
 
 camerone, m. aug. of camera, big 
 room, ward (of a hospital) 
 
 cammello, in., camel 
 
 cammino, in., road 
 
 campagna, f., country 
 
 campagnuolo, m. and adj., rus- 
 tic 
 
 Campid9glio, m.,the Capitol (at 
 Rome) 
 
 campo, in., field 
 
 canarino, in., canary-bird 
 
 cane, in., dog 
 
 capire, va., to understand 
 
 capp§llo, m., hat 
 
 carattere, in., character 
 
 carezza, /., caress 
 
 carezzevole, adj., caressing 
 
 Carlo, pr. n., Charles 
 
 carne, /., meat 
 
 caro, adj., dear 
 
 carrozza, /., carriage 
 
 carta, /., paper 
 
 casa, /., house 
 
 cavallo, m., horse 
 
 cercare, va., to search, seek 
 
 certo, adj., certain 
 
ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 247 
 
 che, rcl. and interrog. pron., in- 
 ter]'., who, which, that, how 
 
 chi, rcl. and interrog. pron., who, 
 he who 
 
 chiassone, adj., noisy 
 
 ci, adv., here, there 
 
 ci, pron., us 
 
 ciascuno, adj. and pron., each, 
 each one 
 
 cinque, num., five 
 
 C19, pron., that; — §, that is to 
 say 
 
 circa, prep., about, concerning 
 
 citta, /., city 
 
 classe, /., class 
 
 clemente, adj., clement, mild 
 
 Clemente, pr. n., Clement 
 
 *cocente, adj., burning, hot 
 
 C9cere (cu9cere), va., to cook 
 
 collfgio, m., college, school 
 
 C9II0, m., neck 
 
 col9nia, /., colony 
 
 col9no, m., colonist 
 
 coltivare, va., to cultivate 
 
 colui, dem. pron., he, he who 
 
 come, adv., as, as if, like, how 
 
 cominciare, va., to commence, 
 begin 
 
 comm^dia, /., comedy 
 
 *comm9vere (commu9vere), va., 
 to move, agitate 
 
 comprare, va., to buy 
 
 *compr§ndere, va., to compre- 
 hend, understand 
 
 con, prep., with 
 
 *condurre, va., to conduct, take, 
 guide 
 
 confessare, va., to confess, avow, 
 owe 
 
 confronto, m. t comparison 
 
 confuso, adj., confused 
 
 confusamente, adv., confusedly 
 
 *condscere, va., to know (by the 
 senses) 
 
 conservare, va., to keep 
 
 consigliare, va., to counsel, ad- 
 vise 
 
 consumo, m., consumption, use 
 
 contento, adj., content, glad, sat- 
 isfied 
 
 continuare, va., to continue, go 
 on 
 
 contrariare, va., to vex 
 
 conversazione, /., conversation 
 
 coperta, /., cover 
 
 *coprire, va., to cover. 
 
 coraggio, m., courage 
 
 corona, /., crown 
 
 corso, m., course, thread 
 
 corte, /. , court, court-yard 
 
 corto, adj., short 
 
 C9sa, /., thing, matter, object, 
 affair 
 
 coscienza, /., conscience, con- 
 sciousness 
 
 cosi, adv., so, thus, such 
 
 credere, va., to believe 
 
 cugino, m., cousin 
 
 cui, rel. pron. , to whom, of whom, 
 whose 
 
 curiosita, /., curiosity, rarity 
 
 D 
 
 da, prep., by, with, among, to, 
 
 at the house of 
 *dare, va., to give 
 davvero, adv., indeed, in truth, 
 
 truly 
 denaro, >n., money 
 dente, in., tooth 
 desfrto, m., desert 
 desiderare, va., to desire, long for 
 desolato, adj. and pp. of deso- 
 
 lare, desolate, afflicted 
 
248 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 destra, /., right hand 
 
 di, prep., of 
 
 di, m., day 
 
 diciotto, num., eighteen 
 
 dieci, num., ten 
 
 *diffndere, va., to defend, protect 
 
 difficile, adj., difficult 
 
 dimenticanza., /., forgetfulness 
 
 dimenticare, va., to forget ^^ 
 
 dimorare, vn., to live, dwell 
 
 dimostrare, va., to show, prove 
 
 dintprno, m., environs 
 
 dipendfnza, /., dependence 
 
 *dire, va., to say, tell, relate 
 
 direttore, m., director 
 
 direttrice, /., directress 
 
 direzione, /., management, di- 
 rector's office 
 
 diritto, m., right 
 
 discorso, m., discourse, sermon 
 
 dito, m., finger 
 
 *divenire, vn., to become 
 
 *dividere, va., to divide 
 
 dolce, adj., sweet, soft 
 
 dolcemente, adv., softly, gently 
 
 dolcezza, /., sweetness, mildness 
 
 *dolere, vn., to suffer; — dolersi, 
 ref., to lament, complain of 
 
 domando, /., demand, question 
 
 domandare, va. t to demand, ask; 
 
 — di, to ask for, ask after 
 domani, adv., to-morrow; 
 
 — 1' altro, day after to-morrow 
 
 Domenica, /. , Sunday 
 
 dominare, va., to dominate, com- 
 mand 
 
 dominazione, /., domination 
 dgnna, /., woman 
 dopo, prep, and adv., after, after- 
 wards 
 dqsso, di., back 
 dove, adv., where 
 
 *dovere, va., to be necessary, 
 
 must, ought 
 dubitare, vn., to doubt, fear 
 duca, m., duke 
 due, num., two 
 dugfnto, num., two hundred 
 durante, adj. and prep., during 
 
 E 
 
 e, conj., and 
 
 ebbene, inter j., very well 
 
 eccezione, /., exception 
 
 e, ceo, adv. and interj , here is, 
 there is, behold 
 
 edificazione, /.. edification, 
 building 
 
 Egiziano, adj. and m., Egyptian 
 
 elemento, w., element 
 
 emigrare, vn., to emigrate 
 
 emisfero, m., hemisphere 
 
 Enrico, pr. n., Henry 
 
 entrare, vn., to enter 
 
 frba, /., herb, grass 
 
 erre, /., the letter "r" 
 
 *esaurire, va., to exhaust 
 
 esclamare, va., to exclaim 
 
 esfmpio, m., example; per — , for 
 instance 
 
 esercitare, va., to exercise, fol- 
 low some business, fill office 
 
 esitare, vn., to hesitate 
 
 esortare, va., to exhort 
 
 espressione, /. , expression 
 
 essa, pers. pron., she 
 
 *§ssere, vn., to be 
 
 e"ssere, m., being 
 
 esso, pers. pron., he 
 
 estremita, /., extremity 
 
 estr^mo, m., extreme, extremity 
 
 eta, /., age. 
 
 Etrusco, adj. and w., Etruscan 
 
 Eurppa, /. pr. n., Europe 
 
ITALIAN ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 249 
 
 famiglia, /., family 
 
 famigliare, ■;»., familiar, intimate 
 friend 
 
 fanciullo, m., child, little boy 
 
 *fare, va., to do, make; — entrare, 
 to put ; — male , to injure , hur t ; 
 — una passeggiata, to take a 
 walk; — vento, to blow; tre 
 mesi fa, three months ago; 
 farsi, ref., to become 
 
 faticoso, adj., laborious, fatigu- 
 ing, hard 
 
 fatto, in., fact 
 
 fatto, adj and pp. of fare, com- 
 plete, finished 
 
 favorito, m., favorite 
 
 fede, /., faith 
 
 fermare, va., to stop; fermarsi 
 ref , to stop, pause 
 
 festa, /., holiday, festival 
 
 figlio, m., son, child 
 
 figlia, /., daughter, child 
 
 figliuolo, m., son, little son 
 
 filo, vi., thread, blade 
 
 fin, fino, fino a, adv., until, as far 
 as ; — da, from 
 
 finale, adj., final 
 
 finalmente, adv., finally 
 
 finestra, /., window 
 
 *fingere, va., to feign 
 
 finire, va., to finish 
 
 fiore, tit., flower 
 
 Fiorentino. pr. n. and adj., Flor- 
 entine 
 
 Firenze, pr. n., Florence 
 
 fiume, m., river 
 
 fpndo, m., depth, bottom, heart, 
 
 end 
 forma, /., form, manner, way 
 f<?rte, adj., strong 
 fra, prep., within, among, to 
 
 francese, adj. and pr. n., French 
 Francia, /. pr. ;/., France 
 franco, adj. and pr. n., Frank 
 frate, m., monk, brother (in a 
 
 religious order) 
 fratello, in., brother 
 fuQri, prep., without, outside 
 
 '6 
 
 gamba, /., !ci 
 
 genitpre, m., parent 
 
 gfnte, /., nation, people, race 
 
 gentile, adj., gentle, courteous, 
 nice 
 
 gentilezza, /. , courtesy, kindness 
 
 Germania, /., pr. n., Germany 
 
 gettare, va., to throw 
 
 ghibellino, adj. and pr. n., Ghi- 
 bellinc 
 
 gia, adv., already 
 
 giacchetta, /. , jacket 
 
 *giacere, vn., to lie down 
 
 giardino, m., garden 
 
 ginpcchio, m., knee 
 
 gigia, /., joy, mirth 
 
 giorno, m., day 
 
 gipvane (giovine), adj., young 
 
 giovane (giovine), w. and f., 
 youth, young man, young 
 woman 
 
 giovedi, m . Thursday 
 
 giocare (giuocare), va., to play 
 
 giupco, m., game, sport 
 
 giurare, va., to swear 
 
 grammatico, m., grammarian 
 
 grande, adj., great, big, wide 
 
 grandezza, /., greatness, large- 
 ness 
 
 grave, adj., heavy, serious 
 
 grazia, /. , grace ; pi. grazie, 
 thanks 
 
 Gr§cia, /. pr. n., Greece 
 
25° 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 grosso, adj., big, full 
 guai, inter j., woe! beware! 
 guancia, /., cheek 
 guardare, va., to look at 
 guardia, /., guard 
 guidare, va., to guide 
 guizzare, vn., to glide, slide 
 gusto, m., taste, satisfaction, 
 pleasure 
 
 eri, adv., yesterday; — 1' altro, 
 day before yesterday 
 
 1, def. art., cf. 40, 43 
 
 llustre, adj., illustrious, famous 
 
 mmagine, /., picture, image 
 
 mmortale, adj., immortal 
 
 mparare, va., to learn 
 
 mperatore, m., emperor 
 
 mportante, adj., important 
 
 mprestare, va., to lend 
 
 mprovvisamente, adv., unex- 
 pectedly, suddenly 
 
 n, prep., in, into 
 
 nchiostro, m., ink 
 
 nconsiderato, adj., inconsider- 
 ate, foolish 
 
 ncontrare, va., to meet 
 
 ndi, adv., afterwards 
 
 ndice, m., index- finger 
 
 nfangare, va., to soil with mud 
 
 nfermifre, m., nurse, attendant 
 
 nfermo, adj., infirm, ill 
 
 ngfnuo, adj., ingenuous 
 
 nglese, adj. and pr. n., English 
 
 nimico, m. and adj., enemy, in- 
 
 niziativa, /., initiative [imical 
 
 nsegnare, va., to teach 
 
 nsetto, m., insect 
 
 nsifme, adv. and prep., together 
 *int§ndere, va., to understand, 
 intend, mean 
 
