GIFT OF 
 U.C. Lambda Chapter 
 
 Phi Delta Kappa 
 
 feOUCATJON Dfc.PT. 
 
l.JK\\<^k:L LJoKAKY Oh tUl. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFC 
 m&HKELEY, CAUFOHi^ 
 
 4 
 
SCHOOL HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 By Ao B. BERAED, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE I7NITBD STATES. 
 
 KEW YORK: 
 A S„ BARNES AND BURR, 
 
 51 AND 58 JOHN STREET. 
 
 SOLD BT BOOKSELLERS GENERALLY THBOXTGHOXTT THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1862. 
 

 /V 
 
 ; •/: fy :: : ; /*.^^^.,<c(l-«^'''^-t-«^ 
 
 Entered,- according to Act of Congress, in the year 1861 
 
 By a. B. BERARD, 
 
 la tte Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York . 
 
 MEAES & DUSENBERT, ELECTKOIYPEES, 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The design of the volume now ofiFered to the kindly consideratiop 
 of Parents and Teachers, is, to combine a history of the social life 
 of the English people, with that of the civil and military trans- 
 actions of the realm. 
 
 A nation's religion, literature, science, art, and commerce, are 
 certainly as important topics in the consideration of its history, 
 as those connected with military operations and civil government. 
 
 It is hoped, therefore, that the attention given to both these 
 departments, may win for the accompanying volume, a place among 
 the useful books written for the instruction of the young. 
 
 A visit to England during the preparation of the volume, gave 
 at least such increased interest in the subject of the work, as may 
 add to its value, especially in the eyes of those who prize a book 
 written con amore. 
 
 In the brief account of the war in the Crimea, I would acknow- 
 ledge most gratefully the assistance of a distinguished officer of 
 engineers, whose information, gained by personal observation of 
 the military operations in that country, is of peculiar value. 
 
 A. B. B. 
 
 Wmt Point, April, 1861. 
 
 (8) 
 
 79()4«7 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ANCIENT BRITAIN. 
 
 —420. 
 OHAPTBR PAGX 
 
 I. — THE LAND AND ITS INHABITANTS.— WARFARE— RELIGION— EDUCATION . 9-13 
 n.— THE ROMAN CONQUEST.- JULIUS C.SSAR— CARACTACU8— BOADICEA— EX 
 TENT OF THE CONQUEST — DEPARTURE OF THE ROMANS — THE BENEFITS 
 CONFERRED UPON BSITAIN BY THEIR OCCUPATION .... 13-19 
 
 PART II. 
 SAXON HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 420—1066. 
 m.— THE SAXON INVASION. — CHARACTER OF THE INVADERS— REPULSE OP THE 
 PICT8 AND SCOTS— FOUNDATION OF THE HEPTARCHY— CONVERSION TO 
 CHRISTIANITY— ENGLAND UNDER ONE SOVEREIGN— THE DANES . . 20-26 
 
 IV. — KING ALFRED THE GREAT. — HIS EARLY DAYS — CONFLICTS WITH THE 
 
 DANES — THE BENEFICENT RULER .... . . 26-30 
 
 V. — ENGLAND UNDER THE DANES.— THE SUCCl S80R8 OF ALFRED — ETHELRED 
 
 THE UNREADY— THE DANE KINGS— EDWARD THE CONFESSOR . 31-38 
 
 VI.— THE LAST OF THE SAXON KINGS.- WILLIAM THE NORMAN AND HIS INVA- 
 SION—HAROLD'S ENEMIES — BATTLE OF HASTINGS .... 38-42 
 
 VII.— CONDITION OF ENGLAND UNDER THE SAXONS.— RELIGION— UTERATURE— 
 GOVERNMENT — MANNERS AND CUSTOMS — AMUSEMENTS— LONDON IN 
 8AX0N TIMES 43-49 
 
 PART III. 
 
 THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 1066—1100. 
 
 VIII.— WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. — LAST STRUGGLES OF THE SAXONS— NORMAN 
 
 ASCENDANCY — CLOSE OF THE CONQUEROR'S LIFE 50-^7 
 
 IX. — WILLIAM RUFU8.— THE CROWN DISPUTED— TREATJIENT OF THE SAXON 
 
 RACE — THE kino's DEATH 57-69 
 
 X. — CHANGES EFFECTED BT THE CONQUEST. — THE FEUDAL SYSTEM — NEW 
 
 FORMT— DOOMSDAY BOOK— CRC8ADM 59-64 
 
 (4) 
 
CONTENTS. ▼ 
 
 PART IV. ~ 
 
 ENGLAND DURING THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 
 1100—1199. 
 CHAPTSR PASS 
 
 XI.— HENRT I. — BTEPHEN— THE BROTHER'S WAR— DOMESTIC SORROW- 
 EFFORTS TO SECURE THE SUCCESSION TO MATILDA— SURNAMES — 
 
 CIVIL WAR 66-69 
 
 XII.— HENRT n.— EXTENT OF HIS DOMINIONS— HIS QUARRELS WITH THE 
 
 CHURCH — THOMAS A BECKET 69-76 
 
 XIII.— HENRY n. — CONQUEST OF IRELAND — ^WARS IN FRANCE . . . 77-80 
 
 XIV.— RICHARD I.— THE CRUSADING KING— WARS IN FRANCE — RICHARD'S 
 
 DEATH— WILLIAM LONGBEARD 80-86 
 
 XV. — CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY.— FEUDAL CASTLES — 
 CHIVALRY AND ITS USAGES — KNIGHTHOOD — ARMOR — TOURNAKENTB 
 — FEASTS-DRESS— LEARNING — ROBIN HOOD 86-94 
 
 PART V. 
 ENGLAND DURING THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1199—1307. 
 
 XVI.— ESQ JOHN.— PROVISIONS OF MAGNA CHARTA— JOHN'S WARS WITH HI8 
 NEPHEW — QUARRELS WITH THE POPE— THE GREAT CHARTER OB- 
 TAINED — CIVIL STRIFE 95-101 
 
 XVII. — HENRY III. — EARL PEMBROKE— ROYAL FAVORITES — WARS OP THB 
 
 BARONS 102-104 
 
 XVm.— EDWARD I.— RETURN FROM THE HOLY LAND — CONQUEST OF WALES — 
 
 INVASION OF SCOTLAND 105-110 
 
 XIX. — CONDITION OK ENGLAND IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. — REUGIOK— 
 
 INDUSTRY— MANNERS AND CUSTOMS— LEARNING AND LEARNKO KXK 111-118 
 
 PART VI. 
 
 ENGLAND DURING TH%FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1307—1399. 
 
 XX.— EDWARD II.— GAVE8T0N— BANNOCKBURN — CTVIL DISSENSIONS— DIPO- 
 
 8ITI0N OF THE KING 119-12S 
 
 XXI. — EDWARD ni. — OVERTHROW OF MORTIMER — CLAIM TO THE FRENCH 
 CROWN — WARS IN FRANCE — CRECY — SIEGE OP CALAIS — BATTLE OF 
 
 POICTIERS 123-131 
 
 XXII.— RICHARD II.— WAT TYLER'S INSURRECTION— MISGOVERNMENT—BOLING- 
 
 BROKE USURPS THE CROWN 132-136 
 
 XXIII. — CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. — REUGION — 
 LEARNING — LANGUAGE — LAW-SCHOOLS—INDUSTRY— MANNERS AND 
 CUSTOMS . 136-144 
 
 PART VII. 
 
 ENGLAND DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 1399—1509. 
 XXIV.— HENRY rv.— CONSPIRACIES— REBELUON— PRINCE HENRT— A ROTAL 
 
 CAPTIVE 146-148 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEB FAQS 
 
 xxv.— hinrt v.— ■wars ix france— agincotjrt— treaty of tr0te8 — 
 
 henrt's death . 148-152 
 
 xxvi.— henry vi.— the "war in france— joan of arc— king's marriage 
 
 and its conskquences— wars of the roses .... 162-158 
 xxvii. — edward iv. — battle of towton — king's marriage — fatal conse- 
 quences — triumph of lancastrians — their final overthrow — 
 
 the king's revenge 158-162 
 
 xxvni.— edward v.— richard iii.— richard's machinations — the princes 
 in the tower — their uncle becomes king — a rival claimant — 
 bosworth field 163-165 
 
 xxix. — henry vii. — treatment op the house of york — impostors and 
 
 , their fate— avarice of the king— new world discovered . 165-170 
 xxx. — condition of england in the fifteenth century. — religion — 
 learning — printing —agriculture— architecture— domestic 
 comfort— great merchants— manners and customs— condition 
 of the people 170-180 
 
 PART VIII. 
 
 ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 
 1509— 1C03. 
 
 XXXI.— HENRY VIII.— WARS— WOLSEY— RELATIONS WITH FOREIGN PRINCES — 
 
 THE king's DIVORCE — THE CARDINAL'S OVERTHROW . . . 181-188 
 
 XXXII. — HENRY vni. — THE UPRIGHT CHANCELLOR — OVERTHROW OP PAPAL 
 POWER— ANNE BOLEYN— REFORMATION— SCOTLAND — FRANCE— THE 
 
 HOWARDS 189-196 
 
 XXXm. — ^EDWARD VI.— THE PROTECTOR— INTRIGUES— REFORMATION— SOMER- 
 SET'S DOWNFALL — NORTHUMBERLAND'S SCHEMES .... 197-201 
 XXXIV. — MARY. — LADY JANE GREY — CHARACTER OF THE QUEEN — RESTORATION 
 OP THE OLD REUOION — THE QUEEN'S MARRIAGE — EVIL RESULTS — 
 
 PROTESTANT MARTYRS— LOSS OF CALAIS 201-206 
 
 XXXV.— ELIZABETH.— ACCESSION— POPULARITY— THE PROTESTANT REUGION — 
 
 MARY OF SCOTLAND . . . • 206-214 
 
 XXXVI.— ELIZABETH.— THE INVINCIBLE A^KADA-LEICESTER— ESSEX AND HIS 
 
 ENEMIES — THE QUEEN'S DEATH 214-220 
 
 XXXVII.— CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.— THE REFORMA- 
 TION — ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH — DISSENTERS • 220-224 
 XXXVni. — CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.— LEARNING — 
 
 PAINTING — ARCHITECTURE — COMMERCE — MANUFACTURES . . 225-231 
 
 XXXIX. — CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY— AGRICULTURE- 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS — AMUSEMENTS — CONDITION OF LOWER 
 CLASSES— PARLUMENT— COURTS OF LAW— ELIZABETH AND HER 
 
 PEOPLE 231-238 
 
 PART IX. 
 ENGLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1603—1702. 
 
 XL.— JAMES I. — CONSPIRACIES — GUNPOWDER PLOT — PREROGATIVE — THE 
 
 king's TASTES — CECIL — BACON— LADY ARABELLA STUART . . 239-244 
 
 XLI.— JAMES I.— THE king's FAVORITE— THE PRINCESS ELIZABETH— EPISCO- 
 PACY IN SCOTLAND— SIR WALTER RALEIGH— MATRIMONIAL NEGOTIA- 
 TIOKB , . . .246-249 
 
CONTENDS. Vll 
 
 CBxrsm PAO« 
 
 XLII.--CHARI.K8 I.— PARUAMENT— THB KING'S ADVISERS— BXJCKINaHAM— 
 LAUD — STRAFFORD— THE KING'S THIRD PARLIAMENT — CROMWELL — 
 SHIP-MONEY — EPISCOPACY IN SCOTLAND — THE KING'S DIFFICULTIES — 
 LONG PARLIAMENT — STRAFFORD'S TRIAL — LAUD — IRELAND . . 249-256 
 
 XLIII. — CHARLES I.— SEIZURE OF THE FIVE MEMBERS — THE KING'S FORCES — 
 THE PARLIAMENT'S ARMY— CIVIL WAR— RELIGIOUS PARTIES— THE 
 KING AND THE SCOTS— CROMWELL— THE KING'S DOWNFALL . . 257-265 
 
 XLIV.— ENGLAND A COMMONWEALTH.-CHANQES— IRELAND — PRINCE CHARLES 
 
 — THE DUTCH WAR 266-270 
 
 XLV. — CROlrfWELL AS LORD PROTECTOR.— THE RULER AND HIS PARLIAMENT— 
 THE PROTECTORSHIP — FOREIGN POI^Y — THE PURITAN COURT — DO- 
 MESTIC AFFLICTION — THE PROTECTOR'S DEATH — RICHARD CROMWELL 
 — RESTORATION OF MONARCHY .... . . 271-274 
 
 XLTI.— CHARLES II.— ACTS OF PARLIAMENT — THE REGICIDES— INGRATITUDE 
 OF THE KING — SCOTLAND — FOREIGN RELATIONS — PLOTS AND THEIR 
 
 CONSEQUENCES 274-280 
 
 XL Vn.— JAMES II.— HIS DECLARATIONS— HIS CONDUCT— ARGYLE— MONMOUTH— 
 
 CRUELTIES — JEFFRIES 280-283 
 
 XLVIIL— JAMES 11— EFFORTS TO RESTORE ROMANISM— THE NATION'S RESIST- 
 
 A|rCE — REVOLUTION — WILLIAM OF ORANGE ..... 283-288 
 
 XLIX.— WILLIAM III.— SETTLEMENT OF THE CROWN— CHARACTER OF THE KING 
 — RESISTANCE IN SCOTLAND — IN IRELAND — SIEGE OF LONDONDERRY — 
 
 WILLIAM'S VICTORIES , . 288-293 
 
 L. — WILLIAM III. — GLENCOE— FOREIGN WARS— DEATH OF THE QUEEN— HER 
 CHARACTER— WILLIAM ABROAD — ACT OF SUCCESSION— LOUIS XIV. — 
 
 WILLIAM'S DEATH 293-297 
 
 LI. — CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.— RELIGION— 
 THE DRAMA — POETS — MILTON — SCIENCE — ROYAL OBSERVATORY — 
 GREENWICH HOSPITAL — ART — ARCHITECTURE — NEWSPAPERS — POST- 
 OFFICES . 297-301 
 
 LII.— CONDITION OP ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. — ROADS — 
 LONDON — COMMERCE — MANUFACTURES — BANK OF ENGLAND — STYLE 
 OF LIVING — CLASSES OP SOCIETY— REVENUE — WHIG AND TORY — 
 NATIONAL DEBT 805-312 
 
 PART X. 
 
 ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1702—1800. 
 
 LIII. — ANNE — GEORGE I. — FOREIGN WARS — POLITICAL PARTIES — UNION — 
 LITERATURE— HOUSE OF HANOVER— THE PRETENDER— SEPTENNIAL 
 BILL— SOUTH SEA SCHEME 313-317 
 
 IIV. — GEORGE II.— WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATION— FOREIGN WARS — THE YOUNG 
 
 PRETENDER — ENGLAND AND THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR . . . 317-322 
 LV.— GEORGE II.— THE ENGLISH IN INDIA— THEIR COLONIES — THE GREAT 
 MOGUL — FRENCH RIVALS — CLIVE — THE BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA — 
 PLASSEY — SUBSEQUENT VICTORIES 322-327 
 
 LVI.— GEORGE III.— CHARACTER OF THE SOVEREIGNS— WILLIAM PITT— WAR 
 WITH SPAIN— PROSECUTION OP WILKSS— TAXATION OP AMERICA — 
 WAR IN CONSEQUENCE — RESULT OF THE CONTEST — SUGE OF QIB- 
 ■ALTAB 827-336 
 
Vin CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTZK PAOa 
 
 LVII.— THI ENGLISH m INDIA.— BRITISH CONQUESTS — THl RCIE OP THB EAST 
 INDIA COMPANT— WARREN HASTINGS— HIS CAREER IN INDIA— HIS 
 IMPEACHMENT AND TRIAL IN ENGLAND— INDIA AT THE CLOSE OF 
 
 THIS PERIOD 336-341 
 
 LVni. — GEORGE III.— THE FRENCH REVOLUTION— ITS EFFECT UPON ENGLAND — 
 WAR— VICTORIES— MUTINY IN THE FLEET— CAMPERDOWN— BATTLE 
 
 OF THE NILE— ACRE— IRELAND — THE UNION 342-360 
 
 LIX. — CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUET. — EEUGION— 
 
 LITERATURE— DISTINGUISHED WRITERS 351-S59 
 
 tiX. — CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. — THE MINIS- 
 TRY — OLD AND NEW S'<([,E— ARCHITECTURE — PAINTING— MUSIC- 
 MANUFACTURES — TRAVELLING — AGRICULTURE — COMMERCE— MAN- 
 NERS AND CUSTOMS— AMUSEMENTS 859-369 
 
 PART XI. 
 
 ENGLAND DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1800—1860. 
 LXI.— GEORGE m.— THE ARMED NEUTRALITY— TRAFALQAR—PENINSULAB 
 
 WAR— WATERLOO — WAR WITH AMERICA— BARBARY PIRATES* . . 370-380 
 liXII. — GEORGE IV.— TRIAL OP THE QUEEN— CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION— PAR- 
 LIAMENTARY REFORM 381-386 
 
 LXIII.— WILLIAM IV.— PARUAMENTARY REFORM— MUNICIPAL REFORM— ABOU- 
 TION OF THE SLAVE TRADE— SLAVERY EMANCIPATION BILL— POOR 
 
 LAWS— CRIMINAL LAW . 38T-S92 
 
 LXIV.— QUEEN VICTORIA.— THE QUEEN— CHARTISTS— CORN LAW— REPEAL AGI- 
 TATION-FATHER MATHEW— MAYNOOTH COLLEGE— FAMINE—INSUR- 
 RECTION . . 393-400 
 
 LXV.— VICTORIA.— THE CHARTIST REBELLION— FOREIGN RELATIONS— TROUBLES 
 
 IN TURKEY— OTLITARY OPERATIONS 401-406 
 
 LXVI.— VICTORIA.— ENGLISH TROOPS IN THE CRIMEA— ALMA— SIEGE OF SEBAS- 
 
 TOPOL— FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE ... ... 406-416 
 
 LXVIL— ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— BIBLE SOCIETY— MISSIONARY 
 EFFORT— BENEVOLENCE— LITERATURE— MATERIAL PROGRESS — CRYS- 
 TAL PALACE . ... 416-422 
 
 PART XII. 
 COLONIAL. 
 1801—1860. 
 LXVm.— INDIA.— MAHRATTA WARS— BURMESE WARS— THE AFGHAN INVASION 
 
 AND DISASTER 423-432 
 
 LXIX.— INDIA.— WAR WITH SINDE — GWAUOR— SIKH CONFEDERACY— BURMESE 
 
 WAR— ANNEXATION OF OUDE— THE INDIAN MUTINY . . . 432-444 
 LXX.— THE ENGLISH IN CHINA. — EMBASSIES TO CHINA— COMMERCIAL RELA- 
 TIONS— W.\R OF 1 842 445-448 
 
 LXXI.— AUSTRAUA— NEW ZEALAND— CAPE COLONY ...... 449-452 
 
 LXXII.— CANADA.— EARLY HISTORY— POLITICAL DISCONTENTS— REBELLION— 
 
 SXTBSEQUENT HISTORY— CONCLUSION 468-466 
 
HISTOEY OF ENG,1jMJD. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ANCIENT BRITAIN. 
 — A. D. 420. 
 
 From Tan, a country, and Breit^ tin, 
 
 The name of Britain came, 
 And only as the Land of Tin^ 
 
 Was it first known to fame." 
 
 Hannah Townsend. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 BRITAIN BEFORE THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 In the Atlantic Ocean, somewhat to the north-west of the 
 mainland of Europe, lies the island of Great Britain. It is 
 small compared with the other natural divisions of the earth, 
 and yet this little sea-girt isle is the centre of an empire so 
 vast, that the Englishman may proudly repeat the boast once 
 uttered by the Spaniard, " that on the dominions of his sove- 
 reign the sun never sets." 
 
 We know but little about this island in very early times. 
 The first inhabitants of whom we have any certain knowledge 
 were of the Celtic race, and were in a rude and barbarous 
 condition. At first, their island was called Albion, which 
 means " The White Isle," but afterwards it was better known 
 
 (9) 
 
10 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 by the name of Britannia, which probably meant *^he Land 
 of Tin." In the days when old Tyre and Sidon 
 
 B.C. 1000. ... 
 
 were in all their glory, their mariners made bolder 
 voyages than any other people. Their merchant vessels passed 
 beyond the Pillars of Hercules (for so the ancients named the 
 stiaits of Gibr.altar) ,mto the stormy Atlantic. They even 
 went to Britaiii, arid traded with the natives for lead and tin. 
 The iincietftS' mfxed tin' with copper, forming a metal called 
 brass, but which in truth, was more properly bronze. Perhaps 
 the brazen sea and vessels "of bright brass," wrought by 
 Tyrian workmen for King Solomon's Temple at Jerusalem, 
 were made in part of British tin. 
 
 Britain was a cold country, and the people, excepting those 
 on the southern coast, knew very little about cultivating the 
 ground. They lived upon the milk and flesh of their flocks 
 and herds, or upon wild fruits. They had no towns. A 
 Roman geographer says: "the/oresAs of the Britons are their 
 cities J for when they have enclosed a very large space with 
 felled trees, they build within it, houses for themselves and 
 hovels for their cattle." Their collection of wicker-work 
 canister-shaped cottages, looked very much like the Kraals or 
 Hottentot villages of the present day. 
 
 The savage Britons in the middle of the island wore very 
 little clothing. They tattooed their skins, somewhat in the 
 manner of the South Sea islanders, and painted them with 
 woad, a plant which yields juice of a blue color. The more 
 civilized people of the coast wore trousers and tunics made 
 of chequered cloth, of various colors, the chief and favorite 
 stripe being red. This dress resembled the tartan-plaid of 
 the Highlanders. Over their garments they wore chains, 
 and collars or necklaces called torques, also bracelets and 
 rings, made of gold, silver, or brass. 
 
 These ornaments, as also their dyed cloth, prove that the 
 southern Britons knew something of manufactures. They 
 made metal rings which they used for money, and drinking- 
 vessels and urns of coarse earthenware. 
 
 The Britons were divided into numerous petty tribes, and 
 
BRITAIN BEFORE THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 11 
 
 as these were nearly always fighting with each other, the art of 
 war therefore was better known among them than any other. 
 Their weapons were broadswords and spears. At the end of 
 the spear was sometimes fixed a hollow ball filled with pieces 
 of metal, which making a rattling noise when thrown, would 
 frighten the horses of an enemy. 
 
 The most formidable instrument of war among the Britons 
 was the armed chariot. This was a kind of car, breast-high 
 in front and open behind, sometimes of rude structure, and 
 sometimes curiously and beautifully wrought. To the axle- 
 trees of this car, were fastened scythes and hooks. The 
 chariot was drawn by horses so well trained, that although 
 urged at speed over the roughest country, they could be 
 stopped instantly at the voice of the driver. These chariots, 
 filled with warrior Britons, driven into the midst of the battle, 
 cutting and tearing all before them, spread the greatest terror 
 through the ranks of their enemies. The shields of the Bri- 
 tons were made of basket-work covered with hides and coated 
 with metal. Their little walnut-shaped boats, called coracles, 
 were also made of twigs of osier covered with skins. 
 
 The religion of the Britons, called Druidism, was a strange 
 and cruel superstition. They worshipped the sun, the moon, 
 the serpent, and many of the Greek and Roman divinities. 
 Their priests were called Druids, and besides being the minis- 
 ters of religion, they were the judges of the people, and the 
 instructors of the youth. It was thought that the greater the 
 dumber of the Druids, the greater would be the prosperity of 
 the country. They became, consequently, a very large and 
 powerful class. They worshipped in groves of oak watered by 
 fountains or running streams, which were regarded as sacred. 
 
 Within these groves a circular row of huge upright stones 
 enclosed an open space, in the centre of which was the Crom- 
 lech, an altar consisting of a large flat stone laid horizontally 
 upon others. The most remarkable of these Druidical relics 
 now found in Great Britain, are those at Stonehenge in Wilt- 
 shire, and the curious cromlech known as Kits Coty House, 
 near Aylesford in Kent, 
 
12 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The Druids taught the people to believe that God loved the 
 oak more than all other trees of the wood, and that whatever 
 was found growing upon it came from heaven. Especially, 
 they looked upon as sacred the mistletoe plant, whenever its 
 white berries were found clustering upon the gnarled branches 
 of this monarch of the wood. The great festival for seeking 
 the mistletoe of the oak was on the sixth day of the moon 
 nearest to the 10th of March ; — the^ Druidical New Year's 
 day. When they were so fortunate as to find it, a procession 
 with great pomp and ceremony advanced to the sacred tree. 
 A white-robed Druid climbed the oak, and cut with a gold 
 knife the mistletoe bough, which was caught as it fell in the 
 white garment of another Druid. Then followed festive rites 
 and rejoicings. In the sacrifices of the Druids, human victims 
 frequently sufi'ered. Instances are recorded of men and ani- 
 mals thrown together into a huge wicker-work cage, and 
 burned in oiFerings to the false gods of this cruel religion. 
 
 Besides the festival above mentioned, there were three other 
 important holydays observed by the Druids : — May-Day, Mid- 
 summer Eve, and the last day of October. In their worship 
 of the Sun and Moon was included the adoration of fire. On 
 May-Day Eve, fires were lighted and sacrifices ofi'ered to obtain 
 a bleSsing on the newly-sown fields. And when, at Mid- 
 summer, the fruits of the earth were becoming ready for the 
 gathering, and on All Hallow's Eve, when the harvest was 
 ended, night-fires blazing on moor and mountain, marked the 
 celebration of each Druid festival. 
 
 The religion of these Pagans has long since passed away, and 
 yet, says an English writer, many traces of their old superstition 
 still linger in the popular sports and pastimes of the people. 
 " The ceremonies of All Hallowmas, the bonfires of May-Day 
 and Midsummer Eve, the virtues attributed to the mistletoe, 
 and various other customs of the village and country-side, still 
 speak to us of the days of Druidism, and evince that the impres- 
 sion of its grim ritual has not been wholly obliterated from the 
 popular imagination by the lapse of nearly twenty centuries." 
 
 The Druids were the teachers of the British youth, who 
 
BRITAIN BEFORE THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 13 
 
 resorted to them in the depths of the dark forests, and in some 
 instances remained under a course of instruction for twenty 
 years. One part of their education, was the learning of a 
 great number of verses by heart, for they were not allowed to 
 commit their knowledge to writing. They were taught astro- 
 nomy, and must have been well skilled in mechanics, to have 
 reared those ponderous stones and huge cromlechs, the mere 
 ruins and remains of which, as seen at Stonehenge and other 
 places, fill us with astonishment. They were taught the arts 
 of eloquence and poetry, and the British bards remained a 
 favored and venerated class long after the rest of their country- 
 men had been subdued or driven from the land. 
 
 Questions. — To what ancient maritime people do we owe our 
 earliest knowledge of Britain ? — For what purpose did they visit the 
 island ? — Relate what is told of the dwellings and mode of life of the 
 early inhabitants. — Describe the war-chariots of the Britons. 
 
 Name their religion and the objects of its worship. — What offices 
 did the Druids hold besides that of priests ? — Describe some of the 
 Druidical remains still found in Great Britain. — What tree was held 
 in veiteration ? — Under what circumstances was the mistletoe re- 
 garded as sacred? — Describe the ceremony of gathering it. — What is 
 told of the sacrifices of this religion ? — Give some account of the 
 education of British youth. — What arts and sciences were probably 
 familiar to the early Britons ? 
 
 CHAPTER II. ' 
 
 THE ROMAN CONQUEST 
 
 Such was the island of Britain and its people, about half a 
 « r. I.K century before the birth of our Saviour. Then the 
 Romans were a powerful nation, and had spread 
 the terror of their arms into the countries lying to the north 
 of Italy. Julius CaBsar, one of their most famous generals, 
 had subdued the Gauls (a people occupying the country now 
 2 
 
14 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 called France), and in the year 55 B. c, stood upon the south- 
 ern shore of the English Channel. Looking across the narrow 
 straits on the white cliffs of Dover, he coveted the island of 
 Britain for conquest. 
 
 Caesar accused the Britons of having helped the Gauls to 
 fight against him, but the real motive of his intended expedi- 
 tion was probably a desire to carry his arms into a new 
 country ; and in the summer, or early autumn of the above- 
 mentioned year, Julius Caesar, with a fleet of eighty vessels, 
 and an army of twelve thousand men, crossed the channel. 
 
 On approaching the cliffs of Dover, the Romans saw them 
 covered with fierce armed Britons. Caesar, finding it impos- 
 sible to land in the face of the bold rocks and bolder enemy, 
 gave orders to sail further along the coast, to a place where 
 the shore was less abrupt. The Britons, with their war- 
 chariots and horses, flew to the spot, determined if possible to 
 prevent his landing anywhere. The Roman fleet proceeded 
 to Deal, and there Caesar prepared to disembark his troops. 
 
 The water was very deep, and the fierce enemy was on the 
 shore. The soldiers began to falter, when a standard bfearer, 
 holding aloft the Roman eagle, and praying solemnly to the 
 gods of his country, to make what he was about to do prove 
 fortunate for Rome, plunged into the sea, exclaiming, *' Follow 
 me, my fellow-soldiers, unless you will give up your eagle to 
 the enemy ! I at least will do my duty to Caesar and to the 
 Republic !" This deed of daring emboldened the hesitating 
 legions. Leaping into the sea, they effected a landing, and 
 after a sharp conflict drove the Britons from the beach. The 
 latter promised submission, but a severe storm having destroyed 
 the Roman ships, the Britons soon broke into rebellion. They 
 were again defeated, and sued for peace, which was granted to 
 them on very easy terms ; for the Romans, having repaired a 
 few vessels of their disabled fleet, were anxious, as winter 
 approached, to return to Gaul. 
 
 ^ The next year Caesar came again to Britain. The 
 
 islanders united under a brave chief, Caswallon, and 
 
 did their utmost to defend their country. Several battle* 
 
THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 15 
 
 were fought, but the Komans did not penetrate far, and before 
 the end of the year 54 b. c. Caesar again made peace with the 
 islanders and returned to Graul, having discovered rather than 
 conquered Britain. 
 
 After the departure of Julius Caesar, Britain was left in 
 peace; that is, there was no enemy from abroad, but the 
 savage tribes were at war very often among themselves. At 
 
 length, when nearly one hundred years had gone by, 
 
 in the year of our Lord 43, Roman legions, under 
 Aulus Plautius, again entered Britain. Many battles were 
 fought, and the Roman emperor himself came to the island to 
 make sure of its conquest; yet but a small strip of country was 
 subdued, and even this was overrun by hostile^ Britons as 
 soon as the Roman general had withdrawn his troops. The 
 Britons, united under their chief Caradoc or Caractacus, for 
 
 nine years strove to drive the invaders from the 
 A.D. 43 island. Many fierce conflicts occurred. On a hill 
 A.D. 53. ^^ Shropshire, still linger the ruins of Caer-Caradoc, 
 
 the scene, it is said, of Caractacus' last battle. It 
 was bravely contested, but the numbers and discipline of the 
 Romans won the day. Caractacus was treacherously delivered 
 into the hands of his enemies, and carried in chains to the 
 imperial city. There, standing before Caesar's judgment«seat, 
 his noble spirit shone forth. His wife and children, awed by 
 the presence of the emperor, pleaded for mercy. Caractacus 
 rebuked with calm dignity the proud and wicked ambition 
 of his conquerors. " Why," said he, looking at the splendor 
 which surrounded him, "why should you, possessed of so 
 much magnificence at home, envy me an humble cottage in 
 Britain V 
 
 So noble a spirit on the part of a captive touched the heart 
 of the Roman emperor. He caused his chains, as well as 
 those of his wife and children, to be struck off. "Whether his 
 captors ever had the generosity to restore Caractacus to his 
 native land, historians have not told us. It is said that the 
 " Claudia" whom St. Paul mentions in his Second Epistle to 
 Timothy, was a daughter of Caracta<;us, and wae converted to 
 
16 HISTORY or ENGLAND. 
 
 Christianity through the influence of the wife of the Roman 
 general, Aulus Plautius. 
 
 The contest was still kept up in Britain, and many brave 
 Roman armies were sent thither. Between the years 59 and 
 ^„ „, 61 A. D. Suetonius Paulinus invaded the island of 
 
 59to61. 
 
 Anglesey (then called Mona), which was the chief 
 resort of the Druids, and a place of refuge for the British 
 warriors. The Britons did their utmost to defend this sacred 
 island : armed men crowded the beach ; women with streaming 
 hair and flaming torches and piercing cries ran in among them, 
 whilst Druids with lifted hands and frantic gestures uttered 
 curses on the daring invaders. It was all in vain. The 
 Romans, in^ flat-bottomed boats crossed the Menai Straits, 
 burned the Druids in the very fires they had kindled for their 
 enemies, and cut down the sacred groves. 
 
 While Suetonius was engaged in this expedition, the eastern 
 
 Britons had risen ao^ainst the Romans. Boadicea, 
 
 A.D.61. ,^ ' 
 
 Queen of the Iceni, one of these tribes, roused by 
 cruel wrongs which had been done to herself and her daughters, 
 flew to arms. Her countrymen flocked to her standard. Soon 
 a Roman colony was laid in ashes, and London (city of ships), 
 then a small but prosperous trading town, was plundered and 
 its iahabitants put to death. Other colonies were attacked, 
 and seventy thousand victims fell a sacrifice to British ven- 
 geance. Suetonius, at the first intelligence of this rising, 
 hurried from the west, and soon Queen Boadicea met her foes 
 in battle. Mounted in her war-chariot, her long yellow hair 
 streaming in the wind, she exhorted her followers to avenge 
 her wrongs and those of their country. But her efforts and 
 her heroism were of no avail. The Britons were defeated, 
 and their unhappy queen put an end to her life by swallowing 
 poison. 
 
 From A.D. 78 to a. D. 84 the Roman ereneral 
 
 tS & T9» 
 
 Agricola commanded in Britain. He taught the 
 people many of the arts of civilization ; induced them to for- 
 sake their rude huts and build comfortable houses, and taught 
 their youth the language of Rome. He carried the Roman 
 
THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 17 
 
 arms further north than any other general had done, display- 
 ing the victorious eagle at the foot of the Grampian Hills. 
 Here he met the Caledonians ; a people whom he never con- 
 quered, although he fought many battles with them. Agricola 
 sent some of his ships around the northern capes of Scotland 
 and down the western coast to Land's End, thereby making 
 the first certain discovery to the Romans that Britain was an 
 island. The southern part of Britain had now 
 
 A.D. 80. . . ^ 
 
 almost entirely submitted, but the Caledonians were 
 
 constantly attacking the chain of forts and entrenchments 
 
 which Agricola had constructed across the northern part of 
 
 the country, from the river Clyde to the Frith of Forth. 
 
 Many generals marched into Scotland, and two emperors, 
 
 Hadrian and Severus, after in vain trying to 
 
 conquer these fierce people, built ramparts and 
 
 A.D. 308. walls as a defence against them. The wall of 
 
 Severus, extending from the Solway to the Tyne, 
 
 was built of stone, and strengthened at frequent intervals by 
 
 castles and turrets, which during the Roman occupation were 
 
 garrisoned with soldiers. This rampart served to keep back 
 
 the barbarians, and for nearly seventy years after its erection, 
 
 Roman Britain enjoyed peace. The son of Severus granted 
 
 the Britons the privileges of Roman citizenship. 
 
 During the fourth century the Picts, a tribe of Caledonians, 
 and the Scots, a people who had come from Ireland, rushing 
 like birds of prey from the mountain fastnesses of Scotland, 
 broke over the wall of Severus, laid waste the country beyond, 
 and even advanced into the southern provinces of Britain. 
 ««-, M ^ The Romans drove them back as lone; as thev 
 
 367 to 430. to J 
 
 could, but the power of Rome was fast declining. 
 Barbarians from the forests of G-ermany and Hungary were 
 pouring down upon Gaul, Spain, Italy, and other provinces of 
 her vast empire. She had need of all her armies for the 
 defence of the imperial city. In a. d. 420, nearly five hundred 
 years after the first landing of Cassar, every Roman legion was 
 withdrawn, and the conquerors took their final departure from 
 Britain. 
 
 2* B 
 
18 HISTORY OF ENQLANP. 
 
 During the five centuries of their occupation, the Romans 
 had done much to improve the island, and to better the con- 
 dition of the people. They had erected fine broad paved 
 highways throughout the country ; so solid and so well laid, 
 that remains of them are to be seen at the present day. 
 Towns were built, and the mud or wooden cottages of the early 
 Britons gave place to houses of brick and stone. The ground 
 was better cultivated, and grain became a plentiful article of 
 export. Long before the Romans came to the island, a trade 
 in tin had been carried on with distant nations, but now the 
 mines were better worked and greater quantities exported. 
 Oysters were sent to Rome from the shores of Britain, and 
 were esteemed an article of luxury. Pearls too from the 
 same coasts acquired celebrity; Caesar is said to have hung up 
 in the temple of a heathen goddess at Rome, a shield studded 
 with British pearls. Agricola, who was father-in-law to 
 Tacitus, the famous Roman historian, founded schools, to 
 which the British youth were sent for instruction in the 
 language and literature of Rome. 
 
 But the greatest benefit bestowed upon Britain b)»her con- 
 querors was the introduction of Christianity. When the 
 Romans first came, they were themselves pagans, for it was 
 half a century before the birth of our Saviour. When they 
 had broken down the altars of the Druids, they too built 
 shrines, to a milder, perhaps, but still to a false religion. To 
 Jupiter, Apollo, Venus, and Diana were temples erected, and 
 in various parts of London, statues and images of the gods of 
 his country, arrested the eye and claimed the worship of the 
 Roman soldier. By degrees, as the religion of the Saviour 
 spread, Romans became converted, and among the armies who 
 entered Britain there were no doubt Christian soldiers. As 
 early as the year of our Lord 209 a Christian writer says : 
 " Even the places in Britain hitherto inaccessible to Roman 
 arms, have been subdued by the gospel of Christ !" 
 
 When the heathen emperors persecuted Christianity 
 throughout all the empire, British Christians suffered also, and 
 the first martyr of the faith in this island was St. Alban, who 
 
THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 19 
 
 was put to death, a.d. 286, during the great persecution of the 
 emperor Bioclesian. In the year 314, three British bishops 
 were sent into Gaul to attend there a Christian council — by 
 which we know that Christianity must have been pretty well 
 established in Britain at that time. 
 
 The testimony of one of the early Christian Fathers, 
 Clement of Rome, renders it extremely probable that St. Paul 
 himself visited Britain. But, though we have no certain 
 knowledge respecting the missionaries who first carried thither 
 the blessed gospel of God, let our hearts ascend in thankful- 
 ness to Him who at this early date permitted its glorious light 
 to dispel the darkness which for so many centuries had brooded 
 over the country. 
 
 Well may the poet exclaim : 
 
 " He brought thy land a blessing when he came, 
 He found thee savage and he left thee tame." 
 
 Questions. — What is said of the Roman conquests in the first 
 century before the Christian era? — When and by whom were the 
 Roman arms first carried into Britain? — Relate the efforts of the 
 Britons to prevent this invasion. — Repeat briefly the account of Cae- 
 sar's campaigns in Britain. 
 
 When and under what general was the island again invaded by 
 the Romans? — Describe the resistance of the Britons, and the con- 
 duct of Caractacus. — When, and by whom, was Anglesey attacked ? — 
 By whom was the island defended? — With what result? — Relate the 
 history of Boadicea. 
 
 What benefits were conferred on the Britons by Agricola ? — How 
 far did he extend his invasion ? — What discovery was made by his 
 mariners ? — Mention the several walls and fortifications built across 
 the northern part of Britain. — What tribes broke through the wall 
 of Severus, and when? — Why could the Romans no longer defend 
 Britain? — When did they take their final departure? 
 
 What had been the effect of the Roman occupation upon the island ? 
 — Mention the principal improvements effected by the Romans ? — 
 What British products were highly esteemed in Rome ? — What reli- 
 gion was first brought into the island by the armies of Rome ? — What 
 faith was subsequently introduced ? — Name the first British Christian 
 martyr. — What proof have we of the early establishment of a Christian 
 Church in Britain ? 
 
20 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 4- 
 
 PART 11. 
 SAXON HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 A.D. 420—1066. 
 
 " They came and fought the Scots and Picts, 
 But conquered Britain, too ; 
 From Angle, a famed Saxon tribe, 
 The name of England grew." 
 
 Hannah Townsbnd. 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 THE SAXON INVASION. 
 
 CHARACTER OF THE INVADERS — REPULSE OF THE PICTS AND SCOTS— FOUN- 
 DATION OP THE HEPTARCHY — CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY — ENGLAND 
 UNDER ONE SOVEREIGN — THE DANES. 
 
 When the Roman learions took their departure 
 
 4:30 to 449. ^.. .111, lo .11 
 
 Britain was indeed abandoned; for with the armies 
 that left her shores sailed the flower of the British youth, and 
 for many years the valor of Britain, instead of being employed 
 at home, was enlisted elsewhere against the enemijCS of the 
 Roman empire. Meanwhile the Picts and Scots, breaking 
 over the wall of Severus, or passing round it in their little 
 coracles, ravaged the land, and bid fair to destroy every trace 
 of civilization which the Romans had left. 
 
 The disheartened Britons refused to sow the fields 
 which they knew an enemy would reap, and famine 
 and pestilence spread over the land. In the depths of their 
 distress an appeal, called " The Groans (W the Britons," was 
 made to the Romans. "The barbarians," say they, "chase 
 us into the sea ; the sea throws us back upon the barbarians ; 
 and we have only the hard choice left us of perishing by the 
 
THE SAXON INVASION. 21 
 
 sword or by the waves." But Attila the Hun, an enemy bo 
 terrible as to be called " the scourge of Grod/' was thundering 
 at the gates of the imperial city, and the prayer of a distant 
 province was raised in vain. 
 
 In the year 449 the ships of two Saxon brothers 
 were riding in the English Channel. Their standards 
 bore the figure of a horse, and from two words, both of which 
 are in the Saxon language names for that animal, these bro- 
 thers were called Hengist and Horsa. 
 
 On board the Saxon ships there were perhaps three tribes ; 
 the Jutes, the Angles, and the Saxons. They all sprang 
 from the same race of Scandinavian pirates which age after 
 age left the shores of the Baltic and North Seas, and were 
 known in successive centuries as Saxons, Danes, and North- 
 men or Normans. The Jutes, Angles, and Saxons came 
 principally from Denmark, and the country lying to the south 
 and west of that peninsula. 
 
 They were a fierce race, claiming to be descended from Odin 
 or Woden, a great warrior king whom they worshipped as a 
 god. The religion of these Northmen was what we might 
 expect of such a people. Their Heaven, or Valhalla, as they 
 called it, was a realm of warriors whose days were passed in 
 fighting, and whose nights were spent in carousals, in which 
 they ate the flesh of a huge boar, and drank great draughts of 
 mead from cups formed of the skulls of their enemies. Woden, 
 their god of battles, was represented by an image, armed, 
 crowned, and brandishing a drawn sword. Thor, the god of 
 tempests, of thunder and lightning, held a mace, sometimes 
 called "Thor's mighty hammer/' 
 
 The Saxons and their descendants have now learned of a 
 holier religion and a purer heaven, but their heathen divinities 
 still give name to those days of the week, which in the old 
 pagan times were especially consecrated to their worship. 
 Thus, though so many centuries have gone by, Woden is still 
 remembered in our Wednes or Woden's day, Thor in our 
 Thor's or Thursday, and from Frea, the wife of Odin, is named 
 our Friday. 
 
22 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 These tribes delighted in war. Their weapons, spears, 
 swords, and battle-axes, made of steel, were always kept 
 bright and sharp and ready for use. They were bold mari- 
 ners and defied the fierce tempest, making themselves the 
 terror of the seas. 
 
 ** The Norsemen, trained to spoil and blood, 
 Skilled to prepare the raven's food ; 
 Kings of the main, their leaders brave, 
 Their barks the dragons of the wave." 
 
 Such were the men yrho, from their war-ships in the 
 English Channel, were invited by Vortigern, a British prince, 
 to land and defend his dominions from the Picts and Scots. 
 The Saxons gladly accepted a proposal so suited to their 
 tastes, and the Isle of Thanet, now a portion of Kent, was 
 given them for a residence. Soon they met the Picts and 
 Scots in battle, defeated and drove them back to their moun- 
 tain fastnesses. 
 
 At a feast given by Hengist to his British host, Rowena, 
 the fair daughter of the Saxon warrior, knelt, and, presenting 
 to Vortigern a golden goblet of wine, said in Saxon words, 
 " Dear king, thy health." Her grace and beauty so won 
 the heart of Vortigern that he asked her in marriage. Sho 
 became his wife, and her influence with her husband brought 
 numbers of her countrymen to the shores of Britain. 
 
 The new comers, after driving the Picts and Scots beyond 
 the wall of Severus, aided by kindred tribes, 
 
 449 to 600. "^ , 
 
 Jutes, Saxons, and Angles, who came pouring 
 into the island, turned upon the defenceless people whom they 
 had been invited to protect. Despite the fabled prowess 
 of King Arthur and his knights, and the bravery of many 
 valorous Britons, who for nearly two hundred years kept up 
 the struggle, at the end of that period the Saxon triumphed. 
 The Britons were driven into other countries, or sought refuge 
 amid the wilds of Cornwall or the mountains of Wales. There 
 they remained for six hundred years the enemies of the 
 Saxons, sometimes rushing down to lay waste their lands, then 
 
THE SAXON INVASION. 23 
 
 defeated and driven back to their mountains, but ever to the 
 Saxon an unconquered, unconquerable foe. 
 
 At the end of two hundred years from the landing of Hen- 
 gist and Horsa, the Saxons had founded in the conquered 
 island, seven states, called the Saxon Heptarchy ; 1. Kent, 
 founded by the son of Hengist; 2. Sussex, or the kingdom 
 of the South-Saxons ; 3. Wessex, or that of the West-Saxons ; 
 4. Essex, the possession of the East-Saxons^ 5. East Anglia, 
 conquered by the Angles, North-folk and South-folk, which 
 still give the name to two English shires; 6. Northumbria, or 
 the country of the people north of the Humber; 7. Mercia, or 
 the woodland kingdom, which was but partially conquered by 
 the Saxons. 
 
 The most interesting event in the history of the Heptarchy 
 is the conversion of the pagan Saxons to Christianity. When 
 the fierce worshippers of Odin and Thor entered Britain, the 
 religion of the Cross was driven from the land, or sought 
 refuge with the conquered people in the mountains of Wales, 
 and in later days amid the rocky islands of the Hebrides. 
 The churches of God were despoiled, and altars to Odin and 
 ^,^, ^ Thor arose in their stead. For a hundred and 
 
 44:9 to 597. T-» • . 
 
 fifty years. Paganism reigned triumphant. But 
 in the providence of Him who delighteth to bring good out 
 of evil, the cruel custom which the Saxons practised of selling 
 their children for slaves, was made the means of introducing 
 the blessings of Christianity into Britain. 
 
 In the public market-place of Rome some children were 
 exposed for sale. Gregory, a Roman prior, struck by their 
 bright complexions, fair hair, and beautiful forms, asked 
 whence they came. "They are Angles," was the reply. 
 " Angles !" he exclaimed, " they would be angels rather, if 
 they were but Christians." The benevolent interest of the 
 good prior did not end with this witticism ; for a few years 
 afterwards, when he became pope, he sent Augustin, with 
 forty other monks, to preach the gospel to the Anglo-Saxons. 
 jgy^ This was in the year of our Lord 597. A few years 
 before, one of the kings of the Heptarchy, Ethelbcrt 
 
24 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of Kent, had married Bertha, a Christian princess of France. 
 He was therefore kindly disposed towards the missionaries, but 
 the pagan priests, who attributed the influence of the Christians 
 to magic, persuaded the king to receive them in the open air, for 
 they believed that he would be safer from their incantations 
 there, than under a roof A ruined British Christian church, 
 St. Martin's without the walls of Canterbury, was appropriated 
 to their use, and in a few months King Ethelbert received 
 Christian baptism. Soon ten thousand of his subjects followed 
 his example. This cheering news so rejoiced the heart of 
 Pope Gregory, that he made Augustin Primate or Archbishop 
 of all England, and appointed Canterbury his Episcopal See. 
 
 You will remember that upon the invasion of the Saxons, 
 the Christian church of Britain had sought refuge amid the 
 mountains of Wales. The new primate now endeavored to 
 secure the alliance and co-operation of these British Christians 
 for the conversion of the pagan Saxons. Unfortunately his 
 application, coupled with the demand that they should acknow- 
 ledge the supremacy of the Pope, awakened the opposition 
 of the Welsh ecclesiastics. Other grounds of difference also 
 existed between the parties. 
 
 Perhaps, too, the Welsh priests were not a little jealous of 
 the success of their Italian brethren. The zeal of Augustin 
 and his followers certainly put to shame the lukewarmness of 
 the British Christians. Seven bishops and an abbot received 
 at Bangor the demands of the Roman primate, to all of which 
 they returned a positive refusal. This rejection of his over- 
 tures roused the anger of Augustin, and, assuming the gift of 
 prophecy, he declared, that, because they would not aid in the 
 conversion of the Saxons, by the swords of the Saxons they 
 should perish. A few years after the death of the primate, this 
 fatal prophecy met its fulfilment at the hands of a Northum- 
 brian king who ordered the slaughter of the monks of Bangor. 
 
 Other states of the Heptarchy soon followed the example of 
 Kent. About A. d. 604 Sebert, the once pagan king of Essex, 
 built in London a little Christian church, on the spot where 
 once stood a temple of Diana, and where now risc^ the noble 
 
THE SAXON INVASION. 25 
 
 Cathedral Church of St. Paul's. In less than ninety years 
 from the first coming of St. Augustin and his forty monks, 
 nearly the whole of the Saxon Heptarchy had been converted 
 to Christianity. Churches and monasteries arose in every 
 part of the island. For many years the greater number of the 
 priests and monks came from abroad, especially from Rome, 
 and there were eight Roman Archbishops of Canterbury 
 before a Saxon obtained that dignity. 
 
 In the year 825, after nearly four centuries of wars 
 among the different states of the Heptarchy, they were 
 all united under Egbert, king of Wessex, and henceforth are 
 known as one kingdom, called Angle-land or England. 
 
 Scarcely was England united under one sovereign 
 before she became the prey of an invasion more savage, 
 if possible, than the Saxon had been. The English were now 
 made to suffer all the miseries which their forefathers had 
 inflicted upon the Britons, and that too, from a race kindred 
 with themselves. 
 
 The pirates who invaded Britain in the fifth century were 
 called Saxons: those who now came into England in the ninth 
 century were called Danes. They were, however, of the same 
 Scandinavian race. 
 
 During these four hundred years, from the fifth to the 
 ninth century, the Anglo-Saxons had embraced Christianity, 
 and, entirely abandoning their habits of sea-»oving, had become 
 in some degree a civilized people. 
 
 Not so with their fierce and pagan brethren on the other 
 side of the German Ocean. They had grown bolder and 
 stronger ; their wealth and their boast was in their war-ships. 
 They gloried in the titles of Yikinger and Sea-King. They 
 chose for their emblems the fiercest of birds and beasts of prey. 
 The raven was embroidered on their banners, and the dragon 
 gave shape to their vessels. They had long been the terror 
 of the sea-coast of Europe, and you may be sure a fiercer set 
 of pirates never turned their prows towards England than 
 the Danish sea-kings of the ninth century. 
 
 Great indeed were the calamities which these Northmen 
 3 
 
26 HISTORY or ENGLAND. 
 
 spread throughout England for the space of forty years, 
 
 during the reigns of Egbert, his son, and his three grandsons. 
 
 Churches, convents, and dwelHngs were burned, and the land 
 
 was plundered and wasted. At first the Danes were 
 
 871. ^ 
 
 only summer marauders, and when autumn came they 
 Bailed away. But by the year 871 they had conquered 
 Northumbria, established a capital at York, and for seven 
 long years had wintered in the laud. 
 
 Questions. — To what evils were the Britons exposed on the de- 
 parture of the Romans? — Repeat their appeal for protection. — Why 
 was it not successful ? 
 
 Of what race were the Saxons, Jutes, and Angles ? — Repeat the 
 names by which this race was known at different periods. — What is 
 related of their character and religion ? — Mention some of the fami- 
 liar names derived from those of their divinities. — What is told of 
 their preparations for war? — Relate the circumstances which brought 
 them into Britain. — What was their conduct in that country ? — How 
 long did the Britons resist the invaders? — What was the iinal result? 
 
 Name the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy. — Relate the circum- 
 stances which led to the introduction of Christianity into Britain. — 
 By whom and in what kingdom was Christianity first established ? — 
 When, and under what name, did the Saxon Heptarchy become 
 united ? 
 
 Of what race were the Danes ? — Describe their character and 
 habits. — When did they first invade England? — What evils did they 
 inflict for the space of forty years? — During whose reigns were these 
 ravages committed* — What was the condition of England in the 
 year 871 ? 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 KING ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 HIS EARLY DAYS — CONFLICTS WITH THE DANES — THE BENEFICENT RULER. 
 
 « When the tale of bricks is doubled, Moses comes/' says 
 the Jewish proverb ; and now when the bondage of the Saxons 
 was heaviest, God raised up for them a deliverer. 
 
KING ALFRED THE GREAT. 27 
 
 In the year 871 the crown of England rested upon a young 
 prince of twenty-three, — the youngest of four brothers, but 
 one whose wisdom and valor fitted him to be the defender of 
 his country. This prince was Alfred, most justly surnamed 
 the Great. From early childhood he had given promise of 
 future greatness. When only eight years old he went with 
 his father, King Ethelwulf, on a pilgrimage to Rome. 
 
 Rome, the queen city of the ^orld, had lost much of her 
 ancient splendor. The barbarian had paced her streets and 
 despoiled her glory. Yet in Alfred's time, her beautiful 
 Coliseum, her noble Capitol, her Amphitheatre, her palaces 
 and columns and gateways, were far more perfect than they 
 are at the present day. Child though he was, the splendor 
 of the papal court and of the imperial city made a deep 
 impression on his mind, as he contrasted it with the almost 
 barbarous rudeness of his own land. 
 
 In those days the Bishop of Rome had taken the 
 title of Pope [Papa], and claimed to be the head of the 
 Christian world. With his own hand he poured the sacred 
 oil upon the head of the child Alfred, thus anointing him the 
 future king of England. The pope performed this ceremony 
 in imitation of the ancient custom of the Jewish law. And 
 surely since the days when the High Priest Samuel anointed 
 the young David king over Israel, never was there a better 
 prince set apart by the anointing oil than Alfred of England. 
 One day, after his return to his own country, his mother, 
 Osburgha, was reading to her children a Saxon poem, from one 
 of the illuminated or richly painted books of that day. The 
 boys admired the book. " I will give it," said the mother, 
 "to him among you who shall first learn to read it." The 
 elder brothers gave up the prize which was to be won at such 
 a cost, but Alfred sought a teacher, learned to read Anglo- 
 Saxon, and was rewarded with the book. 
 
 Years had passed by since the anointing oil had been 
 
 poured by the pope upon Alfred's head. He had seen his 
 
 three brothers in quick succession mount the throne, 
 
 and now they were all dead, and the kingdom had fallen 
 
28 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 to him. The Danes had made it a legacy little to be coveted, 
 for, with the exception of the kingdom of Wessex, they were 
 the real masters of England. 
 
 One of Alfred's first acts was to build a few vessels. With 
 these, the daring pirates were met on th^ sea, and i-n two naval 
 battles the English triumphed. The Danes, however, were 
 not disheartened : they came in still greater numbers, and 
 after many battles. King Alfred was obliged to flee, 
 g^g^ He sought rei'uge in a lonely spot in Somersetshire, 
 known still as Athelney, or Prince's Island. One day, 
 whilst lodging in the cottage of a peasant, he was told to watch 
 some oaten bread which the wife of the peasant was baking on 
 the hearth. The king, whose sad heart was dwelling on the 
 troubles of his realm, forgot his trust. When the woman 
 came in, and found her loaves burning, she scolded well the 
 negligent stranger, exclaiming, " You man ! you will not turn 
 the bread you see burning, but you will be glad enough to eat 
 it." Little thought the good woman that she was scolding 
 her king. 
 
 Alfred remained but a few months in his retreat at Athel- 
 ney. Disguising himself as a minstrel or gleeman, in that 
 ever-welcome character he entered the Danish camp. Whilst 
 amusing the chiefs with song and story, he observed their 
 numbers and noted their idle security. 
 
 He then returned to his followers, and gathering around 
 him at his trysting-place in Selwood Forest a band of true- 
 hearted men, he met the Danes at Ethandune, on the banks 
 of the river Avon, and gained a complete victory. 
 
 The Danes asked for peace. xVlfred was as wise as he was 
 brave. He knew that though he should fight battle after 
 battle with these heathen Danes, yet they would come again in 
 greater numbers, and make England a continual battle-field. 
 If, on the other hand, he could induce them to become 
 Christians, and to settle peaceably in the country (for there 
 was land enough and to spare, for both Dane and Saxon), then 
 they might not only become good subjects, but help to drive 
 away other tribes of their fierce countrymen. 
 
KING ALFRED THE GREAT. 29 
 
 These terms Alfred proposed to the Danish king, Guthrum, 
 after the battle of Ethandune. They were accepted. Guth- 
 rum received Christian baptism, King Alfred answering for 
 him at the font. To the Danes was granted that large portion 
 of eastern England which they had overrun. It was then 
 called Danelagh, or the country under the law of the Dane. 
 
 For a time the land had rest. The king gathered around 
 him learned men, and began those improvements which, more 
 than his battles, have gained him the title of Great. But not 
 yet was he to lay aside the warrior. At the end of twelve 
 years Guthrum had died. Some of his Danes had broken 
 their promises of peace, and welcomed to England new hosts 
 of their plundering countrymen. Then came the famous sea- 
 king, Hastings, with a fleet of two hundred and fifty 
 vessels, and for three years the Raven of Denmark, 
 borne on the standard of this bold chief, was the terror of 
 every province of England At length, however, English 
 valor prevailed, and the defeated and dispirited Hastings 
 sailed away to other lands. 
 
 Only four years remained to the life of Alfred, but they 
 were glorious years for England. He divided the kingdom 
 into counties. He established justice and order in the land, 
 and made the laws so respected, that it is said bracelets and 
 jewels might be hung up on the highway, and no man would 
 dare to touch them. He taught his people to build better 
 houses, and better churches. To his court he invited learned 
 and good men from all countries. 
 
 He entertained geographers and navigators, and gained a 
 knowledge of other lands. Hearing of a Christian colony on 
 the coast of Hindoostan, he sent thither an English bishop to 
 visit them. This long and perilous overland journey was 
 accomplished, and India first heard of that distant isle, which, 
 ere a thousand years had gone by, was to become her ruler. 
 The worthy bishop brought home rich treasures of spices and 
 gems, and thereby India's products first became known to the 
 Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 King Alfred established schools, and provided for the 
 8* 
 
so HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 instruction of his people. The world-reuowned University of 
 Oxford looks back with gratitude to this good king as its 
 liberal beuefactor, if not its founder. He did much to im- 
 prove the language of his subjects. Hitherto nearly all the 
 books had been written in Latin, which few of the people 
 could read. Alfred ordered " all good and useful books" to 
 be translated into English. He was himself a scholar, and 
 translated the Book of Psalms, and other portions of God's 
 word. A more precious legacy could hardly have been left 
 by a ruler to his subjects. 
 
 Alfred divided his time into three portions. Eight hours 
 were given to the aflfairs of the state, eight to study and devo- 
 tion, and eight to sleep, exercise, and refreshment. Clocks 
 and watches were unknown, and to supply their place, Alfred 
 invented time-candles. These were made of wax, notched at 
 regular intervals, and indicated by their burning the flight of 
 the hours. The wind coming in through the doors and win- 
 dows, "and the numerous chinks in the icalls of the palace," 
 caused his candles to flare, whereupon Alfred provided for 
 their protection a lantern of transparent horn. 
 
 It is pleasant to dwell upon the graces and virtues of Eng- 
 land's noblest monarch. When we remember that, amid all 
 the cares of government, and labors of study, he was sufi"ering 
 from a painful disease, which his physicians could neither 
 understand nor cure, still more wonderful will appear the 
 brightness of his character. Nor shall we deem it strange, 
 that through a thousand years his name has lived in the 
 memories and affections of men, as Alfred the Great. In the 
 year 901, at the age of fifty-three, this good man and 
 great sovereign was laid in his tomb in the monastery 
 of Winchester, leaving behind him a name which shall be had 
 in " everlasting remembrance.'' 
 
