A COURSE IN ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING BY GERTRUDE BUCK, PH.D. Instructor in English in Vassar College NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1901 Copyright, 1899, n HENRY HOLT & CO. ROBKKT DRUMMONU, PRINTBR, NEW YORK PREFACE. THIS book arises out of certain beliefs concerning the study of argumentation, which, though perhaps not wholly novel, have as yet found no recognition in the lit- erature of the subject. The first of these beliefs is that the principles of argumentation should be derived by the student from its practice before the practice is made to conform to the principles. In short one may as well acknowledge it a firm faith in the so-called " inductive method " as applied to argumentation lies at the root of this treatise. Such a faith implies, of course, that the student should be asked to dissect out logical formulae for himself from his own unconscious reasonings, using them, when discovered, to render those reasonings more exact. The construction and the rough analysis of arguments would, similarly, precede the formulation of any princi- ples of persuasion. Such a plan as this, it will be noted, assigns to the student a task at once more difficult and more stimulating than that which the usual methods require. He is not asked simply to accept certain logical formulae on the au- thority of text-book or teacher and apply them to his c n writing; but first to quarry out these formulae from his own writing and then to use them for such modification of that writing as may seem necessary. His duty is thus iii 2091634 iv PREFACE. doubled ; but it is also enlivened by the zest of discovery. He deals not with the dead products of other people's labor, but with the fruits of his own first-hand observation and thought. In his study of the processes of reasoning he reasons himself, inductively as well as deductively, an issue by no means inevitable under the old system. From the conviction that the student should formulate his own principles of argumentation follows the second article of faith : that the subjects set for argument and the material used for analysis should be not remote from the student's natural interests, but interwoven with his daily experiences. If the student is to gain his principles from his unconscious practice, it follows that he will, for a time at least, be concerned with arguments about the probable score of the coming football game or the fairness of a cer- tain examination rather than the desirability of a high pro- tective tariff for the United States or the iniquity of free silver. Whenever these latter topics come to have a real and first-hand 'nterest, they may well be used; but simpler and more intimate questions will usually serve better to disclose the typical processes of reasoning and argument, not obscuring them by needless bulk and complexity in the subject-matter. When once these typical processes have become thoroughly familiar in their simpler aspects, they may easily be traced through the mazes of an intri- cate and voluminous argument in politics or sociology. Work of this more ambitious type, however, properly fol- lows the elementary study of the principles of argumenta- tion with which we are here concerned.* The third canon of which this book is exponent is also * The sketch found in Appendix C of a course given conjointly by the departments of Economics and of English at Vassal College will furnish some suggestions for more advanced work in argumentation. PREFACE. V involved, though somewhat indirectly, in the first. This is the conviction that the logical basis of argumentation should be ultimately referred to psychology. This is an old word in philosophy, but it has not yet found place in treatises on argumentation. The logical substructure of arguments is universally recognized, but seldom is the psychological stratum beneath that pointed out, and thus, cut off from its deepest roots, logic has come to seem rather like a dead tool than like a living expression of thought. Beginning, however, as this study of argumen- tation does, with the unconscious reasonings of the stu- dent, it is bound to see them as they are, not compositions carefully planned to exhibit logical principles, but natural outputs of typical mental processes. Each argument is referred not only to its logical but to its psychological antecedent, so that the maxims and formulae, usually re- garded by the learner as malign inventions of Aristotle, represent to our student rather the ways in which real peo- ple really think. In fact, he himself thinks and argues in these ways he has often caught himself doing so; and from this fact the abstract logical equations acquire a dis- tinct flavor of personal interest. Knowing them thus in- wardly, not as a mere external imposition upon his mem- ory, he has them better in hand as a tool. He uses them not gingerly, but with the dash of intimacy. Some explanation or defense of the syllogistic brief as used in the text may be demanded. The adoption of this form of analysis is due to the fact that it brings into clear relief the actual structure of an argument, which the ordi- nary brief so often allows to be forgotten. The syllogistic brief insists, more strenuously than does any other form, upon an exact representation of the entire reasoning pro- cess which underlies the argument, with all the relation- vi PREFACE. ships and interrelationships among its various parts. What is needed, at least for the beginner, is a brief that first represents the argument as a unit, and then shows with precision how every point in the proof leads directly or indirectly to the single conclusion. This the syllogistic brief accomplishes. It reveals the comparative rank of all arguments and sifts out those which are irrelevant by virtue of its insistence upon the exact bearing of each point upon the main conclusion. This the ordinary form may also be compelled to do, if skillfully handled, and the more advanced student can safely be trusted to use it, having recourse to the syllogistic brief only in cases of doubt. But for the immature analyst of argument the more explicit and detailed method commends itself. The emphasis laid 'by the exercises upon the exact anal- ysis of trains of reasoning and arguments should perhaps be still further heightened by an explicit statement of its purpose. No part of the study of argumentation seems to the student more difficult than the correct analysis of his own arguments and of those of other people. But nothing is more indispensable than this to a mastery of argumentation as a practical art. The rapid unfailing insight into the core of an argument, the swift separation of the essential from the non-essential, the sure recogni- tion of major and minor points in the proof of any ques- tion, these are the marks of a master logician, or one might say of a trained mind in any field. And it is to such mastery of argument and of thinking that exact anal- ysis tends. The student should be trained to it by every means, analyzing first the simplest arguments, next those with one subsidiary train of reasoning supporting the first, later those containing not only a secondary but a tertiary grade, and so on until the complexest arguments may PREFACE. vii be resolved at once into their ultimate elements. It may be added that the teacher should by all means supplement the arguments set for analysis in the various exercises by many others drawn from current reading and conversa- tion. The study of argumentation is perhaps most effect- ually quickened by a judicious selection of arguments and subjects for argument with reference to topics of cur- rent interest. The daily newspapers and the magazines furnish always abundant supplies of timely material for a class in argumentation. Toward the close of a course, if the students are sufficiently mature, the complete analy- sis of such popular arguments as those involved in books like Bellamy's Looking Backward or Kidd's Social Evolu- tion may safely be attempted. A considerable amount of oral debating is found to be useful as complementary to the writing. Often an im- promptu debate may be held upon a subject before it is assigned for written argument. The question is then talked over as well as thought out, new points of view are suggested and objections raised, so that the written argument becomes better digested than is usually the case when put to paper without such preliminary working over. The writer's own belief in the efficacy of debating as an aid to the study of argumentation may appear from an account of the arrangement of the course as given in Vassar College. The class meets three times a week, twice in separate sections for quiz on the text, for writing and criticism, once for an exercise in which the whole class participates, usually a debate, either formal or im- promptu. These debates are not only regarded by the students as the most interesting feature of the course, but they seem fully to have justified their institution by the impetus they have given to the written work. viii PREFACE. The course as here laid down is intended to occupy the work of one semester, the class meeting three times a week. It might, however, by the multiplication of exer- cises and the study of logical principles not discussed at all in this book, be indefinitely expanded. CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE iii CHAPTER I. ARGUMENTATION i II. INDUCTIVE REASONING 10 III. INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT 26 IV. DEDUCTIVE REASONING 50 V. DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT 80 VI. A PRIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT . . . .112 VII. A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT . . 127 VIII. REASONING AND ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI 140 APPENDICES. APPENDIX A. INDUCTIVE REASONING IN MODERN EDUCA- TIONAL METHODS 153 APPENDIX B. THE RELATIONS BETWEEN INDUCTIVE AND DE- DUCTIVE REASONING 156 APPENDIX C. DEBATING 162 APPENDIX D. UNCLASSIFIED ARGUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS . . 170 APPENDIX E. UNCLASSIFIED PROPOSITIONS FOR ARGUMENT . 199 APPENDIX F. BIBLIOGRAPHY 204 CHAPTER I. ARGUMENTATION. WE often find ourselves attempting to convince another person that something is or is not true, that a certain course of conduct ought or ought not to be pursued, or that a certain result will follow a certain action. Only yesterday, it may be, you persuaded another member oi your class that Fred Ostrander ought not to be elected class treasurer, or tried to prove to your father that geom- etry is a useless branch of study. If you recall the process by which you induced your classmate not to vote for Fred Ostrander for treasurer, you will remember that it was something like this. You told him that Fred was unbusinesslike in his methods, never paying his class dues till the last minute, not because he hadn't the money, but because he just forgot to. And then he never wanted a receipt for them, and never could remember whether he had paid them or not. He was the most absent-minded member of the class and didn't come to the meetings half the time. Of course he was popular, but what was wanted for a treasurer was a good, prompt, wide-awake business-man, who would collect all the dues on time, keep the books ship-shape, be on hand at every 2 ARGUMENTATION. meeting, and know to a cent just how the class stood financially. No man who couldn't do these things ought to be treasurer. And it was plain as day that Fred couldn't do one of them. So your classmate agreed that Fred assuredly ought not to be elected treasurer of the class. This was what you had been working for to make your classmate believe the thing that you believed, namely, that Fred Ostrander ought not to be elected treas- urer. You wanted to transplant your conviction into his mind. But you knew at once that it was impossible to do this simply by expressing your own belief. You might have said to your classmate a dozen times that Fred Ostrander ought not to be elected, without making him accept that statement. He would be likely to inquire at once " Why ? " and until you could answer that question satisfactorily, he would refuse to believe in your con- clusion. But you knew he would want your reasons, so you gave them at once without even being asked for them. You had come to believe that Fred ought not to be elected because you had noticed in him certain unbusinesslike habits and characteristics. In other words you had made these observations before you came to the conclusion that Fred ought not to be elected. They had formed part of a process of thinking which ultimately led you to the belief you desired your classmate to accept. They were the first step in the path that induced you to the conclu- sion. Hence, when you wished some one else to reach this belief or conclusion, you naturally conducted him over this same path until he arrived at its goal. He might perhaps have reached it by another road, but you were familiar with this one, having just traversed it your- ARGUMENTATION. 3 self, and knew that it would issue in the desired conclu- sion, hence you naturally guided the steps of your friend into it. This is perhaps a typical instance of the process called argumentation."^ It is the act of establishing in the mind of another person a conclusion which has become fixed in your own, by means of setting up in the other person's mind the train of thought or reasoning which has per- viously led you to this conclusion. i Here we have a statement both of the end and of the means employed for attaining the end. The goal is the establishment of a certain belief or conclusion in the mind of the hearer or reader. But as soon as this goal is clearly recognized the question arises How is it to be attained ? How can this conclusion be implanted in the mind of the reader or hearer ? It is evident at first glance that no conclusion of a process of thought can be introduced bodily into any person's mind without the train of reasoning which * In its statement of the end to be attained this definition agrees substantially with such as the following: " Argumentation is the art of producing in the mind of some one else a belief in the ideas which the speaker or writer wishes the hearer to accept." (Baker, Princi- ples of Argumentation, p. I.) "Argumentation is the process of proving or disproving a proposition." (MacEwan, Essentials of Argumentation, p. I.) In both of these definitions, however, the means to attaining the end remains unspecified. 1 1 may further be noted that these definitions do not insist upon the speaker's having previously arrived at the conclusion he would estab- lish in the hearer's mind. It is, however, manifestly impossible that a speaker should be able to conduct his hearer to a goal which he him- self has hot, at least in imagination, reached. Even when he wishes to convince another person of the truth of a proposition which he him- self does not believe, he must imagine himself as having come to belief in it, and trace out the route thereto, in order that he may be able to act as guide. 4 ARGUMENTATION. naturally leads to it. A conclusion is not an isolated thing, which can be thrown into another mind from without. A belief is not accepted by one who sees no justification for it. To convince any person of the truth of a proposition requires that he reach that proposition himself as the logical outcome of some process of thought. Hence it is necessary, if one wish to persuade another per- son to a certain conclusion, that he set up in that person's mind a train of reasoning which is bound to issue in this conclusion. This, then, is the problem of argumentation : given the conclusion which is to be established in the mind of the hearer or reader, to find the train of ideas which is bound to lead to this conclusion. The solution which at once presents itself is that of using the train of ideas which, in the speaker's mind, has already served to estab- lish the conclusion in question. Let us say, for instance, that the speaker has come to the conclusion that teachers in. the primary schools of this country receive very small salaries. If he wishes to convince another person of the truth of this judgment, he will naturally cite the various cases in which such teachers are poorly paid, which, coming to his knowledge, have induced him to this belief. Or if he has become convinced, as in the previous illustration, that Fred Ostrander ought not to be elected treasurer of the class, he will doubtless attempt to bring another person to this view by alleging the reasons which have moved himself, namely, Fred's careless habits, his unpunctuality and irregularity in attendance, with perhaps still other disqualifications of this sort. This is the most obvious way of finding a train of rea- soning pretty certain to issue in the conclusion to be established, looking into one's own mind and noting the ARGUMENTATION. 5 series of ideas which there have actually established the conclusion for one's self. One feels assured that this series should lead to the desired conclusion in another person's mind simply because in his own it has already done so. And, in view of the fact that the mental pro- cesses of all normal people follow the same general laws, this assurance is by no means unreasonable. Certain difficulties should, however, be at once noted. In the first place there is the difficulty of exact knowl- edge about one's own mental processes. Orve may think he can tell exactly what train of thought has preceded his arrival at a certain conclusion ; but can he be sure that he has not overlooked his real starting-point or included considerations which might indeed be expected to influ- ence him, but which actually had no weight, ignoring the points which were the true determinants of his conclusion? Can he assert with absolute assurance that he has followed the order in which his ideas moved to the conclusion, not transposing or omitting or interpolating any ? It is a ticklish matter to determine without other aid than that of one's own impressions. Further assistance may, how- ever, be derived from a knowledge of the typical ways in which other people come to conclusions. Granting that one's fundamental thought-processes do not differ essen- tially from those of his kind, it is possible to clarify and correct one's impressions of his own trains of reasoning by a knowledge of those typical activities of mind com- mon to all thinking people. The science of these typical activities of mind, commonly called logic, must, then, be detailed to supplement introspection in our search for the train of reasoning which shall lead another person to a given conclusion. A second difficulty in the process of argumentation is 6 ARGUMENTATION. also solved by the assistance of logical principles. Grant- ing that the writer's train of reasoning is clearly and cor- rectly perceived by him, can he be in any way assured that it is not exceptional, different from the thought-processes of other people, and hence not warranted to bring about in another's mind the conclusion it yielded to the writer ? Our general postulate that the essential modes of think- ing are common to all normal minds renders this belief unlikely, indeed, but still not impossible. It can be ab- solutely proved or completely discredited only by a com- parison of this particular reasoning process of the writer with the typical reasoning processes of other people. And such comparison implies, again, that knowledge of the laws of thought which we call logic. If, then, the writer is enabled, by familiarity with the typical logical processes, not only to recognize what the train of thought has been which has brought him to a cer- tain conclusion, but to determine whether or not it is so universal in character as to be reasonably certain in another mind to issue in the same conclusion, he is ready to set up his own train of thought in the mind of the reader. But just here a third difficulty may arise. Perhaps this train of reasoning, however clearly and exactly perceived, however normal and universal it may be, yet, because of some peculiar circumstances, refuses to be reproduced in the mind of the other person. Suppose, to take an ex- treme instance, the case in which a priest wishes to in- duce a criminal to confess his crime, that an innocent person falsely accused may go free. The priest believes that the criminal ought to do this on the general principle that one ought to do whatever will prevent injustice. But it is impossible to introduce into the mind of the criminal any chain of reasoning in which this principle ARGUMEN TA TION. ? constitutes the first link. If the priest's only resource is to reproduce the train of thought which originally led him to the conclusion, his case is hopeless; for this train of thought refuses to enter the mind of the criminal, whose conclusion, that he ought to keep still about his crime, is founded upon the accepted principle that one ought to do whatever will save one's skin, or, more broadly, what- ever it is for one's interest to do. Under such circum- stances, the priest's course is perfectly plain. He must put himself imaginatively in the place of the person he addresses, and then come, by any way he logically can, to the conclusion he desires to establish. Perhaps he can do this by such a thought-process as the following: One ought to do whatever will be best for himself. It will be best for me to confess because the crime is likely to be discovered, and if it is, my sentence may be more severe than if I confess, and at any rate by confession I shall escape the greatest danger of all that of going to hell ultimately. Having followed such a path of reasoning in imagination, the priest is able to reproduce it in the mind of the criminal and thus establish the conclusion. We may say, then, that the best way to find a train of reasoning which, if set up in the reader's mind, will es- tablish the conclusion desired by the writer, is for the writer to note carefully the train of reasoning which has led him previously, either in his own proper person, or imaginatively in that of another person, to this same conclusion; his observation of his own reasoning being tested and assured by a knowledge of the typical logical processes of other people. The three divisions of the process of argumentation reflect themselves in our study of the subject. We shall learn first to examine our own reasoning processes with a 8 ARGUMENTATION. view to determining precisely what they are; second, to define and either confirm or correct these observations by a knowledge of the typical reasoning processes of other people; and, third, to reproduce in other minds our own trains of reasoning as thus determined. EXERCISES. 1. Write a list of all the conclusions which you have tried recently to induce some one else to accept. Did you believe the conclusion yourself ? What did you do to make your hearer believe it ? Did you succeed in mak- ing him accept it ? Do you know why you succeeded or why you failed ? In case you did not succeed, do you think you could have done so by a different method ? 2. Write a similar list of all the conclusions to which other people have recently tried to lead you. (Recall sermons and public addresses of any kind as well as pri- vate conversations.) Did you accept the conclusion in each case ? If so, why ? If not, why not ? Would you have accepted it if the speaker had given you different reasons ? Or if he had presented his reasons in a different order or form ? 3. Of the three stages or divisions of the process of argumentation, which is the end and which are means ? Distinguish the relative importance of the three as deter- mined by their respective distances from the ultimate end, that of implanting the conclusion in the mind of another person. 4. Write an account, as exact in its details as you can make it, of the way in which you as a child came from your own experiences to believe any or all of the follow- ing facts: ARGUMENTATION. 9 (a) Dark corners are not dangerous. (Or, there is nothing to be afraid of in the dark.) (b) All large children go to school. (c) Flowers bloom in the spring. (d) Cats scratch if you squeeze them hard. (e) Everybody has to pay to ride on the railroad train (or street-car). (/) Birds sing. (g) Roses have a sweet smell. CHAPTER II. INDUCTIVE REASONING. WE are in the habit of saying that children, and, irr fact, that all of us " learn by experience. " What do we mean by this saying? How does one learn " by ex- perience"? What is the process involved ? The common meaning of this phrase is doubtless some- thing like this. By successive experiments with certain objects, the child learns to generalize concerning them. He comes to see that some things which bear the same name or present a similar appearance, exhibit a certain common characteristic. Thus certain articles to which he has heard the word " china" applied, or which are associated in his mind by a similarity in appearance, are broken in his presence. Perhaps he himself has shivered a cup by letting it fall from his hands, or a number of dishes by pulling at the table-cloth, and thus throwing them to the floor. After this, he may also have seen the servant-maid break a pitcher by setting it down too heavily, and the cat smash several vases, knocking them off from the shelf to which she has sprung. As a result of these accumulated experiences, he is impelled to the conclusion that all dishes called china, or all dishes which have this peculiar glazed appearance, are likely to break if roughly handled. The child has learned by experience 10 INDUCTIVE REASONING. II that china is breakable. In much the same fashion he may be trusted to learn for himself that roses are prickly. A single experience of grasping a rose and having it prick the fingers might not be sufficient to induce this conclusion. This one rose was prickly, but it is not certain that others are. However, if a second rose, when grasped, lacerates the fingers as did the first, a tentative conclusion is apt to arise in the child's mind. Perhaps all bright flowers which look like these prick the fingers. And this conclu- sion is re-enforced by the third and the fourth experiments having the same result. Because four roses have pricked the child's hands, he concludes that all roses do so; be- cause ten china dishes were seen to be breakable, that all china dishes may be broken. Such a logical process as this is called inductive reason-^ ing. The name may be explained with reference to its derivation, as signifying that several separate observations of certain individuals are brought to bear upon a single point the determination of the class to which they be- long. This, at any rate, may be regarded as the function of inductive reasoning, to build up a judgment concern- ing a class out of separate judgments concerning its various members. " This process of reasoning has become so much a matter of course with us that we find difficulty in analyzing it further. Of course we are entitled to say that Christmas comes in December, because all the Christmases we re- member have done so, that babies cry when they are frightened, because every young child we ever knew had this habit, that all buttercups are yellow, because those we have seen were of that color. But if questioned sharply what right we have to conclude that all buttercups are yellow, simply because a few hundreds which we hap- 12 INDUCTIVE REASONING. pen to have seen are so, we must own that the conclusion is by no means unquestionable. I have not seen all but- tercups; and it is not impossible that some day I shall see a white or a blue one. I could not know with mathe- matical certainty that all buttercups are yellow until I had seen every buttercup in the world and found it yellow. It is absurd, however, to say that we are not sure all but- tercups are yellow, in spite of the fact that we have not examined every one. We do believe this and we have a logical right to believe it until we find a white buttercup or a blue one. But the possibility that we may find one makes this conclusion of ours a temporary, not an abso- lute, conclusion. The absolute conclusion may be reached only in the case of a class all the members of which are accessible to examination. One can say "all my mother's brothers have light hair and blue eyes," with absolute certainty of the truth of the statement, for every member of the class " my mother's brothers" has been accounted for. It needs no logical process to enumerate them and declare that all of them, without exception, have blonde coloring. This is absolute certitude, and differs essentially, as we shall see, from logical certitude. The conclusions which we have heretofore considered involve this logical certitude, which is of necessity relative and temporary. All clergymen of the English Church wear vestments while conducting services, is a conclusion of this sort. We do not know all clergymen of the Eng- lish Church; neither ourselves nor our friends have been able to observe that more than a hundred or so wear vest- ments while conducting the service, but we are neverthe- less fully persuaded in our own minds that this is the habitual practice of all clergymen of the English Church. 1HDUCT1YE REASONING. 13 We return, then, to our question, as yet unanswered whence comes our right to this conclusion ? It is evident that something lies back of this reasoning process to justify it, a principle too self-evident to be spoken of under ordinary circumstances. When we find a certain characteristic in several members of a class, we consider ourselves entitled to suppose its existence in all the other members of that same class, though we have not examined each of them separately. When we see that the leaves on one side of a tree are five-pointed, fine-textured, and pale green, we expect those on the other side to have these same characteristics. If we know that some chest- nut burs are brown and spiny, we cannot imagine finding others smooth and pink. From this tacit expectation arises the principle * taken for granted whenever we reason inductively : What is true of several members of a class is true of the class as a whole. Starting with this assumption, we are enabled to reason as follows. Since' whatever is true of several members of a class is true of the class as a whole, if I find it true of sev- eral buttercups that they are yellow, I can conclude that buttercups as a class are yellow. If all the Episcopal clergymen I know wear vestments in conducting church services, all Episcopal clergymen may be judged to do so. It is possible, then, to analyze any reasoning process of this sort into three stages as follows : I. Assumption. What is true of several members of a class is true of the class as a whole. II. Facts. 1. This rose is prickly. 2. The rose I had yesterday was prickly. * Sometimes called the principle of the uniformity of nature. H 1NDUCTIYE REASONING. 3. The rose I picked two days ago was prickiy, etc. III. Conclusion : All roses are prickly. Before we consider separately each of these stages, it will be well to notice one characteristic common to them all. This is the fact that each of them is represented by a proposition. By this is meant that each of the forego- ing statements is a complete declaration about something. It is not a mere name or a mere phrase, such as " roses," or "prickly roses," or even "the stems of roses," or " the rose I had yesterday, " but " This rose has a prickly stem," or " Roses have prickly stems." Every stage in a process of inductive reasoning is expressed Dy a proposi- tion, a complete statement. Let us consider first the assumption. This itself is, ultimately, the conclusion of an inductive argument. People have noted that, in several cases, what they have observed to be true of certain members of a class has turned out to be true of all the other members of that class when they have been also examined. Hence they have adopted, as a working hypothesis, the proposition that what is true of several members of a class is true of the class as a whole. The phrase "working hypothesis " should here be em- phasized. The inductive assumption is but a rough-and- ready approximation. We have heretofore considered it only in its most general form, " What is true of several members of a class is true of the whole class," the word " several " being quite undefined. We do not know whether " several " means two or ten or fifty or six thou- sand, and we cannot know as long as the statement covers all cases of induction. The assumption cannot be at once definite and inclusive. In the general form which INDUCTIVE REASONING. 