 interessante, adj., interesting 
 interrogare, va., to interrogate, 
 
 ask, examine 
 *interrompere, va., to interrupt 
 intitolare, va., to entitle 
 invaghire, va. and ref., to fall in 
 
 love with 
 invasore, m., invader 
 involto, m., bundle, packet 
 inzuppare, va., to soak 
 io, pers. pron., I 
 irregolare, adj., irregular 
 Italia, /. pr. n., Italy 
 
 labbro, m., lip 
 
 lamentarsi, v. ref., to lament 
 
 lapis, m., pencil 
 
 lasciare, va., to leave, let 
 
 latte, m., milk 
 
 lavagna, /., blackboard 
 
 *l^ggere, va., to read 
 
 leggifro, adj., light 
 
 lei, pers. pron., her, she (you); 
 
 dare del — -, to use the pronoun 
 
 lei ("you") in addressing one 
 leone, m., lion 
 Leone, pr. n., Leo 
 lfttera, /., letter 
 letto, m., bed 
 lettura, /., reading 
 levare, va., to lift; v. ref., to rise, 
 
 arise; «., rising 
 lezione, /. , lesson 
 li, adv., there 
 
 liberare, va., to liberate, set free 
 libero, adj., free 
 libro, m., book 
 Lidia, /. pr. n., Lydia 
 lingua, /., tongue, language 
 lo, def. art. and pers. pron., him, 
 
 it, the 
 
ITALIAN -KNGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 2 5< 
 
 loJare, va., to praise 
 longobardo, adj. and pr. »., 
 
 Longobard 
 loro, pers. pron., them, those 
 
 (you) 
 higlio, m., July 
 
 lui, pers. pron., him, to him, he 
 lunedi, m., Monday 
 lungo, adj., long 
 lu^go, m., place 
 
 M 
 
 ma, con]., but 
 
 madre, /., mother 
 
 maesta. /., majesty 
 
 maestra, /., mistress, teacher 
 
 maestro, m., master, teacher 
 
 maggipre, adj., greater, elder 
 
 mai, adv., ever, (with non) never 
 
 malato, adj., ill 
 
 male, m., ill, evil 
 
 male, adv., badly 
 
 mamma, /., mamma, mother 
 
 mancare, vn., to lack, stand in 
 need of 
 
 mandare, va., to send 
 
 mano, /. , hand 
 
 mant§llo, m., cloak 
 
 mare, m., sea, ocean 
 
 martedi, m., Tuesday 
 
 marzo, m., March 
 
 matita, /., pencil 
 
 matto, adj., mad, immoderate, 
 very great 
 
 me, pers. pron., me, myself 
 
 medico, m., doctor, physician 
 
 m^glio, adv., better 
 
 meno, adv., less, fewer 
 
 mentre, adv., while 
 
 mercante, m., merchant, trader 
 
 mfrce, /., goods, wares, mer- 
 chandise 
 
 mercoledi, vn., Wednesday 
 
 merit? vole, adj , deserving 
 
 mese, m., month 
 
 mess^re, m., Sir, master 
 
 *mettere, va., to put, place; met- 
 tersi, re]. — a correre, to begin 
 to run; — in cammino, to set 
 out to walk 
 
 mezzo, m., middle, midst; adj., 
 half 
 
 miglio, m., mile 
 
 mille, num., one thousand 
 
 minuto, m., minute; adj., mi- 
 nute, small 
 
 mio, poss., my, mine 
 
 modesto, adj., modest 
 
 mpdo, m., manner, fashion, way 
 
 moglie, /., wife 
 
 molto, adj. and adv., much, 
 many, very, very much 
 
 momento, m., moment 
 
 monaca, /., nun 
 
 monarca, m., monarch 
 
 monito, m., admonition 
 
 montagna, /. , mountain 
 
 *mordere, va., to bite 
 
 morte, /., death 
 
 mgrto, adj. and pp. of mcrire, 
 dead 
 
 mostrare, va., to show 
 
 *m<£vere (muovere) , va. , to move 
 
 movimento, m., movement, mo- 
 tion 
 
 N 
 
 Naldo, dim. of Rinaldo, pr. n. 
 Napoli, pr. n., Xaples 
 narrare, va., to narrate, tell 
 *nascere, vn., to be born 
 nascita, /., birth 
 
 naufragare, vn., to shipwreck, 
 suffer shipwreck 
 
252 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 naufragio, m., shipwreck 
 
 nave, /., ship 
 
 ne, pers. pron., us, to us, some, 
 
 of it, for it; adv., thence 
 ne, con]., neither, nor 
 nemmeno, adv., neither, nor- 
 
 either, not even 
 neppure, adv., neither, nor-either 
 nessuno, adj. and indef. pron., 
 
 no, none, nobody 
 nevvero, contr. of non § vero 
 nifnte, m., nothing 
 nippte, m., nephew 
 nQ, adv., no, not 
 noi, pers. pron., we, us 
 nominare, va., to name 
 npn, adv., no, not; — che, only 
 npnno, m., grandfather 
 npstro, poss., our, ours 
 notizia, /., news, notice 
 nptte, /., night 
 novella, /., story, tale 
 nulla, in. and adv., nothing 
 nulladimeno, adv., nevertheless 
 nuovo, ad]., new 
 
 O 
 
 o, inter]., oh! 
 
 occhiata, /., glance 
 
 pcchio, m., eye 
 
 occidentale, adj., occidental, 
 
 western 
 *ofrrire, va., to offer 
 9ggi, adv., to-day 
 ogni, adj., every 
 omino, dim. of upmo, young 
 
 man, little man 
 onorabile, adj., honorable 
 onore, in., honor 
 (Jpera, /., work, piece of work, 
 
 literary production 
 operaio, m., workman 
 
 ora, /., hour; adv., now 
 ordinario, adj., ordinary, usual 
 ordiniariamente, adv., ordinarily 
 origine, /. , origin 
 pro, m., gold 
 orrore, m., horror 
 osare, vn., to dare 
 ospedale, m., hospital 
 osservazione, /., observation 
 ptto, num., eight 
 pvest, m., west 
 
 pacco, package; dim., pacchetto 
 
 pace, /., peace 
 
 padre, w., father 
 
 paese, m., country 
 
 pagina, /., page 
 
 paio, m., pair 
 
 palazzo, m., palace 
 
 pallido, adj., pale 
 
 panno, in., cloth; pi., clothes 
 
 papa, in., papa, father 
 
 parfcchi, adj. pi., several 
 
 *parere, vn., to seem, appear 
 
 parlare, vn., to speak, talk 
 
 parpla, /., word 
 
 parte, /.. part 
 
 particulare, adj., particular 
 
 partire, vn., to go away, come 
 
 from, proceed from 
 partito, m., party 
 passare, vn., to pass, go 
 passeggiata, /. , walk, drive, turn 
 passeggio, m., walk 
 patronato, m., patronage; — cco- 
 
 lastico, protection, assistance 
 pavimento, m., pavement, paved 
 
 floor 
 pellegrino, m., pilgrim, stranger 
 penna, /., pen 
 pensare, va., to think 
 
ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 2 53 
 
 pensiero, ;//., thought 
 
 pensieroso, adj., thoughtful, pen- 
 sive 
 
 pentirsi,.?'. ref., to repent 
 
 per, prep., for, by, through, to, 
 in order to 
 
 perche, adv., why, because 
 
 *perdere, va., to lose 
 
 perdonare, va., to pardon, for- 
 give 
 
 perfino, adv., even 
 
 pericoloso, adj., perilous, dan- 
 gerous 
 
 periodo, m., period 
 
 perQ, conj., therefore, but 
 
 persona, /., person 
 
 Petrarca, pr. n., Petrarch 
 
 pezzo, m., bit, short time 
 
 *piacere, vn. , to please ; m. , pleas- 
 ure; per — , please, kindly 
 
 piaggia, /., shore, strand 
 
 *piangere (piagnere) , vn. , to weep 
 
 piano, m. and adj., plain 
 
 piazzetta, /., small square, mar- 
 ket-piace 
 
 picchiare, va., to knock [one 
 
 piccino, adj., small; m., little 
 
 piccolo, adj., little 
 
 piede, m., foot 
 
 piegare, va., to bend, bow 
 
 pieta, /., piety, pity 
 
 pietra, /., stone 
 
 pietruzza, /., dim. of pietra 
 
 pigliare, va., to take; — in pr$s- 
 tito, to borrow 
 
 piovoso, adj., rainy 
 
 piu, adv. and m., more; i piii, 
 majority, the most, most peo- 
 ple 
 
 poco, adj. and adv., little, few, 
 not much 
 
 poesia, /., poetry, poem 
 
 poeta, /;/., poet 
 
 poi, adv., then 
 
 poiche, adv., since, because 
 
 politico, m., politician 
 
 police, m., thumb 
 
 polso, in., pulse 
 
 p9polo, ;;/., people, nation, race 
 
 portare, va., to carry 
 
 possibile, adj., possible; il mio — , 
 
 my best 
 *pote"re, vn. , to be able ; m. , power 
 pQvero, adj., poor; poverino, 
 
 dim., poor, dear 
 precisamente, adv., exactly; pre- 
 
 ciso, adj., precise 
 predicatore, ;»., preacher 
 prediletto, adj., preferred, fa- 
 vorite 
 pregare, va., to pray, beg 
 *prfndere, va., to take 
 preparare, va., to prepare 
 presentare, va., to present; v. 
 
 ref., presentarsi, to appear 
 prfstito, Di., borrowing 
 presto, adv., quickly 
 prezioso, adj., precious 
 prima, adv., before, at first 
 primo, adj., first 
 principio, m., beginning 
 procurare, va., to procure, help 
 
 to, cause to give 
 pronto, adj., ready, prompt 
 proniinzia, f., pronunciation 
 pr9prio, adj., proper, peculiar; 
 
 adv., really 
 proseguire, va., to pursue 
 prossimamente, adv , soon, 
 
 shortly 
 pr9ssimo, adj., near, next 
 punta, /., point, end 
 pupilla, /., pupil of the eye 
 pure, conj., yet, still also 
 
254 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Q 
 qualche, adj., some, any, few; 
 
 — volta, sometimes 
 quale, adj. and pron., who, 
 
 which, what 
 quando, adv., when 
 quanto, adj., how much, how 
 
 many, all; — abbiamo del 
 
 mese, what day of the month 
 
 is it? 
 quarto, num. adj., fourth 
 quasi, adv., almost 
 quattro, num., four 
 quello, adj. and dem. pron., that, 
 
 that one 
 qufrcia, /., oak 
 qui, adv., here 
 quindici, num., fifteen 
 quinto, num. adj., fifth 
 