 Questions. — Who ascended the English throne in 871 ? — When 
 had he visited Rome ? — What objects there had attracted his admi- 
 ration? — What ceremony was performed by the pope? — Relate tha 
 anecdote of Alfred's learning to read. 
 
ENGLAND UNDER THE DANES. SI 
 
 What was the condition of England when Alfred ascended the 
 throne ? — State the result of his first encounters with the Danes. — 
 Relarte the story of the king and the oaten bread. — What encouraged 
 him to try another encounter with the Danes ? — Where did this en- 
 counter take place ? — What was the result of it ? — On what terms did 
 Alfred offer peace to the Danes ? — How were they received by Guth- 
 rum ? — What was the result ? — Give an account of a Danish invasion 
 later in this reign. 
 
 State some of the benefits bestowed by Alfred upon his people. — 
 How was a knowledge of India obtained during Alfred's reign ? — 
 What was done by Alfred for the promotion of education ? — What 
 book did he translate? — How did he divide and regulate his time? — 
 What circumstance greatly enhances the merit of his labors? — When 
 did he die ? — Where was he buried ? 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE DANES, —j" 
 
 THE SUCCESSORS OP ALFRED — ETHELRED THE UNREADY — THE DANE KINGS 
 — EDWARD THE CONFESSOR. 
 
 Edward, the son, and Athdstane, Edmund, and Edred, 
 the grandsons of Alfred, proved themselves worthy successors 
 of such a sovereign. They put down insurrections in the 
 Danelagh, taking many towns from those restless Danes, and 
 obliging them to dwell quietly in their own border. Athel- 
 stane fought with the Welsh, and made them pay tribute of 
 gold and silver, of hawks and hounds. He was the first Saxon 
 sovereign who took the title of King of England. Even the 
 great Alfred had only styled himself " King of the West- 
 Saxons.'' 
 
 At the end of fifty years the Danes of the Danelagh 
 
 had no more their own royal ruler. Their country was 
 
 no longer one great kingdom of Northumbria, but was divided 
 
 into the provinces which still bear the namees of Yorkshire, 
 
32 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Durham, Northumberland, &c. The population was Danish 
 nevertheless, and subjection to an Anglo-Saxon king was a 
 most unwilling yoke. They turned their eyes towards the sea, 
 ready to welcome the first pirate chief who would help them 
 to re-establish their own power in the land. 
 
 Such an opportunity was offered in the reign of Ethelred, 
 who came to the throne in the year 978, on the murder of his 
 elder step-brother, Edward, surnamed the Martyr, This crime 
 had been committed by Elfrida, the mother of Ethelred, in 
 order to place the crown upon his brow. It excited universal 
 horror throughout the nation. " No worse deed than this," 
 says the Saxon Chronicle, " had been committed among the 
 people of the Angles, since they first came to the land of 
 Britain." 
 
 Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, opposed Ethelred' s 
 accession. This Dunstan was an ambitious and powerful 
 priest, who for many years, especially during the reigns of 
 Edwy and Edgar, the predecessors of Ethelred, had more 
 truly ruled the realm than the king who wore the crown. 
 Dunstan tried to persuade the nun, Edgitha, a half-sister of 
 Ethelred, to become queen, but she thought of her murdered 
 brother, and of the short reigns and sad deaths of many a 
 Saxon king, and wisely refused to leave the quiet of the 
 cloister for the perils of a throme. 
 
 There was no other heir, and Dunstan was most unwillingly 
 forced to make the young Ethelred king. It is said that, in 
 placing the crown on his brow, the angry archbishop pro- 
 nounced a curse, instead of a blessing, on the unhappy young 
 monarch. He gave him, also, the nickname of " the 
 Unready." The curse, alas I had its fulfilment, for in 
 this unfortunate prince, the glory of the house of Alfred was 
 for ever lost. He proved himself, also, but too deserving of 
 the nickname of '' Unready." 
 
 For about thirty years the land had had rest from the Danes, 
 
 but scarcely had Ethelred been three years on the throne, when 
 
 the raven banner of the sea-kings was again raised in 
 
 England. This time the Danish hosts were led by 
 
ENGLAND UNDER THE DANES. 83 
 
 Swejn, a prince, and afterwards king of Denmark. And how 
 did the weak King Ethelred repel them '{ Not as his braver 
 ancestors had done, by courage and arms, but by bribes of 
 silver and gold. Of course they came again, plundering and 
 burning as before. More money was given them, and 
 the Banegeld (as the gold given to bribe the Danes 
 away was called) rose from ten to sixteen, and finally to 
 twenty-four thousand pounds. Then the weak King Ethelred 
 tried another means to get rid of the enemy. He married 
 Emma, '' the Flower of Normandy," as she was called. She 
 was the sister of Richard, duke of the Normans, and Ethelred 
 hoped, by the aid of these strangers, to drive the Danes from 
 the land. 
 
 The Normans, as one might suppose from their name, were 
 themselves Northmen, of the same race originally as the Saxons 
 and Danes. Nearly a hundred years before the reign of King 
 Ethelred, they had fallen upon France, pretty much as the 
 Saxons had upon England. The French king gave to their 
 leader, llolfe, or Rollo, a large portion of territory. The 
 invaders settled therein, broke off their connection with their 
 sea-roving countrymen, gave up even the religion and language 
 of their ancestors, and became, in the course of a century, a 
 people as brave as the Saxons, and in some respects more civil- 
 ized. King Ethelred hoped that by his marriage with Emma 
 of Normandy, Norman soldiers would come over and help him 
 fight the Danes. 
 
 In this hope he was disappointed, and now the third 
 method which he took to rid himself of the enemy, was 
 quite as weak as the other two, and far more wicked. On the 
 loth of November, 1002, known as the Festival of St. Brice, 
 he ordered the Danes to be put to death. The fearful, trea- 
 cherous order was obeyed. In one night, this new Danish 
 population, which, during twenty years of invasion, had become 
 mingled with the English, was laid low by the swords of their 
 hosts and neighbors. Among the dead was Gunhilda, the 
 sister of the Danish king. When the tidings reached his ears, 
 Sweyn vowed a fearful revenge. 
 
34 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 A larger fleet, a more numerous army than had ever before 
 gathered for the invasion of Saxon England, now assembled. 
 To the natural ferocity of the invaders was added a burning 
 thirst for vengeance. '' These choice warriors embarked in 
 lofty ships, every one of which bore the ensign of its separate 
 commander. Some carried at their prow such figures as lions, 
 bulls, dolphins, dragons, or armed men of metal, gayly gilded 3 
 others carried on their topmast head the figures of large birds, 
 as eagles and ravens, that stretched out their wings and turned 
 with the wind ; the sides of the ship were painted with differ- 
 ent bright colors, and from stem to stern shields of burnished 
 steel were suspended in even lines, and glittered in the sun. 
 Gold, silver, and embroidered banners were displayed, and the 
 whole wealth of the pirates of the Baltic lent its aid to thia 
 barbaric pomp. The ship that bore the royal standard of 
 Sweyn was moulded in the form of an enormous serpent, the 
 sharp head of which formed the prow, while the lengthening 
 tail coiled over the poop. It was called 'The Great Dragon.' " 
 The fearful host landed in England. No Danegeld 
 
 1003« 
 
 could make them depart now. Town after town, pro- 
 vince after province yielded. At last they drove the weak 
 King Ethelred beyond seas, to take refuge with his Norman 
 brother-in-law, and at the end of ten years of ravage and plun- 
 der and warfare, Sweyn, king of Denmark, •became king of 
 
 Enji'laud too. He died before his coronation, and the 
 
 XO 13 
 
 Danes proclaimed Canute, his son, as king. The Saxon 
 cause was upheld by a sou of Ethelred's, Edmund, surnamed 
 Ironsides. After some battles, the kingdom was divided be- 
 tween the two rulers, Saxon and Dane. In a few months, 
 however, Edmund Ironsides died, and Canute the Dane be- 
 came full king of England. At the end of nearly two 
 hundred years of invasion, a Danish race of monarchs 
 was thus seated on the English throne. 
 
 Canute did not feel very secure in his new kingdom, and 
 cruel were the means he took to render himself more at ease. 
 He said to his Danish warriors, '' He who brings me the head 
 of one of my enemies, shall be dearer to me than a brother/* 
 
ENGLAND UNDER THE DANES. 85 
 
 and the head of many a Saxon chief purchased this brotherly 
 affection. The young sous of Edmund Ironsides were sent to 
 Sweden, Canute hoping that the king of that country would 
 cause them to be put to death. The Swedish king did not 
 murder them, but sent them far away into Hungary, wher«, 
 beyond the reach of the cruel Dane, they were kindly treated. 
 There were two other heirs to the English throne. Ethel- 
 red himself was dead, but had left two sons at the court of his 
 Norman brother-in-law. Canute could not murder these child- 
 ren, but he entered into treaty with their uncle, Duke Richard, 
 and proposed to make their mother a second time queen of 
 England. And Emma, the heartless " Flower of Normandy," 
 for the 2;lory of a throne, forgot the love and care she 
 
 1017. . . 
 
 owed her children, and became the wife of this strange 
 Danish king, the cruel enemy of her Saxon husband and their 
 sons. 
 
 When Canute had disposed of all his enemies, he became a 
 milder and a better king, and sought to win the favor of his 
 subjects. He gathered round him the minstrels and gleemen, 
 and delighted in old songs and ballads, and even made verses 
 himself for the people. He made good laws for his kingdom, 
 and becoming a Christian, founded churches and monasteries. 
 One day, disgusted with the flatteries of his courtiers, he 
 caused his throne to be placed on the sea-shore, when the tide 
 was coming in. Then, as the waves rolled on with their 
 resistless might, he commanded them to retire, ^' nor presume 
 to wet the edge of his robe." But, as each succeeding wave 
 broke nearer the royal feet, he turhed to his courtiers, saying, 
 ^' Confess now how vain is the might of an earthly king, 
 compared to that Great Power who alone can say to the ocean, 
 ^ Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further : and here shall thy 
 proud waves be stayed.' " 
 
 To Canute succeeded his sons, Harold and Hardi- 
 
 canute, the latter being the child of the Norman 
 
 Emma. But though this heartless woman forgot the claims 
 
 of her Saxon first-born at the court of Normandy, there were 
 
 those in England who were not unmindful of his rights. 
 
30 HISTORY OF KiN GLAND. 
 
 During the reigns of the Danish monarchs, there was a strong 
 Saxon party in England, headed by Godwin, the "Great Earl," 
 as he was called, and his six stalwart sons. On the death of 
 Hardicanute, this party succeeded in bringing Edward, the 
 son of Ethelred, from his long Norman exile, and placing him 
 on the English throne. / 
 ^^^^ This last descendant of the race of Alfred was far 
 
 104:3. 
 
 from proving the Saxon king for whom the people 
 longed. He had been brought up in another land ; he had 
 learne^d a foreign language, and could scarcely speak the Saxon 
 tongue ; he loved the ways and manners of those among whom 
 he had lived ; he was a stranger in his own kingdom. In his 
 reign, the coming event of the great Norman conquest cast a 
 broad shadow over the land. Normans filled the English court. 
 Edward was a most pious king, according to the piety of those 
 days, and won the name of Edward " the Confessor," or " the 
 Saint.'' He loVed to be surrounded by priests and monks, 
 and soon the churches, the abbeys, the monasteries, and the 
 convents were filled with favored Normans. Even the 
 archbishopric of Canterbury was given to a foreign prelate. 
 Norman-French was the language spoken at court and in the 
 halls of justice, and those who sought the royal favor, laid 
 aside their homely Saxon tongue, and studied the language 
 of the strangers. The simple mark of the cross as the royal 
 signature was abandoned, and in its place was used " the great 
 seal." The fashionable, too, imitated the Norman dress. So 
 completely had the court of England become Norman, that 
 when, in the year 1051, William, the young duke of that 
 country, came over to pay Edward a visit, he found himself so 
 surrounded by the people and the customs of his own duchy, 
 that he could scarcely realize that he had crossed the Channel. 
 All these things displeased much the Great Earl Godwin and 
 the Saxon party. 
 
 On the death of Godwin, his son Harold succeeded 
 
 to his earldom and power, and rose to even a higher 
 place in the afiections of the people. King Edward the Con- 
 fessor had no children, and his life was drawing to its close. 
 
ENGLAND UNDER THE DANES. 37 
 
 He sent to Hungary for the son of Edmund Ironsides. This 
 prince came to England, but shortly after his arrival, 
 died, leaving a son so young and incapable, that no 
 one thought of him as the future king. The hearts of the 
 English clustered around Earl Harold. The Norman favorites 
 thought of their own duke. When William of Normandy 
 visited England, and saw around him so much that reminded 
 him of his own duchy, the hope, no doubt, arose in his mind, 
 that one day the Saxon court might become Norman, and he 
 the Norman king of England, William said, moreover, that 
 when he and Edward were boys together in Normandy, the 
 latter had promised, should he ever become king of England, 
 to leave the crown, at his death, to his Norman playfellow. 
 
 But William feared Earl Harold; and once, when the latter 
 was in Normandy, kept him a sort of prisoner, until he had 
 extorted from him an oath to aid the treacherous duke in get- 
 ting the English crown at Edward's death. Harold returned 
 to England. He felt that, should the people make him king, 
 no oath forced from him by the Norman William, should 
 induce him to betray his country to a stranger. 
 
 On the eve of the Festival of the Epiphany, in the year 
 1066, King Edward the Confessor died. He had rebuilt 
 Westminster Abbey from its foundations, and with great 
 solemnity and pomp, his remains were interred in a beautiful 
 tomb within the sacred walls of the newly-finished edifice. 
 
 Questions. — Relate the deeds of Alfred's successors. — What was 
 the condition of the Danes under these sovereigns? — By what means 
 did Ethelred obtain the throne? — Who was Dunstan, and what of his 
 influence in the kingdom? — How did he seek to avoid crowning Eth- 
 elred ? — Relate his conduct on the occasion. — By what means did 
 Ethelred endeavor to repel the Danes ? — What was his second plan 
 to eiFect this object ? 
 
 Who were the Normans ? — Describe their condition in this cen- 
 tury. — Relate Ethelred's last attempt to get rid of the Danes. — What 
 did it bring upon his kingdom? — Describe the armament which 
 approached England. — What was the result of this invasion ? — Give 
 the name and early character of the first Dane king of England. — 
 4 
 
So HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Relate some of his acts. — Describe his character and conduct in the 
 latter years of his reign. — Who succeeded him ? 
 
 When, in whose person, and by whose efforts, was the Saxon line 
 restored ? — Describe the new influences introduced by this sovereign. 
 — Who endeavored to counteract these ? — What two parties existed 
 in the kingdom ? — Whom did the Saxons regard with favor as Ed- 
 ward's successor ? — By what means did the Norman duke endeavor 
 to secure his own succession ? — When did Edward die ? — Where was 
 he buried ? 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE LAST OF THE SAXON KINGS. 
 
 WILLIAM THE NORMAN PREPARES TO INVADE ENGLAND — HAROLD REPELS 
 THE INVASION OP TOSTIG — THE BATTLE OP HASTINGS. 
 
 The Saxon chroniclers assert that Edward, before his 
 death, named Harold, the son of Earl Godwin, as his suc- 
 cessor. Be this as it may, the crown was placed upon the 
 brow of the Saxon earl a few hours only after the saint-king 
 had been laid in his tomb. 
 
 William, the Norman duke, was hunting in his park, near 
 the royal city of Rouen, when the tidin^^s of Edward's 
 
 1066. J J J G 
 
 death and Harold's coronation reached him. Casting 
 aside his bow and arrows, he hastened in silence to his palace. 
 So dreadfully agitated did he seem, that for a time none dared 
 approach or speak with him. At length a favorite courtier 
 arrived at the palace, and ventured to ask the duke the cause 
 of his uneasiness. " My spite," replied William, '^ comes from 
 the death of Edward, and the wrong that Harold has done me." 
 "Well, sire," answered his friend, "be not wroth at what can 
 be mended ; for the death of Edward there is no help, but 
 there is one for the wrongs of Harold ; justice is on your side, 
 and you have good soldiers; undertake boldly; — a thing well 
 begun is half done." 
 
 William accepted the proverb, and from that moment all 
 
THE LAST OF THE SAXON KINGS. 39 
 
 his energies were taxed to accomplish the conquest of Eng- 
 land. The* nobles of his court were eager for the enterprise, 
 but the other classes of the duke's subjects were far from 
 willing to cross the Channel and fight for a kingdom to which 
 their master, at best, had but a doubtful claim. In a large 
 assembly which was held in one of the Norman towns, Fitz- 
 Osborn, a staunch friend of William's, tried to persuade the 
 people to yield to his wishes. They refused, and bade Fitz- 
 Osborn tell the duke that they '' would serve him in his own 
 country, but they were not bound to assist him in conquering 
 the country of other men." Instead of delivering this mes- 
 sage, Fitz-Osborn, whose whole soul was in the enterprise, 
 gave a very difi'erent one, and told Duke William, that his 
 faithful vassals were ready to serve him beyond sea to the 
 utmost of their power. When the people heard this false 
 message, the council hall rang with cries of " No ! No ! we 
 never charged you with such an answer — we did not say 
 that — that will never be." The people dispersed- in great 
 anger and tumult. 
 
 William, hiding his wrath, took the chief members of the 
 assembly, one by one, and spoke to them in such persuasive 
 words of the great glory and wealth which would be gained 
 by this expedition, that their prejudices were overcome, and 
 as each one gave his own consent, he used his influence to 
 win over others. By degrees all opposition was overcome, 
 and the wily William had the written promise of his people's 
 aid. 
 
 Then the Norman duke published his ban of war in other 
 countries, and adventurers from all parts flocked to his stand- 
 ard. The Pope sent his blessing, together with a consecrated 
 banner, a precious ring, valued among relics as containing a 
 hair from the head of St. Peter; and a letter giving him per- 
 mission to conquer England, on condition that he should hold 
 it in subjection to the Holy See. To this letter was affixed a 
 round leaden seal, called in Latin, '^ bulla," and from this has 
 come the name of ^^bull," as applied to pontifical decrees 
 bearing this seal. 
 
40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The sound of preparation was heard through all the 
 Norman land. Suiiths, armorers, and ship-builders 
 "wrought incessantly, and by midsummer a fleet of six hundred 
 large vessels, and many smaller transports, had assembled on 
 the coast of Normandy. When William had overcome all 
 human obstacles to his plans, then arose those over which no 
 mortal has control. The winds were contrary, and for more 
 than a morith kept William's fleet idle on the shores of his own 
 duchy. Idleness bred discontent. The soldiers and sailors 
 began to say, " He is mad ! that man is very mad who seeks 
 to take possession of another's country ! God is angry at such 
 designs, and this He shows now, by refusing us a fair wind." 
 To quell these murmurs, William had the bones of St. Valery 
 (a famous French saipt) carried in procession through the 
 camp on the sea-shore. Prayers were made to the saint, and 
 the soldiers, believing in his intercession, grew more hopeful. 
 The next day the wind became favorable, and the Norman 
 fleet sailed for the English coast. From Duke William's 
 vessel, the gift of his wife (the Countess Matilda), floated the 
 pope's consecrated banner, surmounted by a cross. The silken 
 sails were of many bright colors, parts of the ship were gilt, 
 and the Three Lions of Normandy, the duke's arms, were em- 
 blazoned in many places. On the prow was the figure of a 
 child, holding a drawn bow, the arrow pointing, with the 
 ship's head, towards the English coast. 
 
 On the 28th September, 1066, this formidable fleet 
 
 1066. 1 > ' 
 
 cast anchor off the shores of Sussex. As William 
 stepped on shore, he fell, but recovering himself instantly, 
 prevented the superstitious fears of his army, by crying out, 
 showing them a handful of English sand, '' See, I have taken 
 possession of the land by my hands, and as far as it extends it 
 is mine, — it is yours." The Norman army lay in their camp 
 near Hastings, and William, the duke, took up his quarters in 
 the old Roman castle at Pevensey. 
 
 Let us leave them here, and turn to the preparations which 
 King Harold was making to resist this great army. Before 
 WilHam began to make ready for the invasion of England, he 
 
THE LAST OF THE SAXON KINGS. 41 
 
 sent to Harold, reminding him of his outh, and demanding its 
 fulfihnent. Harold simply replied : " It is true that I made 
 an oath to William, but I made it under the influence of force; 
 I promised that which belongs not to me, and engaged to do 
 what I never could do ; for my royalty is not miue, nor can I 
 dispose of it without the consent of my country." 
 
 Harold prepared to do battle for his crown. William was 
 not his only enemy. A treacherous brother, named Tostig, 
 who had been banished from England, now sought revenge. 
 Aided by William the Norman, and accompanied by Harold 
 Hardrada, a king of Norway, he landed, September 108G, in 
 the neighborhood of York. Hardrada was the last of that 
 race of Vikingirs, who had for so many centuries been the 
 terror of England. 
 
 To encounter this enemy, King Harold marched northward, 
 leaving the southern coast, wdiere the storm of war was so soon 
 to burst, exposed to all its fury. Before the battle, wdiich was 
 fought at Stamford Bridge, the English king sent to Tostig, 
 offering him peace, friendship, and restoration to his 
 ancient honors. " And what territory would Harold 
 give to my ally, Hardrada, king of Norway V asked Tostig. 
 " Seven feet of English ground for a grave ; or a little more, 
 seeing that Hardrada is taller than most men," answered the 
 herald. ^* Bide back, ride back, and bid King Harold make 
 ready for the fight ! When the Northmen tell the story of 
 this day, they shall never say that Earl Tostig forsook King 
 Hardrada, the son of Sigurd. He and I have one mind, and 
 one resolve, and that is, either to die in battle, or to possess 
 all England." They kept their resolve. Both were slain on 
 the battle-field, and their army was driven from the land. 
 Scarcely had Harold gained this victory, when news came that 
 William, duke of Normandy, had landed in England. He 
 turned with his army southward. And now, as the year drew 
 near its close, the great battle was to be fought, which should 
 decide whether the Norman duke or the Saxon earl should 
 wear the crown of England. 
 
 King Harold's standard was planted on the spot where 
 4* 
 
42 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Battle Abbey afterwards arose to commemorate this fight. 
 Around it gathered brave English hearts. On Saturday, the 
 14th October, the action began. The Normans advanced, 
 singing the war-songs of ancient heroes, and raising their 
 battle-cry, " Our Lady ! Our Lady ! God is our help I" The 
 English drove them back with shouts of '^ Christ's Eood ! the 
 
 Holy Eood!" For nine long hours the battle lasted; 
 ^10*66*' ^^"^ fierce, fierce battle between Saxon and Norman, 
 
 for the crown of England. When the sun went down, 
 the brave Harold had fallen, and the banner of Duke William, 
 "the Three Lions of Normandy," floated triumphant over the 
 bloody field of victory. The battle of Hastings had been 
 fought, and the Norman conquest was begun. 
 
 Questions. — Who succeeded Edward the Confessor? — Describe 
 the conduct of the Norman duke when he heard of Harold's acces- 
 sion. — How was William's project of invasion received by his sub- 
 jects? — Relate the attempts made to overcome this opposition, with 
 their result. — What tokens of approbation did William receive from 
 the Pope? — Describe the preparations for the invasion. — By what 
 was it delayed? — What means did the Norman duke employ to allay 
 the fears of his ai'my ? 
 
 Describe the vessel in which William embarked. — Relate the inci- 
 dent which occurred on his landing. — Where did the Norman army 
 encamp? — How had King Harold replied to William's demand of the 
 crown? — Against what other enemy had Harold to combat? — Relate 
 the circumstances of this encounter, and its result. — When was the 
 battle of Hastings fought ? — Describe the advance of both armies. — 
 How did it terminate ? 
 
CONDITION OF ENGLAND UNDER THE SAXONS. 43 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CONDITION or ENGLAND UNDER THE SAXONS. 
 
 RELIGION — LITERATURE — MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 
 
 Let us now glance at the condition of the Saxon people at 
 the time of the Norman conquest. First, as regards religion : 
 the pure light of Christianity had become dim by the corrupt 
 practices of an age of superstition. Fasting and penance, or 
 the infliction of suffering on the body, was too often inculcated 
 in the place of that scriptural repentance which leads to godly 
 sorrow for sin and amendment of life. The building of a 
 church or monastery, or a pilgrimage to Rome, atoned, it was 
 believed, for the darkest crimes. Thus the wicked Elfrida, 
 the mother of King Ethelred the Unready, in her old age, 
 founded churches and monasteries, to make amends for the 
 sins of her former life. Thus, too, Canute, the Dane king, 
 went on a pilgrimage to Rome, because his soul was troubled 
 with remorse for the blood which he had shed, and the crimes 
 which he had committed. Robbing the English people of 
 their money to bestow in alms on foreign churches, with 
 pilgrim's wallet and staff, he found his way to Italy. The 
 treasures he brought back with him were, the bones of dead 
 saints, and ^' holy relics," — such as the arm of St, Augustine, 
 for which he had paid one hundred talents of gold, and the 
 same amount of silver. The monks pretended to work mira- 
 cles. The people were taught to call upon the saints, for aid 
 and intercession. The word of God, whose entrance giveth 
 light, was shut up from the laity in a foreign tongue. 
 
 Dunstan, the abbot of Glastonbury (afterwards Primate of 
 England), was, both in his accomplishments and the means 
 by which he gained his reputation for sanctity, a fair specimen 
 of the monk of this age. He was a fine musician, a painter, 
 
44 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 well skilled in the arts of design, an illuminator of the beauti- 
 ful manuscripts of -that period, and practised in the arts of the 
 jeweller and blacksmith. He gained the character of a saint 
 by living in a cell so small that he could not lie down in it at 
 full length, and by subsisting on the coarsest and most meagre 
 fare. When, by these means, combined with his natural 
 talents for command, he had risen to power and influence, he 
 proclaimed himself a reformer of the church. This reforma- 
 tion consisted in obliging those priests who were married 
 (secular clergy they were called) to put away their wives, 
 abandon their families, and go to live in monasteries, like the 
 monks or regulars. The quarrel between these two parties 
 was long and bitter. Gradually, the monks prevailed, but it 
 was not until after the twelfth century, that celibacy became 
 the general practice of the Church. 
 
 In those dark times of superstition, it is pleasant to dwell 
 upon a spot illuminated by the pure light of the gospel. 
 Such seems to have been the little rocky island of lona, on 
 the western coast of Scotland. There, in the sixth century, 
 St. Columba, an Irish monk, founded a monastery, and estab- 
 lished a little colony of Christians. There they lived, owning 
 no subjection to the Church of Rome, and only preaching 
 " such works of charity and piety as they could learn from 
 Holy Scriptures." The clergy were called Culdees. 
 
 Although monasteries and convents were in many instances 
 places where idle and even wicked lives were led, yet were 
 they very frequently sanctuaries for the oppressed, and the 
 only refuge in those rude times for the weak and defenceless. 
 Nor must we forget that to the life-long labor of many a monk, 
 we owe the books which have come down to our times. Every 
 monastery had its writing-room, and there copies of ancient 
 works were transcribed on sheets of vellum or parchment. 
 Paper was not then invented, and as parchment was costly, 
 the previous writing was sometimes effaced to make room for 
 the new. Many a time, in this way, some old and precious 
 manuscript may have been erased, to give place to lives of 
 
CONDITION OF ENGLAND UNDER THE SAXONS. 40 
 
 saints, or tales of miracles. Often the long lifetime of a 
 monk would be spent in copying and illuminating a single 
 book. These copies and illuminations were very beautiful. 
 We hear of the gospels impressed in silver letters upon 
 violet-colored parchment, and of other books, bound in gold, 
 silver, and jewels, with "relics of saints set in the silver frame 
 work of the pages." Of course, books written with such labor 
 were very costly. They were as valuable, and were looked 
 after with as much care, as a farm would be in our days, and 
 the fortune of a king could scarcely buy as much reading as 
 may now be found in a child's library. 
 
 The monasteries were the schools of those days. There 
 Latin and Greek were taught, as well as astronomy and theol- 
 ogy. In painting, music, sculpture, and architecture, the 
 monks were well skilled. Westminster Abbey rose in the 
 days of Edward the Confessor. To the building of this mag- 
 nijQcent structure, which was the pride of his heart, the Saint- 
 king devoted a tenth of his revenue ; but he scarcely lived to 
 see it completed, and was the first of that long line of English 
 monarchs who have been laid to rest within its walls. 
 
 At Christmas, at Easter, and at Whitsuntide, the Saxon 
 kings summoned the great council of the nation. It was 
 called the AVitenagemot. To this, years after, succeeded the 
 parliament of England. In the Witenagemot were gathered 
 the clergy and nobles of the kingdom, greater or less, whether 
 Dane or Saxon ; the kings and chiefs of tribes, who paid tri- 
 bute to the crown, were there also; last, but not least, the 
 ceorls, the people, had their representatives in the magistrates 
 of the burghs or towns. In the Witan (as the name is often 
 abbreviated), but more frequently in lesser courts, the people 
 were tried who were accused of crimes. If the criminal could 
 procure a certain number of friends, of a stated amount of 
 property, to swear with him to his innocence, he was acquitted. 
 If he could not find such witnesses, he committed his cause to 
 "the appeal to heaven," or "trial by ordeal," as it was called. 
 This consisted in plunging his arm into boiling water, holding 
 
46 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 red-liot iron in his hand, or walking over burning plough- 
 shares. If, at the end of three days, no sign of injury was 
 found upon the criminal, he was declared innocent. Very 
 likely those who survived these ordeals had discovered some 
 means of preparing their bodies, so that they should not feel 
 the heat of the iron or the water. In those rude times, men 
 often fought out their quarrels This spirit is illustrated by 
 the words which Shakspeare places in the mouth of Macduff, 
 when the latter heard of the surprise of his castle, and murder 
 of his wife and little ones — 
 
 ** Let us make medicines of our great revenge, 
 To cure this deadly grief." 
 
 It was in the days of Edward the Confessor, that the good 
 King Duncan of Scotland was mur4ered; a deed made famous 
 by the great English dramatist, in his play of Macbeth. 
 The son of Duncan fled to the English coast, and was " re- 
 ceived of the most pious Edward'' with much favor. He 
 subsequently married Margaret, a granddaughter of Edmund 
 Ironsides. 
 
 The Saxons cared much more for good living than for fine 
 houses. Their dwellings were made of wood. They had no 
 chimneys, the smoke being allowed to escape through a hole 
 in the roof. In the windows of the rich, glass had taken the 
 place of the lattice work, or linen blind. The floors were car- 
 peted with rushes. The walls were hung with tapestry, or 
 silken curtains, richly embroidered in needlework of gold or 
 colored thread. In this art, the women of that age excelled. 
 We hear of an embroidered curtain presented by an English 
 lady to a church, on which was wrought a representation of the 
 siege of Troy. On the famous roll, known as the Bayeux 
 Tapestry, is wrought, in woolleu threads of various colors, a 
 complete picture representation of the Norman conquest. 
 This roll is of linen, twenty inches in breadth and two hun- 
 dred and fourteen feet in length. It is still kept in the town 
 house of Bayeux. 
 
CONDITION OF ENGLAND UNDER THE SAXONS. 47 
 
 The furniture of a Saxon dwelling was simple. Stools, 
 Ibenches, and settles were used, instead of chairs. These were 
 made, as were also the tables, of wood curiously carved. The 
 English silversmiths were especially famous for their delicate 
 workmanship, and on the tables of the rich were found cups, 
 vases, and dishes of gold and silver, beautifully wrought.. The 
 comMon people used dishes of wood, horn, and bone. Glass 
 vessels were not commonly found, and their place was supplied 
 by drinking-horns, rimmed and ornamented with silver. 
 
 The Saxons were extravagant eaters. Four meals a day was 
 the allowance of all who could aiFord it. They became, after 
 their connection with the Danes, immoderate drinkers too. So 
 prevalent had this vice become in the days of King Edgar, 
 that he caused drinking-horns to be made with knobs of brass 
 at certain distances from each other, and commanded that no 
 guest should be compelled, at one draught, to drink more than 
 from one knob to the next. The tables were covered with 
 cloths so large, that they could be spread over the knees of 
 the guests, and used as napkins. The meats were served on 
 small spits, by kneeling attendants. At festal meals the harp 
 was handed from guest to guest, each being expected to con- 
 tribute a song or a strain for the general entertainment. 
 
 The dress of the Anglo-Saxon women consisted of a linen 
 tunic, fitting close at the throat, having tight sleeves, and 
 richly embroidered hems and borders. A loose garment, with 
 flowing sleeves, was frequently thrown over the tunic. On 
 the head, and enveloping the neck, was worn a veil of linen or 
 silk. Men wore tunics of linen or woollen, descending to the 
 knees, and fastened by a belt at the waist. These garments, 
 too, had fine borders. Over this was worn a cloak, fastened 
 by a ring or brooch on the shoulder. The tunics of the lower 
 classes were often made of hide. On the legs were worn linen 
 or woollen stockings, crossed with strips of cloth, linen,. or 
 leather. Over the dress was often worn chains and crosses, 
 and the belts, frequently of gold and silver, were studded with 
 jewels. 
 
48 HISTORY UF ENGLAND. 
 
 The amusements of the Saxons were of an exciting nature. 
 The thanes, or nobles, delighted in hunting and hawking, 
 whilst the ceorl enjoyed bear-baiting, the feats of the tumbler 
 and the juggler, and the song of the gleeman and minstrel. 
 More quiet spirits delighted in games, such as chess, dice, 
 and backgammon. The latter is said to take its name from 
 two Welsh words, signifying little hattle. • 
 
 At the time of the Norman conquest, the city of London 
 was a very humble town : the streets were narrow and wind- 
 ing, and here and there, at frequent intervals, the eye rested 
 on the verdure and foliage of the beautiful gardens of the 
 convents, which arose in every direction ; the houses were of 
 wood, and wooden towers crowned the low thatched or reeded 
 roofs of the churches. Tall crosses and images of saints 
 marked the intersection of the ways, which custom may yet be 
 traced in the names of the present thoroughfares Rood-Lane 
 and Lady-Lane. Portions of the metropolis now so populous, 
 were then the humble villages of Southwark, Charing, Lam- 
 beth, St. Giles, St Pancras, &c., around and beyond which 
 stretched orchards and fields, surrounding the Scattered dwell- 
 ings of the wealthy Saxon merchant and citizen. 
 
 London was not then the capital of England. Winchester 
 was the favorite city of the Saxon monarchs, but they held 
 court as they listed, in various places of the realm. In the 
 Easter of 1053, King Edward the Confessor wore his crown 
 in the little village of Windshore, now Windsor. Through 
 the same fair landscape still 
 
 "Wanders the hoary Thames along 
 His silver winding way,'" 
 
 but the placid waters reflect not now the humble palace of 
 
 800 years ago. 
 
 "From the stately brow 
 Of Windsor's heights" 
 
 frown down the proud towers of the Castle, and in that truly 
 
CONDITION OP ENGLAND UNDER THE SAXONS. 49 
 
 regal residence, Queen Victoria may hold her court, surrounded 
 by a pomp and splendor, of which her royal Saxon predeces- 
 sors never dreamed. 
 
 Questions. — Mention some of the characteristics of the religion 
 of this century. — Repeat the illustrations given in the conduct of 
 Elfrida, Canute, and Dunstan. — Who were the Culdees ? — Mention 
 some of the benefits conferred by the monasteries. — How were lite- 
 rature and the arts profited by them ? 
 
 Of whom was the great council of the realm composed ? — Repeat 
 the account of a Saxon criminal trial. — What was the frequent 
 method of settling disputes ? — Mention the instance cited in proof 
 of this. 
 
 Describe the houses and furniture of the Saxons. — What is said 
 of their meals and habits at table ? — What were the costumes of the 
 men and women of this period? — What amusements were practised? 
 — Describe London as it existed in Saxon times. 
 
50 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 A. D. 1066—1100. 
 
 •* 'Then,' cried the Saxon soldiers, 'in vain are mace and mail, 
 We fall before the Normans as corn before the hail.' 
 'And vainly,' cried the pious monks, 'by Mary's shrine we kneel, 
 For prayers, like arrows, glance aside, against the Norman steel.' " 
 Altered from ''TuE Ballad OF B.OV." 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 
 
 last struggles op the saxons — norman ascendancy — close op the 
 conqueror's LIPB. 
 
 The battle of Hastings was fought in October. Two 
 months passed by ere William ventured to London, to receive 
 tbe crown which that field had won. At length, on Christmas 
 day of the year 1066, the Conqueror stood in Westminster 
 Abbey. A traiji of Norman nobles and priests were with him- 
 Some English, too, were there. First, a Norman bishop asked 
 William's followers whether they would have their duke 
 
 crowned king of England : then Aldred, the 
 106™*** Saxon archbishop of York, demanded in English, 
 
 if the people would take William the Norman for 
 their king. Shouts of applause arose in answer to both these 
 questions. The Conqueror's horsemen, outside of the Abbey, 
 mistook them for cries of alarm from their Norman friends 
 within. In hasty revenge they set fire to the English houses. 
 Amid the confusion which followed, William and the arch- 
 bishop were left trembling and almost alone before the altar. 
 
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 51 
 
 Aldred placed the crown on the brow of the Conqueror, who, 
 in addition to the usual coronation oath, promised to rule his 
 new subjects as well as their best native kings had done. 
 
 William had promised more than he could perform. A 
 large army of nobles, soldiers, priests, and monks had come 
 with the Norman duke to England. He had told them that, 
 if they would help him to conquer the country, lands, abbeys, 
 churches, and treasures should be theirs. These greedy 
 Norman followers were not likely to Jet William forget his 
 promises, and how could he keep them, without making beg- 
 gars and outcasts of his English subjects ? One man alone, 
 of all tha* Norman host, was found honest enough to tell his 
 master that, ^' he desired not property seized and stolen from 
 other men; that he should go back to Normandy, there to 
 enjoy his humble but rightful heritage, and rest content with 
 his own lot, without coveting the wealth of others.'' The 
 name of this man was Guilbert Fitz-Ricliard. 
 
 Saxon England was not to become the prey of the Norman 
 conqueror, until after a long and hard struggle. When Wil- 
 liam was crowned king, his dominions did not extend as far 
 north as the city of Oxford, nor as far west as that of 
 Exeter. 
 
 In 1067, William visited his duchy of Normandy. During 
 his absence, his harsh brother. Bishop Odo, so oppressed the 
 English, that they rose against the Normans. William came 
 back, and then began what may be called the real conquest of 
 England. It was a contest of seven years' duration. 
 
 Exeter, Oxford, Warwick, Leicester, Derby, Not- 
 tingham, Lincoln, and thus on, city after city was 
 taken. Norman castles, manned with knights and soldiers, 
 arose all over the country : the fortresses, the garrisons, the 
 houses of Saxon lords, were given to Normans : the churches, 
 the monasteries, and the abbeys were filled with Norman 
 priests. Numbers of English wandered away to foreign lands; 
 many in later days became crusaders, and very many fled as 
 outlaws to the woods and forests. Thus •' Merry England," 
 
52 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 as the Saxons before the conquest delighted to call their 
 country, was filled with sorrow and desolation. 
 
 Between the H umber and the Tweed, in the old land of the 
 Danelagh, English and Dane together made a desperate resist- 
 ance. William marched into Northumbria, and after a bloody 
 victory, entered the city of York with fire and sword, and left 
 there a well-garrisoned citadel. In less than a year the 
 English, aided by Scotch and Danes, laid siege to York. The 
 citadel was strong, and for seven days the Norman 
 
 1069. *' . -^ 
 
 garrison held out. On the eighth day they set the 
 town on fire ; the famous and beautiful York Minster, with its 
 library, was burned : three thousand Normans were killed, and 
 the English army entered the ruined city. 
 
 William was in one of his hunting forests, when news of 
 this victory reached him. All his wicked passions were 
 aroused : he swore a fearful oath, that he would ravage the 
 Danelagh with fire and sword, and utterly destroy the North- 
 umbrian people. He kept this wicked vow. Eighty years 
 after that time, an historian, writing of that district, says : 
 *' From York to Durham not an inhabited village remained. 
 Fire, slaughter, and desolation made a vast wilderness there, 
 which continues to this day." From the Humber to the 
 Tyne, all was a lonesome desert. The miseries of the wretched 
 Saxons who escaped the fire and sword were extreme. Many 
 starved to death; some wandered into Scotland; others joined 
 the outlaws of the forests ; and many, in utter despair, sold 
 themselves, their wives, and children, as slaves to the Con- 
 queror's soldiers. 
 
 On the little isle of Ely, amid the bogs and marshes of 
 "fenny Lincoln," was made the last stand for Saxon freedom. 
 In this region stood the old and greatly revered English 
 abbeys of Ely, Thorney, Peterborough, and Croyland. Here 
 Hereward, whom his countrymen fondly named " England's 
 darling," gathered all the brave spirits whom the fear of the 
 Conqueror had not yet been able to subdue, and for three 
 months kept the Norman soldiers at bay. At length treachery 
 
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 53 
 
 betrayed this last stronghold. The monks of Ely, weary of 
 long privations, guided William's men across the marshes to 
 Hereward's camp of refuge. The usual scenes followed : — 
 cruel murder, robbery, and outlawry. Hereward escaped, and, 
 with a few friends, for a time kept up the struggle. At last, 
 seeing its hopelessness, he took the oath of allegiance to 
 WilHam. 
 
 The Norman Conquest was finished ; at least as far 
 as holding possession of the land was concerned. The 
 country was divided among William's Norman followers. To 
 one lord was given twenty-eight villages. Earl Percy had 
 eighty manors and more bestowed on him. On the banks of 
 the Swale, in Yorkshire, a Norman chief built the castle, and 
 founded the town of Richmond. Another, Gilbert de Lacy, 
 erected the strong castle of Pontefract. 
 
 New abbeys and churches were founded, and the old ones 
 were given to foreign churchmen. Norman prelates and 
 priests were as grasping and cruel as Norman knights and 
 soldiers. When the Conqueror died, but one Saxon bishop 
 held his place in the English Church. This was Wulfstan, 
 bishop of Worcester. He was an old man when summoned 
 to Westminster Abbey, before a meeting of Norman priests. 
 They told him he must give up his bishopric, not because he 
 was an unfaithful pastor, but because he could not speak the 
 French language. Instead of yielding up his crozier (the sign 
 of his office) to the Norman prelates, the venerable bishop 
 marched to the tomb of Edward the Confessor, and thus 
 solemnly addressed the spirit of the dead king: ^^ Master, 
 not to them, who recall what they did not give, and who may 
 deceive and be deceived, but to thee, who gave them, and art 
 now raised above all error, I resign my staff, and surrender 
 my flock." Then, laying on the saint-king's tomb his pastoral 
 staff, he seated himself as a simple monk among his brethren. 
 This strangely-solemn resignation the Normans dared not 
 accept, and, until his death, Wulfstan remained bishop of 
 Worcester. 
 
 Although "W^illiam had divided England among his Normap 
 5* 
 
64 llISTURi' OF ENGLAND. * 
 
 followers, they were not content, or else they hated him on 
 account of his tyranny. While he was absent in his 
 duchy of Normandy, the Norman nobles, whom he had 
 left in England, aided by some of the English, entered into a 
 conspiracy. William had left Lanfranc, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, to govern in his absence. This prelate, although more 
 than ninety years old, acted with such vigor, that the rebellion 
 was put down before William had recrossed the Channel. 
 
 The English who had engaged in it were more severely 
 punished than the Normans. The fate of Waltheof, son of 
 the brave Earl Siward, is a striking instance of this. He had 
 married a niece of the Conqueror, and was one of the few 
 Saxon thanes on whom had been bestowed power and estates. 
 The Norman barons who plotted against William sought to 
 engage Waltheof in their conspiracy, but the clear-headed 
 Saxon earl, foreseeing the hopelessness of the rebellion, would 
 take no part in it. All that the conspirators could obtain 
 from him was an oath of .secrecy. He, however, imparted his 
 knowledge to his wife, and she betrayed him to his enemies, 
 by whom he was put to death. 
 
 The wicked Judith thus sacrificed her husband in the hope 
 that on becoming a widow she might marry a Norman nobleman 
 of whom she was enamored. The Conqueror however refused 
 to bestow her hand as she desired, and, on her rejection of the 
 match which he had provided for her, deprived her of all the 
 jBstates of Siward, and left her penniless upon the world. 
 Hated and shunned by all, 'Hhe infamous Judith," as nearly 
 all the chroniclers call her, wandered from place to place, 
 seeking to hide her shame and misery in the most secluded 
 corners of the land. 
 j^yy The close of William's life and reign was made 
 to unhappy by quarrels among his own children. He 
 had three sons : Robert, a reckless, extravagant youth, 
 a great favorite with his mother, Matilda; William, surnamed 
 Rufus, or Red, from the color of his hair; and Henry, called 
 Beauclerc, or Fine Scholar. Robert, now that his father had 
 become king of England, demanded the duchy of Normandy, 
 
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 55 
 
 and this being refused, the undutiful son went to war with his 
 parent. In spite of all Matilda's efforts to make peace between 
 them, this war lasted with but little intermission throughout 
 William's reign. 
 
 The Conqueror met his death in a fearful manner. He was 
 warring against the king of France, and, with his accustomed 
 cruelty, rode with fire and sword through one of the beautiful 
 provinces of that country. It was harvest time: the ripe 
 grapes hung in rich clusters on the vine, and the yellow grain 
 waved its golden sheaves; but nought save revenge moved the 
 heart of William. He made his cavalry trample down the 
 grain-fields, and ordered his soldiers to root up the vines, and 
 to cut down the trees. The city of Mantes he laid in ashes. 
 As he rode into the burning town, his horse, stepping on the 
 hot embers, plunged, throwing William on the pommel of the 
 saddle, and giving him a severe bruise. The injury was 
 mortal. 
 
 In the monastery (5f St. Gervas, near his ducal city 
 of Rouen, the Conqueror passed the few weeks of life 
 which remained. Remorse at last visited the heart of the 
 dying man. He gave money to rebuild the ruins of Mantes. 
 Large sums were sent over to English churches and monaste- 
 ries, to atone for the robberies he had there committed, and in 
 his* last hours he consented to set free the unhappy captives, 
 English and Norman, some of whom had languished in his 
 dungeons for twenty years. 
 
 Of his sons, Robert Was wandering among foreign princes, 
 and only William Rufus and Henry were near the death-bed 
 of their father, anxiously waiting to hear his last will. To 
 Robert he left the duchy of Normandy : of the English crown, 
 he declared it was not his to bequeath, since he gained it not 
 by inheritance, but by the sword. He expressed, however, a 
 wish that William Rufus might wear it. " And what do you 
 give to me, O my father?" said Prince Henry. ^' Five thou- 
 sand pounds weight of silver from my treasury," replied the 
 king. No sooner had the sons heard these words, than, leaving 
 
66 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 their dying father, they hurried away; the one to England, to 
 look after his kingdom, and the other, to secure his money in 
 a strong box. 
 
 On the morning of the 9th of September, as the bells of a 
 neighboring church were ringing the hour of prime,* William 
 breathed his last. William the Great was duke of Normandy 
 and king of England, but the mighty Conqueror had not won 
 a single loving heart, to stay near and soothe him in his dying 
 hour. Nobles and knights took horse and went their ways to 
 look after their own interests ; the very menials, after robbing 
 the chamber of everything valuable, fled, leaving the dead 
 body of the monarch lying on the bare floor. Thus it lay for 
 three hours. 
 
 At length the archbishop of Rouen ordered that the 
 body should be taken to Caen, and buried in a church 
 which William had founded there. But who should take 
 charge of the last rites : — his children, his kindred, and his 
 followers had all fled, and none "was found but a poor knight, 
 who "out of his natural good-nature and for the love of God," 
 charged himself with the burial. When the remains reached 
 Caen, a procession was formed to convey them to the church 
 of St. Stephen's. But a fire breaking out in the town, the 
 body was left to the care of a few monks, whilst the rest of the 
 funeral train ran to put out the flames. At last the church 
 was reached. Abbots and monks assembled. The bishop of 
 Evreux uttered a few words in honor of the dead king, and 
 the body was about to be put into the ground, when the 
 assembly were startled by a voice exclaiming in solemn tones : 
 " Bishop, the man whom you have praised was a robber; the 
 very ground on which we are standing is mine — he took it 
 from me by violence, to build this church on it. I reclaim it 
 as my right; and in the name of God I forbid you to bury 
 him here, or cover him with my glebe." The priests were 
 
 * A service in the Roman Catholic Church, beginning at 6 o'clock. 
 in the morning. 
 
WILLIAM RUFUS. 67 
 
 obliged to pay sixty shillings for the ground in which, at last, 
 rested the remains of William, duke of Normandy, and con- 
 queror of England. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the coronation of William the Conqueror. — 
 What demands were made by William's followers ? — Relate a single 
 instance of moderation. — Describe the progress of the conquest. — 
 What cities were taken ? — What was the fate of the. Saxons ? — Relate 
 the success of their resistance in the north. — Describe William's 
 revenge. 
 
 Where and by whom was the last stand made for freedom ? — What 
 was its result? — Mention the names and portions of some who shared 
 in the spoils of the conquest. — Relate the conduct of Wulfstan, bishop 
 of Worcester. — By whom was a rebellion headed in 1074, and with 
 what result ? 
 
 Mention the troubles which embittered the close of William's life. 
 — Relate the incidents which led to his death. — How did he endeavor 
 to atone for his crimes? — How did he dispose of his dominions? — 
 Describe the scene which followed his decease. — Relate the account 
 given of his burial. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 WILLIAM RUFUS. 
 
 THE CROWN DISPUTED— TREATMENT OP THE SAXON RACE— THE KINQ'S 
 DEATH. 
 
 As William Rufus, the undutiful son of the Con- 
 queror, was journeying to England, he heard of his 
 father's death. With all speed he hurried to Winchester, 
 seized the royal treasures, and persuaded Lanfranc, the aged 
 archbishop, to place the crown on his brow. 
 
 Many of the Normans who held lands both in England and 
 Normandy, desired that one lord should rule both countries ; 
 and as they hated William Rufus, they persuaded Robert his 
 elder brother to claim the English crown, and gave him the 
 aid of their arms. The contest between the two brothers con- 
 
to 
 1100. 
 
 68 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 tinued with but little interruption for eight years. At length, 
 in the year 1096, Robert, anxious to take part in the crusades, 
 mortgaged his duchy to William for three or five years, receiv- 
 ing in return the sum of ten thousand marks, and departed for 
 the Holy Land. William was well pleased to see his brother 
 engaged in this dangerous adventure, from which he might 
 never return, in which case Normandy would fall to the 
 English king in undisputed possession. 
 j^QQQ The same cruel wrongs were practised upon the 
 English in the reign of William Rufus as in the days 
 of the conquest. The hand of injustice fell heavily 
 upon the Saxon church. " The Norman chief," says Thierry, 
 " whether clerical or lay, diflfered only in his garb. Under 
 the coat of mail, or under the cowl, he was ever the foreign 
 conqueror — insolent, harsh, and grasping." The Saxons had 
 called their rich men by a name [hlaford] meaning 'Uhe 
 divider of bread," from which has come the modern English 
 title of lord. They were thus named because at their hospitable 
 board was provided bread and good cheer for the peasant. 
 But now the Norman lord was a harsh master. Shut up in 
 his castle with gates closed and barred, he came in contact 
 with the Saxon only to rob or to injure him. " There was in 
 King William's days warre and sorrowe ynow," writes an old 
 Saxon chronicler. These days came to an end. 
 
 The evening of the 1st of August, in the year 1100, 
 the Red King spent at Malwood Keep, a hunting 
 lodge in the New Forest. He waited for the dawn of day, to 
 begin anew the pleasures of the chase. In the morning an 
 archer presented the king six new arrows. Praising their 
 beauty, William gave two to his friend, Sir Walter Tyrrel, 
 saying, *^ Good weapons are due to the sportsman that knows 
 how to make a good use of them." The remaining arrows he 
 placed in his own quiver. After a sumptuous banquet the 
 chase began. The party, among whom was Henry, the brother 
 of the king, were scattered through the wide forest, but Wil- 
 liam and his friend Sir Walter hunted together. As the sun 
 was setting, a hart came bounding by, between the king and 
 
CHANGES EFFECTED BY THE CONQUEST. 59 
 
 his companion. The king drew his bow, but the string broke. 
 " Shoot ! Walter — shoot I" cried the monarch. The arrow sped 
 from Sir Walter's bow, but turned aside by glancing against a 
 tree, it lodged, not in the side of the deer, but in the heart of 
 the king. Sir Walter took horse, escaped to France, and 
 afterwards went on a crusade. 
 
 The body of William Rufus was found later in the 
 
 1100. 
 
 evening by a charcoal burner. Tradition says that ou 
 the spot where the dead king's body lay had once stood an 
 Anglo-Saxon church. 
 
 Questions. — Relate the circumstances of William Rufus's acces- 
 sion. — By whom was his claim disputed? — What withdrew Robert 
 from the contest? — Describe the treatment of the English during 
 this reign. — Whence came the title of Lord, and what did it signify ? 
 — How did the Norman noble contrast with the Saxon lord? — Relate 
 the circumstances of the king's death. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 CHANGES EFFECTED BY THE CONQUEST. 
 
 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM — NEW FOREST — DOOMSDAY BOOK — THE CRUSADES. 
 
 Before entering upon another century, it may be well to 
 learn something of the change in the social condition of the 
 people of England, which was made by the Norman conquest. 
 
 When a great chief, such as was William of Normandy, 
 conquered a country or province, he considered himself the 
 owner of it. A portion of the lands he kept for himself, the 
 rest he divided among his barons, who promised in return to 
 follow him to battle whenever he should call upon them for 
 such service. The barons in their turn divided these lands 
 among their followers in the same manner, and on the same 
 terms. Such lands were called fiefs ; those who gave them 
 were called feudal lords, and those who held them were named 
 
60 HISTORY OF EiNQLAND. 
 
 vassals. This holding of land for military service, instead of 
 buying or paying rent for it, is called the Feudal System, and 
 was introduced by William the Conqueror into England. 
 
 The feudatory relations of Hugh, first Earl of Chester, may 
 be cited in illustration of this system. When the province, 
 of which the old Roman city of Chester was the stronghold, 
 had been conquered, William bestowed it upon a follower, 
 who, because he bore on his shield the figure of a wolf's head, 
 was called Hugh Lupus, or " the Wolf." 
 
 No sooner did the new lord come into possession of his 
 earldom, than he sent into Normandy for an old companion 
 named Lenoir. The latter came, bringing no less than five of 
 his brothers with him. Hugh conferred upon him the title 
 of constable and hereditary marshal. He gave him the town 
 of Halton ; granted him a liberal share in the spoils which 
 should be taken in battle ; the privileges of jurisdiction over 
 a large district, and the fines thereof; the right of pre-emption 
 or first purchase in the Chester market over all comers thereto, 
 save the servants of the earl ; the highway and street tolls at 
 the fairs held in Chester ; the market dues of his district of 
 Halton, and the liberty of selling free of taxation every species 
 of merchandise, excepting horses and salt. In return for all 
 this, Lenoir engaged for himself and his heirs to march with 
 their retainers at the head of the earl's armies in going forth 
 to battle, and in returning to bring up the rear. 
 
 Lenoir, in his turn, bestowed lands and privileges, with the 
 title of seneschal, upon his next brother, for service and 
 homage similar to that which he himself rendered to the earl. 
 On the second, third, and fourth brothers, the constable 
 bestowed lands and manors in proportion, and the fifth, who 
 was a priest, received the gift of a church. 
 
 Something like feudal tenure had, to a limited extent, been 
 known among the Anglo-Saxons, but the first Norman king 
 established it as a system. Those who had been nobles among 
 the Saxons now became vassals to the Norman lords. At the 
 time of the Conqueror's death there was scarcely a native 
 Englishmen in the land who held so high a title as earl or 
 
CHANGES EFFECTED BY THE CONQUEST. 61 
 
 baron. The most numerous class in the nation were those 
 called by the Saxons, ceorls, and by the Normans, villains. 
 They belonged to the estate of the lord, and could neither 
 remove from it of their own will, nor yet be removed by the 
 will of the master. Some were entitled to the occupation of a 
 cottage, in which case they were called by the Saxons, heorih- 
 fastmen: others rendered their services in the household of 
 their lord. Above the villains were the freemen, who held 
 'of the Norman lord as free-tenants, and were entitled to some 
 political rights, though to none so important as those belong- 
 ing to the tenants-in-chief ^ as persons holding of the king were 
 called. The lowest class in the nation, not accounted even as 
 belonging to the people, were the serfs^ or bondmen, who were 
 in every sense the property of their master. 
 
 Among the Normans who flocked to England during the 
 early years of the conquest, were many men of low degree. 
 Mechanics, peasants, and foot-soldiers in Normandy, assumed, 
 on the opposite side of the Channel, the titles of nobleman and 
 gentleman. Whole families, obscure in birth, and destitute 
 of fortune, from every corner of France, made their way into 
 the new kingdom, sure of finding there an ample provision for 
 every member, at the expense oftentimes of the noblest of the 
 Saxon race, who were driven forth to destitution and beggary. 
 
 The following old rhyme satirizes this wholesale immigra- 
 tion of foreign adventurers : 
 
 " William de Conigsby 
 Came out of Brittany 
 With his wife Tiffany 
 And his maide Maufas 
 And his dogge Hardigras." 
 
 Homage was required of every vassal. In performing this 
 ceremony, the vassal, unarmed and with uncovered head, knelt 
 before his lord, and putting his hands in those of his superior, 
 promised to become " Ms man^^ thenceforward, and to serve 
 him faithfully for the lands he held. The ceremony was 
 generally concluded by a kiss. 
 
62 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 By degrees, not only lands, but everything else came to be 
 held in fief; the right to cut wood in the forests, or to fish in 
 the streams, was thus obtained. High and honorable ofl&ces 
 were given in fief. Nor was military service the only condition 
 on which estates were bestowed by the feudal baron. Very 
 frequently the cup-bearer, the steward, the master-of-the-horse, 
 the carver, the butler, and the chamberlain held their lands in 
 fief, for the domestic services which they rendered to their 
 lord. 
 
 In the days of the feudal system, kings had much greater 
 possessions than they have now. William the Conqueror 
 owned fourteen hundred manors, besides a large number of 
 houses, forests, parks, and chases. Yet even this extravagant 
 number of hunting-grounds did not satisfy him. To obtain 
 another, more extensive than all the rest, he laid waste a 
 beautiful district nearly ninety miles in circumference. It lay 
 in the south-west part of the province of Hampshire, near the 
 royal city of Winchester. Thirty-six parish churches, amid 
 their beautiful villages, and over a hundred pleasant manors, 
 were destroyed by this pitiless king, that he might enjoy one 
 more forest in which .to hunt wild animals. The wretched 
 inhabitants were driven from their burning homes, the priests 
 from their churches, the monks from their monasteries. Well 
 might the Saxon chronicler add, *' this savage king loved wild 
 beasts as if he had been their father." This cruel outrage on 
 the part of King William struck the English people with 
 horror. They believed that amid the shades of the New 
 Forest the judgment of God would fall upon the wicked Con- 
 queror and his posterity. These prophecies had their fulfil- 
 ment. Before the arrow of Sir Walter Tyrrel laid low the 
 Red King, a son and a grandson of the Conqueror hd!d met 
 death in the gloomy shades of this ill-fated hunting-ground : 
 the one killed by the untimely flight of an arrow, the other 
 gored to death by a stag. 
 
 In order to ascertain the value of the land in his new king- 
 dom, the Conqueror ordered a book to be made, containing 
 a valuation of every estate or manor throughout England 
 
CHANGES EFFECTED BY THE CONQUEST. 63 
 
 exceptiDg in the counties of Durham and Northumberland, 
 how much land it contained, and what it was capable of 
 producing. This book, which is still preserved, is called 
 " Doomsday Book." 
 
 The Crusades, in which Kobert of Normandy and Sir Walter 
 Tyrrel joined, and which for nearly two hundred and fifty years 
 drew numbers from every country of Europe, were great mili- 
 tary expeditions against the Turks in Palestine. 
 