15 lies back of all induction, it is only a half-formulated pre- supposition, deeply rooted in the human consciousness, but essentially vague and for the most part unrecognized. We are all sure that members of the same class are some- how alike, else why should they constitute a class ? The notion of resemblance is involved in our very idea of a class. We regard things as belonging to the same class just because of some likeness in appearance or function. Then what is more natural than to take a few of these things as representative of the rest and draw our conclu- sions as to the rest from the few we see ? This is the common notion, the undefined assumption, which sel- dom, in practical experience, gets so far as to question, " How many members does it take truly to represent a class ? " This is an inquiry which belongs to the scientific applications of induction. For practical purposes we seldom do more than to recognize dimly that in a given case we did or did not examine a sufficient number of members to justify our drawing conclusions as to the whole class. Our general assumption remains still undis- turbed and undefined, that a certain number of cases, not too few of course, does serve as the basis for a conclusion regarding all cases of the same sort. So much for the general form of the inductive assump- tion. Its particular form varies with the specific case. If one concludes from observation of two doctors who always carry in their pockets candy for the children, that all doctors have this benevolent habit, the assumption is plainly that what is true of two members of a class is true of the class as a whole. If, on the other hand, the con- clusion that serge wears well is drawn from five different pieces of serge, all of which had a long and honorable record of service, the reasoning evidently presupposes that 1 6 INDUCTIVE REASONING. what has been found true of five members of this class is true of the class as a whole. The particular assumption for any given inductive argu- ment is determined, then, by the number of facts support- ing the conclusion. What this number shall be we must now inquire. We must recognize at the outset that the number of facts which suffice to establish an inductive conclusion is almost infinitely variable. In the cruder, less conscious forms of this reasoning one instance alone, if it make a sufficiently vivid impression upon the mind, is often responsible for a conclusion about the entire class repre- sented. A case of such slenderly supported reasoning is the induction upon which rested Tom Tulliver's " half- admitted fear" of the humpbacked Philip Wakem "as probably a spitefuj fellow, who, not being able to fight you, had cunning ways of doing you a mischief by the sly."* The genesis of this opinion concerning Philip is suggested by the author in the following statement: 1 ' There was a humpbacked tailor in the neighborhood of Mr. Jacobs' academy who was considered a very unamia- ble character, and was much hooted after by public- spirited boys solely on the ground of his unsatisfactory moral qualities, so that Tom was not without a basis of fact to go upon. ' ' * One humpbacked person is a vicious character, therefore all humpbacked persons are vicious characters, Master Tom would argue. And in like manner do even older and wiser people than he occasionally judge an entire class from a single one of its members. But when such wide conclusions from narrow data come to be overthrown, as they are likely to be by the obser- * Mill on the Floss, Bk. III., ch. II. INDUCTIVE REASONING. 1 7 vation of other instances opposing the one previously noted, one is apt to say to himself, The trouble was, I hadn't seen enough members of the class to represent it fairly. I had no business to judge the whole class from one member of it. And the question at once obtrudes itself How many members of a class must be observed \ in order to justify a conclusion concerning the class ? This question may be answered at once by saying that an inductive conclusion which is built upon but one ob- servation is as justifiable as one supported by a hundred facts; the only difference between the two is that the first is less likely than the second to be permanent. So long as Tom had seen no amiable humpbacks he was logically entitled to construct his idea of the class from the one unamiable member of it that he knew. The fact that his acquaintance with the class was so limited, however, made his conclusion concerning it extremely likely to be over- thrown by further observations. The question is, then, not how many facts justify coming to an inductive conclu- sion, but how many are likely to insure its permanency in one's mind ? It is evident that a conclusion in regard to a class of things is likely to stand if it is based upon experience with a representative number of that class. But what is a rep- j resentative number ? Doubtless this would vary with the ' nature of the class. It might seem at first thought that the size of the class would be an important factor in this problem. Where there are few members in the class, as when one ventures a generalization about women's col- leges in America, it would appear that a smaller absolute number of members need be examined than in the case of a conclusion about, say, ministers' children. Yet the real reason for the larger number of observations in the 1 8 INDUCTIVE REASONING. case of ministers' children can hardly be the greater size of the class, for the same number of specific facts as would be required to establish the conclusion regarding the small class of women's colleges in America would be ample for a conclusion concerning the large class of red -winged blackbirds. In such a case as this last, although the size of the class is unquestionable, the chances of uniformity throughout the class are more than correspondingly great. The class lacks the complexity and therefore the oppor- tunity for variations characteristic of such a class as that of women's colleges in America, or, still more, that of ministers' children. In the one case the points of similar- ity between the members are many and the points of unlikeness few. The homogeneity of the class is con- spicuous. In the case of women's colleges, however, or still more in that of ministers' children, the unity of the class is not more marked than the diversities within it. It is a loosely amalgamated group, united perhaps at a single point. In considering, then, how many individuals in a class must be examined in order to insure to the conclusion at least a relative permanency, the homogeneity of the class must be noted. Roughly speaking, the number of obser- vations to be made under each class should vary inversely with the homogeneity of the class. But of course it is impossible, except in comparatively sophisticated induction, to apply this test of the. perma- nency of the conclusion. We cannot know the degree of homogeneity characteristic of any given class until we have already come to several inductive conclusions about it. We cannot, for instance, tell how closely knit the class china dishes may be, so long as it is to us only table uten- sils with a certain non-metallic, glazed appearance. We INDUCTIVE REASONING. 19 must discover by induction that all china dishes are break- able, that they are made of clay and baked in a kiln, be- fore we can know just how homogeneous the class is. Having determined, however, the degree of homogeneity possessed by any class, we may use this determination as a basis for deciding what proportion of its members must be examined in order to establish with some permanency a further conclusion regarding the class. The exact form taken by the facts which support an in- ductive conclusion should be carefully noted. Each fact may be described as a statement that an individual member of some class has a certain characteristic, or, more broadly, that it belongs to the large class of things having this characteristic.* It is thus precisely correlative in form with the conclusion, which states that the entire class has a certain characteristic, or, more broadly, that it is in- cluded in the larger class of things having this character- istic. The conclusion of inductive reasoning must not be re- garded as necessarily permanent or as literally true. "All children are innocent," we say, yet there may be excep- tions to this rule. What we mean is not absolutely that every child is innocent, but that as a class children are innocent. And, again, our conclusion that "All doctors carry candy in their pockets," though steadfastly believed so long as we are acquainted with no doctor who does not carry candy in his pockets, is at once overthrown when we learn of several doctors who have not this delightful habit. We must accustom ourselves to look upon our inductive conclusions and those of other people, not as finalities but only as tentative judgments, very likely to be * The student should be required to reduce to this typical form each fact used to support any inductive conclusion. 20 INDUCTIVE REASONING. revised after further experience, yet useful so long as they stand. The process by which such conclusions are re- vised will be discussed in the following chapter.* EXERCISES. ;. Take down from the conversations you hear before the next recitation several conclusions of the sort dis- cussed in this lesson. Trace out the train of reasoning which you imagine must have led to them, setting it down under the three heads, (I.) Assumption, (II.) Facts, and (III.) Conclusion. 2. Note in writing all the generalizations you make during a given week, and set down precisely the facts upon which each is based. 3. Analyze, as in Exercise i, the reasoning processes of which the following propositions are the conclusions: (a) The youngest children in a family are always spoiled. (6) Bulls are enraged at the sight of red. (c) Blessings brighten as they take their flight. (d) All superstitious people are ignorant. (e) College girls have bad manners. (/) Children in fiction are unnatural. (g) All people fear that from which they have once re- ceived injury. (h) Poets have no business ability. (i) Rich men in America are patrons of educational institutions. (/') The heroine of the old-fashioned novel has no mother. (k) The lame and the lazy are provided for. * For supplementary illustrations of the process of inductive reason- ing, see Appendix A. INDUCTIVE REASONING. 21 (/) Where there's a will, there's a way. (m) All self-made men are egotists. () The little vermin race are ever treacherous ; cruel, and cowardly, whilst those [creatures] endowed with strength and power are generous, brave, and gentle. Goldsmith : Vicar of Wakefield. 4. How many facts are necessary to establish each con- clusion in Exercise 3 ? How many to establish each con- clusion so that it is not likely to be overthrown ? 5. Trace the reasoning process involved in Maggie's conclusion as represented in the following statement. Analyze the processes which have led you to similar con- clusions. She [Maggie] could have informed you that there was such a word as ' polygamy, ' and being also acquainted with ' polysyllable, ' she had deduced * the conclusion that ' poly ' meant many. George Eliot : Mill on the Floss. 6. Has each of the following conclusions absolute or only logical, and hence relative, certitude ? If to you it has only logical certitude, could it have absolute or math- ematical certitude to some one else ? (a) All George Eliot's novels are interesting (or uninter- esting). (3) All industrious people are successful. (c) All mice eat cheese. () Often we are ourselves struck at the strange differ- ences in our successive views of the same thing. We wonder how we ever could have opined as we did last month about a certain matter. We have outgrown the possibility of that state of mind, we know not how. From one year to another we see things in new lights. What was unreal has grown real, and what was exciting is insipid. The friends we used to care the world for are shrunken to shadows ; the women once so divine, the stars, the woods, and the waters, how now so dull and common! the young girls that brought an aura of infin- INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT. 47 ity, at present hardly distinguishable existences ; the pic- tures, so empty ; and as for the books, what was there to find so mysteriously significant in Goethe, or in John Mill so full of weight ? James: Psychology, ch. XI. (q] Natural instincts are lost under domestication : a remarkable instance of this is seen in those breeds of fowls which very rarely or never become " broody "; that is, never wish to sit on their eggs. Familiarity alone pre- vents our seeing how largely and how permanently the minds of our domestic animals have been modified. It is scarcely possible to doubt that the love of man has be- come instinctive in the do. All wolves, foxes, jackals, and species of the cat genus, when kept tame, are most eager to attack poultry, t-heep, and pigs ; and this tend- ency has been found incurable in dogs which have been brought home as puppies from countries such as Terra del Fuego and Australia, where the savages do not keep these domestic animals. How rarely, on the other hand, do our civilized dogs, even when quite young, require to be taught not to attack poultry, sheep, and pigs ! No doubt they occasionally do make an attack, and are then beaten ; and if not cured, they are destroyed ; so that habit and some degree of selection have probably concurred in civilizing, by inheritance, our dogs. On the other hand, young chickens have lost, wholly by habit, that fear of the dog and cat which no doubt was originally instinctive in them; for I am informed by Captain Hutton that the young chickens of the parent-stock, the Gallus bankiva, when reared in India under a hen, are at first excessively wild. So it is with young pheasants reared in England under a hen. It is not that chickens have lost all fear, but fear only of dogs and cats; for if the hen gives the danger-chuckle, they will run (more especially young tur- 48 INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT. keys) from under her, and conceal themselves in the sur- rounding grass of thickets; and this is evidently done for the instinctive purpose of allowing, as we see in wild ground-birds, their mother to fly away. But this instinct retained by our chickens has become useless under domes- tication, for the mother-hen has almost lost,' by disuse, the power of flight. Darwin: Origin of Species, 402. (r) The universal nature, too strong for the petty na- ture of the bard, sits on his neck and writes through his hand ; so that when he seems to vent a mere caprice and wild romance, the issue is an exact allegory. Hence Plato said that " poets utter great and wise things which they do not themselves understand." All the fictions of the Middle Age explain themselves as a masked or frolic expression of that which in grave earnest the mind of that period toiled to achieve. Magic, and all that is ascribed to it, is a deep presentiment of the powers of science. The shoes of swiftness, the sword of sharpness, the power of subduing the elements, of using the secret virtues of minerals, of understanding the voices of birds, are the obscure efforts of the mind in a right direction. The preternatural prowess of the hero, the gift of perpetual youth, and the like, are alike the endeavor of the human spirit " to bend the shows of things to the desire of the mind." In Perceforest and Amadis de Gaul, a garland and a rose bloom on the head of her who is faithful, and fade on the brow of the inconstant. In the story of the Boy and the Mantle, even a mature reader may be surprised with a glow of virtuous pleasure at the triumph of the gentle Genelas; and, indeed, all the postulates of elfin annals that the fairies do not like to be named ; that their gift" are capricious and not to be trusted ; that who seeks a INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT. 49 treasure must not speak, and the like I find true in Concord, however they might be in Cornwall or Bretagne. Is it otherwise in the newest lomance ? I read the Bride of Lammermoor. Sir William Ashton is a mask for a vulgar temptation, Ravenswood Castle a fine name for proud poverty, and the foreign mission of state only a Bunyan disguise for honest industry. We may all shoot a wild bull that would toss the good and beautiful, by fighting down the unjust and sensual. Lucy Ashton is another name for fidelity, which is always beautiful and always liable to calamity in this world. Emerson : Es- says, First Series, History. 4. Write an inductive argument which shall seek to es- tablish any one of the following conclusions, fixing in your own mind upon the audience you address. Analyze the argument completely, and state whether it is capable of refutation by any means. (a) All times of great need bring forth great men. (3) People are not content with what they have. (c) All men who find power lose personal freedom. - (d) Minds are acted upon by each other without any apparent means of communication. (e) People lose their romantic sentiments as they gain experience. (f) All great men are self-made. ( g) All men who accomplish a great work spend a long period in preparation for that work. (h) All great reformers are the exponents of the spirit of their times. (i ) All evil is a result of selfishness. (/) All great men have gained little from books. (K) All friendships are based upon a certain likeness of character. (/) All progress is the result of discontent. CHAPTER IV. DEDUCTIVE REASONING. THROUGH inductive reasoning, as we have seen, we learn the characteristics of a whole class by experiences with particular members of that class. We conclude that green apples as a class are sour and hard, because several which we have tasted were sour and hard. But we often make use of such a conclusion as this to tell us something about an unknown member of the same class, as when we judge a certain green apple, which we have not tasted, to be sour and hard. It is evident that we cannot in this case come directly to the belief that the apple is sour and hard, as we could do if we had actually tasted it. We do not positively know that this green apple is sour and hard. We only infer that it is. That is, we come to a conclu- sion concerning it, without having actually had experi- ence with it. A conclusion which thus transcends experience is called an inference. We drew inferences, it will be re- membered, in the case of inductive reasoning. When we concluded that all green apples are hard and sour, we did so not because we had actually tasted all green apples and found them individually hard and sour, but because we inferred the hardness and sourness of the class of green apples from that of several green apples which we had 50 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 51 tasted. Each of these conclusions, then, that all green apples are hard and sour and that this (untasted) green apple is hard and sour, has been gained, not directly from experience, either with the whole class or with the single individual concerned, but indirectly through a proc- ess of reasoning, which, although based on experience, passes beyond it. Both these conclusions are, therefore, inferences. It will be well to note sharply the distinction between such logical conclusions as these, and the direct results of experience, with which latter, argumentation has nothing to do. Let us now examine somewhat more closely that par- ticular variety of logical .inference by which one /s led from the sourness and hardness of the whole class of green apples, to the sourness and hardness of a particular green apple as yet untasted. How are we enabled to reach the conclusion that this particular green apple is hard and sour ? We do not, as has been said, determine the point by direct experience. We are, however, practically as sure of it as if we had actually tasted and found the apple hard and sour. If interrogated as to the source of our judgment that this particular green apple is hard and sour, we should at once answer, " W r hy, I know it because all green apples are hard and sour." We are drawing a con- clusion, then, as to the characteristic of one member of a class, on the basis of our experience with other members of the same class. We find ourselves making judgments of this kind every day. " That snow won't pack," we say, though we have not tried to pack it ; or, ' ' The surface of that cloth is a regular dust-catcher," though no dust as yet clings to it. We buy a seat at the Harvard -Yale football game, sure that it is worth seeing, though as yet we have not seen 52 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. it; or pay half a dollar more for a certain make of glove in the persuasion that it is more durable, before we have worn it at all. In all these cases, it is evident, we con- clude something about an individual member of a class, on the basis of a previous conclusion about the class as a whole. Having often tried to pack snow of a certain light, dry sort, we have come to the conclusion that all snow of this sort refuses to cohere, and can now infer that this particular snow, having the same light, dry consist- ency, has also the same reluctance to being packed. By experience we have learned that cloth whose surface pre- sents a peculiar unequal, fuzzy appearance catches dust, hence we suppose that this particular piece of cloth, whose surface presents this appearance, tends also to re- tain the dust. The Harvard-Yale football games are always worth seeing, and this make of glove has proved itself to be especially durable. Hence this particular game is sure to be worth seeing, and this particular pair of gloves to be serviceable. The logical process by which one reaches such conclu- sions as these is perhaps somewhat less simple than at first appears. It is evident that we have no right to ascribe the characteristic of durability to this particular pair of gloves on the strength of their belonging to a class of durable gloves, unless we take it for granted that the members of a class have the characteristics of the class. Inductive reasoning, we found, depends upon the princi- ple that a class has the characteristics of its individual members. Deduction seems to invert this assumption, declaring not that what is true of the members of a class is true of the class, but that what is true ot the class is true of each of its members. Only it this assumption holds, can one possibly conclude that because all the Har- DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 53 vard-Yale football games are worth seeing this one is worth seeing. We may, then, formulate the deductive assumption as follows : " What is true of the class is true of an individual member of that class. " Upon this assumption is built all deductive reasoning. Since what is true of a class as a whole is true also of its individual members, in order to conclude that a certain characteristic belongs to a given individual, one has only to know that this characteristic pertains to a certain class and that the individual in question belongs to that class. These, then, are the stages of the deductive process. I. A certain class has this particular characteristic. II. The individual in question belongs to this class. III. The individual in question has this particular char- acteristic. These stages appear in the process of reasoning by which one comes to the conclusion that an American woman whom he has never heard speak has a nasal voice, because all American women have this characteristic. Believing that what is true of the class is true of a particu- lar member of the class, and having already arrived at the inductive conclusion that all American women have nasal voices, as soon as one learns that this particular woman is American, he is straightway forced to the conclusion that she has a nasal voice. He has assigned a certain characteristic to a whole class, identified an individual with a class, and in consequence has been obliged to as- sign the characteristic of the class to the individual. This process does not fundamentally differ from that which takes place when we say that a certain individual must belong to a certain class because it has the charac- teristics peculiar to the class ; as, for instance, when one says, " Of course she's an American. Didn't you hear her 54 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. nasal voice ? ' ' The speaker has reasoned that what is true of all people who have nasal voices, namely, that they belong to the class of Americans, must be true of this particular person who has a nasal voice. He has pre- viously come to the conclusion that the entire class of people who have nasal voices is included in the class of Americans. Observing, then, that this individual belongs to the class of people who have nasal voices, he concludes that this individual must also fall within the class of Americans. Here we have the assignment to a class, of all individuals having a certain characteristic, the identifica- tion of a particular individual with those having this char- acteristic, and the consequent assignment of the in- dividual to the class. At first sight the processes leading to these two conclu- sions " She has a nasal voice " and " She is an Ameri- can " may seem different, but closer inspection reveals their essential identity. The inductive conclusion, we learned from the previous discussion of inductive reason- ing,* declares that all the members of a certain class have a certain characteristic, or, what amounts to the same thing, that the whole of a certain class is included in a larger class, as the whole of the class chjna in the class of breakable things, or 'the whole of the class roses in the class of prickly-stemmed things. In like manner the de- ductive conclusion declares that an individual has the characteristic of its class, or that it belongs to the class whose characteristic it shares, or, which includes these two formulae, that an individual belongs to the class which in- cludes the smaller class to which it belongs. Thus the conclusion, ' ' She has a nasal voice, ' ' says, in effect, that * Chapter IL DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 55 the individual, belonging to the smaller class of Ameri- cans, is, by virtue of this fact, also a member of the larger class of people with nasal voices. Or, the conclusion " She is an American," asserts implicitly that the individ- ual, belonging to the class of people who have nasal voices, is thereby constituted a member of the class of Americans, which includes the whole class of people who have nasal voices. This view of the case reduces deductive reasoning to the process of concluding that A is contained in C, if it is also contained in B and B is contained in C. It is virtu- ally saying, "I left that mortgage in my office, for it is in my desk, and my desk is in my office, " or " I have a five- dollar bill in my pocket, for it is in my purse, and my purse is in my pocket." We have here, then, the most general formula for de- ductive reasoning. It may be represented graphically by the old device of circles. It is clear that A is included in C, since B is included in C and A is included in B. Thus one is safe in coming to the conclusion that an unopened letter, just received, 56 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. contains a check, if all letters addressed in this handwrit- ing and arriving at this particular time in the week or month do contain checks. The process of reasoning would be as follows : All letters addressed in my father's handwriting and received on the first of the month con- tain a check. This letter is addressed in my father's handwriting and is received on the first of the month. Therefore it contains a check. That is, This individual letter belongs to the class of letters received on the first of the month addressed in a certain handwriting; and this class of letters is wholly included in the class of letters which contain checks ; hence this letter belongs to the class of letters containing checks. Letters addressed in my father's handwriting and received on the first of the month Deductive reasoning has, then, for its task the assign- ing of a certain individual to a class, on the basis of that individual's membership in another class which is wholly included in the class first mentioned. Induction has pre- pared the way for the successful performance of this task, by assigning the smaller class to the larger. This having been done, deduction fulfills the process by referring a DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 57 given individual to the smaller class, and thus to the larger class which includes the smaller. The significance of the term " deduction " as applied to the kind of reasoning discussed in this chapter is com- monly explained according to its etymology by saying that deductive reasoning leads from a general statement of the characteristic of a class, to the particular statement of the characteristic of a single individual in that class. Induction, we found, brings scattered judgments concern- ing the individual members of a class together into a single judgment of the class as a whole. As contrasted with this process, deduction may be said to draw this larger judgment of the class down to a particular point, the judgment concerning an individual member of the class, hitherto unknown. This conception of the essential difference between the two processes might be represented by the following diagram.