 R 
 
 raccontare, va., to tell, relate 
 
 ragazzo, m., boy 
 
 raggio, m., ray, beam 
 
 ragione, /., reason 
 
 rallegrare, vn. and ref., to re- 
 joice, be glad 
 
 rammentarsi, v. ref., to remem- 
 ber, recall 
 
 rapa, /., turnip 
 
 rassomigliare, vn., to resemble 
 
 re, m., king 
 
 recare, va., to bring, give 
 
 recentemente, adv., recently 
 
 regalare, va., to present, make a 
 present of 
 
 regno, m., kingdom 
 
 rfgola, /., rule 
 
 *r§ndere, va., to render, give 
 back, make 
 
 restare, vn., to remain, stay 
 
 restio, adj. f restive 
 
 *riaprire, va., to re-open 
 Ricciardo, pr. n., Richard 
 ricevere, va., to receive 
 riconfortarsi, v. ref., to take 
 
 courage 
 riconoscfnte, adj., grateful 
 riconoscenza, /., gratitude 
 *riconoscere, va., to recognize 
 ricordarsi, v. ref., to remember 
 *ridere, vn., to laugh; — di, to 
 
 laugh at 
 rigo, m., line 
 
 *rincrescere, vn., to be sorry 
 ringraziare, va., to thank 
 rinunziare, va., to renounce, 
 
 give up 
 riparare, vn., to resort, fly for 
 
 shelter 
 ripigliare, va., to resume, take 
 
 again 
 riportare, va., to bring back 
 riposarsi, v. ref., to rest 
 *risc9tere (riscuptere) , va., to 
 
 tremble, shake, to return to 
 
 one's senses. 
 riso, m., rice 
 
 rispettpso, adj., respectful 
 *rispondere, vn., to answer 
 ritratto, m., picture, portrait 
 *riuscire, vn., to succeed, turn 
 
 out to be, become 
 rivelare, va., to reveal 
 rivere,nza, /., reverence, respect, 
 
 salute 
 riverire, va., to revere, honor, 
 
 salute 
 Roma, pr. «., Rome 
 rosso, adj., red 
 
 sabato, m., Saturday 
 sabbia, /., sand 
 
ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 2 55 
 
 sabbioso, ad j.,, sandy 
 
 saggio, adj., wise 
 
 saltare, vn., to jump 
 
 salutare, va., to greet, say good- 
 morning to 
 
 salvatichezza, /., wildness, rude- 
 ness 
 
 santita, /., holiness 
 
 saporito, adj., savory 
 
 savio, adj., wise, sage 
 
 sbaciuccare, va., to kiss repeat- 
 edly 
 
 sbarcare, va., to disembark 
 
 *scegliere (scerre) , va., to choose, 
 select 
 
 scellerato, adj., wicked 
 
 schermire, vn., to ward off; 
 schermirsi, rej. , to defend one's 
 self 
 
 sci9cco, adj., stupid 
 
 sepglio, Di., rock, reef 
 
 scolare, m., scholar, pupil 
 
 scolastico, adj., scholastic, be- 
 longing to the schools 
 
 scorso, adj. and pp. of scorrere, 
 past, last 
 
 scrittore, m., writer 
 
 scuola, /., school, schoolroom 
 
 scusare, va., to excuse 
 
 se, conj., if; — non che, except 
 
 s§colo, m., century, age 
 
 secondo, num. adj., second 
 
 secpndo, adv., according to 
 
 *sedere, vn., to sit, to seat one's 
 self 
 
 sfdia, /., seat 
 
 segno, m., sign 
 
 *seguire, va., to follow 
 
 sembrare, vn., to seem, appear 
 
 semiaperto, adj., half-open 
 
 s§mpre, adv., always, contin- 
 ually 
 
 sentire, va., to feci hca: 
 
 senza, prep., without 
 
 sera. /., evening 
 
 s^rie, /.. scries 
 
 serraglio, m., enclosure, menag 
 eric 
 
 servire, va., to serve 
 
 sete, /.. thirst 
 
 sftte, num., seven 
 
 settimana. /., week 
 
 s^ttimo, adj., seventh 
 
 sfortunato, adj., unfortunate 
 
 si pron., self, one, people, they 
 
 si, adv., yes 
 
 sicuro, adj., sure, certain 
 
 signora, /., lady, madam, Mrs. 
 
 signore, ;;?., gentleman, sir, Mr. 
 
 signoria, /., rule, government 
 
 simpatico, adj., sympathetic, 
 congenial 
 
 singhiozzare, vn., to sob 
 
 singolare, adj. and m., singular 
 
 sinistro, adj., left 
 
 soggetto. m., subject 
 
 solamente, adv., only 
 
 soldato, m.. soldier 
 
 soldo, m., penny 
 
 sole, m., sun 
 
 *sol|re, vn., to be accustomed, 
 wont 
 
 solo. adj. and adv., alone, only 
 
 sonetto, m., sonnet 
 
 sonno, m.. sleep; aver — , to be 
 sleepy 
 
 sopportare, va., to support, suf- 
 fer, bear 
 
 sopra, prep., on, upon, over 
 
 sorflla, /., sister 
 
 sorriso m., smile 
 
 sorso, m., gulp, drink 
 
 sptto, prep , under 
 
 sovente, adv., often 
 
256 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Spagna, /. pr. n., Spain 
 
 spagnuolo, adj. and pr. n., Span- 
 ish 
 
 spalla, /., shoulder 
 
 specialmente, adv., especially 
 
 speranza, /., hope 
 
 sperare, va., to hope 
 
 spesa, /., cost, expense 
 
 spesso, adv., often 
 
 spiegare, va., to explain 
 
 staccarsi, v. ref., to detach, leave 
 
 stanco, adj. , tired, fatigued 
 
 *stare, vn.,to stand, to be 
 
 stile, m., style 
 
 *stringere (strignere) , va. , to bind, 
 draw together 
 
 studiare, va., to study 
 
 studio, w., study 
 
 subito, adv., suddenly, soon, at 
 once 
 
 sublime, adj. , sublime 
 
 suo, pass., his, her, hers 
 
 suora, /., sister, nun 
 
 superiore, adj., superior, upper 
 
 svoltata, /., turn, corner (of a 
 street) 
 
 tagliare, va., to cut 
 
 tanto, adj. and adv., so much, so 
 
 many, such a 
 tastare, va., to touch, feel 
 tata, m., father, daddy (infan- 
 tine word) 
 tivola, /., table 
 te, pers. pron., thee, thou 
 tedesco, adj. and pr. n., German 
 tsmperino, m., penknife 
 t?mpo, in., time, weather 
 *tenere, va., to have, hold 
 t§rra, /., earth 
 terreno, in., ground, land 
 
 t?rzo, m. and num. adj., third 
 
 testa, /., head 
 
 Tevere, pr. »., Tiber 
 
 timore, m., fear, apprehension 
 
 tiratina, /., debate, contention. 
 
 scolding 
 toccare, va., to touch 
 *t9gliere (torre), va., to take, 
 
 take away 
 tornare, vn., to return, come 
 
 back 
 Toscana, /. pr. n., Tuscany 
 toscano, adj. and pr. n., Tuscan 
 tossire, vn., to cough 
 traccia, /., trace 
 trag^dia, /., tragedy 
 tranquillita, /., tranquillity 
 tranquillo, adj., tranquil, quiet 
 trasferire, va., to transfer 
 tratto, m., turn, time; ad un — , 
 
 all at once 
 traversare, va., to cross 
 tre, num., three 
 tremare, vn., to tremble 
 trenta, num., thirty 
 tristo, adj., sad, bad 
 triumviro, m., triumvir 
 trovare, va., to find 
 tuo, pass., thy, thine 
 Torino, pr. n., Turin 
 tutto, adj., all 
 
 U 
 
 uccfllo, m., bird 
 
 ufficio, m., office, charge 
 
 ultimo, adj., last 
 
 umano, adj., human 
 
 Umberto, pr. n., Humbert 
 
 unghia, /., nail 
 
 uno, ind. art. and num., a, an, 
 
 one 
 uomo, m., man 
 

 ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 2 57 
 
 usanza. /., use, custom 
 
 *uscire. vu., to go out, come out 
 
 utile, adj., useful 
 
 V 
 
 vago. adj., vague 
 
 *valere, vn., to suffice, have the 
 
 power, be worth 
 vasto. adj., vast 
 Vaticano, pr. n., the Vatican 
 vfcchio, adj., old, ancient 
 *vedere, va., to see 
 veleno, m., poison 
 venerdi, m., Friday 
 * venire, vn., to come (to be) 
 venti, num., twenty 
 vero, adj., true, real 
 verso, prep., towards 
 vestire, va., to dress 
 via, /., street, way, road 
 via, adv., more, much more, 
 
 away 
 viaggiare, vn. t to travel, journey 
 
 viaggiatore, ui , traveler 
 viaggio. ;;/., journey , fare un — , 
 
 to take a trip 
 vicino, adj. and prep., near, next 
 violenza, /., violence 
 visita, / , visit 
 viso, ;;z., face 
 vispo, adj., merry, lively 
 vista, /., sight; a prima — , at 
 
 (first) sight 
 vita, /.. life 
 vivacita, /., vivacity 
 voce, /., voice 
 vgglia, /., will, desire 
 volenti^ri, adv., willingly, gladly 
 volta, /., turn, time; alle v9lte, 
 
 at times, sometimes 
 volume, m. t volume 
 vgstro, pass., your, yours 
 
 zia. /., aunt 
 zio, m. t uncle 
 
ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 
 
 A 
 abhor, va., aborrire 
 able, to be — , vn., potere 
 about, prep., circa di 
 absence, assemza, /. 
 absolute, adj. , assoluto 
 accompany, va., accompagnare 
 ache, dolere, vn. 
 afraid, to be — , temere, va., aver 
 
 paura 
 after, prep., dopo 
 afternoon, dopopranzo, in. 
 afterwards, adv., indi, piu tardi 
 aofo, an hour — , un' ora fa 
 air, aria, /. 
 all, adj., tutto 
 almost, adv., quasi 
 alone, adj., solo 
 aloud, adv., ad alta voce 
 Alps, pr. n., le Alpe 
 also, conj., anche 
 always, adv., s§mpre 
 among, prep., da 
 amphitheater, anfiteatro, in. 
 amuse, divertire, trattenere, va. 
 ancient, adj. , antico 
 and, conj., e 
 anecdote, an§ddoto, m. 
 anniversary, anniversario, m. 
 another, adj. and n., altro, un 
 
 altro 
 anxiety, pena, /. 
 appear, *parere, vn. 
 apply, applicar, va.; applicarsi, 
 
 ref. 
 
 approach, avvicinarsi, v. ref. 
 
 arm, braccio, in. 
 
 arms (= weapons) , le armi, /. pi. 
 
 arrival, arrivo, m. 
 
 arrive, arrivare, vn. 
 
 as, adv., siccome 
 
 ascend, *ascendere, *salire, va. 
 
 ask, domandare, va. 
 
 assure, assicurare, va. 
 
 aunt, zia, /. 
 
 author, autore, m. 
 