 It had long been customary to make pilgrimages to Rome 
 and other places accounted sacred. The pilgrim made these 
 journeys on foot, in an humble garb, with staff and scrip, 
 depending upon the alms of the charitable for his daily supply 
 of food. On his return, he brought some token from the holy 
 places which he had visited. Such pilgrims as had been in 
 Palestine bore palm-branches, and were hence called palmers. 
 
 ♦♦ The scallop-shell his cap did deck ; 
 The crucifix around his neck 
 
 Was from Loretto* brought ; 
 His sandals were with travel tore, 
 Staff, budget, bottle, scrip, he bore ; 
 The faded palm-branch in his hand 
 Showed pilgrim from the Holy Land." 
 
 No country on the earth was considered so sacred as Pales- 
 tine. There were Bethlehem and Nazareth, and there arose 
 Jerusalem, the city of the great king, within whose walls lay 
 the Holy Sepulchre. For a long time. Christian pilgrims 
 were allowed to visit these sacred scenes unmolested ; but in 
 the eleventh century, when Palestine fell into the hands of 
 the Turks, these fierce conquerors, more intolerant than the 
 Saracens whom they had dispossessed, began to persecute 
 Christian pilgrims. 
 
 In the year 1094, one of these pilgrims, a monk, 
 
 named Peter the Hermit, roused by the wrongs and 
 
 cruelties of the Turks, travelled through all the Christian 
 
 ♦ An especially sacred shrine in Italy. 
 
64 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 countries of Europe, preaching to all classes, and persuading 
 them to raise armies for the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 In those days of warlike zeal, »uch preaching was eagerly 
 followed, and in the year 1096, a large army, numbering the 
 bravest of Europe's knights and soldiers, took its march for 
 the Holy Land. Each warrior wore a cross embroidered on 
 his garments, or painted on his shield. Hence, these wars 
 took the name of Crusades, or wars of the cross. 
 
 Questions. — In what manner did a conqueror and his follewers 
 dispose of the conquered territory ? — Give a definition of the feudal 
 system. — Relate the illustration given in the instance of the first 
 earl of Chester. — Mention the several classes of the population, and 
 describe their condition. — What account is given of some of the 
 Norman invaders ? 
 
 Describe the ceremony of homage. — What other possessions, be- 
 sides lands, were holden in fief? — On what other conditions, besides 
 military service, were estates held ? — What great cruelty and wrong 
 did William's passion for the chase lead him to commit? — How was 
 this act regarded by the English ? — Relate what befell three of the 
 Conqueror's posterity in the New Forest. — What was Doomsday 
 Book? 
 
 Describe pilgrimages. — What difficulties were encountered by pil- 
 grims to the Holy Land, at the close of the 11th century? — To what 
 did these lead? — When was the first crusade undertaken? — What 
 gave name to these wars ? 
 
HENRY I. AND STEPHEN. 66 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 ENGLAND DURING THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 
 HENRY I.— STEPHEN— HENRY «I.— RICHARD I. 
 
 A. D. 1100—1199. 
 
 "To chase the pagans in those holy fields, 
 Over whose acres walked those blessed feet, 
 "Which [many] hundred years ago were nailed 
 For our advantage to the bitter cross." 
 
 Shakspeaee. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 HENRY I. AND STEPHEN. 
 
 WARS AGAINST ROBERT — EFFORTS TO SECURE THE SUCCESSION OF MATILDA 
 — SURNAMES — CIVIL WAR. 
 
 On the death of William Rufus, Robert, heir to the 
 
 1100. 
 
 crown, was far away in the Holy Land, and Henry 
 Beauclerc, unmindful of his brother's rights, sped from the 
 sad scene of death in the New Forest, and seized the throne. 
 Henry's subjects of Saxon race were favorably disposed 
 towards him, because he was the only one of the Conqueror's 
 sons who was English born. Still further to secure their good- 
 will, he married an English princess — Edith, the great-grand- 
 daughter of Edmund Ironsides. The Saxon maiden was most 
 unwilling to wed the son of the Norman Conqueror, but, after 
 much entreaty, she gave her consent, in the hope that this 
 union might be the means of reconciling the two people. 
 She then received the name of Matilda, to gratify the Nor- 
 mans, who could not bear that the sweet English name of 
 
 6* r 
 
66 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Edith should constantly remind them of the Saxon birth of 
 their queen. By the Saxon chroniclers she is called Maude 
 the Good. 
 
 Henry was a Norman at heart, although he was of English 
 birth, had married an English princess, and had given to 
 his Saxon subjects charters sealed with his own seal; yet, 
 when he no longer needed.their aid, he forgot all these claims, 
 and treated the English no better than his father and brother 
 had done. • 
 
 Robert, on his return from Palestine, laid claim to 
 
 the English crown. For years the same brothers' 
 
 strife which had made the last reigns so miserable, was kept 
 
 up in this. Nor did the contest end when Robert lay 
 
 blind and a prisoner in Cardiff Castle, the victim 
 
 of Henry's cruel triumphs. Generous hearts in France and 
 
 Flanders gathered around the Norman duke's young son, 
 
 William Fitz-Robert, and for a time strove to win for him the 
 
 English throne. 
 
 In the year 1120, Fitz-Robert's cause was lost: and, 
 
 1120* . . 
 
 having triumphed over every enemy, Henry thought 
 he might enjoy his crown in quiet, and leave it in undisputed 
 succession to his only and beloved son. But He by whom 
 kings rule, had ordained otherwise. The son (William) on 
 whom the monarch's every hope was centred, and to whom 
 he had caused all his nobles to swear allegiance, perished by 
 shipwreck ; a calamity which so affected King Henry, that it 
 is said he was never afterwards seen to smile. This event, 
 however grievous to the heart of the royal father, was not so 
 to the English nation. The young prince had been heard to 
 say, that when he should be king, he would yoke Englishmen 
 like oxen to his ploughs. '' He will never yoke us to his 
 plough now," they exclaimed, on hearing of his death ; " the 
 judgment of God hath fallen on the cruel oppressor." 
 
 The remainder of Henry's life was spent in trying to secure 
 the crown to his daughter Matilda. He summoned all his 
 nobles, and made them take the same vows of obedi- 
 ence to her which they had before taken to her brother. 
 
HENRY I. AND STEPHEN. 67 
 
 In the year 1127 she was married to Greoffrey, Prince of Anjou. 
 This prince was surnauicd Flantagenet, because he wore in his 
 bonnet a sprig of flowering broom, called " plante a genet/' 
 Although Geoffrey himself never wore the English crown, 
 from him sprang the long line of Plantagenet kings, who for 
 so many centuries swayed the sceptre of England. 
 
 It was in thes% days that the practice of giving surnames 
 began to prevail. At first, a second name was added to the 
 Christian one, only to denote some individual peculiarity, as in 
 the case of William Rufus and Henry Beauclerc. They had 
 no common family surname {sire-name). The second name 
 was adopted by the Normans, as a badge of distinction from 
 the conquered Saxons. A young Norman lady refused to 
 marry the husband whom King Henry chose for her, on the 
 plea that he had but one name. " My father and my grand- 
 father,'' said she, " had each two names, and it were a great 
 shame to me to marry a man who has only one." The king 
 removed the proud damsel's objection, by giving the noble- 
 man, whose Christian name was Robert, the surname of Fitz- 
 Roy; meaning, son of the king. The Normans frequently 
 took for a second name, that of the Norman home from which 
 they had come. Thus the family of Seymours were so named 
 from the French town of St. INfaur. 
 
 Henry I. died in the year 1135, in Normandy. In 
 
 compliance with a curious custom, common in those 
 
 days, a portion only of his body was buried in that country ; 
 
 the remainder was taken to England, and laid in the abbey 
 
 church of Reading, which he had founded. 
 
 In the days of which we write, there was little love or reve- 
 rence for truth among men ; least of all, among princes. They 
 multiplied oaths, and took them with great solemnity, on the 
 altars, at the tombs of saints, and over shrines filled with sacred 
 relics. But the fbar of the God of truth had no place in their 
 hearts. Thus the Norman barons who swore fealty to Matilda 
 only, did so out of fear for the king, her father. As soon as 
 Henry was dead, these nobles placed the crown, not on the 
 brow of the Countess of Anjou, as they had solemnly sworn to 
 
68 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 do, but on that of Stephen, Count of Blois, a grandson of 
 WilHam the Conqueror, and nephew of the late king. 
 
 King Stephen was not a cruel man, but, as he was compelled 
 
 1136 ^^ ^»^^ against Matilda for his crown, the country was 
 
 to plunged into civil war, and there was more misery 
 
 and sorrow in his reign than in that of many a worse 
 
 king. The nobles built castles all over England, in which 
 
 they lived like robber chiefs. Bands of lawless soldiery, 
 
 retainers of the great barons, roamed about, plundering and 
 
 burninsr. No one felt safe. The nation was so divided 
 
 1139. ^ 
 
 between the parties of Stephen and Matilda, that 
 neighbor suspected neighbor, "and brother had no confidence 
 in brother. In a whole day's journey, towns would be found 
 without a single inhabitant, and the country without a culti- 
 vated field. Some of the poor people built wretched huts 
 near the walls of the churches, or in the graveyards, hoping 
 that the sanctity of the place might preserve them from 
 violence. 
 
 In the year 1147, Matilda, broken in health and 
 
 spirits, gave up fighting for the throne, and went back 
 to Normandy. Her son, Henry Plantagenet, came into Eng- 
 land, to contend for the cause which his mother had abandoned. 
 
 On opposite banks of the river Thames, near the town 
 
 of Wallingford, lay the two armies of Henry Planta- 
 genet and King Stephen, ready for battle. One good noble- 
 man, the Earl of Arundel, boldly said : " It was a shame to 
 increase the miseries of a whole nation, on account of the 
 ambition of two princes." Other lords were of the same wise 
 opinion, and undertook to make peace between the parties. 
 They succeeded; and thus ended the weary and wicked 
 struggle. 
 
 By the terms of the peace, Stephen was to reign 
 
 until his death, and then Henry Plantagenet was to 
 succeed to the crown. The death of Stephen occurred in the 
 following year. 
 
 An old Saxon chronicler sa^s of his reign : *^ All was 
 dissension, and evil, and rapine This lasted the whole 
 
THE FIRST SIXTEEN YEARS OF HENRY II.'s REIGN. 69 
 
 nineteen years that Stephen was king, and it grew continually 
 worse and worse." 
 
 Questions. — What disposed the English favojp,bIy towards Henry 
 I. ? — By what act did he especially attach the people to him ? — How 
 did his professions towards the English result? — What wars dis- 
 tracted the kingdom ? — Which party triumphed ? 
 
 Relate the domestic affliction which befell King Henry. — To what 
 efforts did he apply the closing years of his life ? — Of wtiat royal 
 house was Geoffrey of Anjou the founder? — Why so called? — How 
 were surnames first applied ? — How were they regarded by the Nor- 
 mans ? — Repeat the illustration given in proof of this. 
 
 Who succeeded Henry I. ? — What was the character of this reign ? 
 — Between what parties did civil war prevail ? — Describe the state 
 of the country during this reign. — Relate the circumstances which 
 terminated this struggle. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE FIRST SIXTEEN YEARS OF HENRY II.'s REIGN. 
 
 EXTENT OF HENRY'S DOMINIONS — HIS QUARRELS WITH THE CHURCH — 
 THOMAS A BECKET. 
 
 The young Henry Plantagenet, a monarch at the 
 early age of twenty-one, was the richest sovereign in 
 Christendom. He was king of England and duke of Nor- 
 mandy. By the death of his father, in 1150, he had become 
 count of Anjou and Touraine. By his marriage with Eleanor, 
 daughter of the earl of Poictou and duke of Aquitaine, he 
 became lord of the vast territory which stretches between the 
 mouth of the Loire and the Pyrenees, including some of the 
 finest provinces of France. He laid claim to the rich earldom 
 of Toulouse, and destroyed the independence of the 
 gay, light-hearted people, who, amid the beautiful 
 valleys of Provence and Languedoc, had preserved, in that 
 rude age, a home for poetry and the arts. In Brittany, he 
 
70 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 compelled the brave descendants of the ancient Bri- 
 
 1166. ^ . . 
 
 tons to yield to his authority, and married his eldest 
 son, Geoffrey, to the daughter of one of their native dukes. 
 
 Although Henr^Ppretended to hold these provinces as fiefs 
 of the French crown, he was, in reality, so independent, that 
 the king of France was left with but a small territory to 
 govern. This monarch, Louis VII., was ever ready to make 
 war upoft his powerful vassal. The people of Henry's new 
 provinces liked not the rule of the foreign master, and the 
 wicked Eleanor stirred up his children to revolt. These 
 clouds cast their darkest shadows over the later years of this 
 king's long and eventful reign. At first, trouble arose in a 
 more unlooked-for quarter. 
 
 * The power of the church in England at this time' was very 
 great. King William the Conqueror had made a law, by 
 which it was forbidden to try any clergyman in the civil 
 courts. Whatever the crime he had committed, he was only 
 answerable to the bishops' or church courts. The clergy 
 could not, by their canon or church law, sentence one of their 
 own order to death, nor were they disposed to be very severe 
 towards clerical offenders; and thus many an evil deed escaped 
 the punishment which it deserved. 
 
 Although this law of William's was a very bad one in many 
 respects, yet it had come in the course of years, to be of great 
 service to the English portion of the nation. Many a Saxon 
 villain escaped from the harsh tyranny of his Norman lord, 
 and became a priest. The master might try in vain to recover 
 him; for the cause could only be tried in the church courts, 
 and the church never sent back to the plough, or the work- 
 shop, any who had taken vows for the service of religion. In 
 this way, many a Saxon villain became free from servitude to 
 the Norman, and for this reason the English population were 
 friendly to the privileges of the clergy. 
 
 Henry II., unable to brook the existence of an authority in 
 the land, rivalling his own, determined to abolish the church 
 courts. To carry out this reform, it was of the first import- 
 ance, that the primate, second only to the sovereign in power, 
 
THE FIRST SIXTEEN YEARS OF HENRY II. 'S REIGN. 71 
 
 should be one disposed to espouse the interests of the king, 
 even at the sacrifice of the independence of the clergy. Such 
 a man Henry thought he had found in his chancellor, 
 Thomas h Becket, who accordingly was made archbishop of 
 Canterbury, in the year 1162. 
 
 The history of this remarkable man is very interesting. 
 His father, Grilbert Becket, was a Saxon yeoman, who, in the 
 reign of Henry I., following the banner of his Norman lord, 
 had gone on a crusade against the infidels in Palestine. There 
 he was taken prisoner, and became the slave of a Saracen chief. 
 
 During his captivity, Becket won the aflfection of the only 
 daughter of his master. By her aid, he escaped from bondage 
 and returned to England. The Saracen maiden formed the 
 bold design of following her lover. She knew but two EngHsh 
 words, " London" and " Gilbert." Fleeing to a seaport, she 
 repeated the word " London," until she obtained passage on 
 board a vessel bound for that port. On arriving, she went 
 through the streets of the city, crying '' Gilbert," " Gilbert," 
 until the sound of his name reached the ear of her lost lover. 
 Becket persuaded her to receive Christian baptism, and she 
 became his wife. From this union of a Saxon yeoman and a 
 Saracen maiden, sprang Thomas a Becket. 
 
 When very young, Thomas was sent to France, there to 
 learn more perfectly the language of the conquerors, and to 
 lose every trace of the English accent, which could betray him 
 as one of the oppressed race. Returning to England, young, 
 accomplished, with polished manners, and well versed in the 
 arts of pleasing, he soon became a general favorite with the 
 Norman lords. Introduced at court, he rose high in the royal 
 favor. 
 
 Henry made Becket chancellor of England, committed to 
 his care the education of his eldest son, and loaded him with 
 riches and honors. His dwelling was a palace : — he had ves- 
 sels of gold and silver, dresses emblazoned with jewels, tables 
 laden with costly dishes, and one hundred and forty knights 
 as his attendants. 
 
 When he was travelling in France, his retinue excited the 
 
i'-^ HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 ^^^g admiration of all beholders. He was preceded by- 
 two hundred and fifty singing boys; then came his 
 hounds and light wagons, laden with provisions, his wardrobe 
 (and on this occasion we are told he had twenty-four changes 
 of apparel), the furniture of his chapel, and of his bed- 
 chamber. Two of the wagons carried barrels of ale, to be 
 distributed among the people. After the wagons, were led 
 twelve beautiful horses, " having on each a kneeling groom, 
 and a monkey in front of him.'' Then followed war-horses 
 for all the knights in his train. After them, came the fal- 
 coners, knights, and squires; and lastly, the royal chancellor 
 himself. As the people of France gazed upon this splendid 
 pageant, they exclaimed, " What manner of man must the 
 king of England be, when his chancellor travels in such 
 state !" 
 
 In return for all the favor bestowed upon him by the king, 
 Thomas h, Becket seemed devoted to the royal interests. He 
 attended Henry in his wars, and, although a churchman, 
 donned armor of mail, and, at the head of seven hundred of 
 his own vassals, captured French castles for the English king. 
 He aided Henry in breaking down the great power of the 
 Norman barons, eleven hundred of whose castles, the strong- 
 holds of robbery and cruelty, were levelled to the ground. 
 He even reproved the bishops who asserted their independ- 
 ence, telling them that men of the church were as much 
 bound to support the royal authority, as men of the sword. 
 
 It is true, that when the subject of the primacy was first 
 named to Becket by the king, he said, laughingly, whilst 
 pointing to his gay dress, " A fine saint you have chosen for 
 so holy an office !" — and then added, more seriously, " besides, 
 you have views on the subject of the church, to which I 
 could never lend myself; and I fear that, if I were to become 
 archbishop, we should soon cease to be friends." But Henry 
 did not regard these words as uttered in earnest. 
 
 No sooner had Becket been installed primate of 
 
 England, than, giving up his office, of chancellor, he 
 
 difimissed his retinue of knights and squires, and surrounded 
 
THE FIRST SIXTEEN YEARS OP HENRY Il/S REIGN. 73 
 
 himself by men of Saxon birth, and low degree. His delicate 
 food was exchanged for the coarsest fare ; water, in which were 
 steeped bitter herbs, supplied his daily drink. Sackcloth took 
 the place of his costly raiment. He washed the feet of beggars, 
 and visited, with alms and prayers, the sick and the miserable. 
 From indulging in every extravagance which even his luxurious 
 taste could devise, he came now to abandon the most simple 
 and innocent recreations of life. The man of the world had 
 become a rigid monk, and gained by his extraordinary austeri- 
 ties the reputation of a saint. 
 
 The kin^-'s dismay at this chanoje in the new arch- 
 
 1163. . 
 
 bishop was unbounded. That the devoted, pleasure- 
 loving courtier, whose talents had been hitherto chiefly con- 
 spicuous in ministering to the royal magnificence, should now 
 set himself in opposition to the monarch's will, and rival the 
 asceticism of a St. Dunstan, was indeed matter of astonishment 
 to the whole realm. The conduct of Becket, however, did not 
 suiFer the king's mind to remain long in doubt as to the reality 
 of this strange transformation, and in this long and bitter con- 
 troversy between Henry and his prelate, it must be conceded 
 that h Becket was the first aggressor. 
 
 Henry very soon discovered that the views of Becket, as 
 the courtier had asserted before his promotion, were widely 
 difi'erent from his own on the subject of ecclesiastical autho- 
 rity. So far from showing any willingness to abate the influ- 
 ence of the clergy, the new primate did all in his power to 
 increase and extend it. 
 
 In the county of Kent, on the banks of the Med- 
 
 1163. "^ ' 
 
 way, and scattered throughout other portions of that 
 pleasant province, stood strong castles and fair manor-houses, 
 which in more favored days had belonged to the see of Can- 
 terbury. Becket insisted on the restitution of them all. From 
 the king himself he claimed the strong castle of Rochester, 
 the position of which rendered it a place of great importance, 
 and from the Earl of Clare he demanded the surrender 
 of Tunbridge barony and castle. But the crowning audacity 
 of the haughty prelate was the excommunication of one 
 
74 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of Henry's vassals for interfering in a matter of church pre- 
 ferment. This last act made Henry exceedingly angry ; for 
 among the laws which he was most anxious to establish, was 
 one to prevent the excommunication of a vassal of the king, 
 without the royal consent. 
 
 The quarrel between the monarch and his once familiar 
 friend became daily more violent. The king won over most 
 of the bishops, and all the Norman nobles, to his side, and the 
 primate was left single-handed in the struggle. He had with 
 him, only the hearts and prayers of the English portion of the 
 nation, who saw with pride and delight, an archbishop of Saxon 
 birth, opposing, with so much firmness, the power of a Norman 
 king. 
 
 At Clarendon, near Salisbury, the king held a large 
 assembly of bishops and nobles. He presented to 
 them sixteen articles (known as the Constitutions of Claren- 
 don) for the regulation of the church. Becket alone refused 
 to sign them. The king then took away the riches which, in 
 other days, he had delighted to lavish upon his favorite 
 courtier. Bishops and nobles besought the primate to yield, 
 and for a moment he gave in his adhesion to the king's de- 
 mands, but afterwards repented of this submissiou, and re- 
 newed his resistance to royal authority. Believing his life 
 and liberty in danger, he fled in the disguise of a Saxon monk, 
 taking the name of Brother Dearman, to France. 
 
 This quarrel was long and bitter. Sometimes tlie Pope and 
 the king of France -took part with the exiled primate, and 
 sometimes with the angry monarch. At length, in the year 
 1170, the Pope took decided ground in support of the arch- 
 bishop, and obliged Henry, who was then in France, to restore 
 him to favor. The meeting of reconciliation was held in a 
 pleasant meadow on the borders of Touraine. 
 
 A few months later, Becket went back to England. 
 
 His friends begged him not to venture across the 
 
 Channel. They told him he had enemies there, who hated 
 
 him to the death,* and that one knight had sworn, ''that he 
 
 would not let the archbishop live to eat a single loaf of bread 
 
THE FIRST SIXTEEN YEARS OF HENRY II. 's REIGN. 75 
 
 in England." But the fearless archbishop replied : " Seven 
 years of absence are long enough, both for the shepherd and 
 his flock, and I will not stop, though I were sure to be cut to 
 pieces as soon as I landed on the opposite coast." Becket 
 entered England in safety, and was warmly received by the 
 poor and lowly of Saxon blood ; but not a single great lord or 
 noble, not one of Norman race, gave welcome to the exile. 
 
 Not long before Becket's return, the king had caused his 
 eldest son. Prince Henry, to be crowned by the archbishop 
 of York. The right of crowning English monarchs, since the 
 conquest, had belonged solely to the archbishop of Canter- 
 bury. When the primate found that this honor had been 
 conferred on the see of York, he persuaded the Pope to ex- 
 communicate the archbishop, as well as the bishops of London 
 and Salisbury, who were among Becket's chief enemies. 
 
 The three excommunicated prelates hastened across 
 
 1170« 
 
 the Channel, and presented themselves to the king in 
 Normandy. Henry's anger, on hearing of what had been 
 done, knew no bounds. " How !" he exclaimed, " a fellow 
 that hath eaten my bread, — a beggar, that first came to my 
 court on a lame horse, dares insult his king and the royal 
 family, and tread upon the whole kingdom, and not one of the 
 cowards I nourish at my table — not one will deliver me from 
 this turbulent priest !" Solomon says : " The wrath of a king 
 is as messengers of death." Scarcely had Henry uttered these 
 words, when four knights secretly left his court. Their ab- 
 sence was unnoted, their design unsuspected. 
 
 Soon they were in England, lodging at the house 
 
 of a bitter enemy of Thomas h Becket. On the after- 
 noon of the 29th of December, they came, with twelve adhe- 
 rents, to the archbishop's palace, arrayed in armor. The 
 gates were barred, and the building rung with the sound of 
 blows from the battle-axe of the conspirators. Becket's 
 attendants urged him to take refuge in the church. He 
 refused, until, hearing the chanting of vespers, he exclaimed, 
 "Now my duty calls me thither, I will go." With calm and 
 stately mien, preceded by his cross-bearer, Becket passed into 
 
76 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the cloisters, and proceeded to the cathedral. On entering, 
 his followers would have barred the doors, but he forbade 
 them. Scarcely had he reached the steps ascending to the 
 choir, when a knight, followed by armed men, appeared at the 
 other end of the church, and a voice cried, " Where is the 
 traitor?'* The church was dimly lighted — only here and 
 there a lamp glimmered before a shrine. In the crypts of the 
 old cathedral, liecket might easily have found a hiding-place ; 
 but he would not stir, and when the voice again cried, " Where 
 is the archbishop?" he answered, "Here am I, an archbishop, 
 but no traitor, ready to suffer in my Saviour's name '* 
 
 1170. ' "^ ^ 
 
 Alone, save for the protection of his faithful cross- 
 bearer, who warded off the first blow, the English archbishop 
 •was slain at the foot of a column, then standing in what has 
 ever since been called, '' The Transept of the Martyrdom," in 
 the cathedral church of Canterbury. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the territorial possessions of Henry II. — 
 Relate the means by which he acquired them. — Were these vast do- 
 minions left him in undisturbed possession ? — What law had been 
 made by William the Conqueror in behalf of the clergy ? — How had 
 it operated in favor of the Saxon portion of the nation? — What de- 
 sign did King Henry form? — To effect this reform, what requisite 
 was important ? 
 
 Relate the history of Bcckct's parents. — Where did he pass his 
 childhood?— Describe Becket's advancement in the royal favor. — 
 Give some account of the style in which he travelled. — In what ways 
 did he render assistance to the king? — How did he receive the pro- 
 position of the primacy ? 
 
 Describe Becket's conduct on becoming archbishop. — In what way 
 did he tliwart the king's designs ? — What classes espoused the cause 
 of the king ? — Who remained with Becket ? — Describe the primate's 
 conduct regarding the Constitutions of Clarendon. — What foreign 
 powers took part in this quarrel, and what was their conduct? — 
 When and by what means was a reconciliation effected ? 
 
 Describe the archbishop's return to England. — What act of the 
 king had, about this time, excited Becket's anger? — How did the 
 primate treat his enemies ? — Describe Heni-y's conduct, and repeat 
 his words, on hearing of this transaction. — What effect did the latter 
 produce ? — Relate the circumstances of Becket's death. 
 
HENRY II. 77 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 HENRY II. 
 
 THE LAST FOURTEEN YEARS OP HIS REIGN — CONQUEST OP IRELAND — "WARS 
 IN FRANCE. 
 
 Thomas a Becket gained by his death the cause for 
 which he had suiFered during life. The king dared no longer 
 contend against the power of the church, and obtained absolu- 
 tion from the Pope, in the year 1172, only on condition that 
 he would do away with all laws hostile to the privileges of the 
 clergy. 
 
 Three years and a half after the death of the arch- 
 
 Xi74t, 
 
 bishop, the king visited his tomb at Canterbury, and 
 did penance there, causing himself to be scourged by eighty 
 monks, with knotted cords. Another act which contributed 
 to regain the favor of the Pope, was far more in accordance 
 with King Henry's natural character and tastes. This was 
 the conquest of Ireland. 
 
 The people of Ireland had been converted to Christianity 
 by the labors of St. Patrick, a Scotch bishop, who had 
 preached among them, in the fifth century of the Christian 
 era, more than a hundred years before St. Augustine's mission 
 to England. The Irish became very earnest and warm-hearted 
 Christians ; and no country sent out more missionaries, ani- 
 mated by pure zeal for spreading the glad tidings of the 
 gospel. Ireland, too, in those days, had many learned as well 
 as pious men, and her schools and scholars became famous 
 throughout Europe. The teacher of Alfred the Great was an 
 Irishman. The Christian Church in Ireland did not acknow- 
 ledge the authority of the Pope, and the Roman pontiff, 
 offended at this independence, was quite ready to give his 
 countenance to any king who would conquer the island, and 
 bring it under subjection to the Papal see. 
 
78 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 Henry first found a footing in Ireland, by espousing the 
 cause of one of its five kings, who, driven by the others from 
 his own kingdom, sought revenge at the hands of the English. 
 Henry was at that time too much engaged in his wars in 
 France, to go in person t# Ireland, but he wrote letters, 
 granting permission to any of his noble vassals to engage in 
 the enterprise. The Earl of Pembroke, surnamed Strongbow, 
 raised an army, restored the exiled Irish chief, and then, 
 with much cruelty, proceeded to conquer other provinces. 
 Henry himself visited Ireland in the year 1171. He put an 
 end to the growing power of his vassal, the Earl of Pembroke, 
 and taking the title of king of Ireland, demanded the submis- 
 sion of the Irish people. 
 
 The kingdoms of Leinster and Munster yielded to his 
 authority, but the wild races in Ulster and Connaught, pro- 
 tected by their marshes and mountains, refused submission to 
 the foreign conquerors. Henry's new kingdom embraced only 
 the eastern half of the island, and might be bounded on the 
 west by a line drawn from the mouth of the river Boyne to the 
 mouth of the Shannon. 
 
 Thus, in the year 1172, was a new province won for the 
 crown of England, and a new church brought under the 
 dominion of Rome. 
 j--,g And now there gathered around these latter years 
 
 to 
 
 of King Henry's reign, those clouds of domestic dis- 
 sension and vsorrow, which darkened his pathway to 
 the grave. Henry was a devoted father, but his sons, Henry, 
 Geoffrey, and Richard, stirred up by their ambitious mother. 
 Queen Eleanor, were in constant rebellion against him. In 
 these rebellions, which extended through the space of sixteen 
 years, the people of Eleanor's provinces, Touraine and Aqui- 
 taine, sided with the young princes, and the songs of their 
 troubadours fanned these flames of family strife. 
 
 In the year 1187, came sad tidings from the Holy Land. 
 The Mohammedans had taken Jerusalem from the Christians, 
 and the Pope, Gregory VIII., had died of grief at the 
 news. His successor, Clement III., immediately summoned all 
 
HENRY II. 79 
 
 Christian princes to a second crusade. Henry of England, 
 Philip of France, and Richard, who was then the eldest son 
 of the English king (Henry and Geoffrey having died a few 
 years before), responded warmly to the call. The three 
 princes met in peace, under the shadow of an old elm tree, 
 and there vowed to take the cross for the Holy Land. 
 
 But ere the preparations could be made, Richard was again 
 in arms, with the French monarch, against his father. The' 
 old king's sorrows had almost bowed him to the grave. The 
 people of Normandy were still faithful to him, and he had 
 placed his love and confidence in his youngest son, John. 
 In the year 1189, he made peace with Richard, and the 
 names of those who had rebelled against him were brought to 
 him for pardon, when he beheld that of John first on the list. 
 His heart was broken. He exclaimed, "Is it true, that the 
 child of my heart — he whom I have cherished more than all 
 the rest, hath verily betrayed me? Now, then, let everything 
 go as it will — I have no longer care for myself, or for the 
 world !" 
 
 He lingered a few sad days, and then was laid in the abbey 
 church of Fontevraud, on the banks of the Loire. Richard 
 is said to have visited his father's bier, and to have shed over 
 it bitter tears, in vain remorse for the conduct which had 
 brought that parent in sorrow to the tomb. 
 
 ** Alas ! my guilty pride and ire ! 
 Were but this work undone, 
 I would give England's crown, my sire ! 
 To hear thee bless thy son." 
 
 Questions. — What was gained by Becket's death ? — On what con- 
 dition was absolution granted to the king ? — What penance did 
 Henry perform ? — When and by whom had Christianity been intro- 
 duced into Ireland? — What was the condition of Ireland in those 
 days? — Why did the Roman pontiff consent to its invasion ?-— What 
 circumstance afforded Henry an opportunity for this ? 
 
 Describe Earl Pembroke's conduct. — What parte of Ireland were 
 conquered? — Describe the limit of the new kingdom. — Relate the 
 domestic dissensions which disturbed the latter half of Henry's 
 
80 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 reign. — What occurrences aflFecting all Cliristendom took place in 
 the year 1187? — What princes assumed the cross? — By what was 
 Henry detained ? — What circumstance hastened his death ? — Where 
 did he die ? — Describe Richard's conduct. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 RICHARD I. 
 
 HIS CRUSADE — CAPTITITY — RELEASE — WARS IN FRANCE — RICHARD'S 
 DEATH — WILLIAM LONGBEARD. 
 
 Henry was succeeded by his son Richard, called Cceur-de- 
 Lion, or " the lion-hearted," on account of his great bravery. 
 It would have been better for his subjects had he 
 been more human-hearted. 
 
 No sooner was Henry II. laid in his grave, than Richard 
 of England and Philip of France remembered the vow which 
 had been taken under the old elm tree, and agreed to leave 
 their own kingdoms, and go, as brothers in arms, to the rescue 
 of the Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 In order to obtain money, Richard sold a great many offices 
 and dignities, as well as lands, castles, and towns belonging to 
 the crown of England. When one of his courtiers expressed 
 surprise at his doing this, Richard exclaimed: "I would sell 
 the city of London itself, if I could find a purchaser!" 
 Many Jews had settled in England, and had become wealthy 
 by trade and commerce. From them, especially, it was 
 thought no wrong to extort money; and large numbers were 
 robbed of their wealth, by the most cruel means, to furnish 
 the necessary supplies for this costly enterprise. They were 
 even tortured until they consented to give up their silver and 
 gold. 
 
 The inhabitants of many of the English towns belonging to 
 the king, taking advantage of this eagerness of their royal 
 nutter for money, united, and made great efforts to raise a 
 
RICHARD I. 81 
 
 sum sufficient to purchase their houses, and thus to become, 
 for the payment of an annual rent to the crown, proprietors 
 of the towns they dwelt in. When Richard had obtained 
 the desired funds, he departed, with a gallant retinue of 
 knights and soldiers, for the Holy Land. 
 
 On the 8th of June, in the year 1191, after a great 
 variety of adventures, the fleet of this crusading king 
 entered the bay of Acre, amid the sound of martial music, and 
 the rejoicing shouts of the Christian army. The latter stood 
 greatly in need of aid. They had been besieging the Moham- 
 medans in the town of Acre for nearly two years. The town 
 had not yielded, and now Saladin, the famous Saracen chief, 
 had gathered his army on the heights of Carmel, and not only 
 helped the besieged city to hold out, but so surrounded the 
 Christian army, that they were in great danger of destruction. 
 
 The French had reached Acre before the arrival of the 
 English, but they had given no assistance to the Christians. 
 In four days after Richard, Coeur-de-Lion, had anchored in 
 the bay, the town of Acre surrendered to his valor, and the 
 army of Saladin was scattered. 
 
 The lion-hearted Richard won many a bloody field in the 
 land of the infidel. So great became the terror of this prince's 
 name, that mothers used it to frighten their children; and 
 long years after Coeur-de-Lion had left the shores of Palestine, 
 if a horse started, his Syrian rider would exclaim : " Dost 
 thou think King Richard is in that bush ?" 
 1191 Near Ascalon, in the battle of Azotus, Richard per- 
 to formed wondrous deeds of valor, and the conquered 
 Saladin mourned the loss of seven thousand brave 
 soldiers. Richard recovered Jafi'a, the Joppa of the Bible, 
 and rebuilt Ascalon, working on its walls with his own hands. 
 All along the coast of Palestine, from Gaza to Acre, he estab- 
 lished strong posts. He had many personal encounters with 
 the Saracens, and the strength of arm with which he dealt 
 the blows of his heavy battle-axe, excited the wondering admi- 
 ration of both friend and foe. 
 
 Saladin was a worthy rival of this crusading king. They 
 
82 H18T0RY OF EN(JLAND. 
 
 fought fiercely in battle with each other, but are said to have 
 been mutually courteous during the seasons of peace. When 
 llichard was ill, Saladin sent to him the cooling snows of 
 Lebanon, with presents of damson plums and other delicious 
 fruits from the vale of Damascus. 
 
 Coeur-de-Lion never entered Jerusalem. Led to a neigh- 
 boring height, whence he might look down upon the Holy 
 City, he is said to have raised his shield before his eyes, 
 exclaiming that he was unworthy to look upon the sacred spot 
 which he had been unable to redeem. Deserted by the French 
 king, and delayed or thwarted in his plans, Richard, before 
 he had fulfilled the desire of his heart, and rescued the Holy 
 Sepulchre from the hand of the infidel, was recalled to his 
 own kingdom. 
 
 The English king, on departing for the Holy Wars, had 
 left the government of the realm in the hands of a man named 
 Longchamp. Richard, aware of the artful and designing cha- 
 racter of his brother. Prince John, had placed no authority in 
 his hands, but in lieu thereof had granted him large possessions 
 both in England and France. No sooner had the king gone, 
 however, than John began to plot against Longchamp, and, in 
 the end, succeeded so well, that he drove him Irom the king- 
 dom, and took the direction of affairs into his own hands. 
 Before the close of two years, John found one as treacherous 
 as himself, to help him in his usurpation of his brother's 
 rights. This was no other than Philip of France, the once 
 intimate friend, and sworn brother-in-arms, of the crusading 
 Richard. They had quarrelled, and become bitter foes. 
 Philip, on leaving the Holy Land, had promised not to make 
 war upon the English king, nor to invade any of his territories 
 whilst the latter was engaged in the Crusades. In passing 
 through Rome, however, the French king persuaded the Pope 
 to absolve him from this promise ; and no sooner did he return 
 to France, than he joined John in his evil designs on the 
 government and territories of Richard. 
 
 When intelligence of these transactions reached Palestine, 
 the English king, thinking it high time for him to return to 
 
RICHARD I. 83 
 
 his own land, made a truce with Saladin, which was to last 
 three years, three months, three weeks, three days, and three 
 hours. In October of the year 1192, Richard bade farewell 
 to the Syrian shore. From his ship in the bay of Carmel, 
 Coeur-de-Lion gazed for the last time upon the sacred moun- 
 tains of Lebanon. Turning towards those glorious hills, he 
 cried : " Most Holy Land, I commend thee to God's keeping. 
 ]\Iay He give me life and health to return and rescue thee 
 from the infidel I'^ It was a difficult matter for Richard to 
 find a safe route to England ; for, besides the king of France, 
 he had many enemies in Europe. To avoid these, he sailed 
 up the Gulf of Venice, intending to pass thence through 
 Styria, to some friendly German port, whence he might em- 
 bark for England. 
 
 Adverse circumstances threw him out of his route, and 
 after many romantic and perilous adventures, he found him- 
 self on the banks of the Danube, in Vienna, the capital of his 
 bitterest enemy, — the duke of Austria. One day, he sent his 
 
 young servant to the market-place to purchase food. 
 
 The unusual amount of money in the hands of the 
 boy, and his rich dress, had already awakened suspicion ; for 
 the rumor had gone abroad that the king of England was 
 travelling from the Holy Land in disguise. On the day in 
 question, the boy carried in his girdle, gloves such as were 
 worn only by kings and princes. This confirmed the sus- 
 picions. The boy was questioned, and forced to betray his 
 ro3^al master, \vno was immediately seized and thrown into 
 captivity, by the duke of Austria. When the emperor of G er- 
 niany heard of this, he obliged the duke to give up his prisoner, 
 
 saying that it was not proper that a king should be 
 
 held by one of less rank than an emperor. 
 For some mouths the world knew not what had become of 
 the king of England. Some crusaders reported that he had 
 fallen into the hands of the Moors ; others that he had been 
 seen in Italy. A beautiful story is told of the manner in 
 which the place of his imprisonment was at length discovered. 
 It is said that Blondel, King Richard's favorite page, wandered 
 
84 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 into Germany in search of his lost master. That at length he 
 reached the castle in which Richard was imprisoned, and sang 
 to his guitar, beneath its walls, one of the troubadour songs in 
 which the crusading king delighted. Immediately, the voice 
 of the captive, as he took up and continued the strain, fell on 
 the ear of the delighted page. 
 
 It is more probable, however, that the secret of Richard's 
 prison-house was betrayed by a letter sent from the emperor 
 of Germany to the king of France. In this letter, the emperor 
 tells Philip that " his enemy is loaded with chains in one of 
 his castles of the Tyrol, where trusty guards watch over him 
 day and night with drawn swords." To Philip, say the old 
 Itistorians, this news was worth more than a present of gold or 
 of topaz. In England, and in Europe generally, it was 
 received with indignation. 
 
 At length, the great exertions of the queen mother and the 
 interference of the Pope prevailed, and the English king, after 
 nearly two years of captivity, was released for the sum of one 
 hundred thousand silver marks. Philip of France had made 
 every eifort to prolong Richard's imprisonment. When he 
 learned that these endeavors had failed, he sent the following 
 hurried message to John : '' Take care of yourself, for 
 the devil is let loose." Prince John had good reason 
 to dread his brother's return, for he had been usurping the 
 government during all the king's absence. 
 
 Richard was received by his people with every token of joy. 
 They were proud of his fame as a crusader, ana they hoped for 
 better government than they had had in the times of confusion 
 which followed his departure. When the German barons who 
 entered London in the king's train, saw the magnificence of 
 his Deception, they exclaimed : " Oh ! king, if our emperor had 
 suspected this, you would not have been let oflf so lightly." 
 Ah ! these German barons saw only the surface. Could the 
 English people and the oppressed Jews have spoken, they 
 might have told of sorrow and cruelty enough sufi'ered by them, 
 when the Normans had gone about to raise the enormous sums 
 of money required for the king's ransom. 
 
RICHARD I. 85 
 
 Richard forgave his brother John, saying, as he did so : 
 
 " I hope I shall as easily forget his injuries as he will forget 
 
 my pardon." He soon raised an army to punish the 
 
 to treacherous Philip. The war with France continued, 
 
 *^®^* with the exception of a few truces, until Richard's 
 
 death, in the year 1199. Whilst besieging the stronghold 
 
 of a rebellious vassal in the province of Aquitaine, King 
 
 Richard received a mortal wound. 
 
 Perceiving his end draw near, he sent for the man who had 
 shot the fatal arrow. '' Wretch," exclaimed the king, " what 
 have I done unto thee, that thou shouldst seek my life?" 
 " My father and ray two brothers," replied the undaunted 
 man, " hast thou slain with thine own hand, and myself thou 
 wouldst hang. Let me die now; I rejoice in ridding earth 
 of such a monster." In a few days the lion-heart was stilled 
 in death, and the body of King Richard of England was con- 
 signed to a tomb in the abbey church of Fontevraud. 
 
 The vast sums of money which Richard raised for his wars, 
 caused great oppression to his English subjects. When the 
 taxes were heaviest, an English merchant, William, surnamed 
 Longbeard, stood up in defence of the people. From 
 a very famous street pulpit, called Paul's Cross, ho 
 preached to them about their wrongs, and, as his enemies said, 
 " inflamed the poor and middling people with the love ofliherty 
 and happiness'' 
 
 He complained to the king of the unequal taxes, and Rich- 
 ard promised to relieve the poor, but was either unable or 
 unwilling to keep his word. As the English grew more and 
 more attached to Longbeard, whom they called " the king of 
 the poor," he became an object of hatred to the Normans. 
 One day, whilst walking, with a few followers, he was seized 
 by his enemies. He escaped from them to a church. At 
 the end of four days, they burned the church, again seized 
 William Longbeard, and hanged him, with nine of his com- 
 panions. 
 
 He was the last Saxon whom we hear of, as openly resisting 
 the Norman rulers of the land. More than one hundred and 
 8 
 
86 HISTORY. OF ENGLAND. 
 
 thirty years were yet to pass, before English and Normans 
 became as one people. 
 
 Questions. -||What was the surname of Richard I., and why given? 
 — By what means did he obtain money for his crusade ? — How did 
 many English burghers benefit by this ? — Describe Richard's recep- 
 tion and conduct at Acre. — Mention his subsequent exploits in the 
 Holy Land. — What courtesies did he receive from Saladin ? — De- 
 scribe his visit to the mountains that are round about Jerusalem ? 
 
 Why had he been unable to rescue the Holy Sepulchre ? — Relate 
 the transactions which had occurred in England during his absence. 
 — Describe the conduct of Philip of France. — Repeat Cceur-de-Lion's 
 farewell to Palestine. — Relate his adventures in attempting to reach 
 England. — In what way was the place of his captivity probably 
 discovered ? — What efforts were made for his release ? — Describe his 
 reception in England. — What wars employed the rest of his reigu ? 
 — Relate the manner of his death. — Who was William Longbeard ? — 
 Relate his history. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 
 FEUDAL CASTLES — CHIVALnV— ORDERS OP KNIGHTHOOD — ARMOR — TOUR- 
 NAMENTS — FEASTS — DRESS — LEARNING — ROBIN HOOD. 
 
 The castle of a feudal lord covered many acres of ground. 
 Its site was frequently a rocky eminence overlooking a stream 
 or river. Three principal divisions are included in the idea 
 of a Norman castle of the twelfth century : The outer and 
 inner bailey or court, and the keep or castle itself. The outer 
 circumference of the whole was surrounded by a broad ditch 
 called a moat. Within this came a high thick wall, strength- 
 ened by towers, and guarded by a huge gate. This gate con- 
 sisted of two massive iron-plated doors, defended by a port- 
 cullis or iron grate let down from the archway above. 
 
CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 87 
 
 . *' Within its steepy limits pent, 
 By bulwarK, line, and battlement, 
 And flanking tower and laky flood, 
 Guarded and garrisoned it stood, 
 Denying entrance or resort, 
 Save at the tall embattled port. 
 Above whose arch suspended hung 
 Portcullis spiked with iron prong." 
 
 Marmion. 
 
 The outer bailey contained the dwellings of the baron's 
 retainers, the granaries, storehouses, ofl&ces, &c. Then came 
 another strongly-guarded wall, within which was the inner 
 bailey, where stood the chapel, the soldiers' lodgings, and the 
 keep or residence of the baron. 
 
 The lower story of the keep was a dark vaulted cellar, often 
 used as the prisoner's dungeon. The chambers of the upper 
 story alone were furnished with windows and a chimney j in 
 these the family dwelt. The windows, at best, were narrow 
 apertures, for in those days of war and rapine, every man's 
 house was literally his castle, and homes were built, not so 
 much as abodes of social comfort, as for strongholds against 
 the assaults 'of unfriendly neighbors. Outside of the walls of 
 the baron's castle, at the foot of the hill, clustered the feudal 
 village. In the midst of the cottages, or huts, where dwelt 
 the villains and serfs of the lord, or upon the bank of the little 
 river, stood the village church. The curate of this humble 
 parish was at first the chaplain of the castle, but, by degrees, 
 these two offices were separated, and the pastor dwelt beside 
 his church in the midst of his lowly flock. 
 
 The castles of the barons were the schools of chivalry. In 
 those days of violence there were some good and noble spirits, 
 who lamented the evils and cruelties which were committed. 
 As this sense of right increased, it gave rise to the well-known 
 orders of chivalry, which softened in some degree the ferocity 
 of the middle ages. The true chivalric knight vowed to 
 defend the church and the clergy, to succor defenceless women, 
 
88 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 to protect the widow and orphan, and to practise especially the 
 virtues of truth and courage. 
 
 In the baron's castle, the noble youth of the land learned, 
 in the character of pages and squires, those accomplishments 
 which were to fit them for the crowning honor of knighthood. 
 Sir Walter Scott thus describes the requisites of such an 
 education : — 
 
 " Behind, him rode two gallant squires, 
 Of noble name, and knightly sires ; 
 They burned the gilded spurs to claim, 
 For well could each a war-horse tame. 
 Could draw the bow, the sword could sway, 
 And lightly bear the ring away ; 
 Nor less with courteous precept stored, 
 Could dance in hall, or carve at board. 
 And frame love ditties passing rare, 
 And sing them to a lady fair," 
 
 Marmion. 
 
 When about to receive the highest honors of chivalry, the 
 young noble fasted and spent several nights in prayer and 
 watching in a church or chapel. On the appointed day, he 
 went in procession to the church, castle hall, or court, where, 
 in presence of knights and ladies, the honor was to be con- 
 ferred. There, the candidate received his gilded spurs, his 
 armor of mail, and his sword. Then the king, prince, or 
 noble, who was to knight him, advanced, and giving the 
 kneeling squire three gentle blows with the flat of his sword, 
 said ; " In the name of God, St. Michael, and St. George, I 
 make thee a knight; be thou brave, hardy, and loyal." 
 
 Two orders of religious knights, known as the Knights of 
 St. John, and Knights Templars, grew out of the singular 
 combination of religious and military ardor which marked the 
 Crusades. 
 
 The Templars originated with a few knights who agreed to 
 protect the defenceless pilgrims to Jerusalem from the perils 
 of the way. They called themselves '' Poor fellow-soldiers of 
 Jesus Christ;" but, being lodged in a dwelling on the site of 
 
CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 89 
 
 Solomon's Temple at Jerusalem, they soon became generally 
 known as Knights Templars. They professed to unite the 
 virtues of a monk with the duties of a warrior. 
 
 The order of Knights of St. John, or Knights Hospitallers, 
 began with a few charitable monks, who opened a hospital for 
 sick and poor pilgrims at Jerusalem. The laudable zeal of 
 both these orders awakened the admiration of all Europe, and 
 the rich were never weary of bestowing upon them manors, 
 lands, houses, and money, until, from being ''poor fellow- 
 soldiers of Jesus Christ," these orders of military monks and 
 religious knights became the wealthiest bodies in Europe. 
 In London, their principal establishments were the hospital, 
 priory, and church of St. John, and the beautiful buildings 
 and circular church known as the Temple. 
 
 The armor worn by the knights was made of little rings of 
 iron or steel, sometimes sewed on leather, and so nicely linked 
 that they fitted the body like a garment of flexible net-work. 
 Indeed the word " mail,'' as applied to armor, is supposed to 
 have come from a Latin word signifying the meshes of a net. 
 The armor was always polished, and sometimes beautifully 
 gilded. A suit consisted of many pieces, adapted to the dif- 
 ferent parts of the body, and familiar to all under the names 
 of helmet, vizor, breastplate, shield, gauntlets, greaves, &c. 
 Scale armor consisted of small plates of iron, lapped over each 
 other like the scales of fishes. In later times, heavier armor 
 was made, called plate armor. On their shields the knights 
 emblazoned figures of animals, or emblematical devices, fre- 
 quently surmounted by a motto. These were called coats-of- 
 arms, and were adopted in order to distinguish one knight 
 from another, which, when all wore armor, would otherwise 
 have been well-nigh impossible. 
 
 " Well was he armed from head to heel, 
 In mail and plate of Milan steel ; 
 But his strong helm of mighty cost, 
 Was all with burnished gold embossed ; 
 * * * a falcon on his shield, 
 Soared sable in an azure field : 
 8* 
 
90 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The golden legend bore aright, 
 
 * Who checks at me to death is dight.' "* 
 
 Marmion. 
 
 The amusements of these days were such as one might 
 expect, when feats of arms were held in such high esteem. 
 Those warHke games, known as jousts and tournaments, came 
 into fashion in this century, and the passion for them conti- 
 nued during several hundred years. 
 
 Tournaments were generally proclaimed by some king, 
 prince, or wealthy baron, at coronations, or on other great 
 occasions. Noble knights and ladies were invited from all 
 quarters, and the invitation was frequently extended to foreign 
 countries. The chosen spot was fitted up with great magnifi- 
 cence. The finest horses, the most splendid armor, and the 
 richest dresses, graced the scene. When the combatants and 
 spectators had assembled, and every knightly ceremony had 
 been performed, the trumpets sounded, and the signal for the 
 encounter was given. Then began the furious combat of 
 mounted knights, and the ground resounded with the clanging 
 of armor, the shivering of spears, and the trampling of horses. 
 
 When the conflict ended, the names of the bravest knights 
 were proclaimed by heralds, and the lady in whose behalf the 
 chivalrous victor had displayed his prowess, rewarded him by 
 the bestowment of a scarf or ribbon. Then followed the ban- 
 quet, at which minstrels sang the praises of valiant knights 
 and fair ladies. 
 
 The banquets of the Normans were very luxurious and 
 costly, although more temperate than the feasts of the Saxons. 
 The boar's head was considered a dish for the royal table 
 alone ; and was brought in amid the sounding of trumpets, and 
 placed on the board with every token of respect. The peacock 
 graced the feasts of chivalry. After being roasted, this bird 
 was decked again with its beautiful plumage, and a sponge 
 
 * Dight means prepared. This was the motto over the device 
 of the falcon on the knight's shield. 
 
CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 91 
 
 dipped in burning spirits of wine was placed in its bill. Its 
 appearance on the banquet-table was a signal for valorous 
 youths to vow some deed of knightly daring. 
 
 The office of cook in great families was frequently given in 
 fief, and we hear of English estates being held by the sole 
 tenure of dressing some dish peculiarly agreeable to the taste 
 of the feudal lord. The Anglo-Normans had but two stated 
 meals a day, as a proverb common among them bears witness : 
 
 " Lever a cinque, diner a neuf, 
 Souper a cinque, coucher a neuf, 
 Fait vivre d'aus nonante et neuf." 
 
 ** To rise at five, to dine at nine, 
 To sup at five, to bed at nine, 
 Makes a man live to ninety-nine." 
 
 One of the most remarkable peculiarities in the dress of the 
 people in this century was their long-peaked shoes. They 
 were often stuffed and twisted into the shape of a ram's horn, 
 or a scorpion's tail. The clergy opposed this ridiculous fashion 
 in vain, as also that of the long curled hair of courtiers. On 
 one occasion, however, a Norman bishop preached before 
 Henry I. and his court, against long hair, with such effect, 
 that both monarch and nobles consented to cut off the highly- 
 prized ornament. Fearing lest they should change their 
 minds, the bishop forthwith produced a pair of shears, and 
 with his own hands severed the offending locks. This did 
 not, however, put an end to the fashion, which, together with 
 the long-pointed shoes, continued to annoy the clergy a cen- 
 tury later. 
 
 The Norman clergy had a greater regard for learning than 
 the Saxon churchmen ; and when the former settled in Eng- 
 land, monasteries, with their schools and libraries, arose in 
 great number. Learning, allowing for a few distinguished ex- 
 cepfions, was almost entirely confined to the clergy. Henry I. 
 won his surname of Beauclerc from his fine scholarship, and 
 his son-in-law, Geoffrey of Anjou, was famed for his learning. 
 
92 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 Ignorance prevailed among the great mass of the laity, nor did 
 the nobles form an exception. On one occasion, Henry II. 
 sent an embassy to the Pope, consisting of several bishops and 
 four of the great barons of the realm. The clergy addressed 
 the pontiff in Latin, and when they had finished, one of the 
 barons said in English : " We, who are illiterate laymen, do 
 not understand one word of what the bishops have spoken to 
 your holiness." This, at a time when Latin was almost the 
 only written language, showed great ignorance. 
 
 During the twelfth century, the schools of Oxford and 
 Cambridge began to rise into importance, and to take the 
 name of universities. There was also a celebrated school at 
 St. Alban's, and several in London, which in this century 
 became the capital of England. To many distinguished 
 writers of this age we are indebted for interesting and faithful 
 histories. Among these may be named Henry of Huntingdon, 
 William of Malmsbury, and Gerald Barry, called more com- 
 monly by his Latin name, Giraldus Cambrensis, the latter 
 name meaning " of Cambria," or Wales, of which country he 
 was a native. 
 
 The condition of the country during this period was, for the 
 Norman conquerors especially, extremely insecure. The bold 
 outlaws who had dwelt in the forests ever since the days of the 
 conquest, grew especially famous in the reign of King Richard 
 and his successor, under Robin Hood, who is said to have been 
 none other than the outlawed Robert, Earl of Huntingdon. 
 In the glades of Sherwood Forest, Robin Hood and his merry 
 men, dressed in Lincoln green, with bugle-horn and silver 
 baldrick, hunted, robbed, and ruled at will. 
 
 Professed champions of the English race, they are said never 
 to have taken a penny or done a wrong to the Saxon ; but, on 
 the contrary, that the wealth of which they robbed many a 
 Norman baron, was spent in relieving the wants of their 
 oppressed countrymen. Certain it is, that the names of Robin 
 Hood and the bold outlaws of Sherwood Forest, were^ong 
 loved and revered by the English, and they still live in many 
 
CONDITION OP ENGLAND IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 93 
 
 a stirring ballad. The following may serve as a specimen 
 of these popular compositions : 
 
 " Robin wislit well unto the king. 
 And prayed still for his health, 
 And never practiced anything 
 Against the commonwealth. 
 
 Only, because he was undone 
 
 By the cruel clergy then, 
 He did all he could think upon, 
 
 To v^x such kind of men. 
 
 With wealth that he by roguery got, 
 
 Eight almshouses he built, 
 Thinking thereby to purge the blot 
 
 Of blood which he had spilt. 
 
 Nor would he injure husbandmen, 
 
 That toil at cart and plough ; 
 For well he knew wer't not for them, 
 
 To live no man knew how. 
 
 Full thirteen years, and something more, 
 
 These outlaws liv^d thus ; 
 Feared of the rich, loved of the poor: 
 
 A thing most marvellous. 
 
 In those days men more barbarous were, 
 
 And liv^d less in awe ; 
 Now, God be thanked, the people* fear 
 
 More to offend the law." 
 
 Richard, Cceur-de-Lion, on his return to England, besieged 
 and carried Nottingham Castle, the last stronghold which held 
 for the treacherous John. He then made an excursion into 
 Sherwood Forest, which, stretching from Nottingham into 
 Yorkshire, over several hundred square miles, presented the 
 largest and most beautiful tract of woods in England. Here 
 he is said to have encountered the famous Robin Hood. 
 
94 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Ballad and romance weave many a pretty tale of the meeting 
 between the king of England and the bold 8axon outlaws, 
 yho, '' ranging the forest merry and free/' escaped the op- 
 pression of the Norman sway. 
 
 " They showed such brave archery, 
 By cleaving stick and wands, 
 That the king did say, " Such men as they 
 Live not in many lands." 
 
 Questions.— Describe the castle of a feudal lord. — Describe the 
 feudal village. — State the origin of chivalry. — What was the vow 
 of a knight? — Describe the accomplishments of a squire. — Describe 
 the ceremony of knighting. 
 
 Relate the origin of the Knights Templars and Knights of St. John. 
 — What is told of their subsequent history ? — Describe the diiferent 
 species of armor worn. — What gave rise to the science of heraldry? 
 — Describe the tournament. — Give some account of the banquets 
 of this age. — What is said with respect to their ordinary meals? 
 
 Describe the prominent peculiarities of dress in this age. — What 
 is said of learning ? — What instance is given in proof of the general 
 illiterateness of this period ? — What institutions of learning are 
 mentioned ? — Give the names of some distinguished writers of this 
 age. — Relate what is told of the Saxon outlaws. — Name the most 
 famous of them. — Who is he supposed to have been ? — What is told 
 of Richard I. in this connection ? 
 
KING JOHN. 95 
 
 PART V. 
 ENGLAND DURING THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 JOHN— HENRY III— EDWARD I. 
 
 A. D. 1199—1307. 
 
 " Awed by his nobles, by his commons cursed, 
 The oppressor ruled tyrannic where he durst, 
 Stretched o'er the poor and church his iron rod, 
 And served alike his vassals and his God." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 KING JOHN. 
 
 WARS AGAINST PRINCE ARTHTTR — QUARRELS WITH THE POPE — KA6NA 
 CHARTA — CIVIL STRIFE. 
 
 The thirteenth century is a very important and interesting 
 one in English history, because it witnessed the signing of 
 Magna Charta, that great safeguard of English liberty. The 
 distinguishing characteristic of this charter is, that it grants 
 equal civil rights to all classes of freemen, thus breaking the 
 bonds of oppression under which the feudal vassal had so long 
 suffered. 
 
 By Magna Charta, the king and every feudal* lord were 
 forbidden to exact from their vassals the hard services and 
 enormous sums of money which they had been in the habit 
 of requiring. They were forbidden to tyrannize over their 
 wards, in obliging them to marry against their will. This 
 species of tyranny had been carried to such exces^, that no 
 less than seven thousand pounds were paid to Henry II. by 
 
96 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 Maud, Countess of Warwick, that she might be allowed to 
 marry whom she pleased. Lucia, Countess of Chester, the 
 ward of King Stephen, paid nearly as great a sum to be per- 
 mitted to remain a widow for five years. 
 