* We should now examine somewhat more minutely the elements of deductive reasoning. Of its three stages we have already noted that the first assigns the smaller class to the larger, or, to use convenient scientific terms, the species to the genus; the second includes the individual in its species, and the third declares the membership of the individual in the genus. Thus, if we conclude that Sousa's new march, which we have not yet heard, is lively and " catching," because all his marches are so, we first declare that the species, Sousa's marches, belongs to the genus, marches that are lively and ' ' catching, ' ' then assert that this particular march belongs to the species, Sousa's marches, and hence are forced to conclude that * The relations between inductive and deductive reasoning are fur- ther discussed in Appendix B. 58 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. this particular march is included also in the genus, marches that are lively and " catching." This entire process of reasoning, as thus skeletonized, is termed a syllogism. Each of its three stages, like the stages of inductive reasoning, asserts or declares some- thing, makes a complete statement, and hence is known j Judgments of individual members of a class. Judgment of a class as a whole. Judgment of individual member of the class. as a proposition. But each of these three propositions is also, for convenience, distinguished from each of the others by a specific name. That proposition which affirms the inclusion of species in genus is termed the major premise; that which declares the inclusion of indi- vidual in species, the minor premise ; and that which as- serts the inclusion of the individual in the genus, the con- DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 59 elusion. Thus in the syllogism previously discussed, the proposition, " All Sousa's marches are lively and ' catch- ing, ' " is the major premise; "This march is one of Sousa's marches" is the minor premise; and "This march is lively and 'catching' " is the conclusion. The significance of the terms, major premise and minor premise, as applied to the earlier propositions of the syl- logism, does not fully appear until the propositions them- selves have been further analyzed. We have seen that the conclusion, toward which the deductive process tends, assigns the individual to that larger class which we have called the genus. To accomplish this classification of the individual is the end of deductive reasoning. Of the three ultimate elements in deductive reasoning, the genus, the species, and the individual, only the first and the last are of prime importance. The second is used only as a go- between, a means of achieving the classification of the in- dividual under the genus. It is impossible to say directly that the individual is included under the genus ; we can know that only by first assigning it to the species which is embraced by the genus. Hence we use the species to form a bridge for us from the individual to the genus. It has no value save as an intermediary, hence it is com- monly known as the middle term, while the individual and the genus are called the extreme terms, or the ex- tremes. The extremes, however, are further distinguished; the genus, as the larger term, being named the major, and the individual, as the smaller, receiving the designa- tion of the minor. These, then, are the three terms of the syllogism the major, representing the genus, to which the individual is to be assigned; the minor, representing the individual, which is to be assigned to the genus; and the middle, rep- 60 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. resenting the species, through which the individual is brought into connection with the genus. The location of these terms in the syllogism determines the names ap- plied to the premises. The major premise, which assigns the species to the genus, plainly deals with both the major and the middle terms ; the minor premise, which refers the individual to its class, has to do with both minor and middle terms ; while the conclusion, classify- ing the individual with the genus, involves the major and the minor terms. The names of the premises, it will be noted, correspond each with the name of the term of first importance which it contains. The middle term, being comparatively colorless, is left out of the reckoning alto- gether, and the proposition containing both the major and the middle term is known as the major premise, while that containing the minor and the middle term becomes thereby the minor premise. The conclusion, which con- tains both major and minor terms, is designated by the name of neither. The location of terms in the syllogism may be repre- sented by such a skeletonized formula as the following : I. Major premise: middle major. II. Minor premise: minor middle. III. Conclusion: minor major. This formula shows the syllogism bound together by a triple link. The middle and the major terms are first connected, then the minor with the middle, and last the minor with the major. The connections between these terms might thus be shown by diagram. The deductive syllogism, then, represents a reasoning process whose elements are very closely linked together. So close and so well established is this connection, that, DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 61 given the conclusion, the entire syllogism can easily be built up. Let us say that we wish to determine what reasoning process might fairly lead to the conclusion that J. H. Shorthouse's John Inglesant ought to be purchased for a certain school library. The conclusion has already been formulated "John Inglesant ought to be purchased for this school library. " The minor term, John Inglesant, is assigned to the major term, that is, to the class of books which ought to be purchased for this library. Only the middle term is lacking ; and this at once declares itself in answer to the question, " Why should we think that John Inglesant ought to be purchased for this major premiy minor major conclusion library ? " Plainly, one could come to this conclusion because he believed that all good historical novels, in the number of which he counts John Inglesant, should be pur- chased for this library, in which case the middle term is apparent the class of good historical novels. Once the minor term, John Inglesant, is referred to this class, and this class is included in the larger class of books which should be purchased for the school library, the triple con- nection is made, and John Inglesant is thereby declared to belong to that class of books which should be purchased for the school library. The determination of the way to a given deductive con- clusion depends, then, upon the discovery of the appro- priate middle term. The conclusion itself furnishes the major term and the minor, so that the task of filling out 62 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. the syllogism resolves itself into the search for the inter- mediary through which the minor term has been brought into relation with the major. Such a typical form of syllogism as that which we have considered in this chapter submits itself, we may notice, to the following tests : It is made up of three terms, and three only, these being so arranged that they constitute three distinct propositions. Each term appears twice in the entire syllogism, but only once in any one proposi- tion. Each term represents either a class or a member of a class ; that representing the largest element in the syl- logism being called the major term, that indicating the smallest the minor term, and that standing for the inter- mediary between these two, the middle term. Each term is expressed throughout the syllogism in the same form of words. Each of the three propositions has its own pecu- liar function in the syllogism; the first, called the major premise, assigning the middle to the major term ; the sec- ond, or the minor premise, including the minor in the middle term; and the third, or the conclusion, declaring the minor to be a member of the class represented by tne major term. So much for the typical form of the simple syllogism. Many other forms are known to the books of logic, but we need concern ourselves with them only so far as to see how they may be reduced to this more primitive type. Syllogisms which are technically called " simple" are those whose propositions are all simple, containing but a single subject and predicate. The following is an illus- tration : I. All silk is smooth to the touch. II. This fabric is silk. III. This fabric is (will prove) smooth to the touch. DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 6j Such a syllogism as this may readily be distinguished from complex or hypothetical syllogisms, at least one of whose propositions is complex, that is, made up of one or more propositions. Of the complex syllogism either of the following may serve as examples : I. If silk is smooth to the touch, dust will not cling to it. II. Silk is smooth to the touch. III. Dust will not cling to it. or, I. Either silk is smooth to the touch, or woolen is. II. Silk is smooth to the touch. III. Woolen is not smooth to the touch. In each of these complex syllogisms, while the minor premise is a simple proposition, the major premise is complex, made up of two simple propositions, " Silk is smooth to the touch," and " Dust will not cling to it," or, in the second illustration, " Silk is smooth to the touch, ' ' and ' ' Woolen is not smooth to the touch. ' ' We shall consider in turn the various forms of both simple and complex syllogisms and the means by which each may be reduced to the typical form which has been previously defined. Simple syllogisms of our typical form have invariably a major premise of the following order : "All poverty is the result of improvidence," "All lies are unjustifiable," " All the good die young," " All laws ought to be en- forced." Each of these propositions assigns an entire class to another larger class. Absolutely the whole of the class of lies is included in the class of unjustifiable things ; absolutely the whole of the class of laws, in the class of things that ought to be enforced. Such a proposition is 64 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. called a universal affirmative proposition. We have here- tofore represented it as follows : I. But one may sometimes be tempted to use for the major premise of a syllogism propositions somewhat differ- ing from these in form. He may, for instance, attempt to substitute a statement not quite so sweeping. " Some lies are justifiable," he may say; "Most laws ought to be enforced," " Some good people die young," " Much poverty is the result of improvidence." These proposi- tions may be termed particular affirmative propositions. Not the whole of the smaller class is included in the larger, but only some particular portion of it. The two classes intersect, but that is all. The universal and the particular propositions are thus sharply distinguished so far as concerns the degree of in- clusion of the smaller class in the larger. Both of them, however, affirm this inclusion, either in whole or in part, differing in this respect from the negative propositions, which deny it. Such a proposition one uses in asserting DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 65 that " No lies are justifiable," that " No novels are worth reading, ' ' that ' ' No crimes are permanently hidden, ' ' or II. that " No missionary work pays." The inclusion of the one class in the other is here explicitly denied. No single member of the class of lies falls within the class of justifi- able actions ; no smallest part of the class of novels be- longs within the limits of the class of books worth read- ing. The one class is wholly excluded from the other, as in the following diagram : III. 66 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. It is possible, however, to affirm the exclusion of the smaller from the larger class, not in whole, but in part. One does not venture to assert that no lies are justifiable, but is sure that not all lies are justifiable. Or he main- tains that not all novels are worth reading, or that not all missionary work pays. Some part of the smaller class thus falls outside the limits of the larger, the relation of the two classes being represented by such a figure as this : IV. It will be noted that this figure is identical with the one marked II., representing the particular affirmative propo- sition. These, then, are the four assertions possible to be made concerning any class of things the universal affirmative, the particular affirmative, the universal negative, and the particular negative. If the major premise of our syllo- gism is a universal affirmative proposition, the syllogism has the typical form. If, however, one attempts to sub- stitute for this universal affirmative a particular proposi- tion, whether affirmative or negative, it becomes at once impossible for the conclusion to declare that the minor DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 67 term falls within the major. The middle term is not wholly included in the major, hence no matter how cer- tain we may be that the minor falls somewhere in the middle term, we cannot know that it is also included in the major. Some of Gibson's pictures are well drawn, we may say, and this is one of Gibson's pictures ; but whether it is one of the number well drawn, or one of the number not well drawn, it is impossible to say. This particular picture may be either well drawn or not well drawn one cannot tell which. Its location is as ambigu- ous as that of a certain paper, a mortgage, let us say, which one asserts to be somewhere among his papers. So much we are glad to know, but where are the papers ? If the reply be, "Oh, some of them are in my desk at the office, and some in an old trunk in the attic at home, and some in the safety deposit vault in the bank," we have not received much information as to the exact situation of this particular paper. The minor term, this mort- gage, has been assigned to the middle, our friend's pa- pers; but the middle, our friend's papers, has not been wholly included in the major term, say his desk at the office. Hence it is impossible to say that the mortgage is in the desk. It may chance to be, of course, but one is not sure. A difficulty of this sort, occasioned by the use of a par- ticular, rather than a universal, proposition for the major premise of the syllogism, may be remedied by narrowing the middle term so that it is wholly included in the major. Thus, instead of asserting that " Some novels are worth reading," one may venture the declaration that "All nov- els written by standard authors are worth reading." If the novel in question was written by a standard author, we are then entitled to conclude that it is worth reading. 68 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. If we attempt to use a universal negative proposition as the major premise of a syllogism, our attention is arrested by the fact that the major term seems to stand in the major premise for one class of things, and in the conclu- sion for another. For instance, if we say : I. None of Gibson's pictures are well drawn. II. This is one of Gibson's pictures. III. This picture is not well drawn. our major term in the major premise represents " pictures that are well drawn," and in the conclusion "pictures that are not well drawn." And, further, this form of proposition fails to meet the requirement of our typical syllogism, that its major premise shall include the middle term in the major. The premise, " None of Gibson's pic- tures are well drawn, " rather excludes the middle from the major term, negates the inclusion of the one in the other. But let us see whether this negative proposition may not be translated into an equivalent form which will meet the requirements for the typical syllogism. Gibson's pictures, if taken as a whole, must be either well-drawn or not- well-drawn. If none of them are well drawn, all of them must be not-well-drawn. Thus we are furnished at once with the major premise we need. I. All Gibson's pictures are not-well-drawn. II. This is one of Gibson's pictures. III. This picture is not-well-drawn. In like manner, the particular negative proposition, " Some of Gibson's pictures are not-well-drawn," may be reduced to our typical major premise when once its mid- dle term has been so narrowed as to render the premise universal. These varieties of simple syllogism may thus be readilj DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 69 reduced to the typical form. The similar transformation of complex syllogism to the simple type we must now con- sider. On the border-line between simple and complex syllo- gisms stand those syllogisms whose major premises contain a temporal clause, and thus seem to be complex proposi- tions, though capable of easy reduction to the simple form of statement. Such a syllogism is the following : I. When they need me, I must go. II. They need me now. III. I must go now. If one attempt to analyze out from this conclusion its minor and major terms, he finds the minor to be " now " or " this time," and the major " times when I must go." The middle term is, then, plainly " times when they need me " and the syllogism reduces to the typical form : I. All times when they need me are times when I must go. II. This time is one of the times when they need me. III. This time is one of the times when I must go. A syllogism whose major premise contains a temporal clause can usually be resolved into a simple syllogism of the required form by recognizing the terms for the time- elements they actually are. By similar means, all complex syllogisms are reduced to the typical form. Complex syllogisms are, as we have noted, syllogisms whose major premises are complex prop- ositions. A complex proposition is denned as " a combi- nation of two or more simple propositions in one sen- tence, the propositions being so related to each other that the truth or falsity of one proposition or set of proposi- tions depends on the truth or falsity of the other proposi- ?o DEDUCTIVE REASONING. tion or set of propositions." * If the two propositions are so associated in the sentence that the truth of one de- pends on the truth of the other, the proposition is called conjunctive, and the same name is applied to the syllogism of which it forms the major premise. Such a syllogism is that presented early in the chapter :f I. If silk is smooth to the touch, dust will not cling to it. II. Silk is smooth to the touch. III. Dust will not cling to it. If, on the other hand, the two statements in a complex proposition are so related that the truth of one depends on the falsity of the other, and the falsity of one on the truth of the other, the proposition is called disjunctive, and the same name is applied to the syllogism in which such a proposition acts as major premise. One of the complex syllogisms before quoted is of the disjunctive variety : I. Either silk is smooth to the touch, or woolen is. II. Silk is smooth to the touch. III. Woolen is not smooth to the touch. The conjunctive complex syllogism can readily be re- duced to the typical form by analyzing out its component terms. Thus the syllogism I. If the charge be true, he is a rascal. II. The charge is true. III. He is a rascal. presents, as its minor and major terms, " he " and " ras- cals. " " He" is asserted by the conclusion to belong * Fowler, T., Deductive and Inductive Logic, Deductive Logic, p. "3- t Page 63. DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 7* to the class of rascals ; but on what grounds ? Simply because all men of whom this particular charge is true be- long to the class of rascals. The syllogism, then, falls into this form : I. All persons of whom this charge is true are rascals. II. He is a person of whom this charge is true. III. He is a rascal. In the same fashion may be reduced the syllogism, I. Unless the strikers have conceded something, the company ought not to yield. II. The strikers have conceded nothing. III. The company ought not to yield. Inquiry into the reason for assigning this company to the class of companies who ought not to yield to their striking employees, develops the middle term and thus transforms the syllogism : I. Companies to whom their striking employees have conceded nothing are companies that ought not to yield. II. The company in question is a company to whom its striking employees have conceded nothing. III. The company in question is a company that ought not to yield. The method by which disjunctive syllogisms may be moulded into the typical form is not essentially differ- ent. The major premise of a disjunctive syllogism may yield four different conclusions; as, for example: (a) I. Either the girl is stupid or she is lazy. II. She is stupid. III. She is not lazy. (b) I. Either the girl is stupid or she is lazy. II. She is not stupid. III. She is lazy. 7 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. (c) I. Either the girl is stupid or she is lazy. II. She is lazy. III. She is not stupid. (d) I. Either the girl is stupid or she is lazy. II. She is not lazy. III. She is stupid. A single one of these syllogisms will serve to illustrate the process of reduction which may be employed in the case of each. We note that this girl is assigned to the class of girls who are stupid because she also belongs to the class of girls who are not lazy, but who (we may suppose) fail to do satisfactory work in their classes; and all such girls, according to premise, are stupid girls. The syllogism, then, runs as follows: I. All girls who are not iazy, but who fail to do satis- factory work, are stupid. II. This girl is not lazy, but fails to do satisfactory work. III. This girl is stupid. A second illustration of the process of resolution may be seen in the case of the syllogism : I. This cloth is either a great bargain or a great cheat. II. It is not a great cheat. III. It is a great bargain. This syllogism takes on the accredited form, if thus rendered : I. All cloth which is fabulously low in price and is not a great cheat is a great bargain. II. This cloth is fabulously low in price ana not a great cheat. III. This cloth is a great bargain. Our consideration of the means for reducing various DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 73 forms of syllogism to the typical order may yield a single precept covering all such cases. From examination of the conclusion, the minor and the major terms may be de- rived. Supply the appropriate middle term from the premises of the syllogism, and group these three terms as in the typical form. If the inclusion of the middle in the major term be only partial, narrow the middle term until the major admits it; if the inclusion of the middle term in the major be denied, negate the major, so that the middle may be assigned to it. The end attained by the reduction of all syllogisms to a prescribed form is the readier assurance of the correct- ness of a given process of deductive reasoning. If it yield itself to the mould of the typical syllogism, one may be assured of its validity without the numerous chances of error that arise when syllogisms of varied form are per- mitted. One is thus furnished with a simple test to which every piece of deductive reasoning may be submitted. EXERCISES. 1. Turn back to Exercise 3 in Chapter I. What de- ductive inference would a child naturally draw when he came to a dark corner never seen before, having previously established the conclusion, " Dark corners are not danger- ous " ? Write the corresponding deductive inference for each of the inductive conclusions mentioned in Exercise 3, Chapter I. 2. Note any deductive conclusions which you have reached during the past day or two. Be sure that you came to these conclusions by reasoning, not by direct ex- perience with the object concerned. Analyze the reason- ing process leading to each conclusion and diagram it by the method of circles. 74 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 3. Write out the complete syllogism of which each of the bellowing propositions is the conclusion. Be able to identify each term in the syllogism and state its exact rela- tionship to every other term. Name each proposition and account for its name. Diagram first each proposition and then the whole syllogism, by the method of circles as follows : I. All Sousa's marches are bright and " catching." II. This march is one of Sousa's marches. III. This march is bright and " catching." I. Major premise: (Major term) Marches that are bright and catching II. Minor premise : (Middle term) Sousa's marches DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 75 III. Conclusion: (Major term) Marches that are bright and catchin Whole syllogism : (Major term) Marches that are bright and catching ?6 DEDUCTIVE REASONING. (a) That bird is a robin. (fr) This toothache can be cured by the application of iodine. (c) This plant ought to be watered every day. (e followed by event B, though this cannot be predicted with perfect certainty. Like all logical conclusions, that of a priori reasoning lacks absolute certitude, and this lack is only emphasized by its future reference. Hence this reasoning, more than any other, may seem to justify the name " reasoning from probability." f See Chapter VII. A PRIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. 117 be introduced into the mind of another person by repro- ducing in his mind the train of reasoning which has led to it. The sequence must first be established and then the "event or circumstance in question must be identified with the first member of the sequence, before the hearer or reader can accept the conclusion that the second member will follow this particular event. In the refutation of a priori reasoning one may use the direct method alone or the direct and the indirect together. One may attack the conclusion directly by destroying the sequence or by showing that the event in question is not identical with the first member of that sequence. Or, hav- ing thus discredited the conclusion, he may completely overthrow it by proving that an event quite the opposite will follow the event in question. Thus, if one wishes to dislodge from another person's mind the conclusion that the application of iodine to an aching tooth will be fol- lowed by relief, he proves by numerous instances that the application of iodine is not habitually followed by the re- lief of an aching tooth and, still further, may attempt to establish the fact that such application is usually followed by a more acute aching, and that, therefore, it will be so followed in this particular case. Or, if it is desirable to disprove the conclusion that allowing Robbie to do the thing he has begged to do will be followed by the estab- lishment of the habit of teasing, one may undertake to overthrow, not the impregnable major premise, "Weak yielding to a child's importunities is followed by his ac- quisition of the habit of teasing," but the more amenable minor, " This is a case of weak yielding to a child's im- portunities." "Robbie hasn't teased for this," you would say. " He has only asked for it eagerly, as any child would, believing in his parents' desire to give him n8 A PRIORI REASONING /1ND ARGUMENT. pleasure." And you are yielding not to his request, but to your o\vn sense of what will be for his ultimate advan- tage as well as for his present gratification. It will do him good to go, and the permission will so establish his faith in your desire for his happiness that he will never think of teasing you for a thing you disapprove of." In the last sentence, it will be noted, the indirect method of refutation appears. Such a combination of methods of refutation is found in a priori as in all other argument to be far more effective than either method alone. EXERCISES. 1. Syllogize and picture all the illustrations of a priori reasoning used in the text. Test the syllogisms. 2. Analyze and reduce to syllogistic form the a priori reasoning underlying each of the following actions: (a) Taking an umbrella when one goes to walk on a cloudy day. (b) Sending for a doctor when one is sick. (c) Taking quinine for a cold.* () A satisfactory flying machine will some day be invented. * Or by any one particular college or school. CHAPTER VII. A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. THE essential character of a posteriori reasoning has been suggested in the foregoing chapter. * Like a priori reasoning, the a posteriori process bases itself upon an observed sequence of events. A posteriori reasoning, however, instead of inferring the second event, the first being given, starts at the other end of the series and infers the first member, the second serving as datum. Such habitual series as those discussed in Chapter VI. may again serve us for illustration. Having firmly established in our own minds the sequence between a hard frost and the blighted appearance of garden plants, we may not only by a priori reasoning conclude that this particular frost will blight the plants in the garden, but, by a posteriori reason- ing, we may infer from the limp and blackened appearance of the plants that there was a severe frost last night. Or, looking out in the morning and seeing the walks wet and the gutters full of water, we say, " It must have rained last night. " Such reasoning as this was used by Robinson Crusoe, when, discovering the print of a man's foot in the sand, he concluded that a man had visited the island. In fol- lowing a trail one must reason thus from the second member of the series, which is seen, to the first, which is * See p. 116. 127 128 A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. unseen ; from the half-effaced print in the soil, the broken twig, and the disarranged branches to the passing of some creature or creatures; from the number, size, and form of the tracks, the peculiar manner in which the twig is broken and the branches disarranged, to the kind of creatures, their number, their size, and physical condi- tion, with sometimes even the purpose of their move- ments and the success or failure of them. All this belongs to woodcraft in general and to hunting in par- ticular. Indians are supposed to be adepts at this process of inference, their forest life naturally tending to make them very dependent upon it.* In judging character or motive from external evidences, the a posteriori reasoning is used. One decides from a person's face, from his actions, from his talk, or from his reputation, what his character is; or from the thing he does, the motive he had for doing it.f * Hence stories of Indians and pioneers, such as Cooper's novels, and of animals, such as Kipling's Jungle Books, abound in a posteriori reasoning. From this type of the reasoning backward doubtless sprang the name often applied to all its types, "the reasoning from sign." The "sign" is, of course, the second member of the series, and becomes a sign of the first only because inductively one has come to the con- clusion that the second is always preceded by the first. f In reading novels, especially of the modern realistic type, we must determine the characters of the persons represented just as we deter- mine those of people we meet in real life. We are not now, as in the old-fashioned romance, told directly and at some length what the characters of the hero and heroine are, but must infer these characters from the action and conversation recorded. Many essays on literary subjects attempt by means of a posteriori reasoning to infer from the writings from a certain author his character, tastes, sensory development, habits of mind, and previous experiences. Of such essays Bagehot's Shakespeare the Man may stand as type. A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. 129 The determination of character and motive from ex- ternal evidence is closely allied with the use of the a posteriori reasoning in the detection of crime. Here the commission of the crime is the second member of the habitual series, the first being concealed by the design of the criminal. The first member may be the criminal's deliberate plan to forge the check or to murder the victim ; it may be the appearance of a sudden temptation in the way of opportunity or necessity or both combined ; but whatever it is, this concealed event must be traced out relentlessly by the backward looking process of reason- ing. Being established, it may then serve as datum for a second a posteriori process, and thus a long chain of past events be reconstructed from a single one. This method of unraveling a mystery, first popularized by the detective stories of Poe, seems almost more fascinating than any other of the numerous applications of a posteriori reasoning. Such effort has been made to conceal the first member of the series that the triumph of the discovery is enhanced. The achievements of this reasoning in the field of science are, however, even more marvelous, though so familiar that they may be passed with a word. The science of palaeontology, we are often told, is able, by the a posteriori process of reasoning, to determine the general configuration, the character of the soil, and even the climatic conditions of a certain tract of country dur- ing a certain prehistoric period, to furnish proof of the previous existence there of a plant-species which has been extinct for numberless centuries, to reconstruct an entire The "internal evidence" as to the authorship of certain works and the dates at which certain writings were produced also involves this process of reasoning. 13 A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. group of hitherto unknown animals from a single bone found in a certain geologic stratum.* And the same process of reasoning enables us, in archa;ological investi- gations, to read the entire life of a perished race from the vestiges of its civilization. The syllogistic form of this reasoning is correlative with that of the a priori process, f Events of the class B, we say, are always preceded by event A. This particular event belongs to the class B and hence must have been preceded by event A. Or, still more simply: I. B is always preceded by A. II. This event is B. III. This event is preceded by A. Thus, in a case of suicide : I. The discovery of a man dead under certain peculiar circumstances (he being subject to melancholia and having often threatened to take his own life, a pistol wound being discovered in his head, made by a ball of the same calibre as those in his pistol lying beside him, the doors and windows of the room being all so securely fastened from the inside that they had to be broken in) is always preceded by the act of suicide. * Thackeray draws a half-humorous parallel ( The A T eivcomts, vol. II., ch. IX.) between these achievements and those of the novelist. " As Professor Owen or Professor Agassiz takes a fragment of a bone, and builds an enormous forgotten monster out of it, wallowing in primaeval quagmires, tearing down leaves and branches of plants that flourished thousands of years ago and perhaps may be coal by this time so the novelist puts this and that together : from the footprint finds the foot ; from the foot, the brute who trod on it ; from the brute, the plant he browsed on, the marsh in which he swam." t See Ch. VI., p. 115. A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. 