 B 
 
 baby, bambino, in. 
 
 back, dosso, m. 
 
 bank, sponda, riva, /. 
 
 be, *§ ssere, vn.; to — hungry, 
 thirsty, hot, cold, aver fame, 
 sete, caldo, freddo; to — ten 
 years old, aver di§ci anni; 
 how are you (= how do you 
 do) , come sta 
 
 bear, portare, sopportare, va. 
 
 beast, b§stia, /. 
 
 beat ( = to give blows), battere; 
 ( = to conquer) , vincere, va. 
 
 beautiful, bello, adj. 
 
 because, conj., perch^ 
 
 become, *farsi, v. ref. 
 
 bed, l§tto, in. 
 
 bee, ape, /. 
 
 begin, cominciare, va.; *metter- 
 
 si a, v. ref. 
 being, gssere, ;;;. 
 belong, *appartenere, vn. 
 
 258 
 
ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 
 
 259 
 
 bench, banca, /. 
 
 beside, prep., accanto, presso 
 
 best, adj. sup., miglipre 
 
 between, prep., fra, tra 
 
 bird, uccello, tn. 
 
 birth, nascita, /. 
 
 biscuit, biscotto, m. 
 
 black, adj., nero 
 
 blackboard, lavagna, /. 
 
 boldness, arditezza, f. 
 
 born, to be — , *nascere, vn. 
 
 bottom, fondo, 111. 
 
 boy, ragazzo, m. 
 
 brave, adj., bravo 
 
 breathe, respirare, vn. 
 
 brief, adj., breve 
 
 bring, portare; va., to — back, 
 
 riportare; (a person), *ricon- 
 
 durre 
 brother, fratello, m. 
 but, conj., ma, per§ 
 
 call, chiamare, va. 
 
 camel, cammello, m. 
 
 can ( =to be able), potere, vn. 
 
 caress, carezza, /. 
 
 carry, portare, va. 
 
 case, caso, m. 
 
 celebrate, celebrare, solenniz- 
 
 zare, va. 
 certain, adj., certo, sicuro 
 century, sfcolo, 111. 
 character, carattere, m. 
 cheek, guancia, /. 
 child, bambino, fanciullo, in.; 
 
 bambina, fanciulla, /. 
 choose, * scegliere, va. 
 Christopher Columbus, pr. n., 
 
 Cristgforo Colombo 
 city, citta, /. 
 class, classe, /. 
 
 cl< ise, *chiiidere, va. 
 
 closed (pp. of chiudere), chiuso 
 
 coat, abito, m. 
 
 come, * venire, vn.; to — through, 
 *uscire, vn. 
 
 comcd\', comm^dia, /. 
 
 comparison, confronto, m. 
 
 concerning, prep., circa 
 
 conquer, *vincere, va. 
 
 console, consolare, va. 
 
 content, adj., contento; to — , 
 contentare, va.; contentarsi, 
 v. rej . 
 
 continue, continuare, va, 
 
 copy-book, quaderno, m. 
 
 corridor, corridoio, m. 
 
 cost, spesa, /. 
 
 cough, tossire, vn. 
 
 counsel, consigliare, va. 
 
 country, paese, m.; campagna. /. 
 
 countryman, paesano, contadi- 
 no, m. 
 
 courage, coraggio, in.; to take — , 
 farsi animo 
 
 court, corte, /. 
 
 cousin, cugino, m. 
 
 crayon, matita, /. 
 
 cross, traversare, va. 
 
 cry, grido, m.; to give a — , get- 
 tare un grido 
 
 cut, tagliare, va. 
 
 D 
 
 damage, danno, 111. 
 dark, adj., oscuro 
 date, data, /. 
 day, giorno, m. 
 dead, adj., morto 
 dear, adj., caro 
 death, morte, f. 
 defend, *dif§ndere, va. 
 
26o 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 demand, domanda, /.; to — , do- 
 
 mandare, va. 
 departure, partfnza, /. 
 dependence, dipendenza, /. 
 deserve, meritare, va. 
 desolate, adj., deserto 
 destroy, *distruggere, va. 
 die, *morire, vn. 
 difficult, adj., difficile 
 difficulty, difficolta, /./ with — » 
 
 affannosamente, adv. 
 director, direttore, m. 
 directress, direttrice, /. 
 do, *fare, va. 
 doctor, mfdico, m. 
 dog, cane, in. 
 door, p<?rta, /. 
 dry, adj., arido 
 duke, duca, in. 
 during, prep., durante, per 
 dwell, dimorare, vn. 
 
 each, pron., ciascuno 
 edifice, edificazione, /. 
 Egyptian, adj. and pr. n., egi- 
 
 ziano 
 either, conj.; nor — , neppure, 
 
 nemmeno 
 empire, imp§ro, m. 
 end, fondo, in. 
 enemy, nemico, inimico, m. 
 enough, adv., abbastanza 
 enrich, arrichire, va. 
 enter, entrare, vn. 
 entitle, intitolare, va. 
 Etruscan, adj. and pr. n., etrusco 
 Europe, Eur9pa, /. pr. n. 
 evening, sera, /. 
 ever, adv., mai 
 every, adj. and pron., ogni, 
 
 ognuno, ciascuno 
 
 excellence, eccellenza, / 
 exception, eccezione, /. 
 exclaim, esclamare, va. 
 excuse, scusare, va. 
 explain, spiegare, va. 
 eye, 9cchio, m. 
 
 face, faccia, /.; viso, m * 
 
 fact, fatto, m. 
 
 faith, fede, /. 
 
 faithful, adj., fedele 
 
 fall, *cadere, vn.; caduta, /. 
 
 familiar, adj. and n., familiare 
 
 family, famiglia, /. 
 
 far, adj. and adv., lontano; adv., 
 
 lunge 
 fast, adv., prfsto, sollecitamente 
 father, padre, m. 
 feel, sentire, tastare, va. 
 feign, *fingere, vn. 
 few, adj. and n., qualche; p9chi, 
 
 m., pQche, /. 
 find, trovare, va. 
 finger, dito, m. 
 finish, finire, va. 
 first, adj., primo; adv., prima 
 five, cinque, num. 
 fixedly, adv., fissamente 
 flight (of stairs) , branco, m. 
 floor, pavimento, m. 
 Florence, Firenze, pr. n. 
 Florentine, adj. and pr. n., 
 
 fiorentino 
 flower, fj.ore, m. 
 follow, *seguire, seguitare, va. 
 foolish, adj., inconsiderato 
 foot, piede, m. 
 for, prep., per; conj., pdich^ 
 formerly, adv., altre vQlte, /. pi. 
 fortunate, adj., fortunato 
 
ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 
 
 261 
 
 found, f on dare, va. 
 
 fourth, adj., quarto 
 
 free, liberare, va. 
 
 French, adj. and pr. n., francese 
 
 friend, amico, m. 
 
 G 
 
 gain, acquistare, va. 
 
 game, giu9co, m. 
 
 gate, pprta. /. 
 
 gaze, to — at, guardare, va. 
 
 generally, adv., generalmente 
 
 gentleman, signore, w. 
 
 German, adj. and pr. n., tedesco 
 
 Germany, Germania, /. pr. n. 
 
 girl, ragazza, /. 
 
 give, *dare, va. 
 
 glad, adj., contento 
 
 gladly, adv., volentieri 
 
 go, *andare, vn.; to — away, an- 
 
 darsene, ref.; to — out,*uscire, 
 
 vn. 
 gold, Qro, m. 
 golden, adj., d'Qro, m. 
 good, adj., bu<?no, dabbene 
 
 (placed after noun) ; — day, 
 
 bugn giorno; — by, addio; to 
 
 do — to, far bene a 
 governor, governatore, m. 
 grace, grazia, /. 
 grand, adj., grande; — father, 
 
 n9nno, m.; — son, nipote, m. 
 grass, erba, /. 
 gratitude, riconoscenza, /. 
 great, adj., grande; greater, 
 
 maggiore; very great, sommo 
 greatness, grandezza, /. 
 Greece, Grfcia, /. pr. n. 
 green, adj., verde 
 ground, terreno, m. 
 guide, guidare, va. 
 
 H 
 
 half, adj., mezzo 
 
 hand, mano, /. 
 
 happen, *accadere, vn. 
 
 happy, adj., felice 
 
 hat, cappfllo, m. 
 
 have, *avere, va. 
 
 head, capo, m. 
 
 hear, *udire, sentire, va. 
 
 heart, cu9re, m. 
 
 heat, calore, m. 
 
 heel, tacco, m. 
 
 hemisphere, emisfero, m. 
 
 Henry, Enrico, pr. n. 
 
 here, adv., qui, qua; — is, ecco 
 
 his, pass., suo 
 
 history, st9ria, /. 
 
 home, casa, /. 
 
 honorable, adj., onorabile, ono- 
 
 revole 
 hope, sperare, va.; speranza, /. 
 horse, cavallo, m. 
 hot, adj., caldo 
 house, casa, /.; at the — of, da, 
 
 prep. 
 how, adv., come, quanto 
 however, adv., bench^, pen) 
 human, adj., umano 
 
 I 
 
 if, conj., se; as — , come se 
 
 ill, adj., malato; dim ., somewhat 
 
 ill, sickly, malatuccio 
 indeed, adv. and inter j., davvero 
 index (finger), indice, m. 
 inhabitant, abitante, m. 
 ink-well, calamdio, w. 
 insect, insftto, m. 
 inspire, inspirare, va. 
 instinct, istinto, m. 
 interesting, adj., interessante 
 interrogate, interrogare, va. 
 
262 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 intimate, adj., intimo 
 invader, invasore, m. 
 irregular, adj., irregolare 
 Italy, Italia, /. pr. n. 
 
 J 
 John, Giovanni, pr. n. 
 journey, viaggio, m. 
 jump, saltare, vn. 
 
 K 
 
 keep, conservare, va. 
 
 kindly, adj., buono 
 
 king, re, m. 
 
 kingdom, regno, m. 
 
 kiss, baciare; — repeatedly, 
 
 sbacciuccare, va. 
 knock, picchiare, va. 
 know, — by the senses, *conosce- 
 
 re; = recognize, *riconoscere; 
 
 — by the mind, *sapere 
 
 lack, mancare, vn. 
 
 lady, signpra, /. 
 
 land, terreno, m. 
 
 language, lingua, /. 
 
 last, adj., ultimo, scorso; at — , 
 
 adv., finalmente 
 laugh, *ridere, vn. 
 lay, *porre, va. 
 learn, imparare, va. 
 leave, lasciare, va.; to take — , 
 
 accomiatarsi, ref. 
 lecture, fare un discorso, parlare, 
 
 vn. 
 left, adj., sinistro 
 leg, gamba, /. 
 lesson, lezione, /. 
 letter, l§ttera, /. 
 lie, — down, *giacere, vn. 
 life, vita, /. 
 
 like, adv., come 
 
 like ( = to love), amare, va.; 
 
 piacere, vn. 
 lion, leone, m. 
 lip, labbro, m. 
 literature, letteratura, /. 
 little, adj., piccolo, piccino; adv. 
 
 and adj. , poco 
 lively, adj., vispo 
 long, adj., lungo 
 look, — at, guardare, va.; to — 
 
 for, cercare, va. 
 loosen, allentare, va. 
 lordship, signoria, /. 
 lose, *p|rdere, va. . 
 love, amore, m. 
 love, amare, va. . 
 lower, abbassare, va. 
 Lydia, Lidia, /. pr. n. 
 