 The freedom and rights of the city of London and other 
 towns were secured to them, and the forest laws were miti- 
 gated. No freeman was to be unlawfully imprisoned or ban- 
 ished merely at the will of his feudal lord, nor was justice in 
 regard to a prisoner to be denied or delayed. As his person 
 was not to be imprisoned at the will of another, so also was 
 not the property of a freeman to be seized, nor any excessive 
 fine laid upon it In no case were the implements necessary 
 to each man's employment or calling to be taken in fine. 
 The peasant was not to lose his plough or wagon, or tools, nor 
 the merchant his wares, the scholar his books, nor the gentle- 
 man his arms. In Wales, the harp was not to be taken in 
 fine. To all classes of freemen, the liberty of person and 
 property was secured. No one thought of bettering the con- 
 dition of the villains and serfs. They are only alluded to 
 once in this instrument, where they are spoken of among other 
 property of the feudal ward, which was not to be wasted. 
 
 The state of social freedom and security obtained by Magna 
 Charta, was a great advance upon those rude and lawless 
 times, when the vassal lay for months, it might be for years, 
 in his lord's dungeons, without the hope of justice, or com- 
 pelled to purchase his true and lawful right by the sacrifice 
 of nearly all his property. On those bad times, too, when the 
 peasant and the tradesman were liable to be robbed of all 
 their earnings, and to become miserable outcasts. 
 
 This great charter of English liberty was given in the reign 
 of King ^ohn, who succeeded his brother Richard on the 
 throne of England in the year 1199. 
 
 He was as bad and treacherous a king as he had been a sou 
 
 and brother. The first part of his reign was spent in 
 
 wars against the king of France, who had taken part 
 
 with Arthur of Bretagne, the rightful heir to the throne, being 
 
 the son of Geofi"rey, King John's elder brother. Arthur's 
 
KING JOHN. 97 
 
 grandfather, Henry II., was much attached to the .young 
 prince, and would have conferred upo him his own name, 
 but the Bretons, among whom he was born, insisted upon 
 calling him Arthur, after the old British hero who had fought 
 so bravely against the Saxons. The bards of Wales 
 and Brittafly still repeated the prophecies of the 
 fabulous Merlin, about Prince Arthur's coming back to restore 
 them to freedom. This Celtic people loved the name of their 
 national hero, and hoped that the young Arthur might free 
 them from both French and English rule. 
 1199 ^^'^s war, between nephew and uncle, desolated for 
 to nearly three years the provinces of Brittany and Nor- 
 mandy. At length, in 1202, Arthur was taken pri- 
 soner by King John, and in a short time he disappeared. 
 Many a horrible tradition of the manner of his death is related. 
 The scene which Sliakspeare so pathetically describes, as oc- 
 curring between Prince Arthur and Hubert de Burgh, his 
 gaoler, gives a painful, but no doubt a correct idea, of the 
 cruel means which the wicked king took to rid himself of his 
 innocent nephew. 
 
 The crime of the English king was visited upon his own 
 guilty head. It was in 1203 that the death of Arthur took 
 place Three years later. King John was driven out of 
 France : — of the duchy of Normandy, for nearly three hun- 
 dred years the heritage of English kings, not a rood of land re- 
 mained; and of all the fair French provinces which Henry TI. 
 had ruled, but a few castles were left to acknowledge the 
 sovereignty of his weak son. 
 
 King John was about as unwise as he was wicked. 
 Whilst despised by his own subjects, and at war with 
 France, he provoked another powerful enemy, by quarrelling 
 with the Pope. Innocent III., at that time Pope, had ap- 
 pointed Stephen Langton, a gifted Englishman, archbishop 
 of Canterbury. King John, unmindful of the result of the 
 struggle between the church and the crown, in a former and a 
 firmer reign, refused to make Langton archbishop; and drove 
 9 G 
 
98 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the monks of Canterbury from the land, because they held to 
 the Pope's appointment. 
 1308. "^^^^ Pope, in order to punish the king, laid Eng- 
 land under an interdict : — that is, he interdicted, or 
 forbade, the services and observances of the church. The 
 country everywhere wore an aspect of mourning. The chimes 
 of the church-bells were hushed; the churches were closed; 
 the images and pictures of saints were shrouded in black ; the 
 dead were laid, without a prayer, in uncons^crated ground; 
 no marriages were performed, and everything was made to 
 appear as though the curse of God rested upon the land. 
 
 Although this sentence plunged England in gloom, it made 
 
 but little impression upon the heart of the selfish king. He 
 
 1309 ®^^ploy®<i *^G next few years in successful expeditions 
 
 to against Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, and in extorting 
 
 ■ from his subjects large sums of money for these 
 
 enterprises. 
 
 Finding that King John remained insensible to the inter- 
 dict, the Pope pronounced against him a still more fearful 
 sentence. It was called excommunication — or a cutting off 
 from the communion and fellowship of Christians. A person 
 excommunicated by the Pope was considered unholy : no one 
 was allowed to go near him, to minister to his wants or to offer 
 him any service. 
 
 For a king to be excommunicated, was particularly dreadful 
 in those days, for it was followed, as in the case of King 
 John, by a sentence of dethronement. The Pope, claiming 
 power from God for such a purpose, not only declared the 
 subjects of an excommunicated sovereign free from their 
 allegiance, but pronounced a blessing on any one who would 
 take his life. Shakspfeare does not overdraw the picture of 
 papal arrogance, when he makes Pandulph, the Pope's legate, 
 Bay to King John, 
 
 "Then by the lawful power that I hold, 
 Thou shalt stand cursed and excommunicate, 
 And blessed shall he be that doth revolt 
 From his allegiance to a heretic ; 
 
KING JOHN. 99 
 
 And meritorious shall that hand be called, 
 Canonized and worshipped as a saint, 
 That takes away by any secret course 
 Thy hateful life." 
 
 This fearful sentence appalled even the obdurate 
 King John, and he prepared to make the humblest 
 submission to the church of Rome. He laid the crown of 
 England at the foot of the Pope's legate. He promised to 
 make Langton archbishop of Canterbury, to pay the Pope a 
 yearly tribute of one thousand silver marks, and to hold 
 England as a fief of the Holy See. The sentence of interdict 
 and excommunication was then recalled. 
 
 About this time occurred the first engagement between the 
 naval forces of France and England; the occasion of which 
 was as follows. Ferrand, an Earl of Flanders, and the most 
 powerful vassal of France, demanded the restitution of certain 
 Flemish towns, which had been annexed to the possessions of 
 the French crown. On the refusal of Philip, Ferrand with- 
 drew his aid from the expedition which that monarch was 
 organizing for the invasion of England. The arms of France 
 were now turned against the rebellious vassal. The earl, 
 however, nothing daunted, invoked the succor of England, 
 and the fleet which John had collected to repel the French 
 invasion, set sail for the coast of Flanders. It bore to the 
 assistance of the earl seven hundred English knights and a 
 large body of infantry. The French armament lay at anchor 
 on the coast. It was three times as numerous as the English, 
 but many of the soldiers and sailors were on shore, engaged in 
 plundering and laying waste the neighboring districts. 
 
 This first naval encounter between the two nations, whose 
 fleets have since met in hostile conflict in nearly every quarter 
 of the globe, resulted in complete victory to the English. 
 Three hundred prizes were sent home, and great joy difi'used 
 throughout the nation. 
 
 The barons of England, wearied by the weakness, tyranny, 
 and injustice of the king, formed a league against him. In a 
 council held by them in London, Archbishop Langton read 
 
100 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the charter which Henry I. had given at the time of his 
 accession. The barons determined to claim the rights therein 
 granted, "and to conquer or die in support of their liberties." 
 King John endeavored to resist the will of his subjects, by 
 calling to his aid foreign soldiers, and by begging the inter- 
 ference of the Pope. The latter wrote a threatening letter to 
 the archbishop ; but this true-hearted Englishman wavered 
 not, and gatherin«r around him the barons and free 
 
 1215. ' o G 
 
 burghers of England, he persisted in claiming their 
 rights. Joined by lords, knights, and citizens from all parts 
 of the kingdom, they grew into a powerful body, calling them- 
 selves " the army of God and Holy Church." The king was 
 forced to yield. 
 
 Permitting them to name a time and place of meeting, the 
 barons answered : " Let the day be the fifteenth of June, — 
 the place, Runnymead." The name had been given in old 
 Saxon times, and it signified meadow of council. In this 
 quiet green spot on the banks of the Thames, not far from the 
 Btately height crowned by the towers of Windsor Castle, met 
 that great council of barons, with their king, to establish that 
 precious safeguard of English freedom, known as Magna 
 Charta. 
 
 The Great Charta was signed by the monarch and his 
 subjects, but treachery was in the heart of the former. No 
 sooner was the deed done, than King John hastened to 
 Windsor Castle, and there gave way to paroxysms of rage. 
 Withdrawing from the society of his nobles, he went to the 
 Isle of Wight, where he spent his time among the fishermen 
 and mariners from foreign parts, adopting their manners and 
 endeavoring by every means -to draw foreign recruits to his 
 aid. Troops of Brabanters and Flemings stole secretly into 
 England, and the tyrant-king became strong enough to make 
 war on those subjects to whom, but a few months previous, he 
 had given promises of liberty. 
 
 The kinii'dom was devastated by foreign soldiers, 
 
 until the barons, in despair, invited Prince Louis, the 
 
 son of the French king, to their aid. This young prince had 
 
KING JOHN. 101 
 
 married a niece of King John, and in her right he laid claim 
 to the English throne. With the aid of Louis, the barons 
 defeated King John, and many towns surrendered to the 
 prince. 
 
 Like the early Norman conquerors, Louis began to confer 
 manors and estates on his own French followers, little mindful 
 of the interests of the English barons. This opened the eyes 
 of the English to the folly of calling in foreign aid. Many 
 deserted the French prince, and the royal cause began to 
 strengthen, when King John died — a circumstance which 
 greatly rejoiced his subjects, by whom he was universally 
 hated and despised. 
 
 Questions. — Mention the distinguishing feature of Magna Charta. 
 — Name the various benefits secured by this instrument. — To whom 
 alone were these rights granted? — Repeat the only mention made 
 of villains in Magna Charta. 
 
 What was the character of King John ? — Relate the events of the 
 first three years of his reign. — What reverses occurred after the 
 death of Arthur ? — Recite the ground of John's quarrel with the 
 Pope. — What sentences were issued against him by the pontifi"? — 
 Describe the interdict, — The excommunication. — How did the latter 
 sentence afi'ect John ? — Relate the terms of his submission to Rome. 
 
 In what way did the barons show their dislike to the king ? — By 
 whom were they supported ? — To whom did the king appeal ? — With 
 what result ? — How did Langton treat the Pope's interference ? — 
 Describe the further proceedings of the barons. — When and where 
 was Magna Charta signed ? — Describe King John's subsequent con- 
 duct. — To whom did the barons appeal ? — With what result? — What 
 evil ensued ?— By what circumstance was this strjfe terminated ? 
 
 9* 
 
102 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 HENRY III. 
 
 EARL PEMBROKE — HENRY's FAVORITES — WARS OP THE BARONS. 
 
 The church of Rome had taken part with the king of Eng- 
 land against the French prince and the barons. And 
 now that King John was dead, the Pope's legate 
 crowned John's eldest son, Henry, a boy ten years of age. 
 
 Earl Pembroke was appointed protector of the kingdom. 
 By his valor and wisdom, order was in some measure restored ; 
 confidence in the royal authority was revived, and at the end 
 of a year, Prince Louis had given up all hope of obtaining the 
 English crown, and had gone back to France. In May of the 
 year 1219, the good Karl Pembroke was laid in his tomb in 
 the church of the Knights Templars. His wise hand no 
 longer guided the helm of state, and the government was 
 divided among those who quarrelled as to who should have 
 the largest share. 
 
 This state of thinsrs was but little bettered when 
 
 1223 
 
 the young and incapable Henry took the power into 
 his own hands. He allowed himself to be governed by foreign 
 and unworthy favorites, which evil was greatly increased in 
 1236, by his ma.vri«ge with Eleanor, daughter of the Count 
 of. Provence. ; -She came into the kingdom with crowds of 
 French followers, on whom the weak Henry bestowed riches 
 iuid'ofp'coiSi; : ■ ; ■ '. • 
 
 The king's council, which had now begun to take the name 
 of ^;«r//V7?7ic^??<, was summoned frequently by Henry III., who 
 demanded of it supplies of money for the wars which he 
 carried on with France. The parliament granted supplies, 
 only on condition that the king should promise to observe 
 Magna Charta, and to dismiss his foreign favorites. On one 
 
HENRY III. 103 
 
 solemn occasion, Henry met the barons, prelates, and 
 abbots at Westminster Hall. The clergy held lighted 
 tapers in their hands, whikt the archbishop of Canterbury 
 solemnly pronounced sentence of excommunication on all who 
 should either directly or indirectly go contrary to the charters 
 of the kingdom. When the sentence had been uttered, bish- 
 ops and abbots threw their tapers on the earth, and as the 
 smoke of the extinguished candles went up, they exclaimed : 
 ''May the soul of every one who incurs this sentence so be 
 extinguished in hell I" To this, the king replied : " So help 
 me Grod ! I will keep these charters inviolate, as I am a man, 
 as I am a Christian, as I am a knight, and as I am a king, 
 crowned and anointed." And yet, for all the solemnity of 
 these vows, they were quickly broken ; for when the fear of 
 God does not rule in the heart, the words of the lips, however 
 solemnly uttered, are but little to be trusted. 
 
 Despite all the diflficulties which Henry had in raising 
 money, he engaged in an expensive foreign enter- 
 prise. The Pope, as feudal superior, claimed the 
 disposal of the crown of Sicily. Not having a force sufficient 
 to make good his claim against the king and people of that 
 country, who disputed it, the pontiiF offered the rebellious 
 kingdom to several European princes, on condition that they 
 would subdue and hold it as a fief of the Holy See. Among 
 others to whom this offer was made, was Richard, Earl of 
 Cornwall, a brother of the English king. The earl declined 
 the enterprise, telling the Pope that he might as well say : 
 " I make you a present of the moon — step up to the sky and 
 take it down !" 
 
 King Henry had not the wisdom of his brother, and ac- 
 cepted the crown for his son, Prince Edmund. The latter 
 never received anything but the empty title of king of Sicily, 
 but the Pope demanded of the English king one hundred 
 thousand pounds for the expenses of the enterprise. Henry 
 dared not refuse a creditor who could lay his kingdom under 
 an interdict, or excommunicate and dethrone its sovereign. 
 He therefore committed fresh acts of oppression to raise 
 
104 HISTORY OF ENCILAND. 
 
 money. This time the churches of England and Ireland 
 suiicred so much, that the clergy became almost as hostile to 
 the king as the barons were. One bishop, who was threatened 
 with the loss of his office, in case he would not contribute to 
 the debt, boldly threatened, if they took the mitre from his 
 head, to supply its place with a helmet. 
 
 The disorders and oppressions of the realm at length 
 reached such a height, that the chief barons, with the 
 Earl of Leicester at their head, forced Henry to place the con- 
 trol of the kingdom into the hands of a committee of twenty- 
 four bi.^hops and nobles, twelve to be chosen by the king, and 
 1263 twelve by the barons. This committee soon quarrelled 
 to among themselves, and in a few years the country was 
 
 plunged into all the miseries of civil war. 
 At first the barons prevailed, and King Henry was made 
 prisoner by the Earl of Leicester. Finally, however, in the 
 year 1265, the royal cause, upheld by Prince Edward, gained 
 a great victory at Evesham. Earl Leicester was killed in the 
 battle, and, at the end of two years, the barons seem to have 
 given up the struggle. 
 
 When the spirit of rebellion was subdued, Prince Edward 
 took the cross, and departed, with Louis IX., king of France, 
 for the Holy Wars. Two years after his departure, his father, 
 King Henry, closed his long. life of sixty-eight years, during 
 fifty-six of which he had been called a king. His body was 
 laid in state in the abbey church of St. Peter's. 
 
 1S70. 
 
 Over the lifeless remains the barons swore fealty to 
 the absent Edward. 
 
 Questions. — When and by whom was Henry III. crowned ? — 
 Describe the character of the protector. — State the results of his 
 government. — What was the condition^ of the kingdom after his 
 death? — What new evil did the king's marriage inflict?— What 
 demands did Henry make of his parliament ? — On what condition 
 were they granted ?— Describe the solemnity attending this promise 
 on one occasion. 
 
 Relate the foreign enterprise in which the king engaged. — What 
 means did he take to raise money ? — What was the result ? — De- 
 
EDWARD I. 105 
 
 Bcribe the conduct of Leicester and the barons. — To what did this 
 lead ? — To which side did victory first incline ? — Which party finally 
 prevailed ? — What expedition was then undertaken by Prince Ed- 
 ward ? — What event occurred two years subsequently ? 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 EDWARD I. 
 
 HIS RETUnK FROM HOLT LAND — CONQUEST OF WALES — INYASION OP 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Prince Edward was in the Holy Land when his father 
 died. A great and perilous distance lay between the 
 new monarch and his crown. And yet, though ex- 
 posed to all the dangers of war, and the yet greater dangers 
 of his long homeward journey, perhaps no king since the con- 
 quest had so tranquilly succeeded to his royal inheritance. 
 
 Having revived the glory of Coeur-de-Lion on the plains 
 of Palestine, Edward made a ten years' truce with the Sara- 
 cens, and prepared to return to England. In Italy 
 he met the messengers bearing to him the tidings of 
 his father's death. He did not hasten homeward, but jour- 
 neyed leisurely through Italy and France, everywhere receiv- 
 ing marks of high honor. Presents of beautiful horses, of 
 splendid raiment, and treasures of gold, silver, and jewels were 
 lavished upon this last royal champion of the Holy Sepulchre. 
 In Flanders, Edward lingered to settle a commercial dis- 
 pute, which had lasted many years, between that country and 
 England. The English were in the habit of selling wool to 
 the Flemings, and receiving in return the dyed cloth. This 
 had been a great trade between the tAvo countries, but since the 
 dispute had arisen, the English sent no more wool to Flanders, 
 and as they did not understand dyeing it themselves, they 
 were obliged to wear their coats of the original color of the 
 fleece. The looms of their Flemish neighbors meanwhile 
 
106 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 were idle, for want of the raw material, so that the quarreJ was 
 a foolish and hurtful one to both countries. The Countess 
 of Flanders, who had begun the difficulty, offea-ed a public 
 apology to the English king : harmony was restored, and the 
 trade went on as before. 
 
 In the year 1274, after an absence of four years, Ed- 
 ward returned to his kingdom. He was warmly wel- 
 comed by his subjects. *' In London, '^ says an old chronicler, 
 " the king and queen were received with all joy that might 
 be devised. The streets were hung with rich cloths of silk, 
 afras, and tapestry ; the aldermen and burgesses of the city 
 threw out of their windows handsfull of gold and silver, to 
 signify the great gladness which they had conceived of his 
 safe return ; the conduits ran plentifully with white wine and 
 red, that each creature might drink his fill." Add to this 
 description the fact that 19,660 capons and fowls, and over a 
 thousand animals, were ordered to be served up at the corona- 
 tion feast, and some idea may be formed of a royal reception 
 in England six hundred years ago. 
 
 The maintenance of such an extravagant court required a 
 vast amount of money. Large sums were also demanded by 
 the king for his military expeditions. Edward I. was no 
 more scrupulous than other English monarchs had been, about 
 raising pecuniary supplies. With regard to the Jews, his 
 crusading zeal made him even less so. They were robbed, 
 tortured, and put to death, on every pretext. Finally they 
 were banished the kingdom. In the year 1290, over sixteen 
 thousand of this persecuted race left England, to seek in still 
 more cruelly-persecuting countries, a miserable existence. 
 
 Among other means which the king took of filling his 
 coifers, was the appointment of a committee to examine the 
 title-deeds by which every great baron held his land. In the 
 confusion of the times, mnny of these title-deeds had been 
 lost; in which case Edward would seize the estate for the 
 crown, onfy restoring it on the payment of a large sum of 
 money. He did not, however, proceed far in this undertaking, 
 for the barons, having guarded so zealously their liberties, 
 
EDWARD I. 107 
 
 during the last two reigns, were not likely to let them go in 
 this. When the commissioners applied to the Earl of War- 
 renne, he answered, drawing his sword from its scabbard : 
 '^By this instrument do I hold my lands, and by the same I 
 intend to defend them ! Our ancestors, coming into this 
 realm with William the Norman, acquired their possessions 
 by their good swords. William did not make a conquest 
 alone, or for himself solely; our ancestors were helpers and 
 participants with him I" 
 
 Notwithstanding these somewhat arbitrary proceedings, 
 Edward did much to reform the abuses abounding in the 
 courts of justice. ''In his time," says Sir Matthew Hale, 
 " the law obtained a very great perfection." Corrupt judges 
 were heavily fined and imprisoned. Sir Ralph de Hengham, 
 the chief justiciary, being convicted of bribery, was sentenced 
 to pay a large fine, and the money was expended in the 
 erection of a Clock Tower in the Old Palace of Westminster. 
 " Its intent was," says an old chronicler, " by the clock 
 striking continually, to remind the judges in the neighboring 
 courts to administer true justice, they calling thereby to mind 
 the occasion and means of its building." 
 
 Edward I. inherited to the full the ambition, and love of 
 conquest which distinguished the sovereigns of Norman and 
 Plantagenet race. With him, however, this disposition took 
 another direction than that of foreign dominion, which had 
 been its prevailing manifestation with all this monarch's 
 ancestors. The aim of Edward's life was to unite the whole 
 of Great Britain and Ireland under one rule. The latter 
 country had been partially conquered in the reign of his 
 great-grandfather, Henry II., but North Wales was still 
 unsubdued, and Scotland was an independent kingdom. 
 
 It was against the Welsh that his arms were first 
 turned. This brave people made a noble stand for 
 fi-eedom. A hundred years before, a Cambrian chief had 
 made the following reply, when questioned by Henry II. as to 
 the conquest of his country : " King, your power may, to a 
 certain extent, weaken and injilre this nation, but utterly to 
 
108 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 destroy it requires the aoger of God. In the duy of judgment 
 
 no other race, no other tongue than that of the Kymrys,* will 
 
 answer for that corner of the earth to the sovereign judge." 
 
 Amid the defiles of the mountains of Wales many an English 
 
 army found a grave. But the ruthless Edward was not to be 
 
 foiled. From the foot of the Pyrenees he brought the 
 
 Basques, soldiers wont to penetrate even steeper and wilder 
 
 fastnesses than those of Snowdon. They drove the Welsh 
 
 from their strongholds, and the last bulwark of their freedom 
 
 was invaded. Their king, Llewellyn, was slain in 
 
 battle, and his head placed upon London Tower, 
 
 encircled with a willow crown. Under Llewellyn's brother, 
 
 David, the struggle continued, until that last royal champion 
 
 of Welsh freedom was betrayed and carried in chains 
 
 to Rhudhan Castle, where he was put to death by 
 
 order of King Edward. 
 
 Tradition says that the ancient British bards fell victims to 
 this king's unsparing cruelty. Tlie poet Gray, in his beauti- 
 ful ode, "The Bard," makes one wlio survived the massacre 
 of his race foretell the future misfortunes of the Plantagenet 
 kings : 
 
 "Weave the warp, and weave the woof, 
 The winding-sheet of Edward's race." 
 
 Dark indeed was the shadow cast upon the future of that 
 monarch's eldest born, the first Prince of Wales, then an 
 infant in Caernarvon Castle. 
 
 Once again during this reign, under a brave leader, 
 Madoc, the Welsh made an attempt to recover their 
 freedom. Again the English soldiers scaled the heights of 
 Snowdon, and desolated the Welsh valleys with fire and sword. 
 The brave descendants of the Britons, who for centuries had 
 resisted Saxon, Danish, and Norman domination, were forced 
 to yield their independence to the persevering valor of Ed- 
 ward I. Though conquered, they have not been destroyed^ 
 
 * A name of the ancient Welsh. 
 
EDWARD I. 109 
 
 nor have they changed their language for that of the con- 
 querors. The "tongue of the Kymrys" still forms the speech 
 of the greater proportion of the inhabitants of the principality 
 of Wales. 
 
 In the year 1291, King Edward was invited to 
 settle a disputed succession to the crown of Scotland. 
 The principal competitors were Jo'hn Baliol and Robert Bruce. 
 Edward, who aimed to bring Scotland under his own sway, 
 decided in favor of Baliol, whose weak character fitted him 
 to be a useful tool in the hands of the ambitious English 
 monarch. The latter soon began to make such demands as 
 awakened the country to rebellion. 
 
 Then rose the chief. Sir "William Wallace, a name 
 
 to celebrated, in Scottish ballad and romance. For many 
 
 years he resisted the arms of the English, but at 
 
 length he was betrayed into the hands of his enemies. In 
 
 London, on St. Bartholomew's day, this brave champion of 
 
 Scotland's freedom perished on the gallows. 
 
 To Wallace succeeded "the Bruce," a name still more 
 renowned in the annals of Scotland. Crowned king at Scone, 
 by the hand of the Countess of Buchan, he raised a spirit 
 which defied the power of the English king. At first Bruce 
 was defeated, and obliged to flee before the army of England. 
 For months he wandered an outlawed fugitive among the 
 Scottish Isles. Returning to the mainland, and aided by a 
 few bold followers, he repeatedly defeated the English. 
 
 When Edward heard of the coronation of the Bruce, he set 
 out for Scotland, vowing to accomplish its final conquest. 
 The day previous to his departure was fixed upon for bestow- 
 ing the honor of knighthood on the Prince of Wales. At the 
 feast which followed this ceremony, two swans, covered with 
 nets of gold, were placed upon the table by minstrels. The 
 king, rising, swore a solemn vow, " to God and to the swans," 
 that he would punish the rebellion of the Scots. Then turn- 
 ing to his son and the assembled guests, he enjoined upon 
 them, should he die in this expedition before accomplishing 
 10 
 
110 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the object of it, to keep his body un buried, until his successor 
 should have fulfilled this vow. 
 
 After this foolish and half-heathen ceremony, the army 
 began its march. The king, being in feeble health, 
 was borne on a litter, and followed the troops by slow 
 stages. He never reached Scotland, dying at a little village 
 near its borders. On his death-bed, Edward implored his son 
 to prosecute the conquest of Scotland, to give up foreign and 
 evil companions, and under pain of his father's curse, never to 
 restore to his confidence Piers Gaveston, who had been one of 
 this prince's most unworthy favorites. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the new monarch's homeward journey. — 
 Relate the circumstances which led him to visit Flanders. — Describe 
 his reception in the city of London. — What measures did he adopt 
 ft)r raising money ? — Relate the anecdote of the Earl of Warrenne. 
 
 Whffct ambitious project did Edward entertain ? — Repeat the speech 
 of a Cambrian (or Welsh) chief to Henry II. regarding the conquest 
 of Wales. — By what means did Edward succeed in subduing these 
 mountaineers ? — Relate the fate of their last kings. — What is told 
 of their bards? — Repeat quotation from Gray. — Describe their final 
 effort for independence and its result. 
 
 By what circumstances was Edward enabled to interfere in the 
 affairs of Scotland? — To what did his conduct give rise? — Give some 
 account of Sir William Wallace. — Describe the career of Bruce. — 
 Describe the ceremony observed by Edward prior to his final march 
 for Scotland. — Repeat his dying commands to his son. 
 
ENGLAND IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. Ill 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 RELIGION — INDUSTRY — MANNERS AND CUSTOMS — LEARNING AND LEARNED 
 
 MEN. 
 
 The history of the church in England, during this century, 
 is but the history of exactions and tyranny on the part of 
 papal power, which was then at its height. 
 
 One historian says, that the reason so few articles appear in 
 Magna Charta, providing for church and clergy, though one 
 of the framers of that instrument was an archbishop, is, that 
 the power and wealth of the kingdom being so largely in their 
 possession, there was nothing left for them to ask. We may 
 well believe this, when we learn that almost one-half of the 
 landed estates in England belonged to the church, and that 
 the taxes which the Pope received yearly from this country, 
 exceeded those paid to the crown. 
 
 The churches were given to Italian priests. In many in- 
 stances, the Pope would appoint to English livings, an infant 
 nephew, or a foreigner, who, residing in Italy, drew large 
 revenues from his distant flock, without performing a single 
 pastoral duty. 
 
 During this period there arose the new religious orders, 
 of mendicant or begging friars. There were the Dominicans, 
 or Black Friars; the Franciscans, or Grey Friars; and the 
 Carmelites, or White Friars. These were named respectively 
 from the color of their dress. Shrouded in their cloaks and 
 cowls, with a rope round the waist, and barefooted, they 
 travelled about the country, professing great poverty and 
 sanctity. They mixed with the multitude, preached to them, 
 absolved them, and performed all the rites of the church with 
 so much more zeal than any other order of clergy, that they 
 won the hearts of the people, who flocked to them in every 
 
112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 village. By the middle of this century the complaint arose, 
 "that nobody confessed except to these new-fashioned monks- 
 errant, and that the parish churches were deserted." 
 
 The sermons of these days were neither interesting nor 
 profitable. From the Holy Scriptures, which Cardinal Lang- 
 ton had apportioned into chapters and verses, the preacher 
 chose his text. This was divided and subdivided, for, " the 
 greater dexterity the speaker discovered in splitting his text 
 into many parts," the greater divine and the better preacher 
 was he esteemed. The heads of his discourse were equally 
 multiplied, until the sermon became a mere curious and tedious 
 play upon words. " iMay God," says Friar Bacon, "banish 
 this conceited and artificial way of preaching out of Hia 
 church ; for it will never do any good, nor elevate the hearts 
 of the hearers to anything that is great or excellent." 
 
 The Bible-Doctors, as those were called who studied and 
 explained the Scriptures, were held in contempt, being con- 
 sidered unlearned. Few said, " the entrance of thy word 
 giveth light." No wonder, then, that it was an age of bar- 
 barism, cruelty, and corrupt morals. 
 
 Towards the close of this century, the power of the church 
 received a check. By a statute of Edward I.'s reign, it was 
 provided, that every " clerk" (clergyman) charged with felony, 
 should first be indicted in the king's court, and if found guilty 
 there, he was not to be discharged in the church courts, by 
 which he was subsequently tried, without due punishment. 
 
 In the year 1279, a law was passed which put a check upon 
 the great increase of the wealth of the clergy. This law for- 
 bade that " any lands, tenements, or rents, should be given to 
 any religious body, without license from the king had for that 
 purpose." This was called " the statute of mortmain,'' be- 
 cause, as the clergy paid no taxes for their estates, they were 
 said to pass into a "dead hand," when they were given to the 
 church. 
 
 Commerce in this century was checked by unwise laws, 
 which grew out of the jealousy felt towards foreign merchants. 
 At one time such were forbidden to remain in the country 
 
ENGLAND IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 113 
 
 over forty days, or to sell their goods except at certain fairs. 
 They had to pay large sums for the privilege of trading, and 
 were often held accountable for crimes committed in the land 
 by any of their countrymen. Notwithstanding these laws, the 
 trading towns, and especially London, increased in prosperity. 
 When Henry III. was advised to sell his plate and jewels to 
 raise money, he asked : '* Who will buy them V " The 
 citizens of London, of course," was the reply. " By my 
 troth," cried the king, ''if the treasures of Augustus were 
 put' up for sale, the citizens w^ould be the purchasers." 
 
 The merchants and tradesmen formed themselves into asso- 
 ciations for the protection and regulation of trade. These 
 were called Guilds, and soon became wealthy and powerful 
 bodies. 
 
 A great part of the trade was carried on at fairs. These 
 were often continued for a fortnight or longer at a time, and 
 were frequented by crowds of people. The ground where the 
 fair was held resembled a tented city of great extent. Goods 
 of all kinds were exposed for sale, and kings and nobles sent 
 thither to purchase jewels, plate, furniture, and horses. 
 
 The principal articles exported from England were wool, 
 leather, tin, and lead. There were certain merchants whose 
 privilege it was to buy up these articles and carry them to 
 specified towns, where the king's customs could be collected 
 upon them, and where the buyers resorted to purchase. 
 These towns were called staple-towns, those engaged in this 
 business were named merchants of the staple, and in time, the 
 articles thus sold took the name of staples. 
 r--. Besides the merchants of the staple, other merchant com- 
 panies existed, such as "The Brotherhood of St. Thomas 
 a Becket,'' and " The Company of the Lombards," which last 
 w^ere chiefly money-lenders. 
 
 The German merchants probably originated the appellation 
 of sterling to the currency of England. The Germans were 
 called Esterlings, from the situation of their country, and as 
 they coined most of the money, especially the silver pennies, 
 these came gradually to be called Esterling or sterling pennies, 
 10* H 
 
114 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 and good coinage in general became denominated sterling 
 money. 
 
 Church building and architecture occupied a large measure 
 of the industry of this century. The most beautiful portions 
 of the noblest church edifices in England — York Minster, 
 Westminster Abbey, the cathedrals of Exeter, Winchester, 
 Lichfield, and Ely — are either in whole or in part the work 
 of this era. 
 
 A brotherhood of architects, chiefly Italians, Germans, and 
 Flemings, travelled from country to country, throughout 
 Europe, rearing some of the most magnificent churches, 
 monasteries, and religious houses, which the world has ever 
 beheld. They were encouraged by papal bulls, and called 
 themselves free masons. They pitched their tents or camp 
 of huts near the building on which they were working. They 
 were furnished, by the piety of neighboring noblemen, with 
 carriages and materials, and in an incredibly short space of 
 time arose those imposing structures, which, although five 
 hundred years have passed away, remain monuments of the 
 wondrous skill and religious devotion of the age which reared 
 them. 
 
 The churches, towards the close of this period, received a 
 new and very useful addition, by the introduction of clocks. 
 They were imported from the East, or were made in England 
 by foreign artists. We hear of one, which cost four hundred 
 pounds, being set up in the cat]^edral church of Canterbury, 
 in 1292. 
 
 The gloomy keeps of the barons received additions, which 
 made them less like the sullen fortresses of a previous age. 
 Henry III. ordered an apartment to be built for his daughter, 
 which should have a raised hearth and chimney, and be fur- 
 nished with glazed windows. Painted walls now came into 
 fashion, and the embroidered tapestry-hangings were dis- 
 placed. On the walls of a room in the Tower of London, was 
 painted the history of Coeur-de-Lion's crusade to the Holy 
 Land. The art of painting on glass had reached to great 
 perfection, so that nearly every church could boast beautiful 
 
ENGLAND IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 115 
 
 windows, on which were depicted, in exquisite colors, various 
 sacred histories. 
 
 To the castles and monasteries were attached extensive and 
 highly-cultivated grounds. There was the herbary, devoted 
 to the raising of medicinal herbs ; the vegetable or kitchen 
 garden, the fruit-orchard, and frequently vineyards. The 
 Normans, coming from a land rich in cultivation^ naturally 
 sought to improve the soil of their new country. Among the 
 fruit-trees, we find mention of apples, pears, cherries, and 
 plums. No doubt the crusaders introduced some of the vege- 
 table productions of the East, such as the damson plum, and 
 the damask rose, which take their name from the beautiful 
 vale of Damascus, of which they are natives 
 
 The Anglo-Normans lost in this century their moderation 
 in the pleasures of the table. During regular meals, there 
 were delicate dishes served at intervals, called " intermeats." 
 Whilst partaking of these the guests were entertained by 
 species of theatrical exhibitions. The improvised lay of the 
 troubadour was in great request at the courts of king and 
 nobles. These wandering poets and musicians, called trouba- 
 dours in France, minnesingers in Germany, and minstrels in 
 England, exerted a powerful influence on the literature and 
 manners of the age. 
 
 The diet of the poorer classes was homely and plain. To 
 the husbandman during harvest were given two herrings, 
 milk from the dairy, and a Igaf of bread a day. When the 
 crops were harvested, each laborer had a supply of the pro- 
 duce, which was to last him until the next season. Often the 
 wasteful indulgence directly after harvest would cause famine 
 or much suffering during the rest of the year. 
 
 The extravagance in food among the rich was extended to 
 the kindred luxury of dress. Gold and silk stuffs, velvet and 
 furs, with abundance of costly ornaments, were the materials. 
 But little taste was exhibited in the arrangement. The hair 
 of the women was gathered under a network of gold, silver, 
 or silk texture. Over it was worn a veil, and sometimes a 
 round hat or cap. A neck-cloth wound two or three time* 
 
116 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 round the ueck, and fastened with pins on each side of the 
 face above the ears, completed a head-dress, which must have 
 made the women of the thirteenth century look very much 
 like poor creatures suffering from mumps or toothache. 
 • Ermine was first used in Henry Ill.'s reign, for the lining- 
 of royal robes. The dresses of the clergy were very splendid. 
 In this century the red hat was first worn by cardinals. 
 
 Notwithstanding the distractions of war, there were those 
 who paid no little attention to learning. Many of the colleges, 
 which are the pride of the two great universities of England, 
 were the work of this and the succeeding century. 
 
 Although University Hall had been founded or endowed at 
 Oxford by the great Alfred, four hundred years before, it had 
 long fallen into decay, and the students of the universities 
 were forced to rent private houses in which to lodge and 
 pursue their studies. But now a most beneficial change took 
 place. A refined and liberal patronage of learning induced 
 many wealthy persons to build or endow edifices for the sole 
 use of the masters and scholars of the universities. The 
 erection and support of colleges now became as favorite an 
 object with the rich, as the founding of churches and religious 
 houses had hitherto been. Baliol College, named for the 
 father of the Baliol wh(5m Edward made king of Scotland, 
 and Merton College, founded by Walter Merton, bishop of 
 Rochester, were erected at Oxford during the reign of 
 Henry III. 
 
 Nor were these halls of learning wanting in good and 
 learned men. Many a worthy name graces the annals of this 
 age, but none more deservedly famous than that of Roger 
 Bacon, an Oxford friar. Whilst most of the learned men 
 of his day were wrangling about words without knowledge ; 
 discussing " how many angels could stand on the point of a 
 needle," and other questions equally absurd, this humble friar 
 was seeking to lead men to truth by experiment, and patient 
 examination of the works of God, rather than by vain and 
 foolish theories. Three hundred years were to pass before 
 English scholars should entirely abandon these idle specii^*^- 
 
ENGLAND IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 117 
 
 tions, in pursuit of true science. Then the illustrious name- 
 sake of the humble friar of the middle ages, Francis Bacon, 
 Lord Verulam and Viscount St. Albans, became the father 
 of experimental philosophy. 
 
 Thirty thousand pounds were expended by Friar Bacon in 
 scientific investigation and experiment. He discovered the 
 art of making gunpowder, but never published it to the world, 
 probably from a humane motive. After describing, in his 
 writings, the effects produced by this dangerous compound, 
 he gives the list of ingredients. In doing this, he transposes 
 the letters of the Latin words which signify charcoal, in such 
 a way as to render the description obscure, whilst making it 
 perfectly certain, whenever the secret should be discovered, 
 that it had already been in the good friar's possession. He 
 invented reading-glasses and various mathematical instru- 
 ments. 
 
 Owing to the ignorance and envy of the monks, Bacon was 
 accused of being a sorcerer, and thrown into prison, where he 
 languished for many years. He died in 1292. Michael 
 Scott and John Duns Scotus were two famous mathematical 
 and metaphysical scholars of that day. The former spent 
 much time in the study of astrology and alchemy, so that the 
 common people looked upon him as a magician. On men of 
 genius and learning in that age it was the custom to bestow 
 pompous titles, such as " the angelic doctor," " the subtile," 
 " the singular and invincible," &c. 
 
 To Matthew Paris, a Benedictine monk of St. Alban's, we 
 owe a very interesting history, which is chiefly remarkable for 
 the boldness with which the tyranny of the Romish church is 
 condemned. 
 
 The condition of England was not more secure during this 
 period, than it had been in previous ages. King Henry IIL 
 complained that in travelling through Hampshire, the bold 
 robbers plundered his baggage, carried off his wine, and set 
 his power at defiance. In Edward I.'s reign a law was passed 
 ordering the gates of all walled towns to be shut from sunset 
 to sunrise ; a watch to be set, and every stranger to be seized, 
 
118 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 unless the guest of a citizeu. The highways between market 
 towns were to be cleared for two hundred. feet on either side, 
 and no tree or bush left near the road, behind which a robber 
 could lurk. Every one was ordered to provide himself with 
 armor; the poor were to have bows and arrows at least. 
 When a band of robbers was discovered, the nearest towns 
 were to raise " the hue and cry." The word hue meant in 
 those days, pursuit, and was taken from an old French verb, 
 " huer," signifying, to pursue with shouting. 
 
 Questions. — What reason is given for the slight allusion to the 
 church in Magna Charta? — Describe the condition of the English 
 churches in this century. — Name and describe the character of the 
 mendicant monks. — Describe the style of preaching in this age. — 
 Mention the checks -which ecclesiastical power received towards the 
 close of the century. 
 
 What laws injurious to commerce were passed ? — Describe the 
 fairs of those days. — Relate the origin of the term "staples." — 
 Likewise the origin of " sterling," as applied to currency. — Name a 
 few specimens of the architecture of this age. — AVho were the free 
 masons? — Describe their plan of operations. — What improvements 
 are mentioned in the dwellings of this century? 
 
 What is told of gardens and their products? — What entertain- 
 ments were enjoyed by the nobles at their meals? — Describe the 
 fare and habits of the poorer classes. — Relate what is told of dress. — 
 Describe the condition of the universities prior to this time. — Men- 
 tion the colleges founded in this century. — Relate the account given 
 of Friar Bacon. — Describe the condition of the country. — By what 
 laws was its better security provided for ? 
 
EDWARD II. 110 
 
 PART VI. 
 ENGLAND DURING THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 EDWARD IL— EDWARD III— RICHARD II. 
 A. D. 1307—1399. 
 
 •'With Edward's acts adorn the shining page, 
 Stretch his long triumphs down through every age, 
 Draw monarchs chained, and Cressy's glorious field, 
 The lilies blazing on the royal shield." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 EDWARD II. 
 
 GATESTON — BANNOCKBURN — CIVIL STRIFE — DEPOSITION OF THE KING. 
 
 Edward began his reign by disobeying the dying com- 
 mands of his father. In a few months he committed 
 
 1307. 
 
 the late king's remains to a tomb in Westminster 
 Abbey : he made but a feeble pretence of carrying on the 
 war in Scotland, and he recalled Gaveston from banishment, 
 and loaded him with riches and honors. 
 
 This young man was handsome, brave, and accomplished; 
 but he was a foreigner. He had unbounded influence over 
 the king, and the highest honors which a subject could 
 receive were bestowed by his royal master, to the exclusion 
 of the hereditary nobility of the realm. Twice compelled 
 by parliament to banish him, Edward as often recalled and 
 restored him to his honors and estates. 
 
 At length Gaveston fell into the hands of his enemies. In 
 the hall of Warwick Castle he was condemned by a council 
 
120 H18T0RV OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of those English nobles, whom in the day of his power he had 
 despised and ridiculed. On Blacklow Hill, a gentle knoll 
 that rises from the river Avon, the head of the haughty 
 favorite bowed beneath the executioner's axe. 
 
 Taking advantage of the weakness of the English king, 
 
 Robert Bruce, his brave brothers and friends, Edward Bruce. 
 
 jg^y Randolph, Douglas, and the Steward of ScotUnid, 
 
 to were fast recovering the liberty of their country. 
 
 By force or guile, castle after castle had fallen into 
 
 their hands. 
 
 At length the English king was roused to exertion. With 
 one of the largest and finest armies ever raised in England, 
 he set out for the Scottish border. At the little burn (brook) 
 of Bannock, about two miles from Stirling, Bruce, with hardly 
 forty thousand men, prepared to encounter this mighty array. 
 The night before the battle was spent by the Scottish army 
 in devotion. As the English king gazed upon this inferior 
 force, kneeling on the greensward, in the attitude of prayer, 
 he exclaimed : " See I they kneel ! they cry for mercy !" 
 " They kneel, indeed, my liege," was the reply, " but not to 
 you ; they cry for mercy ; but it is to heaven. On that field 
 they will conquer or die !" 
 
 And on the field of Bannockburn, they did conquer, and 
 bravely too. The day before the regular action, Bruce, by a 
 brilliant deed of valor, done in the sight of both armies, 
 cheered the spirits of his men. As he reviewed his troops, 
 riding on a palfrey, with battle-axe in hand, and the crown 
 of Scotland surmounting his steel helmet, an English knight, 
 armed cap-a-pie, galloped forward on his heavy charger, and 
 challenged him to single combat. With one blow of his 
 battle-axe, Bruce laid the proud antagonist at his feet. In 
 the general battle, which occurred on the 24th of June, the 
 conflict was long and bloody. When the Scottish shout of 
 victory arose, two hundred English knights, seven hundred 
 squires, and thirty thousand of the common soldiers, lay dead 
 upon the field. After the battle of Bannockburn, Stirling 
 Castle, the great stronghold of finglish power, surrendered. 
 
EDWARD IT. 121 
 
 Border warfare was carried on between the two countries, 
 with scarcely an interval of peace, until 1328, when a truce 
 of thirteen years was concluded. 
 
 The king's misgoverninent and passion for favorites roused 
 a rebellion, headed by the Duke of Lancaster. At Borough- 
 bridge, the two parties had an encounter, in which Lancaster 
 was defeated, and compelled to surrender. He was put to 
 death by order of the king, who regarded him with especial 
 enmity, for the part he had taken in the death of Graveston. 
 Among the prisoners at Boroughbridge was one Roger Mor- 
 timer. He was thrown into the Tower of London, and there 
 lay under sentence of death. Making his guards 
 drink to intoxication, he escaped their vigilance. 
 Climbing the chimney, he let himself down by a ladder of 
 ropes, and crossing the Thames in a wherry, mounted a fleet 
 horse, prepared by friends who awaited him, and escaped to 
 the coast, whence he crossed over to France. 
 
 Edward's queen, Isabella, the sister of the French king, 
 was one of the most beautiful women in Europe, but she was 
 unprincipled, and her husband's neglect had so excited her 
 evil passions, that she was fully prepared to take part with his 
 enemies. In the year 1325 she went to France, under pre- 
 tence of settling some dispute which had arisen between her 
 husband and her brother, the king of that country. There 
 she was joined by Roger Mortimer. A host of enemies was 
 raised against the English monarch, and Isabella, placing 
 herself at their head, entered England, where she was hailed 
 as a deliverer. 
 
 Never was English king so entirely deserted by all 
 classes of his subjects. He became a fugitive among 
 the mountains of Wales ; but even there, in the land of his 
 birth, none gathered to the standard of Edward of Caernar- 
 von. Surrendering himself into the hands of a brother of 
 the murdered Duke of Lancaster, he became a prisoner in 
 Kenilworth Castle. 
 
 In January, 1327, parliament met at Westminster. The 
 queen and her son, Edward, Prince of Wales, were present. 
 11 
 
122 lUSTOHi: OF ENGLAXU. 
 
 A declaration was read, dethroning Edward II. Not one 
 voice arose in his defence. Amid the joyous acclamations of 
 the people, barons and prelates took the oath of allegiance to 
 his son. In the great hall of Kenilworth Castle, the dis- 
 crowned, dishonored king, wrapped in a coarse black robe, 
 received the deputation sent to tell him that he no longer 
 swayed a sceptre. 
 
 When the Speaker of parliament had read the sentence, the 
 steward of the royal household broke the white wand of office, 
 a ceremony usually performed at a king's death, to signify that 
 his royal dignity exists no more 
 
 It was in the reign of Edward II. that the Order of Knights 
 Templars was suppressed. This order had been established 
 in the twelfth century by nine poor crusaders for the protec- 
 tion of Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem. From a state of 
 humility and poverty they had become, during the lapse of 
 two centuries, one of the wealthiest and proudest orders of the 
 Roman church. The first monarch who ventured to attack 
 them was King Philip of France. Coveting their vast 
 possessions, he first accused them of enormous crimes, and 
 then proceeded to arrest and imprison them. The most 
 atrocious cruelties were perpetrated against these unfortunate 
 men. They appealed in vain to the Pope for protection, and 
 finally perished at the stake. 
 
 In England the suppression of the order was unattended by 
 this barbarous cruelty, but the members were deprived of their 
 possessions, shut up in monasteries, and there passed the 
 remainder of their lives, on a scanty pittance allowed by the 
 king, from the revenues of which he had deprived them. 
 The fate of the English monarch must have seemed to the 
 Templars a fitting punishment for this deed of violence. 
 
 The unfortunate Edward after his dethronement remained 
 for a time at Kenilworth, where the Earl of Lancaster dealt 
 kindly by his prisoner. This alarmed the queen, who, with 
 Lord Mortimer, now ruled the kingdom, and she caused her 
 husband to be committed to a harsher jailorship in Berkeley 
 Castle. 
 
EDWARD III. 123 
 
 One atltumn night, fearful shrieks resounded through the 
 walls of the building. The next day, Edward of 
 Caernarvon was found dead. His cruel murderers 
 reported that he had been carried off during the preceding 
 night, by a violent disorder. The people were not deceived, 
 and the towers of this castle on the Severn have ever since 
 been invested with a melancholy interest. 
 
 Questions — By what acts of filial disobedience did this king begin 
 his reign? — Relate the career of Gaveston. — Name the principal 
 champions of Scottish freedom. — What success had they obtained? — 
 Relate the account given of the battle of Bannockburn. 
 
 Mention the result of the rebellion under Lancaster. — Relate the 
 peril and escape of Mortimer. — Describe the character and conduct 
 of Edward's queen. — How was she received and regarded in Eng- 
 land? — What misforiunes befell the king? — Describe the scene of his 
 deposition. — Relate the manner in which the sentence was made 
 known to him. — Describe the treatment he received subsequently. — 
 Where and under what circumstances did he die? 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 EDWARD III. 
 
 OVERTHROW OP MORTIMER — CLAIM TO THE FRENCH CROWN — WARS IN 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Eight months before his father's death, the young Edward, 
 a lad of fourteen years, was crowned kint?. A council 
 of twelve of the greatest lords of the realm was ap- 
 pointed by parliament " to have the rule and government;" 
 but the real power and rule lay in the hands of Queen Isa- 
 bella and Lord Mortimer. 
 
 When Isabella was on the continent, raising a party to 
 oppose her husband, she had been kindly received by the 
 Count of Hainault, who affianced his daughter Philippa to 
 her son, then Prince of Wales. This betrothal was, perhaps. 
 
124 HISTORY OB- ENGLAND. 
 
 the only good thing which came of the intrigues of the wicked 
 Isabella. The marriage took place with great pomp 
 in January, a year after the young Edward had 
 become king. 
 
 Two years later, Edward III., having reached the age of 
 eighteen, determined to put an end to the power of Lord 
 Mortimer, and to take the government into his own hands. 
 The parliament was assembled at Nottingham. The queen 
 mother, her son, and Mortimer were there, lodging in the 
 strong castle. From the fears which an evil conscience 
 brings, Isabella had surrounded the building with a guard, 
 and every night she caused the keys of the ponderous castle 
 gates to be laid by her bedside. The governor, however, 
 being bribed, conducted Edward's party by a secret under- 
 ground passage into the very halls of thi castle, where they 
 were joined by the young king and his retinue. 
 
 Bursting into the room in which, at that midnight hour, 
 Isabella's evil counsellors were busy in "anxiolis consultation,'* 
 they seized the guilty lords, and, notwithstanding the queen 
 mother's tearful entreaties to " spare her gentle Mortimer," 
 he was hurried from her presence, and shortly after put to 
 death. Isabella, shut up in the Manor House of Rising, 
 passed there the remaining twenty-seven years of her life. 
 Edward was now the real master of his kingdom. 
 
 In Scotland, the great Bruce was dead. His brave friend, 
 Lord James Douglas, whilst bearing his master's heart, in 
 compliance with a dying request, to the Holy Land, was slain 
 by the Moors in Spain. Randolph too was dead, and the 
 young David, the only son of King Robert, was left almost 
 without a champion to secure the crown on his young head. 
 
 Edward IIL, taking advantage of these circumstances, 
 
 secretly stirred up a pretender to the Scottish throne, in the 
 
 person of Edward Baliol, a son of the weak John Baliol, 
 
 whom his orrandfather had made kinj?. As Ions: as 
 
 1332 ~ c 
 
 English arms supported his cause Baliol reigned, but 
 no sooner were they recalled, than the indignant Scots drove 
 him from his throne. At length, King Edward, having a 
 
EDWARD III. 125 
 
 more tempting prize in view, withdrew his attention from 
 Scotland. 
 
 This prize was nothing less than the Trench crown, to 
 which Edward laid claim as the son of a French princess. 
 By a law, called the Salique law, no woman can reign in 
 France. Edward contended that, although his mother could 
 not become queen, he might inherit the crown through her; 
 and as Isabella's three brothers had died, leaving no sons, he 
 claimed to be the rightful heir. The French argued differ- 
 ently — that the throne could descend only through a male 
 line of succession. They, therefore, had crowned Philip of 
 Valois, the son of Isabella's uncle. 
 
 The idea of a French war, especially for such an 
 
 X338* 
 
 object, was highly popular, and Edward found little 
 difficulty in raising a large army. Parliament granted money, 
 culled subsidies, when given for such purposes. The tin of 
 Cornwall and Devonshire, and the wool throughout England, 
 was seized, and even the crown jewels were pawned to raise 
 the large amount required to equip the fleet and army, and to 
 pay the king's allies on the continent. 
 
 Little of importance was done in the French war until 1346, 
 a year made memorable by the famous battle of Ore^y In Au- 
 gust of that year the English king was advancing through the 
 northern provinces of France with an army of thirty thousand 
 men, seeking to join his allies in Flanders. The French, with 
 a vastly superior force, opposed his march. With desperate 
 valor, having fought his way across the river Somme, in face 
 of the enemy, Edward encamped on a gentle eminence near 
 the village of Cre9y, and there awaited the arrival of Philip, 
 with the main army of the French. 
 
 "I have good reason to wait for him on this spot," said 
 King Edward. "I am now upon the lawful inheritance of my 
 lady mother — upon the lands of Ponthieu, which were given 
 to her as her marriage portion, and I am resolved to defend 
 them against my adversary, Philip de Yalois." His army 
 was but a handful compared with the French host : 
 
 1346. ^ . ' 
 
 but the men were refreshed with food and rest and 
 11* 
 
126 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 cheering words, and on the morning of the 26th of August 
 were ready to meet their enemies. Of the latter the chronicler 
 Froissart says : " Ho man, unless he had been present, can 
 imagine the bad management and disorder of the French, 
 whose troops were innumerable." As they were advancing 
 in this tumultuous confusion, King Philip, at sight of the 
 English, cried out : " Order the Genoese forward, and begin 
 the battle, in the name of God and St Denis !" 
 
 The Genoese were famous cross-bow-men, and were much 
 relied upon for skill and bravery But on this occasion they 
 were fatigued by a long march ; their bows were injured by 
 a shower of rain, and they were more than matched by the 
 well-skilled archery of the English yeomen. From a neigh- 
 boring hill King Edward watched the progress of the battle. 
 Foremost and bravest in the action was his son, the Prince 
 of Wales, called " The Black Prince," from the color of his 
 armor. Although but fifteen years of age, he displayed the 
 valor of an old and war-tried veteran. 
 
 Seeing the young Prince in deadly conflict with a host of 
 enemies, the Earl of Warwick sent to the English king to 
 request aid for the noble boy. " Is my son wounded, or 
 thrown to the ground?" demanded the king. "No, sire, 
 please God, but he is hard beset," replied the messenger. 
 " Then return to those who sent yoUj-and tell them, he shall 
 have no help from me. Let the boy win his spurs ; for I am 
 resolved, if it please God, that this day be his.'' Such was 
 the royal father's answer, and his brave son won the day. 
 
 The French fell by thousands. At night, with scarcely 
 more than sixty followers, Philip fled from the field. Riding 
 to the castle of one of his vassals, he demanded admittance. 
 The chatelain, or governor, asked who cried at such an hour. 
 " Open, open, chatelain; it is the fortune of France !" replied 
 the fugitive monarch. Only stopping for some slight refresh- 
 ment, the king, at midnight, continued his flight, until he 
 found a place of safety at Amiens. 
 
 The English, meanwhile, were rejoicing over one of the 
 greatest victories ever gained on a battle-field. King Edward, 
 
EDWARD III. 127 
 
 embracing his son in presence of the army, said, " Sweet son, 
 Grod give you good perseverance. Loyally you have acquitted 
 yourself this day, and worthy are you of a crown I" Among 
 those who fell on the side of the French, was the old and 
 blind king of Bohemia. He had been led into the action 
 between two knights. His crest of three ostrich feathers, 
 with the motto, " Ich dien^' (I serve), was adopted by the 
 Black Prince, and has ever since been the crest of the Princes 
 of Wales. 
 
 After the battle of Cre§y, Edward laid siege to 
 Calais, one of the strongest of the French towns. 
 His large fleet blockaded the harbor, whilst, on the land side, 
 he surrounded the town with wooden huts filled with soldiers. 
 The inhabitants, hoping for aid from King Philip, would not 
 surrender. 
 
 Meanwhile to the English army came news of a great 
 victory gained over the Scots, in which their king, David 
 Bruce, was taken prisoner. Queen Philippa, it is said, was 
 present on this occasion, and animated the troops by her words 
 of courage and cheerfulness. When she had seen her royal 
 captive safely lodged in the Tower of London, the English 
 queen joined her husband in France. The siege of Calais 
 went on ; and as no provisions could enter the town, the con- 
 dition of the citizens was dreadful. The governor turned out 
 seventeen hundred people, old men, women, and 
 children, " useless mouths,^' as they were called in 
 the cruel language of war. Edward treated these wretched 
 people kindly, gave them food, and a small supply of money, 
 and sent them into the country. Another body of five hun- 
 dred, whom the governor turned out, Edward could not pro- 
 vide for, and they perished miserably between the walls of 
 the town and the English camp. 
 
 At length, reduced by famine, Calais ofiered to surrender. 
 The English king demanded that six of the chief citizens 
 should present themselves, bareheaded and barefooted, with 
 ropes round their necks, and deliver up to him the keys of 
 the town. On these he should do his will; and on these 
 
128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 conditions alone would he spare the lives of the people. Alas ! 
 for the cruelty of those who called themselves Christian 
 knights — gentle and chivalrous. ^\ 
 
 In the market-place of Calais this message was 
 received by the peqple with dismay and bitter lament- 
 ations. Of those who had so nobly borne the horrors of the 
 eiege, whom should they sacrifice ? Such was the painful 
 dilemma when, according to the quaint narrative of the 
 chronicler Froissart, '^ the most wealthy citizen of the town, 
 by name Eustace de St. Pierre, rose up and said : ' Gentlemen 
 both high and low, it would be a very great pity to suflfer so 
 many people to die through famine, if any means could be 
 found to prevent it; and it would be highly meritorious in 
 the eyes of our Saviour, if such misery could be averted. I 
 have such faith and trust in finding grace before God, if I 
 die to save my townsmen, that I name myself as first of the 
 six I' 
 
 " When Eustace had done speaking, they all rose up and 
 almost worshipped him : many cast themselves at his feet, 
 with tears and groans. Another citizen, very rich and re- 
 spected, rose up and said he would be the second to his 
 companion Eustace. His name was John Daire. After him, 
 James Wisant, who was very rich in merchandise and lands, 
 ofi'ered himself, as companion to his two cousins : as did Peter 
 Wisant, his brother. Two others then named themselves, 
 which completed the number demanded by the king of 
 England. Then there arose the greatest sorrow and lament- 
 ation all over the town, and in such manner were they 
 attended to the gate, which the gov€rnor ordered to be 
 opened, and then shut upon him and the six citizens, whom 
 he led to the barriers of the English camp." 
 
 Soon these magnanimous townsmen of Calais were in the 
 presence of the English king, imploring mercy. Edward 
 commanded that their heads should be struck oiF. The 
 noblest of the English courtiers begged their master to show 
 more pity : he would not listen, and only repeated — " Let the 
 headsman be summoned." Then Queen Philippa fell on her 
 
EDWARD III. 129 
 
 knees before him, and with tears pleaded with her husband 
 to spare the Hves of these devoted men. At this Edward's 
 wrath-steeled heart was touched. " Dame," he exclaimed, 
 '' I wish you had been somewhere else j but I cannot refuse 
 you. I put them at your disposal." 
 