131 II. This discovery is that of a man dead under certain peculiar circumstances (stating them as in I.). III. This discovery was preceded by the act of suicide. A similar analysis might be made of the reasoning process by which one infers that Kipling has acquired a knowledge of the process of engine-building. I. All writing of stories exactly describing the minutiae of engine-building is preceded by the author's acquisition of exact knowledge of the process of engine-building. II. The writing of the story .007 is the writing of a story exactly describing the minutiae of engine- building. III. The writing of this story was preceded by the author's acquisition of exact knowledge of the process of engine-building. The past tense of the conclusion in a posteriori reason- ing may be explained as was the future tense in a priori reasoning.* It is not required by the technical form of the syllogism, but belongs to the reasoner's own point of view with reference to the first member of the series. Event B, the second member, is either present or past. (It could not serve as datum were it future.) Event A, therefore, since it precedes B in point of time, must be referred to the past. For the process of a posteriori argument, with the refu- tation thereof, the preceding chapter may again be con- sulted. In a posteriori argument, as in all other forms, the reasoning process of the writer must be established step by step in the reader's mind. This means, of course, that first the reader must be led to recognize the habitual series * See Cb. VI., pp. 115-1x6. I3 2 A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT, of events and next to identify the event given with the second member of the series, the first being thereupon inferred. Similarly, an a posteriori reasoning process maybe over- thrown by destroying either of these stages of the reason- ing process or by establishing a contradictory conclusion upon the basis of a different series of events. EXERCISES. 1. Find illustrations of your own, from observation or reading, of each of the uses of a posteriori reasoning men- tioned in this chapter. Analyze each of these pieces of reasoning and refute it if you can. 2. Analyze completely the a posteriori reasoning in- volved in the following selections, refuting wherever the reasoning seems to you fallacious : (a) At last I awake, very queer about the head, as from a giddy sleep, and see the butcher walking off, congratu- lated by the two other butchers and the sweep and publi- can, and putting on his coat as he goes; from which I augur, justly, that the victory is his. Dickens: David Copperfield, ch. XVIII. (3) "I perceive that you have been unwell lately. Summer colds are always a little trying." " I was confined to the house by a severe chill for three days last week. I thought, however, that I had cast off every trace of it. " " So you have. You look remarkably robust." " How, then, did you know of it ? " " From your slippers." " How on earth ." 'Your slippers are new," he said, "you could not have had them more than a few weeks. The soles which A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT 133 you are at this moment presenting to me are slightly scorched. For a moment I thought they might have got wet and been burned in the drying. But near the instep there is a small circular wafer of paper with the shopman's hieroglyphics upon it. Damp would of course have removed this. You had, then, been sitting with your feet outstretched to the fire, which a man would hardly do even in so wet a June as this if he were in his full health. " A. Conan Doyle : Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes. (c) Prof. Petrie showed diagrams of cylindrical' seals as used by the kings of the first three dynasties, and impres- sions of such cylinders which were vastly more frequently found than the seals themselves. He then showed a vase exhibiting the earliest representation of Egyptian mythol- ogy, and other vases, tablets, and slates showing animals and birds, such as the hawk, bull, lion, and leopard, which manifested a well-acquired knowledge of these animals, as well as of the ibex, gazelle, and antelope. Large numbers of animals, such as the calf, monkey, and dog, had been found modeled in green clay, together with a model of a lion in red pottery. These finds were very important, as they showed the skill in clay modeling of the earliest dynasty, the rise of the art of modeling, and the Egyptian ideas and appreciation of the forms of animals and of the human body. These important monu- ments of the civil life of the early kings proved that glaz- ing was a specialty of the original people, and that Egyptian art reached its high-water mark somewhere before B.C. 4000. Other finds showed the kings in triumph over their enemies, receiving captive kings, opening the public works, or reclaiming the marshes. Others were vessels with dedications written upon them, and stone jars with 134 A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. chambers as storehouses for the king's soul. The handled copper vessels showed the most advanced metal-work found of the first three dynasties. The population of the pre-dynastic age was different in type from that of his- torical times, and in the early monuments the presence of diverse types was very clear, some being shaven, some bearded, some long-haired. We had at last before us evidence of the close of the period previously considered prehistoric, showing the development of the art, writing, and civilization of Egypt and the composition of a race which had since maintained its character during 6000 years. New York Times, Report of Lecture by Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie. (d) It is plain what Spain wants of the Philippines. She wants to get something out of them. That a bank- rupt nation without a navy should keep and administer a group of islands half the world away is out of the ques- tion. It becomes more flatly out of the question when her government has produced a lively revolt in every one of them in which it has ever been carried on or asserted. If the Philippines were all given back to Spain to-morrow the Spanish forces in them would all be annihilated before the year was out. But although Spain cannot hold the Philippines she can, she thinks, make them figure as an asset in her schedules. If we admit her ownership she might claim some compensation from us, if we choose to take them over as a war indemnity. If we do not choose she can still peddle them about Europe, and she could doubtless find a purchaser if she could show a clear title. This explains the pretense of horror in Madrid over our claim to the Philippines, it explains the tenacity of the Spanish Commissioners in Paris, It is not a question of A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. 135 our allowing Spain to hold them. She simply cannot hold them. It is a question of our allowing her to sell them. And that we cannot allow, in default of a pur- chaser satisfactory to ourselves. (e) Artistically considered, Cleopatra is, perhaps, the masterpiece among Shakespeare's female characters; given the problem, Shakespeare has solved it as no one else could have done. But what conflicts must his soul have endured, what bitter experiences must he have passed through, to have set himself such a problem, to have created a woman so widely different from all those he had pictured before a woman so devoid of the ideal womanly graces, yet so irresistible, for whose sake Antony sacrifices the dominion of the world. Bernhard Ten Brink: Five Lectures on Shakespeare. (/") He (Mr. Glegg) noticed remarkable coincidences between these zoological phenomena and the great events of that time as, for example, that before the burning of York Minster there had been mysterious serpentine marks on the leaves of the rose-trees, together with an unusual prevalence of slugs, which he had been puzzled to know the meaning of, until it flashed upon him with this melan- choly conflagration." George Eliot: Mill on the Floss. (g) "I've seen the rabbit's track when I knew he was dodgin' the fox, for his catlike dots were in the snow by the side of it, and you could see some places where he had run his sharp nose into the rabbit's prints. . . . " One day last winter, ... I cut across the cornfield, and I found a peculiar mouse-track. It ended suddenly and there were broad wing-strokes in the snow. I knew, of course, that meant a tragedy, and by the broad scratches I knew it was a hawk or an owl, not a ... I3 6 A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. shrike; but as I stooped I was puzzled. There was no tailmark. " "A short-tailed meadow mouse," interrupted Shan. J. N. Baskett: At Foil-All's House, ch. X. (h) Every one in Bayshore was informed this afternoon that Burnside Jayne, son of Andrew Jayne, had either committed suicide or been accidentally killed by the dis- charge of his shotgun. Young Jayne, despite the posi- tiveness of the assertions, based upon the information and belief of his own father, is alive and as well as ever, beyond suffering from a headache. The young man went hunting this morning, and while away came upon a supply of cherry wine, which he liked so well that he was unsteady when he reached home, carrying a gun in one hand and a bottle of the wine in the other. He sat down on the doorstep and fell asleep, and in some manner the bottle broke and the red wine dyed his hair, face, neck, and clothing on the upper part of his body. The gun slipped down, and as he sat his chin rested upon the muzzle, while the butt rested upon the ground. In that position and condition he was seen by his father, who immediately rushed off for a doctor, and the report spread that Burnside Jayne was dead. The doctor came, examined the young man, smelled his breath and the clothing, took a pail of water and washed off the wine and at the same time cooled the hot head of the young man, who awakened. How he man- aged to break the bottle so that it dyed him as it did is not easily understood. 3. Analyze the a posteriori reasoning involved in eacl\ of the following essays or stories: (a) Kipling's The King's Ancus, in The Second Jungle Hook. A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. 13? (b) Foe's The Purloined Letter, The Gold-bug, The Murders in the Rue Morgue. (c) Conan Doyle's A Study in Scarlet. (d) Fiske's What We Learn from Old Aryan Words, in Excursions of an Evolutionist. (e) Winchell's Sketches of Creation. (f) Ten Brink 'sFive Lectures on Shakespeare, first and second lectures, The Poet and the Man and The Chronology of Shakespeare s Works. (g) Bagehot's Shakespeare the Man. 4. Does the physician ever need to use a posteriori reasoning ? When ? Analyze the process. Give in- stances of the use of a posteriori reasoning by the natural- ist : by the student of chemistry : by the housekeeper. 5. Write out an exact description of a scene you once witnessed, whose meaning you do not (or did not) know, taking pains not to suggest any explanation. Then hand this description to another student in the class, receiving one from him in exchange. Write out a full explanation of this scene so far as it appears to you explicable, analyzing the a posteriori process of reasoning by which you have interpreted it.* * A scene admitting of such interpretation is described in Henry Kingsley's The Hillyars and the Burtons, Ch. XXVII. " A couple came from the rest and stood at the window together, behind the half-drawn curtains ; and I could see them, for their heads were against the light. He was a gallant youth . . . and she seemed beautiful. . . . He spoke eagerly to her, but she never looked towards him ; he seemed to speak more eagerly yet and tried to take her hand ; but she withdrew it, and he slowly left her and went back into the room ; but she remained, and I saw her pulling the flowers from her nosegay and petulantly throwing them on the carpet, while she looked out steadily across the wild, sweeping river." I3 8 A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. 6. Write an account of the events just preceding that represented in any picture which seems to tell a story.* 7. Decide on the motive of the lady who smiled and of the lady who frowned in Stockton's story, The Discourager of Hesitancy in the Century Magazine, vol. XXX., (new series VIII.), p. 482. 8. Write an a posteriori argument leading to any one of the following conclusions: (a) - - f is quick-witted. (b) - -f has had a refined home-training. | (c) The man who sat next me in the street car to-day is a farmer. || (d) - ^[ is intellectually alert, sympathetic, and fun- loving.** (e) ff is conscientious and methodical. JJ (/") The late war with Spain was brought about by the politicians. (g) Shelley was very sensitive to odors. |||| (h) Byron was particularly fond of dark colors. (') Tennyson lacked depth of feeling. * Such pictures should be selected by the teacher and hung where they can be studied by the student. f Name some friend or acquaintance. J Substitute any other similar inference. % Or woman. || Or a druggist, a plumber, a tailor, a physician, etc. fl The original of a photograph displayed by the teacher. ** Substitute any other characteristics. ft The name of some public character should be supplied. JJ Other characteristics may be substituted. The inference may be drawn from this person's dress, the appearance of his room or his desk, his manners, his actions, or any other similar data. \\ Those of a certain party may be specified. |||| Or Wordsworth, to sound. A POSTERIORI REASONING AND ARGUMENT. 139 (y) The existing translation of the Romaunl of the Rose is Chaucer's. (K) Horace imitated Lucilius. (/) The writers of the gospels were truthful men. (m) Francis Bacon \\rote Shakespeare's plays. () The Iliad was written by several persons. CHAPTER VIII. REASONING AND ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI. WE often find ourselves comjmfl to a roTj^aon about a certain object or individual on the basis of itsjresem- hlanjre to another individual or object. Thus one says, " People can't possibly reach their full measure of healthy mental and moral growth if they are all the time moving from place to place. How would you expect a tree to flourish if you dug it up every few years and set it down in another spot ? " This kind of reasoning we call reasoning from analogy. It is commonly explained as resting upon a presupposition that when two things are alike what is true of the one is true of the other also, the observation that the two things involved in the analogy are alike, and a judgment already arrived at concerning one of them. Thus, in the reason- ing just cited, trees and human beings are in some respects alike, therefore it is inferred that the development of people must suffer from frequent changes of location just as that of trees does. This explanation approximates the truth, but fails to note the limitations of the analogy. We should not reason that because a child and a mouse are both timid, the child must be fond of cheese 1 A likeness in certain respects between two things does not induce the reasoner 140 ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI. 141 to attribute to one of them all the characteristics of the other. One is, however, impelled to such a conclusion as that the growth of human beings is injured by frequent changes of situation, because the growth of trees is thus impaired, provided always that the characteristic common both to trees and to people is one which would tend to affect their growth such a characteristic, let us say, as that of a peculiarly intimate relation to environment. A dim sense of this common quality must hover in the back- ground of the reasoner's consciousness, as the conclusion takes form in his mind. He does not, perhaps, rigidly define to himself this common characteristic. He may only recognize the fact that trees suffer from frequent transplanting and perceive vaguely that they represent a larger class of things as yet unnamed, whose organization is such that it demands a close and a continuous relation with its environment. Human beings, he is sure, fall within this unnamed class to which trees belong, the class of things having a certain peculiar organization, which makes them dependent on their environment. Therefore, people also, like trees, must suffer from frequent uproot- ing. If we analyze this process of reasoning into technical terms, we find that its major premise is an induction from a single instance. Trees suffer from frequent transplant- ing, therefore all members of the shadowy class to which trees belong suffer under frequent transplanting. From this point the deduction is typical. Human beings belong to this undefined class to which trees also belong, hence human beings also suffer from frequent transplant- ing. Reasoning from analogy thus employs as its middle term a class of things which is at once vague and concrete. 142 ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI. The middle term in the syllogism implied above is defined only by naming one of its members. It is " the class of things to which trees belong," rather than " the class of growing things which are intimately related to their en- vironment. " From this lack of sharp definition of the middle term arises the fallacy to which reasoning from analogy is peculiarly liable that of mistaking the middle term. Out of its context, " the class to which trees belong ' ' might mean any one of a dozen different classes the class of salient features in the landscape, that of sources of fuel, that of means of shade, that of symbols, that of growing ,things, that of things which should be planted, that of influences upon the rainfall, that of studies for artists the catalogue is endless. If, therefore, one fails to define the class to himself by its abstract char- acteristic as well as by reference to one of its members, he may at length awake to the discovery that his reasoning is confused and hopelessly discredited by the presence of two middle terms instead of one. The inference that this child must be fond of cheese because her movements are like those of a mouse is a flagrant instance of this duplicity in the middle term. I. All creatures of the class to which mice belong (the class having a certain digestive apparatus, say) are fond of cheese. II. This child belongs to the class to which mice belong (the class of creatures whose movements are furtive and nervous). III. This child is fond of cheese. The vagueness of the middle term in the reasoning from analogy is thus often 'a positive disadvantage. Its con- creteness is, however, an advantage, equally positive, ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI. 143 when this type of reasoning is used for purposes of argu- ment. The parables of the New Testament are doubtless the most remarkable examples of the argument from analogy. Addressed, as they were primarily, to an audience of uneducated minds, they found a tremendous advantage in the use of the concrete form of statement. Instead of " the class of valuable things lost/' " the class of things to which a lost coin belongs " is presented to the hearer's mind; instead of " the class of great results attained by inconsiderable means," we have "the class of things to which belongs the growth of the mustard-tree from the mustard-seed. ' ' The class thus brought concretely before the mind by instancing a single member of it is far more real to the hearer than any abstract statement of its characteristics could possibly make it. The exact analysis of an opponent's argument has heretofore been enjoined as a prerequisite to all success- ful refutation; but the general necessity for this analysis increases in the case of the argument from analogy. Here the undefined middle term may conceal a specious fallacy. Only when it is clearly defined, so that its duplicities, if any, become apparent, is one ready to refute or accept the argument. To show a fallacy in the form of the syllo- gism, due to the ambiguities of the middle term, is, then, one useful method of direct refutation. The other method, that of disproving either the major or the minor premise, need not be discussed, since it differs in no essential from this method as used in connection with other forms of deductive argument. Indirect refutation is, of course, often available in connection with the direct method. A form of reasoning closely associated with the reason- ing from analogy is that termed reasoning a fortiori. 144 ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI. This reasoning also involves an analogy or comparison between two members in the same class. Of one of them a certain judgment has been admitted. Of the other it must then be also allowed, on the basis of their common membership in the class. But, as it happens, the second member's relation to the class is far closer and more un- mistakable than that of the first member. Hence the judgment concerning the first must not only be true of the second, but far more true than it was of the first. Such is the typical form of the a fortiori reasoning. This reasoning is illustrated by such an argument as the following : " Men are always very careful about choosing a good horse because a great deal depends upon it, but they should be far more careful about choosing a good wife because far more depends upon it." * This reasoning assigns the choice of a good wife to the class of choices which ought to be made with great care, on the basis of its membership in the class of choices upon which a great deal depends, this latter class being wholly included in the class of choices which should be carefully made. According to this analysis, the reasoning is of the ordinary deductive form. But it will be noted that the middle term, although defined as the class of choices on which much depends, is also designated more vaguely as the class of choices to which the choice of a horse belongs. The class of choices to which the choice of a horse belongs is included in the class of choices which should be carefully made, and the choice of a wife falls within the class of choices to which the choice of a horse belongs; hence the choice of a wife should be made with care. Here is a piece of reasoning from analogy, the * Thomas More, Utopia. ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI. 145 middle term being at first undefined, but later formulated exactly. Yet the conclusion is surely more than that the choice of a wife should be made with care. The choice of a wife should be made with greater care than the choice of a horse demands, inasmuch as upon the choice of a wife more depends. The syllogistic form, though neces- sarily involved in its phraseology, follows substantially the form of the reasoning from analogy: I. Choices of the class to which the choice of a horse belongs (i.e. choices upon which much de- pends), but belonging to that class more indis- putably than does the choice of a horse, should be made with more care than the choice of a horse. II. The choice of a wife belongs to the class of choices to which the choice of a horse belongs, but belongs to that class more indisputably than does the choice of a horse. III. The choice of a wife should be made with more care than the choice of a horse. Such reasoning, it is evident, is only an intensification of the reasoning from analogy, hence the previous obser- vations upon that type will in the main apply to the reasoning and argument a fortiori. EXERCISES. i. Analyze the reasoning implicit in each of the follow- ing arguments, refuting it whenever possible. State whether the argument is from analogy or a fortiori. (a) Through his naked eye man sees less than six 146 ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI. thousand stars; through a powerful telescope he may see a hundred million. Is there not a similar exalta- tion of all his faculties as they expand under true culture ? (b) Every man that striveth for the mastery is temperate in all things. Now they do it to obtain a corruptible crown, but we an incorruptible. /. Corinthians, 9:25. (c) I consider a human soul without education like marble in the quarry, which shows none of its inherent beauties until the skill of the polisher fetches out the colors, makes the surface shine, and discovers every orna- mental cloud, spot, and vein that runs through the body of it. Joseph Addison. (d) Seeing that the spinal cord and medulla oblongata are found capable otf originating muscular contractions, we are entitled to suppose that the far larger masses that make up the brain may be the sources of a much more abundant and conspicuous activity than these examples afford. Alexander Bain : Senses and Intellect, p. 78. (e) The cheaper the cost of transmission, the larger the bulk of freight which can be carried for the same sum. And so, the smaller the amount of mental energy required to understand the words a writer uses, . the larger the quantity of thought which he can comprehend. This is Spencer's theory of economy as applied to style. (/") The Academy has rather a bright idea. It suggests that inasmuch as the Government superintends the con- struction of houses and compels builders to construct them properly, the Government might also superintend the construction of novels. Without doubt there are hosts of novels which are built of excellent materials, but which are constructed so badly that they prove to be disastrous failures. If a competent Government official say Sir ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI. 14? Walter Besant or some other thoroughly good and ex- perienced workman were to examine the plot of every new novel, and to point out to the author such changes as would make it coherent and safe, there would be a vast improvement in that particular field of literature. The Government already exercises a censorship over plays in order that they may be made to meet the requirements of Mrs. Grundy. If it can thus oversee the construction of plays with a view to making them moral, it can surely oversee the construction of novels in order to make them fit additions to our literature. (g) Thus in poetry, the expression is that which charms the reader and beautifies the design, which is only the outlines of the fables. It is true the design must of itself be good; if it be vicious, or, in one word, unpleasing, the cost of coloring is thrown away upon it. It is an ugly woman in a rich habit, set out with jewels; nothing can become her. But granting the design to be moder- ately good, it is like an excellent complexion with in- different features; the white and red well mingled on the face make what was before but passable appear beautiful. John Dryden: Parallel between Poetry and Painting. (h) Mr. Stelling concluded that Tom's brain, being peculiarly impervious to etymology and demonstrations, was peculiarly in need of being ploughed and harrowed by these patent implements; it was his favorite metaphor, that the classics and geometry constituted that culture of the mind which prepared it for the reception of any sub- sequent crop. I say nothing against Mr. Stelling' s theory; if we are to have one regimen for all minds, his seems to me as good as any other. I only know it turned out as uncomfortably for Tom Tulliver as if he had been 148 ARGUMENT FROM /IN A LOGY AND A FORTIORI. plied with cheese in order to remedy a gastric weakness which prevented him from digesting it. It is astonishing what a different result one gets by changing the metaphor! George Eliot : The Mill on the Floss. (i) Money is now exactly what mountain promontories over public roads were in old times. The barons fought for them fairly: the strongest and cunningest got them; then fortified them; and made every one who passed below pay toll. Well, capital now is exactly what crags were then. Men fight fairly (we will, at least, grant so much, though it is more than we ought) for their money; but, once having got it, the fortified millionaire can make everybody who passes below pay toll to his million, and build another tower of his money castle. And I can tell you, the poor vagrants by the roadside surfer now quite as much from the bag-baron as ever they did from the crag-baron. Bags and crags have just the same result on rags. John Ruskin: Crown of Wild Olive ; Work. (J) An apple-tree, if you take out every day, for a number of days, a load of loam and put in a load of sand about its roots, will find it out. An apple-tree is a stupid kind of creature, but if this treatment be pursued for a short time it will feel and will manifest the effects of it. And if you take out of State street the ten honestest merchants, and put in ten roguish persons, controlling the same amount of capital, it will not be long before society knows the difference. Its growth is less sturdy and its heart less sound. (k} Could a linguist, could a grammarian, could even a mathematician have seen what she did, have witnessed their appearance together, and heard their history of it, without feeling that circumstances had been at work to make them peculiarly interesting to each other ? How ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI. 149 much more must an imaginist like herself be on fire with speculation and foresight! Jane Austen: Emma. (/) "I certainly have not the talent which some people possess," said Darcy, "of conversing easily with those I have never seen before. I cannot catch their tone of conversation or appear interested in their concerns, as I often see done. ' ' " My fingers," said Elizabeth, ''' do not move over this instrument in the masterly manner which I see so many women's do. They have not the same force or rapidity, and do not produce the same expression. But then I have always supposed it to be my own fault because I would not take the trouble of practicing. It is not that I do not believe my fingers as capable as any other woman's of superior execution." Jane Austen: Pride and Prejudice. (m) To rear a boy under what parents call the " sheltered-life system " is, if the boy must go into the world and fend for himself, not wise. . . . Let a puppy eat the soap in the bathroom or chew a newly-blacked boot. He chews and chuckles, until, by and by, he finds out that blacking and Old Brown Windsor make him very sick ; so he argues that soap and boots are not wholesome. Any old dog about the house will soon show him the un- wisdom of biting big dogs' ears. Being young, he remembers, and goes abroad, at six months, a well- mannered little beast, with a chastened appetite. If he had been kept away from boots and soap and big dogs till he came to the full-grown and well-developed teeth, just consider how fearfully sick and thrashed he would be! Apply that notion to the ' ' sheltered life ' ' and see how it works. Kipling : Plain Tales from the Hills ; Thrown Away. 15 ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI. 2. Supply a suitable analogy by which one might arrive at each of the following conclusions. Write out a complete argument from analogy leading to one of these conclusions: (a) Reading many books produces a wide culture. (6) A Wagner concert more than two hours in length depletes the nervous system. (c) The mental training of an individual should be based on a scientific examination of his natural endow- ments. (d) Teaching in the public schools should be part of the civil service. (e) Life at a co-educational college is a benefit to the average girl. (_/") The rich and the poor* are mutually dependent. (g) Newspapers should contain no sensational material. (h] Healthful mental life depends upon an equilibrium oetween the activities of acquiring and imparting knowl- edge. (/') Professors of political economy are not good judges of the best financial policy for a nation. (_/) A little talent in an essentially common person is peculiarly detestable. (k] Freedom of thought is essential to intellectual growth. (/) The ability to write well can be acquired. (m) Things one wishes to eat are usually good for his health. () Criticism should stimulate rather than paralyze. (0) Criminals should be completely isolated from society for the course of their natural lives. * Or capital and labor. ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY AND A FORTIORI. 151 (/>) The dormitory system for colleges * is desirable. 3. Plan out a line of argument by which, using the a fortiori reasoning, each of the following conclusions might be established. Write an a fortiori argument lead- ing to one of them : (a) Borrowed books should be used with especial care. (b) Social graces are particularly needed in family life. (c) Good teachers should be assigned to the primary grades. (d) Eight hours of daily work should be the maximum for a college student. (e) The study of music f is an essential part of educa- tion. (/} Gymnasium work should be required of all students in college. (g) Students should take a great deal of outdoor exercise. (h} Every woman should be able to earn her own living. (/') Women who desire to do so should enter the pro- fession of medicine. | (j) Cooking and sewing should be taught to girls in the public schools. * A certain college may be specified. f Any other subject may be substituted. \ Any other profession or business may be substituted. APPENDIX A. INDUCTIVE REASONING IN MODERN EDUCA- TIONAL METHODS. THE essential nature of inductive reasoning may be il- lumined by some illustrations of its more obvious uses, both practical and theoretic. One particularly interesting illustra- tion on the practical side is here presented as a suggestion to the teacher. Similarly the inductive process might be traced in the generalizations of popular philosophy, both those which have crystallized into proverbs and those which have not yet assumed an exact formulation, in superstitions, both primitive and more developed, and in the laws determined by every branch of science. The inductive process of reasoning has recently become very conspicuous in our methods of education. The old idea of education was to give a student all the generalizations he needed, and let him only apply them to particular cases. Thus, in mathematics he would be told that the square of the hypothenuse in a right-angled triangle equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides ; so that all he had to do when he wished to know the length of the hypothenuse in a certain right-angled triangle was to add the squares of the other two sides and extract the square root. In language- study he learned from a book that a certain combination of letters always stands for a certain word, so that he needed only when he met this particular combination of letters, to conclude that here, as everywhere else, it had the meaning assigned to it by the dictionary. When studying literature., he would read in a book that the poetry of Milton is sonorous and involved, so that he would be relieved of any obligation to do more than notice the involutions and the sonorities in J53 154 APPENDIX A. that particular poem of Milton's which he chanced to be reading. The introduction of the laboratory method in natural science has, however, changed all this. The laboratory method means nothing else but induction. It means that the student, instead of accepting the inductive conclusions of other people, reaches his own, from facts that fall under his personal observation. Instead of being told that an explosion always results when oxygen and hydrogen are brought together and ignited, the student learns that this is so by trying it several times for himself. He learns that a salt is formed by the union of an acid and a base, because he has found it so innumerable times ; that a submerged body displaces its own volume of water, by submerging several bodies of known volumes and measuring the water dis- placed. This method, transferred to language-study, has given us the system by which the student, beginning to read before any grammatical principles have been imparted, formulates for himself the law that a certain combination of letters or sounds always means a certain definite thing ; that the object of a verb always ends in certain letters ; or that nouns with certain meanings are always neuter. These generalizations, formerly given to the student in the form of rules which he must apply, must now be discovered, "as well as applied, by himself. One of the most conspicuous instances of the use of the inductive method in education appears in the modern teach- ing of English. In this subject students are not now set to master general principles of composition from books of rhetoric, but are required to formulate these for themselves from particular pieces of literature which are given them to study, and from their own writing. For instance, after noting several times that a piece of prose which is easy to read has a distinct plan, the student is led to the generalization that all pieces of prose which are easy to read have a distinct plan. And such a generalization would be still further confirmed if several times, when the student has taken care to have a plan, his writing has proved easy to read. In much the same way he determines laws for the employ- ment of certain methods in the processes of description and exposition, for the use of unified paragraphs, clear sentences, and suggestive words. He is not told that concrete words produce a sharper effect upon the reader's mind than abstract APPENDIX A. 155 Ones, but discovers the truth for himself, to apply as he finds occasion for it. Such typical examples of the use of the inductive method in education may serve to represent the others. The study of history by the seminary method of individual research, and the establishment of psychological principles by experiment, will at once suggest themselves as supplementary illustra- tions. APPENDIX B. THE RELATIONS BETWEEN INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING. IN the text has been implied the popular view of the rela- tions between induction and deduction ; namely, that they are two processes, directly opposed to one another. Induc- tion, we have said, judges of the class from its members ; deduc- tion, of the members from their class. Technically, the one is said to pass from particular truths to a general truth, the other from a general to a particular truth. That is, induc- tion proceeds from the particular truths that each of four cats has claws, to the general truth that all cats have claws ; while deduction, from the general truth that all cats have claws, derives the particular truth that this cat has claws. The two processes are thus seen to move in opposite direc- tions. Induction is said to be the means by which one builds up his conception of a certain class ; deduction the means by which he determines the membership of a given individual in that class. Induction and deduction may thus be said, according to the common conceptions of their relations, to start from different points, and by moving in different directions reach different conclusions. Induction begins with facts, the logicians say ; deduction with principles. Or, induction starts from particu- lar facts, deduction from a general truth. Induction pro- ceeds toward a judgment of the class as a whole from judg- ments of some of its separate members, on the assumption that what is true of several of these members is true of the class as a whole. Deduction moves toward a judgment of some particular member of the class, from a judgment of the class as a whole, on the assumption that what is true of the class is true of each of its members. And, finally, induction 156 APPENDIX B. 157 arrives at a conclusion unlimited both as to time and as to the class which it involves ; while deduction leads to a con- clusion limited to one particular individual in the class, and to one particular period of time. This distinction may be further pursued. The inductive conclusion, as we have noted, characterizes the whole of a certain class, assigns that class in toto to a certain other class. All iron is heavy, all the good die young, all curses come home to roost, all birds of a feather flock together. There is no limitation placed upon the con- clusion within the limits of the class itself. The deductive conclusion, on the other hand, is limited to a single member in the class concerned. It declares, not that all iron is heavy, but that this particular piece is heavy; not that all Quakers say "thee"and " thou," but that this particular Quaker is certain to say " thee " and "thou." The inductive and the deductive conclusions differ, then, in the range of their characterization. The inductive conclusion is unlimited with reference not only to the class which it characterizes, but with reference to the time with which it deals. Though present in tense, it refers not to the present alone, but to all time past, present, and future. "Water seeks its level, " means not only that it does so at the present minute, but that it has done so in the past and presumably will continue to do so in the future. Anemones always bloom in the spring ; God always tempers the wind to the shorn lamb ; a fair day always follows a red sunset in all these cases the time-reference is unlimited. The inductive conclusion is sometimes regarded as having no concern with time, as being an absolute, timeless generaliza- tion or law ; but it should rather be viewed as including all time, having validity alike for past, present, and future. In sharp contrast with the unlimited time-reference of the inductive conclusion is the particular location in time of the deductive conclusion. " The Columbia is a good make of wheel, ' we say, not meaning necessarily that it has been good in the past, still less that it is certain to be in the future. It simply is at the present moment. Or some one declares that Bryan will be the next President of the United States, with no explicit reference either to past or to present. Or, finally, we may assert that the late war with Spain was brought about by the politicians, referring plainly not to present or to future time, but to the past alone. In brief, then, we may agree that with reference both to class and to time the inductive conclusion is unlimited, the deductive conclusion limited. This is, of course, only put- 158 APPENDIX B. ting into other phraseology the statement commonly made that the inductive conclusion is general or universal, the de- ductive conclusion specific or particular. This antithesis which we have recognized between the in- ductive and the deductive processes of reasoning is one sup- ported by history. The deductive process was recognized and analyzed by Aristotle centuries before the inductive proc- ess was noticed at all. It was not until Bacon, in the Ad- vancement of Learning, called attention to the inductive reasoning as a method of scientific research, that this mode of thinking was explicitly recognized; and even then it was considered not as a logical instrument of general usefulness, but only as a means to discoveries in natural science. This late recognition of inductive reasoning is doubtless a prime cause for the pronounced tendency on the part of logicians to set it in direct opposition to deduction, regarding the two processes as essentially different, even antagonistic, in their nature. This tendency has not, however, been so universal as to prevent the recognition, in certain quarters, of the close inter- dependence of these two processes of reasoning. The appre- ciation of this relationship has even gone so far as to attempt the reduction of the two processes to one. It is easy to see how this might be effected. All reasoning may be regarded as ultimately inductive. If we examine any piece of deductive reasoning we shall find that it rests upon some underlying process of thought. You may come to the conclusion, before tasting your glass of lemonade, that it is sour, but in order to come to this con- clusion you must first have arrived at the inductive general- ization, " All lemonade tastes sour." Underlying deduction is always induction. The last root of every argument is always inductive. The final conclusion may be reached by a deductive argument, but supporting this and making it pos- sible will be found a second reasoning process, below this perhaps a third ; and however far you descend you are sure to come at last to an inductive process of reasoning the foundation of the whole. Deduction, in short, is only a further stage of induction. It only makes explicit what was implied in the inductive con- clusion. If you once come to believe that " All deer are afraid of men," it is quite superfluous to conclude further that this particular deer is sure to be afraid of men. Your inductive conclusion has told you that. It has embraced within itself every possible deductive conclusion about the timidity of APPBXDIX B. 159 particular deer. From this point of view, then, all reasoning may be regarded as ultimately inductive. But in another aspect all reasoning appears as ultimately deductive. Every particular fact which supports an inductive conclusion may be regarded as the conclusion of a deductive process of reasoning. Thus the generalization " All deer are afraid of men," drawn from the particular facts " This deer is afraid of men," " That deer is afraid of men," " The deer I saw in the park was afraid of men," and other similar ob- servations, rests ultimately upon deduction, since each of these particular facts is established by a deductive process of reasoning. How do you know that this particular deer was afraid of men ? Undoubtedly because it ran from them, trembling as they approached. Here we have, then, a de- ductive syllogism supporting each particular fact in the in- ductive process of reasoning. I. All animals who run from men are afraid of men. II. This deer runs from men. III. This deer is afraid of men. Further, every piece of induction may be viewed as a de- ductive syllogism, its assumption acting as the major prem- ise. I. What is true of four deer is true of all. II. It is true of four deer that they are afraid of men. III. It is true of all deer that they are afraid of men. Both these attempts to reduce all reasoning to a single form, either induction or deduction, have a certain interest for us, inasmuch as they show us how very close the relation- ship between them is ; how, in spite of certain apparent dif- ferences in function, they are interwoven so subtly in all our mental processes that to say which is the basis of our think- ing is quite impossible. All attempts to determine which process is foundation and which superstructure that is, which comes first in our mental operations must always be as futile as the world-old controversy between intuitionalists and experientialists in philosophy of which controversy this is, indeed, a branch. Ultimately the question becomes one of psychology. Is the child born with knowledge of certain general principles which serve to interpret all his particular experiences ? or is he merely beaten upon by suc- cessive experiences, meaningless at first, but finally organized by him into general laws or principles ? Which comes first 160 APPENDIX B. in the experience of the child, his notions of class or his ideas of individuals? To such inquiries as this, modern philosophy has but one answer. Neither intuition nor experience is first, neither the class nor the individual, but both arise together in the be- ginnings of the child's consciousness. As we push backward toward the beginnings of consciousness, we reach the point at which the child knows nothing explicitly about any class of objects or any individual object, but is simply rained upon by external stimuli, heat, light, color, and the rest, each arousing some faint sensation, but this sensation not sharply discriminated by the child from any other sensation. Little by little, however, these sensations come to be recognized as different from each other; that is, are traced back to differ- ent objects. And in so far as they seem different, they are, of course, recognized as fundamentally alike. Without a basis of identity no discrimination is possible. Thus, the sense of difference and the idea of identity arise simultane- ously ; the notions of class and of individual spring from the same sheath. Certain sensations of color, let us say, are traced to different objects, though all differing from sensa- tions of heat or of outline. Color-sensations thus come to constitute a class made up of individual color-sensations. This done, the whole course of inductive and deductive reasoning lies open. The shadowy sense of class is devel- oped into clearness by successive inductions based upon observations of certain members of the class. Vague judg- ments as to individual members of the class are defined by clearer notions of the class as a whole. And thus the re- ciprocal process goes on simultaneously, induction proceed- ing no faster than deduction, deduction no further than induction. The appeal to psychology, then, has led us to conclude that the processes of induction and of deduction arise side by side out of the chaos of the child's earliest consciousness. Neither can, in last analysis, be said to precede the other, since they are two phases or aspects of the same process of thought, each involving and each resting upon the other. We may see in any given case that a deductive is supported by an inductive process, or an inductive by a deductive ; but, passing down through as many strata as we please, we shall at the last stratum always find the two, the judgment of class and the judgment of individual, arising together, mutually involved, as the processes of induction and deduction are throughout their history. APPENDIX B. ll In conclusion, we may repeat, induction is not, strictly speaking, the basis of deduction, nor deduction the fulfill- ment of induction ; but induction is both the foundation and the superstructure of deduction deduction both the starting-point and the goal of induction. Neither can stand without the aid of the other. Each is essential, not alone to the completeness, but to the very existence of the other. APPENDIX C. DEBATING. THOUGH the subject of debating is not necessarily included under the head of argumentation, some slight discussion of it "seems advisable, inasmuch as its connection with argu- mentation is so close. The relations and the essential dis- tinction between the two processes should at the outset be clearly defined. Debating is often regarded simply as oral argument. All oral argument is not, however, strictly speak- ing, debate, while some written argument is debate, being frequently committed to paper before being orally delivered ; hence this distinction falls to the ground. The fundamental difference between the two processes lies deeper than this, in the fact that debate is an affair of three parties, argument of two. In ordinary argument only the speaker* and the audi- ence* are concerned. The speaker attempts to set up in the mind of the hearer some conclusion at which he himself has already arrived, the hearer perhaps resisting for a time the establishment of this conclusion, perhaps permitting it with- out a struggle. In debate, however, three participate : the speaker and the audience, as before, but also a representative of the resisting element in the mind of the audience the speaker's opponent. He embodies and expresses the opposi- tion felt by the audience to the speaker's conclusion, as the speaker embodies and expresses its acquiescence. The two opposing debaters, then, represent each a distinct movement of the mind of the audience toward or away from a certain conclusion, and of these the one who so t develops and inten- sifies the movement he represents that it becomes dominant * The term speaker is intended to cover both speaker and writer , the term audience, both reader and hearer. 162 APPENDIX C 163 over and ultimately displaces the other this debater is said to win the debate. This means, not, indeed, that he con- vinces his opponent of the truth of his position, as would be the case were he engaged in simple argument but in the strife with this opponent to bring the audience to the one conclusion or the other, he has gained his point. He h?s voiced the instinctive tendencies of the audience toward the conclusion he represents, so effectively that they believe in that conclusion far more intelligently and far more strongly than they did at the outset. Perhaps they did not even know that they did believe in this conclusion before it was cham- pioned by the debater. There was only in their minds a dim prepossession toward one opinion, or an equally dim reluc- tance to accept another. But the debater has brought to articulate and reasonable speech all these formless tendencies of their thought. Their blind preferences and repulsions he has defined into expression. Such is the function of the debater. The debater's task, it is evident, is in some ways more difficult than that of the person who sustains one side of a simple argument. The latter may, indeed meet a certain re- sistance, but this resistance is often of an unorganized and ineffective sort. Usually the hearer is somewhat unprepared for the attack of the speaker, and submits with greater or less reluctance to be led toward the speaker's conclusion. Often, particularly in the case of political or religious ad- dresses, the audience is already inclined toward this conclu- sion, or it would not have come to hear the argument. If not directly inclined, however, its resistance is dumb and inchoate, not explicitly declared. The very overtness of the opposition which the debater must meet may, perhaps, seem' to afford him a certain advan- tage. One may imagine that the debater is not, like the man engaged in simple argument, required to divine the objections to his conclusion which lurk half consciously in the mind of his audience, but, having these objections stated openly, he can bend all his energies to the task of controverting each in turn. But this advantage is by no means so considerable as it appears, since the fact that his opponent professes to voice the resistance of the audience to the conclusion proposed, by no means insures his actually doing so, nor absolves the debater from the necessity of satisfying himself that ah the objections of the audience have, in truth, been detected by his opponent, and presented, each with its proper emphasis in a word, that he is not buffeting a man of straw, disproving 164 APPENDIX C. considerations that have no place in the minds of the audi- ence, while allowing others to flourish there unchecked. In spite, then, of the fact that one's opponent in debating assumes to formulate all the latent objections of the audience to the conclusion proposed on the other side, the debater must rely upon himself to discover these objections as well as to controvert them. And this consideration brings us fairly to the essentials for successful debating. These are, of course, involved in the nature of the process itself. Since debating reduces itself, under analysis, to an explicit presentation on each side of the implicit movement of the mind of the audi- ence toward or away from a certain conclusion, it is evident that its success must depend upon two prime conditions : First, the clearness with which each speaker divines the un- spoken reasonings of the audience ; and, second, the force with which these reasonings are presented. It is a commonplace of debating that each speaker must know his opponent's side of the question as well as his own. This means, of course, that he must know the mind of the audience, not in part only, but as a whole ; all its native repulsions from a certain conclusion, as well as all its latent prepossessions toward it. He must study the subject com- pletely, in order that he may have in hand all the data, which, if possessed by any individual in the audience, would lead him either toward or away from the conclusion he desires to establish. And having this data well in hand, he must also know, from a practical study of logical principles, how these facts or considerations are likely to be used by the audience as confirmation or as disproof of the conclusion he seeks to establish. This done, he has the subject-matter of the debate the reasonings of the audience from certain data both toward and away from the debated conclusion. His task is now but to fortify those reasonings which move toward the conclusion he represents, and bring to naught those which tend toward the opposing conviction. The second condition of success is, then, the forceful presentation of the audience's reasonings which support the debater's conclusion, and the complete overthrow of all reasonings which oppose it. These two proc- esses are essential in every debate. They are sometimes known as positive and negative proof, respectively ; more often as proof and refutation. Under the latter names they have become familiar in the previous discussions on argument, hence need not be re-canvassed here. It may, however, be noted in gener?! under the head of the forcible presentation APPENDIX C. 165 of the implicit reasonings of an audience, that nothing yields more to this end than a careful planning of the presentation. Such careful planning implies that the reasonings of the audience should be set forth distinctly and in order, each process being completely unfolded, and no process being re- peated ; that the emphasis be justly distributed, and that a cumulative effect be secured. All these are, however, the axioms of debate, and may be left with the mere statement. The technical details of debating are usually so familiar to students, that they will need no detailed consideration. The question should be formulated affirmatively, as : " Resolved, That the administration of McKinley has con- tributed to the prosperity and the best interests of this country." Two parties, evenly divided as to numbers, should debate the question on the affirmative and negative sides. The affirmative side aims to establish the conclusion as stated in the question for debate ; the negative, to establish the contradictory conclusion : "The administration of Mc- Kinley has not contributed to the prosperity and best inter- ests of this country." Each side, of course, attempts not merely to establish its own conclusion, and thus indirectly to overthrow the contradictory conclusion, but endeavors to disprove directly the conclusion of the opposite party, to the end that its own conclusion may be the more firmly established. The debate on each side is organized and headed by a leader, who plans it from the beginning, assign- ing to each member of his own party his share in the com- mon task. The function of the leader is thus supremely important. He must determine what points on his side shall be pre- sented, if time forbids the use of all ; in what order they shall appear, how much time and emphasis shall be given to each, what part of the debate he himself shall undertake, and what shall be given to each of his colleagues, so that the whole ground shall be adequately covered, and no part of it be cov- ered twice. He must himself make the opening and the closing speech on his own side. In his first speech he should usually outline the field of debate, stating the point in ques- tion, getting all irrelevant issues out of the way, and indi- cating briefly the way by which his party proposes to prove its conclusion. He will need also to present one distinct phase of the argument, this being more or less considerable according to the number of his colleagues. If he has but one colleague, he must necessarily assume a larger part of the argument than he would do if his party were larger. The 1 66 APPENDIX C. division of the debate for assignment to various people is a question which cannot be dogmatically passed upon, since it must be decided by the exigencies of the particular case. In a debate for municipal ownership and control of street railways, for instance, the positive proof falls under two or more heads, such as arguments based on economic, on social, and on ethical considerations, or arguments of abstract justice and arguments of expediency ; and the negative proof is also divisible, not only into direct and indirect refutation, but direct refutation into the disproof of the advisability of several different plans, as private ownership of street rail- ways with private control, private ownership with public con- trol, and public ownership with private control. In such a debate the problem of assignment to the various participants is of necessity quite different from the problem presented by a debate on the comparatively simple question, " Resolved, That the profits of the railroads are excessive," in which case the grand divisions of positive proof and refutation are hardly further divisible, unless the positive argument resolve itself into the proof that rates rising above a certain figure are excessive, and the proof that railroad rates actually do rise above this figure. A careful study of the possibilities and requirements of each particular subject for debate is the only means of attaining a satisfactory division of the question. Th.i closing speech of the leader, following those of his colleagues, should be largely devoted to summing up the arguments on his side and on the other, showing what his side has proved and disproved, and calling attention to what the other side has failed to establish or to overthrow. As a rule, no new material should be introduced into the closing speech, though a necessary refutation is permitted. The closing speech should be as carefully prepared as the open- ing, in anticipation of the line of argument to be taken by the opposition, and should cover the entire ground of de- bate. The conventional order of debate is as follows : 1. Leader on the affirmative side. 2. Leader on the negative side. 3. First affirmative colleague. 4. First negative colleague. 5. Second affirmative colleague. 6. Second negative colleague, etc. 7. Leader on the affirmative. 8. Leader on the negative. APPENDIX C. 167 The affirmative leader thus has the advantage of making the opening, the negative leader that of making the closing speech in the debate. Each speaker is usually given a defi- nite time for his argument, and is called to order by the chairman if he exceeds it. According to established usage, each speaker, on taking the floor, addresses the chairman, and is recognized by him before beginning his speech. Every remark made upon the floor is addressed, not to one's opponents or allies, but to the chair and the audience. No debater is referred to by name, but as "The leader on the negative side," or "The second speaker on the affirmative." For any personal, or in any way unbecoming remarks, the chairman is authorized to call the offender to order. Debate is sometimes written out in full and read from manuscript, but in so doing half its force is lost. If the par- ticipants cannot speak quite extemporaneously, they may use slight notes of the headings of their arguments, written on a small paper, preferably not larger than a visiting-card, held in the hand. They should be as independent as possi- ble, even of this aid, but the consciousness of its availability in case of need sometimes imparts the desired confidence. The novice in debating should not fear present failure so much as the acquisition of habits that will effectually pre- vent future success. As, in learning a new game, the score is nothing, but the stroke, or method of play, everything, so in debating ; to win this debate or that is a matter of small consequence, unless .one be at the same time learning the clean stroke and the perfect poise that will insure future victories. It may be of interest to supplement this short account of the theory of debating by the report of a practical course in debating given at Vassar College for the past two years by the departments of Economics and of English,* conjointly. This course is named on the English side " Advanced Argumenta- tion : Oral Debates " ; on the Economics side, " The Relation of the State to Monopolies," the two titles indicating respect- ively the subject-matter and the form of the course. The class meets twice a week through one semester. After two or three introductory lectures from each department, on the sources of the material and the general theory of debate, the * The idea of this course originated, it should be said, with Professor Herbert E. Mills, of the department of Economics. 