 M 
 
 mad, adj., matto 
 
 make, *fare, va. 
 
 man, upmo, m. 
 
 manage, fare in modo di 
 
 manner, modo, m. 
 
 many, adj. and n., molti, m.; 
 
 molte, /.; so many, tanti, — e 
 master, maestro, padrone, m. 
 matter, cgsa, /.; to — , impor- 
 
 tare, vn. 
 may, maggio, m. 
 me, pers. pron., me, mi 
 mean, *intfndere, va. 
 medicine, medicina, /., medici- 
 
 nale, in. 
 meet, incontrare, va. 
 menagerie, serraglio, m. 
 merchant, mercante, m. 
 mere, adj., puro, semplice 
 mild, to grow — , ammansirsi. v. 
 
 ref. 
 
ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 
 
 263 
 
 military, adj., militare 
 
 mind, animo, ;;/. 
 
 mine, poss., il mio 
 
 minute, minuto, m. 
 
 misery, mis^ria, /. 
 
 misfortune, disgrazia, /. 
 
 monarch, monarca, m. 
 
 money, denaro, m. 
 
 monk, frate, m. 
 
 month, mese, 111. 
 
 more, adv., piu 
 
 most (people), i piii, m. pi 
 
 mother, madre, /. 
 
 motion, movimento. m. 
 
 mountain, montagna, /. 
 
 mouth, bpeca, /. 
 
 move, *mpversi, v. ref. 
 
 movement, movimento, m. 
 
 Mr., signor(e) 
 
 Mrs., signora 
 
 much, adj., molto; how — , quan- 
 
 to; so — , tanto 
 must (= to be obliged), *dovere, 
 
 vn. 
 myself, pers. pron., me, me stesso 
 
 N 
 
 nail (finger-nail) , unghia, /. 
 
 name, nominare, va.; npme, m 
 
 narrate, narrare, va. 
 
 naturally, adv., naturalmente 
 
 necessity, bisogno, m. 
 
 neck, C9II0, m. 
 
 need, necessitl, /. , bisogno, »/. 
 
 never, adv., non — mai, mai 
 
 nevertheless, adv., nondimeno 
 
 new, adj., nu9vo 
 
 night, nptte, /. 
 
 no, adv., np, non; adj., nessuno 
 
 nobody, nessuno, m.; — else, 
 
 nessun altro 
 none, pron., nessuno 
 
 north, nprd, in.; North America, 
 
 America del Nprd 
 note book, quaderno, ;;/. 
 nothing, niente, m. 
 notice, osservare, va., badare (sl), 
 
 vn. 
 now, adv., pra. adesso 
 nurse, infermiere, 111. 
 
 O 
 
 object, cpsa, /. 
 
 oblige, obbligare, va. 
 
 observe, osservare, va. 
 
 occidental, adj., occidentale 
 
 ocean, mare, m. 
 
 of, prep., di 
 
 often, adv., spesso 
 
 old, adj., v^cchio; to be ten 
 
 years — ■, aver difci anni 
 on, prep., su, sppra 
 one, indef. art. and num., uno -a; 
 
 one by one, uno ad una vplta 
 only, adv., solamente 
 open, adj. and pp., aperto ; 
 
 to — , -aprire, va. 
 opposite, prep., in faccia a 
 or, con]., 0, pd 
 order, in — to, affinche 
 ordinarily, adv., ordinariamente 
 origin, origine, /. 
 other, adj. and pron., altro 
 ought (expressing duty), *do- 
 
 veie, vn. 
 over, prep., per 
 
 painfully, adv., affannosamente 
 pair, paio, 111. 
 pale, adj. , pallido 
 palpitate, palpitare, vn. 
 paper, carta, /. 
 parent, genitpre, m. 
 
264 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 part, parte, /. 
 
 pass, passare, vn. 
 
 peace, pace, /. 
 
 pen, penna, /. 
 
 pencil, lapis, m., matita, /. 
 
 people, pppolo, m., gente, /. 
 
 period, periodo, m. 
 
 picture, pittura, /., ritratto, m., 
 
 immagine, f. 
 piety, pieta, /. 
 plain, pianura, /. 
 play, giocare (giuocare), va. 
 pleasant, to be — , fare bene 
 please, *piacere, vn. 
 pleasing, adj., piacevole 
 pleasure, piacere, m. 
 plump, adj., grassotto 
 poet, pofta, m. 
 poison, veleno, m. 
 politician, politico, m. 
 poor, adj., pQvero 
 portrait, ritratto, m. 
 power, potere, in. 
 praise, lodare, va. 
 preacher, predicatore, m. 
 precious, adj., prezioso 
 present, regalo, dono, m.; to 
 
 make a — , fare un regalo, un 
 
 dono 
 present, presentare, va. 
 press, *stringere, va. 
 profound, adj., profondo 
 pronunciation, pronuncia, /. 
 proper, adj., pr9prio 
 proud, adj., superbo, contento 
 province, provincia, /. 
 pulse, polso, m. 
 pupil, scolare, m. 
 
 Q 
 
 queen, regina, /. 
 quickly, adv., stibito 
 quiet , adj. , tranquillo 
 
 R 
 
 "r" (letter of the alphabet), erre, 
 
 race, g§nte, /. 
 
 ragged, adj., stracclato 
 
 raise, levare, va. 
 
 range, allungarsi, v. ref. 
 
 rascal, briccone, furfante, m. 
 
 ray, raggio, m. 
 
 read, *lfggere, va. 
 
 reading, lettura, /. 
 
 ready, adj. , pronto 
 
 really, adv., davvero 
 
 reason, ragione, /. 
 
 recall, ricordarsi, v. ref. 
 
 recently, adv., recentemente 
 
 recognize, *riconoscere, va. 
 
 rector, parroco, m. 
 
 red, adj., rosso 
 
 reef, sc(?glio, m. 
 
 regain, riacquistare, va. 
 
 relate, raccontare, va. 
 
 relieve, levar (uno) di pena 
 
 remain, *stare, restare, vn. 
 
 remark, osservare, va. 
 
 remember, ricordarsi, vn. 
 
 repeat, ripftere, va. 
 
 reply, *rispondere, vn. 
 
 republic, repubblica, /. 
 
 respectful, adj., rispettoso 
 
 rest, riposarsi, v. ref. 
 
 restive, adj., restio 
 
 resume, ripigliare, va. 
 
 right, diritto, m. 
 
 right, adj., destro; adv., a destra 
 
 ring-finger, dito anulare, anulare, 
 
 m. 
 rise, levarsi, v. ref. 
 river, fiume, m. 
 road, strada, via, /. 
 rcsy, adj., rgseo 
 
ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 
 
 265 
 
 row, fila, f. 
 
 rule, r§gola, /.; (■= dominion) 
 
 signona. /. 
 run *cprrere; — away, scappare, 
 
 vn. 
 
 S 
 sad, adj., triste 
 safely, adv., sicuramente 
 salute, salutare, va. 
 same, adj., stesso 
 sand, sabbia, /. 
 sandy, adj., sabbipso 
 Saturday, sabato, m. 
 say, *dire, va. 
 school, scupla, /. 
 scolding, tiratina, /. 
 scorching, adj., cocente 
 sea, mare, m. 
 seashore, spiaggia, /. 
 seat, s§ dia, /. 
 second, adj., secondo 
 see, *vedere, va. 
 seek, cercare, va. 
 seem, *parere, sembrare, vn. 
 September, settembre, m. 
 series, sfrie, /. 
 
 shake the head, crollare il capo 
 sharp, adj., acuto 
 she, pron., ess,a 
 ship, nave, /. 
 shipwreck, to make — , naufra- 
 
 gare, vn. 
 shoe, Scarpa, /. 
 shoulder, spalla, /. 
 show, mostrare, va. 
 sick, adj. and m., malato 
 side, lato, m. 
 sigh, sospiro, m. 
 sight, vista, /. 
 
 silent, to be — , *tacere, vn. 
 Simon, pr. n., Simone 
 since, conj., poiche 
 
 singular, singolare, w. 
 
 sink, *imm^rgersi, v. rcf. 
 
 sister, sorella; =nun, supra, /. 
 
 sit (down), accomodarsi, v. ref. 
 
 six, num., sej 
 
 slate, lavagna, /. 
 
 sleep, spnno, >u. 
 
 sleepy, to be — , aver spnno 
 
 slowly, adv., lentemente 
 
 small, adj., piccolo 
 
 so, adv., cosi; — that, affinch^ 
 
 sob, singhiozzare, vn. 
 
 soldier, soldato, m. 
 
 some, pron., alcuni 
 
 something, qualche cpsa, /. 
 
 sometime, — or other, un giprno 
 
 p V altro 
 sometimes, adv., qualche vplta 
 soon, adv., subito 
 sorry, to be — , *rincrescere, vn. 
 Spanish, adj. and pr. n., spa- 
 
 gnuplo 
 speak, parlare, vn. 
 spite, in — , malgrado 
 sponge, spugna, /. 
 square, =park, piazza, /. 
 stair, scala, f. 
 stammer, balbettare, vn. 
 stare, guardar fisso 
 staring, adj., fisso 
 statue, statua, f. 
 statute, statuto, in. 
 stay, *stare, res tare, vn. 
 stick, bastpne, m. 
 stone, sasso, /;/., pietra, /. 
 stop, fermarsi, v. ref. 
 stream, ruscello, in. 
 street, strada, /. 
 street-corner, svo^tata, /. 
 strong, adj., fprte 
 study, studiare, va. t studio, m. 
 stupid, adj., scipeco 
 
266 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 style, stile, m. 
 subject, soggetto, m. 
 sublime, adj., sublime 
 such, adj. and adv., tanto 
 suffer, *soffrire, va., patire, vn. 
 sun, sole, m.; — rise, il levare del 
 
 sole 
 superior, adj., superiore 
 swear, giurare, vn. 
 swell, gonfiare, vn. 
 swollen, adj., gpnfio 
 
 table, tavola, /. 
 
 take, *pr§ndere, *t9gliere, va.; 
 
 to — a walk, fare una pas- 
 
 seggiata 
 teach, insegnare, va. 
 teacher, maestro, m., maestra, /. 
 tear, lagrima, /.; to burst into 
 
 tears, scoppiare in lagrime 
 tell, raccontare, narrare, va. 
 than, adv., di, che 
 thank, ringraziare, va. 
 thanks, grazie, /. pi. 
 that, pr. and dem. adj., quel, 
 
 quello, quel tale; — is, cio§ 
 that, rel., che 
 their, poss., loro 
 then, adv., allora, ppi; conj., 
 
 dunque 
 there, adv., la, li; — is, — are, 
 
 vi §, vi sono 
 thin, adj., magro 
 thing, cosa, /. 
 
 think, pensare, vn.; credere, va. 
 third, adj., terzo 
 thirst, sete, /. 
 this, dem., questo 
 thought, pensi^ro, m. 
 three, num., tre 
 through, prep., per 
 
 throw, gettare, buttare, va. 
 
 thumb, pgllice, m. 
 
 thus, adv., co si 
 
 Tiber, Tevere, m. 
 
 time, tempo, m., vglta, f. 
 
 tired, adj., stanco 
 
 to-morrow, adv., domani 
 
 too, adv., anche 
 
 toss, agitare, va. 
 
 towards, prep., verso 
 
 trace, traccia, /. 
 
 tragedy, trag^dia, /. 
 
 tranquillity, tranquillita, /. 
 
 travel, viaggiare, vn., viaggio, m. 
 
 traveller, viaggiatore, m. 
 
 tree, albero, m. 
 
 trio, trio, m. 
 
 triumvir, tritimviro, m. 
 
 trouble, *affliggere, affannare,va. 
 
 true, adj., vero 
 
 truly, adv., davvero 
 
 Turin, pr. n., Torino 
 
 turn, *v9lgere, va. 
 