 Shortly after the surrender of Calais, a truce was made 
 with France, and Edward returned to England. The truce, 
 which was to last less than a year, was prolonged, owing to a 
 fearful pestilence which spread over Europe during the years 
 1348 and 1349. This pestilence, known as the plague, com- 
 menced in China, and, travelling westward over the deserts 
 and wilds of Asia, swept through the countries of the Levant, 
 desolated Grreece and Egypt, and thence pursued its fearful 
 track through Germany and France, appearing in London in 
 1348, and soon penetrating into every province of England. 
 Nearly, if not quite, one-half of the population of the country 
 was carried off, and when this great pestilence had ceased, 
 there were " scarcely hands enough left to till the soil," so 
 frightful had its ravages been among the poor. 
 
 In the year 1355, war was renewed in the south of France. 
 There, in the ancient duchy of Aquitaine, the Black Prince 
 had established his court. From his capital of Bordeaux, on 
 the banks of the Garonne, in July of 1356, Prince Edward, 
 with a small army of twelve or fourteen thousand men, 
 marched northwards, burping and destroying on his route. 
 This wanton destruction so angered the French, that no 
 peasant could be found to inform the Black Prince of the 
 whereabouts of the French army. Consequently, the slender 
 forces of Prince Edward encountered, without any forewarning, 
 the mighty hosts of his enemies at the little village of Poictiers 
 " God help us !" exclaimed Edward; '• we must now consider 
 how we can best fi2;ht them." 
 
 Like his father at Cre§y, he chose his position with admi- 
 rable prudence. The Cardinal Talleyrand, a legate of the 
 Pope, labored to make peace between the parties. The 
 French king (John), confident in his large army, would listen 
 to no terms short of the surrender of the prince and one 
 
 I 
 
130 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 hundred of his bravest knights. Of course, these demands 
 were treated with scorn by the chivah-y of England, and on 
 the 19th September, 1356, the two armies joined battle. 
 
 It was as hardly-won a field as had been that of Cre§y, ten 
 years before. Victory rested with the English, and at the 
 1356 ^^^^® ^^ ^^® ^^^ ^^® French king was a captive in the 
 hands of a noble enemy. The Black Prince treated 
 him with the gallantry which became a Christian knight. 
 The following year they entered London, the royal captive 
 riding on a cream-colored charger, richly caparisoned, whilst 
 his conqueror rode beside him on a small black palfrey, in the 
 character of a page. 
 
 During all these years the war in Scotland, with but a few 
 intervals of truce, had been carried on. The son of the great 
 Bruce had not the patriotism of his father. After becoming 
 the prisoner, he became the tool of the English king, and 
 even aided Edward's designs of placing one of his sons, an 
 English prince, upon the throne of Scotland. These projects 
 failed. In 1371, David Bruce died, and his nephew, Robert 
 the Stewart of Scotland, succeeded peaceably to the throne. 
 He was the first of the House of Stuart who wore a royal 
 crown : the first of that unhappy line of princes, whose reigns, 
 whether in England or Scotland, were one series of mis- 
 fortunes. 
 
 After the death of King John of France, Charles, sur- 
 
 named " the Wise," succeeded to the throne of that country. 
 
 The war with England was renewed. It was con- 
 
 1369. 
 
 ducted with so much valor and ability on the part of 
 the French monarch and his generals, that by the year 1374, 
 the English were forced to make peace. By the terms of the 
 treaty, the king of England kept only Bordeaux, Bayonne, 
 and a few other towns in the south of France, with Calais, 
 and a small portion of the country about it, in the north. 
 Edward III. was wont to say of Charles the Wise, " that he 
 had never known a king fight so little, and yet give so much 
 trouble." 
 
 On Trinity Sunday, of the year 1376, the Black Prince 
 
EDWARD III. 131 
 
 died. The great estimation in which he was held was mani- 
 fested by the grief of the nation on this occasion. They 
 seemed to feel that with him the glory of England had 
 departed. He was buried with great pomp in the cathedral 
 church at Canterbury, not fa:r from the shrine of Thomas 
 h Becket. On the death of the Black Prince, his son, 
 Richard, became heir apparent to the throne. 
 
 The aged King Edward survived the loss of his beloved 
 child but a single year. He died at his manor house of 
 Shene, in June, 1377. The death-bed scene of this great 
 monarch resembled that of his ancestor, the Conqueror. 
 Nobles and courtiers hastened from it to surround the young 
 Prince Richard. Edward was left with an attendant, who, 
 after stealing from his finger a valuable ring, left him to die 
 alone. A priest then came to his bedside, and stood holding 
 a crucifix before him till he had breathed his last. 
 
 • 
 
 Questions. — By whom was the kingdom ruled when Edward III. 
 was crowned king ? — To whom was the young king married ? — 
 Relate the overthrow of the queen and Mortimer. — What was the 
 condition of affairs in Scotland? — Describe Edward's conduct to- 
 wards this kingdom. 
 
 What new ambition withdrew him from Scotland? — On what 
 grounds did Edward claim the crown of France? — How was the 
 prospect of war regarded in England? — Relate the circumstances 
 which led to the battle of Cre9y. — Describe that battle. — What were 
 its results to the French ? — Relate what is told of the siege of Calais, 
 and its surrender. 
 
 What calamity befell Europe during the years 1348-9 ? — When 
 and in what part of France was war renewed ? — Describe the battle 
 of Poictiers. — What were the results of this battle ? — What was the 
 state of affairs in Scotland at this time ? — What was the condition 
 of the war in France between the years 1369 and 1374? — What 
 event probably hastened the king's death? — When, where, and 
 under what circumstances did it occur ? 
 
132 HlttTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 RICHARD II. 
 
 WAT TYLER'S INSURRECTION — MISGOVERNMENT— BOLINOBROKE USURPS 
 THE CROWN. 
 
 The affection of the nation for the Black Prince seemed, 
 from the time of his death, to centre almost with the strength 
 of idolatry in his young son, Richard of Bordeaux. He was 
 so named from his birthplace, his father's beautiful capital on 
 the banks of the Garonne. The people gave full scope to 
 these feelings at the coronation of Richard, and paid to this 
 boy-king, not yet eleven years old, more flattering homage 
 
 ^ than ever his grandfather, the great Edward, had 
 
 received. This excess of flattery did its evil work 
 upon the heart of the young monarch. 
 
 One of the king's uncles was the Duke of Lancaster, better 
 known as "John of Gaunt," because of his birthplace at 
 Ghent in Flanders, which in those days was pronounced 
 Gatuit. This nobleman was extremely ambitious. He had 
 married a Spanish princess, and in right of his wife laid 
 claim to the crown of Spain. He was also strongly suspected 
 of a design to supplant his nephew, and make himself king 
 of England. 
 
 j3^g The Scots, taking advantage of the youth of the 
 to king, made forays across the border. War, too, was 
 
 ^^^^' carried on with France. To raise money to repel 
 these enemies, as the kingdom was already exhausted by the 
 wars of the previous reigns, parliament laid heavy taxes on 
 the people. 
 
 One of these taxes was particularly odious. It was a poll- 
 tax. The sum of three groats was to be paid by every person 
 in the kingdom over fifteen years of age. The manner of 
 collecting this money was in many instances harsh, and the 
 
RICHARD II. 133 
 
 common people, already more alive to a sense of their wrongs 
 than they had been in any previous century, rose in rebellion. 
 In Essex, the peasantry armed themselves under a riotous 
 fellow, named, from his occupation, that of a thresher, " Jack 
 Straw," and, calling themselves " the true commons of Eng- 
 land,'' committed many acts of violence. 
 
 In Kent, one of the tax-gatherers entered the house of 
 Walter the Tyler, and demanded the tax for his daughter, a 
 young girl, who, her mother said, was under the specified age. 
 The tax-gatherer insisted on collecting the money, and became 
 so insolent, that the father of the child fell upon him and 
 killed him. Soon Walter, or Wat Tyler, as he is usually 
 called, became the leader of a mob of peasantry, and marched 
 with them towards London, committing no small amount of 
 violence on the road. A body of nearly one hundred thou- 
 sand of these insurgents encamped at Blackheath, 
 where their passions were inflamed by the preaching 
 of a Kentish monk, who, taking for his text the old adage, 
 
 ♦'When Adam delved and Eve span, 
 Where was then the gentleman ?" 
 
 told them that all should be rich alike : that there should be 
 no upper classes, &c. 
 
 Entering London, this rabble destroyed the beautiful Savoy 
 palace, the residence of John of Gaunt ; they drank the wines 
 found in the duke's cellars, and, becoming still more infuriated 
 by liquor, proceeded to demolish the Temple, the Priory of 
 the Knights of St. John, and other ancient and beautiful 
 buildings. The insurgents had always professed affection for 
 the young king, accusing his uncles and ministers of all the 
 oppressions in the kingdom. Richard now sent them word 
 that he would meet them at Mile-End, and listen to ail their 
 complaints. 
 
 About sixty thousand of the rioters kept this appointment, 
 but Wat Tyler and a large body of the peasantry of Kent 
 were not present. The insurgents demanded " the total abo- 
 12 
 
134 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 lition of slavery for themselves and their children for ever ; 
 the reduction of the rent of good land to fourpence an acre j 
 the full liberty of buying and selling like other men in all 
 fairs and markets; and a general pardon for all past ofi'ences." 
 The king not only listened to these demands, but forthwith 
 set thirty clerks to writ« out charters, in which all they asked 
 was granted. 
 
 The following day, as the king rode into Smithfield, he met 
 Wat Tyler and the other rebels, who had not been present at 
 the meeting at Mile-End. Wat Tyler, turning to his men, 
 said: "Here is the king; I will go speak with him.^' So 
 saying, he rode boldly up, and, it is said, seized the bridle of 
 the king's horse. At this moment, Walworth, the mayor of 
 London, plunged a dagger into the insurgent's throat. When 
 his followers saw Wat Tyler fall, they cried : " We are be- 
 trayed ! they have killed our captain and guide !" For once, 
 liichard displayed the courage and spirit of his ancestors. 
 Riding up to the rebels, he exclaimed : " What are ye doing, 
 my lieges ! I am your king, and I will be your leader !" The 
 rebels were subdued. Some laid down their weapons, and 
 others fled. 
 
 Not thus, however, did the matter end. The king raised a 
 body of forty thousand horse, and then informed the insur- 
 gents " that all his charters meant nothing, and that they 
 must return to their old bondage." His insincerity was fully 
 confirmed, for his revenge was not gratified until fifteen hun- 
 dred of " the true commons of England" had perished at the 
 hands of the executioner. 
 
 jggjj The king surrounded himself with favorites, and 
 to the eyes of the nation, which had hitherto been 
 
 1386. ^ijjj(jg(j ^j ^YieiT affection for the son of the Black 
 Prince, were at length opened to his misgovernment. In 
 1386 the powerful and formidable John of Gaunt went to 
 Spain to fight for the crown of Castile. The Duke of Glou- 
 cester, another of Richard's uncles, obliged the king to resign 
 the government into the hands of a council of bishops and 
 nobles. To this Richard was forced to submit, until the year 
 
RICHARD II. 135 
 
 1389, when he again asserted his authority. During the 
 government of Gloucester, the Scots, under Earl Douglas, 
 made a foray across the English border. They were driven 
 back by Henry Percy, and on the 15th of August, 1388, the 
 battle of Otterburn was fought between these brave young 
 knights. This is supposed to be the encounter commemo- 
 rated in the stirring ballad of Chevy Chase. 
 
 In the year 1397, Richard found means to revenge him- 
 self on all who had opposed his government. His uncle, 
 Duke of Gloucester, with other powerful barons, was put to 
 death. The following year, taking advantage of a quarrel 
 between his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Hereford, 
 and the Duke of Norfolk, he banished them both from the 
 land. The father of Hereford was the powerful John of 
 Gaunt. He did not long survive his son's departure, dying 
 early in the year 1399. Richard then seized the estates 
 which belonged to the banished Bolingbroke. The Duke 
 of York, the only surviving son of Edward III., foreseeing 
 that it might imperil his crown, entreated the king not to 
 commit this deed. Richard would not yield to his uncle's 
 expostulations, and not only danger, but dethronement and 
 death, followed upon this seizure of " the royalties and rights 
 of banished Hereford." 
 
 Henry Bolingbroke, burning with the sense of his 
 injuries, landed in England. The king had gone on 
 an expedition into Ireland. The great earls of Northumber- 
 land and Westmoreland, with all the friends of " time-honored 
 Lancaster," gathered around the banished earl, and welcomed 
 him to his own again. Richard returned to England. Trea- 
 chery met its reward. The son of the Black Prince, once 
 the idol of the nation, was wholly deserted, and, like his 
 ancestor, Edward II., became a fugitive among the mountains 
 of Wales. At length, he surrendered himself, and, at Flint 
 Castle, held an interview with his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke. 
 
 Bolingbroke thus addressed him : " Your people complain 
 that you have ruled them harshly for twenty-two years ; but, 
 if it please God. I will help you to rule them better." 
 
136 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Nothing was left the deserted king but submission. So com- 
 plete does this seem to have been, that Shakspeare makes 
 Joan, the queen mother, exclaim : 
 
 "Hath Bolingbroke deposed thine intellect?" 
 
 Richard became a prisoner in Pontefract Castle. It is 
 little doubted, that within its gloomy walls, this once idolized 
 monarch met a violent death. 
 
 Questions. — What was the feeling of the nation towards Richard? 
 — Relate the account given of the Duke of Lancaster. — For what 
 expenditures were new supplies of money needed? — "What tax was 
 especially odious to the people ? — Relate the incident which gave 
 rise to Wat Tyler's insurrection. — Describe the progress, and relate 
 the result of this movement. 
 
 What treachery and cruelty was practised by the king? — What 
 measures were taken to restrain the king? — When, whei-e, and 
 between whom, was fought the battle of Chevy Chase ? — How did 
 the king revenge himself on his enemies? — What act of injustice did 
 he commit in 1399? — In what did it result? — Who espoused the 
 cause of Bolingbroke ? — Describe the meeting between him and the 
 king at Flint Castle. — What was the end of Richard II. ? 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 CONDITION OF ENGLAND DURING THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 RELIGION — LEARNING AND LEARNED MEN — LANGUAGE — LAW SCHOOLS — 
 INDUSTRY — MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 
 
 Lord Morley, a great English baron, having trespassed 
 on the grounds of a bishop of Norwich, was compelled, 
 despite the earnest intercession of the king, to do severe 
 penance before he could be absolved by the church. He 
 walked to the cathedral through the streets of the town, 
 barefoot, and with head uncovered, carrying in his hand a 
 lighted wax candle of great weight. There, in the sight of 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 137 
 
 a vast multitude, he humbly begged pardon of the haughty 
 prelate. This incident may afford some idea of the pride 
 and power of the clergy of England about the middle of this 
 century. Before its close, the steady opposition of kings and 
 parliaments had curbed the excessive tyranny of the papacy 
 in England. 
 
 Irreligion prevailed among all classes. The Lord's day was 
 so openly profaned that, in the year 1359, the archbishop of 
 Canterbury forbade fairs and markets to be kept on Sundays, 
 and commanded " all persons to go to the parish churches on 
 that day, to ask pardon for their offences, and to make amends 
 for all the omissions and commissions of the preceding week." 
 Over this dark horizon of false doctrine and evil practice arose 
 a gleam of purer light. This was imparted by the life and 
 writings of John Wickliffe, a priest of Lutterworth, in Leices- 
 tershire. He is beautifully called " the Morning Star" of the 
 Reformation, in allusion to his having preceded Luther by 
 nearly two hundred years. 
 
 The extortions of the begging friars first roused Wickliffe, 
 who, in his lectures at Oxford, preached with much severity 
 against them as well as against the clergy generally. In 1374 
 he was sent to Rome, on an embassy from the king. There 
 he was filled, as in later times was the great Luther, with 
 indignation at the corruption and extravagance of the papal 
 court. His preaching in England at length drew upon him 
 the persecutions of the clergy. Summoned before the arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, in St. Paul's 
 Cathedral, he was supported by no less a champion than John 
 of G-aunt, the great Duke of Lancaster. Wickliffe, thus 
 befriended, escaped the snares of his enemies. On another 
 occasion, when his judges held their court at Lambeth, 
 Wickliffe came attended by so large a body of the citizens of 
 London, that the prelates dared not pronounce sentence 
 against him. 
 
 The last two years of his life were devoted, in the quiet 
 rectory of Lutterworth, to the noblest of all his labors — the 
 12* 
 
138 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 translation of the Word of God into the mother tongue of the 
 people. 
 
 This good man died of a stroke of palsy, "on the last day of 
 the year 1384:. His enemies rejoiced, and thirty years later 
 testified their enmity by ordering his remains to be taken 
 from their grave and the ashes thrown into a little rivulet, 
 one of the branches of the Avon. *' Thus," as Fuller truly 
 and beautifully remarks, " this brook did convey his ashes 
 into Avon, Avon into Severn, Severn into the narrow sea; 
 and this into the wide ocean. And so the ashes of Wickliffe 
 are the emblem of his doctrine, which is now dispersed all the 
 world over." 
 
 The fashion of building and endowing colleges, which 
 l)egan in the thirteenth century, increased during the four- 
 teenth. In Oxford rose Exeter and Oriel Colleges, the one 
 the work of a king, the other of a bishop ; whilst the good 
 Philippa gave name to Queen's College, the foundation of her 
 chaplain, Robert Eglesfield. William of Wykehaui, bishop 
 of Winchester, was a famous founder of schools, colleges, and 
 churches. New College, one of the most beautiful and inte- 
 resting at Oxford, owes its establishment to him. 
 
 Halls and colleges arose on the banks of the silvery Cam. 
 One of these was the foundation of a lady, Mary de St. Paul, 
 the wife of Aymer de Valence, Earl of Pembroke. Her hus- 
 band, it is said, was killed in a tournament on the day of their 
 marriage. The widowed bride retired from the world, and 
 spent a widowhood of forty-two years in works of piety and 
 charity. She built, at Catubridge, a college for a master and 
 fifty scholars, naming it " The Hall of Valence and Mary." 
 It is best known, however, as Pembroke Hall. University, 
 King's, Clare, and Trinity Halls, and Bennet College, were 
 among the foundations of this century at Cambridge. 
 
 The universities, as well as the schools in London, of which 
 many were founded at this time, were crowded with students, 
 not only from England, Scotland, and Ireland, but also from 
 the continent. In this age Oxford and Cambridge sent forth 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 139 
 
 men whose names are venerated wherever the English lan- 
 guage is spoken. 
 
 Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English poetry, was a 
 student at both these universities. His writings render it 
 probable that he was an ardent Wickliffite, as he is unsparing 
 in his censures of the corrupt doctrines and practices of the 
 Romish Church. This great poet died in London, and was 
 buried in Westminster Abbey, the first of that long line of 
 English bards who have made " the Poet's Corner" a place 
 of almost sacred interest. 
 
 The old chronicler and poet, Froissart, lived and wrote in 
 this century. He is especially loud in his praises of the chivalry 
 of the Black Prince. He presented a volume of his poems to 
 the son of his favorite knight. The volume was bound in crim- 
 son velvet, having silver clasps, and ornamented with golden 
 roses. The poems written in French were transcribed by the 
 author's own hand, and beautifully illuminated 
 
 The English in which WicklifFe translated the Bible and 
 Chaucer wrote his " Canterbury Tales," is very different from 
 the English which we now speak and read. For a long time 
 Latin had been the language of the learned, of the laws, of 
 the schools, and of the church ; French the language of the 
 court and of the nobles.. The Saxon tongue was that of the 
 large body of the people. Depressed and despised for a time 
 were those who used it, but they proved faithful guardians of 
 the good old Saxon speech ; and now the time came when it 
 should triumph and become the basis of the language which 
 we call English. The other elements are French and Latin. 
 
 By the middle of the fourteenth century Saxon and Nor- 
 man had become one people. Scholars began to compose 
 their works in English. Parliament passed laws that the 
 pleadings in courts should be in the tongue of the people. 
 By the close of the century English must have found its way 
 into the royal palaces. Shakspeare makes the Duchess of 
 York exclaim, in pleading for her son to Henry IV., 
 
 " Speak pardon, as 'tis current in our land ; 
 This chopping French we do not understand." 
 
l-\0 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 Famous schools were founded in the neighborhood of 
 Westminster for law students. These were called Inns of 
 Court and Inns of Chancery. Lincolir's Inn was so named in 
 honor of its founder, an Earl of Lincoln, who lived in Edward 
 II.'s reign. When the order of Knights Templars was broken 
 up, the Temple buildings were given to the students of com- 
 mon law. 
 
 By Edward III 's reign we find the Enghsh parliament 
 divided into two houses. In the Lords sat all the higher 
 clergy, and the earls and barons who held immediately of the 
 king. The House of Commons was composed of knights of 
 shires, citizens, and burgesses. The former were summoned 
 by a writ from the king ; the latter by a writ directed to the 
 sheriff of the county which they represented. The Commons 
 had grown into so important a body, that it became necessary 
 for them to choose a speaker, who should preside in their 
 councils, and communicate between them and the king and 
 upper house. The first speaker of the House of Commons 
 was Sir Peter de la More, a knight from Herefordshire. 
 
 The body destined to become so powerful, was, during this 
 age, but a tool in the hands of the monarch and the House 
 of Lords. On one occasion a commoner having introduced a 
 bill displeasing to the king, narrowJy escaped death. The 
 house, in delivering up the offender, assured the sovereign 
 "that it never was their intent to speak, show, or act any- 
 thing which should be an offence or give displeasure to his 
 majesty." 
 
 Edward III. introduced a new order of nobility, that of 
 dukes. The Black Prince was the first on whom this title 
 was conferred: he was made Duke of Cornwall. Edward 
 also instituted the order of Knights of the Garter. 
 
 Many of the guilds or brotherhoods which had existed in 
 former centuries became, during the course of this, incorpo 
 rated into the great city companies, on which were bestowed 
 many valuable privileges. These companies numbered among 
 their members kings and nobles. Such was the Merchant 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE rOURTEENTH CEiNTURY. 141 
 
 Tailors' Company, to which Edward III. belonged ; the Skin- 
 ners, the Goldsmiths, &c. 
 
 There were no large warehouses. The shops of the 
 trades-people resembled sheds and stalls, and most of the 
 trade was carried on at fairs. Dealers in silks and ribbons, 
 and in other articles imported from Milan, were called milli- 
 ners. 
 
 Edward III., in order to make the English more independ- 
 ent of their Flemish neighbors, invited companies of Flem- 
 ings, weavers, to settle in England, so that the native wool 
 could be made into materials for garments without being sent 
 out of the country. 
 
 Coal, which had been discovered at Newcastle upon Tyne, 
 in the preceding century, now became an article of export. 
 It was furnished in such abundance from this port, that "like 
 carrying coals to Newcastle," has passed into a proverb. When 
 the burning of coal was first introduced into London, the 
 smoke was considered so injurious as well as disagreeable, 
 that the brewers, dyers, and others who employed this fuel, 
 were complained of, and a law was passed forbidding the use 
 of it. The prejudice ceased after a while, and now bitu- 
 minous coal constitutes almost the entire fuel of the great 
 metropolis. 
 
 England was rich in gold and silver plate. When Wat 
 Tyler's insurgents robbed the Savoy palace, the silver and 
 gold plate alone would have loaded five carts. 
 
 Chivalry, with all its magnificence of joust and tournament, 
 was in its full glory, especially during the reign of King 
 Edward III. 
 
 With the common people a species of theatrical performance, 
 called Mysteries or Miracle-plays, was high in favor. The 
 churches were turned into theatres, the priests became play 
 actors, and the subjects of these plays were taken from the 
 most striking and solemn scenes in the Bible history. The 
 Creation, the Deluge, the Massacre of the Innocents, and 
 even the Crucifixion of our Lord, were among the most 
 
142 HISTORY OF ENLJLAND. 
 
 admired of these miracle-plays, in which the priests did not 
 hesitate to represent the holy persons of the Trinity. 
 
 The sacred events commemorated by the festivals of the 
 church were entirely lost sight of, amidst the profane and 
 almost pagan revelry with which they were celebrated. At 
 Christmas was heW what might well be called " The Feast of 
 Fools," during which the lowest of the people were allowed 
 to assume the highest dignities. A jester might personate a 
 cardinal, a villain might play the part of pope, and so on. In 
 such characters the rabble would enter the churches and per- 
 form the most shocking parodies of the church service. 
 
 On St. Nicholas' Day, the 6th of December, the boys of St. 
 Paul's were allowed to choose from their number one whom 
 they called a boy-bishop. He was presented with mitre and 
 staff, and decked out, as were also his companions, in the 
 splendid attire worn by the clergy of that day. In this guise 
 they went to the cathedral, where they mimicked the religious 
 services, the boy-bishop preaching the sermon. This over, 
 they proceeded from house to house, singing and dancing, 
 their leader blessing the people who stood at their doors to 
 witness the absurd ceremony, and to bestow pennies upon the 
 performers. The boy-bishop kept his office until Holy Inno- 
 cents' Day. 
 
 At Christmas certain persons were chosen to preside over 
 the revels. They were called "Abbots of Unreason," and 
 "Lords of Misrule." Such were the noisy sports of the 
 English of the fourteenth century; but happiness is not 
 greatest where merriment is loudest, and we have no reason 
 to regret that these rude amusements have giveft place to 
 more rational and quiet diversions. 
 
 Among all classes great extravagance in dress prevailed. 
 We hear of a courtier having fifty-two suits of cloth of gold. 
 An English beau of this age must have presented a strange 
 appearance. He wore long-pointed shoes, turned up and 
 fastened to his knees by chains of gold and silver. His hose 
 were of a different color for each leg. The jacket too was 
 
ENGLAND DURING TllK FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 143 
 
 parti-colored, and the sleeves terminated at the elbow in long 
 white streamers. The mantle was lined with ermine, the 
 edges cut in the form of leaves. It was fastened on the 
 shoulder by four or five large buttons. On his head he wore 
 a silk hood, embroidered with figures of animals, and some- 
 times ornamented with precious stones. 
 
 The dress of women was not more commendable than that 
 of men. At one time their head-dresses towered nearly three 
 feet above the head, and were ornamented with streamers of 
 silk, long enough to flow upon the ground. 
 
 Extravagance in eating had reached such a height, that 
 laws were passed regulating the number of dishes to be served 
 at the tables of ordinary subjects. 
 
 During this period the peasantry of England emerged, in a 
 great degree, from the hard condition of villanage in which 
 they had been hitherto held. The unlimited and ignoble 
 services required of a villain by his lord, became less oppres- 
 sive in character, and more strictly defined in amount. By 
 degrees even these were converted into money payments, so 
 that the relation between lord and villain resembled more 
 nearly the present relation of landlord and tenant. Many 
 villains were set free by the piety of their lords. Some 
 escaped, and secured their liberty by residing a year and a 
 day within a walled town, after which the law did not permit 
 their recovery. Others fled to a distance beyond the reach 
 of their masters. Thus, in various ways, there grew up in 
 the midst of English society, both in town and country, a 
 large body of free artisans and laborers. 
 
 Though much lessened and mitigated, villanage still existed, 
 and the light in which the common people were regarded may 
 be gathered from the following mention of them. In an 
 encounter in France, called '' the little war of Chalons," an 
 old chronicler says : The English ransomed the knights, but 
 slew many of the French foot soldiers, " because they were 
 but rascals, and no great account was made of them." Sad 
 proof of the barbarism of the times, and how little the vaunted 
 
144 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 spirit of chivalry could supply that Christian spirit of love 
 which " condescends to men of low estate." 
 
 Questions. — Relate the anecdote given in illustration of the power 
 of the clergy. — By what was this power checked towards the close 
 of this century ? — State what is told of the desecration of Sundaj-. 
 — Who was Wicklifie ? — Against whom did he preach ? — With what 
 result? — By whom was he upheld? — Mention the greatest of his 
 labors. — What was the treatment of l^s remains? 
 
 Name the colleges erected at Oxford during this period, and their 
 founders.— What is told of the founder of Pembroke Hall?— What 
 account is given of Chaucer? — Describe the gift presented to Rich- 
 ard II. — By whom was it given? — Name the three languages used in 
 England. — By whom were they severally adopted? — Wliich formed 
 the basis of our present language ? 
 
 Give some account of the law schools founded in London. — De- 
 scribe the composition of the English parliament during this period. 
 — Describe the character of the Commons.— Relate the origin and 
 importance of the great city companies. — What body of foreign arti- 
 sans were invited to England ? — What is said of the introduction of 
 coal ? — Describe the amusements of this age. — What is said of 
 Christmas festivities? — What ceremonies took place on St. Nicholas' 
 day ? — Give some description of the costumes of those days. — What 
 great improvement took place in the condition of the villains. — 
 What is said of the regard in which the common people were held ? 
 
HENRY IV. 145 
 
 PART VII. 
 ENGLAND DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 HENRY IV.— HENRY V —HENRY VI.— EDWARD IV.— 
 RICHARD IIL-HENRY VII. 
 
 A. D. 1399—1509. 
 
 "She saw her sons with purple deaths expire, 
 Her sacred domes involved in rolling fire, 
 A dreadful series of intestine wars, 
 Inglorious triumphs and dishonest scars." 
 
 POPK. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 HENRY IV. 
 
 CONSPIRACIES — REBELLION — PRINCE HENRY — THE KING'S ADVICE. 
 
 The fifteenth century was a time of so much war and 
 tumult, that it may well be called one of the most unhappy 
 periods of English history. 
 
 At the close of the previous century, as we have already 
 seen, Henry of Lancaster, a grandson of Edward III., had 
 deposed his cousin Richard, and placed himself upon the 
 throne. Henry IV. obtained, by this deed of violence, a 
 crown to which he had no right. The true heir, after Rich- 
 ard, was Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, a descendant of 
 the second son of Edward III., whereas Henry of Lancaster 
 was only descended from the third son of that monarch. 
 1^99 Henry IV., having thus become king, was soon 
 made to feel how thrice ^' uneasy lies the head that 
 wears a crown," when that crown has been obtained by 
 13 K 
 
146 hisjorv Of England. 
 
 injustice and wrong. Conspiracies arose against him. One 
 night, when the atraio which composed his bed was examined 
 a sharp steel weapon was found concealed in it, which would 
 no doubt have killed or seriously injured the king, had he lain 
 down upon it. 
 
 Henry IV. had been aided in his usurpation of the throne, 
 by the Duke of Northumberland, his son Henry Percy (the 
 Harry Hotspur of Shakspeare), and Northumberland's brother, 
 the Earl of Worcester. Henry's ungrateful conduct to this 
 powerful family of the Percys, at length roused them to rebel 
 against him. They were joined by the Scottish earl, Douglas, 
 and the Welsh prince, Owen ap-GryfFyth Vaughan ) the latter 
 better known by the name of Glendower, from the district in 
 Wales of which he was a native. 
 , .__ The king was no sooner made aware of this for- 
 midable rising, than he prepared, with a large force, 
 to suppress it. Owing to the illness of Northumberland, and 
 the absence of Glendower, the strength of the conspirators was 
 greatly weakened ] and when the two armies met in battle at 
 Shrewsbury, although Percy and Douglas performed deeds of 
 great valor, the one was slain, the other taken prisoner, and 
 their cause entirely lost. :^ 
 
 In the battle of Shrewsbury, Prince Henry, the eldest son 
 of the king, gave the first proof of that valor which, in after 
 years, rendered his military career so glorious. This young 
 prince had filled his father's heart with sorrow and anxiety. 
 Surrounded by wild companions, he spent his time amid scenes 
 and occupations totally unfitted to prepare him for the cares 
 of a crown, or the wise government of a kingdom. On one 
 occasion, however, there had gleamed forth the promise of a 
 nobler spirit. One of Prince Henry's evil companions had 
 been brought for trial before the Chief Justice jjascoigne. 
 The latter refused to release the culprit, notwithstanding the 
 prince's earnest solicitations. Whereupon, Henry, becoming 
 indignant, behaved in a manner so insulting to the dignity of 
 the court, that the chief justice ordered him to the King's 
 Bench prison. To this punishment the prince submitted. 
 
HENRY IV. 147 
 
 1 
 
 When the incident was related to the king, he exclaimed : 
 '' Happy is the king that has a magistrate endowed with 
 courage to execute the laws upon such an offender: still more 
 happy in having a son willing to submit to such a chastise- 
 ment." 
 
 One of the most interesting episodes in the history of this 
 reign, is the story of the captivity of the young Prince James, 
 afterwards James I. of Scotland. The royal boy had been 
 embarked for France to save him from the hands of his uncle, 
 the ruthless Duke of Albany, who had seized the government 
 of the country. The vessel was captured by some English 
 cruisers, and the prince, a boy of only twelve years, was 
 brought a prisoner to the English court. 
 
 Seldom had a captive less cause to bewail his captivity, than 
 the young heir of the Scottish throne the nineteen years of 
 his detention in England. The Round Tower of Windsor 
 Castle was appropriated to his use, and there, amid the 
 beauties of nature, having access to the best masters and 
 books of the age, conversing with men of learning and 
 refinement, he developed into one of the sweetest poets as 
 well as one of the noblest characters of his time. 
 
 His most celebrated work, called ''The King's Quair" or 
 Book, is a tender and elegant poem, suggested by his love for 
 the Lady Joanna Beaufort, an English princess whom he 
 afterwards married. James survived his restoration to the 
 throne only thirteen years, falling the victim to a conspiracy 
 among his turbulent nobles in 1436. 
 
 In the year 1405, a conspiracy was raised against the 
 English king, headed by Scroop, archbishop of York, and 
 the Earl of Northumberland. By treacherous promises the 
 forces of the conspirators were disbanded, and the venerable 
 prelate seized and beheaded. This was the first instance, in 
 English history, of sentence of death being executed against 
 an archbishop. 
 
 Although Henry of Lancaster could defeat the efi'orts of 
 his human foes, he could not silence the still small voice of 
 conscience, which ever reminded him, " by what by-paths, and 
 
148 HISTORY OF KNGLAND. 
 
 t 
 
 indirect, crooked ways," he had gained his crown. Fearing 
 that it might prove an insecure possession to his son, the 
 king advised that prince, whenever he should succeed to the 
 inheritance, to busy his subjects in foreign wars, and thus 
 divert their minds from a too close inquiry into his title to 
 the throne. 
 
 In March, of the year 1413, whilst King Henry was pray- 
 ing before the shrine in Edward the Confessor's chapel, he 
 was seized with a fit, and carried by his attendants to the 
 lodgings of the abbot. There, in an apartment known as 
 " The Jerusalem Chamber," on the 20th of the month, he 
 breathed his last. His remains were interred in a beautiful 
 tomb in Canterbury cathedral. 
 
 Questions. — How does the fifteenth century compare with other 
 periods of English history ? — How did Henry IV. 's claim to the crown 
 compare with that of the Earl of March? — How was Henry IV. 's 
 seizure of the crown punished ? — To whom was Henry indebted for 
 his throne ? — How did he act towards the Percys, and what was the 
 result ? — Who aided the Percys in their conspiracy ? — Where was a 
 battle fought, and with what result ? 
 
 How did Prince Henry distinguish himself at Shrewsbury ? — What 
 had been his previous conduct? — Pv elate the anecdote given of Prince 
 Henry and the chief justice. — W^hat conspiracy arose in 1405? — How 
 was it defeated and punished ? — Was it customary to inflict capital 
 punishment on the clergy? — What advice did the king give to his 
 son, Prince Henry ? — Relate the circumstances of the king's death. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 HENRY V. 
 
 WARS IN FRANCE — AGINCOITRT — TREATY OP TROYES — HENRY'S DEATH. 
 
 Prince Henry, upon his accession to the throne, 
 given him. 
 
 1413. 
 
 hastened to adopt the advice which his father had 
 
HENRY V. 149 
 
 Before two years had passed, he revived the claim made by 
 his ancestor, Edward III., to the crown of France, and, en- 
 gaging in war with that country, effectually turned the minds 
 of the nation from any dangerous questioning of his title to 
 the sceptre of England. 
 
 Before commencing his wars in France, Henry had won 
 the hearts of the English by his generous treatment of the 
 young Earl of March, who, having been kept in prison during 
 the late reign, was now set free, and treated with kindness. 
 The remains of King Kichard were, by Henry's orders, in- 
 terred with great pomp in Westminster Abbey, and the son 
 of Harry Hotspur recalled from exile, and reinstated in the 
 honors and estates of the Percys. 
 
 The condition of France at this time was such as to 
 tempt the ambition of the English king. A quarrel 
 between the Houses of Orleans and Burgundy, as to which 
 should govern the country during the minority of the young 
 French king, was distracting the nation with civil war. So 
 violent were the feelings of hatred between the Burgundians 
 and Orleanists, that they would not unite, even to defend 
 their country, when threatened by a powerful foreign enemy. 
 
 In the summer of 1415, Henry V., with thirty thousand 
 men, landed in France. He captured Harfleur, but disease 
 invaded his camp, and made such frightful ravages, that, with 
 the losses sustained in the siege, the English army was re- 
 duced to ten thousand men, when commencing its march 
 towards Calais. Everywhere the peasantry were treated with 
 kindness, and the robberies and violence so often committed 
 by troops marching through an enemy's country, were re- 
 strained. 
 
 The French were sixty thousand strong. They obstructed 
 the passage of the rivers, and hung on the rear of Henry's 
 army, as they had done some seventy years before, when this 
 monarch's great-grandfather was the invader. 
 
 At length, from a hill near the castle of Agin court, the 
 English king beheld the whole French force, ready for an 
 13* 
 
150 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 encounter. It was a perilous prospect, six men to one ; but, 
 notwithstanding these fearful odds, Henry determined to give 
 battle the following day. He sent David Gam, his faithful 
 Welsh squire, to reconnoitre, and report the number of the 
 enemy. The squire returned, telling his master " there were 
 enough to fight, enough to be killed, and enough to run away.'' 
 Before the battle. King Henry, mounted on a gray 
 ^1415^* palfrey, and wearing " a helmet of polished steel, sur- 
 mounted with a crown of gold, set with sparkling 
 gems, and the arms of England and France embroidered in 
 gold/' on his surcoat, rode in front of, his army, and, with 
 animated eye and voice, addressed his followers. 
 
 He spoke of the glorious victories which their ancestors had 
 won on French territory, and exclaimed : '' England shall 
 never pay ransom for me; on the field of battle, I have vowed 
 to conquer or die !" When one of his knights expressed the 
 wish "that some of the brave knights and stout archers living 
 in idleness in merry England," could be present on the field, 
 the king replied: "No! I would not have a single man more. 
 If God gives us the victory, the fewer we are, the more honor; 
 and if we lose, the less will be the loss to our country." 
 
 Notwithstanding the fearful disparity of numbers, they won 
 the victory, and before the chivalry of England fell the pride 
 and flower of the French nobility. Seven near relatives of 
 the French king lay dead upon the field, and eight thousand 
 brave knights perished by their side. Dreadful had been the 
 scene of carnage. When it was over, the abbot of a neigh- 
 boring monastery bought twenty-five roods of land, in which 
 three great pits were dug, and into them were thrown five 
 thousand eight hundred of those who had fallen in the battle. 
 " Then the bishop of Guines went down, and sprinkled with 
 holy water, and blessed this vast sepulchre of the aristocracy 
 of France." 
 
 Enthusiastic was the reception which the hero of Agincourt 
 met on his return to England. As he approached the coast 
 at Dover, the people rushed into the sea to meet him, and 
 swam with him on their shoulders, in triumph to the shore. 
 
HENRY V. 151 
 
 The war with France was highly popular, and sup- 
 plies were readily granted to carry it on. 
 The quarrel between the Orleanists and the Burgundians 
 was still kept up, and the English gained ground. The city 
 of Rouen was taken, and, in the course of a few years, all the 
 country north of the river Loire submitted to the conquerors. 
 In the year 1420, the Duke of Burgundy, the leader of one 
 of the two parties which divided France, entered into an 
 alliance with the English, and the famous treaty of Troyes 
 was made between them. In fulfilment of the terms of this 
 treaty, Henry V. married Catherine, the daughter of the 
 French king, and was proclaimed regent of France, with the 
 promise of succeeding to the throne. The existing monarch, 
 Charles VI., was insane, and wholly incapable of the cares 
 of government, and the dauphin had joined the Orleanists, 
 who still kept up the struggle against England. 
 
 Whilst pursuing successfully his war against this faction, 
 the Eno-lish kino; was seized by the hand of death. 
 The end of Henry V. is a pleasing contrast to that of 
 many a crowned monarch. In the castle of the Bois de Yin- 
 cennes, he summoned his brothers and the great nobles of the 
 realm to his bedside. With calmness and wisdom he gave 
 counsel for the management of his kingdom. He appointed 
 his brother, the Duke of Gloucester, protector of England,' 
 during the minority of his son, the infant Prince of Wales, 
 and he made the Duke of Bedford regent of France. 
 
 Then, turning froiji the cares of earth, he spent the last 
 hours of hi^ life in devotional exercises. The funeral cere- 
 monies with which the remains of this popular sovereign were 
 borne to England, were extremely splendid and imposing. 
 On his tomb in Westminster Abbey, tapers were kept con- 
 stantly burning for more than a hundred years. 
 
 Questions. — In what wars did Henry V. engage ? — With what 
 politic result? — By what acts did this king obtain popularity? — 
 Describe the condition of France during the early part of this cen- 
 tury. — What circumstance proves the violence of the contests between 
 the Orleanists and Burgundians ? — Describe the condition and con- 
 
152 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 duct of the English forces in France. — How did the army of the 
 English king compare with that of the French ? — Where did the 
 French offer battle ? — Describe the English king's appearance a|id 
 address to his army. — Who won the day? — Describe the manner 
 of the burial of those who had fallen ? 
 
 How was Henry received in England ? — Describe the extent of the 
 English conquests in France. — What did Heni-y gain by the treaty 
 of Troyes ? — What was the position of the royal family of France at 
 this time? — What ended Henry's successful career? — What provision 
 did he make for his dominions ? 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 HENRY VI. 
 
 THE WAR IN FRANCn — JOAN OP ARC — MARRIAGE OF THE KING AND ITS 
 CONSKQUENCES — WARS OF THE ROSES. 
 
 The Duke of Gloucester was Protector of England j the 
 Duke of Bedford Regent in France ; and the Earl of 
 Warwick and Henry Beaufort, bishop of Winchester, 
 were chief guardians of the young xing. 
 
 In France, the Duke of Bedford, notwithstanding many 
 
 obstacles and difficulties, particularly that of the jealousy and 
 
 lukewarmness of his ally the Duke of Burgundy, maintained 
 
 the honor of the English arms. Determined to strike a blow 
 
 for the possession of the country south of the Loire, he laid 
 
 siea;e to Orleans, a town situated on that river, and 
 
 considered the key to the southern provinces. 
 
 Month after month the English lay before the town, whilst 
 
 within it were renewed the horrors of the siege of Calais. 
 
 The final unsuccessful appeal had been made to the dauphin 
 
 (who, on the death of his father in 1422, had assumed the 
 
 title of king), and the thought of surrender was entertained. 
 
 At this critical hour a singular deliverer was raised up for 
 
 Orleans and for France — a village maiden, named Joan of 
 
 Arc. She had been nurtured as a peasant girl in the wild 
 
HENRY VI. 153 
 
 districts of Lorraine, amid a people of strong religious feelings, 
 who were firm believers in visions and miraculous appearances. 
 She had passed her childhood tending her father's flocks, and 
 musing, amid the solitude of the hills, on the lives and legends 
 of saints and martyrs. 
 
 From time to time came news of the horrors of the war 
 which was ravaging her beloved country. Occasionally a 
 band of soldiers took their merciless march through her 
 native village. The miseries of war weighed upon her spirits, 
 and excited her imagination. She declared that she saw 
 heavenly visions and heard voices which bade her go to the 
 aid of the dauphin, and the deliverance of France. 
 
 At first her visions were disbelieved and ridiculed ; and it 
 was a long time before the desire of her heart was granted, and 
 she was admitted to the presence of the dauphin. Suspected 
 of lunacy by some, of sorcery by others, and subjected to the 
 most trying examinations, she at length, with great difficulty, 
 roused the spirit of the French, and persuaded them 
 to send her, at the head of a small armed force, to 
 the relief of Orleans. 
 
 Mounted on a snow-white horse, clad in bright armor, 
 bearing a sword marked with five crosses, and a banner 
 embroidered with the lilies of France, Joan of Arc rode 
 towards the devoted town. The common people flocked to 
 her standard, and the besieged, rushing out of the town, 
 attacked the English, amid cries of " The Maid ! the Maid is 
 come V The attention of the enemy being diverted by this 
 attack, Joan ind her troops entered the town. 
 
 On the 8th of May, 1429, the English were obHged to raise 
 the siege of Orleans. The soldiers would not fight against 
 the Maid, who, whether inspired by Heaven, or (as their 
 officers would have them believe) a sorceress, was, in either 
 case, no mortal enemy. 
 
 This was in JMay. Before the end of July, Joan had 
 accomplished another object for which she believed herself 
 destined — the crowning of the dauphin at Rheims, the old 
 coronation city of the kings of France. This done, she 
 
154 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 begged that she might return to her own village, believing 
 that her heaven-directed mission was fulfilled. The French 
 king, hoping her presence might still inspire the English 
 with terror, refused her request. The knights of France grew 
 jealous of her fame, and, by degrees, her popularity decHned. 
 She no longer heard voices from heaven, and, although she 
 fought with valor, many of her enterprises failed. 
 
 At lenorth, whilst fleeina' into the town of Com- 
 
 1430. . 
 
 peigne, before a large body of English, Joan was 
 deserted by her companions, and she who had been the 
 deliverer of France was left in the hands of her enemies. 
 She was taken to Rouen. Accused of sorcery and magic, 
 this simple-minded, pious maiden, was brought, again and 
 again, before learned churchmen, that she might be con- 
 victed of the crime. Even in her cell, where she was loaded 
 with irons, monks and confessors tormented her, to draw forth 
 an avowal of dealings with the evil one. 
 
 There was nothing in the life or in the words of this heroic 
 girl to condemn her, but her enemies had determined on her 
 death ; and, after persecutions and trials of the severest kind, 
 Joan of Arc was burned as a heretic in the market-place of 
 Rouen. Clasping a crucifix, and uttering the name of Jesus, 
 she perished amid the blazing faggots, one of the purest and 
 
 noblest martyrs that the annals of patriotism have 
 
 ever produced. A monument now marks the spot, in 
 the city of Rouen, where this cruel act of bigotry was done. 
 
 Hith this evil deed success seems to have deserted the 
 arms of the English. In September, 1435, the Duke of 
 Bedford, who for thirteen years had maintained the dominion 
 in France which Henry V. had won, died. One week later 
 the Duke of Burgundy deserted to the French king. Finally, 
 in 1444, this long war was interrupted by a truce made for 
 two years, but which continued through six years. 
 
 Affairs in England had not gone on prosperously. 
 
 The Protector and Beaufort, the guardian of the 
 young king, quarrelled, and their parties divided the king- 
 dom. Henry VI. was now twenty-four years of age. He 
 
HENRY VI. 155 
 
 was of a gentle, retiring 'disposition, of weak intellect, and 
 totally unfitted for the cares of government. In the year 
 1445 he married Margaret, princess of Anjou. 
 
 A French queen was always distasteful to the nation, and 
 there were peculiar objections to the marriage with 31argaret. 
 Hitherto the princesses of France, although they had brought 
 trouble enough into England, had at least conferred upon 
 their royal husbands a goodly dowry of French provinces. 
 But, by the terms of the marriage treaty with Margaret, her 
 father Ren^e, Duke of Anjou, was to receive from the English 
 king a large sum of money, together with the extensive pro- 
 vinces of Maine and Anjou, which, with so much cost of life 
 and treasure, had been won by the English. 
 
 This treaty, so derogatory to the interests of England, was 
 violently opposed by " the good Duke Humphrey," as the 
 people called the Protector Gloucester. Margaret of Anjou, 
 who was a revengeful woman, aware of this opposition, began, 
 as soon as she came into England, a series of persecutions 
 against the upright protector, which ended in his being 
 arrested on the charge of high treason. Before the day of 
 his trial arrived, the Duke of Gloucester was found dead in 
 his bed. The Duke of Suffolk, one of Margaret's principal 
 favorites, succeeded him as Protector, the king's incapacity 
 making such an office necessary. 
 
 In France, on the death of Bedford, the Duke of York had 
 been made Regent. Margaret caused him to be recalled, and 
 one of her own favorites, the Duke of Somerset, appointed in 
 his place. During Somerset's administration, the English 
 were driven from France. With the exception of the strong 
 town of Calais, every fragment of the territory gained by so 
 many years of conquest, was lost to them. 
 
 Popular indignation now rose against the queen and her 
 
 unworthy favorite, Suffolk. He was tried on a charge 
 
 of high treason before the House of Lords, and a 
 
 decree of banishment from England and all her dominions 
 
 passed against him. He embarked in a small vessel for 
 
 Calais. Before reaching that port, a large ship, "The 
 
15<3 HISTORY OF ExNGLAxNJ). 
 
 Nicholas of the Tower," sent no doubt by Suifolk's enemies, 
 overtook the vessel which bore the banished favorite. He 
 was made a prisoner, and, on the third day after his capture, 
 was beheaded. 
 
 This was not the only deed by which indignation against 
 the government was shown A formidable insurrection of 
 the people, headed by one Jack Cade, broke out in Kent. 
 The rebels, numbering fifteen or twenty thousand men, 
 marched to London. When the court sent to inquire why 
 the " good men of Kent" had risen in arms, their leader 
 replied : " that justice and prosperity had been put out of the 
 land by misgovernment," and demanded the dismissal of the 
 obnoxious favorites, and restoration of the Duke of York and 
 others of the old nobility to royal favor. Many acts of vio- 
 lence, similar to those of Wat Tyler's rebellion, were com- 
 mitted, before the insurgents were subdued. At length they 
 were induced, by false promises of redress and pardon, to 
 disperse. Jack Cade being subsequently proclaimed a traitor, 
 fled towards the coast. He was overtaken by an esquire 
 named Alexander Iden. A fight ensued between them, in 
 which the rebel leader was slain. His head was placed upon 
 London Bridge, with the face towards Kent. 
 
 We have now come to the saddest part of the history of 
 this century — that which records the civil wars of the houses 
 of York and Lancaster, or the Wars of the Roses, as they are 
 often called, because the Yorkists chose as their emblem a 
 white, and the Lancastrians a red rose. 
 
 A large portion of the nation, indignant at the govern- 
 ment of Margaret, were desirous that Richard of York, in 
 right of his descent from the second son of Edward IIL, 
 should be acknowledged heir to the throne. During 
 
 14:54:. . ^ . • . ° 
 
 a short period of nine months, whilst the king was 
 suiFering from an attack of insanity, this nobleman had been 
 appointed Protector. On the king's recovery York resigned 
 the ofl&ce, and immediately the queen and her evil counsellors 
 resumed their power. 
 
HENRY VI. • 157 
 
 The party of the Duke of York now took up arms, 
 professing to do so in defence of the Hberties of the 
 realm ; for as yet, York had not openly claimed the crown. 
 
 At St. Albans, the Yorkists and Lancastrians met in hostile 
 encounter. There, on the 22d of May, 1465, was fought the 
 first battle in those dreadful wars which, for thirty years, 
 deluged England with blood, tore asunder the dearest ties of 
 social life, and nurtured feelings of revenge, and a ferocity of 
 character which could scarcely find a parallel, even in the 
 pagan days of England's history. 
 
 It is needless to mention all the details of these times of 
 misery. 
 
 At the end of five years from the battle of St. 
 Albans, Richard, Duke of York, openly claimed the 
 throne. A bloody encounter took place at Wakefield, in 
 Yorkshire, in which the Lancastrians gained the victory, 
 their formidable enemy being killed on the field of battle. 
 Margaret displayed her revengeful spirit, by causing the 
 head of her slain foe to be put upon the gates of York, 
 surmounted by a paper crown, in ridicule of his claim to the 
 throne. 
 
 The young Duke of Rutland, a beautiful boy of thirteen, a 
 son of the Duke of York, fled from the battle-field. He was 
 overtaken by Lord Clifi'ord, who, stabbing him to the heart, 
 despite his piteous cries for mercy, vowed he would do thus 
 to all of the house of York, in revenge for the death of his 
 father, slain at St. Albans. Then, with savage cruelty, Clif- 
 ford sent a messenger to describe to the mother of the mur- 
 dered boy, all that had happened. 
 
 Edward, the eldest son of Richard of York, now inherited 
 
 his father's claim to the throne. At IMortimer's Cross, near 
 
 Hereford, on the 1st February, he gained a decisive 
 
 victory over the Lancastrians. Thence, toward the 
 
 close of the month, he marched to London, where he was 
 
 received with great enthusiasm by the people; and on the 
 
 4th of March, 1461, was proclaimed king by the acclamations 
 
 14 
 
158 • HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of the populace, and the consent of a great council of the lords 
 of the realm. 
 
 Questions.— Name those who were at the heW of the government 
 during the king's minority.— What object did Bedford desire to 
 accomplish ?— What town did he besiege ?— Describe the condition 
 
 of the besieged. — Relate the early history of Joan of Arc. Recount 
 
 her patriotic exertions. — Describe her subsequent misfortunes and 
 death. 
 
 What misfortunes befell the English after the death of Joan of 
 Arc? — In what year was a truce agreed upon between England and 
 France? — What was the condition of affairs in England at this 
 time ?^Mention the age and describe the disposition of the king. — 
 Whom did he marry ? — What were the terms of the marriage-treaty 
 with Margaret of Anjou ? — Who opposed this treaty ? — With what 
 result ? — Who succeeded Gloucester as Protector ? — Whom did Mar- 
 garet cause to be appointed Regent in France ? — What was the fate 
 of the Duke of Suffolk ? — Give an account of Cade's insurrection. 
 
 Whom did the nation regard as the heir to the throne? — Into what 
 were the partisans of the Duke of York led, by the misgovernment 
 of the queen? — When and where did the scene of civil strife open? — 
 In what disastrous effects did these wars result? — When did the 
 Duke of York openly claim the throne ? — What was the result of the 
 battle of Wakefield? — How did Margaret show her revengeful spirit? 
 — Relate the fate of the young Duke of Rutland? — AVho succeeded to 
 the inheritance of the Duke of York? — What victory secured him the 
 throne ? — When was he proclaimed king ? 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 EDWARD IV. 
 
 BATTLE OF TOWTON — KING's MARRIAGE — ITS CONSEQUENCES — TRIUMPH OF 
 LANCASTRIANS — THEIR PINAL OVERTHROW — THE KING'S REVENGE. 
 
 One of the bloodiest battles in English history marked the 
 accession of Edward IV. It was fou2:ht at Towton, 
 
 1461. . . . , . 
 
 in Yorkshire. It began at nine o'clock in the morn- 
 ing, in the midst of a terrible snow-storm, and lasted for six 
 
EDWARD IV. 159 
 
 hours. The Yorkists gained a complete victory, but the 
 slaughter was immense, and the fearful number of thirty-eight 
 thousand dead are s^iid to have been left upon the battle-field. 
 Margaret, with her son and husband, fled to Scotland. Thence 
 she went to France, and employed the next nine years in 
 untiring efforts for the recovery of her throne. The unfortu- 
 nate and '^ gentle-hearted" King Henry wandered a fugitive 
 in his own kingdom, until some years later, when he 
 *. was betrayed into the hands of his enemies, and by 
 them lodged in the Tower. 
 
 King Edward, at his coronation, which took place at West- 
 minster, after the battle of Towton, conferred the titles and 
 honors of Duke of Clarence and Duke of Gloucester on his 
 two brothers, George and Richard. As Henry lY., the first 
 monarch of the house of Lancaster, had been raised to the 
 throne by the influence of a powerful family, so Edward lY., 
 the first king of the house of York, owed his ascendancy to 
 the great family of the Nevils. Guy, Earl of Warwick, the 
 eldest brother of this "house, was surnamed '' king-maker," 
 because of the great weight which his influence gave to the 
 claimant whose cause he espoused, in these contests for the 
 crown. 
 
 Like his predecessor of the house of Lancaster, Edward lY. 
 did that which was highly displeasing to those who had secured 
 him the throne. On the 1st of May, 1464, without the con- 
 sent or knowledge of his great lords, he married Lady Eliza- 
 beth Woodville, the widow of Sir John Grey. Surrounding 
 himself by his wife's relations, the king at length presented 
 her to the council as his queen, and, about a year after the 
 marriage, her coronation took place, celebrated by tournaments 
 and pageants of great magnificence. 
 
 Edward bestowed, with an unsparing hand, offices and 
 honors on the new queen's family. Her father was made 
 Earl Rivers, and the Greys and the Woodvilles usurped every 
 place of honor and profit in the realm. This gave great 
 offence to the whole nation, but particularly to the proud 
 family of the Nevils. 
 
160 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The Duke of Clarence, the next brother to Edward, married 
 Isabella, eldest daughter of the Earl of Warwick. Disgusted 
 by the conduct of Edward, Clarence joined his father-in-law, 
 and both went over to France, to plot the dethronement of one 
 whom they had made king. 
 
 The high spirit of Margaret of Anjou was yet unbroken, 
 and to regain the crown, she was willing to make alliance with 
 her greatest enemy. Warwick and the banished queen met at 
 the castle of Amboise. The king-maker promised to restore 
 the house of Lancaster. Margaret engaged to marry 
 her young son Edward to Anne Nevil, Warwick's 
 second daughter, thus securing to his family, should their 
 cause triumph, the succession to the throne. 
 
 In September, 1470, Warwick landed in England. King 
 Edward, taken by surprise, had no time to gather his forces 
 for battle. To avoid being made prisoner, he embarked 
 hastily in a Dutch vessel, and, after great peril, escaped to 
 Holland. 
 
 Warwick entered London in triumph. Proceeding to the 
 Tower, he released the captive Henry, and saluted as king, 
 him who, a few years previous, he had conducted to. that 
 gloomy prison, crying before him as he went: "Behold the 
 traitor I" The Yorkists were filled with terror. Queen Eliza- 
 beth Woodville fled to the sanctuary at Westminster, where, 
 shortly after, she gave birth to her eldest son. The birth of 
 this young prince in the sanctuary of Westminster, amid cir- 
 cumstances of terror and distress, was a fitting prelude to the 
 sad story of his life, and his early death of horror and mystery 
 in the Tower of London. 
 
 The triumph of the Lancastrians was of short duration. 
 Edward raised an army of twelve hundred men, and, 
 in less than six months, landed in England, for the 
 recovery of his crown. He disembarked at Ravenspur, in 
 Yorkshire, the very port at which Henry Bolingbroke had 
 landed, when he came to dethrone his cousin, Richard II. 
 Marching southward, he met, near Coventry, the Earl of 
 Warwick, prepared to give him battle. 
 
EDWARD IV. 161 
 
 Before the conflict began, the Duke of Clarence, making 
 his men put the white rose of York on their hehnets, deserted 
 the Lancastrian cause, and went over to the army of his 
 brother. Owing to this desertion, Warwick was obhged to 
 avoid an engagement. Edward continued his march south- 
 ward, and was received with great joy in London. The two 
 armies met late on Easter even, at Barnet, about twelve miles 
 from the capital, where a severe battle was fought on Easier 
 Sunday. 
 
 The Duke of Clarence, who, it will be remembered, had 
 married a daughter of Warwick, tried to make peace between 
 his brother and father-in-law. To his herald, the haughty 
 king-maker replied : "Go tell your master, that Warwick, 
 true to his oath, is a better man than false, perjured Clarence, 
 and will settle the question by the sword to which he has 
 appealed." 
 
 The battle of Barnet was won by the Yorkists. The great 
 Earl of Warwick was slain upon the field, and Edward lY. 
 recovered the throne. On the very day of the battle, Marga- 
 ret of Anjou, with her son and a body of French troops, 
 landed in England. Near Tewkesbury, on the banks of the 
 Severn, she was met and defeated by King Edward's army. 
 She and her son were taken prisoners When the young 
 prince, a boy of eighteen, was carried into King Edward's 
 presence, the monarch asked what brought him to England. 
 " My father's crown and my own inheritance !" replied the 
 undaunted youth. The ungenerous king struck him with his 
 gauntlet, and, taking this as a signal for further cruelty, others 
 fell upon the unhappy boy, and put him to death with their 
 swords. 
 
 Margaret of Anjou lived eleven years longer. Part of the 
 time she was a prisoner in England. Being ransomed by the 
 French king, the last six years of her existence were passed 
 in obscurity in France. The life of her unhappy husband 
 ended soon after the restoration of Edward lY. to his throne. 
 He was found dead in the Tower. 
 