1 68 APPENDIX C. students themselves take charge of the course. Having been assigned at the beginning of the semester to a certain place on a certain debate, that of leader on one side or the other, col- league, chairman, or critic, each student fulfills her part with- out further direction, the instructors being open to con- sultation, and always present at the debates to cri- ticise or commend, but taking no further part in the class exercises. The list of questions set for debate in the year 1898-9 follows. Where the word " Brief " follows the subject, there is no oral debate, but a brief is presented by each student on one side or the other. The words " Brief and debate " indi- cate that a brief upon the whole subject is first prepared by each student, and the debate is then conducted by certain members of the class. An impromptu debate is arranged by requiring each student to canvass the entire subject on both sides, and be assigned to one side or the other after coming to the class. 1. Speculation is detrimental to the interests of the com- munity. 2. Stock-watering is detrimental to the interests of the community. 3. The profits of the railroads are excessive. (Brief.) 4. The principle of " charging what the traffic will bear " is the only practicable method of determining railroad rates. 5. An amendment should be made to the Inter-state Com- merce Law allowing the formation of pools, subject to the approval and regulation of the Inter-state Commerce Com- mission. 6. The Inter-state Commerce Law should be repealed. 7. The experience of other nations is favorable to state ownership of railroads. (Brief.) 8. The railroads of the United States should be owned and managed by the National Government. 9. The Dartmouth College decision was an unfortunate one from the standpoint of public welfare. (Impromptu debate.) 10. Trusts should be prohibited by law. n. The Standard Oil Trust has been and is a pernicious and dangerous combination. (Impromptu debate.) 12. The National Government should own and manage the telegraph service. 13. The public should own and control the telephone service. APPENDIX C 169 14. The municipalities should own and manage their street railways. 15. The municipalities should own and manage their gas and electric lighting plants. 1 6. The State governments should own the forests. APPENDIX D. UNCLASSIFIED ARGUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS.* " I KNOW what Latin is very well," said Maggie, confidently. " Latin's a language. There are Latin words in the dictionary. There's bonus a gift.'* " Now, you're just wrong there, Miss Maggie ! " said Tom, secretly astonished. " You think you're very wise ! But 'bonus ' means 'good,' as it happens bonus, bona, bonum." " Well, that's no reason why it shouldn't mean ' gift,' " said Maggie, stoutly. " It may mean several things almost every word does. There's ' lawn ' it means the grass-plot, as well as the stuff pocket-handkerchiefs are made of." George Eliot : Mill on the Floss. " There are some very odd things any anatomist can tell, showing how our recent contrivances are anticipated in the human body. In the alimentary canal there are certain pointed eminences called vt'lli, and certain ridges called val- vula conni-ventes. The makers of heating apparatus have ex- actly reproduced the first in the ' pot ' of their furnaces, and the second in many of the radiators to be seen in our public buildings. The object in the body and in the heating appa- ratus is the same to increase the extent of surface. We mix hair with plaster (as the Egyptians mixed straw with clay to make bricks), so that it shall hold more firmly. But before man had any artificial dwelling, the same contrivance of mix- ing fibrous threads with a cohesive substance had been em- *Much additional material may be gained from literary sources, readily accessible ; for instance, the theological arguments in Para- dise Lost, almost any of Bacon's Essays, Tennyson's Two Voices, the reasonings of Hamlet and other characters in Shakespeare's plays, and, for refutation, Lamb's Popular Fallacies in the Last Essays of Elia. For other suggestions, see the Preface, and the Exercises at the close of Chapter VIL 170 APPENDIX D. I?* ployed in the jointed fabric of his own spinal column. . . . The dome, the round and the Gothic arch, the groined roof, the flying buttress, are all familiar to those who have studied the bony frame of man. All forms of the lever, and all the principal kinds of hinges, are to be met with in our own frames." O. W. Holmes : Poet at the Breakfast-Table, pp. 321-2. In the realm of poesy American women have to their credit some notable achievements. Our literature has been appre- ciably enhanced by the writings of Mrs. Sigourney, Helen Hunt Jackson, Mrs. Spofford, Edith M. Thomas, Emma Laz- arus, the Gary sisters, Celia Thaxter, Mrs. Dorr, Julia Ward Howe, and others. The novel has gained a higher and more dignified place in the esteem of the reading public through the works of Mrs. Burnett, Mrs. Burton Harrison, Amelie Rives, Julien Gordon, Amelia E. Barr, Constance Fenimore Woolson, and a score or more of other female weavers of romance. New York Times. That the early Aryans were acquainted with the sea seems unquestionable, for the name occurs, with very little change in sound and hardly any in meaning, in nearly all the Indo- European languages. The Lat. mare, whence our adjective marine, appears in Skr. mira, Russ. moru, Lith. mares, Irish muir, Welsh mor, Goth, marei, O. H. G. mart, Old Norse mar, Old Eng. mere. John Fiske : Excursions of an Evolutionist, p. 143. A day is a more magnificent cloth than any muslin, the mechanism that makes it is infinitely cunninger, and you shall not conceal the sleazy, fraudulent, rotten hours you have slipped into the piece, nor fear that any honest thread, or straighter steel, or more inflexible shaft, will not testify in the web. Ralph Waldo Emerson : Power. Let us begin with a remark which sounds somewhat par- adoxical : the poet makes use not only of others, but more particularly of himself, his own writings ; and he likewise makes allusions in his later works to his earlier ones. This is not always done so palpably as to be at once apparent to a dull perception. When we see The Merry Wives, the Falstaff who appears in that piece necessarily reminds us of the character of the same name in " Henry IV.," and no one can doubt that the comedy of The Merry Wives pre- supposes " Henry IV.," and that, therefore, it must have I7 2 APPENDIX D. been produced later, but yet not much later. The matter is, however, not always so clear ; indeed, the poet himself may be unconscious that one of his former creations is exercising a subtle influence upon his mind. The following appears to me to exemplify what I have in my mind : In one of those fateful monologues spoken by Macbeth before his awful deed, ... he weighs the consequences of his intended crime : 1 ' But in these cases We still have judgment here ; that we but teach Bloody instructions, which, being taught, return To plague the inventor : this even-handed justice Commends the ingredients of our poison'd chalice To our own lips." . . . Why was it just the poisoned chalice that occurred to Shakespeare ? The case, surely, is not a usual one that a person with the intention of killing another should poison a cup and then in some way be put in a position to drink it himself. It is hardly to be doubted that a scene of one of his own dramas passed before his mind. You remember the highly symbolical concluding scene in Hamlet where the crime contrived by the king in conjunction with Laertes recoils upon its originators, and where Hamlet finally forces the king to drink the cup which the latter had prepared for him ... It is not probable that in making Macbeth speak those lines it was Shakespeare's object to allude to the catastrophe in Hamlet. Involuntarily, however, justice presented itself to him in the image of that scene. Bernhard Ten Brink : Five Lectures on Shakespeare. Let us draw a lesson from nature, which always works by short ways. When the fruit is ripe, it falls. When the fruit is dispatched, the leaf falls. The circuit of the waters is mere falling. The walking of man and all animals is a falling for- ward. All our manual labor and works of strength, as prying, splitting, digging, rowing, and so forth, are done by dint of continual falling, and the globe, earth, moon, comet, sun, star, fall forever and ever. Emerson : Essays, First Series, Spiritual Laws. There is never any Sunday in a novel proper. The seventh stitch is dropped, and the thread catches directly over from Saturday night to Monday morning. A. D. T. Whitney : Odd or Even, ch. xxx., p. 213. APPENDIX D. 173 In 1816 Mr. Clay voted for a new compensation act of Congress. It aroused a tornado of popular wrath. Not even the great commoner could stand against this, and he saga- ciously resolved to try and weather it. Meeting a staunch supporter who had turned against him, he said : ' Jack, you have a good flintlock, haven't you ? " ' Yes." ' Did it ever flash in the pan ? " ' Once it did, but only once." ' What did you do with it ? Did you throw it away ? " ' No, I picked the flint and tried it again." ' Well," said Mr. Clay, " I have only flashed once on this compensation bill and are you going to throw me away ? " "No," cried the hunter, touched in his tenderest part; " no, Mr. Clay, I will pick the flint and try you again." Henry Watterson : Oratory of the Stump, Youth's Companion, Oct. 27, 1898. Wild flowers that seem so fresh and young are, singu- larly enough, the especial prey of old maids. Young girls love the garden flowers ; beautiful women surround them- selves with hothouse hues and perfumes. But who goes into the woods, explores the rocky glens, braves the swamps ? Always the ardent-hearted old maid, who, in her plain garb and thick shoes, is searching for the delicate little wild blos- soms the world over. C. F. Woolson : Anne, ch. x. The effect of historical reading is analogous, in many respects, to that produced by foreign travel. The student, like the tourist, is transported into a new state of society. He sees new fashions. He hears new modes of expression. His mind is enlarged by contemplating the wide diversities of laws, of morals, and of manners. Macaulay : Essay on History. It has recently been said, and not without a degree of truth, that the modern movement for expansion, which has made England active and potential at the ends of the earth, did not originate in the mind of a statesman, and was not the result of the scheming of a shrewd politician like Bea- consfield, but received its most powerful impulse from three writers : Carlyle, Tennyson, and Kipling. These men of letters, like many of their predecessors, have not urged defi- nite policies upon their countrymen ; but they have given the English spirit and temper the impulse of sharp definition and of deep and passionate faith. Indeed, the service of 174 APPENDIX D. English literature as a practical force in English life cannot be overstated. It has done more than any other single force to give the English race clear consciousness of its strength, its aims, and its work ; it has bound the race together in the consciousness of a rich and enduring community of history and fortune. Shakespeare has done more for England in forming this consciousness than Pitt, or Peel, or Gladstone. If this service was needed in a country of such narrow ter- ritory, with a population so compact, as England, it is sorely needed in this country, with its immense distances and its widely separated communities. And when one adds to these natural conditions the complexity of races now learning to live together in the republic, the necessity of a literature that shall develop first a national consciousness, and then clarify national spiritual ideals and make them authoritative, be- comes even painfully apparent. A literature adequate in its power and vision to the range of life on this continent is a prime necessity for our safety. We need a literature which shall speak to and for the consciousness of the nation, as the New England literature spoke to and for the consciousness of New England. The note of nationality was struck with resonant clearness by Emerson, Lowell, and Whittier ; but the force and depth of conscious national life were not behind these earlier poets as they will be behind their successors. The time was not ripe ; but it is fast ripening. H. W. Mabie : Forum, January, 1899. The quarrels and divisions about religion were evils un- known to the heathen. The reason was, because the religion of the heathen consisted rather in rites and ceremonies than in any constant belief. Bacon : On Unity in Religion. Although Mr. Sidney Cooper has attained the great age of ninety-five, writes a correspondent of the London Daily Tele- graph, he is still four years behind the old master, Titian, who lived till he was ninety-nine. Mr. Cooper is still hale and strong, and on July 23 last attended the Lord Mayor's ban- quet, " in honor of Art," at the Mansion House, adding to his signature in the visitors' book the optimistic note, "aged ninety-four years." It is interesting to recall the fact that he and Mr. Watts exhibited in the Royal Academy of 1837 the first year of the present reign. With regard to painters' ages, note should be taken that many of the old masters lived to an advanced age. For example, the following may be quoted : Michael Angelo, 89; Hals, 86; Hobbema, 81 ; Teniers, 80; Morales, 80 ; Greuze, 80 ; Ghirlandajo, 78 ; Snyders, 78 ; Tie- APPENDIX D. I?5 polo. 77 ; Mantegna. 75 ; Van der Heyden, 75 ; Vernet, 75 ; Van de Velde, 74; Poussin, 72 ; Mabuse, 71 ; De Keyser, 71 ; Matsys, 70; Wynants. 70; Dolci, 70. There are, of course, many others, and there can be no doubt that the generality of artists are a long-lived race. There is an old saying that "lawyers are poor Christians," yet the most brilliant and original representation of Chris- tianity in our day has come from the pen of a jurist, namely, Rudolf Sohm, professor of law in the university and one of the compilers of the new Civil Law Book of the German Empire. His book on " Kirchenrecht" is an exceptionally scholarly investigation of the character of original Christian- ity, on a positive and conservative basis. Kahl and Rieker, two other prominent jurists, have also published works ap- preciative of the character and claims of Christianity. As a representative in the department of political economy, we draw attention to the lately deceased veteran authority, Pro- fessor Roscher of Leipsic, among whose papers was found a special work on Christianity, entitled " Spiritual Thoughts of a Student of Political Economy." This work shows how closely the author studied the Gospels and how keenly he appreciated their contents. Other names of men in this de- partment of research who have publicly given expression to their favor of Christianity are Karl Knies, Theodore von der Goltz, Adolf Wagner, Gustav Schmoller. All these have in their writings, in the most positive manner, emphasized particularly the moral motives of Christianity, especially for the solution of the social problems of the day. The younger school of specialists in this science, headed by Professor Brentano of Munich, and containing among its members such men as Walter Lotz, Max Weber, and Gerhard von Schulze, have really made it a part of their programme to make the Christian Church the final court of appeal for the settlement of the social contests of the day. as this has been done in a more practical way by the English Christian-Socialists, such as Kingsley, Maurice, Ludlow, and Robertson. Pastor Erich Foerster : Das Christentum der Zeitgenos- sen, Zeitschrift fur Theologie und Kirche (Berlin), 1899, translated for Literary Digest, Jan. 28, 1899. Why should any but professional moralists trouble them- selves with the solution of moral difficulties ? For, as we resort to a physician in case of any physical disease, so in case of any moral doubt or any moral disorganization, it seems 1 76 APPENDIX D. natural that we should rely upon the judgment of some man specially skilled in the treatment of such subjects. Did Dickens deliberately aim to improve educational systems and reveal the principles of educational philosophy ? The answer is easily found. He was the first great English student of Froebel. He deals with nineteen different schools in his books. He gives more attention to the training of childhood than any other novelist or any other educator except Froebel. He was one of the first Englishmen to demand national control of educa- tion, even in private schools, and the thorough training of all teachers. He exposed fourteen types of coercion, and did more than any one else to lead Christian men and women to treat children humanely. Every book he wrote except two is rich in educational thought. He took the most advanced position on every phase of modern educational thought, except manual training. When he is thoroughly understood he will be recognized as the Froebel of England. J. L. Hughes, What Charles Dickens Did for Childhood, Century Magazine, Vol. 57, p. 501. Does any man doubt that if Judge Van Wyck is elected Governor he will turn out the thieving Republican canal deepeners and smash their ring? Will he not have the most powerful imaginable motive for putting as many as possible of them in the State prison ; the desire, that is, of winning public confidence and approbation in a high degree ? Gov. Tilden's pursuit of the Tweed ring thieves made him Governor. His pursuit of the canal ring thieves made him the Democratic candidate for President. Nobody has for- gotten that great example of popular trust and admiration centering upon a public officer who had exhibited great zeal and diligence in bringing to justice the rascals who had stolen the people's money. But let no man forget that the rascals Tilden pursued were his political enemies. Tweed had opposed him in the party, and at last, in his coarse and brutal way, had given him a public and mortal insult which Tilden could neither forget nor forgive. Tweed was doomed from that day. The biggest canal rascals were Republicans. Every consideration, personal and political, will urge on Gov. Van Wyck to be swift and stern in his dealings with the Republican canal thieves. No consideration of any kind will hold him back. With Gov. Roosevelt, on the contrary, the most powerful considerations will be those that restrain. Van Wyck will APPENDIX D. 177 build up his party by dragging this corruption into the light. Roosevelt will destroy his party if he touches it. A Demo- cratic Governor might open the way to the Presidency by a triumphant campaign against the corruptionists. A Re- publican Governor who attacks George Aldridge and the other powerful Republicans who are responsible for the canal scandal must abandon all higher ambitions. He may smash the canal ring, but he will go out of politics at the end of his term just as Black goes out on Jan. i. There is nothing but Roosevelt's native dislike of unworthy public servants that would prompt him to make war on the canal rascals of his party. But how much of that dislike remains ? He is making his campaign in strange companion- ship Platt, Aldridge, Woodruff. If he can be on such good terms with Republican maladministration in the campaign, what reason have we to expect him after election to turn upon his present intimate associates with sudden austerity ? There is a deadly certainty of doom for the canal rascals if Van Wyck is elected. There is very grave doubt whether Roosevelt's big "if" wouldn't blind his eyes all through his term. If any voter wants the canal frauds punished he will vote against his intent if he votes for Roosevelt. New York Times, Nov. I, 1898. It is plain what Spain wants of the Philippines. She wants to get something out of them. That a bankrupt nation with- out a navy should keep and administer a group of islands half the world away is out of the question. It becomes more flatly out of the question when her Government has produced a lively revolt in every one of them in which it has ever been carried on or asserted. If the Philippines were all given back to Spain to-morrow the Spanish forces in them would all be annihilated before the year was out. But although Spain cannot hold the Philippines she can, she thinks, make them figure as an asset in her schedules. If we admit her ownership she might claim some compensation from us, if we choose to take them over as a war indemnity. If we do not choose she can still peddle them about Europe, and she could doubtless find a purchaser if she could show a clear title. Tli is explains the pretense of horror in Madrid over our claim to the Philippines ; it explains the tenacity of the Spanish Commissioners in Paris. It is not a question of our allowing Spain to hold them. She simply cannot hold them. It is a question of our allowing her to sell them. And that 178 APPENDIX D. we cannot allow, in default of a purchaser satisfactory to our- selves. One case, years ago, that helped me immensely in the business was a forgery. The man had disappeared and left no clew whatever behind. I obtained access to his room and found that he had de- veloped a partiality for cutting scraps from newspapers. There was a whole drawerful of these, and I went through them carefully. Several had relation to forgery cases, and one cutting that appeared to be pretty badly fingered described how a forger had got away in woman's attire. I worked on the theory that my bird had flown in this manner and followed it up until I finally got on the track and captured the criminal. The capture was regarded as a very remarkable one, but, as a matter of fact, the runaway had left for me an exceed- ingly valuable clew. If he had taken the precaution to burn that cutting he might have escaped capture altogether." It is certain that the city has received about $140,000 in a year for the privilege of gleaning from the scows, in a very unclean condition, certain things that were dumped upon them by the Department carts. It is equally certain that the collection of these things and others, in a clean condition, di- rectly from the houses and shops, will yield a much larger return. Geo. E. Waring : The Cleaning of a Great City, McClure's Magazine, Sept., 1897. It is worthy the observing, that there is no passion in the mind of man so weak but it mates and masters the fear of death ; and therefore death is no such terrible enemy when a man hath so many attendants about him that can win the combat of him. Revenge triumphs over death ; love slights it; honour aspireth to it; grief flieth to it; fear pre- occupateth it ; nay, we read, after Otho the Emperor had slain himself, pity provoked many to die out of mere com- passion to their sovereign ; nay, Seneca adds niceness and satiety ... A man would die, though he were neither valiant nor miserable, only upon a weariness to do the same thing so oft over and over." Bacon : Of Death. Whatever arguments apply to public-school education for boys must reach girls also. In the first place, girls need, even more than boys, to learn at school the qualities and merits of those in a different social circle, because if they do APPENDIX D. 179 not learn it then they may never learn it. Men learn it all through their lives, because almost every department of busi- ness brings into contact and comparison those trained in very different spheres. Women not engaged in business have much less opportunity for this contact ; their homes include but two grades employers and employed ; and outside of their homes it is only some rare occasion of church work or charitable work which brings women into that easy inter- course, so familiar to men, with those out of their own set. If Ethel does not learn at school that the daughter of the coal-heaver or the washerwoman may be as good a scholar and even have as good manners as herself, she may never have another opportunity ; whereas her brother may make the same discovery in college or in business. So far, then, the need of this free early intercourse would seem even greater in the case of the girl. T. W. Higginson : Concerning' All of Us. The Contagion of Manners. M. Brunetiere affirms anew, with energy, that science has not kept its promises. " In the plenitude of its power [he says], science promised that it would answer these redoubt- able questions : Whence do we come ? Why do we live ? Whither are we going ? " and he reproaches science for not having fulfilled its engagements. Now the authority of M. Brunetiere is great enough, even in matters of science, to make this dogmatic and almost solemn affirmation, coming from him, pass without contest and without protest. This is a great pity, for the so-called " promises " of science are of the domain of pure fancy. They have reality only in the imagination of M. Brunetiere. To begin with, " science has promised," he says. But what science ? Who is this person ? " I know not the lady," said De Maistre, speaking of " nature." I know no more of "science." Who has the right to speak in her name and make us absurd promises ? If a scientist makes a mistake or commits himself to some hazardous statement, " science " is not responsible. The temerities of a savant, or of ten savants, or even of a thousand, can not compromise her. . . . Science . . . survives scientists, as good sense and esthetics survive the historians of literature. Nevertheless, if we will, we may strictly consider as the " voice of science " the unanimous, or almost unanimous, accord of scientists on this or that point. There exists a sort of official science, that manifests itself by the classic and i8o APPENDIX D. uniform statement of certain facts. For example, all books on chemistry, English, French, Portuguese or Roumanian, agree that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, and on the methods of their preparation. This uniformity in de- scription and exposition indicates that science is fixed on this point (in 1899, at least). Likewise, for the laws of luminous vibrations, in physics, or the phenomena of the circulation, in physiology, or the phases of the moon, in astronomy, or the solution of equations of the second degree in algebra. The standard treatises, elementary or higher, give quite exactly a picture of the present state of science. In what standard works has science made the astonishing promises that M. Brunetiere mentions with bitterness ? . . . We may even be permitted to be still more curious, and to ask in what scientific work, standard or not, M. Brunetiere has run across his promises regarding the solution of enig- mas ? I do not believe that they are in the chemistry books. . . . Are they in the works on physics ? Not at all. . . . Even the treatises on physiology do not discuss the problems so dear to M. Brunetiere ; they are occupied with quite different subjects, and the field for precise investigation that is offered to them is so vast that they have no need to get lost in metaphysical nebulosities. In treatises on zoology are found studies of higher and lower organ isms and of the classi- fication of lower animals. Botany occupies itself with plants ; geology with fossils, terrestrial strata, and rocks. The des- tiny of man gives no concern to either botanists or zoologists, and it is not discussed in the works of the astronomers, the mathematicians, or the engineers. It is true that certain anthropologists have put forth hy- potheses about the origin of man hypotheses suggested to them by the zoologists. These hypotheses are very probable, so probable that they are even taught by Catholics. The Darwinian theory of the evolution of species is no longer an object of horror as it was twenty-five years ago. . ... But these are not promises. Although it is pretty nearly proven that living organisms have risen by evolution until the human species has been attained, this does not solve the terrible question, "Whence come we? "for to declare that man comes from the rudimentary organisms of the first geo- logic epochs is only to remove the difficulty a little. . . . Whence come those living germs themselves, from which man has sprung by progressive evolution ? And why ? Assur- edly it is impossible for us to know ; we must resign ourselves to ignorance. Never has there been a scientist worthy of the APPENDIX D. 181 name who has dared to promise us a certain solution to in- terrogations that must unceasingly be repeated. Why, then, reproach science with not giving a solution, when she has never pretended to do so? ... M. Brunetiere's indignation is like that of a man who should reproach Leo- nardo da Vinci with having painted " La Gioconda," and Mozart with having composed " Don Juan," because neither " La Gioconda " nor " Don Juan " increases the speed of the express-trains from Paris to Havre. Really, the reasoning of M. Brunetiere has exactly this effect. " Incandescent lamps," he says, " cast no more light [on this question] than the candles of our sires ; and sero- therapy, which does not prevent our dying, gives us also no information about why we die." So incandescent lamps and serotherapy are condemned, be- cause neither of them has solved the problem of the origin, the object, and the end of life. But they have never put forth this absurd pretense, M. Brunetiere. Incandescent lights give us better illumina- tion than candles ; that is quite sufficient. As to sero- therapy, do you really think that it is criminal because it does not give us the fountain of youth ? It is saving the lives of a hundred thousand children every year ; that is all ! A hundred thousand children ! A negligible quantity, perhaps, for a haughty critic, and a slight result, if we com- pare it with what might be done with a magic liquid that would give us eternal youth. Nevertheless, the lives of a hundred thousand children have a certain value ; and M. Brunetiere was not very happily inspired when he reproached us with serotherapy. Science has already done admirable work. Can she go further ? Doubtless. Every day brings some new conquest, without solving the final enigma of human destiny, which probably will never be solved. Is M. Brunetiere, with or without his friends, going to give us this desired solution, a solution that will not be ridiculous ? It is scarcely probable, disrespectful though it may be to refuse him this hope. In any case he will not discourage us. The work of scien- tists and of science, in spite of the critics, will continue as in the past. A black shadow envelops us ; mystery is round about us. This immense complexity of laws and of phenomena that enwraps us can not be untangled even partially, except by patient, long, and troublesome research. This is the task 1 82 APPENDIX D. of science. She has no other hope. She can make no other promise than that she will diminish a little the thickness of this frightful obscurity. Is there any other way to dissipate these shadows except by the methods of scientific investigation ? We know of none, and we wait for M. Brunetiere or some one else to make one known to us. And at the same time he will perhaps give us exact infor- mation about these famous promises of science, which have so roused his vehement indignation. Charles Richet : Revue Scientifique, Jan. 14, 1899, trans- lated for the Literary Digest, XVIII., 195. The internal evidence that Burns in his celebrated song meant the rye-field, and not the River Rye, appears satisfac- tory. 1. He sang about many rivers and burns of his neighbor- hood, but he never left any doubt that he meant a stream. l> Adown winding Nith 1 did wander." " Behind yon hills where Stinchar flows." " Amang the bonnie winding banks, where Doon rins wimpling clear." 