 Tuscan, adj. and pr. n., toscano 
 
 two, num., due 
 
 U 
 
 understand, capire, va. 
 unexpectedly, improvvisamente 
 unfortunate, adj., sfortunato; 
 
 — ly, adv., sfortunatamente 
 unite, unire, va. 
 until, prep., fino a 
 us, pron. pers., noi 
 usually, adv., ordinariamente 
 
 V 
 
 verse, verso, m. 
 very, adv., molto; adj., stesso 
 vex, contrariare, va. 
 Victor Emanuel, pr. n., Vittprio 
 Emmanuele 
 
ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 
 
 267 
 
 violence, viole,nza, /. 
 virtue, virtu, /. 
 vivaciousness, vivacita, /. 
 voice, voce, /. 
 
 W 
 
 wait, aspettare, vn. 
 
 walk, passeggiare, vn. 
 
 want, *volere, va. 
 
 wares, merce, /. 
 
 water, acqua, J. 
 
 way, = road, via, /.; =manner, 
 
 maniera, /., mpdo, m. 
 we, pron. pcrs., noi 
 wearisome, adj., faticoso 
 weather, tfmpo, m.; to be good 
 
 — , far buon tempo 
 Wednesday, mercoledi, m. 
 week, settimana, /. 
 weep, *piangere, vn. 
 well, adv., b§ne; very — , inter ;'., 
 
 ebbene 
 west, pvest, m. 
 western, adj., occidentale 
 what, interrog., quale 
 when, adv., quando 
 where, adv., dove 
 white, adj., bianco 
 who, rel. and inter., chi 
 
 whole-, adj., tutto 
 
 why, adv., perche 
 
 wicked, adj., scellerato 
 
 wife, mpglie 
 
 wildncss, salvatichezza, /. 
 
 wing, ala, /. 
 
 wise, adj., saggio, savio 
 
 wish, *volere, va. 
 
 with, prep., con, di, da 
 
 within, prep., fra 
 
 without, prep., senza 
 
 wont, to be — , *solere, vn. 
 
 word, parola, /. 
 
 work, Qpera, /. 
 
 world, mondo, m. 
 
 worse, adv., pfggio; to grow — , 
 
 peggiorare, va. 
 wreck, naufragio, m. 
 write, *scrivere, va. 
 writer, scrittore, m. 
 wrong, to be — with one, aver 
 
 qualcosa 
 
 year, anno, m. 
 
 yes, adv., si 
 
 yesterday, adv., ieri 
 
 yet, adv., and — , eppure, eppoi 
 
 young, adj., gipvane (gipvine) 
 
 your, pass., vpstro, suo 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Heavy-faced figures refer to paragraphs. 
 
 a, masculine noun pi., p. 38,11. 1 ; 
 feminines in, 50, 56; pi. of 
 masc. o nouns, 63, 64; sign of 
 feminine sing., 42, 50; use of 
 prep., 211; value of, 5; a, ad, 
 36 (a), p. 123, n. 3. 
 
 ability, idea of, rendered by §s- 
 sere bupno a, p. 64, Rem. 
 
 abstract nouns, 44 (1), 51 (b), 
 
 (1); 50 (3). n - 3- 
 
 accent, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35; fall- 
 ing on stem of irr. verb, 176; 
 role of, in irr. vbs. , p. 1 17, n. 1 . 
 
 accentuation, 30; of words to 
 which suffix added, p. 112, n. 
 4; of verbal forms com- 
 pounded with conj. pron., p. 
 76, n. 2. 
 
 acute accent, use of, 33. 
 
 ad for a, 36 (a). 
 
 addpsso, not to be translated, 
 p. 124, n. 2. 
 
 adjective, 44 (6) ; agreement of, 
 108; forms of, 109; used as 
 n., 109, Rem. 1 ; aspron.,ioc, 
 Rem. 2; in -lie, formation 
 adv. from, p. 157, n. 3.; irr., 
 118; place of, 58, 129, 130, 
 131, 132; preceded by a, 
 
 2ii (4); by di, 212 (3); by 
 da, 213; used as adv., 238(a), 
 p. 15S, n. 1. 
 
 adverbs, classes of, 236; of man- 
 ner, 237, 238, 239, 240; Oi 
 place, 241, 242, 243; of de- 
 gree and comparison, 121, 122, 
 125, 244; of affirmation and 
 negation, 245, 246; of time, 
 247; comparison of, 248, 249; 
 position of, 250 ; formation of, 
 of manner, 237, 238, 239; 
 from -issimo and -frrimo adj., 
 249 (a); adj. sometimes, 128; 
 form absolute superlative, p. 
 92, n. 3; modification of, 163, 
 p. 1 1 1, n. 1. 
 
 ai in dates, p. 168, n. 1. 
 
 Alessandro magno, 44 (2), ex. 
 (c) and n. 1. 
 
 Alpe, 51 (1), Rem. 
 
 altri added to noi, voi, 92 (b). 
 
 altrimenti, 237 (6). 
 
 ambiguity of possessive avoided, 
 
 138. 
 
 analytical and synthetic com- 
 parison, 120. 
 
 an dare used to express progres- 
 sive action, 81 (1/) (1); to ex- 
 press duty. 81 (1), (2). 
 
 andarsene, 107. 
 
 269 
 
270 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 -ando, pres. part, in, 112. 
 
 -ante, pres. part, in, in; -ante 
 for -ando in pres. part., p. 49, 
 n. 1 ; -ante, -ente, part, in, be- 
 comes noun, p. 146, n. 1. 
 
 antimeridiano, a.m. {ante meri- 
 diem), 256 (b). 
 
 apposition, nouns in, 49 (2). 
 
 arci-, 164. 
 
 article, repetition of, 46; def., 
 with superlative, 122 (a); in- 
 def., omitted in exclamation, 
 157; omitted with cejnto, 
 mille, etc., 251 (c) ; in numeri- 
 cal titles, 257. 
 
 assimilation, p. 25, Rem. 2 (c). 
 
 -astro, with adj. of color, p. 112, 
 n. 3. 
 
 audacie, p. 44, n. 2. 
 
 augmentative suffixes, 167. 
 
 auxiliary verbs, 74; tables of, 
 
 PP- 57- 5 8 ; use of > 76, 77; 
 synopsis, 76, 77, 77 (a) and (b), 
 78, 79, 80; modal aux., dovere, 
 potere, volere, fare, sapere, as, 
 82, 83; lasciare as, 83; modal 
 auxs., 214; auxiliary reck- 
 oned as vb., 235 (a). 
 avere, 74; in description, 44 (7); 
 verbs compounding with, 78, 
 79 (a), 80; translating Eng- 
 lish "to be", in idioms, 84; 
 avere da, 84 (6); irr. of, 180 
 (3); past part, with, 113 (6), 
 p. 84, n. 1 ; to denote age, 258. 
 
 B 
 
 b, value of, 12. 
 
 back vowels, 6. 
 
 "both", rendering of, 251 (e), 
 
 254. P- I0 9. n - 4- 
 bravo,interj.,asadj.,p. 170, n. 4. 
 
 c, value of, 14. 15 (a), 16; cc, 15, 
 Rem.; c before suffix. 124. 171 
 (a). 
 
 -ca, adj. in, 116 (2); masculines 
 in, 59; feminines in, 60. 
 
 capitals, use of, 37. 
 
 cardinal numerals, 251; em- 
 ployed in speaking of days of 
 month. 255 (c). 
 
 -care, vbs. ending in, 69 (1). 
 
 Carlo magno, 44 (2), Ex. (c) and 
 n. 1. 
 
 c§n for cento, 251 (/). 
 
 c§nto, without art., 49 (4), 251 
 
 (0- 
 
 -cere, vbs. in, 70 (1). 
 
 ch, value of, 16. 
 
 characteristic vowels of reg. 
 vbs. 67, 68, p. 51, n. 2; p. 52, 
 n. 1. 
 
 che, rel., 145, 146; as neuter, 
 146 (a) ; as noun, p. 104, n. 1 ; 
 inter., 154; in comparison, 
 126 (fr),p. 94, n. 1; che non, 
 127; to introduce question 
 implying doubt, p. 170, n. 2. 
 
 chi, rel., 145, 148; chi-chi, 148 
 (a); inter., 153. 
 
 -chiare vbs., 69 (3). 
 
 ci, adv. use and place of, 242, 
 
 243- 
 -ciare vbs., 69 (2). 
 
 ci9, 140. 
 
 circumflex accent, use of, 34. 
 
 cl instead of ch in learned words, 
 
 19(c); exception, p. 11. 
 close e, 5, 8; representing Latin 
 
 e and 1, 8; rules for, 9. 
 close 0, 5, 8; representing Latin 
 
 6 and u, 8; rules for, io, n. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 27 r 
 
 -co, masculines in, 62; adj. in, 
 116, p. 44, n. 3. 
 
 collectives, 254. 
 
 comparison of ad j . , 119; degrees 
 of, 119, 120; of equality, 121; 
 of superiority, 122, 123, 124; 
 by di and che, 126; of infe- 
 riority, 125; comparison of in- 
 flected vbs., 127; of adv., 248, 
 249. 
 
 compound tenses of vb., 75, 76, 
 77- [180(4). 
 
 compound vbs. irregularity of, 
 
 compounds, syllabication of, 29 
 (0,Ex. 
 
 compound nouns, 53, 66. 
 
 con compounded with pronouns, 
 92. 
 
 conditional formed from inf., 
 175, p. 116, n. 6; use of, 230, 
 p. 63, n. 3. 
 
 conditional anterior for simple 
 tense, 230 (b). 
 
 conjunctions, simple, 217; sec- 
 ondary, 218; followed by 
 subj., 219, 220, 233. 
 
 conjunctive pron., place of, 99, 
 pp. 76, 77; table of, 96, 98, 
 99; and art. replacing poss., 
 44 (8), 137 (2); change of 
 form of, 99 (b), 101; agree- 
 ment of past part, with, 113 
 (b), 114; p. 85, n. 2. 
 
 consonants, classification of, 1 
 (6); tables of, pp. 2, 3; value 
 of, 12 seq. 
 
 contraction, 36; of inf., 174; de- 
 cided by ear, p. 30, n. 1; of 
 past part., p. 49, n. 2; of 3d 
 pi. fut., p. 50, n. 3; ofunonot 
 indicated, p. 28, n. 2; of arti- 
 cles with prepositions, 43. 
 
 correspondence bet wren Italian 
 
 and English, 38. 
 costui, contemptuous use of, 139 
 
 (2), p. 102, n. 3. 
 cotesto, use of, 1 42. 
 crossing of two constructions, p. 
 