 In 1475, Edward, as an ally of the Duke of Burgundy, and 
 14* L 
 
162 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 also as a claimant of the French throne, entered France with 
 a large army. No battles were fought, nor conquests gained, 
 for the artful King Louis XL contrived to bribe Edward into 
 a disgraceful peace. The English army then recrossed the 
 Channel, and during the remainder of this reign, with the 
 exception of an unimportant campaign in Scotland, no wars 
 occurred. 
 
 Edward's revengeful temper had never fully forgiven his 
 
 brother Clarence the alliance with the Nevils. He now 
 
 accused him of witchcraft, a grave charge in those days, and 
 
 of conspiring to obtain the throne. Clarence was cast into 
 
 the Tower, where, in little more than a month, he 
 
 1478. ' ' ' . 
 
 died. The popular belief and rumor was, that his 
 brother, Richard of Gloucester, had caused him to be drowned 
 in a butt of Malmsey wine. 
 
 Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter of King Edward, 
 had long been affianced to Charles, the dauphin of France. 
 In 1482, the crafty Louis XL, finding a more advantageous 
 alliance for his son, in the wealthy heiress of Burgundy, 
 broke his treaty with Edward on this point. The English 
 king, greatly incensed, prepared for war, but before his 
 arrangements were completed, he died, the victim of a life 
 of vicious excesses. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the battle of Towton. — Relate the subse- 
 quent fate of Margaret. — What befell King Henry VI. ? — To whom 
 had Edward been indebted for his elevation to the throne ? — What 
 surname did the Earl of Warwick receive ? — Why did he receive 
 it? — Whom did the king marry? — By what acts did he incur the 
 enmity of the house of Warwick ? — By whom was a conspiracy en- 
 tered into against the king? — Mention the engagements made be- 
 tween Margaret of Anjou and Warwick. 
 
 When did Warwick invade England ? — With what result ? — De- 
 scribe his conduct towards the imprisoned Henry VT. — What dis- 
 turbed the triumph of the Lancastrians in 1471 ? — What act of 
 treachery did the Duke of Clarence commit? — What effect did it 
 produce? — What was the consequence of this desertion ? — When and 
 where did the two armies meet in conflict ? — What was the result 
 of the battle of Barnet? — What was the .result of Margaret's attempt 
 
EDWARD V. AND RICHARD III. 163 
 
 to regain the crown? — Describe the interview between the young 
 prince, Margaret's son, and King Edward. — State what followed? — 
 What was the subsequent history of Margaret of Anjou? 
 
 On what grounds did Edward declare war with France ? — What 
 was the conduct of this war ? — Was Edward IV. 's a warlike reign? — 
 Relate Edward's conduct towards his brother Clarence. — What insult 
 had the king of France offered to the English monarch? — What 
 prevented Edward from making war on France ? 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 EDWARD V. AND RICHARD III. 
 
 KICHARD'S machinations — THE PRINCES IN THE TOWER — RICHARD BB- 
 COMES KING — A RIVAL CLAIMANT — BOSWORTH FIELD, 
 
 The story of the next reign (if reign it can be called) is 
 as sad as it is brief. The young Edward, eldest son 
 of Edward IV., a gentle, timid boy of thirteen, was 
 the heir to the throne. He was too young himself to resist 
 the power of his ambitious and unscrupulous uncle, Richard, 
 Duke of Gloucester, and the prince's only friends were those 
 of his mother, the Woodvilles and the Greys, who were 
 unpopular with the nation. 
 
 Richard soon disposed of these. Earl Rivers and Lord 
 Grey, the guardians of the young prince, were treacherously 
 arrested, and, with others, beheaded at Pontefract Castle. 
 The Earl Rivers was one of the most accomplished men of 
 his age, and the patron of Caxton the first English printer. 
 
 Not content with destroying the queen's relations, Richard 
 seized and put to death Lord Hastings, one of the most loyal 
 servants of the young prince ; and, in fact, did not scruple to 
 remove all whom he supposed would bar his usurpation of 
 the throne. When all these measures had been taken, he 
 declared that, King Edward IV. having been married to 
 another lady before his union with Elizabeth Woodville, the 
 
164 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 children of the last marriage were not the lawful heirs to the 
 throne. 
 
 Ey these arts he prevailed, and the people offered him the 
 crown. At first he affected to refuse it, pretending affection 
 for his brother's children — those very princes whom he had 
 just declared incapable of reigning. His pretended scruples, 
 however, were soon laid aside, and he was crowned king, with 
 the title of Richard III. The young Prince Edward and his 
 brother, meanwhile, had been imprisoned. 
 
 A mysterious horror surrounds the death scene of many a 
 king and scion of England's royal race ; but none is darker 
 than that which shrouds the fate of these young princes in 
 London Tower. That they were murdered by their wicked 
 uncle, can scarcely be doubted, but by what means the deed 
 of darkness was accomplished, none can know with certainty. 
 The most generally received opinion is, that they were smo- 
 thered to death by two assassins, acting under the order of 
 the unscrupulous Eichard. 
 
 When the opponents of Eichard of Gloucester found that 
 the two princes had perished, they turned their hopes 
 to Henry Tudor, Earl of Eichmond, a descendant of 
 the house of Lancaster. 
 
 From Brittany, where, for many years, he had been living 
 in exile, Eichmond now made an unsuccessful attempt to 
 invade England. Not long after his return to France, a 
 treacherous minister of the Duke of Brittany was about to 
 betray him into the hands of Eichard III., but he saved 
 himself by a timely flight to the court of the French king. 
 
 On the 7th August, 1485, Eichmond again landed in Eng- 
 land. He had only a small body of men, but he was well 
 aware that his father-in-law (Lord Stanley) with other power- 
 ful relations, were ready to espouse his cause, and that the 
 nation generally were disaffected toward Eichard. 
 
 Suspecting the fidelity of Lord Stanley, Eichard seized that 
 nobleman's son as a hostage, and trusting in superior numbers, 
 prepared to encounter Eichmond. At Bosworth, near Lei- 
 cester, the two armies met, and there fought the last battle of 
 
HENRY VII. 1G5 
 
 the Wars of the Roses. Early in the conflict, Lord Stanley, 
 with ten thousand men, went over to the army of his step-son; 
 others followed his example. Deserted on every hand, Richard 
 fought with the madness of desperation ; but, borne 
 down by, numbers, he fell, covered with wounds, as 
 he was seeking a personal encounter with his rival. Lord 
 Stanley placed the blood-soiled, battered crown (which had 
 fallen from Richard) upon the Earl of Richmond's brow, and 
 saluted him king, upon the field of victory. 
 
 Questions. — With what difficulties had the young Edward V. to 
 contend ? — How did Richard dispose of the guardians of young 
 Edward ? — What is said of Earl Rivers ? — What was done with the 
 young princes ? — What is said of their fate ? 
 
 Whom did the opponents of Richard desire to make king ? — What 
 was the result of his first invasion of England? — How did he escape 
 betrayal into Richard's hands ? — What encouraged his second inva- 
 sion of England ? — Where was the last battle of the Wars of the 
 Roses fought ? — Who deserted to the Duke of Richmond ? — What 
 was the result of this encounter ? 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 HENRY VII. 
 
 ENTRY INTO LONDON — TREATMENT OP THE HOUSE OF YORK — IMPOSTORS — 
 SIMNEL — WARBECK — AVARICE OF THE KING — NEW WORLD DISCOVERED. 
 
 The first act of Henry VII., after the battle of Bosworth, 
 showed, in some degree, the . character of the king. He 
 entered the city of London, not mounted on a charger, as 
 had been the wont of every sovereign of the Plantagenet race, 
 but shut up in a close and clumsy carriage. Proceeding to 
 St. Paul's, he off"ered on the high altar three standards : one, 
 an image of St. George, the patron saint of England; the 
 second a red dragon, and the third a dun cow. When the 
 Te Deum had been sung, the king repaired to the bishop's 
 
166 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 palace, whilst the people engaged in plays and pastimes, inter- 
 spersed with religious pageants 
 
 Henry VII. hated the house of York, but, finding that he 
 might more securely hold his throne by a union with that 
 house, he married Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward 
 lY. By this marriage the wars of York and Lan- 
 caster were more effectually ended thau they could have been 
 by the most successful battle. 
 
 The young Earl of Warwick, a nephew of the late king, 
 was thrown into the Tower. He was a son of the unfortunate 
 Duke of Clarence, and Henry feared lest the claim of this 
 Yorkist prince should imperil the security of his own crown. 
 
 Notwithstjinding this precaution, his reign was disturbed by 
 pretenders to the throne. The people of Ireland, who had 
 been well governed by Richard, Duke of York, and by his son, 
 the Duke of Clarence, were warmly attached to this house. 
 When, therefore, a young and noble-looking boy landed in 
 Ireland, claimin"; to be Earl of Warwick, the eldest 
 
 1487. JO 5 
 
 son of the murdered Clarence, the warm-hearted 
 Irish readily believed the story he told of his escape from the 
 Tower, and gathered to his standard. Having no crown, a 
 golden diadem, taken from a statue of the Virgin,' was placed 
 upon his brow in the Cathedral Church of Dublin, and he was 
 saluted king, by the title of Edward VL 
 
 Meanwhile the English monarch took measures to defeat 
 the claims of this impostor, who was in reality a baker's boy, 
 named Lambert Simnel. He brought the real Earl of War- 
 wick from the Tower, and paraded him through the streets 
 of London. He then marched against Simnel, whom he met 
 and totally routed at a little village in Y^orkshire, not far from 
 Newark. Lambert was taken prisoner, and Henry, to show 
 his contempt for the enemy whom he had so easily defeated, 
 spared his life, and made him a scullion in the royal kitchens. 
 After this victory the king made a pilgrimage to the shrine 
 of " Our Lady at Walsingham,'' and offered thereupon his 
 victorious banner. 
 
 Scarcely six years had passed away before the throne of 
 
HENRY VII. iG7 
 
 Henry Tudor was threatened by another and a more formi- 
 dable impostor. This was Perkin Warbeck, the son 
 of a merchant of Tournay. He feigned to be Richard, 
 Duke of York, the younger of the two brothers whom the 
 cruelty of Richard III. had put to a mysterious death in the 
 Tower. Pretending to have escaped' from that but too safe 
 prison-house, he preseuted himself to Margaret, Duchess of 
 Burgundy, a sister of Edward IV. She either believed, or 
 was induced by her hatred of the house of Tudor, to aifect 
 to believe, that the young fugitive was indeed her nephew. 
 She received him with every token of affection, bestowed on 
 him the appellation of " the White Rose of England," and 
 gave money and men to aid him in getting the English 
 throne. 
 
 Joined by a few discontented exiles, he landed in Kent. 
 
 None gathered to his standard, and a small body of 
 
 the country people were sufficient to drive the invader 
 
 back to Flanders. Not yet despairing of success, Warbeck, 
 
 who is described as young, beautiful, and fascinating, went to 
 
 Scotland. He was there welcomed with great cordiality by 
 
 James IV., the king of that country, who was at 
 
 enmity with the English. The accomplished and 
 
 graceful Warbeck was entertained with feast and tournament. 
 
 He was greeted as the true White Rose of England, and 
 
 obtained in marriage the Lady Catherine Gordon, daughter 
 
 of the Earl of Huntley, and one of the most beautiful women 
 
 in the land. 
 
 Warbeck, with his ally, the king of Scotland, and troops 
 which the Duchess of Burgundy had contrived to send over, 
 crossed the border. Henry sent against him a large force, 
 under the Earl of Surrey. The pretender was driven back, 
 and James IV. was prevailed upon to enter into a treaty with 
 the Eno-lish kinc:. Warbeck left Scotland. Encou- 
 
 1497. . . 
 
 raged by an insurrection against Henry, among the 
 people of Cornwall, he landed in that county, and marched 
 as far as Taunton, in Somersetshire. Here he was met by the 
 king's forces, defeated and obliged to fly to the sanctuary at 
 
108 HISTORY OF ENCiLAM). 
 
 Beaulieu. Henry would not openly Ibice this place of sacred 
 refuge, but he induced Warbeck, by false promises, to put 
 himself into the royal hands. The unfortunate impostor, 
 though at first treated with some show of lenity, was subse- 
 quently sent to the Tower. 
 
 There he found a friend in the Earl of Warwick, his fellow 
 prisoner. By the singular fascination of bis manners, War- 
 beck won the hearts of his keepers, and a rumor got abroad 
 of a plot contrived against the king by the captives in the 
 Tower. Tried on these charges, both Warbeck and the 
 unhappy earl were found guilty and sentenced to death. The 
 feelings of the nation were greatly excited by the execution 
 of this sentence on the Earl of W^arwick. He had been a pri- 
 soner from childhood, and was now, they believed, put to death 
 for a treason of which he was not guilty. 
 
 One of Henry VII. 's vices was avarice. By confiscation 
 and extortion, in which last he employed two noted lawyers, 
 Empson and Dudley, he filled his coffers with gold. The love 
 of money made him forget the gratitude he owed to those who 
 had gained him his cfDwn. Sir William Stanley had said : 
 " that if he were sure that Perkin Warbeck was the son of 
 Edward IV., he would never fight against him." These were 
 but words, and uttered by the brother of the Lord 
 Stanley whose desertion had, in great measure, won 
 the field of Bosworth, and who, on that field, had placed the 
 crown on Henry's brow. Sir William Stanley had himself, 
 moreover, in that same battle, saved Henry Tudor's life, but 
 — he was the richest noble in the land, and so he perished as 
 a traitor on the scaffold, and the king took all his wealth. 
 
 About the time of Warbeck's rebellion there reached Eng- 
 land wondrous tales of a new world discovered in the western 
 seas. The maritime spirit of the country was aroused, and 
 merchants and navigators longed to share the fame and the 
 profit of the new discoveries. In the year 1496, Henry VII. 
 granted a patent to a Venetian merchant of Bristol, named 
 John Cabot, and to his three sons, to go on a voyage of dis- 
 covery. John Cabot and his son Sebastian set sail from 
 
HENRY VII. 169 
 
 England in May, 1497, and discovered land, which they 
 called Prima Vista, or First Seen. It was probably either 
 the coast of Labrador, or the island which still bears the 
 name of Newfoundland. 
 
 They were the first of that noble race of English mariners, 
 the Hawkins, Frobishers, Drakes, Gilberts, and llaleighs, 
 who, in the century about to open, began a glorious career 
 of maritime adventure, and founded, in the New World, a 
 nation rivaUing in greatness the ancestry from which they 
 sprang. 
 
 During the winter of 1501-2 two important marriages took 
 place in the family of the monarch. The one was that of his 
 eldest son, Arthur, to Katherine of Arragon, a princess of 
 Spain. The other was that of Henry's eldest daughter, 
 Margaret, to King James IV. of Scotland. From the last- 
 named union sprang the claim of the Stuarts to the crown of 
 England — a claim which, in later times, as we shall see, 
 proved fatal to its possessors. 
 
 The marriage of Prince x\rthur took place when the bride- 
 groom was little more than fifteen years of age. It was cele- 
 brated in the Cathedral Church of St. Paul's, and the king 
 on this occasion spent large sums in providing feasts, tourna- 
 ments, and other entertainments for his subjects. The boy 
 lived only five months after the wedding which had been 
 celebrated with so much magnificence. He died at Ludlow 
 Castle, whither he had been sent to keep his court as Prince 
 of Wales. The miser-king, unwilling to lose the dowry of the 
 princess, afiianced the young widow to his second son, Henry. 
 The marriage did not take place until five years later, a few 
 weeks after the young prince's accession to the throne. 
 
 On the 21st of April, 1509, the king died, and was buried 
 in the beautiful chapel in Westminster Abbey still called by 
 his name. «^ 
 
 Questions. — Describe Henry VII.'s entry into London. — Mention 
 his oiFerings at St. Paul's. — Whom did he marry ? — What was the 
 effect of this union ? — In what way did Henry manifest his jealousy 
 51 
 
170 HISTUKY OF KN GLAND. 
 
 of the house of York? — Relate the history of Lambert Simnel's 
 imposture. — In what did it result? — Describe the pretensions and 
 early success of Perkin Warbeck.— What misfortunes followed his 
 second invasion of England. — Who suffered with Warbeck? 
 
 What two lawyers aided Henry in his avaricious designs ? — What 
 effect had the love of money upon the king's character? — Mention 
 the illustration of this given in Henry's treatment of Sir William 
 Stanley. — What rumor reached England about the year 1495? — How 
 did Henry manifest his interest in the new discoveries ? — What was 
 the result of Cabot's first voyage ? — When did King Henry die ? — 
 Where was he buried ? 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 CONDITION OP ENGLAND DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 RELIGION — LEARNING — PRINTING — AGRICULTURE — ARCHITECTURE — DO- 
 MESTIC COMFORT — GREAT MERCHANTS — MANNERS AND CUSTOMS — CON- 
 DITION OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 During the early part of this century the church was very 
 busy in persecuting the followers of Wickliffe, or Lollards, as 
 they were frequently called. The fires which in anothei- 
 century burned so fiercely for the Reformers of the English 
 Church, were first kindled at Smithfield, in the year 1401, 
 and William Sautre, priest of St. Osyth's, in London, has the 
 honor of being the first Protestant martyr of England. Ho 
 was summoned before the primate and six other bishops, 
 in St. Paul's Cathedral, there to undergo the sentence of 
 degradation from the ministry of the church, prior to his 
 being committed to the stake. The ceremonial was one cal- 
 culated to fill the minds of the beholders with awe. The 
 prelates were arrayed in the full splendor of their pontifical 
 robes j their victim stood before them in his priestly dress, 
 holding in his hands the chalice and paten used in the 
 administration of the Eucharist. The archbishop, solemnly 
 pronouncing against the rector of St. Osyth's the deposition 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 171 
 
 from the priesthood, took out of his hands the tokens of his 
 office, and removed the scarlet robe worn by him as a member 
 of that order. To signify his degradation from the rank of 
 deacon, a volume of the New Testament was taken out of his 
 hands, and the stole or tippet removed from his shoulders. 
 Then followed the laying aside of the surplice and scarf, to 
 signify that he had lost the degree of sub-deacon. In like 
 manner he was deposed from the Inferior dignities of the 
 church, down to that of sexton, which last was indicated by 
 taking from him the surplice of that office, and the key of the 
 church door. Finally, the tonsure was effiiced, and a layman's 
 cap put upon his head. When this impressive ceremony was 
 concluded, the deposed priest of St. Osyth's was delivered 
 into the hands of the secular power, and condemned to the 
 stake. 
 
 One of the most illustrious victims of the religious perse- 
 cution of these days was (Sir John Oldcastle) Lord Cobham. 
 This nobleman, when brought to trial, presented to his judges 
 a paper containing a confession of his faith. It closes with 
 these words, which are given not only as illustrating the 
 doctrines for which he was condemned, but also as a specimen 
 of the style of English written in the early part of this 
 century : — 
 
 " I suppose this fully, that every man in this erthe is a 
 pilgrime towarde blyss, or toward payne ; and that he that 
 knoweth not, ne wole not knowe, ne kepe the holy com- 
 mandements of God in his ly vying here, al be it, that he goo 
 on pylgrimage to all the world, an he dy so, ho shi-.H 1)e 
 dampned ; and he that knowytht he holy comman demon tys of 
 Grod, and kepeth hem hys end, he shall be saved, tho' he 
 nevir in hys lyve go on pilgrymage, as men use now, to Can- 
 terbury or to Rome or to any othir place." 
 
 Lord Cobham was a friend of Henry V., and that monarch 
 endeavored to save him, by inducing him to give up his 
 •opinions. The nobleman, however, resisted all his efforts^ 
 refusing to confess the doctrine of tran substantiation, the 
 necessity of pilgrimages, and the worship of saints. He was 
 
172 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 condemned and thrown into the Tower. He escaped and fled 
 into Wales, where he remained several years; but was at 
 length, in 1418, betrayed into the hands of his enemies and 
 put to death. 
 
 At Lambeth Palace may yet be seen the Lollard's Tower, 
 built by Archbishop Chicheley, of Canterbury, for the impri- 
 sonment of those accused of heresy. In the room at the top 
 of the tower, the iron rings to which the prisoners were 
 fastened, still remain fixed in the walls, and on the boards 
 which compose them may be traced in rude letters the names 
 of many of these early martyrs of Protestantism. One in- 
 scription in Latin, " Sweet to die for Jesus/' is particularly 
 touching. 
 
 The miseries caused by the Wars of the Roses turned 
 aside, for a while, the violence of religious persecution. 
 Fuller, speaking of the Lollards in those days, says : *' the 
 very storm was their shelter." The veneration for holy wells, 
 for shrines, for pilgrimages, and especially for the worship of 
 the Virgin Mary, was at its height. One shrine, that of 
 " Our Lady at Walsingham," in Norfolk, was resplendent 
 with gold and jewels, the offerings of pilgrims; for, says an 
 old historian, " whoever had not made a visit and an offering 
 to the blessed Virgin of this place, was looked upon as impious 
 and irreligious." 
 
 The power of the church was upheld by the authority of 
 the clergy in parliament. Whilst other nobles were absent 
 in wars, the spiritual peers were always in their places, and 
 took care to carry such measures as should strengthen the 
 influence of their order. 
 
 The wars which distracted England were very unfavorable 
 to the progress of learning. The youth of all classes, even 
 the clergy not excepted, were expected to take up arms. 
 Places of honor and profit were given, not to the learned and 
 industrious scholar, but to the fawning favorites of the church. 
 Meanwhile the students of the universities became mendi- 
 cants, strolling from castle to castle, begging for support. 
 Among the great " it was thought enough for noblemen's sons 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 173 
 
 to wind their horns and to carry their hawks fair, and leave 
 study and learning to the children of mean people/' 
 
 There were, however, noble exceptions to this indifference 
 to learning among men of rank. John Tiptoft, Earl of Wor- 
 cester, after visiting the Holy Land and the countries of 
 southern Europe, returned to England, and presented the 
 valuable library which he had collected in his foreign travels, 
 to the University of Oxford. This accomplished nobleman 
 fell a victim to the civil wars. He was a Yorkist, and falling 
 into the hands of the Lancastrians, was beheaded on Tower 
 Hill in 1470. " The axe then,'' says Fuller, " did, at one 
 blow, cut off more learning than was left in the heads of all 
 the surviving nobility." 
 
 Anthony Woodville, Earl Kivers, a brother of the queen, 
 was another accomplished nobleman. He had introduced at 
 the court of Edward IV., the printer Caxton, and was the 
 first English author who had the honor and gratification of 
 seeing his works appear in print. He, too, as we have seen, 
 fell a victim to the savage ferocity of those wars which 
 respected neither learning nor piety. 
 
 The Inns of Court produced in this century two distin- 
 guished lawyers — Sir Thomas Littleton and Sir John Fortes- 
 cue. Both of these judges composed law books of great 
 value, and both lived to a good old age. Sir John Fortescue 
 was ninety years old at the time of his death. 
 
 Although learning in these days was far from being gene- 
 rally appreciated, the building and endowing of scholastic 
 edifices was still regarded as a work of piety, and during the 
 fifteenth century no less than forty such institutions were 
 founded in the different countries of Europe. At Oxford, 
 Lincoln College was commenced by a bishop of Lincoln, who, 
 from being a warm admirer, was won by church preferments 
 to become a bitter opposer, of Wickliffe. He erected this 
 college for scholars, the object of whose studies should be to 
 overthrow the doctrines of the Lollards. 
 
 Archbishop Chicheley, who built the Lollard's Tower at 
 Lambeth, erected also at Oxford, in 1437, ''All Souls College," 
 15* 
 
174 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 wherein constant prayers and masses were to be offered for the 
 souls of the departed, especially for those who had perished, or 
 should perish, in the French wars. In this same university, 
 on the banks of the quiet Cherwell, arose that noble specimen 
 of Gothic architecture — the College of St. Mary Magdalene. 
 It was founded by William de Waynflete, bishop of Win- 
 chester and lord chancellor of England, in the year 1458. 
 At Cambridge, King's and Queen's Colleges were erected by 
 King Henry VI. and his wife Margaret of Anjou. The 
 former also founded, opposite Windsor, the celebrated Eton 
 College : 
 
 "Where grateful Science still adores 
 Her Henry's holy shade." 
 
 The chapel of King's College is renowned for the beauty 
 of its Grothic architecture. The roof, in its combination of 
 massy strength with airy lightness, has never been equalled. 
 It " looks," says an author in describing it, " as if cut at once 
 by an invisible power out of a solid quarry of stone. As we 
 walk under this incomparable arch, we behold in the centre, 
 vast stones of more than a ton weight suspended over our 
 heads, with no other support than the exquisite harmony of 
 the whole." It is said that so great was Sir Christopher 
 Wren's admiration of this noble work, that he went once 
 every year to survey it, and remarked that if any man would 
 show him where to place the first stone, he would engage to 
 build such another. 
 
 The professors of science at both of the universities had 
 hitherto delivered their lectures in convents or private houses. 
 To remedy the inconveniences attendant on this plan, there 
 were erected during the present period, public schools, ex- 
 pressly appropriated to the several departments of science. 
 At Oxford, the magnificent divinity school and library was 
 begun in 1427, and completed in 1480. Besides the rich 
 Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, it numbered archbishops and 
 bishops among its liberal benefactors. The beauty of its 
 architecture was appreciated even at that day. It is called 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 175 
 
 by a grateful recipient of its benefits, "a work worthy of 
 God, as much superior to all the great edifices around it, in 
 magnitude and beauty, as divinity, to which it is dedicated, is 
 superior to all the other sciences/^ 
 
 The studies of this age were mixed with much that was 
 frivolous and fanciful. In medicine there was far more of 
 superstition than of science. The discovei'y of the "elixir 
 of life," a fabled remedy which was to cure all diseases, 
 became one of the objects of the researches of the physician. 
 Astrology and alchemy were so mixed up with the sciences of 
 mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry, that few useful dis- 
 coveries were made. Some writers suppose that the alche- 
 mists of the middle ages were not seeking any chimera, such 
 as the elixir of life, or the philosopher's stone, but that under 
 these mystical terms they were teaching moral truth, and were 
 obliged to use this symbolical language because of the ignorant 
 and persecuting spirit of an age which would not tolerate a 
 more clear and simple setting forth of religious truths/ 
 
 The art of printing was introduced into England by William 
 Caxton, a native of Kent and a merchant of London. Caxton 
 had resided some years in Flanders, and there learned the 
 valuable art, which he brought into England in the year 
 1474. The first book printed in England was a translation 
 from the French, entitled " The Game and Playe of the 
 Chesse." The titles of the first books published by Caxton, 
 and other early English printers, discover the literary taste of 
 that day. They are chiefly romances, the lives of saints, and 
 books of devotion. Scarcely a book on science appears among 
 them. 
 
 Chaucer's works were among the earliest printed. A beau- 
 tiful instance of the integrity of honest William Caxton is 
 given in the preface of his second edition of the works of the 
 first English poet. The manuscript from which he had 
 printed the previous edition was exceedingly imperfect. When 
 Caxton discovered this, he rested not until he had procured a 
 better copy, and printed a correct edition, in the preface of 
 which he states that he did it "for to satisfy the auctor, 
 
176 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 whereas before by ignorance I erred in hurting and defaming 
 his book in divers places, in setting in some things that he 
 never said he made, and leaving out many things that he 
 made which been requisite to be set in." 
 
 The language of the fifteenth century was more like modern 
 English than it had hitherto been. One circumstance which 
 retarded its progress was the unsettled orthography of those 
 days. In examining the specimen given from Lord Cobham's 
 confession of faith, it will be found that in a single piece of 
 writing he spells the same words, such as commandments and 
 pilgrimages, in two or three different ways. No two authora 
 spelled alike, and there was no fixed standard. 
 
 The wars of this age had not only an ill effect upon learn- 
 ing, but also upon the useful arts. Agriculture was much 
 neglected, and the nobles were obliged to turn large tracts 
 into pasturages, and to depend for grain on the quantities 
 brought from foreign countries, to be exchanged for English 
 wool. Few vegetables were cultivated. Famines were fre- 
 quent, and the poorer classes were often compelled to feed 
 upon dried roots and herbs. In one village in Northumber- 
 land, a writer declares that the inhabitants had never seen 
 wine nor wheat bread. 
 
 Although some beautiful churches and colleges arose iu 
 this century, architecture was not encouraged to so great an 
 extent as in the preceding period. These were times when 
 men were more employed in destroying edifices, than in 
 building them. Not only churches and castles, but even 
 whole villages, were destroyed during the wars of York and 
 Lancaster. Within twelve miles of the town of Warwick, 
 there was not less than sixty of these deserted villages. 
 
 When the storm of war had subsided, and dwellings were 
 rebuilt, they rose more in the form of manor houses, and had 
 less of a castellated appearance than in former times. Beau- 
 tiful oriel windows and rich oak carvings adorned these new 
 edifices, and houses of brick began to take the place of those 
 of wood. The bed-furniture was much more luxurious and 
 ornamental than in any previous age. We hear, among the 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 177 
 
 better class, of feather-beds, mattrasses, pillows, blankets, and 
 sheets ; also, of coverlets of tapestry, richly wrought, or of 
 silk, embroidered with gold and silver, and also of minever, 
 the latter being a handsome fur. 
 
 The city mansions of the nobility, called inns, were of great 
 extent. The great Earl of Warwick is said to have lodged 
 six hundred men at his inn in Warwick Lane, London, and 
 six oxen were sometimes consumed there at a breakfast. 
 
 The furniture of the houses was still very scanty. Painted 
 ceilings no longer prevailed. The walls were again hung with 
 tapestry, which was called arras, from the town in France 
 where it was chiefly manufactured. 
 
 The silk manufacture of England took its rise in this cen- 
 tury. This branch of industry, now so important, was carried 
 on at first by a small company of women. In 1455, a law was 
 passed to protect these silk-women against the Lombards and 
 other Italian merchants, who threatened, by their importations, 
 to destroy the "mystery and occupation of silk-working," as it 
 is designated in this statute. 
 
 The Wars of the Roses seem not to have checked, in any 
 great degree, commercial prosperity, for this age produced 
 many enterprising and renowned merchants. The hero of the 
 story of Whytington and his cat, so familiar to the ears of 
 children, was a distinguished merchant of London. He was 
 thrice lord mayor, but the story of his early poverty is no 
 doubt false, as he was the son of a knight, and probably began 
 life with fair prospects. He became very wealthy, lent large 
 sums of money to his sovereign, aided in the erection of a 
 college, and built an almshouse at Highgate. 
 
 Another great merchant was WilHam Canyngs, of Bristol. 
 He engaged largely in the trade carried on with Iceland for 
 fish. He, too, became no less than five times mayor of 
 Bristol, founded the church of St. Mary's, and was a liberal 
 benefactor to his native city. Nor did crowned heads disdain 
 to engage in the lucrative pursuits of trade. Edward IV. 
 was one of the most active merchants in his kingdom. 
 '' Like a man whose living depended upon his merchandise," 
 
 M 
 
178 H18T0RY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 he exported the finest wool, cloth, tin, and other commodities 
 of the kingdom, to Italy and Greece, and imported their pro- 
 duce in return. 
 
 Besides foreign commerce in which English ships engaged, 
 they were extensively employed in the fisheries at home. 
 The herring-fisheries on the coast of Norfolk had become 
 extremely valuable, and the herring-fair, held yearly at Yar- 
 mouth, was visited by shipping from all parts of Europe. 
 
 The same extravagance in dress material, although the 
 fashion of wearing it changed, prevailed in this as in the last 
 century. Heart-shaped, horned, and steepled head-dresses 
 were fashionable among women, who wore also very short- 
 waisted dresses, and broad belts of velvet fastened by large 
 handsome buckles. They also wore trains. We hear of gold 
 and silver cloth, silk, and velvet in abundance. In Ed- 
 ward IV.'s reign, purple was made a royal color, and all who 
 did not belong to the royal fiuiiily were forbidden to wear it. 
 The dress of the common people was simple, and more sensible 
 than that of the other classes. 
 
 In the midst of war and famine, sumptuous feasting was 
 still kept up in the abodes of the noble and wealthy. The 
 two meals a day were now multiplied to four — breakfast at 
 seven, dinner at ten, supper at four in the afternoon, and a 
 refreshment called livery, served in the bed-chamber between 
 eight and nine o'clock in the evening 
 
 The dinner was spread on the long oaken table which 
 stretched the entire length of the castle hall. At the head, 
 on a dais or raised platform, sat the lord, with his friends and 
 retainers. Below the great silver salt cellar sat those of infe- 
 rior rank. The board was loaded with fresh and salt meats, 
 fowl, and fish. The food was eaten with the fingers, forks 
 being then an unknown luxury. Wine, ale, and beer, from 
 the neighboring sideboard, were served to the guests in cups 
 of pewter or wood. 
 
 Between the courses, was placed on the table a species 
 of confectionery called a subtlety. It consisted of pastry 
 or jellies made to represent human, animal, or allegorical 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 179 
 
 figul'es, to whioh a label was suspended, having some witty or 
 puzzling writing upon it, intended to exercise the curiosity 
 and ingenuity of the guests. On perches overhead stood the 
 favorite hawks and falcons of the lord of the feast, whilst his 
 hounds, of which there was a goodly number, lay at his feet. 
 Three hours were consumed at dinner, during which the hall 
 was filled with jugglers, minstrels, tumblers, and jesters, who 
 performed antics for the amusement oi' the company. 
 
 The motley dress of the fool, having the edges hung round 
 with little sheep-bells, his cap, to which were hung asses' ears, 
 and which was ridiculously ornamented with a feather, and 
 his bauble or staff, finished off with the carved head of a 
 zany ; — all these, together with his broad jokes at the expense 
 of the highest in the land, furnished an inexhaustible fund 
 of amusement to the coarse taste of that age. 
 
 The passion for tournaments somewhat decHned by the 
 close of the fifteenth century, but the taste for a species of 
 exhibition called pageants was at its height. When Henry V. 
 returned the victor from Agiucourt, he was greeted by the 
 citizens of London with a splendid pageant. On London 
 Bridge stood the figure of a huge giant, which declaimed in 
 rhyme a welcome to the king. On a turret stood a troop, 
 representing angels, singing " Blessed is he that cometh in 
 the name of the Lord." As he rode into the town through 
 streets draped with silk and tapestry, he was met at intervals 
 by similar displays. On a great conduit running with wine 
 in Cheapside, stood figures of the twelve apostles, all chanting 
 a welcome to the king. 
 
 Cards, which were invented in this century, by a painter 
 of Paris, were so costly, being richly illuminated, like the 
 missals, by hand, that only the rich could afford to play with 
 them. Among the lower classes, besides wrestling and arch- 
 ery, games of ball and bowls were much indulged in. Blind- 
 man's-buff, battledore and shuttlecock, swimming on bladders, 
 twirling hoops, and skating, were favorite amusements among 
 the young people of this age. 
 
 The Wars of the Roses, although productive of so much 
 
180 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 evil, led to one grand result — they hastened the abolition 
 of villanage and serfdom in England. The great lords were 
 obliged to arm their villains in these wars, and it was difficult 
 to compel their return to a state of servitude. Consequently, 
 at the close of this century, we find the condition of the 
 common people so prosperous, that laws were made to prevent 
 their indulging in certain articles of luxury, which were con- 
 sidered as the exclusive privilege of their superiors. 
 
 The House of Commons during this period claimed two 
 important rights : the one calling for an account of the 
 expenditure of the supplies voted by them, and the other the 
 right to impeach the ministers of the king for misconduct. 
 
 Philip de Comines, a celebrated French chronicler of these 
 times, makes -the following declaration : " Of all the states in 
 the world that I know, England is the country where the com- 
 monwealth is best governed, and the people least oppressed." 
 ^ 
 
 Questions. — Describe the instances given of religious persecution 
 during this period. — Mention some of the superstitions which pre- 
 vailed greatly in the fifteenth century. — Describe the efiFect of the 
 Wars of the Roses upon learning. — What distinguished lawyers 
 flourished in this century? — Describe the various foundations for 
 learning during this period. 
 
 What retarded the progress of true science in this age ? — By whom 
 and when was printing introduced? — What was the first book printed 
 in England? — What kind of books found greatest favor in those 
 days? — What prevented the English language becoming fixed by 
 one standard? — What was the consequence of the neglect of agri- 
 culture during this period ? 
 
 How was architecture affected by the tumults of the time? — How 
 did the buildings which were erected after the wars differ from 
 those of a former age ? — Relate the account given of the silk manu- 
 facture. — Repeat what is said of the styles and materials of dress in 
 this century. — Describe the arrangement of the dining-table in a 
 great lord's hall. — Describe the pageant which the citizens of London 
 prepared, to do honor to Henry V. — How did the lower orders and 
 children amuse themselves? — What great good was brought out of 
 the evil of the wars of this age? — What two important rights were 
 claimed by the Commons during this century ? — What does a French 
 writer say of England at this period ? 
 
HENRY VIII. 181 
 
 PART VIII. 
 ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 HENRY VIII.— EDWARD VI.— MARY— ELIZABETH. 
 
 A. D. 1509—1603. 
 
 *' They sing a service which they feel, 
 For 'tis the summer now of zeal, 
 Of a pure faith the vernal prime. 
 In the great Tudor's golden time." 
 
 Wordsworth. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 HENRY VIII. — THE FIRST TWENTY YEARS OF HIS REIGN. 
 
 WARS — WOLSEY — RELATIONS WITH FOREIGN PRINCES — THE KING'S DI- 
 VORCE — wolsey's fall. 
 
 Thus early in the sixteenth century was Henry VIII., the 
 second monarch of the house of Tudor, firmly seated 
 
 1509. . ' "^ 
 
 upon the throne, which the battle of Bosworth had 
 won for his predecessor. 
 
 In former ages, kings had ruled by force of arms, rather 
 than by policy. The only check which the power of the 
 monarch received had been from the great barons with whom 
 he was occasionally at war. But now, the twenty battles of 
 the wars of York and Lancaster, and the executions which 
 too often followed them, had cut off the greatest of England's 
 aristocracy. The commons were not yet strong enough to 
 oppose the power of the kings, so that the royal authority in 
 the hands of the spirited sovereigns of the house of Tudor, 
 16 
 
182 IIIsTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 was more absolute than at any other period of English 
 history. 
 
 In the pleasure-loving prince of eighteen who now ascended 
 the thronC; the people little dreamed they saw one who, before 
 his reign of thirty-eight years should end, would prove one 
 of the most violent and absolute monarchs that ever swayed a 
 sceptre. But now " all went merry as a marriage bell.'' 
 Amidst jousts and tournaments, feasts and pageantries, the 
 coronation of Henry VIII. and his young queen, Katherine 
 of Arragon, was celebrated. The people rejoiced in the death 
 of Empson and Dudley, the rapacious lawyers of Henry VII. 
 They did not reflect that when the large treasures which 
 these unprincipled men had amassed, should be spent in 
 gratifying the magnificent tastes of the young monarch, the 
 royal cofi'era of the spendthrift son would be supplied by 
 means similar to those which had made the reign of the 
 miser father so odious. 
 
 Henry, possessing none of the talents of a great general, 
 yet loved " the pomp and cirxjumstance of glorious war," and 
 thus was easily persuaded by his crafty father-in-law, the king 
 of Spain, to engage in hostilities with France. With 
 a well-equipped army, Henry crossed the Channel, 
 and, announcing his arrival by the firing of great guns, 
 coasted along the French shores. Nothing very important 
 was done in this war, in which Henry was but a tool in the 
 hands, first of the Spanish king, and finally of Maximilian, 
 the emperor of Germany. In one battle the English gained 
 a complete victory; the enemy, being seized with a panic, fled 
 so rapidly from the field, that the French prisoners themselves 
 merrily named it '* The Battle of the Spurs." 
 
 Although King James IV. of Scotland was brother-in-law 
 to Henry VIIL, he had become the ally of France, and 
 whilst Henry was in that country, the war-challenge of the 
 Scottish monarch was sent to him. Henry committed the 
 conduct of an expedition against his hostile relative, into 
 the hands of Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey. At Flodden 
 
HENRY VIII. 183 
 
 Field, among the Cheviot Hills, the English and 
 Scotch armies met in combat, and there was fought 
 one of the famous battles in English history. When night 
 ended the conflict, King James of Scotland, with nine thou- 
 sand of his noblest subjects, lay dead upon the field. " Scarce 
 a Scottish family of eminence,'' says Sir Walter Scott, " but 
 has an ancestor killed at Flodden ; and there is no province 
 in Scotland, even at this day, where the battle is mentioned 
 without a sensation of sorrow and terror.'^ 
 
 " Tradition, legend, tune, and song, 
 Still many an age that wail prolong, 
 Still from the sire the son shall hear 
 Of the stern strife and carnage drear, 
 
 Of Flodden's fatal field, 
 Where shivered was fair Scotland's spear, 
 
 And broken was her shield!" — Marmion. 
 
 By a treaty which terminated in 1514 the war with France, 
 Mary, Henry YIlI.'s youngest sister, was given in marriage 
 to Louis XII., the French king. Among those who accom- 
 panied the Princess Mary to France, was a pretty child, a 
 maid of honor to the queen, named Anna Boleyn. At the 
 French court she was to learn graces and accomplishments 
 which, unaccompanied by principle, were destined to work 
 sorrow enough on her return to England. A few months 
 after his marriage with Mary of England, the French king 
 died, and was succeeded by Francis I., a young, gay, and 
 ambitious monarch. Four years later, died Maximilian, em- 
 peror of Germany, and to the imperial throne succeeded 
 
 Charles Y., one of the ablest princes in Europe. 
 
 Before the election of Charles, the French king had 
 hoped to gain for himself the crown of the G-erman Empire. 
 When, therefore, Charles was chosen, Francis, from being his 
 rival, became his enemy. Both these sovereigns sought the 
 friendship and alliance of the king of England. But Henry 
 VIII. was now hardly master in his own dominions. The 
 
184 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 rule of England, both at home and abroad, was given into the 
 hands of one remarkable courtier and favorite. The foreign 
 sovereign and the English subject ahke did homage to the 
 all-potent influence of this " great child of honor." 
 
 The man who possessed the genius to rule for twenty years 
 one of the most absolute monarchs of his age, was Thomas 
 Wolsey, the son of* a wealthy butcher and drover of Ipswich. 
 At Oxford, where the young Wolsey studied, he attained so 
 early to eminence, that at the time his first degree was 
 bestowed, he was called the Boy Bachelor. His talents 
 brought him into notice, and he was introduced to the king 
 by Bishop Fox. Wolsey, to a genius for magnificence and 
 display, added the policy of a statesman, and the wit and 
 gayety of a courtier. These qualities gave him unbounded 
 influence over the pleasure-loving, vain-glorious monarch of 
 England. He was made successively bishop of Lincoln, arch- 
 bishop of York, cardinal, lord chancellor, and finally, papal 
 legate. He was also abbot of St. Alban's, bishop of Bath and 
 Wells, which see he subsequently exchanged for that of 
 Durham, and the latter again for Winchester. His equipage 
 and attire exceeded in magnificence that of Thomas h Becket, 
 whose splendor had dazzled the nation in a former age. 
 
 The cardinal's " fine figure was set off with silks and satins 
 of the finest texture, and richest scarlet or crimson dye ; his 
 neck and shoulders were covered with a tippet of costly sables; 
 his gloves were of red silk; his hat, of a cardinal, was scarlet; 
 his shoes were of silver-gilt, inlaid with pearls and diamonds. 
 ***** fjg jj^ept a train of eight hundred persons, 
 amongst whom were nine or ten lords, the beggared descend- 
 ants of proud barons. He had fifteen knights and forty 
 squires. All his domestics were splendidly attired ; his cook 
 wore a satin or velvet jacket, and a chain of gold round his 
 neck. When Wolsey appeared in public, his cardinal's hat 
 was borne before him by a person of rank : two priests, the 
 tallest and best-looking that could be found, immediately pre- 
 ceded him, carrying two ponderous silver crosses; two gentle- 
 
HENRY VIII. 185 
 
 men, each bearing a silver staff, walked before the two priests, 
 and in front of all went his pursuivant-at-arms, bearing a huge 
 mace of silver-gilt. Most of his followers were mounted upon 
 spirited horses, perfect in training and richly caparisoned; 
 but he, himself, as a priest, rode on a mule, with saddle and 
 saddle-cloth of crimson velvet, and stirrups of silver-gilt. At 
 his levee, which he held every morning at an early hour, 
 after a very short mass, he always appeared clad all in red."* 
 The money which supported the state of this gorgeous 
 churchman was not wrung from the people ', for in the early 
 part of his career, Wolsey's domestic administration was for 
 the most part, wise, just, and popular. The presents and 
 bribes of foreign princes, together with the rich gifts of his 
 royal master, rendered his revenue princely. 
 
 Francis I., desirous of continuing the treaty with 
 
 England, proposed a personal interview with King 
 Henry. To counteract the effect of this, the Emperor Charles 
 hastened to England, on pretence of a visit to his aunt, the 
 English queen. By the tempting promise of using his influ- 
 ence to secure to Wolsey the papal throne on the death of the 
 reigning pontiff, he engaged that ambitious statesman to 
 render the approaching interview between Henry and Francis 
 of none effect. The interview did take place in France, not 
 far from Calais. The splendors of the jousts and tournaments, 
 of the balls and feastings, and in fact of all the magnificence 
 enacted on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, recall the fables 
 of the Arabian Nights Entertainments. A fortnight was 
 consumed in this interview, during which whole estates were 
 spent in contributing to a vain-glorious display. Nor did the 
 peace which was entered into, by any means, ^' value the cost 
 which did conclude it." 
 
 In two years it was broken, and Henry, or Wolsey 
 
 rather, was in close alliance with the emperor. This 
 lasted until the year 1523, when Pope Adrian died. He was 
 
 * Pictorial History of England. 
 16* 
 
186 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 
 
 the second Pope whose death had left vacant the papal throne 
 since the promise given by the emperor to Wolsey. The 
 cardinal now certainly expected to gain the height of his 
 ambition, but he was disappointed. Pope Clement VII. was 
 elected, and Wolsey, though at first dissembling his anger, 
 was no longer Charles's friend, and two years later persuaded 
 his royal master to enter again into treaty with Francis I. 
 But the career of the proud cardinal was drawing to a close. 
 In the year 1527, circumstances occurred which drew upon 
 him the full weight of the monarch's displeasure. The king, 
 possessed with the desire of marrying the fascinating Anna 
 Boleyn, who had returned from France, and was now a maid 
 of honor to the English queen, endeavored to obtain a divorce. 
 With this object, Henry applied to the Pope, pleading con- 
 scientious scruples regarding the lawfulness of his marriage 
 with Katherine of Arragon, because she had been previously 
 married to his brother Arthur. 
 
 At first. Cardinal Wolsey encouraged the idea of the di- 
 vorce, having planned to unite his royal master to a French 
 princess. When, however, he found Henry bent on wedding 
 A una Boleyn, he became lukewarm in the matter. This 
 opposition to the ambitious maid of honor wrought the ruin 
 of the powerful cardinal. Nothing could deter the king from 
 his purpose. Although the Pope, through fear of Katherine's 
 powerful nephew, the German emperor, refused to 
 issue a bill of divorce, Henry would not yield, and 
 only became more irritated against those who opposed him. 
 
 Whilst the king was in this frame of mind, Thomas Cran- 
 mer, a tutor in the family of an English gentleman, chanced 
 to say, in the hearing of Gardiner, the king's secretary, that 
 the proper way to settle the lawfulness of the king's marriage, 
 would be to appeal to the learned men of the universities 
 of Europe, who would decide the question upon the authority 
 of Scripture, without any further regard to the Pope. This 
 proposition being reported, was forthwith adopted by Henry, 
 who raised the author of it to the post of royal chaplain. 
 
HENRY VIII. 187 
 
 Cranmer afterwards became arclibisliop of Canterbury, and in 
 another reign we shall find him the most distinguished re- 
 former of the English church. 
 
 Oxford and Cambridge, Padua, Bologna, Ferrara, Paris, 
 Orleans, and other famous universities, declared, that, by the 
 law of God, a marriage with a brother's wife was forbidden. 
 These opinions of the learned encouraged Henry in the pro- 
 secution of his design. 
 
 Meanwhile the great cardinal had fallen. Accused of vio- 
 lating the law of the land, in acting as papal legate in England, 
 he was removed from his magnificent palace at York-Place, to 
 his country-seat at Esher. Soon afterwards the great seal 
 was taken from him, and he was commanded to retire to his 
 see of York. Here he devoted himself to the charge of his 
 people, like a good and worthy bishop. He gave alms to the 
 poor, and set about rebuilding and repairing the churches and 
 religious houses, in which work he employed hundreds of 
 laborers. Thus, in doing good and winning the affection of 
 all about him, Wolsey, " who had trod the ways of glory," no 
 doubt enjoyed more real happiness than he had ever known 
 in the day of his greatness. 
 
 But this was not to last. Accused of correspondence with 
 the Pope and the French king, he was arrested for high 
 treason. This was his death-blow. He lived not to pass 
 through the Traitor's Gate into the Tower. Reaching Lei- 
 cester Abbey on his journey to London, he grew too ill to go 
 further. Dismounting from his mule at the door of the con- 
 vent, where stood the monks with lighted tapers to receive 
 him, he said to the abbot: "Father, I am come to lay my 
 bones among you.'' Among Wolsey's dying words was the 
 sad remorseful confession — 
 
 *' Had I but served my God with half the zeal 
 I served my king, He would not in mine age 
 Have left me naked to mine enemies." 
 
 Thus did this great man give witness to the truth of the 
 
188 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 Psalmist's warning : " Put not your trust in princes, nor in 
 any child of man, for there is no help in them.'\^ 
 
 Questions. — How had kings ruled in times preceding the six- 
 teenth century ? — Describe the condition of the royal authority at 
 the opening of this century. — What was the character and age of 
 Henry VIII. at the time of his accession to the throne? — What kind 
 of a monarch did he prove? — How was his coronation celebrated? — 
 With what country did Heni-y make war ? — What one victory did 
 Henry gain in this war ?— What relative of Henry VIII.'s became the 
 ally of France? — What war was the result of this alliance? — What 
 celebrated battle was fought ? — What was the issue to the Scottish 
 monarch and his kingdom? 
 
 Whom did the English Princess Mary marry ? — What is said of 
 Anna Boleyn at the time of this marriage ? — Who succeeded Louis 
 XII. on the throne of France? — What other sovereign died a few 
 years later? — Name his successor. — What were now the relations 
 between Charles and Francis ? — What was Henry's position at this 
 time? 
 
 Give some account of the early history of Cardinal Wolsey. — Men- 
 tion the honors conferred upon him by the king. — Describe his ap- 
 pearance.— Describe the state in which he made his public appear- 
 ance. — What is said of Wolsey as a statesman? — Whence did he 
 obtain his riches ? — What steps did the German emperor take to 
 counteract the French treaty? — How was Wolsey's favor secured? — 
 Describe the interview between the kings of England and France. — 
 What is said of the treaty then concluded ? — State the circumstances 
 which led to Wolsey's final quarrel with the king. — What passion 
 now possessed the English monarch ? — On what plea did he apply 
 for a divorce from his queen ? — Describe Wolsey's conduct in this 
 matter. — What was the effect of Wolsey's opposition ? — Why did the 
 Pope refuse a divorce? — Repeat the suggestion made at this time 
 by Thomas Cranmer. — State the effect of this suggestion. — What 
 accusation was brought against Wolsey? — Of what was he deprived ? 
 — Describe W^olsey's conduct at this time. — Describe the close of this 
 great man's career. 
 
HENRY VIII. 189 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 HENRY VIII. — THE LAST EIGHTEEN YEARS OF HIS REIGN. 
 
 SIR THOMAS MOKE — OVERTHROW OP PAPAL. POWER — ANNE BOLEYN — 
 REFORMATION — SCOTLAND— FRANCE — THE HOWARDS. 
 
 When the great seal of the chancellorship was taken from 
 Cardinal Wolsey, it was given to Sir Thomas More. 
 To receive this perilous honor, the new chancellor 
 was drawn from a beautiful retirement at Chelsea. Fain 
 would he have remained in the midst of his happy and 
 accomplished family, his beautiful gardens, his well-stored 
 library, and literary enjoyments, and not have tasted the 
 favor of his capricious sovereign. One of the learned men 
 of this age, the celebrated Greek scholar Erasmus, often 
 visited Sir Thomas More, and writes thus in praise of the 
 happy home at Chelsea: — "A house in which every one 
 studies the liberal sciences, where the principal care is virtue 
 and piety, where idleness never appears, where intemperate 
 language is never heard, where regularity and order are pre- 
 served by dint of kindness and courtesy, where every one 
 performs his duty, and yet all are so cheerful as if mirth 
 were their only employment, — such a house ought rather to 
 be termed a practical school of the Christian religion." 
 
 For four years Sir Thomas More retained the seals, and 
 
 also the favor of his royal master. He proved an upright 
 
 and incorruptible judge. The number of suits depending 
 
 in the Court of Chancery when he came into office, was not 
 
 only great, but many had been of twenty years' standing. So 
 
 untiring was the new chancellor in the discharge of 
 
 his duties, that ere he had held the office two years, 
 
 he was answered, when after deciding one cause, he summoned 
 
 another, that " there was not one suit more depending." 
 
 Sir Thomas More would not unite in the persecution to 
 
190 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 which Queen Katherine was subjected whilst Henry was 
 endeavoring to procure the divorce. Nor would he favor 
 the separation from the Church of Rome, towards which the 
 acts of the king now tended. He knew, therefore, that ruin 
 would probably be the result of a longer continuance at court. 
 Pleading advancing years, he gave up the chancellorship, and 
 retired, a poorer but a happier man, to his beloved home at 
 Chelsea. But, alas! there was not that spot in 
 Lngland, however graced by innocence, learning, or 
 piety, which might prove a shelter from the despotic will of 
 Henry VIII. At the close of the year 1532 the king was 
 privately married to Anna Boleyn, and in June of the follow- 
 ing year she was publicly crowned queen. Cranmer, now 
 archbishop of Canterbury, convened an ecclesiastical court, in 
 which Henry's marriage with Katherine of Arragon was 
 declared null and void. This gentle, yet high-spirited woman, 
 who never for a moment had yielded her claim as the lawful 
 wife of Henry, was banished from court, and died at Kimbol- 
 ton, in 1536, three years after the king's marriage with Anna 
 Boleyn. On her death-bed Katherine earnestly desired to 
 see her daughter, the Princess Mary, but her request was 
 refused. 
 
 On the 30th of March, in the year 1534, the parliament 
 of England gave the death-blow to papal power in their 
 country, by acknowledging the king as the head of the 
 English Church. It was now required of English subjects 
 to take the oath of supremacy. This was refused by those 
 Catholics who believed in the Pope alone as the supreme 
 head of the Christian church in all lands. Their lives paid 
 the penalty of their refusal. Many a zealous monk and 
 priest suffered in this cause ; but the fame of two illustrious 
 victims obscures that of all the others. Sir Thomas More 
 was a zealous Roman Catholic. He refused the oath of 
 supremacy. The upright chancellor, the learned scholar, the 
 steady friend, and the pious Christian, were alike forgotten 
 by the absolute monarch, who only saw in him now the man 
 who opposed his will. 
 
HENRY YIII. 101 
 
 Sir Thomas More, together with his aged friend, Bishop 
 Fisher, was thrown into the Tower. The latter was, like 
 More, an early friend and companion of the king. He was 
 also one of the most learned men in Europe. While he lay 
 a prisoner in the Tower, the Pope, out of his great respect to 
 the virtue and wisdom of the aged prelate, suffering in the 
 cause of the church, sent him a cardinal's hat. " Ha !" 
 exclaimed the cruel king, " Paul may send him the hat ; I 
 will take care that he have never a head to wear it on." The 
 bishop was beheaded on the 22d June, 1535. 
 
 A few days afterwards, Sir Thomas More was brought to 
 trial. In Westminster Hall, where he once presided in honor, 
 he now appeared clad in a coarse woollen robe, pale and 
 emaciated from the rigors of his year's imprisonment, to be 
 tried by judges, who to do the king a pleasure, were resolved 
 on his conviction. More pleaded that he had never sought 
 " to deprive the king of his new title of supreme head of the 
 church : all that he had done was to be silent thereon, and 
 that silence was not treason." But the corrupt judges pro- 
 nounced that silence was treason, afid under this wicked sen- 
 tence the jury returned a verdict of guilty. His conduct, both 
 at his trial and on the scaffold, was the perfection of Christian 
 meekness and charity. He suffered on the 6th July, only 
 fourteen days after the execution of his friend Fisher. 
 
 All Europe was roused to indignation, by the news that 
 these two accomplished scholars had laid their heads upon 
 the executioner's block. When told of the chancellor's 
 death, the Emperor Charles V. exclaimed : " I should rather 
 have lost the best city in my dominions than so worthy a 
 counsellor " When the tidings of the execution were brought 
 to King Henry, he was playing at chess with Anne Boleyn 
 Rising hastily^ he looked with a stern countenance at the 
 queen, saying : '' Thou art the cause of the death of this 
 man !" and left the room, for a moment conscience-smitten 
 by this deed of guilt. 
 
 It would seem impossible that the king should show 
 displeasure towards the wife for whom he had sacrificed the 
 
192 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 happiness of his noble queen, Wolsey, the friend of twenty 
 years, and some of the best blood in the kingdom. But what 
 trust can be placed in the constancy of a heart swayed by 
 passion ? 
 
 The harsh words uttered on the occasion of Sir Thomas 
 M ore's death, were but the prelude to a more fatal burst of 
 the royal displeasure. The capricious monarch had bestowed 
 his aiFections upon the Lady Jane Seymour, a maid of honor 
 to his new queen, and Anna Boleyn was now to suffer by the 
 same arts which she had used to supplant her own royal 
 mistress. A few months after the unhappy Katherine of 
 Arragon had breathed her last, amid the solitude and deser- 
 tion of Kimbolton, Queen Anna Boleyn was arrested 
 
 1536« ^ ^ ^ 
 
 on the accusation of being unfaithful to the king. 
 She was tried, and though the charges brought against her 
 were not proved, she was declared guilty, and received sen- 
 tence of death. 
 
 Under an oak-tree in Greenwich Park, the monarch impa- 
 tiently awaited the execution. AVhen the booming of the 
 Tower gun told him that the axe of the executioner had 
 ftillen on the neck of his beautiful and unhappy queen, 
 Henry exclaimed : '' The business is done : uncouple the 
 dogs and let us follow the sport V And thus, attended by 
 all the excitement of the chase, he went to Wolf Hall, in 
 Wiltshire, and the next day brought thence, as his bride, the 
 new queen, Jane Seymour. Anna Boleyn left one child, the 
 Princess Elizabeth. 
 
 Henry, by declaring himself " Head of the Church," had 
 put an end to the papal power in England, which was of itself 
 a great step towards the Reformation. The motives of the 
 king in this work were too selfish and sordid, however, for 
 the establishment of a pure and Protestant Church in his 
 dominions. Romanist and Protestant suffered alike in his 
 reign. At the same stake perished one who denied the 
 doctrine of transubstantiation, and another who denied the 
 king's supremacy. To obtain the wealth contained therein, 
 
HENRY VIII. 193 
 
 hundreds of abbeys, monasteries, and religious houses were 
 put down, and monks and nuns turned adrift upon the world. 
 
 These houses were not alone the '-cages of unclean birds,'* 
 as their destroyers called them. They had been also the 
 refuge for the persecuted, and had served as hospitals for the 
 poor. They had been, in many a wild district, "inns for the 
 wayfaring man, who heard from afar the sound of the vesper- 
 bell, inviting at once to repose and devotion." They had 
 given employment to hundreds, who had tilled the abbey or 
 glebe lands, or tended the large flocks and herds belonging to 
 the monasteries. They were also the repositories of learning 
 and the fine arts, containing many a valued library, beautiful 
 painting, statuary, and sculpture. When Henry, in 
 one year, suppressed three hundred and seventy-six 
 monasteries, an insurrection followed, which was especially 
 violent in the north of England. 
 
 The Duke of Norfolk was sent against the insurgents, but 
 *' not until the pleasant banks of the Tweed, the Tyne, the 
 Tees, the Don, and the Trent, were loathsome with the 
 number of ghastly heads and reeking members, was a pardon 
 proclaimed." The king then accused many of the richer 
 priories and abbeys of having aided this rebellion, and they 
 too fell a prey to his rapacity. The most magnificent shrines 
 in the kingdom were despoiled. Even the tomb of Thomas k 
 Becket, so long the favorite saint of England, and the famous 
 shrine of Our Lady at Walsingham, to which Henry, when a 
 child, had once made a pilgrimage barefoot, and presented 
 a costly necklace, were now robbed of their rich, time-honored 
 treasures. 
 