2. He sang quite as many times about the fields and grain and never left any room for doubt on that score, "Corn rigs are bonnie." " Wi' sma' persuasion she agreed To see me thro' the barley." " The rustling corn, the fruited thorn." " The waving grain, wide o'er the plain." " While the bloom is on the rye." 3. Among country people it is the rule to rise early, while the dew is still on the grass. Work is begun generally before it has dried off. The flocks are afield, and must be brought home, the horses fed, the cows milked, etc. So it not only is not uncommon, but is usual for the lads and lasses to go out into the fields, getting their feet wet and " petticoats draigl't " in the dew. What more natural than that the in- cident described should have happened ? It undoubtedly did happen to Burns, probably many times, and whether so or not, it has happened (and will again) to many another. What more natural than that Burns should commemorate it with a song, especially as it was in his line, both of thought and poetry ? Compare the sentiment of the described meeting happen- APPENDIX D. 183 ing in a rye-field and in the crossing of a river, and the great probability in favor of the former will be apparent. The blind beggar into whose hat the smallest French coin was thrown by a bystander exclaimed : " That must have been an Orleans prince ! " Youths Companion, Oct. 20, 1898. This is proved by many physiological experiments which cannot here be detailed ; but outside of the laboratory we constantly apply the law of summation in our practical ap- peals. If a car-horse balks, the final way of starting him is by applying a number of customary incitements at once. If the driver uses reins and voice, if one bystander pulls at his head, another lashes his hind-quarters, the conductor rings the bell, and the dismounted passengers shove the car, all at the same moment, his obstinacy generally yields, and he goes on his way rejoicing. If we are striving to remember a lost name or fact, we think of as many " cues " as possible, so that by their joint action they may recall what no one of them can recall alone. The sight of a dead prey will often not stimulate a beast to pursuit, but if the sight of movement be added to that of form, pursuit occurs. " Briicke noted that his brainless hen, which made no attempt to peck at the grain under her very eyes, began pecking if the grain were thrown on the ground with force, so as to produce a rattling sound." " Dr. Allen Thomson hatched out some chickens on a carpet, where he kept them for several days. They showed no inclination to scrape, . . . but when Dr. Thomson sprinkled a little gravel on the carpet, . . . the chickens im- mediately began their scraping movements." A strange per- son, and darkness, are both of them stimuli to fear and mis- trust in dogs (and, for the matter of that, in men). Neither circumstance alone may awaken outward manifestations, but together, i. e. when the strange man is met in the dark, the dog will be excited to violent defiance. Street-hawkers well know the efficacy of summation, for they arrange themselves in a line on the sidewalk, and the passer often buys from the last one of them, through the effect of the reiterated solicita- tion, what he refused to buy from the first in the row. James: Psychology, pp. 129-130. The Princess of Wales, during the London season, is one of the hardest worked women in England. She rarely gets to bed before 2 A. M. After her return about midnight from the entertainments at which her presence is a necessity, she 1 84 APPENDIX D. takes the hours from 12 to 2 to write private letters, because she has so little time during the day. When her children were young she made it a rule to breakfast at 8.30 A. M., so as to go into the schoolroom at 9 o'clock to inspect the " copies " written on the previous day. Queen Victoria, though aged and infirm, never goes to bed before 12, and is awakened soon after 7 A. M. During the day she is so fully occupied that she has no time to lie down and rest, as most well-to-do women have at her age. The Emperor of Germany rises at 5 in summer, at 6 in winter, and, as he expects the Empress to prepare his coffee herself, she has to get up equally early. The late Empress of Austria was perhaps the earliest riser of all the royal personages of Europe. She allowed herself only the short sleep to be snatched between 1 1 P. M. and 3 A. M. After that she was up and insisted on her suit being up also. We might best make a comparison. The poet is like a bee. His product is a honey, which is neither wholly his own nor wholly nature's. No pure nectar of flowers may be found in the bee's comb ; the amber richness garnered there is a distillation of composite nature, a brew of flower-life and bee-life indescribably characteristic of both flower and bee. This is the formula for genuine originality the personal quality of genius inseparably blent with the finest and rarest extracts of nature. A clear distinction may be easily made between what is written merely about nature and what is distilled from nature in the alembic of genius. The former may be attractive reading, the latter has for its distinction the haunting and tantalizing flavor of undiscoverable, imma- nent freshness. Maurice Thompson : Independent, Feb. 2, 1899. I want to read you some new passages from an inter- leaved copy of my book. You haven't read the printed part yet. I gave you a copy of it, but nobody reads a book that is given to him. Of course not. O. W. Holmes : Poet at the Breakfast Table, p. 301. Having, then, resolved that you will not waste recklessly, but earnestly use, these early days of yours, remember that all the duties of her children to England may be summed in two words industry and honor. I say first, industry, for it is in this that soldier youth are especially tempted to fail. Yet, surely, there is no reason, because your life may possibly APPENDIX D. 185 or probably be shorter than other men's, that you should therefore waste more recklessly the portion of it that is granted you ; neither do the duties of your profession, which require you to keep your bodies strong, in any wise involve the keeping of your minds weak. So far from that, the ex- perience, the hardship, and the activity of a soldier's life render his powers of thought more accurate than those of other men ; and while, for others, all knowledge is often little more than a means of amusement, there is no form of science which a soldier may not at some time or other find bearing on business of life and death. A young mathematician may be excused for languor in studying curves to be described only with a pencil ; but not in tracing those which are to be described with a rocket. Your knowledge of a wholesome herb may involve the feeding of an army, and acquaintance with an obscure point of geography, the success of a cam- paign. Never waste an instant's time, therefore ; the sin of idleness is a thousand-fold greater in you than in other youths, for the fates of those who will one day be under your command hang upon your knowledge. Lost moments now will be lost lives then, and every instant which you carelessly take for play you buy with blood. John Ruskin : Crown of Wild Olive ; War. There was some serious cause which induced nearly 1 50,000 Republicans to vote for the Hon. Seth Low for mayor of New York in 1897. There is no disguising the fact that the cause was a determination on the part of those who so voted to protest against the domination by Senator Platt of the Republican party of this State. There has not been any change for the better in Mr. Platt 's policy, but there has been added to the causes which led the majority of the Republicans of this city to vote for the Hon. Seth Low, Algerism, Aldridgeism, the Force bill, the press- gag law, the frauds in the City Works Department in Brook- lyn, and other minor causes to lead the same electors to vote against Senator Platt's domination this fall. If to the vote cast for Mayor Van Wyck in 1897 we add 148,000 votes cast for the Hon. Seth Low, we shall have probably a fair esti- mate of the number of votes which will be cast in Greater New York for the Hon. Augustus Van Wyck for Governor of this State. In the names of wars the defeated nation comes first, as the Franco- Prussian, the Austro-Italian, and, more recently, 1 86 APPENDIX D. the China-Japanese and the Graeco-Turkish wars. Hence the conflict through which we have just passed will be known as the Spanish-American war, rather than the American- Spanish. It may seem heartless to see in the loss of the steamer Portland a cause of any emotion except profound sorrow, yet, as a matter of faat, the disaster was one so far from accidental, one in which the fixing of direct responsibility is so easy, that he who views only the tragical features of the wreck, and ig- nores the display either of criminal ignorance or of criminal recklessness that preceded and caused the death of more than a hundred persons, shows sentimentality, not sentiment, and proves that he is not a reasoning being. In leaving Boston Saturday evening, the captain of the Portland took chances which no man in his position had a right to take. From a source that warranted implicit belief, he, like every other captain on the Atlantic coast, had received warning that a storm of exceptional severity would strike him as soon as he reached open water, and he knew that his steamer, though well built and comparatively new, was of a type much better designed for entering shallow harbors than for encountering winter gales on as dangerous a coast as there is in the world. Despite all this, and, according to his employers, in defiance of explicit orders, he steamed out into the gathering tempest. Why ? He is not alive to explain or excuse his act, or to meet the reproaches of those whose friends and relatives he involved in his own destruction. One can only guess at his motives. Perhaps he desired to justify his recent advance- ment from pilot to commander by showing that he could carry the Portland through any storm. Perhaps he belonged to the class, once large, but now small and rapidly disappear- ing, the members of which sneer at the Government Weather Bureau, and prefer to rely on old " signs " instead of on new science as the basis of meteorological prophecy. Perhaps a score of things. Only this is certain : He should not have sailed, and he should not have been allowed to sail. The re- sponsibility is not his alone. Captains do not disobey when owners give absolute orders. Advice and orders are differ- ent. N. Y. Times, Dec. i, 1898. I have also found that the visits of bees are necessary for the fertilization of some kinds of clover. For instance, twenty heads of Dutch clover . . . yielded 2290 seeds, but twenty other heads protected from bees produced not one. Again, APPENDIX D. 187 100 heads of red clover . . . produced 2700 seeds, but the same number of protected heads produced not a single seed. Darwin : Origin of Species, ch. iii. Among the conversions brought about by the evidence of facts, we may note that of a great Austrian agriculturist, M. Benesch, who for thirty years refused to put faith in the spon- taneity of such combustion. Nevertheless, several years ago he was forced to admit it by an accident that occurred at his farm at Meierhof. In an inaccessible barn on a very high scaffold he placed, one after the other, five hundred loads of hay, cereals, and legumes cut green. About the middle of the pile a mass of mixed oats and vetches began to grow hot. The employees of the farm, as well as its owner, did not ap- preciate the danger, and waited for time to cool this incom- prehensible ardor. They fared badly, however, for several days of waiting served only to encourage and make more active the work of the microscopic heaters. At the end of a week a light curl of smoke arose from the barn, and caused disquiet in the farm of Meierhof. M. Benesch, after his un- fruitful appeal to time, had recourse to air, whose contact, he thought, would cool off the pile and disperse to the winds the vaporous products of this mysterious effervescence. But scarcely had his laborers reached, with great toil, the centre of the pile, when flames burst out on all sides, transforming the heated forage into an immense furnace. The laborers, indeed, did not get out alive without great effort. Every pre- sumption of incendiarism or the contact of a burning body being impossible to maintain, this fire put an end to the pre- vious skepticism of the proprietor of Meierhof in regard to the spontaneous combustion of hay. Jean de Loverdo : La Nature, Dec. 24, 1898. " My fri'nds, Brother Paul tells us that the waages o' sin is death. Now, let's see wuther we kin grasp wot he maan by't. S'pose I wor tu go an' du my haarwest for Mr. H. (a local farmer), an' arter all the wuk wor dun go an' ax Mr. T. (another farmer in the same village) fur my waages, wot du yeou think Mr. T. would saay ? Sure-ly he would up an' saay, ' Sam, yeou air a fule. Go an' ax Mr. H. fur yer waages ; yeou ha' dun yer haarwest there. Wot du yeou come an' ax me fur yer waages fur? ' An' ef I wuk all my loife fur the daavil an' go tu God for my reward he wool saay, ' No, no, Sam ; yeou go tu the daavil fur yer reward ; yeou hev wuked fur him in the haarwest o' loife; he must pay yeou.' " 1 88 APPENDIX D. Harper's Weekly promulgates certain theories of Col. Roosevelt's nomination which do not seem to us to be con- sistent with each other or with the facts. Of Mr. Platt's part in the matter it has this to say : "At first, we have no doubt, Mr. Platt was determined that Mr. Roosevelt should not be the head of the Republican ticket this year. Events, however, were too strong for the master-boss, and finally he accepted the inevitable, because if he had not he would have been obliged to accept Gov. Black." But the theory of the popular selection of Col. Roosevelt is weak, and we believe it to be unfounded. The fact that Roosevelt, if eligible, was the strongest candidate the Repub- licans could name this year became evident to the common mind about the Fourth of July. There is in the service of the Republican Party in the State one uncommon mind that does not wait for the revelation of events. It pierces the future with its own private beams of prescience and usually sees in March what the rank and file of the party and the good men of the Union League Club began to get inklings of along in August. That mind belongs to Thomas C. Platt. So far from being "at first" opposed to the nomination of Roose- velt, we venture to say that Mr. Platt picked him out and intended to nominate him long before his name had occurred to any Republican of prominence or any considerable number of the rank and file of the party. A political stroke of such magnitude and of such wisdom did not have to be forced upon a party leader so capable as Mr. Platt. Anybody who attempts to trace the Roosevelt boom to its origin will find that it first came to the public notice in the reports brought by the Platt machine leaders from up the State. These gentlemen with a surprising unanimity de- clared that the people in their districts demanded the nomi- nation of Roosevelt and would take nobody else. There were days when a listener to the conversation of the Republican leaders in the Fifth Avenue Hotel would have concluded that the whole State beyond the Harlem and the Bronx was on fire for the Colonel of the Rough Riders. Such unanimity and such enthusiasm about the choice of the people on the part of politicians who have been accustomed to consult the choice of the boss rather than that of the people excited remark. I suppose no one will question that the leading Eastern colleges for women are, in order of age, approximately, APPENDIX D. 189 Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, Bryn Mawr, Radcliffe, and Barnard. If Miss Willard's friend will consult the catalogues of these colleges, he will find, I think, that many of his suggestions as to ideal courses have already been anticipated ; that the colleges themselves, in fact, are leading the way to a truer standard of education. Many of these courses, how- ever, indicate changes in curriculum made within a few years. If the sister and the cousins and the friends were graduated even four or five years ago, they perhaps had no opportunity to elect them. But the point remains that the colleges have recognized the worth of special courses in psychology, pedagogy, hygiene, physical chemistry, chemistry of foods, physiology, social science, social ethics, organized charities, daily themes, aesthetics, history of art, and kindred subjects. These courses, moreover, are offered, as our kind critic suggests would be appropriate, " as electives of equal value with literature and mathematics, and not as added burdens to overworked students." I may add that almost all of these electives attract large numbers of students. At least one college offers a course, under the department of philosophy, in the study of child-nature ; and the same col- lege has a course devoted to a study of the organized chari- ties of the city in which it is situated. That the head of the department of history in another college has published the most important work of the present day on " Domestic Service," goes to show that such subjects are at least not despised in the colleges for women. I do not present these instances as evidence that all the work done in women's col- leges is differentiated to meet the special needs of women, but only as evidence, so far as it goes, that there is a marked tendency in that direction. I question, indeed, whether the colleges are not moving as rapidly in this matter as the public can follow the limit of any reform, history tells us. To the second charge, " Imitation of man," we must again, I fear, plead guilty. The university professor who is quoted as saying that " the women will not have any improvement ; they wish just the same education as the college men, not a better one," undoubtedly voiced the ideal of the average college girl, at least before she enters college. But, fortunately for her and for her womanhood, she does not, in most colleges, control either the curriculum or the environment of four of the most impressionable years of life ; and this environment, in spite of the charge brought against it of " Lack of refining influences and tendencies," is often the most culturing influence of her life. In most of the leading colleges for 19 APPENDIX D. women, art and music are recognized as educational forces, and more or less provision is made for them. In one well- known instance the school of music connected with the col- lege is so managed that its concerts, analysis classes, and rehearsals form a natural part of the college life. The same college has a fine art-gallery, and frequent talks on art are open to the students. Most colleges, too, provide lectures by specialists on music, art, and literature. Much that is beauti- ful in life comes thus naturally into the life of the college girl. She is, moreover, surrounded by refined and cultured men and women, in spite, again, of the indictment, " Lack of social training." If Miss Willard's friend has time for a tour of the colleges, he can find no better refutation of his theory that they lack refining influences than the students them- selves. The difference between the senior and freshman class of any college is one of the marked features of college life ; that in women's colleges this difference is chiefly in the direc- tion of greater womanliness and refinement is perhaps sufficient evidence of the influences at work. Some of the finest women I have known have been members of college faculties. That their very fineness is an indirect argument for celibacy, as suggested, is perhaps true. But why assume, a priori, that this is necessarily a misfortune ? When I was a freshman in college, I remember, the wife of the president called individually on each member of the freshman class. I should not like to be cited as maintain- ing that a ten-minutes social call, even from the wife of a college president, would leaven the four years of college life. But the college that can thus take thought for its freshmen is not likely to neglect entirely the social graces of life. Using the word social 'in its broader sense, if the colleges for women fail to give their students an interest in the prob- lems of humanity, as asserted, is it not a little singular that one of the most effective philanthropic movements of the day should be known as the College Settlement ? Jennette Barbour Perry: The Critic, Sept. u, 1897. Now let us consider the prospect. If the South becomes a slave empire, what relation will it have to you as a cus- tomer ? It would be an empire of twelve millions of people. Now, of these, eight millions are white and four millions black. Consider that one third of the whole are the miser- ably poor, unbuying blacks. You do not manufacture much for them. You have not got machinery coarse enough. Your labor is too skilled by far to manufacture bagging APPENDIX D. Ipl and linsey-woolsey. One other third consists of a poor, unskilled, degraded white population ; and the remaining one-third, which is a large allowance, we will say intelligent and rich. Now here are twelve millions of people, and only one-third of them are customers that can afford to buy the kind of goods you bring to market. Two-thirds of the population of the Southern States to-day are non-purchasers of English goods. Now you must recollect another fact namely, that this is going on clear through to the Pacific Ocean ; and if by sympathy or help you establish a slave empire, you saga- cious Britons are busy in favoring the establishment of an empire from ocean to ocean that would have the fewest cus- tomers and the largest non-buying population. Beecher : Liverpool Speech, Many distinguished Englishmen have had some favorite physical amusement that we associate with their names. It is almost a part of an Englishman's nature to select a phys- ical pursuit and make it especially his own. His countrymen like him better for having a taste of this kind. Mr. Glad- stone's practiced skill in tree-felling is a help to his popu- larity. The readers of Wordsworth, Scott, and Byron all remember that the first was a pedestrian, the second a keen sportsman, and the third the best swimmer of his time. The readers of Keats are sorry for the ill-health that spoiled the latter years of his short life, but they remember with satisfac- tion that the ethereal poet was once muscular enough to ad- minister " a severe drubbing to a butcher whom he caught beating a little boy, to the enthusiastic admiration of a crowd of bystanders." Shelley's name is associated forever with his love of boating and its disastrous ending. In our own day, when we learn something about the private life of our cele- brated contemporaries, we have a satisfaction in knowing that they enjoyed some physical recreation ; as, for example, that Tyndall is a mountaineer, Millais a grouse-shooter, John Bright a salmon-fisher ; and it is characteristic of the inveter- acy of English physical habits that Mr. Fawcett should have gone on riding and skating after he was blind, and that An- thony Trollope was still passionately fond of fox-hunting when he was old and heavy and could hardly see. The English have such a respect for physical energy that they still remember with pleasure how Palmerston hunted in his old age, and how, almost to the last, he would go down to Epsom on horseback. There was a little difficulty about 192 APPENDIX D. getting him into the saddle, but, once there, he was safe till the end of his journey. Hamerton : French and English, p. 2. Examination thorough, searching examination is an in- dispensable accompaniment of teaching; but I am almost inclined to commit myself to the very heterodox proposition that it is a necessary evil. I am a very old examiner, having for some twenty years past been occupied with examinations on a considerable scale, of all sorts and conditions of men, and women too, from the boys and girls of elementary schools to the candidates for honours and fellowships in the universities. I will not say that in this case, as in so many others, the adage that familiarity breeds contempt, holds good ; but my admiration for the existing system of examina- tion and its products does not wax warmer as I see more of it. Examination, like fire, is a good servant, but a bad mas- ter ; and there seems to me to be some danger of its becom- ing our master. I by no means stand alone in this opinion. Experienced friends of mine do not hesitate to say that stu- dents whose career they watch appear to them to become de- teriorated by the constant effort to pass this or that examina- tion, just as we hear of men's brains becoming affected by the daily necessity of catching a train. They work to pass, not to know, and outraged science takes her revenge. They do pass, and they don't know. I have passed sundry examina- tions in my time, not without credit, and I confess I am ashamed to think how very little real knowledge underlay the torrent of stuff which I was able to pour out on paper. In fact, that which examination, as ordinarily conducted, tests, is simply a man's power of work under stimulus, and his capacity for rapidly and clearly producing that which, for the time, he has got into his mind. Now, these faculties are by no means to be despised. They are of great value in practical life, and are the making of many an advocate, and of many a so-called statesman. But in the pursuit of truth, scientific or other, they count for very little, unless they are supplemented by that long-continued, patient "intending of the mind," as Newton phrased it, which makes very little show in examinations. I imagine that an examiner who knows his students personally must not unfrequently have found him- self in the position of finding A's paper better than B's, though his own judgment tells him quite clearly that B is the man who has the larger share of genuine capacity. Huxley : Science and Culture. APPENDIX D. 193 It has become fashionable of late to relate the small weak- nesses, and, in some instances, the large, as seen in conspicu- ous characters. Parton has given us the unfavorable side of Hamilton ; Burr has been a particular mark to aim at ; Wash- ington has not escaped, and we are now to have such a por- traiture of Franklin. It is a fact of common experience in this country that a switchmen's strike is the ugliest of all strikes, and the one most difficult to deal with. The Buffalo strike has been in keeping with all that we know about these affairs. The New York Central switchmen "went out," not because of any grievance of their own, but because the others went out. The Buffalo and Pittsburgh men struck, and the company acceded to their demands, but they refused to go to work until the Erie and Lehigh Valley companies should yield to their men. All this would be endurable if the men would go about their business and leave other people and other people's property alone. But this they will not do. No sooner do they " go out " than they organize themselves as brigands, and proceed to burn and wreck and kill and maim wherever an attempt is made to operate the roads that they have abandoned. They must be put down, they must be made to suffer the conse- quences of their riotous acts ; but that ought not to 'be the end of the affair. These railroad interruptions ought to be made impossible. So many interests are affected by a stop- page of traffic that the State ought to intervene in some ef- fectual way to insure the continuous and regular movement of trains. The Railroad Commissioners of this State pointed out the need of such legislation several years ago, and showed the equity as well as the necessity of it. Of course, men can- not be compelled to work on railways more than in factories against their will, but they can be, and should be, required to give reasonable notice of their intention to quit ; so that their places may be filled and the movement of traffic continued. The employers should be equally required to give notice of intention to " lay off " any hands in their employ. Railway and telegraphic service should be made subject to army disci- pline, the obligations being mutual between employer and employed. A fortiori the forcible stoppage of trains by hands who have discharged themselves from service without a moment's warning, and even after their demands have been complied with, should be dealt with in the most summary manner with all the power of the State. Nation, 55 : 135. 194 APPENDIX D. The Economist thinks that it is hardly possible to over- estimate the good effect, in calming the panic, of telegraphic communication with Europe. It is only fair to admit, of course, that there is a drawback at times in the " echoing- power " of the cable, each money market being troubled by bad news of the other, and the bad news tending to accumu- late ; but the telegraph works against panics in two important ways. It has, in the first place, materially shortened the time within which assistance can be rendered. The failure of Jay, Cooke & Co. was almost immediately followed by the shipment of gold from Europe. But, in the second place, the shipment of gold has an effect before it arrives, because the telegraph announces it, and the mere knowledge that gold is on the way is likely to allay panic and revive credit. In 1857 the crisis broke out about the end of September, but the news did not reach England till the middle of October, and this country had a whole month to live without re- ceiving help, or knowing of its probable arrival. Nation, 17: 265. No body can be healthful without exercise, neither natural body nor politic ; and certainly to a kingdom or estate, a just and honorable war is the true exercise. A civil war, indeed, is like the heat of a fever, but a foreign war is like the heat of exercise and serveth to keep the body in health. Bacon : Civil and Moral Essays, p. 207. Chief Justice Morse of the Michigan Supreme Court, whom the Democrats of that State have nominated for Governor, is a man well qualified for an executive position, but it may be doubted whether it was good policy for the party to take its candidate from the bench. The Constitu- tion of the State provides that no judge of the Circuit Court shall be eligible to any other than a judicial office during the term for which he is elected, and for one year thereafter, and that all votes given for such judge for any such (inhibited) office or appointment, whether by the Legislature or the people, shall be void. No mention is made of judges of the Supreme Court, but of course every argument which applies to the lower court has equal weight in the case of the higher; and while there is no legal prohibition of Mr. Morse's can- didature, it is morally forbidden by the plain intent of the framers of the Constitution. The feeling against going to the bench after a nominee for a non-judicial position is very APPENDIX D. 195 strong in this country, and seems to be growing stronger. It is not wise for a party to fly in the face of it. Nation, 55: 136. A professional man is scarcely equipped and started in his profession before he is thirty ; a business man, if he is on the road to success, is much nearer prosperity at thirty-five than at twenty-five, and it is therefore wise for these men not to marry in the twenties. But this does not apply to the work- ing man. In many trades he is laid upon the shelf at thirty- five, and in nearly all trades he receives the largest wages of his life between twenty and thirty. If the young workingman has all his wages too long to himself he will probably estab- lish habits of personal comfort which he cannot keep up when he has to divide with a family habits which, perhaps, he can never overcome. Jane Addams : The Subtle Problems of Charity, Atlantic Monthly, 83 ; 170. By midsummer we often find ourselves scarcely noticing the leaves, unless there is about them some novel feature that strikes our attention, such as an added glow of freshness from dew or rain, a pleasant noise from their rustling in the wind, or the tossing of the branches in a storm. After a change of boarding place, persons often think the food at a hotel is unusually good ; but the bill of fare varies little from day to day, and finally the viands seem so monotonous that but slight pleasure is experienced in eating. Druggists say that they often sell a great deal of soda water in the spring before it is very warm. This drink then seems unusually good, because none has been tasted for a long while. They allow the boys who tend the fountain to drink all they choose. For the first few days the boys consume a great deal, but they become less and less fond of it. Halleck : Education of the Central Nervous System, p. 248. " Thinking freely of religion may be involuntary with this gentleman ; so that allowing his sentiments to be wrong, yet as he is purely passive in his assent, he is no more to be blamed for his errors than the governor of a city without walls for the shelter he is obliged to afford an invading enemy." " True, my son," cried I, " but if the governor invites the enemy there he is justly culpable. And such is always the case with those who embrace error." Goldsmith : Vicar of Wakefield. 