 95, n. 1. 
 cui, 145, 147, p. 105, n. 2; p. 106, 
 
 n. 1. 
 
 D 
 
 d, value of, 13. 
 
 da = "as",49 (3); avere da, 84 
 (b); prep, followed by, 187; 
 use of, 213; ="to", 215 (6). 
 
 dabbene, 118 (e). 
 
 dare, irr. of, 178 (6), 180 (1), (2). 
 
 days of week, gender of , 51 (1). 
 
 defective vbs., 181, p. 54, n. 3. 
 
 definite article, forms of, 40; use 
 of, 44, 45; with Madama, 
 Madamigella, p. 31, n. 2; used 
 distributively, 44 (1); in 
 dates, 255; in expressions of 
 time, 256; replacing poss., 44 
 (8), 137 (1), (2); with che, 
 146 (a) and n. 1. 
 
 dei takes gli, p. 27, n. 3. 
 
 demonstratives are either adj. 
 or pron., 139; forms of, 139 
 (1), (2), 140; remarks on, 
 141, 142, 143, 144; com- 
 pounded with art., 43; art. 
 with, 45 (3). 
 
 di, before pcrs. pron. preceded 
 by prep., 183; prep, followed 
 by, 185, 186. 187 (a); use of, 
 212; omitted, 212 (1) (a); 
 after vbs., 212 (2), p. 32, Ex- 
 ception (b); ="on", 45 (7); 
 after adj., 212 (3) ; of partitive, 
 47, 48, 212 (4) ; of comparison, 
 
272 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 126 (a), p. 95, Rem., 212 (5); 
 in adv. expression, 212 (7). 
 
 diacritic signs, 35. 
 
 -dico, adj. in, 124 (a). 
 
 diminutives, art. used with, 45 
 (2), Rem. 
 
 diminutive suffixes, 166. 
 
 diphthongs, 28. 
 
 dire,irr. of, 178(6), 180 (1), (3). 
 
 disjunctive pers. pron, 85; ta- 
 ble of, 86; use of, 85, 87, 88, 
 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95; dis- 
 junctive forms used where 
 two objects, 98 (5). 
 
 doubling of initial cons, in conj. 
 pron., 99 (b) and n. 
 
 dropping of vowel, 99 (a); be- 
 fore suffixes, 171. 
 
 dapppco, 118 (e). 
 
 E 
 
 e, value of, 5, 9; c and g before, 
 J 5 ( a )> (b) ; gender of nouns 
 ending in, 51; pi. of a (fern.) 
 nouns in, 56; sign of fem. pi., 
 42, 50; of masc. pi., 63, 64. 
 
 ed for e, 36 (a). 
 
 ei=egli, p. 66, n. 3. 
 
 egli, ella used of both persons 
 and things, p. 67, n. 2. 
 
 eglino seldom used in modern 
 Italian, p. 66, n. 5. 
 
 elision, 36, p. 73, n. 3 ; of anche, 
 che, nemmeno, neppure, p. 
 142, n. 2. 
 
 Ella, Lei = " you", 91. 
 
 elleno seldom used in modern 
 Italian, p. 66, n. 5. 
 
 emotion, subjunctive of, 232 (2). 
 
 endearment, suffixes of, 168. 
 
 -ente, for end} in pres. part., p. 
 49, n. 1; pres. part, in, in. 
 
 -£rrimo, adj. in, 124. 
 
 fssere, conj. of, 74; as aux. of 
 refl. vbs., 78, 103, 114; irr. of, 
 173, 178 (b), 179, 180; denot- 
 ing duration of time, 259; in 
 expressions of time of day, 
 83, Rem. 1; past part, with, 
 113 (a), 114; use of, 77, Rem. 
 1 (p. 60); vbs. compounding 
 with, 78, 79, 80; vbs. used in- 
 stead of, 81. 
 
 esso, essa, used of both persons 
 and things, p. 67, n. 2; used 
 redundantly with meco, etc., 
 92 (a). 
 
 euphony in placing adj., 131 ; in 
 suffixes, 171 (b). 
 
 -evole, adj. in, 124 (a). 
 
 f, value of, 12; for ph in words 
 of Greek origin, p. 26, Rem. 
 3(b). 
 
 fare, conj. pron. with, 99 (p. 77), 
 Rem. (d); irr. of, 180 (1), (2), 
 (3); use of, 82, 83; denoting 
 duration of time, 259. 
 
 feminine, formation of, 54; nouns 
 masc. in ending, 30 (2) (a). 
 
 -fico, adj. in, 124 (a). 
 
 fino used with a, da, and in, 184 
 and n. 
 
 fractions, 252 (b). 
 
 front vowels, 6. 
 
 fu, 118 (d). 
 
 future, formed from inf., 175, p. 
 116, n. 6; use of, 229. 
 
 g, value of, 14, 15 (b), 16; 
 doubled, 15, Rem.; before 
 suffix, 124, 171 (a). 
 
INDKX. 
 
 7J 
 
 -ga, adj. in, 116 (2). 
 
 II 
 
 h, omission of, p. 26, Rem. 2 (<i) ; 
 
 in -care and -gare vbs., 69; 
 
 value of, 16, 21, 27, 59. 
 hundreds, higher numbers not 
 
 counted by, 251 (d). 
 
 I 
 
 i, c before, 15 (a) ; for y in words 
 of Greek origin, p. 26, Rem. 
 3 (a); g before, 15 (6); gen- 
 der of nouns ending in, 51; 
 pi. of nouns ending in, 57; 
 prefixed before impure s, p. 
 123, n. 4; sign of masculine 
 plural, 42, 50; to indicate pro- 
 nunciation, 61, 69 (2), 70; 
 value of, 5, 22. 
 
 -iare vbs., 69 (4). 
 
 il for lo, p. 72, n. 1. 
 
 ille, forms from, p. 102, n. 3. 
 
 il quale, 145; distinguished from 
 cui, 147 (a). 
 
 impari, 118 (a). 
 
 imperative, force of future, 229 
 (3); irr., 180 (3); use of, 231. 
 
 imperfect tense, 73; imperf. ind. 
 for conditional, 230 (a). 
 
 impersonal vbs., 181; conj. 
 pron. with, 99, Rem. (a) (p. 
 
 76). 
 in, p. 32, Ex. (a); denoting end 
 
 of motion, 204 (2) and n.; 
 
 with credere, p. 142, n. 1. 
 inchoatives, Latin, p. 50, n. 6. 
 indefinite article, forms of, 41; 
 
 syntax of, 49. 
 indefinites, 158, 159, 160, 161, 
 
 162; phrases used as, 160: 
 
 subjunctive with, p. 1 10, n. 2. 
 
 infinitive, conj. pron. with, 99, 
 Rem. (pp. 76, 77); for nega- 
 tive imperative, p. 51, n. 4; de- 
 pendent, preceded by a, 211 
 (2), (3); by di, 212 (1); with- 
 out prep., 214; used as noun, 
 art. with, 44 (9); English, 
 rendered by subj., 221 (e); 232 
 (1); rendering Eng. past part., 
 223. 
 
 insieme used with con and with 
 a, 184 (a). 
 
 interjections, 261. 
 
 interrogatives, forms of, 152; 
 used in exclamations, 157. 
 
 interrogative vb., 72. 
 
 -ire vbs., taking either termina- 
 tion, 71 (6), 71 (c); that do 
 not take -isco forms, 71(a). 
 
 -io, plural of nouns in, 55, Rem. 
 2, p. 44, n. 1 ; of adj. in, 117. 
 
 irregular verbs, stem of, 173; 
 models of, 177 (a), (6); con- 
 struction of, 179. 
 
 -isco endings, 71. 
 
 -issimo, adj. in, 124. 
 
 iste, forms pron., p. 102, n. 3. 
 ' it," translation of, 94 and n. 
 
 j, semi-consonant, table p. 2, p. 
 6, n. 1; value of, 23, p. 44, 
 n. 1. 
 
 K 
 
 k, not occurring in Italian alpha- 
 bets; pronunciation of , 3 (a). 
 
 1, value of, 12. 
 
 lasciare, conj. pron. with, 99, 
 Rem. (e) (p. 77). 
 
274 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Latin nouns retain gender, p. 
 38,11. 1. 
 
 letters of alphabet, 3. 
 
 li for il in dates, p. 27, n. 2, p. 
 168, n. 1. 
 
 lo, neuter, p. 73, n. 5. 
 
 locutions, adverbial, 248;' con- 
 junctional, 218. 
 
 loro, art. with, 135 (a); conj., 
 p. 72, n. 4. 
 
 M 
 
 m, value <3f, 12. 
 madama, p. 31, n. 2. 
 madamig^lla, p. 31; n. 2. 
 mago, pi. of, p. 45, Rem. (1). 
 manco in comparison, 125 and 
 
 n. 1. 
 mano, 50 (2), (a), 55, Rem. (1). 
 Maria Vergine, 44 (2), Ex. (c) 
 
 and n. 2. 
 masculine nouns feminine in 
 
 ending, 50 (2) (6). 
 me, Lat., two developments of, 
 
 p. 65, n. 1. 
 meco, 92. 
 mfglio, p. 91, n. 1 ; as adj. noun, 
 
 p. 162, n. 1. 
 -mente as adv. suffix, 237. 
 mille without art., 49 (4), 251 (c). 
 molto, 128. 
 monosyllables, by contraction, 
 
 p. 6, n. 3; pi. of, 57. 
 multiplicatives, 253. 
 