 Cranmer, who had been made archbishop of Canterbury, 
 did all that he could, under such an uncertain and despotic 
 master, to further the real work of the Reformation. He 
 caused an English translation of the Bible to be placed in 
 every parish church, and the priests were commanded to 
 expound the Scriptures to the people in plain English. 
 Cranmer had married the niece of Osiander, a Protestant 
 17 N 
 
194 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 pastor of Nurembiirg. He was obliged to conceal this mar- 
 riage, as his royal master still held to the doctrine of the 
 cehbacy of the clergy ; and at one time he was compelled to 
 s§nd his wife and children back to Germany. 
 
 In the year 1537, a few days after the birth of her son, 
 Prince Edward, the queen, Jane Seymour, died. The king 
 now made proposals of marriage to various foreign princesses. 
 One of these, the Duchess of Milan, is said to have replied to 
 the addresses of the royal Blue-Beard, that " if she had two 
 heads, one would have been at the service of his majesty of 
 England." His minister, Cromwell, Earl of Essex, being a 
 promoter of the cause of the Reformation, was anxious to 
 have Henry marry a Protestant princess of Germany. He 
 procured a likeness of x\nne. Duchess of Cleves, painted by 
 Hans Holbein, a very celebrated Dutch painter, and presented 
 it to the king. Henry was much pleased with the picture, 
 and consented to the marriage ; but when he saw the 
 original, he was so much displeased, that he did not 
 rest until he had procured a divorce. Anne of Cleves, who 
 seems to have been a good and prudent woman, was no doubt 
 glad to resign her queenship without the loss of her head. 
 Cromwell, the unfortunate adviser of this match, perished on 
 the scaffold, having been trieS on a charge of treason and 
 heresy. 
 
 Henry VIII. now married Katherine Howard, a 
 grand-niece of the victor of Flodden Field. This 
 marriage proved an unhappy one. In less than two years the 
 queen was tried on charges similar to those brought against 
 Anna Boleyn. She was condemned to die, and meekly 
 suffered the sentence. 
 
 Ever since the battle of Flodden Field, there had been no 
 real peace between England and Scotland. In the year 
 1541, Henry, fearing that his nephew, James V., was making 
 foreign alliances which would strengthen him against England, 
 proposed an interview at York. The English king went at 
 the time appointed, but James, being detained by his courtiers, 
 was not there. This insult so irritated Henry, that he forth- 
 
HENRY vrir. 195 
 
 with declared war against Scotland. In 1542, the battle of 
 Solway Moss was fought, in which the Scots were severely 
 defeated, and tlieir king died of a broken heart a few days 
 after. About a week previous to his death occurred the birth 
 of his daughter, — the unfortunate Mary, Queen of Scots. 
 Henry VIII. proposed peace to the Scots, on condition that 
 this infant princess should be betrothed to his son, the young 
 Edward. This union would have brought peace to the two 
 countries by uniting them under one rule. Henry, however, 
 showed so evidently that during the minority of the princess 
 he meant to hold the power in his own hands, that the Scots 
 were averse to the treaty, and the war still went on. 
 
 Henry's sixth and last wife was Lady Katherine Parr, the 
 widow of Lord Latimer. She was an English woman and a 
 Protestant, and to the three children of Henry — Mary, Eliza- 
 beth, and Edward — she proved a good and judicious mother. 
 'J his queen narrowly escaped being arrested on charge of 
 heresy. Having read some of the books of the reformers, 
 which were prohibited, she one evening disputed with the 
 king on a point of religious belief. Henry, greatly exaspe- 
 rated, gave the order for her arrest, but she, seeing her 
 danger, expressed to him, the next evening, her sense of the 
 blessing she possessed in having so learned a prince for her 
 husband and instructor. " Not so," said the king, " I know 
 you, Kate, you are become a doctor;" whereupon she replied 
 that he had mistaken her motive in arguing with him — it was 
 merely to amuse him, and induce him to forget his bodily 
 sufferings. "Ah! is it so, sweetheart ! then we are friends 
 again!" replied Henry; and when the chancellor came to 
 arrest the queen, he was driven from the presence with abu- 
 sive epithets. 
 
 In 1544, Henry engaged in a war against France. He 
 condu-cted his troops in person, and laid siege to the town of 
 Boulogne. Immense sums were lavished in this brief and 
 mismanaged war. In less than two years, Henry was obliged 
 to make peace, and agree to the surrender of Boulogne, on 
 
196 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the payment of certain sums of money promised by the 
 French king. 
 
 Henry's hatred against every scion of the house of Planta- 
 genet was implacable. In the early part of his reign he had 
 put to death Edward Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, a de- 
 scendant of Edward III. Later, the Countess of Salisbury, a 
 daughter of the Duke of Clarence, and niece of Edward IV., 
 had fallen a sacrifice to his cruel jealousy. Accused of cor- 
 responding with her son, a Romish cardinal, she was thrown 
 into prison at the age of seventy, and afterwards beheaded. 
 She was imprisoned during the reign of Queen Kathe- 
 rine Howard, and one of the few traces which remain 
 of the character of that unfortunate lady, is an order which 
 she gave for furred mantles and warm clothing for this aged 
 countess, the last of the Plantagenets, who lay, during the 
 winter's cold, a prisoner in the dungeons of the Tower. The 
 closing year of Henry's reign was marked by the 
 attainder of the noble family of the Howards, in the 
 persons of the Duke of Norfolk and his brave and accom- 
 plished son the Earl of Surrey. 
 
 Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, was accused of treason, for 
 having borne the arms of Edward the Confessor quartered^ on 
 his shield with his own. On this frivolous charge he was 
 condemned to the block. A few days after the execution of 
 the lamented Surrey, the order went forth from the king for 
 that of his aged father, the Duke of Norfolk, but ere 
 
 1547. . ^ ' . ' 
 
 the morning of the day of the execution came, 
 Henry VIII. had gone to his account. He died the 28th 
 January, 1547. 
 
 Questions. — On whom was the great seal bestowed after it was 
 taken from Wolsey ? — Describe the home attractions which Sir Tho- 
 mas More was loth to relinquish — What can you say of his cha- 
 racter as chancellor? — What conduct of the king did Sir Thomas 
 More oppose ? — What course did he therefore adopt ? — Whom did 
 the king marry in 1532 ? — What became of the divorced queen? 
 
 When and by what act was the power of the Pope in England 
 overthrown ? — What was now required of English subjects ? — Who 
 
EDWARD VI. 197 
 
 refused this ? — Describe the treatment of Sir Thomas More in conse- 
 quence of this refusal. — What impression was made thi'oughout Eu- 
 rope by this treatment? — Relate the emotion of the king upon this 
 occasion. — Describe the downfall of Anna Boleyn. 
 
 What important step towards the Reformation was accomplished 
 by Henry ? — Describe Henry's inconsistent conduct with regard to 
 religion. — What good purposes had the religious houses served? — 
 What was Henry's treatment of these institutions ? — Describe Cran- 
 mer's labors in the cause of the Reformation. — What events occurred 
 in the royal household in 1537? — Who was Henry VIII. 's fifth wife? 
 — Relate the brief history of this marriage. 
 
 Give some account of the relations between England and Scotland 
 at this time. — Mention the results of the battle of Solway Moss. — 
 On what terms did Henry offer peace to Scotland? — What dispo- 
 sition on the part of Henry prevented the Scots accepting the 
 treaty? — Whom did Henry marry for his sixth and last wife? — 
 What danger did she narrowly escape? — Relate the circumstance. — 
 In what war did Henry engage towards the close of his reign? — 
 When was peace made ? — Mention the several victims of Henry's 
 jealousy and their fate. — What family fell under the king's displea- 
 sure during the later years of his reign? — What charge was brought 
 against the Earl of Surrey ? — What was his sentence ? 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 EDWARD Vr. 
 
 THE PROTECTOR — INTRIGUES — REFORMATION — SOMERSETS DOWNFALL — 
 NORTHUMBERLAND'S SCHEMES. 
 
 It was not alone the tyranny of Henry VIII. which had 
 
 led to the downfall of the Howards. The Seymours, 
 
 who had risen into importance after their sister's 
 
 marriage with the king, were jealous of this ancient and 
 
 noble house. The Howards were Roman Catholics, the 
 
 Seymours favored the Reformation. The latter feared lest 
 
 their influence with the young prince, their nephew, should 
 
 be overrulod, and their measures thwarted, when he became 
 
 17* 
 
198 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 king, by the Duke of Norfolk and Earl Surrey. They, there- 
 fore, had inflamed the mind of King Henry against them. 
 But we shall see that *' in the net which they spread for 
 others, their own feet were taken." 
 
 Prince Edward being only ten years old at the time of his 
 father's death, a council of regency was appointed. At its 
 first meeting, Seymour, Earl of Hertford, was created Duke 
 of Somerset, made Protector of the kingdom, and immediately 
 took the management of the realm into his own hands. 
 
 One of the dying injunctions of Henry VIII. to the council 
 was, that they should endeavor, by all means, to bring about 
 a marriage between Edward VI. and the young queen of 
 Scots. This Somerset tried to effect; but a large party in 
 Scotland, headed by the Roman Catholic Earl of Arran, and 
 the queen mother, Mary of Guise, violently opposed the 
 union. The Duke of Somerset marched a large army into 
 Scotland, hoping to compel the opposing party, who were 
 aided by the king of France, to compliance. He gained a 
 decided victory near Edinburgh, but, influenced by personal 
 interests, returned to England without following up his advan- 
 tages. Several years later, the Scots, who declared " they 
 liked not \he manner of the English wooing," sent their 
 young queen to France, where she became the wife of 
 Francis It. afterwards king of that country, 
 
 Thomas Seymour, who had been created lord high admiral, 
 was an ambitious man, and soon became jealous of the power 
 and honors which his brother, the Protector, had obtained. 
 He took advantage of Somerset's absence in Scotland to sup- 
 plant his influence with the young king. This Seymour could 
 the more readily accomplish, having married Katherine Parr, 
 the widow of the late monarch. After the death of this lady, 
 Seymour was suspected of aspiring to the hand of the Prin- 
 cess Elizabeth. This led to an open quarrel between the two 
 brothers. The admiral was arrested, tried on a charge of high 
 treason, and beheaded. 
 
 The Reformation of the church of England was fairly 
 established during this reign, by the united efforts of the 
 
EDWARD VI. 199 
 
 king, the protector, and the archbishop of Canterbury. A 
 liturgy was compiled by the latter; the sacrifice of the mass 
 gave place to the communion service; and every parish 
 church was ordered to provide itself with a copy of the 
 English Bible. The best preachers of the reformed doctrines 
 were sent throughout the kingdom to instruct the people, and 
 a set of injunctions was drawn up containing the proper 
 doctrines to be preached and received, and whoever refused 
 them was threatened with punishment. 
 
 The breaking up of the religious houses, and the turning 
 of land into enclosures for pasturage, had thrown upon Eng- 
 land a large class of poor, who could obtain no work. They 
 charged these evils to the abolishing of the old religion. 
 Large bodies of men rose in rebellion, demanding the restora- 
 tion of Romanism and the breaking down of enclosures. 
 Scarcely a county in England was free from these insurrec- 
 tions, but they continued longest and with greatest 
 violence in Norfolk. At length the Duke of War- 
 wick, with an army of six thousand men, marched into that 
 county, and, after a bloody victory, succeeded in quelling the 
 disturbances. 
 
 The execution of his brother had not rendered Somerset's 
 position more secure. He was exceedingly vain, and the 
 honors and titles which he heaped upon himself, together 
 with his inefficiency in the management of the government, 
 procured him enemies. He built a very splendid and costly 
 mansion named from himself, Somerset House, and was 
 accused of spending upon his own luxuries those sums which 
 should have been appropriated for the expenses of- the king- 
 dom. His enemies were headed by Robert Dudley, Earl of 
 Warwick, who, since his victory over the rebels, had gained 
 great influence with the nation, and now aspired to supreme 
 authority. 
 
 Somerset was accused of treasons and misdemeanors, de- 
 prived of the protectorship, and thrown into the Tower. 
 Warwick was then made Earl of Northumberland, and exer- 
 cised entire control over the mind of the king. Somerset 
 
200 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 was afterwards restored to his place in the council ; 
 
 1550. ^ , ' 
 
 but, being suspected of attempting to regain his 
 former position, he was tried for treason, and beheaded in 
 January, 1552. 
 
 The religion of his half-sister^ Mary, was a source of great 
 anxiety to the young king. She was a zealous Koman 
 Catholic, and insisted upon having the mass performed by 
 her chaplains. Every effort was made to induce her to 
 change her faith, but without avail, and nothing but the fear 
 of a war with the German emperor, who protected Mary in 
 her religion, prevented the English parliament from forcing 
 her to abandon even the most private observance of the rites 
 of the church of Rome. 
 
 The health of Edward was now fast declinine;. 
 
 1553. . ° 
 
 Guilford Dudley, a son of the Earl of Northumber- 
 land, had married the Lady Jane Grey. She was a Protest- 
 ant, and, through her mother, a descendant of Henry VII. 
 Using his influence with the king, Northumberland urged 
 Edward to deprive his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, of 
 
 their inheritance, and to name his Protestant cousin, 
 
 1553. ' . ' 
 
 the Lady Jane Grey, his lawful successor to the 
 throne. Edward wa,s willing to exclude Mary, for, she being 
 a Roman Catholic, he feared the effect of her elevation upon 
 the reformed religion ; but he was reluctant to deprive Eliza- 
 beth of the succession. At length, a few days before his 
 death, the king was induced to sign a paper, bequeathing his 
 crown to the Lady Jane Grey ; — a will which secured nothing 
 to the guilty planners of it but disgrace and ruin, and brought 
 an innocent and beautiful young victim to the block^ 
 
 Questions. — What family had risen to power during Henry VIII.'s 
 reign? — Who was made Protector of the kingdom? — What injunc- 
 tion had Henry left to his council? — What party in Scotland opposed 
 this union? — Describe Somerset's efforts to force the Scots into com- 
 pliance. — What jealousy displayed itself in the family of the Pro- 
 tector? — By what means did Seymour endeavor to supplant his 
 brother? — What was the result? 
 
 Describe the progress made during this reign in the Protestant 
 
QUEEN MARY. 201 
 
 Reformation. — To what did the poor ascribe the evils which they 
 suffered ? — What measures did tlicy take to procure redress ? — With 
 what result ? 
 
 What conduct on the part of the Protector raised up enemies ? — 
 What was the aim of Warwick ? — What was the result of these plot- 
 tings against Somerset ? — Relate Somerset's subsequent history. — 
 Describe Mary's conduct with regard to her religion. — Relate North- 
 umberland's schemes for securing the crown to his own family. — 
 How far was Edward willing to lend himself to these designs? — 
 What was his final action in the matter? 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 QUEEN MARY. 
 
 LADY JANE GREY — CHARACTER OP THE QUEEN — RESTORATION OF ROMAN- 
 ISM — THE queen's marriage AND ITS CONSEQUENCES — PROTESTANT 
 MARTYRS — LOSS OP CALAIS. 
 
 On the death of the young king, the situation of the two 
 princesses, Mary and Elizabeth, was perilous in the 
 extreme. The Earl of Northumberland, a few days 
 previous to the death of their brother, had summoned them 
 both to court. Mary, aware of the ambitious earl's designs, 
 made no haste in her journey, and learning the king's death, 
 on her route towards London, turned aside and went to one 
 of her castles on the coast of Suffolk. Elizabeth, warned by 
 her friend. Sir William Cecil, did not obey.the summons. 
 
 Among the people of England, whether Protestant or 
 Roman Catholic, a strong feeling of hereditary right prevailed. 
 Therefore, although a large portion of the nation rather feared 
 Mary's accession, on account of her religion, their sense of 
 right overcame their fears, and notwithstanding all the plot- 
 tings of the ambitious Northumberland, he was unable to 
 Secure the crown to his daughter-in-law. 
 
 Lady Jane Grey had no desire to leave the charms of her 
 happy domestic life, for the perils of a throne, but her gentle 
 
202 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 pleadings had no effect upon her aspiring t'ather-in-law. For 
 ten joyless days, a few of the people called her queen ; then, 
 Mary's right prevailed, and the Lady Jane, with her young 
 husband, exchanged a throne for the dismal dungeons of the 
 Tower. The Duke of Northumberland was beheaded, and his 
 body interred by the side of his own victim, the Duke of 
 Somerset. " Before the high altar, in St. Peter's Chapel, in 
 the Tower, lay two headless dukes between two headless 
 queens : the Dukes of Northumberland and Somerset between 
 Queens Anna Boleyn and Katherine Howard." 
 
 The Princess Mary was thirty-seven years of age when she 
 came to fhe throne. Those thirty-seven years had been a 
 period of gloom and terror to the unhappy daughter of Kathe- 
 rine of Arragon. The wrongs which the mother had suffered 
 the daughter never forgot. Mary was devoted to the Roman 
 Catholic faith, and reigned only to restore her kingdom to the 
 communion of what she considered the true church. The 
 life of fear and persecution which she had led, had weakened 
 her constitution and soured her temper. We shall not be 
 surprised then to find her reign fruitful of those persecutions 
 which have led Protestants to name it the reign of the Bloody 
 Queen Mary. The Roman Catholic religion was at once 
 restored. All the property of religious houses which had 
 been retained by the crown, was given back to the church 
 by this bigoted but conscientious queen. She would fain 
 have compelled her nobles to the same sacrifices, but was 
 advised that it would be impossible. Parliament was opened 
 by the celebration of high mass, one bishop alone (Taylor of 
 Lincoln) refusing to kneel at the elevation of the host? The 
 Book of Common Prayer was declared to be an abomination. 
 The famous pulpit at Paul's Cross was filled by Romish 
 preachers, whilst numbers of Protestant clergymen were sent 
 to prison. 
 
 Archbishop Cranmer, who had so greatly aided Henry in 
 procuring the divorce from her mother, was one of Mary's 
 first objects of displeasure. He was sent a prisoner to the 
 Tower. In the year 1554, a marriage was arranged between 
 
QUEEN MARY. 203 
 
 the queen and King Philip of Spain. This match was very 
 agreeable to Mary, from Philip's known devotion to the 
 church of Rome. For that very reason, however, it was 
 hateful to the English people. Sir Thomas Wyatt, a noble- 
 man who had travelled in Spain, and knew the harsh bigotry 
 of the Spanish king, headed a rebellion in Kent. Other 
 pafts »f England rose in arms, and the friends of the poor 
 captive in the Tower, Lady Jane Grey, took part in these 
 disturbances. Mary was induced to believe that the life of 
 Lady Jane was injurious to her own safety, and so this young, 
 beautiful, and accomplished woman laid her head 
 
 1554. ' . ^ 
 
 upon the block, an innocent victim to the crimes of 
 Others. Her husband was beheaded a few hours before her 
 own death. Wyatt's rebellion was put down, himself with 
 many others suffering on the scaffold. 
 
 Philip came to England and married Mary. He remained 
 in the country but a short time; his departure being regretted 
 by his wife only, whose affection, however, he returned with 
 coldness and dislike. Mary was extremely anxious that her 
 kingdom should be restored to the communion of Rome. It 
 was therefore with great joy that she received Cardinal Pole, 
 the Pope's legate, who pronounced full absolution upon the 
 parliament and realm of England, and received them again 
 into the bosom of the Roman church. This restoration to 
 the old religion was celebrated by the persecution of the 
 Protestants. The first for whom the fires of Smithfield were 
 lighted was John Rogers, one of the clergy of St. Paul's. 
 Among the most prominent who suffered at this time were 
 Hugh Latimer, bishop of Worcester, and Thomas Ridley, 
 bishop of London. They were both burned on the same day, 
 at Oxford, opposite Baliol College. Ridley reached the spot 
 first. Latimer, being an old man, came more slowly. Ridley 
 ran to meet him, and embracing him, said : " Be of good 
 cheer, brother, for God will either assuage the fury of the 
 flame, or strengthen us to bear it." The noble old man 
 returned these words of godly cheer, when, as they were 
 chaining him to the stake, he exclaimed to his brother 
 
204 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 martyr, at whose feet the faggots were ah-eady kindled : "Be 
 of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man ; we shall 
 this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I 
 trust shall never be put out." Never were words more pro- 
 phetic. Another Protestant martyr of these days was Dr. 
 Rowland Taylor, the rector of Hadleigh in Sussex. He was 
 the ancestor of the learned and pious author of " Holy LivJVig 
 and Dying." 
 
 Archbishop Cranmer was left in prison a few months longer. 
 His had ever been a timid character. During the reign 
 of Henry VIIT. the archbishop's lack of moral courage had 
 manifested itself on several occasions, when he yielded both 
 opinion and principle to the will of that monarch. But 
 Henry's wrath, being equivalent to a death-warrant, might 
 have intimidated a bolder spirit than Cranmer's. Now, aged 
 and harassed, as he lay in his prison at Oxford, delusive 
 hopes of life and pardon were held out to induce him to 
 recant, and thus bring disgrace upon himself and the whole 
 Protestant cause. For a time the natural timidity of Cran- 
 mer's nature prevailed, and he signed a recantation. His 
 enemies having now gained their point, as they fondly be- 
 lieved, prepared for him the martyr's stake. Nobly amid the 
 flames did Archbishop Cranmer redeem that last moment of 
 weakness. Holding out the hand which had signed the 
 paper: "This hand has offended,'^ he exclaimed, and watched 
 it as it slowly shrivelled in the consuming flames. His last 
 words were, " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit." In Mary's 
 reign, two hundred and eighty-eight persons suffered 
 
 1596« 
 
 at the stake. 
 During all this time the Protestant Princess Elizabeth, by 
 the utmost prudence, narrowly escaped the perils to which 
 her position exposed her. At Queen Mary's coronation she 
 bore the crown. Whispering to the Count de Noailles, the 
 French ambassador, that it was heavy, he replied : " Be 
 patient, it will seem lighter when it is on your own head." 
 Once she had been led through the Traitor's Gate into the 
 Tower, but she was again set free, and towards the close of 
 
QUEEN MARY. 205 
 
 Mary's reign, she resided at the manor house of Hatfield, in 
 comparative security, and in friendship with her Koman 
 Catholia sister. To obtain this, however, she was obhged 
 to have mass celebrated in her own house, to embroider 
 garments for madonnas and saints, and when at court, to take 
 part in the religious processions.^ 
 
 In 1557, King Philip came over to England. His visit 
 rejoiced his wife, but with very little reason, for his motive in 
 coming was purely selfish. It was to persuade the English 
 parliament to declare war against France. Both the parlia- 
 ment and council were opposed to such a war. They would 
 never have yielded to Philip, but that, fortunately for him, 
 the kino; of France at this juncture aided some 
 
 1557. . ^ , '' , . 
 
 traitorous attempts to overthrow the government or 
 England. This fact enabled Mary to gratify her husband, by 
 procuring the consent of parliament to the sending over of a 
 body of horse and foot in aid of the Spanish king. The war 
 proved sadly disastrous to England. One town alone re- 
 mained to her of all the dear-bought conquests on the soil of 
 France. It was Calais. Most jealously had this possession 
 been watched until the reign of Mary. But now its defences 
 were weakened, and there was no navy to protect it. The 
 Puke of Gruise surprised the fortress in midwinter, 
 and the last stronghold of English power on the 
 continent fell into his hands. 
 
 So greatly^ was this loss felt by the English queen, that 
 shortly before her death, when two of her attendants asked if 
 her great dejection arose from King Philip's leaving her, she 
 replied : " Not that only, but when I am dead and opened, 
 you shall find Calais lying in my heart.'' Queen Mary's 
 death occurred a few months after the loss which she had so 
 greatly deplored. She died in November, 1558. 
 
 Questions. — Whose situation became perilous at the king's death? 
 
 — How did they evade the 'danger of appearing at court? — What 
 
 prevented the success of Northumberland's designs? — Relate the 
 
 conduct and fate of Lady Jane Grey. — How was Northumberland 
 
 18 
 
206 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 punished ?— What was Marys age at her accession ? — Mention the 
 circumstances of her previous life and character. — What changes 
 now took place in the religion of the realm? — How did Qranmer 
 suflFer, and on what account ? 
 
 Describe the effect of Mary's marriage contract upon the nation. — 
 In what way did Wyatt's rebellion bring about the death of Lady 
 Jane Grey?— What was Mary's chief anxiety with regard to her 
 kingdom? — Who was the Pope's legate, and how was he received? — 
 Who was the first victim in the persecutions of the Protestants ?— 
 Describe the martyrdom of Latimer and Ridley.— Describe the cha- 
 racter and consequent conduct of Cranmer. — Relate the noble evi- 
 dence of repentance given by him at the stake. — How many perished 
 at the stake during this reign ? 
 
 Describe the situation of the Princess Elizabeth during Mary's 
 reign. — Mention the object and result of Philip's visit to England in 
 1557. — Describe the loss suffered by England in this war. — What 
 anecdote is given to show how deeply Mary felt the loss of this 
 town ? — When did Mary die ? 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 QUEEN ELIZABETH. — THE FIRST TWENTY-NINE YEARS OF 
 HER REIGN. 
 
 HER ACCESSION — POPITLARITY — THE PROTESTANT RELIGION RESTORED — 
 MARY OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 It is said that when one warned Anna Boleyn of the danger 
 she incurred in wedding Henry VIII., she replied : " I care 
 not what becomes of me ; my children shall be royal." Truly 
 her words were prophetic, for never did a sovereign rule with 
 a more royal sway than Elizabeth of England, the only child 
 of the unhappy Anna Boleyn. 
 
 When, on the 17th November, the accession of the 
 
 1558. ' . 
 
 Princess Elizabeth was made known, not a smgic 
 voice challenged her title, but both houses rang with shouts 
 of *' G-od save Queen Elizabeth, and loug and happy may she 
 reign." On the 14th January, she was received in London 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH. 207 
 
 by the lord mayor and citizens with great magnificence. One 
 of the pageants prepared for the occasion, represented 
 Time leading forth her daughter Truth, the latter 
 presenting to the queen an English Bible. In another stood 
 a figure representing Elizabeth, with these words written over 
 her head : " Deborah, the Judge and llestorer over the house 
 of Israel." These were probably the first pageants of a Pro- 
 testant character displayed in England. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth delighted the people by her gracious 
 smiles and words, and by the kind reception of their ofi*erings. 
 The day after her coronation, a courtier presented a petition 
 to her majesty for the release " now in this good time of four 
 or five principal prisoners j these were the four Evangelists 
 and the Apostle St. Paul, who had been long shut up in an 
 unknown tongue, as it were in prison, so as they could not 
 converse with the common people.'^ This petition, together 
 with the pageants, prove that, notwithstanding the perse- 
 cutions of the late reign, there was a strong feeling of Pro- 
 testantism in England. Elizabeth proceeded very cautiously, 
 and by degrees, to restore the Reformed religion. 
 
 When the " Act of Supremacy and Uniformity" was passed, 
 obliging all English subjects to acknowledge the queen as 
 the supreme head of the church, and forbidding any mode 
 of religious worship save that prescribed by the church of 
 England, many Roman Catholics were subject to fines or im- 
 prisonments. Large numbers became exiles in foreign coun- 
 tries, where, in after years, they aided plots and conspiracies, 
 to the no small peril of the English queen. 
 
 Scarcely was Elizabeth seated on the throne, when Philip 
 of Spain sent ambassadors to her with ofi'ers of marriage. 
 The queen declined his suit, taking occasion, at the same 
 time, to announce to parliament her intention to live and die 
 a virgin-queen. Subsequently, the kings of Denmark and 
 Sweden, the duke of Wirtemberg, the arch-duke of Austria, 
 and other suitors, tried to shake her purpose and obtain her 
 hand, but she remained firm to her determination. 
 
 Elizabeth surrounded herself with wise counsellors. Her 
 
to 
 158T. 
 
 208 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 friend, Sir William Cecil, who had so ably advised and pro- 
 tected her in the perilous times of Mary's reign, was made 
 secretary of state. The government was firmly and wisely 
 administered. By economy the large debts of the crown were 
 paid off. Supplies of arms were purchased from abroad 5 the 
 art of making fire-arms in England was greatly improved; 
 and the navy was so much increased that Elizabeth won for 
 herself the title of Queen of the Northern Seas. 
 1559 -^^^^ ^^^^y ^* Mary Queen of Scots, whose misfor- 
 tunes will ever tempt posterity to doubt or to forget 
 the crimes which never have been proved against her, 
 occupies a large portion of the reign of Elizabeth. 
 
 Mary Stuart was the great-grandchild of Henry VII., her 
 grandmother Margaret, the eldest daughter of that monarch, 
 having married James IV., king of Scotland. By that por- 
 tion of the English people who deemed Henry Vlll.'s mar- 
 riage with Anna Boleyn illegal, and by all the foreign Roman 
 Catholics, as well as by many of that faith in England, Mary 
 Stuart was considered the lawful heir to the English throne. 
 Her mother, Mary of Guise, was a Frenchwoman, and Mary 
 herself had been educated at the French court. She grew 
 up beautiful and accomplished, but under influences that 
 would not tend to make her pure or high-principled. 
 
 Early taught her claims to the crown of England, she had, 
 even when a child, quartered the English arms with her own. 
 She married Francis the dauphin of France, and when, in 
 1559, he became king, the youthful sovereigns styled them- 
 selves king and queen of Scotland and England as well as 
 France. This gave great provocation to Elizabeth, who, how- 
 ever, before it occurred, had been secretly plotting with those 
 in Scotland who opposed their young queen, for the kingdom 
 was rent by two religious parties — the Roman Catholics, who 
 were supported by France, and the Protestants, headed by 
 several powerful nobles, but chiefly controlled by John Knox, 
 the famous Scotch reformer. 
 
 In the year 1560, Francis II. died, and Mary returned to 
 her native kingdom. Surely never had an hereditary queen 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH. 209 
 
 departed from a foreign land to take possession of her native 
 realm, with so heavy a heart as that with which the young 
 and beautiful Mary Stuart parted from the shores of France. 
 *' Farewell, dear France — I shall never see thee more I" she 
 sadly exclaimed, as with tearful eyes she gazed from 
 her vessel upon the fast^receding shore. The nobles 
 of Scotland had made but few preparations to do honor to 
 their young queen ; and when she saw the miserable ponies, 
 with bare wooden saddles, and wretched trappings, which were 
 to convey her and her court to the gloomy palace of Holy- 
 rood, the young royal widow drew a painful contrast between 
 her present position and her past magnificence at the gay and 
 elegant court of France. One thing alone cheered her droop- 
 ing spirits^ — the enthusiasm with which the common people 
 welcomed this beautiful descendant of their ancient kings 
 She showed her appreciation of their affection, by enduring 
 a serenade from two or three hundred violinists, who played 
 all night beneath her windows. 
 
 Mary's religion was a subject of opposition from the first 
 moment of her landing. The very pageants, meagre as they 
 were, which were arranged professedly to do honor to the new 
 queen, were such as insulted the faith in which she had been 
 trained. The destruction of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, 
 who, as idolaters, were made to stand for the whole Romish 
 priesthood, was one of these exhibitions. John Knox, the 
 uncompromising reformer, who declared that " to import one 
 mass into the kingdom of Scotland, would be more fatal than 
 to bring over a foreign army of ten thousand men/^ was par- 
 ticularly harsh towards his young queen. 
 
 His arguments against her religion, not one of which was 
 she in the least prepared to understand, were urged in so stern 
 a manner by this man " who never feared the face of clay," 
 that they only disposed her to cling the more tenaciously to 
 the faith in which she had been educated. 
 
 The Scots were anxious for the marriyge of their queen ; 
 and as all the eligible matches with princes on the continent 
 were objected to on account of their being Roman Catholics, 
 18* O 
 
210 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Mary consulted Elizabeth of England on the subject. The 
 English queen proposed those whom she knew Mary would 
 not accept ; and then, when the queen of Scots, seeing 
 that her sister of England was trifling with her, chose 
 for herself, and married her cousin, Henry, Lord Darnley, 
 Elizabeth affected the greatest displeasure! The Protestant 
 party opposed to the Scottish queen were aided by the money 
 and countenance of England. This party inspired the weak 
 mind of Darnley with the desire of taking the government 
 into his own hands, and made him jealous of his queen. 
 Mary had among her servants an Italian musician named 
 David Rizzio, whom she employed as her secretary. Against 
 this man Darnley and his abettors conceived a violent hatred ; 
 and, one evening, whilst Mary was supping at Holyrood 
 Palace, in the presence of several members of her court, 
 Darnley, Lord Ruthven, and others, entered and murdered 
 the unhappy Rizzio before her eyes. 
 
 On the 19th June, 1566, was born Mary's first and only 
 child, a son named James, afterwards James I. of England. 
 
 On the night preceding the 10th of February of the follow- 
 ing year, Darnley, who was recovering from an attack of small- 
 pox, was lodging at a house in the suburbs of Edinburgh, 
 called the Kirk-a-Field. It was selected by the queen's phy- 
 sician, who deemed it dangerous to have his patient quartered 
 within the crowded precincts of the palace. The queen, ac- 
 companied by a party of her nobles, passed the evening at 
 her husband's lodfj^in^s. A few hours after their de- 
 
 1567« 
 
 parture, the town was shaken by a violent explosion 
 of gunpowder. The Kirk-a-Field had been blown up, and 
 in the garden was found the body of Darnley, lifeless, but 
 with no marks of violence upon it. The Earl of Bothwell, an 
 enemy of Darnley, and one who had gained the favor of the 
 queen, was at once accused of the murder ; nor was it long 
 before Mary herself was implicated in this charge of guilt. 
 
 Two months after this event, as Queen Mary was returning 
 from Stirling Castle, she was waylaid by the Earl of Both- 
 well, with a thousand armed retainers, and carried a prisoner 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH. 211 
 
 to the Castle of Dunbar. For five days she remained a cap- 
 tive, during which time the Earl Bothweil persuaded her to 
 promise to marry him. This marriage was celebrated a month 
 later, with little or no opposition on the part of the nobles. 
 The queen afterwards justly complained that, when a captive 
 in Dunbar Castle, "not a sword was drawn for her relief; but 
 after their marriage, a thousand swords flew from their scab- 
 bards to drive Bothweil from the country and herself from 
 the throne.^' These words contain, indeed, the history of 
 subsequent events. Bothweil fled to Norway, and, after eight 
 years' captivity, died a maniac in the Danish castle of Malmoe. 
 The queen, after a vain attempt to oppose her enemies, fell 
 into their hands. 
 
 On an islet in Loch-Leven, at the base of the Lomond 
 Hills, stands the ruins of a castle. In the sixteenth century 
 it was strong and well fortified, and within its high and 
 gloomy walls the queen of Scots entered upon those long 
 years of weary captivity which made hfe bitter to her. Whilst 
 a prisoner, Mary was forced to sign a paper, resigning her 
 claim to the throne in favor of her infant son, James, and 
 yielding the government of her kingdom into the hands of 
 the Earl Murray, as regent. Beyond the confines of her 
 wave-guarded prison, Mary had a few warm and bold friends, 
 and she resolved to escape. Changing garments with her 
 laundress, with a bundle of clothes in her arms, she passed 
 the gates of the castle and stepped into a boat. As they 
 were crossing the lake, one of the rowers insisted upon seeing 
 her face, which was concealed by a hood. In raising 
 her hands to prevent this, their delicacy betrayed 
 that she was no laundress. Despite her entreaties she was 
 rowed back to the castle ; all that she could obtain being a 
 promise from the watermen that they would not betray to 
 the governor her attempt to escape. This first ill success did 
 not dishearten Mary. 
 
 She had a friend in the '^ Little Douglas," a relative of Sir 
 William Douglas, the lord of Loch-Leven. The boy stole 
 the keys of the castle, opened the gates, and, when the queen 
 
212 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 had passed out, threw the keys into the deep waters of the 
 loch. Then, placing the queen in a skij0f, he rowed her to 
 the shore, where, mounted on a fleet horse, provided by a 
 party of friends, she escaped to Hamilton. In the course of 
 a few days she had collected an army of four or five thousand 
 men, with which she encountered her enemies at Langside. 
 In the battle which followed she was entirely defeated, and 
 fled from the disastrous field, scarcely stopping until she had 
 reached Dundrennan Abbey, nearly sixty miles from the fatal 
 spot. The next step was the most unfortunate one which she 
 could have taken — to enter England and throw herself upon 
 the protection of Queen Elizabeth, . 
 
 Mary begged for an interview with her sister-queen. This 
 was denied until her character should be cleared of the charges 
 brought against her. Meanwhile the royal captive was trans- 
 ferred from Carlisle Castle to Bolton Hall, a more secure and 
 gloomy prison in Yorkshire. A commission appointed by 
 Elizabeth and the Regent Murray, proceeded to examine the 
 charges brought against the Queen of Scots. Nothing crimi- 
 nal was proved, but Elizabeth feared too much Mary's title to 
 the English throne, to be willing to release her. Whilst 
 keeping the queen of Scotland a prisoner, and accusing her 
 of designs upon the English crown, Elizabeth herself openly 
 befriended the Regent Murray and Mary's enemies. The 
 friends of the latter in France, and King Philip of Spain, as 
 well as some parties in England, concerted plots for her resto- 
 jggg ration to the throne of Scotland. In every conspiracy 
 to Mary was accused of joining. Removed from prison- 
 house to prison-house, her twenty years of captive life 
 were truly sorrowful and hopeless. At length, in the year 
 1586, a formidable plot was discovered, to murder Elizabeth, 
 and deliver the Queen of Scots. 
 
 This sealed the fate of Mary. Accused of being a party to 
 these designs, and of encouraging an invasion of England by 
 the king of Spain, she was tried at Fotheringay Castle, her 
 last prison-house, by a commission no more impartial than the 
 former one had been. She was condemned to die. Aftr'- 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH. 213 
 
 great hesitation, Elizabeth signed the death -warrant. Mary 
 received the news with a serenity ahnost amuiMiting to cheer- 
 fulness. She passed the night previous to her execution in 
 reading, writing, consoling her women, and "in prayer. At 
 eight o'clock on the morning of the 8th February, 1587, she 
 passed from her oratory to the scaffold. She was attired in a 
 dress of black satin. A lawn veil reached from her head- 
 dress to her feet. In her hand she bore an ivory crucifix. 
 
 Years of captivity and sorrow had destroyed the beauty of 
 Mary Stuart, but her air of grace and majesty were still left, 
 and moved the hearts of those who saw her pass to the place 
 of execution. Her old and tried servant, Sir Robert Melville, 
 fell at her feet in an agony of tears. She said to him : " Good 
 Melville, cease to lament, but rather rejoice, for thou shalt 
 now see a final period to Mary Stuart's troubles. The world, 
 my servant, is all but vanity, and subject to more sorrow than 
 an ocean of tears can wash away.'' When upon the scaffold, 
 she prayed for the church, her son, and the English queen ; 
 then kissing the crucifix which she held in her hand, she 
 cried: "As thy arms, Jesu, were stretched upon the cross, 
 so receive me, O Grod, into the arms of mercy." The Earl 
 of Kent, shocked by her embracing the crucifix, said to her : 
 " Madam, you had better put such Popish trumpery out of 
 your hand, and carry Christ in your heart." Mary meekly 
 replied: " I can hardly bear this emblem in my hand, without, 
 at the same time, bearing him in my heart." Calmly she 
 laid her head upon the block, and uttering the words " Into 
 thy hands, Lord, I commend my spirit/' she yielded her 
 life. 
 
 Questions,— Of which of the wives of Henry VIII. was Elizabeth 
 the daughter? — What did the mother say when warned against 
 marrying Henry VIII. ?— How was the announcement of Elizabeth's 
 accession received ? — What curious petition was presented to the 
 queen the day following her coronation ? — What was required of 
 English subjects by the act of supremacy? — What was the effect of 
 this act upon Roman Catholics ? — By whom was the queen sought in 
 marriage ? — What announcement did she make on this occasion ? — 
 
214 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Who was her secrjetary of state?— Mention the instances of good 
 government afforded in this reign. 
 
 State Mary Stuart's claim to the English throne. — By whom was 
 she regarded as. the only lawful sovereign of the realm? — Where 
 had Mary been educated ?— Whom did she marry ? — What awakened 
 Elizabeth's hostility towards Mary ?— Describe the religious parties 
 which at this time divided Scotland.— Give some account of Mary 
 Stuart's reception in Scotland.— How did the reformer Knox treat 
 Mary ?— What difficulties existed with regard to Mary's forming a 
 matrimonial alliance ?— Whom did she marry ?— Relate the story of 
 Rizzio. — Describe the death of Darnley. — What was the conduct of 
 Bothwell towards the queen? — Describe the effect of the queen's 
 marriage with Bothwell.— Describe her prison-house. 
 
 What claim was Mary compelled to resign ? — In whose hands was 
 the government placed ? — Relate Mary's first attempt at escape, 
 with the result. — Describe the second adventure, and its issue. — 
 What was the result of her encounter with her enemies? — What fatal 
 step did Mary now take ? — Relate the conduct of the English queen 
 towards her unhappy rival. — Who plotted for Mary's restoration? — 
 What was her history during the next twenty years ? — What accusa- 
 tions were brought against the Queen of Scots? — What was the result 
 of her trial? — Describe the last scenes of Mary's life. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXYL 
 
 QUEEN ELIZABETH — THE LAST SIXTEEN YEARS OP HER 
 REIGN. 
 
 THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA — LEICESTER — ESSEX AND HIS ENEMIES. 
 
 Mary's son, James, was king in Scotland when his mother 
 was put to death. He pretended great sorrow and 
 indignation on receiving the news, but Elizabeth 
 found means to pacify him. The fear of losing the succession 
 to the English crown, of which he was now the direct heir, 
 kept him quiet. Not thus was concihated another monarch, 
 Philip of Spain, who had less personal grounds than James 
 for revenging the death of Queen Mary. He had, however, 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH. ^ 215 
 
 his own reasons for enmity to the English (]^ueen. Elizabeth 
 had aided, at first, seeretly, but afterwardiS openly, Philip's 
 Protestant subjects in the Netherlands, who had revolted 
 from him. 
 
 Nearly two years before the execution of Mary, Elizabeth 
 had sent her court favorite, the Earl of Leicester, into Hol- 
 land. Leicester was not capable of doing much for the cause 
 which he had undertaken, and his expedition is only memo- 
 rable for the death of the accomplished Sir Philip Sidney, 
 one of the brightest ornaments of the court of the English 
 queen. He perished in an attack on the town of Zutphen. 
 Whilst lying wounded upon the field of battle, a soldier 
 brought to him some water in a helmet. As the dying 
 nobleman put the cooling draught to his lips to quench his 
 intolerable thirst, his eye caught the longing look of a 
 wounded soldier who lay near him. " Friend, thy necessity 
 is greater than mine !" exclaimed the noble Sidney, and 
 passed the cooling beverage to his dying comrade's lips ! At 
 the siege of Zutphen, another young and gallant favorite of 
 the queen distinguished himself This was Robert Devereux, 
 Earl of Essex, then a youth of nineteen, full of military 
 ardor, frank and accomplished. 
 
 Philip, provoked by the part which Elizabeth had taken in 
 the afiairs of the Netherlands, retaliated by engaging in many 
 of the plots made to release Mary of Scotland and overturn 
 the throne of the English queen. On the death of Mary, he 
 threw oS" all disguise, openly declared war against Elizabeth, 
 and made formidable preparations for the invasion of England. 
 Besides a large army, he equipped a fleet of one hundred 
 and thirty vessels, proudly styled the "Invincible Armada." 
 The death of the admiral, and storms, detained the vessels in 
 the Tagus, and it was not until nearly a year after war had 
 been proclaimed, that the mighty armament left the shores 
 of Spain. 
 
 Meanwhile Elizabeth had not been idle. Her kingdom 
 resounded with preparations to repel the formidable invasion. 
 The English queen, who certainly had "■ the genius to be 
 
216 , HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 loved/' as well as feared, by her subjects, never awakened 
 greater enthusiasm among them than on this occasion. She 
 15 88. ^PP^^^"®^ before her troops on horseback in the camp 
 at Tilbury, and with cheerful voice and animated 
 countenance, told them that, if need were, she herself would 
 lead them against their enemies. " I know," she added, ^' 1 
 have but the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have 
 the heart of a king, and of a king of England too; and think 
 foul scorn that Parma, or Spain, or any prince in Europe, 
 should dare to invade the borders of my realm." The royal 
 navy at this critical time was increased by the voluntary con- 
 tributions of nobles and people, who at their own cost fitted 
 and manned merchant vessels, which were commanded by the 
 most noted and skiK'ul seamen of the age — such famous navi- 
 gators as Howard of Effingham, Sir Francis Drake, Hawkins, 
 and Frobisher. 
 
 On the 20th July, 1588, the " Invincible Armada," in the 
 form of a crescent, stretching seven miles from horn to horn, 
 bore proudly up the Channel. The lighter English ships 
 poured in their fire, and escaped from the heavy Spanish 
 vessels before the latter could return it. The English avoided 
 coming too near the enemy's ships, and their skilful tacking 
 and playing amid the Spanish fleet, sailing away before their 
 fire could be returned, resembled, says one who saw it, " a 
 morris-dance upon the waters." Many ships were taken,, 
 many others sunk, but the Armada still remained formidable 
 until the night of the 27th July, when fire-ships were floated 
 into its midst by the English. These caused great destruc- 
 tion, and, in a few days, the Spanish fleet became so disabled, 
 that the commanders were obliged to abandon the enterprise. 
 Many of the vessels, in trying to pass round the coast of Scot- 
 land, perished in a dreadful storm off the Orkney Islands. 
 When at last sixty shattered vessels, the sole renjnant of the 
 "Invincible Armada," returned to Spain, the mariners tolct. 
 fearful tales of the valor of English seamen and the terrors 
 of English seas. 
 
 In the year 1580, the Duke of Anjou, brother to the king 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH. 217 
 
 of France, suddenly appeared in England, hoping to obtain 
 the hand of Elizabeth. For a time it was supposed that 
 the English queen would yield to his suit. But, after some 
 wavering, the young and agreeable French duke 'was dis- 
 missed, and the queen again declared to her parliament her 
 intention to live unmarried. At a much earlier period in 
 her reign, so great, was the favor shown by EHzabeth towards 
 the Earl of Leicester, that fears were awakened that she 
 would condescend to bestow her hand upon the haughty 
 favorite. Eobert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, was son of the 
 Earl of Northumberland, whose wicked and ambitious machi- 
 oations had brought Lady Jane Grey to the block. His 
 grandfather was the unscrupulous lawyer who, together with 
 Empson, had committed such wrongs and robberies in Henry 
 VII. 's reign. 
 
 The Earl of Leicester, though young, handsome, and agree- 
 able, showed a want of principle worthy of such ancestry. 
 In the year 1560 he entertained Elizabeth at his castle of 
 Kenilworth, with great magnificence, and when her evident 
 partiality had inspired him with the hope that he might one 
 day share the crown, he is said to have caused the death of 
 his lovely and attached wife, Amy Robsart, that there might 
 be no impediment to the royal marriage. But whatever may 
 have been Elizabeth's personal feelings towards Leicester, she 
 was too politic a sovereign to contract a marriage so distasteful 
 to her people. After a time Leicester's popularity declined, 
 and he was succeeded in the queen's favor by a very different 
 man — the frank and impetuous Earl of Essex. 
 
 In the early part of this reign, when a mere youth, Essex 
 had distinguished himself, both by sea and land, in the wars 
 with Spain, and the queen had delighted in the high spirit 
 and noble bearing of the young earl. But he was too open- 
 tempered to be a courtier, and, as years wore on, he declined 
 in favor, and made himself powerful enemies at court. The 
 chief of these were Lord Burleigh and Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 In the year 1598, an insurrection having broken out in Ire- 
 land, the queen sent Essex thither to put it down. 
 19 
 
218 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The miseries of this unhappy country had been greatly 
 increased since the Relormation, by the differences in religion 
 between the two nations. Whilst the English embraced Pro- 
 testantistn, the Irish, who in the first instance had with so 
 much difficulty been brought to acknowledge the papal su- 
 premacy, now adhered to the Romish faith. When Henry 
 VIII. sent his agents into Ireland to suppress the monasteries 
 and religious houses, and to seize for the crown the property 
 of the Irish church, the descendants of the ancient royal 
 families, the O'Connors and O'Neils, rose in rebellion. Hor- 
 rible atrocities, by no means confined to the wild Irishry, as 
 the English termed them, were perpetrated, and bitter enmi- 
 ties implanted, which centuries have not availed entirely to 
 eradicate. 
 
 The leader of the present rebellion was a native 
 
 X599 
 
 chief, whom Elizabeth had created Earl of Tyrone. 
 He was brave and active, and under him the Irish achieved 
 greater successes than they had ever done before. Their 
 wild method of warfare amid marshes and woods harassed the 
 English troops. One commander is said to have died of sheer 
 grief and vexation. Another was defeated in a pitched battle, 
 losing his own life as well as the lives of fifteen hundred of his 
 soldiers, with all his artillery and ammunition. 
 
 The sending of Essex to quell such a formidable outbreak 
 was a scheme contrived by his enemies to effect his ruin. 
 The imprudent earl, failing where abler governors had been 
 unable to succeed, drew upon himself the displeasure of 
 Elizabeth, which was further argmented by the misrepresent- 
 ations of his enemies. 
 
 She sent a sharp letter of reproof to the hard-tried Essex, 
 who, irritated and distressed, without waiting the permission 
 of his royal mistress, suddenly left Ireland. Hastening to 
 the English court, he rushed into the queen's presence, one 
 morning before she had left her dressing-room, and, falling 
 at her feet, craved her pardon. Elizabeth" received him 
 graciously, but after his departure, she was induced to view 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH, 219 
 
 his conduct with displeasure, and ordered him to remain a 
 prisoner at Essex Place. The Earl of Mountjoy was sent to 
 Ireland, and by his ability and prudence was enabled in some 
 measure to quiet the disturbances there. 
 
 About a year after the return of Essex from Ireland, he, 
 being released from custody, but not permitted to appear at 
 court, applied to the queen for a renewal of a patent which he 
 had held for some years, but which had now expired. Eliza- 
 beth refused, with expressions extremely irritating to the earl. 
 Believing that he had for ever lost the favor of the queen, and 
 that she was surrounded by his enemies, and trusting to his 
 great popularity, this infatuated nobleman entertained the 
 wild scheme of overthrowing the government of Elizabeth. 
 He rushed into the streets of London with about 
 
 1601. 
 
 three hundred followers, hoping that the populace 
 would join him. But the throne of the queen was based on 
 the esteem and affections of her people, and no rebellion 
 ensued. 
 
 Essex was seized and thrown into the Tower. At the end 
 of a few days he was arraigned for high treason before a 
 court, many of the members of which were his personal ene- 
 mies. Pronounced guilty, this brave and accomplished noble- 
 man, at the early age of thirty-three, died upon the scaffold. 
 
 EHzabeth did not long survive the execution of her favorite, 
 and many thought that his death hastened her own. Whether 
 caused by sorrow for the death of Essex or not, the last year 
 of Elizabeth's life was a melancholy one. For ten days pre- 
 vious to her death she lay upon the floor, supported 
 by cushions, and gave way to her feelings of distress 
 by sighs and groans. She would take neither food nor medi- 
 cine. Her ministers asked whom she would have to succeed 
 her. She replied : '' I tell you my seat has been the seat of 
 kings; ... I will have a king to succeed me, and who should 
 that be but my cousin of Scotland?" When too much ex- 
 hausted to resist, she was laid upon a bed. She listened 
 attentively and with interest to the prayers and sermons of the 
 
220 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 divines who attended her, almost to the hour of her death, 
 which occurred on the 24th March, 1603. 
 
 Questions.— Describe the conduct of the king of Scotland on the 
 occasion of his mother's death. — What monarch did resent Mary's 
 death?— How had Elizabeth roused the enmity of the king of Spain? 
 — Whom had Elizabeth sent to aid the Dutch Protestants? — For what 
 is this expedition memorable ?— Describe the death of Sir Philip 
 Sidney.— Describe Philip's preparations for the invasion of England. 
 — Give the account of Elizabeth's conduct and preparations on this 
 occasion. — By what means was the English navy increased ? — Name 
 some of the commanders. — Describe the approach of the Spanish 
 Armada. — Give an account of the naval battle which ensued. — State 
 the result of this engagement. — How was the Armada destroyed? — 
 How many vessels returned to Spain? 
 
 What suitor appeared at the English court in 1580? — What was 
 the result of his suit ? — How did Elizabeth regard the Earl of Lei- 
 cester ? — What is said of Leicester's entertainments to the queen ? — 
 Did he remain a favorite? — By whom was he succeeded in the 
 queen's regard ? 
 
 Describe the character of Essex. — For what purpose was Essex 
 sent to Ireland? — What was his conduct there? — In what way did 
 the queen evince her displeasure at his course ? — Describe the con- 
 duct of Essex on this occasion. — How did Elizabeth receive him ? — 
 Relate her subsequent treatment of the favorite. 
 
 W'hat effect is Essex's death supposed to have produced upon Eliza- 
 beth? — Describe her condition during the last days of life. — Who did 
 she name as her successor to the throne? — When did Elizabeth die? 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVir. 
 
 CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 THE REFORMATION — ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH — DIS- 
 SENTERS. 
 
 At the opening of this century England was a Roman 
 Catholic country, and the power of the Pope and the clergy 
 were yet in the ascendant. Even during the first nineteen 
 
ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 221 
 
 years of Henry VIII. 's reign, he was a devoted servant of the 
 pajoal church. At his accession the Pope sent him a conse- 
 crated golden rose, dipped in holy oil, perfumed with musk, 
 and accompanied by the apostolic benediction. When Luther 
 commenced the Reformation, Henry wrote a book against it. 
 A copy of this work, splendidly bound, was presented to the 
 Pope, who received it most graciously, saying, " it was sprin- 
 kled with the dew of divine grace," and bestowing on the 
 royal author the honorable title of " Defender of the Faith." 
 Little did the Pope imagine that from this highly-favored son 
 of holy church, would come that death-blow to papal power 
 in England, which was given in the year 1534, when Henry 
 YIII. declared himself the " Head of the Church" in his domi- 
 nions. This act was followed by causing first the lesser, and 
 then the richer religious houses to be abolished, and their 
 wealth confiscated to the crown. Some of these beautiful 
 buildings were turned into schools or colleges, and a portion 
 of their property was devoted to the founding of new dioceses, 
 and for purposes of instruction and improvement. The 
 greater part, however, was bestowed by the king on unworthy 
 favorites, or in support of his own magnificence. * 
 
 Although Henry VIIL had thrown off the supremacy of 
 the Pope, he still retained many of the doctrines and cere- 
 monies, as well as the persecuting spirit of the papal church. 
 As in former reigns, those who denied the doctrine of tran- 
 substantiation, the worship of images, or the celibacy of 
 the clergy, were burned at the stake. From his marriage 
 with Anna Boleyn to the death of Jane Seymour, Henry was 
 more inclined to support the Reformation than in the later 
 years of his life. Archbishop Cranmer took advantage of 
 this favorable disposition to urge an English translation of 
 the Bible for the people. The entire Bible had been trans- 
 lated and printed in English by one Miles Coverdale; and 
 as soon as Cranmer had received the king's permission, he 
 ordered a copy of this Bible to be placed in every parish 
 church. 
 
 Cranmer then employed the most learned scholars he could 
 19* 
 
222 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 find, to make a new translation of the Word of God. This 
 was finished in x\pril of the year 15o9. It was printed partly 
 at Paris and partly in London. The new Bible was a large 
 folio, adorned with a wood-cut, the design of the celebrated 
 painter, Hans Holbein. The engraving represents the dis- 
 tributing of the Scriptures to the people, and is beautifully 
 executed. When Cranmer received the first copies of the 
 holy book, he declared they gave him more joy than if he 
 had received ten thousand pounds. " Cranmer's," or " The 
 Great Bible," is the name usually given to this translation. 
 
 Copies of this first authorized English Bible were chained 
 either to a desk at the church-porch, or in the choir of the 
 churches, that the poor, who could not obtain them in private 
 might go there and read them. Six were chained to pillars, 
 in various parts of St. Paul's Cathedral. So great was the 
 enthusiasm when they were first introduced, that crowds 
 flocked to the churches. Any one who had a loud clear 
 voice would gather a group around him, listening with eager 
 interest to the Word of God, whilst the priest at the altar 
 could get few to attend to the sacrifice of the mass, or other 
 parts of the Romish ritual. This state of things aroused the 
 opposition of the clergy, and when Henry was less favorable 
 to the Reformation, the people were forbidden to read the 
 Bible. The prohibition, however, had but little efi"ect on any 
 who could get possession of the Word of God. 
 
 The services of the church were altogether in Latin, until 
 the year 1544, when, as the king was about to undertake wars 
 in France, and prayers were to be ofi'ered up in the churches 
 for his safety, Cranmer urged that the people w^ould pray with 
 more fervor, if the prayers were said in a language which they 
 understood. The king then ordered that they should be in 
 English, which gave great joy to the Reformers. 
 
 Church -going, in those days, was far from being " the 
 assembling of themselves together" for the reverent worship 
 of Almighty God. Sunday was the day for revelry of all 
 kinds. The service was hurried over, that more time might 
 be had for the games and plays which were to follow. It is 
 
ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 223 
 
 almost impossible to credit the follies which were enacted 
 during the most sacred of the church festivals. An old writer 
 relates that at Christmas the Lord of Misrule would gather 
 nearly a hundred companions as riotous as himself. They 
 would dress in the gayest garments, " and, as though they 
 were not gaudy enough, bedeck themselves with scarfs, rib- 
 bons, and laces, hanged all over with gold rings, precious 
 stones, and other jewels; this done, they tie about either leg 
 twenty or forty bells, with rich handkerchiefs in their hands, 
 and sometimes laid across over their shoulders and necks." . . . 
 Then, accompanied by hobby-horses, pipers, and drummers, 
 this ungodly crew would enter the church, in the midst of 
 divine service, with jingling of bells, beating of drums, and 
 shouting like very madmen. 
 
 In the reign of Edward VI. the Reformation made more 
 substantial progress, and the foundation of a Protestant church 
 was completed. The Latin Mass-Book gave place to the Eng- 
 lish Book of Common Prayer. The communion was adminis- 
 tered in both kinds to the laity ; the worship of images 
 and pilgrimages to shrines was forbidden or discouraged; 
 and finally, in 1552, the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion (at 
 first forty-two) were established. On All Saints' Day of that 
 same year, the Book of Common Prayer was first used at St. 
 Paul's and throughout the churches of London. Ridley, the 
 bishop of London, performed the service in the morning at 
 the cathedral, and in the afternoon preached at Paul's Cross, 
 explaining the new service book, in the presence of a large 
 congregation, including the lord mayor and aldermen. The 
 bishop's sermon was continued until torch-light. 
 
 When Mary succeeded her brother, the end and aim of her 
 government, almost of her existence, was to restore Romanism. 
 The result, however, of this cruel and persecuting reign was 
 to render England more decidedly Protestant than it had ever 
 been before. 
 
 When Elizabeth came to the throne, the great mass of the 
 people had abandoned the old religion. This queen, herself, 
 held many of the views belonging to the church of Rome. She 
 
224 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 had a great aversion to manied priests, and to the day of her 
 death she kept a cruciiix in her chamber. Slie was not a reli- 
 gious persecutor, but she checked the spirit of Protestant reform, 
 and maintained the church as Cranmer had left it. A large 
 class of English subjects, during the persecutions of Queen 
 Mary's reign, had fled to the continent. There they adopted 
 the opinions of Calvin and Zwingle, who carried the Protestant 
 Reformation to a far greater length than the English reformers 
 had done. When these exiles returned to their native land, 
 on the accession of Elizabeth, they objected to the conservative 
 policy of the established church, and refused to observe many 
 of the forms of worship retained in its ritual. In 1559 a law, 
 called "The Act of Uniformity,'' was passed, obliging all 
 English subjects to celebrate divine worship according to the 
 forms prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer. The Puri- 
 tans (as they were named in derision) refused to obey this 
 law, and in the year 1566 separated from the established 
 church. They were called non-conformists and dissenters, 
 and, as we shall see, the acts against them, and the persecu- 
 tions they endured, increased in severity for the next hundred 
 years. 
 