196 APPENDIX D. What do we know about this characteristic smell of the soil ? Can we regard it as the mere attribute of the soil as a simple substance, such an attribute as is, for instance, the peculiar smell of leather, or the odor of india-rubber? or can we go deeper and find that it is really an expression of com- plexity below ? Strangely enough this is the case, for the smell of damp earth is one of the latest sign-posts we have found which lead us into a world which, until recently, was altogether beyond our ken. It points us to the presence, in the ground beneath us, of large numbers of tiniest organisms, and not merely to their presence only, but to their activity and life, and reveals quite a new phase of this activity. A handful of loose earth picked up in a field by the hedgerow, or from a garden, no longer represents to us a mere conglomeration of particles of inorganic mineral matter, "simply that and nothing more"; we realize now that it is the home of myriads of the smallest possible members of the great kingdom of plants, who are, in particular, members of the fungus family in that kingdom plants so excessively minute that their very existence was undreamt of until a few years ago. But up to the present the fresh smell of the earth, the smell peculiar to it, has not been in any way associated with these energetic organisms, and it is quite a new revelation to find that it is a direct outcome of their activity. Among the many bacteria which inhabit the soil, a new one, hitherto unknown, has been just recently isolated and watched. It lives, as is usual with them, massed into colonies, which have a chalky-white appearance, and as it develops and increases in numbers it manifests itself by the familiar smell of damp earth ; hence the name that has been given it Cladothrix odorifera. Taken singly it is a colorless, thread-like body, which increases numerically by continuous subdivisions into two in the direction of its length. It derives its nutriment from substances in the soil, which either are, or have been, touched by the subtle influence of life, and in the processes of growth and development it evolves from these materials a compound whose volatilizing gives the odor in question. This compound has not yet been fully examined ; it is not named, nor have all its properties been satisfactorily eluci- dated, but two facts concerning it stand out clearly. One is that it is the true origin of the smell that we have hitherto attributed to earth simply ; and the other, that it changes into vapor under the same conditions as water does. There- fore, when the sun, shining after the rain, draws up the water APPENDIX D. 197 from the earth in vapor form, it draws up, too, the odorous atoms of this newly found compound ; and these atoms, floating in the air, strike on our olfactory nerves, and it is then we exclaim so often, " How fresh the earth smells after the rain ! " The moisture, to a certain extent, is a necessary condition of the active work of these bacteria, yet the chief reason why the earthy smell should be specially noticeable after the rain is probably because this compound has been accumulating in the soil during the wet period. We only smell substances when they are in vapor form, and since the compound under consideration has precisely the same properties in this respect as water, it will only assume gaseous form when the rain ceases. The bacteria have, however, been hard at work all the time, and when the sun shines and "drying" begins, then the accumulated stores commence their transformation into vapor, and the strong smell strikes upon our senses. For the same reason we notice a similar sort of smell, though in a lesser degree, from freshly turned earth. This is more moist than the earth at the surface, and hence, on exposing it, evaporation immediately begins, which quickly makes itself known to us through our olfactory nerves. It may also have been remarked that this particular odor is always stronger after a warm day than after a cold one, and is much more noticeable in summer than in winter. This is because moderate warmth is highly conducive to the greater increase of these organisms, and, in fact, in the summer they are present in far larger numbers and exhibit greater vitality than in the winter, when they are often more or less quies- cent. Two other characteristics of Cladothrix odorifera are worthy of notice as showing the tenacity with which it clings to life. It is capable of withstanding extremely long periods of drought without injury ; its development may be com- pletely arrested (for water in some degree is a necessity with all living things, from highest to lowest), but its vitality re- mains latent, and with the advent of water comes back renewed activity. But besides drought it is pretty well proof against poisons. It can even withstand a fairly large dose of that most harmful poison to the vegetable world, cor- rosive sublimate. Hence any noxious matter introduced into the soil would harm it little ultimately ; the utmost it could do would be to retard it for a time. This, then, is the history of the smell of earth as scientists have declared it unto us, and its recital serves to further Ip8 APPENDIX D. point the moral that the most obvious, the most common- place things of every-day life things that we have always taken simply for granted without question or interest may yet have a story hidden beneath them. Like sign-posts in a foreign land, they may be speaking, though in a language not always comprehended by us, of most fascinating regions, regions we may altogether miss to our great loss, if we neglect ignorantly the directions, instead of learning to com- prehend them. G. C. Nuttall: Knowledge, Feb. 1899. The lioness nurseth her whelps, the raven cherisheth her birds, the viper her brood, and shall a woman cast away her babe ? Lyly : Eupkues. A striking illustration of this was shown in the case of a gosling which was reared in a kitchen away from water. After several months it was taken to a pond, but refused to go in. When . . . thrown in, it hurried out, like a hen, in a frightened way. The desire for swimming had been suppressed. ... A short time after hatching, the clucking of a hen will develop motor reactions which cause . . . [the chicks] to follow her. If ... [they] are kept away from the hen for a week, the clucking never calls forth the usual motor response, but they will then follow the whistle or call of any person to which they have been accustomed from birth. A puppy brought up on a hard floor will frequently make a feint of burying a bone, but as the early environment is un- suitable for developing the instinct, it is often altogether abandoned, although the grown dog may be allowed to wander at will where the earth is soft. Darwin found that a species of caterpillar naturally fond of the leaves of a cer- tain kind of plant would soon lose its liking for them, if accustomed at birth to eat a different leaf. So pronounced does this dislike become that worms have been known to die rather than eat the favorite leaf of the species, if they have been reared on different food. Halleck : Education oj the Central Nervous System, p. 245. APPENDIX E. UNCLASSIFIED PROPOSITIONS FOR ARGUMENT. 1 i Railroads raise the level of general intelligence. 2. Delays are dangerous. 3. A protective tariff fosters trusts. 4. American men are wholly absorbed in business. 5. Climatic conditions influence national character. 6. Women are illogical. 7. The English language is unmusical. 8. Letter-writing is in general a waste of time. 9. The moral influence of the Salvation Army justifies its existence. 10. Indian corn ought to be adopted as our national floral emblem. 11. The health of college 3 girls improves during their course. 12. Constantine's conversion was the result of religious conviction. 13. Hamlet was insane. 14. Like father, like son. 15. A policy of imperialism should be adopted by the United States. 1 6. The people always conquer. 17. In novels the blonde women always win away all the happiness from the dark ones. (Maggie's observation. Mill on the Floss, Bk. V., ch. IV.) 1 8. The prices of staple commodities are much the same in every part of the civilized world. 19. Women should receive the same salaries as men for the same work. 1 The student should be required to determine for himself, whether he ultimately writes the argument or not, what form of reasoning is necessary to establish each of these conclusions. * A particular college may be specified. 199 200 APPENDIX E. 20. Students in college should help to frame the laws by which they are governed. 21. People always admire in others the qualities which they themselves lack. 22. Friendships between men are stronger than those be- tween women. 23. All college courses should be elective. 24. Mars is inhabited. 25. A socialistic order of society will remove the incentive to labor. 26. Precocious children do not fulfill their early promise. 27. Kindergarten methods do injury to the mind of the average child. 28. Women's clubs are a positive influence for good upon the community. 29. All art is an expression of the personality of the artist. 30. The expenditure of money for luxuries is morally in- defensible. 31. All so-called "eras of prosperity" in the United States are a misfortune to the laboring man. 32. Every tramp ought to be sent to prison and put at hard labor. 33. A belief in immortality is reasonable. 34. Bicycle-riding is physically beneficial to women. 35. A college education crushes out originality. 36. College graduates fail to reach literary eminence. 37. Strikes aid the cause of labor. 38. The character of the heroine in Meredith's Diana of the Crossways is inconsistently represented. 39. All land should be owned by the national government. 40. A man is known by the company he keeps. 41. Familiarity breeds contempt. 42. Railroads make little profit on their passenger traffic. 43. A protective tariff is an injury to the farmer. 44. Bicycles should be carried free by the railroads. 45. College graduates should be preferred to graduates of state normal schools as public school teachers. 46. War never pays. 47. Students at ' work at least * hours a day. 48. The students at * keep conscientiously the rule which '. 1 Name school or college. ' Specify number of hours. Specify the rule. APPENDIX E. 201 49. The office of poet-laureate should be abolished. 50. Great poets are always good men. 51. The use of the boycott by trades-unions is wrong. 52. Women writers lack creative power. 53. The architecture of all ancient cities reflects the civilization which gave rise to it. 54. The education of girls should be different from that of boys. 55. Cheap dress materials never pay. 56. Alms should never be given to beggars except through a regular charitable organization. 57. The establishment of orphan asylums is an injury to society. 58. Public libraries, museums, and art-galleries should be open to the public on Sundays. 59. Colleges should be situated in the country. 60. Second thoughts are best. 61. Presidential candidates who stump the country in their own behalf are always defeated. 62. The study of both ancient and modern languages will some day be relegated to the preparatory schools. 63. An intimate knowledge of the Bible is essential to literary success. 64. Horses will become extinct. 65. Basket-ball is a dangerous game. 66. Books written for children lack fine literary quality. 67. Reading newspapers is profitable. 68. Executions should be secret. 69. Voting should be compulsory. 70. For the average student a large college has greater educational value than a small one. 71. Students from families belonging to a certain religious denomination should attend a college controlled by that sect. 72. Reading periodical literature is a waste of time. 73. The short skirt will ultimately be adopted by women for all street wear. 74. Dormitory life at college is unhealthful. 75. Lynching is sometimes justifiable. 76. Voters should always support the regular party nom- inees. 77. Absolute power produces a despotic spirit. 78. Valedictorians are not conspicuously successful in later life. 79. The life of women in the nineteenth century is ex- tremely complex. 202 APPENDIX E. 80. Poverty will always exist. 8 1. The negro will sometime be the intellectual equal of the white. 82. Poetry declines as science advances. 83. " Neither shall they make war any more." 84. The American war with Spain was unjustifiable. 85. Heredity is a force stronger than environment in the determination of individual character. 86. Children should not be led to believe the myth of Santa Claus. 87. All colleges will ultimately be coeducational. 88. " College settlements " do more harm than good. 89. English will be the universal language. 90. Popular hymns have a deleterious influence on the literary taste of the masses. 91. Character is indicated by the hands. 1 92. States fall not by the sword of the conqueror, but be- cause of internal weakness. 93. All great movements of thought are reactionary. 94. The church of the future will be institutional. 95. The best is always the cheapest. 96. The modern churches are made up of women. 97. Labor-saving machinery is a benefit to the working man. 98. Orderly habits save time. 99. Lazy people take the most pains. 100. Social settlements should be supported by the city government. 101. Beowulf 'was written by one person. 102. " All art does but consist in the removal of surplu- sage." (Pater, Essay on Style.) 103. Our pension system should be abolished. 104. Prison labor ought not to be brought into compe- tition with free outside labor. 105. The President of the United States should be elected for six years and be ineligible for re-election. 1 06. Railroads tend to make prices uniform all over the world. 107. Undergraduate students should not devote them- selves to a single line of study. 108. Sermons should be limited to thirty minutes in length. 109. Browning's poems are without musical quality. 1 Or by the features, gait, dress, handwriting, etc. APPENDIX E. 203 no. Money dishonestly acquired does its possessor no good. in. Christian science "healing " should be prohibited by law. 112. Children should be allowed to eat all the candy they want. 113. A system of self-government should be introduced into primary and secondary schools. 114. Under existing conditions, the abolition by all civil- ized nations of their armies and navies other than those required for the maintenance of their domestic police is feasible. 115. The United States should adopt a policy of colonial expansion. 116. George Eliot's minor characters are more distinctly drawn than are her heroes and heroines. APPENDIX F. BIBLIOGRAPHY. THE bibliography of argumentation is as yet meager. Baker's Principles of Argumentation was first in the field, followed recently by MacEwan's Essentials of Argumentation. These two treatments of the subject differ widely in the stress they lay upon the logical substratum of argument, Mr. Baker taking it for granted and Mr. MacEwan expounding it in detail. Baker's Specimens of Argumentation may be consid- ered supplementary to the Principles. To these books must be added the contributions made by some of the standard treatises on rhetoric, both ancient and modern. We find a large part of Aristotle's and Quintilian's discussions concerning rhetoric devoted to " persuasion," in which argument was regarded as a factor of varying impor- tance. Campbell and Whately perpetuate this proportion. The modern rhetoricians aS a class devote scant space, or none at all, to argumentation, and those who consider it have thrown little new light upon its problems. Books of logic must inevitably be consulted by the student of argumentation. Of these, Jevons' Elementary Lessons is perhaps the simplest and most compact, though Bosanquet, Lotze and Fowler dig deeper. Both real and formal logic, it will be noticed, are represented in this bibliography, inas- much as both contribute to a conception of logic as the explicit formulation of the typical modes of thought. One treatise of an anomalous character appears in the list Cramer's Method of Darwin. This is an interesting popular presentation of logical principles as practically ap- plied in scientific investigation., It furnishes some excellent illustrative material for a course in argumentation. 204 APPENDIX F. 205 Aristotle. Rhetoric. Welldon's tr. Macmillan & Co., 1886. Bain, Alex. English Composition and Rhetoric, Part II., ch. iv. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y., 1867. Bain, Alex. Logic, Inductive and Deductive. N. Y., 1886. Baker, Geo. P. Principles of Argumentation. Ginn & Co., 1895. Baker, Geo. P. Specimens of Modern Argumentation. Henry Holt & Co., 1897. Bascom, J. Philosophy of Rhetoric, pp. 63-94. G. P. Put- nam's Sons, 1893. Bates, Arlo. Talks on Writing English, pp. 152-180. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1897. Blair, Hugh. Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, Lecture XXXII. Philadelphia. Bosanquet, B. Essentials of Logic. London, 1895. Bosanquet, B. Logic, 2 vols. Oxford, 1888. Bradley, F. H. Principles of Logic. London, 1883. Cairns, W. B. Forms of Discourse, pp. 227-292. Ginn & Co., 1896. Campbell, George. Philosophy of Rhetoric, Bk. I., chs. V.-X. Harper & Bros., 1858. Cramer, F. The Method of Dar-win. A. C. McClure & Co., Chicago, 1896. Fowler, Thos. Logic, Deductive and Inductive. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1895. Genung, J. F. Practical Elements of Rhetoric, pp. 407-446. Ginn & Co., 1887. Hale, E. E., Jr. Constructive Rhetoric, pp. 321-342. Henry Holt & Co., 1896. Hamilton, Sir W. Lectures on Logic. Ed. by Mansel & Veitch, Boston, 1866. Hart, J. M. English Composition, pp. 103-124. Eldridge & Bro., Philadelphia, 1897. Hill, A. S. Principles of Rhetoric, pp. 327-400. Harper & Bros., 1896. Jevons, W. S. Elementary Lessons in Logic. Macmillan & Co., 1895. Jevons, W. S. Elements of Logic. N. Y., 1883. Jevons, W. S. Principles of Science. London, 1874. Lotze, H. Logic. Tr. by B. Bosanquet, 2 vols. Oxford, 1888. Lotze, H. Outlines of Logic. Tr. and Ed. by G. T. Ladd, Boston, 1887. MacEwan, E. J. Essentials of Argumentation. D. C. Heath & Co., 1898. 206 APPENDIX R Mansel, H. L. Prolegomena Logica, an Inquiry into the Psychological Nature of Logical Processes. Boston, 1860. Mill, J. S. System of Logic. N. Y., 1839. Minto, W. Logic, Inductive and Deductive. N. Y., 1895. Quintilian. Institutes of Oratory, Bks. II I. -VII. Watson's tr. London, Geo. Bell & Sons, 1891. Sidgwick, Alfred. Fallacies. London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Ltd., 1890. Sidgwick, Alfred. The Process of Argument. A. & C. Black, London, 1893. Sigwart, C. Logic. Tr. by Helen Dendy, Muirhead's Library of Philosophy, 2 vols. Macmillan & Co., 1895. Tompkins, A. The Science of Discourse, pp. 137-170. Ginn & Co., 1897. Venn, J. Symbolic Logic. Macmillan & Co., 1881. Whately, R. Elements of Logic. Sheldon & Co., N. Y., 1866. Whately, R. Elements of Rhetoric, Part I. Sheldon & Co., N. Y., 1864. iReafcings for Students. English masterpieces in editions at once competently edited and inexpensive. The aim is to Jill vacancies now existing because of subject, treatment, or price. Price s given below are NET. idmo. Cloth. Arnold (Matthew) : Prose Selections. Edited by Prof. LEWIS E. GATES of Harvard, xci+348 pp. 900. Includes : The Function of Criticism, First Lecture on Translating Homer, Literature and Science, Culture and Anarchy, Sweetness and Light, Compulsory Education, "Life a Dream," Emerson, and twelve shorter selections, including America. Prof. Bliss Perry of Princeton : " The selections seem to me most happy, and the introduction is even better, if possible, than his introduction to the New- man volume. Indeed, I have read no criticism of Arnold's prose which appears to me as luminous and just, and expressed with such literary charm." Browning : Selected Lyrical and Dramatic Poems. With the essay on Browning from E. C. Stedman's "Victorian Poets." Edited by EDWARD T. MASON. 275 pp. 6oc. Burke : Selections. Edited by BLISS PERRY, sometime Professor in Princeton. xxvi+2g8 pp. 6oc. Contents : Speeches at Arrival at Bristol, at Conclusion of the Poll ; Letters to the Marquis of Rockingham, to the Sheriffs of Bristol, and to a Noble Lord ; Address to the King ; Selections from the Sublime and the Beautiful, from Thoughts on the Present Discontents, from Speech on the Nabob of Arcot's Debts, from Impeachment of Hastings (2), from Reflections on the Revolution in France (7, including Fiat Money). Edward Dowden, the author and critic : "They seem to me admirably chosen and arranged, and the introduction brings various aspects of Burke's mind truly and vividly before the reader." Coleridge : Prose Extracts. Edited by Prof. HENRY A. BEERS of Yale. xix-(-i48pp. soc. The selections, varying in length from a paragraph to ten or twenty pages, are mainly from Table Talk and Biographia Literaria, but also from Notes on Shakespeare, etc. vii, 1900 English Readings for Students. De Quincey : Joan of Arc ; The Mail Coach. Edited by Prof. JAMES MORGAN HART of Cornell, xxvi-f-138 pp. 500. The introduction sketches De Quincey's life and style. Allusions and other difficult points are explained in the notes. This volume and the Essays on BosweWs Johnson (see under Macaulay) are used at Cornell for elementary rhetorical study. Dryden : Essays on the Drama. Edited by Dr. WM. STRUNK, Jr., of Cornell. xxxviii-|-i8o pp. 5oc. This volume contains The Essay of Dramatic Poesy and, among the critical prefaces, Of Heroic Plays and The Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy, These are not only excellent specimens of Classical English, but also have a high reputation for the value of their literary opinions. The introduction, besides treating of Dryden's life and prose style, sets forth clearly how he used the theories of the drama which he found in Aristotle, Horace, and Corneille. Ford: The Broken Heart. A Spartan Tragedy in verse. Edited by Prof. CLINTON SCOLLARD of Hamilton College. xvi-}-i32 pp. joe. (Buckram, 7oc.) A play notable for its repressed emotion and psychological interest. Charles Lamb wrote : " I do not know where to find in any play a catastrophe so grand, so solemn, and so surprising as this " [of The Broken Heart]. Johnson : Rasselas. Edited by Prof. OLIVER FARRAR EMERSON of Adelbert. lvi-f-179 pp. 5oc. (Buckram, 700.) The introduction treats of Johnson's style, the circumstances undei which Rasselas was written, and its place in the history of fiction. The notes explain allusions and trace the sources of some of Johnson's materials. Landor : Selections from the Imaginary Conversations. Edited by Prof. A. G. NEWCOMER of Stanford University, Hx+i66 pp. 500. Sixteen of the " Conversations," which have been chosen especially because of their vital and stimulating character, which appeals strongly to the young student. vii, 1900 2 English leadings for Students. Lyly : Endymion. Edited by Prof. GEO. P. BAKER of Harvard. cxcvi-f-iog pp. 850. The Academy, London : " It is refreshing to come upon such a piece of sterling work ; . . . the most complete and satisfactory account of Lyly that has yet appeared." Macaulay and Carlyle : Essays on Samuel Johnson. Edited by Dr. WILLIAM STRUNK of Cornell, xl-f-igi pp. 500. These two essays present a constant contrast in intellectual and moral methods of criticism, and offer an excellent introduction to the study of the literary history of Johnson's times. . Marlowe : Edward II. With the best passages from Tamburlaine the Great, and from his Poems. Edited by the late Prof. Edward T. McLaughlin of Yale. xxi+x8o pp. SQC. Edward II. is not only a remarkable play, but is of great interest in connection with Shakespere's Richard II. A comparison of the two plays is sketched in the introduction. Newman : Prose Selections. Edited by Prof. LEWIS E. GATES of Harvard. lxii-|-228 pp. SQC. PROF. R. G. MOULTON of University of Chicago : " I am generally suspicious of books of selections, but I think Newman makes an exceptional case. . . The selection seems excellent, and the introduction is well balanced between points of form and matter. The whole has one special merit : it is interesting in a high degree." Tennyson : The Princess. Edited, with introduction, notes, and analytic questions, by Prof. L. A. SHERMAN of the University of Nebraska. Ixi-|-i85 pp. 6oc. N. E. Journal of Education : "The pupil will gain materially from such a thorough and discerning study of the poem as this edition presents." Thackeray : English Humorists. Edited, with an introduction and notes, by Prof. WM. LYON PHELPS of Yale. The features of this new edition are a brief biographical and critical introduction, together with explanatory and critical notes. The notes explain all literary and other allusions. ^ w - "3 d st -> New York - 37 8 Wabash Ave., Chicago. English ^Readings for Students. Specimens of prose Composition, Forms of Discourse. Edited by Prof. E. H. LEWIS of Lewis Institute, Chicago. 367 pp. i6mo. ooc., net. A compact manual, illustrated by 58 selections, chiefly from our contemporary authors, and designed to cover the field of the four volumes below, where there is not time for such extended work. Prose Narration. Edited by Dr. W. T. BREWSTER of Columbia. xxxviii-f-2og pp. i6mo. SOG., net. Includes Selections from Scott, Thackeray, Hawthorne, Jane Austen, George Eliot, Stevenson, and Henry James. Part I. Ele- ments Plot, Character, Setting, and Purpose. II. Combination of the Elements. III. Various Kinds. IV. Technique of Good Narrative. Prose Description. Edited by Dr. CHAS. SEARS BALDWIN, of Yale, xlviii-f-145 pp. i6mo. SQC., net. Includes: Ancient Athens (Newman); Paris before the Second Empire (du Maurier); Byzantium (Gibbon); Geneva (Ruskin); The Storming of the Bastille (Carlyle); La Gioconda, etc. (Pater); Blois (Henry James); Spring in a Side Street (Brander Matthews). Exposition. Edited by Prof. HAMMOND LAMONT of Brown. xxiv-|-i8o pp. i6mo. SGC., net. Includes: Development of a Brief ; G. C. V. Holmes on the Steam- engine ; Huxley on the Physical Basis of Life ; Bryce on the U. S. Constitution ; " The Nation" on the Unemployed ; Matthew Arnold on Wordsworth ; etc. Argumentation. Modern. Edited by Prof. GEO. P. BAKER of Harvard. 186 pp. i6mo. SDC., net. Chatham on the withdrawal of troops from Boston, Lord Mans- field's argument in the Evans case, the first letter of Junius, the first of Huxley's American addresses on evolution, Erskine's defence of Lord George Gordon, etc., and specimen brief. HENRY HOLT & CO., l vii, 1900 4 " It covers almost every known phase of its subject, . . . and yet it compact and readable," Outlook. LAVIGNAC'S MUSIC AND MUSICIANS By Professor ALBERT LAVIGNAC of the Paris Conservatory, au- thor of " The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner." Edited for America by H. E. KREHBIEL, author of " How to Listen to Music," and translated by WILLIAM MARCHANT. With 94 illustrations and 510 examples in musical notation, izmo. $3.00. (Descriptive circular free.) A brilliant, sympathetic, and authoritative work covering musical sound, the voice, instruments, construction aes- thetics, and history. Practically a cyclopedia of its subject, with 1000 topics in the index. IV. J. Henderson in N. Y. Times' Saturday Review : " A truly wonderful production ... a long and exhaustive ac- count of the manner of using the instruments of the orches- tra, with some highly instructive remarks on coloring . . . harmony he treats not only very fully, but also in a new and intensely interesting way . . . counterpoint is discussedwith great thoroughness . . . it seems to have been his idea when he began to let no interesting topic escape. He even finds space for a discussion of the beautiful in music . . . The wonder is that the author has succeeded in making those parts of the book which ought naturally to be dry so read- able. Indeed, in some of the treatment of such topics as acoustics the professor has written in a style which can be fairly described as fascinating . . . harmonics he has put before the reader more clearly than any other writer on the subject with whom we are acquainted. . . The pictures of the instruments are clear and very helpful to the reader . . . It should have a wide circulation. . . It will serve as a general reference book for either the musician or the music-lover. It will save money in the purchase of a library by filling the places of several smaller books ... it contains references to o_ther works which constitute a complete directory of musical literature. . . Taking it all in all, it is one of the most im- portant books on music that has ever been published." " One of the most important contributions yet made to literary history by an American scholar." Outlook. BEERS' ENGLISH ROMANTICISM xvm. CENTURY By Professor HENRY A. BEERS of Yale, zd impression. Gilt top. i2mo. $2.00. New York Commercial Advertiser : " The individuality of his style, its humor, its color, its delicacy . . . will do quite as much to continue its author's reputation as his scholarship. . . The work of a man who has studied hard, but who has also lived." New York Times' Saturday Review : "Remarkably pene- trating 'and scholarly. . . It is a noteworthy book by an acknowledged authority upon a most interesting period." New York Tribune : " No less instructive than readable." Nation: " Always interesting. . . On the whole, may be com- mended as an excellent popular treatment of the special sub- ject of the literary revival of medisevalism in the eighteenth century in England." HENRY HOLT & CO., " Pancoast's Introduction to American Literature. By HENRY S. PANCOAST, author of " Representative English Literature. " xii + 393 pp. i6mo. $i .00. The primary aim is to help the pupil to approach certain typical works in the right spirit, and to understand and enjoy them. He is led to observe the origin and history of the literature and the forces which have helped to shape and develop it , he is taught to regard literature as a part of national history, and to relate it to contemporaneous events and social conditions. He is made to take up the works suggested for study in their chronological sequence, and to note their relations to each other and to their time. In the sketches of the few leading writers selected for com- paratively extended treatment the effort is to avoid dry biographical details, and to present each author as a distinct living person. In the critical portion the object is rather to stimulate appreciation and lead the student to judge for him- self than to force opinions on him in a purely dogmatic spirit. J. M. Hart, Professor in Cornell University: Seems to me to ac- complish exactly what it attempts; it introduces the reader carefully and systematically to the subject. The several chapters are well proportioned, and the tone of the entire work is one of kindly and enlightened sympathy. Edwin M. Hopkins, Professo r in the University of Kansas : It seems to me fully entitled to take rank with his English Literature as a text-book, and I shall at once place it on my list recommended for high-school work. The Nation : Quite the best brief manual of its subject that we know. . . . National traits are well brought out without neglect- ing organic connections with the mother country. Forces and movements are as well handled as personalities, the influence of writers hardly less than their in- dividuality. A. G. Newcomer, Professor in Leland Stanford University : He succeeds in saying the just and needful thing without being tempt- ed beyond, and students of the work can hardly fail to obtain the right profit from our literature and the right attitude toward it. H. Humphrey Neill, Professor in Amherst College : Having used Mr. Pancoast's book on English Literature for three years with my class, I know about what to ex- pect from the present volume, and am sure it will fill the place de- manded in the teaching of Amer- ican Literature which his other book so well fills in the teaching of English Literature. The Dial: We find in the vol- ume now before us the same well- chosen diction, sobriety of judg- ment, and sense of perspective that characterized its predecessor. We should say that no better book had yet been produced for use in our secondary schools. JUN 1 Hi wi> UL17BBB a A 000047208