 N 
 
 n, value of, 12, 17. 
 
 names of cities, of continents, of 
 countries, of lakes, of rivers, 
 of seas, 44 (5); of days of 
 
 week, def. art. with, 44 (11) 
 
 (6); of months, 44 (12). 
 ne for ci, p. 72, n. 2. 
 near relatives, names of, 45 (2). 
 neuters-, Latin, p. 38, n. 1. 
 ng, value of, 17. 
 n9 for non, 246 (a). 
 "nobody," rendering of , 161. 
 non, place of, 246 (b); without 
 
 negative value, 127, 246 (c). 
 non e vero, p. 70, n. 3. 
 nosco, p. 69, n. 2. 
 "nothing," rendering of , 161. 
 nouns preceded by a, 211 (5); 
 
 by di, 212 (a); in apposition 
 
 preceded by di, 212 (6). 
 number, 39, 42, 55, 56, 57, 58, 
 
 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65; 
 
 nouns of, 251 (6). 
 
 numerals, 44 (10), 251-261. 
 numerical idioms, 260. 
 
 O 
 
 o, value of, 5, 8; diphthongized 
 in verbal forms, 69 (5), 70 (3) ; 
 dropped in questo and cotesto, 
 141 ; for a in imperf., p. 50, n. 
 4; open o, 5, 8; representing 
 Latin o and au, 8; in mono- 
 syllables, 1 1 ; sign of mascu- 
 line singular, 42, 50. 
 
 objective forms used for sub- 
 jective, 95. 
 
 od for 0, 36 (a). 
 
 ogni, 118 (a), 162. 
 
 onde, 145, 149; derivation of, p. 
 107, n. 1. 
 
 -one, 167, 172 (a). 
 
 -one, -oni as adv. suffix, 239. 
 
 open 0. 5, 8. 
 
 order of two conj. pron.. 100. 
 
INDRX. 
 
 ordinal numbers, 252; are adj., 
 252 (a); in numerical titles, 
 257; with names of rulers, 45 
 
 (s). _ 
 
 -oso, s in ending, 19 (/>). 
 
 ou, English, replaced by 0, p. 25, 
 
 Rem. 2 (6). 
 oxytones, pi. of, 57. 
 
 p, value of, 12; initial dropped 
 in words of Greek origin, p. 
 26, Rem. 3 (c). 
 
 parecchi, 118 (c). 
 
 pari, 118 (a). 
 
 parimenti, 237 (b). 
 
 participles, agreement of, 108, 
 no; pres. part, in -ante, 
 -ente, -iente, -ando, -endo, p. 
 49, n., in, 112; become n., 
 p. 146, n. 1. 
 
 partitive, 47, 48, 136 (1). 
 
 passive avoided by use of si, 104 
 (a); by use of inf., 223 (a). 
 
 passive inf. (Eng.) rendered by 
 active inf., 223. 
 
 past, definite, use of, 228; indefi- 
 nite, use of, 227. 
 
 past part., functions of, 113; 
 with avere, 113 (6); with 
 §ssere, 113 (a); with ref. vbs., 
 103, 114; irregularity of, 178 
 (a). 
 
 P?gg io > p. 91. n - 1. 2 49- 
 
 pejorative suffixes, 169. 
 
 pers. pron. preceded by di after 
 
 prep., 183, 186. 
 phrases, adverbial, 128 (a); set, 
 
 136 (2); used as indefinites, 
 
 160. 
 piu, comparison by means of 
 
 122, 123 (a). 
 
 plural of names of letters of al- 
 phabet, 3 (./'). 
 
 plural nouns altogether irregu- 
 lar, 65. 
 
 poco, 128. 
 
 pomeridiano = p.m. (post meridi- 
 em), 256 (b). 
 
 possessives, agreement of, 138; 
 art. with, 44 (6), 44 (8), 45. 
 J 34. J 35; either adj. or pron., 
 133; replaced by pronominal 
 particles, 98 (2), 137 (2); ta- 
 ble of, 134; use of, 137. 
 
 prefixes, 163, 164; used with 
 vbs., p. in, n. 2. 
 
 prepositions, followed by a, 184; 
 followed by di, 183, 185, 186, 
 187 (a); not pure, 182 (a); 
 place of, 188; simple, 182; 
 modify meaning of vbs., 216; 
 use and meaning, 189-210. 
 
 pres. part., as noun, in; forms 
 
 of, in, 112; never used as 
 
 noun, 222; (Eng.) rendering 
 
 ' inf. used as a noun, 221 (a), 
 
 222. 
 
 present tense, use of, 225. 
 
 preterite, use of, 228. 
 
 price, def. art. in expressions of, 
 
 44 (11) (a), 
 progressive action expressed by 
 
 stare, 81 (a); by andare, 81 
 
 (<i), Rem. 1, p. 60. 
 pronominal adverbs, 97, 98 (4). 
 pronouns, agreement of, 89, 90; 
 
 of second pers., 91 ; pers., 85; 
 
 omission of, p. 50, n. 1, 88. 
 pronunciation of Italian vowels, 
 
 7- 
 proper names, 44 (2). 
 
 protasis rendered by inf., 224. 
 
 provinces, names of, 44 (5). 
 
276 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 provincia, p. 44, n. 2. 
 pseudonimo, takes lo, p. 27, n. 3. 
 purity of Italian vowels, p. 4, 
 n. 1. 
 
 Q 
 
 q, value of, 12, p. 8, n. 3. 
 
 qualche, 118 (b), p. 89, n. 2, 162. 
 
 qualcgsa, gender of, 50 (2) (b). 
 
 quale, 155. 
 
 quanto, 121, 128, 156. 
 
 quasimente, 237 (b). 
 
 quegli, 139 (1), 0); -"the for- 
 mer", 143. 
 
 quello, inflection of, 141 ; use of, 
 142; = "the former ", 143. 
 
 qaesti = ' 'the latter ", 143. 
 
 questo, use of, 142, 143. 
 
 R 
 
 reciprocal yds., 103, Rem.; past 
 
 part, with, 114. 
 recluta, 50 (1), Exc. 
 redundant construction, 92 (a), 
 
 95 (a), 98. 
 
 reflexive vbs., compound with 
 §ssere, 78, 103, 114; past part, 
 with, 114; possessive with, 
 I 37 (2) ; synopsis of, 102, 106. 
 
 relative, indefinite, subj. after, 
 232 (4) (a). 
 
 relative clause, rendered by inf., 
 224; subj. in, 232 (4). 
 
 relatives, 14 5-1 51; always ex- 
 pressed in Italian, 150* 
 
 repetition of adv. to form super- 
 lative, 249 (c). 
 
 rimanere used instead of §ssere 
 to form passive, 81 (c). 
 
 s, 19; impure, 36 (6). p. 27, n. 1; 
 
 adj. before, 115 (b). 
 santo, forms of, 115. 
 sapere, irr. of, 178 (6), 180 (3). 
 sc, value of, 20, 21. 
 -sciare, vbs., 69 (2). 
 se, 93- 
 
 seco, 92 and n. 
 sentinella, 50 (1), Exc. 
 sentire, conj.. pron. with, 99, 
 
 Rem. (e) (p. 77). 
 sestina not a collective, p. 167, 
 
 n. 3. 
 sequence of tenses, 234, 235. 
 si, constructions with, 104. 
 
 105 
 
 sieno for siano, p. 57, n. 1, 
 
 sopra-, 164. 
 
 sovra-, 164. 
 
 spia, 50 (1), Exc. 
 
 stare, irr. of, 180 (1), (2); used 
 
 to express progressive action, 
 
 81 (a). 
 stare per, 81 (a), p. 141,11. 1. 
 stem, of reg. vbs., 68; of irr. 
 
 vbs., 173, 178, p. 116, n. 2; 
 
 stressed stem, 176, 178 (d). 
 
 stra-, 164. 
 
 strong vbs., p. 116, n. 1. 
 
 su, 182 (6); followed by per, 187 
 
 (b). 
 subj. imperf. of command, 231 
 
 (a), 232. 
 subj. pres. for imperative, p. 51, 
 
 n. 5. 
 subj., use of, 232, 233. 
 subordinate clause, subj. in, 232 
 
 (1). 
 suffixes, 163, 165-172; loss of 
 
 meaning in, 170; with adv., 
 
INDEX. 
 
 277 
 
 163, p. in, n. 1, 249 (a) and 
 
 (b). 
 
 superlative, subj. after, 232 (3). 
 
 sur for su, 36 (a). 
 
 surnames, 44 (3). 
 syllabication, 29. 
 synthetic forms, 123, 124. 
 
 T 
 
 t, value of, 13. 
 tanto, 128. 
 teco, 92. 
 there is", rendering of, 83, 
 Rem. 2. 
 titles, 44 (2), 135 (b). 
 " to ", rendering of , 211 (2), 212 
 (1), 214, 215. 
 tocco, fori' una, 256 (a), 
 triphthongs, 28. 
 troppo, 128. 
 truncation, 36. 
 tu, use of, 91. 
 
 two forms same word, p. 26, 
 Rem. (4). 
 
 U 
 
 u, 5; accented, followed by a 
 vowel, p. 10, n. 1; conso- 
 nantal, 18; Eng. replaced by 
 o, p. 25, Rem. 2 (6); nouns 
 ending in, 50 (3). 
 
 udire, conj. pron. with, 99, Rem. 
 
 0) (p- 77)- 
 
 uncertainty expressed by condi- 
 tional, 230 (2). 
 
 unde, form from, p. 107, n. r. 
 
 uno, -a, 251 (a); noun modified 
 by ventuno, trentuno, etc., 
 251 (a). 
 
 V 
 
 v, 12; ofimperf. dropped, p. 50, 
 
 n. 5. 
 vedere, conj. pron. with, 99, 
 
 Rem. (e) (p. 77). 
 venire used instead of §ssere to 
 
 form passive, 81 (6). 
 verbal noun, 221, 222. 
 verbs, reg. conjugation of, 67; 
 
 table of, p. 49; of second conj., 
 
 p. 54, n. 1 and 2. 
 vi, adv. place and use of, 242, 
 
 243- 
 
 vocative, 44 (2), Exc. (a), 45 (1). 
 
 voi, use of, 91. 
 
 voiced consonants, p. 1. 
 
 voiced s, 19. 
 
 voiceless consonants, p. 1. 
 
 voiceless s, 19. 
 
 volere, irr. of, 180 (3). 
 
 vosco, p. 69, n. 2. 
 
 vowel, Italian nouns end in, p. 
 25, Rem. (1), p. 39, n. 5. 
 
 vowel, su before, 36 (a), p. 123, 
 n. 5. 
 
 vowels, classification of, 1 ; ta- 
 ble, p. 2. 
 
 W 
 
 w, not occurring in Italian al- 
 phabet, 2; pronunciation of, 
 
 3(a). 
 weak vbs., p. 116, n. 1. 
 "what", rendering of, 151, 154 
 
 (a). 
 
 X 
 
 x, not occurring in Italian al- 
 phabet, 2; pronunciation of, 
 
278 INDEX. 
 
 3 (a); Eng. c or s replaces, p. "you", rendering of, p. 50, n. 2, 
 25, Rem. (2) (a). 91. 
 
 Y . z 
 
 y, not occurring in Italian al- 
 phabet, 2; pronunciation of, z, zz, value of, 26; il or lo be- 
 3 (o). fore > P- 27, n. 3. 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 
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yp ■ '2 
 
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