 Questions. — What was the condition of England as regards reli- 
 gion, at the opening of the sixteenth century ? — Describe the favor 
 with which Henry was regarded by the Pope during the first years 
 of his reign. — When and by what act was the papacy overthrown in 
 England. — By what was this act followed ? — What did some of the 
 religious houses become ? — Describe the appropriation of their reve- 
 nues. — Describe Henry's conduct with regard to religion. — During 
 what period of his reign did the Reformation make the most decided 
 progress ? 
 
 How did Cranmer improve this time ? — Describe Cranmer's Bible. 
 — When was it published ? — What was done with these new Bibles ? 
 — Describe the scene witnessed in the churches where the Bibles 
 were to be read. — To what prohibition did tliis give rise? — Relate 
 the incident which led to the translation of the church-service. — 
 How did church-going in those days differ from that of the present 
 time? — Describe the profanation of the Lord's day. — What folly was 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 225 
 
 enacted at Christmas time? — Repeat the description given of thia 
 revel. 
 
 Describe the progress of the Reformation during the reign of Ed- 
 ward VI. — When was the Booli of Common Prayer first introduced? 
 
 Relate the circumstances. — What was the eifect of Mary's acces- 
 
 gion? What was the condition of the nation at Elizabeth's acces- 
 sion ? Wliat doctrine arfd practice of Romanists did she observe ?— 
 
 What spirit did she check ?— How was this policy regarded by some 
 of her subjects ? — Who were these ?— What law was passed in 1559 ? 
 
 To what did it compel English subjects? — What was the final eflfect 
 
 of the Act of Conformity upon the Puritans ? — What were they then 
 called ? — How were they treated ? 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 CONDITION OF ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 LEARNINa — PAIXTING — ARCHITECTURE — COMMERCE — MANUFACTURES. 
 
 Many distinguished scholars flourished in England during 
 the sixteenth century. The great Cardinal Wolsey was a 
 liberal patron of learning and the fine arts. He commenced 
 at Oxford a college which, in beauty of architecture and rich- 
 ness of endowment, would have surpassed any other institution 
 then existing. It was to have been name^ Cardinal College. 
 Immense sums were expended upon the buildings, libraries, 
 pictures, statues, furniture, &c. He had formed, too, the 
 design of procuring copies of all the manuscripts of the library 
 of the Vatican, wherewith to enrich his noble foundation. 
 But^ before his plans were completed, the great cardinal 
 was disgraced, and all his wealth was forfeited to the king. 
 Christ Church College, Oxford, is all that remains of Wolsey's 
 magnificent design. He had founded a school at Ipswich, 
 and seven lectures at Oxford, to be read by the most learned 
 men who could be procured. 
 
 Of the twenty colleges now existing at Oxford, six were 
 P 
 
226 HI8TORY Of England. 
 
 founded during this period; and of the seventeen at Cam- 
 bridge, no less than eight owe their origin to the piety or 
 hberal patronage of learning which prevailed at this time. 
 Later in the century, Trinity College, Dublin, was founded 
 by Queen Elizabeth. Christ Church, Westminster, and the 
 Merchant Tailors' Schools, were also tstabhshed. The first 
 was founded in 1553, by King Edward VI.; the second by 
 Queen Elizabeth, in 1560; and the last by the Merchant 
 Tailors' Company, in 1568. 
 
 At St. Paul's School, which was founded in Londoif during 
 the first year of Henry VIII. 's reign, the famous grammarian, 
 William Lilly, taught G-reek publicly. There had been great 
 jealousy of " the new learning," as the ignorant churchmen 
 of that day called the study of this ancient language. When 
 Erasmus published his Greek Testament, the clergy declared 
 that it was a book of his own invention, and accused him of 
 intending to set up a new religion. Lilly published a gram- 
 mar, which was soon in use in all the schools in England. 
 It contained a preface written by Cardinal Wolsey. 
 
 The upright chancellor, Sir Thomas More, wrote a veiy 
 famous book, called " Utopia." He was a great promoter of 
 learning, and inspired his children with his own love of 
 knowledge. His daughters, especially the eldest, the amiable 
 and affectionate Margaret Roper, were among the most accom- 
 plished women of the age ; — an age, too, which was fruitful in 
 learned women. Queens Mary and Elizabeth were not only 
 fine Latin scholars, but the latter, we have the testimony of 
 her schoolmaster, Roger Ascjiam, was a proficient in Greek, 
 and both sisters were conversant with French, Spanish, and 
 Italian. The Latin epistle which the Lady Jane Grey wrote 
 her sister, the night before her execution, is celebrated for 
 the beauty of its style. 
 
 The three daughters of Sir Anthony Cooke vied with the 
 household of Sir Thomas More in their varied learning. The 
 eldest of these ladies married P]lizabeth's famous statesman. 
 Lord Burleigh ; the second became the wife of Sir Nicholas 
 Bacon, and was the mother of the very celebrated philosopher 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 227 
 
 of that name ; and the third, who became Lady Kilhgrew, 
 surpassed her sisters by adding Hebrew to her knowledge 
 of Greek and Latin. These learned ladies are spoken of not 
 only as proficients in music, but also as well skilled in needle- 
 work, and " none of them/' says an old writer, " but when 
 they be at home, can help to supply the ordinary want of the 
 kitchen with a number of delicate dishes of their own de- 
 vising.'' 
 
 Although we have these illustrious instances of learning, 
 we must not be deceived thereby into believing that the 
 whole nation was proportion ably well educated. The schools 
 for the lower orders had been kept in the convents and 
 religious houses. When these were broken up, the mass of 
 the people were left without instruction. By the dissolution 
 of the monasteries, complains the speaker of the House of 
 Commons to Elizabeth, more than one hundred flourishing 
 schools have been destroyed. This loss was partially provided 
 for by the establishment of grammar schools, but they only 
 supplied the wants of the larger towns. In many country 
 jglaces, the ignorance of the population was lamentable. The 
 father of the immortal Shakspeare, although alderman in the 
 little town of Stratford-on-Avon, is supposed not to have 
 known how to write his own name ; and where one man could 
 pretend to such an accomplishment, there were ten or twelve 
 who could only ''make their mark." 
 
 The fine arts received great patronage during this century. 
 The celebrated Dutch painter, Holbein, came into England in 
 the year 1526, bringing letters of introduction from Erasmus 
 to Sir Thomas More, and was introduced by the latter to his 
 royal master. Henry VIII. assigned the Dutch painter a 
 studio at Whitehall, and paid him liberally for his pictures. 
 Even after he had deceived the king by a flattering likeness 
 of Anne of Cleves, Holbein was fortunate enough to retain 
 the favor of the monarch. On one occasion this painter 
 behaved with great rudeness towards a courtier of high rank. 
 When the nobleman complained to the royal ear, Henry took" 
 the part of the painter, and forbade his courtier to seek 
 
228 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 revenge, saying : " Remember, that of seven peasants I can 
 make as many lords, but I cannot make one Holbein." 
 
 The architecture of palaces and dwelling-houses, generally 
 known as the Tudor style, was far more elegant and commo- 
 dious than anything which had preceded it. King Henry 
 YII.'s palace at Sheen, which he named Richmond; Wolse/s 
 palace at Hampton Court ; and a beautiful royal retreat called 
 <' Nonsuch," in Surrey, were fine specimens of this style of 
 architecture. As the Italian fashion of having the principal 
 apartments on the upper floor was adopted during this century, 
 great attention was now paid to the halls and to the stair-cases, 
 which latter were made of oak, broad, and ornamented with 
 carvings. Chimneys were sparingly introduced. The chim- 
 ney-pieces occupied the whole height of the room, and upon 
 them was often represented, in curious and rich carving, an 
 entire story or history. 
 
 Many of the manor houses which were built in fite time of 
 Queen Ehzabeth, are supposed from their style, having two 
 projecting wings, and a porch in the middle, to have been 
 thus built to represent the letter E, out of compliment to the 
 queen. 
 
 Commerce flourished in this century. It was the age of 
 nautical adventure. Bartholomew Columbus presented him- 
 self at the court of Henry VII., to plead for the discovery of 
 a New World. His brother, the illustrious Christopher 
 Columbus, was invited to England : but his long suit at the 
 Spanish court at last ended in success, and before Bartholo- 
 mew returned with the invitation, Columbus had discovered 
 America for the king of Spain. Thus, by Divine Providence, 
 were the English preserved " from losing their industry and 
 commercial spirit in the mines of Mexico and Peru." 
 
 Frequent voyages were made to the coasts of Brazil and 
 Guinea, and a great desire was manifested to discover a 
 passage through the northern seas to China. One expedition 
 for this purpose was sent out under Sir Hugh Willoughby, 
 but he and his crew were frozen to death in a harbor in 
 Lapland. One of the ships made her way to Archangel, 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE JSiXTEENTH CENTURY. 229 
 
 whence the captain, E-ichard Chancellor, travelled on sledges 
 to Moscow, had an interview with the Czar, and laid the 
 foundation of a profitable trade with Russia. Cod-fishing on 
 the banks of Newfoundland began in the year 1536. Later 
 in the century, English ships frequented the northern seas in 
 search of whales. 
 
 The reign of Queen Elizabeth was a glorious period for the 
 commerce and maritime prosperity of England. Sir Francis 
 Drake sailed round the world. He was gone nearly three 
 years. On his return, the queen visited him on board his 
 vessel, and conferred on the fortunate commander the honor 
 of knighthood. The ship in which he made his famous 
 voyage was preserved at Deptford for many years, and, when 
 destroyed, a chair was constructed of one of the planks, and 
 presented to the University of Oxford. Frobisher's and 
 Davis's Straits are witnesses to the present day of the disco- 
 veries of England's bold seamen. The naval and commercial 
 fame of Sir John Hawkins is stained by his engaging in the 
 African slave trade. In the year 1562, he sailed to the coast 
 of Guinea, filled his ships with negroes, and carried them to 
 the Spanish colony of Ilispaniola, where they were sold into 
 slavery. He returned to England with a fine cargo of 
 "hides, sugar, ginger, and many pearls." 
 
 As early as the year 1556, steps had been taken to trade 
 with India by land. English ships visited the islands of 
 Ceylon and Sumatra in 1591, but it was not until the last day 
 of the last year of the century, that the East India Company 
 was founded. On that day a little party of London merchants 
 met at the house of one Groddard, a worthy citizen and 
 alderman, and subscribed a capital of thirty thousand pounds 
 for a ship to trade to the " Far Indies." Little dreamed they 
 that then and there was laid the foundation of the mighty 
 empire of British India, with its annual revenue of twenty-six 
 millions of pounds, and its population of one hundred and 
 twenty millions of souls. 
 
 The discoveries in America were not undervalued by the 
 far-sighted Elizabeth. Aided by her patronage, the gallant 
 20 
 
230 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, and other distinguished navigators, ex- 
 plored the Atlantic coast of the new continent, and took 
 possession of it for England. The queen named the country 
 Virginia, in honor of herself, and made many attempts to 
 colonize these new possessions. They were unsuccessful, and 
 Elizabeth died before the first permanent settlement had been 
 made in the colony of the virgin-queen. 
 
 In the year 1566, Sir Thomas Gresham, an enterprising 
 merchant, high in favor with Elizabeth, began the building 
 of a large and commodious edifice, where merchants might 
 meet for the transaction of business. Three streets were 
 purchased, and eighty houses destroyed, to furnish space for 
 the new erection. In 1570, Queen Elizabeth visited this 
 building in great state, and caused it to be proclaimed by 
 heralds and trumpets, that the name of this house should 
 henceforth be " The Royal Exchange." 
 
 The manufacturing industry of England received largely 
 the patronage of this able sovereign. Of the pageants which 
 were contrived to divert their gracious queen, none pleased 
 her more than one exhibited by the woollen-weavers of Nor- 
 wich. On a sloping stage were represented in pictures all 
 the processes of the weaving art. At one end of the stage 
 sat eight little girls spinning worsted yarn, whilst at the 
 opposite end sat eight others knitting the worsted stockings. 
 From the centre a boy addressed the queen in verse, im- 
 ploring her patronage for the industry of the town. The 
 following is one stanza of the poetry thus recited : 
 
 " We bought before, the things -which now we sell ; ' 
 These slender imps,* their works do pass the waves; 
 God's peace and thine, we hold and prosper well ; 
 
 Of every mouth the hands, the charges saves. 
 Thus through thy help, and aid of power divine 
 Doth Norwich live, whose hearts and goods are thine." 
 
 The manufacture of pins having heads was established in 
 
 * An " imp" in those days meant simply a child. 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 231 
 
 Elizabeth's reign. Before that time, ladies' dresses had been 
 fastened with clasps, hooks and eyes, and " skewers" of gold, 
 silver, or brass. These last were of course very small, and 
 probably resembled pins without heads. 
 
 Questions. — What is said of Wolsey in connection with the learn- 
 ing of this age? — Name some of the colleges founded during this 
 century. — What is said of the accomplishments of the ladies of this 
 age? — Where had schools existed prior to the Reformation? — How 
 was the want of schools partially supplied when these were broken 
 up ? — What celebrated painter came to England ? — Relate the anec- 
 dote of Holbein and the courtier. — What style of architecture was 
 now introduced? — What Italian fashion was introduced into Eng- 
 land ? — What peculiarity was exhibited in the manor houses of this 
 period? — What motive may possibly have led to this device? 
 
 Relate the account of Bartholomew Columbus's embassy to Eng- 
 land. — What coasts were visited by English mariners? — Relate the 
 history of Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition. — What did Sir Francis 
 Drake accomplish? — By what conduct did Sir John Hawkins mar 
 his commercial fame? — When was the East India Company founded? 
 — Describe the circumstances of this foundation. — Describe the early 
 attempts to found a colony in America. — In whose reign were pins, 
 with heads, invented ? — What had been used before in their place ? 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 CONDITION OF ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 AGRICULTURE — MANNERS AND CUSTOMS — AMUSEMENTS — CONDITION OF 
 LOAVKR CLASSES — PARLIAMENT — COURTS OF LAW — ELIZABETH AND 
 HER PEOPLE. 
 
 During the earlier part of the sixteenth century, the great 
 landholders were induced to convert their arable land into 
 pasturage, both on account of having fewer villains than 
 formerly to cultivate it, and also because of the very profitable 
 demand for English wool. Frequently, on one estate, were 
 to be found sheep-farms containing flocks of from ten to 
 
232 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 twenty thousand sheep. Hamlets and villages were deso- 
 lated, or only occupied, as Latimer informs us, by a shepherd 
 and his dog. In'om the middle of the century agriculture 
 improved, and the land was made to yield more than it had 
 formerly done. Clover was introduced ; hops were first cul- 
 tivated extensively, and many new vegetables, such as salads, 
 cabbages, melons, and artichokes, found their way into English 
 
 Numerous delicious fruits were introduced from foreign 
 countries. Apricots and currants from Zante, plums from 
 Italy ; also gooseberries and cherries. To the charms of the 
 flower-garden were added the gilly-flower, carnation pink, 
 Flemish and musk roses. Pleasure gardens were laid out 
 after the Italian style : broad terraces, leading by steps into 
 the beautiful grounds below, which were ornamented with 
 statuary, vases, and grottoes, and refreshed by the play of 
 water in numerous marble fountains. 
 
 The condition of the yeomanry improved greatly towards 
 the close of this period. They dwelt in larger and better 
 houses, frequently built of stone or brick. Pewter plates 
 were substituted for wooden trenchers, and the hard, coarse 
 bed and bolster gave place to good feather beds. A writer 
 of this age laments these improvements, complaining that, 
 whereas, '^ when the walls of houses were of wattled willow, 
 we had oaken men ;" now, luxury had made them efieminate. 
 At Christmas they fared particularly well : — 
 
 "Good bread, and good drink, a good fire in the hall; 
 Brawn, pudding and sauce, and good mustard withal; 
 Beef, mutton, and pork, shred pies of the best; 
 Pig, veal, goose, and capon, and turkey well drest ; 
 Cheese, apples, and nuts, jolly carols to hear, 
 Asthen in the country is counted good cheer." 
 
 If such was the improvement in the condition of the yeo' 
 men of England, the style of the nobles was magnificent in 
 proportion. Great was the pomp and stately ceremony which 
 surrounded the royal table of Queen Bess. Gentlemen pros. 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 233 
 
 trated themselves with the utmost reverence before placing 
 the cloth upon it; ladies dressed in white silk rubbed the 
 plates with bread and salt; tall, stout, scarlet-clad yeomen 
 of the guard brought in the twenty-four courses on gilded 
 dishes ; the lady-taster gave to each a mouthful of the dish 
 he brought, in order to guard against poison \ ladies, splen- 
 didly dressed, carried the meats from this sumptuous table to 
 an inner room, where the queen dined alone, or with a few 
 of her ladies. During all this ceremony, twelve trumpets and 
 two kettle-drums resounded through the royal dining-hall. 
 
 Cloths and napkins were among the improvements in the 
 table-furniture ; forks were not yet introduced. A complete 
 change had taken place in the style of feasting. All the 
 boisterousness, the tumbling, jesting, and buiFoonery of the 
 banquets of a former age were discarded, and the utmost 
 stateliness, almost solemnity, of demeanor prevailed among the 
 guests. The feasts of the lord mayor of London, who repre- 
 sented, as it were, the hospitality of the city, were so famous 
 for their good cheer, that " I have dined as well as my lord 
 mayor," has passed into a proverb. 
 
 Furniture was still scanty. King Henry VIII. 's chamber, 
 besides a bed and cupboard, contained only a " stool, a pair 
 of andirons, and a small steel mirror covered with yellow 
 velvet." Turkey carpets were introduced, but they were 
 used chiefly as table-covers, and the floors continued to be 
 strewn with rushes. A green cloth or carpet was spread 
 before the throne, and those who received the honor of 
 knighthood at coronations, were thence called carpet knights. 
 
 Fashions in dress varied so greatly in this century, that it 
 is almost impossible to describe them. The pictures of the 
 celebrated men and women of Henry YIII.'s and Elizabeth's 
 reigns have made us familiar with some of these styles. The 
 rufl"s, which %xm. such a striking part of the dress in the 
 Elizabethan era, were at first made of linen. When the 
 queen began to wear them of lawn and cambric, she found 
 great difficulty in getting them suflaciently stiff. At length a 
 20* 
 
234 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Dutch woman, named Mistress Dingham Vander-Plasse, who 
 possessed great skill in starching, was invited to England at 
 the queen's request, and succeeded in giving to the royal ruff 
 its required stiffness. 
 
 Worsted and silk stockings came into wear towards the 
 close of Elizabeth's reign, and a slovenly kind of slipper, 
 called pantoffles, was much worn ; they were either of velvet 
 or leather, of the brightest colors, and embroidered with gold 
 and silver. Perfumed gloves, also richly embroidered, were 
 worn. The preposterous head-dresses of the former century 
 were replaced by more modest caps or bonnets of velvet, and 
 felt hats with conical crowns came into fashion. When 
 travelling, ladies wore, to guard their complexions, black 
 velvet masks furnished with eye-glasses. False hair was 
 common, particularly as the fashion in the color of the hair 
 varied greatly. The teeth of the ladies in Elizabeth's time 
 were not false, but they were often so black and defective as 
 greatly to mar the beauty of the mouth. This arose partly 
 from the use of tobacco, which Indian weed had been intro- 
 duced into England by Sir Walter Raleigh. The fashion of 
 smoking became so universal, that even ladies practised it. 
 
 After the decline of the tournament, riding at the ring and 
 fencing became favorite amusements. In the first, the knight, 
 whilst gracefully managing his horse, aimed his lance at a 
 small ring fastened on a post; the object being to carry it off 
 at the point of the weapon, whilst the horse was bearing the 
 rider at the height of his speed. Pageants were much in 
 vogue, especially during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Those 
 arranged by the Earl of Leicester to entertain his royal mis- 
 tress, during her visit to Kenilworth Castle, were costly and 
 magnificent beyond any others of which we read, even in 
 this age of splendid festivities. Water pageants were some- 
 times exhibited on the Thames, when the gay decorations of 
 the barges and music added to the attractions of the scene. 
 
 Festivals of all kinds were celebrated with great merriment. 
 Weddings, both among high and low, were especially joyous 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 235 
 
 occasions. In the villages the bride was led to the church by 
 her companions, all decked in rosemary, laces, and ribbons. 
 Before her was borne the silver bride-cup, filled with wine, in 
 which was placed a branch of gilded rosemary. Others of the 
 village maidens carried huge bride-cakes and gilded garlands 
 of wheat, whilst the air rang with music and the joyous shouts 
 of the wedding company. 
 
 The May-day festival was a season of great rejoicing 
 throughout merry England. Bands of youths and maidens 
 would resort to the woods, and, decking the May-pole with 
 gay garlands, bring it home on May-morning, drawn by 
 twenty or forty yoke of oxen, having their -horns adorned 
 with garlands of flowers. Gay scarfs and ribbons completed 
 the decorations of the May-pole, around which, in their best 
 and gayest attire, danced the young people of the village. 
 
 Morris dances, and the milk-maid's dance, ranked high in 
 favor among the amusements of May-day. The actors in the 
 morris dances had their garments, which were of the gayest 
 description, hung with little bells, varying in size and tone. 
 This dance is supposed to be of Moorish origin, and intro- 
 duced into England during the middle ages. The milk-maid's 
 dance was performed by the milk-maids, with all the silver- 
 ware they could borrow, piled in a pyramid on their heads. 
 In this style they danced from house to house, receiving a few 
 pence from each of their customers. 
 
 Whilst we are dazzled by the splendor of courts, and watch 
 with interest the rise and increasing prosperity of the middle 
 classes in England during this century, we must not forget 
 that there was a large body of people whose condition was 
 truly miserable. Begging and robbery were so frequent, even 
 in ^' the glorious days of good Queen Bess," and the laws 
 against them of such barbarous severity, that a year seldom 
 passed in which hundreds of criminals were not condemned to 
 the gallows or to slavery. 
 
 Among the statutes passed against beggars in the reign of 
 Henry VIII., was one leveled at a strange race of people 
 
l^o6 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 called gypsies or Egyptians, because they were supposed to 
 have come originally from Egypt- These "outlandish" 
 people, as the statute calls them, wandered from shire to 
 shire, telling fortunes and committing petty robberies, until 
 they became such disturbers of the peace that they were 
 ordered to quit the country. The law commanded that they 
 should depart within sixteen days, under penalty of imprison- 
 ment and seizure of goods. Many, however, contrived to 
 remain, and to this day the gipsy camp, pitched on the bar- 
 ren heath, attests that the descendants of these strange aliens 
 have not yet deserted English ground. 
 
 During the reign of Henry VIII., the parliament seems to 
 have been completely awed by the power of that imperious 
 sovereign. Both Lords and Commons bent before his wrath, 
 and passed the most contradictory and obnoxious bills, with 
 scarcely a dissenting voice. The Commons, however, were 
 gradually growing more important and powerful : their assent 
 had become necessary to the passage of bills granting supplies 
 of money. On one occasion, even in the terror-inspiring days 
 of Henry VIIL, they gave evidence of a spirit of resistance to 
 unjust demands. 
 
 To carry on the war with France, the king demanded 
 the sum of eight hundred thousand pounds, to be raised 
 by levying a property tax, at the rate of twenty per cent. 
 The Commons, even though Cardinal Wolsey himself appeared 
 in their midst to enforce the demand, resisted, and would 
 only grant the king a tenth, with which he was forced to be 
 content. The spirit of the Commons was upheld by the 
 popular feeling among the citizens of London. It is said, 
 that during the debate on granting the king this supply, 
 citizens would accost commoners in the street, saying, '^ Sirs, 
 will ye grant four shillings in the pound? Do it, and take 
 our threats and curses home with you to your households." 
 
 In Henry VII.'s reign, the king's council, when exercising 
 criminal jurisdiction, held its sittings in an apartment at 
 Westminster, called, from the decoration of the ceiling, The 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 237 
 
 Star Chamber. This name was now applied to the court 
 itself, which, being entirely under the sovereign's control, 
 gradually increased its power and authority, until it possessed 
 more than any other jurisdiction in the realm, and became 
 an instrument, in the hands of kings and ministers, of great 
 oppression. 
 
 An ecclesiastical court, called the Court of High Commis- 
 sion, was 'established in Queen Elizabeth's reign. It had 
 exclusive jurisdiction concerning spiritual matters, the pun- 
 ishment of heresies, the reforming of errors, &c. These two 
 tribunals, the Star Chamber and Court of High Commission, 
 became, in another generation, most tyrannical in their opera- 
 tion upon a large class of English subjects. 
 
 Elizabeth, towards the close of her reign, granted to favorite 
 courtiers, monopolies^ or exclusive privileges, to sell certain 
 very necessary articles of daily consumption. This was hurt- 
 ful to trade, and oppressive to the people. When the Commons 
 complained of these monopolies, some members were disposed 
 to defend the queen's right to grant them ; but when it came 
 to the ears of Elizabeth that her Commons were thus greatly 
 displeased, this wise sovereign withdrew her grants'of monopo- 
 lies, and won back the affections of the people. On another 
 occasion she captivated her subjects' hearts, by remarking, 
 when she refused some supplies which were voted her, " that 
 money in the purses of her subjects was as good to her as in 
 her own exchequer." 
 
 Says an historian : ^' In the long line of sceptred ancestors 
 of whom Elizabeth was the living representative, it would be 
 difficult to select one, not merely from the Tudors and the 
 Stuarts, who all sink into dwarf-like insignificance beside her, 
 but even from the nobler and mightier Plantagenets — the 
 men of iron, 
 
 * of mailed breast, 
 And gauntlet-hand and jewelled crest,' 
 
 who could be placed on the same level for the highest quali- 
 
238 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ties befitting a monarch, with this, England's deep-minded, 
 high-spirited, stout-hearted, woman king I" 
 
 Questions. — What is said of agriculture during this century ? 
 
 What new vegetable productions were introduced and cultivated ? — 
 Name the ditiPerent fruits brought into England. — What flowers 
 added new beauty to the gardens ? — What is said of the condition 
 of the yeomanry ? — What improvement took place in matters per- 
 taining to domestic comfort ? — Repeat the lines describing the good 
 cheer at Christmas. 
 
 Describe the ceremony attending the royal table. — How did the 
 style of feasting differ from that of a previous age ? — What is said 
 of the lord mayor's feasts? — Describe the furniture of King Henry 
 VIII. 's chamber. — How were carpets used? — With what were the 
 floors covered ? — What article of dress was much Avorn in Elizabeth's 
 time ? — Describe the head-coverings of this period. — What is said 
 of the teeth of the women of this age ? — Of the practice of smoking ? 
 
 How wei*e festivals observed in these days ? — Describe a village 
 bridal procession. — Describe the celebration of May-day. — Name 
 two dances much in favor with the people during these festivities. — 
 What is said of the condition of the middle classes during this cen- 
 tury ?— What of the condition of the lower classes ?— How was it in 
 the days of Elizabeth ? — Against what people was a law passed in 
 Henry VIII.'s time? 
 
 What was the condition of parliament during Henry VIII.'s reign? 
 — What is said of the progress of the Commons ? — What spirit did 
 they display in Henry VIII.'s reign? — Relate the instance given 
 of this resistance. — What court was established in Elizabeth's reign ? 
 — WHiat did Elizabeth bestow on favorite courtiers ? — W' hat are mo- 
 nopolies?— Who complained of these monopolies? — Repeat the eulo- 
 gium of an historian on Elizabeth's character ? 
 
JAMES I. 2B9 
 
 PART IX. 
 
 ENGLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 JAMES I.— CHARLES I.— CROMWELL— CHARLES IL— 
 JAMES IL— WILLIAM IIL 
 
 A. D. 1603—1702. 
 
 "Then dawned the period destined to confine 
 The surge of wild Prerogative, to raise 
 A mount restraining its imperious rage, 
 And bid the raving deep no farther flow.'* 
 
 Thomson. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 THE FIRST ELEVEN YEARS OF JAMES I.'s REIGN. 
 
 CONSPIRACIES — GUNPOWDER PLOT — PREROGATIVE — THE KING'S TASTES — 
 CECIL, — BACON — LADY ARABELLA STUART. 
 
 The plague was raging in London ; the weather was dark 
 and rainy; and altogether gloomy was the aspect of the 25th 
 July, 1603, when the first of the unhappy race of Stuart w\as 
 crowned king of England. 
 
 At the accession of James I., there were three religious 
 parties in the kingdom : the Established Church, the Roman 
 Catholics, and the Puritans. The Papists hoped for the 
 favor of the king, because of the religion of his mother; 
 and the Puritans, because James had been so much indebted 
 to the Presbyterians of Scotland, and had, it was aifirmed, 
 given them promises of support. James deceived the hopes 
 of both these parties, giving all his countenance and favor 
 to the Established Church. Very soon, the disappointed, 
 
240 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 both of religious and political parties, concerted plots against 
 the king. These were discovered, and the parties punished. 
 Among those who fell victims to these consj)iracies was Sir 
 Walter Raleigh. He was charged with conspiring against 
 the life of the king, designing to overthrow the government 
 and religion of the realm, and to place the Lady Arabella 
 Stuart (a descendant of Henry VII.) on the throne. Raleigh, 
 who was one of the greatest geniuses of his age, had rendered 
 glorious services to the crown, as a navigator, a discoverer, 
 and a brave defender of his country. All these claims were 
 disregarded. He was brought to trial before a court com- 
 posed of the bitterest of his enemies; and, notwithstanding 
 one of the most eloquent defences that was ever pleaded in a 
 court of justice, this brave man was declared guilty, and 
 committed to the Tower. 
 
 Towards the close of the year 1604, about twenty Roman 
 Catholics, exasperated by the severe laws passed against their 
 faith, entered into a conspiracy to blow up the parliament 
 house. The ringleader of the Gunpowder Plot, as it is gene- 
 rally called, was Robert Catesby, a country gentleman, of 
 ancient family and good estate. The conspirators hired a 
 cellar under the parliament house, and placed in it 
 thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, covered with faggots 
 of wood. One Guy Fawkes, a Flemish soldier of fortune, 
 and a bigoted Papist, undertook to pay daily visits to the 
 cellar, to see that all was right. The meeting of parliament, 
 deferred from time to time, was to take place on the 5th of 
 November, 1605, and that day was fixed for the execution of 
 the dreadful design. 
 
 The conspirators intended, if possible, to save one of the 
 king's sons. Prince Charles, from destruction, but if this 
 could not be done, his sister, the Princess Elizabeth, was to 
 be proclaimed queen. Ten days previous. Lord Mounteagle, 
 a Roman Catholic gentleman, and member of parliament, 
 received a letter warning him not to go to the House of Lords 
 on the 5th. The nobleman showed the letter to Sir Robert 
 Cecil (a son of Elizabeth's wise statesman. Lord Burleigh), 
 
JAMES I. 241 
 
 and the latter carried it to the king. Suspicions were aroused. 
 On the afternoon of the 4th of November, the lord chamber- 
 lain and Lord Mounteagle went to examine the vaults under 
 the parliament house. They found there Guy Fawkes, whom 
 they described as "a very tall and desperate fellow," but, after 
 a few words, departed, leaving him unmolested. At two 
 o'clock the next morning, as Guy Fawkes opened the door 
 of the cellar, he was seized and bound by a party of soldiers, 
 commanded by a magistrate of Westminster. He had no 
 time to light the slow matches which were found about his 
 person. Behind the cellar-door a dark lantern was discovered 
 burning. Although put to the torture, Fawkes would confess 
 nothing. The other conspirators, however, betrayed them- 
 selves by flight. They all came to a miserable end. Some, 
 among whom was Catesby, were shot whilst defending them- 
 selves against those sent to seize them, and many perished on 
 the scaffold. The day of this great deliverance of the king 
 and parliament of England is still observed as a day of public 
 thanksgiving in the English church. Among the populace, 
 bonfires are lighted on the night of the 5th November, and 
 Guy Fawkes is burned in effigy. The laws against the 
 lloman Catholics were made more severe than ever. 
 
 King James I. had a very high idea of the royal preroga- 
 tivej or the rights claimed for kings because they are kings, 
 and over which neither parliament nor law could have control. 
 He held the sentiments which Shakspeare places in the mouth 
 of King Richard II. : — 
 
 "Not all the water in the rough rude sea 
 Can wash the balm from an anointed king : 
 The breath of worldly men cannot depose 
 The deputy elected by the Lord." 
 
 James had written books to prove that kings reign by 
 divine right : and he taught therein, that it is the province 
 of monarchs to rule by their own absolute will, and that 
 the duty of subjects is to obey. In these exalted notions 
 of the right of kings, James was upheld by the bishops 
 21 Q 
 
242 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 generally, and by the greater part of the nobility. The 
 Commons alone remained true to the trust reposed in them 
 by the nation, and fought for their rights. -Unlike the wise 
 Elizabeth, whose economy rendered her less dependent upon 
 her parliaments for supphes, and conse(|uently less liable to 
 have her prerogative called in question, James I. was extrava- 
 gant, and demanded from the nation large grants of money. 
 "Whenever a parliament was called, the sturdy Commons, 
 before voting a supply, demanded a redress of grievances. 
 
 The grievances of which the nation complained were, that 
 the king claimed, in virtue of his prerogative, to lay taxes 
 and impose duties, without the consent of parliament ; — that 
 his majesty caused his royal proclamations to take the place 
 of the laws; — and allowed the Court of High Commission to 
 exercise great tyranny. So great was the king's need of 
 money, that, when he could get none from the Commons, he 
 chose other and unusual methods of procuring it. He sold 
 patents of nobility, and created a new title, that of baronet, 
 which he made hereditary and sold for a thousand pounds. 
 
 King James, although he prided himself on his knowledge 
 of government, and wrote, as he believed, very wise books on 
 the subject, and was called by his flatterers the Scottish 
 Solomon, had, in reality, very little understanding, and still 
 less taste, for the duties which attend the faithful administra- 
 tion of a kingdom. He was passionately fond of hunting, 
 and issued a proclamation that on hunting-days (and they 
 took up nearly half his time) he should not be disturbed by 
 affairs of state. 
 
 His subjects were loud in their complaints, which were not 
 unmingled with satires. One day, whilst he was hunting at 
 Royston, a favorite dog, named Jowler, was missing. The 
 king was much disturbed, until the following morning, when, 
 greatly to his delight, the hound reappeared. Round the 
 animal's neck was tied a paper, on which was written the 
 following petition : " Good Mr. Jowler, we pray you speak to 
 the king (for he hears you every day, and so doth he not us), 
 that it will please his majesty to go back to London, for else 
 
JAMES I. 248 
 
 the country will be undone : all our provision is spent already, 
 and we are not able to entertain him longer." Dressed in his 
 hunting-garb of green, with a little feather in his cap, and a 
 hunting-bugle by his side, the king of England thus pursued 
 the pleasures of the chase, and left the government of his 
 kingdom in the hands of ambitious courtiers. 
 
 Sir Robert Cecil, secretary of state, had at first the 
 V greatest influence in public affairs. In 1612 he died, 
 adding another to the many witnesses of the vanity of earthly 
 glory : "■ Ease and pleasur'e quake to hear of death ; but my 
 life, full of cares and miseries, desireth to be dissolved :" were 
 his dying words. Coke, the attorney-general, and Sir Francis 
 Bacon, two celebrated lawyers, exercised also great control in 
 state aff"airs. 
 
 Bacon, though first among philosophers, as a courtier and 
 a statesman was unprincipled and corrupt. " No name in 
 British annals is more illustrious than his, and none is shaded 
 with more lasting shame." Says a writer : " The diff"erence 
 between the soaring angel and the creeping snake, was but a 
 type of the diff"erence between Bacon the philosopher and 
 Bacon the attorney-general — Bacon seeking for truth, and 
 Bacon seeking for the seals." And the poet Pope, warning 
 against mere greatness of intellect, exclaims : 
 
 "If parts allure thee, think how Bacon shined, 
 The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." 
 
 He rose from one degree of dignity to another, until he 
 became lord chancellor, and received the titles of Viscount 
 St. Albans and Baron Yerulam. Towards the close of James' 
 reign, Sir Francis Bacon was accused of bribery and corrup- 
 tion in his duties as chancellor. He was tried and found 
 guilty. To a deputation of lords who waited upon him, he 
 confessed his guilt, saying : "It is my act, — my heart, — my 
 hand. Oh ! my lords, be merciful to a broken reed." 
 
 In this reign perished another victim to the jealousy of the 
 monarch for his title to the throne — the Lady Arabella Stuart. 
 
244 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Like the victims of preceding reigns, she was beautiful, ac- 
 compUshed, and unambitious, her only crime being that she, 
 too, although in a more remote degree than James, was 
 descended from Margaret, the daughter of Henry VII. As 
 long as she remained single, although closely watched, the 
 Lady x\.rabella was not persecuted, but on her marriage with 
 Sir William Seymour, she was taken into custody, and her 
 husband was sent to the Tower Both contrived to escape. 
 Sir William Seymour, in the disguise of a physician, managed 
 to get safely to Flanders, but the unfortunate Lady 
 Arabella was seized midway across the Channel, and 
 brought back to England, where, after four sad years of 
 captivity in the Tower, she died insane. 
 
 Questions. — What melancholy circumstances attended the acces- 
 sion of James I.? — Name the religious parties then existing. — De- 
 scribe the expectations of each. — Which party did James favor? — 
 What misfortunes befell Sir Walter Raleigh? — Relate the history 
 of the Gunpowder Plot. — What effect had this conspiracy upon the 
 condition of the Roman Catholics? 
 
 On what subject had King James very exalted notions? — What is 
 meant by pi-erogative ? — What doctrine did James teach in his writ- 
 ings? — W^ho agreed with the king in these views? — What body in the 
 nation opposed these ideas of royal prerogative ? — To what did the 
 king's extravagance frequently compel him ?— How did the Commons 
 act when applied to for money? — Describe the grievances of which 
 the Commons complained.— What strange and new method did he 
 take to procure money? — In what respects was James unfitted for 
 the care of a kingdom ? — In what pursuit did he employ much time ? 
 
 What able minister conducted the affairs of state in the early part 
 of this reign ? — Repeat the dying words of this statesman. — Describe 
 the chai-acter of Lord Bacon — Repeat Pope's lines on this subject. — 
 Give the sketch of his history. — Relate the story of Lady Arabella 
 Stuart. 
 
x^- 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 • :t- 
 
 JAMES I. 
 
 ^e^ 245 
 
 
 
 ^^"^ ^^ 
 
 
 W^ '^-^ 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 THE LAST ELEVEN YEARS OF JAMES 
 
 I. S REIGN. 
 
 THE king's favorite — THE PRINCESS ELIZABETH — EPISCOPACY IN SCOT- 
 LAND — SIR WALTER RALEIGH — MATRIMONIAL NEGOTIATIONS. 
 
 Besides the able, although unprincipled statesmen, men- 
 tioned in the preceding chapter, James lavished honors and 
 offices on still more unworthy favorites. The first of these 
 was Robert Carr, a Scotch lad of great beauty, whom an acci- 
 dent at a tilting-match threw at the king's feet. James, find- 
 ing the education of this boy imperfect, even condescended 
 to become his Latin tutor, giving him a lesson every morning. 
 Carr was knighted, received presents and honors, and soon 
 grew so high in favor, that nothing was to be obtained at 
 court, but through his influence. He was made Viscount 
 Rochester, and, after the death of Cecil, became lord chamber- 
 lain, and exercised, in eflfect, the power of a prime minister. 
 
 In the year 1612, the Count Palatine, a German prince, 
 came into England to marry the Princess Elizabeth. This 
 marriage was celebrated with great splendor. Among the 
 amusements was a water-pageant, gotten up by the gentlemen 
 of Gray's Inn and the Inner Temple, designed to represent 
 the marriage of the river Thames with the Rhine. The 
 Princess Elizabeth accompanied her husband to Germany, 
 where, in 1619, he was elected king of Bohemia, by \S\Q 
 Protestants of that country. The Roman Catholic emperor 
 of Austria made war upon Bohemia in consequence. 
 
 1630. . 
 
 The short-lived monarch was driven from his throne, 
 and Elizabeth, unaided by her father, the English king, 
 became a fugitive in a castle on the Rhine. 
 
 The year following the marriage of the Princess Elizabeth, 
 the fiivorite Rochester, now created Earl of Somerset, was 
 united to the Countess of Essex. This marriage was opposed 
 %\* 
 
246 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 by Sir Thomas Overburj, Somerset's intimate friend, which 
 opposition being reported to the beautiful but vindictive 
 countess, she determined on revenge. Charges were brought 
 against Overbury. He was thrown into the Tower, where 
 before the marriage, he died of poison, administered, it was 
 whispered, by the agents of the wicked countess. After this 
 marriage, Somerset's spirits became clouded; probably the 
 death of Overbury weighed upon his mind. He lost the 
 affection of the king, which was bestowed upon George Vil- 
 liers, a' new favorite, whom the enemies of Somerset had 
 introduced at court. The fallen earl and his countess were 
 now openly accused of the murder of Overbury. They were 
 brought to trial, and received sentence of death; but a royal 
 pardon having been granted, this guilty pair, after some years' 
 imprisonment, retired from court, and passed the remaining 
 years of their life in obscurity. 
 
 The laws passed against Puritans, and all dissenters from 
 the Established Church, were exceedingly severe in this reign. 
 Not satisfied with upholding Episcopacy in England, James 
 visited Scotland, to establish it there. The people of Scot- 
 land regarded him as a traitor, both to the principles in which 
 he had been educated, and to the promises which he had made. 
 He appointed bishops, and ordered festivals to be celebrated; 
 but, so far from establishing Episcopacy, the people 
 clung more fondly than ever to their Presbyterian 
 Church ; and James only began a religious struggle, which, 
 in the reign of his son and successor, was continued in rebel- 
 lion and bloodshed. On his return to England, James pub- 
 lished a " Book of Sports," commanding certain games, such 
 as wrestling, morris-dancing and archery, to be practised on 
 Sundays, " after evening prayers ended." The archbishop 
 of Canterbury, and many others of the clergy, disapproved 
 of this desecration of the Lord's-Day. It greatly shocked 
 the feelings of the Puritans, and tended to widen the separa- 
 tion between them and the Established Church. 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh had now languished for thirteen years 
 in prison. He had cheered the weary hours of captivity by 
 
JAMES I. 247 
 
 literary pursuits, and had written, within the walls of the 
 Tower, a History of the World. With what eager interest 
 he must have listened to the adventures of a kindred spirit, 
 the daring John Smith, and learned of the first permanent 
 settlement in that New World, towards which his efforts and 
 hopes had been for many years directed ! And how he must 
 have longed to share with the Jamestown colonists, the honor 
 of planting the first English home in that land, the beauty 
 of which he had so often praised, and to which he had been 
 the pioneer I 
 
 His daring and adventurous spirit was as high and fresh as 
 ever; and in the year 1615, he proposed, on condition of re- 
 covering his liberty, to fit out an expedition to Guiana, to 
 discover a gold-mine, which he believed to exist there. He 
 obtained the consent of the king, but a pardon was refused ; 
 and the brave and accomplished adventurer left England on 
 the 28th March, 1617, with a sentence of condemnation 
 hanging over his head. 
 
 The expedition was unfortunate. Many of the men died 
 of disease, and many others deserted. A detachment sailed 
 up the Orinoco, and attacked the Spanish town of St. Tho- 
 mas. They burned it to the ground ; but in the attack the 
 young and -gallant son of Sir Walter was killed. No gold- 
 mine was found ; and the broken-hearted father returned to 
 England. Immediately on his landing, he was seized and 
 thrown into the Tower. On the 29th October, 1618, he was 
 beheaded, under a sentence passed against him fifteen years 
 before. 
 
 King James was anxious to marry his son Charles to the 
 infanta, a princess of Spain. The nation was exceedingly 
 averse to such a marriage, on account of the religion of the 
 Spanish princess. The new favorite, however, Villiers, who 
 had been made Duke of Buckingham, promoted the match. 
 He, with Prince Charles, conceived the romantic project of 
 visiting Spain in disguise, where the latter might pay his 
 addresses in persrn to the Spanish infanta. It was 
 some time before James would agree to this wild 
 
248 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 scheme ; but he finally gave his consent, and the Duke of 
 Buckingham, with the prince, proceeded to the continent. 
 They passed through France in disguise, but visited the court, 
 where Charles saw the French princess, Henrietta Maria, 
 whom he afterwards married. In Spain he was received with 
 great distinction, and negotiations for the marriage were 
 entered into. 
 
 The reserved and haughty Spaniards were disgusted with 
 the familiarity of Buckingham. Some idea of this trait may 
 be formed from the letters which the favorite wrote to his 
 royal master, in which he addresses him as "Dear Dad and 
 Gossip." Nor was James more careful to preserve the dignity 
 becoming a king; for he calls Buckingham '-Dear Steenie," 
 and his son " Baby Charles." The prince and Buckingham 
 returned to England, and shortly after, the negotiations for 
 the Spanish match were broken off. 
 
 This rejoiced the English greatly ; for they not only had 
 been averse to the match, but angry with the king for re- 
 fusing to declare war against the Spanish monarch, in behalf 
 of his Protestant son-in-law, the Count Palatine. The latter 
 was fighting for the recovery of his crown against the com- 
 bined power of Spain and Austria. At length James was 
 obli;2;ed to send a small force to the continent, under a 
 famous German general. Count Mansfeldt. Nothing 
 was effected by this, however; and the Princess Elizabeth 
 and her husband still remained fugitives, not only from the 
 kingdom of Bohemia, but also from their former possessions 
 on the Rhine. 
 
 James now opened negotiations with the court of France, 
 for the marriage of Prince Charles with Henrietta Maria, the 
 sister of the French king. These were successful; but before 
 the arrival of the princess in England, the king was seized 
 with his last illness. He died at his favorite palace, at Theo- 
 balds, on the 27th of March, 1625. 
 
 Questions. — By what circumstance was Robert Carr brought to 
 the king's notice? — Describe the favor to which he attained. — Who 
 
CHARLES 1. 249 
 
 visited England in 1612, and for what purpose? — What is said of the 
 celebration of this marriage ? — Relate the subsequent history of this 
 princess and her husband. — Give an account of the fall of the favor- 
 ite, Rochester. — Against what sects were severe laws passed during 
 this reign ? — Describe the attempt to introduce Episcopacy into Scot- 
 land. — Mention the result. 
 
 What was commanded by James in the Book of Sports? — What 
 effect did this command have upon the Puritans? — Describe the 
 manner in which Raleigh passed the years of his imprisonment. — 
 On what terms did he procure his release ? — Relate his subsequent 
 history. — What marriage did the king plan for his son? — How was 
 it regarded by the nation ? — Why ? — Who promoted it ? — Give some 
 account of the journey to Spain. — How did it result? — Describe 
 James's conduct towards his son-in-law. — What marriage did the 
 king now propose for his son ? — Where and when did James die ? 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 THE FIRST SIXTEEN YEARS OF CHARLES I.'S REIGN. 
 
 PARLIAMEXT — THE KING'S ADVISERS — BUCKINGHAM — LAUD — STRAFFORD 
 — THE king's third PARLIAMENT — CROMAVELL — SHIP-MONEY — EPISCO- 
 PACY IN SCOTLAND — THE KING'S DIFFICULTIES — LONG PARLIAMENT — 
 TRIAL OP STRAFFORD — LAUD — IRELAND. 
 
 On the IGtli July, 1625, Charles I., with his light-hearted 
 French bride, passed up the Thames to the royal palace at 
 Whitehall. No dark shadow of coining events clouded the 
 joy of the royal party, and who could dream that the day 
 would come when the monarch and his queen should be 
 fugitives from that palace : the first never to re-enter it, save 
 on his way to the scaffold, where, in front of those stately 
 walls, his head should be laid upon the block. 
 
 Charles I. began his reign with even higher notions of the 
 divine right of kings than his flither had held. Meantime, 
 parliament, especially the House of Commons, had grown both 
 in the knowledge of its rights, and in a determination to 
 maintain them. By industry and thrift the nation had 
 
to 
 16»9. 
 
 250 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 become rich, so that the wealth of the Commons of England 
 was, at this time, threefold that of the Lords, that proud 
 nobility who, in centuries past, claimed the sole right to 
 possess either riches or power. 
 
 In the three parliaments which the king called during the 
 jggg first four or five years of his reign, the Commons, 
 before granting supplies, demanded a removal of their 
 grievances ; paying little heed when the king told 
 them to " remember that parliaments were altogether in his 
 power for their calling, sitting, or dissolution, and that, there- 
 fore, as he should find the fruits of them good or evil, they 
 were to be or not to be." Finding that the Commons 
 remained obstinate, the king in each case dissolved the 
 parliament. 
 
 It was the misfortune of Charles not only to have been 
 educated in ideas of the royal prerogative totally unsuited to 
 the spirit of the people whom he governed, but also to choose 
 for his nearest friends and advisers, men who upheld him in 
 these opinions with a bigotry alike ruinous to their master 
 and to themselves. 
 
 The first of these was the Duke of Buckingham. The acta 
 
 of tyranny to which he prompted the king, irritated the 
 
 nation. From motives of revenge against the French king 
 
 and his minister, Cardinal Richelieu, Buckingham induced 
 
 his royal master to give him the command of a body of troops 
 
 in aid of the French Protestants. The latter, with a 
 
 feeble force in the city of Rochelle, were opposing 
 
 the whole might of Cardinal Richelieu and Roman Catholic 
 
 France. The first attempt for their relief was unsuccessful, 
 
 and the followinor year Buckinsrham went to Ports- 
 
 1688. ^ •' ^ . 
 
 mouth to prepare a second expedition. There he was 
 assassinated by a Puritan fanatic, who gloried in the deed, 
 believing that by it he had delivered his country and his 
 religion from their greatest enemy. In fact, the nation, in 
 complaining of their wrongs, had called Buckingham " the 
 grievance of grievances." 
 
 The other advisers of Charles were Laud, afterwards arch- 
 
CHARLES I. 251 
 
 bishop of Canterbury, and Thomas Wentworth, made Earl of 
 Strafford. 
 
 Laud had as high notions of church government as Charles 
 had of kingly rule, and indeed they believed the two to go 
 hand in hand. Laud introduced many new ceremonies and 
 rites into the church, and was suspected of wishing to make 
 its liturgy more like the Romish ritual. This aroused the 
 Puritans, who, both in books and sermons, opposed the tyran- 
 nical attempts of the archbishop to make the entire nation 
 conform to the Established Church. The Puritans also wrote 
 and preached against performances on the stage, against May- 
 poles, Christmas garlands, dancing, &c. 
 
 These writings and sermons were highly displeasing, as the 
 amusements which they condemned were those in which the 
 court especially indulged, and many Puritan authors were 
 severely punished in consequence. Alexander Leighton, a 
 Scotch preacher, was publicly whipped, put in the pillory, had 
 one of his ears cut oif, and his cheek branded. These were 
 common punishments inflicted on the " sowers of sedition," as 
 such preachers and writers were called. This Leighton was 
 the father of the pious Archbishop Leighton. 
 
 Thomas Wentworth had once been a warm friend of the 
 Commons, but, by bribes of titles, and honors, had been won 
 over to the king. When his desertion became known, Mr. 
 Pym, a member of parUamcnt, said to him : " You have left 
 us, but we will never leave you, while your head is upon 
 your shoulders." 
 
 In the third parliament which Charles held, the 
 to Commons drew up the famous " Petition of Right." 
 This "Petition" was designed to obtain from the 
 king the observance of certain rights, secured indeed by 
 Magna Charta, but which Charles had frequently and openly 
 disregarded. The king evaded, as long as possible, his assent 
 to this appeal, but at length, pressed by want of money, 
 solemnly granted the " Petition of Right." One quarrel 
 between the king and his parliament was about " Tonnage 
 and Poundage," a tax somewhat similar to custom-house 
 
252 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 duties of the present day. This duty could only be granted 
 to the king by parliament, but Charles had levied it by his 
 own authority, even after granting the ••' Petition of Right," 
 which was expressly intended to prevent his doing so. 
 
 In this third parliament a committee was appointed to 
 consider the state of religion. One of the men who composed 
 it was Oliver Cromwell, member for Huntingdon. This re- 
 markable man, then thirty years old, ^' always a year older 
 than the century" (as Carlyle significantly remarks), stood up 
 in this committee on the 11th of February, 1629, and made 
 his first speech in parliament. He said that he had heard 
 that "flat Popery" had been preached by a clergyman at 
 Paul's Cross, and that the bishop had commanded that 
 nothing to the contrary should be preached : that, moreover, 
 the bishops and clergy who were most inclined to Rome, 
 received the richest livings. He concluded by asking : " If 
 these are steps to church preferment, what may we not 
 expect ?'> // / y( '^. 
 
 Oliver Cromwell was the son of a yeoman in Huntingdon. 
 He was born on the 25th April, 1599. Of his early life very 
 little is known. His mother, Elizabeth Steward, of Ely, is 
 said to have traced her ancestry to the royal Stewarts of Scot- 
 land. It would be a striking and singular fact, if even a 
 remote cousinship existed between Charles Stuart and Oliver 
 Cromwell. 
 
 In the year 1616, Cromwell, then a lad of seventeen, 
 
 entered Sidney-Sussex College, at Cambridge. Four years 
 
 after, we find him married to Elizabeth, daughter 
 
 liandiiig of Sir James Bouchier, a knight, of London, and 
 
 of the taking his father's place at the old home in Hunt- 
 Pilgrims. . , _ , ^ , -. , 
 mgdon. For the next nine years we know little 
 
 of him, save that he was leading the life of a country gentle- 
 man, his mind alive to the events passing in the kingdom, 
 and daily growing more earnest in his convictions as a 
 Christian and as a Puritan. In 1629, we notice his first 
 appearance in public life. Soon after, he became a farmer at 
 
CHARLES I. 263 
 
 St. Ives (five miles from Huntingdon), "by the shores of the 
 sable Ouse, on the edge of the fen country" of Lincoln. 
 
 King Charles's third parliament was dissolved in 1629, and 
 none sat again in England for eleven years. 
 
 Among the king's unlawful measures for raising funds, was 
 the levying of a tax called "ship-money.^' The discovery 
 had been made, by one who aided the king in these arbitrary 
 exactions, that, in former times, the seaport towns, occasionally 
 the maritime counties, and, in a few rare instances, the inland 
 places, had been made to furnish ships for the crown. Charles 
 determined to revive this ancient demand, in virtue of the 
 royal prerogative, to extend the requisition throughout the 
 kingdom, and to exact money instead of ships, at the rate of 
 1635 ^^^^^ f'^i' every ship. In January, 1635, in the 
 to parish of Great Kimble, at the foot of the Chiltern 
 
 ■| go o 
 
 Hills, in Buckinghamshire, the assessors of ship- 
 money appeared and summoned the people to pay the tax. 
 John Hampden, a country gentleman of pure Saxon descent, 
 and a cousin of Oliver Cromwell, attended the meeting held 
 in the parish church. He declared that the king had no 
 right to levy the ship-money, and therefore, though the assess- 
 ment in his case was only twenty shillings, he refused to pay 
 it. Hampdeij w^-s tried for this refusal, and after a long suit, 
 sentence was pronounced against him in 1638 ; but his firm- 
 ness encouraged others, and resistance to the tax of ship- 
 money spread through the country. 
 
 At this juncture, Charles, by the advice of Arch- 
 bishop Laud, attempted to introduce Episcopacy into 
 Scotland. The Scots were filled with indignation. A woman 
 named Jenny Geddes, hurled a stool at the head of one of the 
 bishops. It seemed the signal for violence throughout the 
 land. The people assaulted the prelates, threw sticks and 
 stones at the clergymen who attempted to read the liturgy, 
 and almost threatened to tear down the churches about their 
 heads, amid cries of "Apape!" "Apape!" "Antichrist!" 
 " Antichrist !" 
 22 
 
254 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Finally the Scots, animated by religious enthu- 
 siasm, raised an army, and under banners bearing the 
 inscription, " For Christ's crown and covenant," marched to 
 encounter the king's forces which had been raised to quell 
 them. They met near the river Tweed, but no engagement 
 took place. Charles found the enemy stronger than he had 
 anticipated, and perceived, moreover, that there was no dispo- 
 sition on the part of his own troops to make the attack. 
 Charles was forced to withdraw his army and enter into treaty 
 with the Scots. 
 
 Wentworth, soon after he had taken sides with the king, 
 had been sent to govern Ireland. He was a man of great 
 ability, and succeeded in restoring something like order to 
 that distracted country. He even managed to obtain from 
 the Irish parliament supplies of money for the king. When 
 Charles was in the midst of his troubles with the Scots, he 
 sent for WentAvorth, made him Earl Strafford, and asked his 
 advice. Strafford, thinking that he could manage 
 the English parliament as well as he had done an 
 Irish one. advised his master to summon it. This parliament 
 met in April, 1640. The spirit of the Commons was as high 
 as ever, and as they began upon the old subject of grievances, 
 before granting any money, the king dissolved it, at the end 
 of a short session of three weeks. 
 
 Charles was now in greater trouble than before. The Scots, 
 with a good stout army in "uniform of hodden gray, with blue 
 caps," had crossed the border, successfully encountered the 
 royal forces, and entered England to " present their griev- 
 ances to the king's majesty." The sympathy of the great 
 body of the English people was with them, nor had Charles 
 and his advisers either the money or the troops sufficient for 
 their reduction. Under these circumstances he was compelled 
 to enter into negotiations with the Scots, and moreover to 
 yield to the clamors of the nation, and summon his fifth and 
 last, — the celebrated Long Parliament. It met on the 3d 
 November, 1640. 
 
 One of its earliest acts was to impeach for high treason, 
 
CHARLES I. 255 
 
 Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, and Laud, archbishop 
 of Canterbury, both of whom were sent to the Tower. There 
 was no sufficient evidence on which Straiford could be con- 
 victed of high treason, but the people, excited against him, as 
 they had formerly been against the Duke of Buckingham, 
 because they believed him to be the adviser of Charles's 
 tyrannical measures, clamored for his death. After a long 
 trial, which absorbed the attention and interest of the nation, 
 the court pronounced Strafford guilty, and sentenced him to 
 the block. Charles, after much wavering, yielded to the 
 pleas of his courtiers, and gave his assent to the fatal bill. 
 One honest man alone was found — the good Juxon, bishop of 
 London — who urged the king not to go against his conscience. 
 In a letter addressed to Charles, Strafford had written : '^ I do 
 most humbly beseech your majesty, for prevention of evils 
 which may happen by refusal, to pass this bill." He added : 
 " My consent shall more acquit you herein to God, than all 
 the world can do besides." When, however, Charles took 
 him at his word, and the consent of the king to his death was 
 made known to the fallen courtier, he exclaimed : " Put not 
 your trust in princes, nor in any child of man, for there is no 
 help in them." 
 
 On the day in which Strafford's bill of attainder 
 ^164:1^' ^6C®i"^G<i ^^® royal assent, another important bill, that 
 annulling the king's prerogative for dissolving parlia- 
 ment, passed the great seal. Previously, Charles had been 
 forced to consent to a bill for triennial parliaments, and on 
 the 5th of July of this year, he consented to the removal of 
 the detestable courts of High Commission and Star Chamber. 
 
 Three years later, Archbishop Laud was brought to a trial 
 similar to that of Strafford, before bitter enemies. Con- 
 demned to death, he laid his head upon the block, with an 
 unshrinking courage, praying for forgiveness of his enemies, 
 and uttering among his last words, " I desire to depart and be 
 with Christ." 
 
 After the death of Strafford, a rebellion broke out in Ire- 
 land. It was headed by Roger More, a Roman Catholic, and 
 
256 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 directed against the English of the Pale, as the Protestant 
 colonists of Ireland were called. The news produced a great 
 excitement in England, and men and money were raised to 
 put down the rebellion. The king was so lukewarm in sup- 
 pressing this outbreak^ that suspicions were aroused of his 
 being in league with the Roman Catholics. He was accused, 
 moreover, of soliciting the aid of foreign princes to quell the 
 growing power and spirit of his parliament. 
 
 Qup:stions. — When and under what circumstances did Charles 
 ascend the throne? — How did Charles regard the royal prerogative? 
 — Describe the progress and prosperity of the Commons at this time. 
 — What demands were made by the king's first parliaments? — How 
 did Charles act on each of these occasions? — What was the character 
 of the king's advisers ? — From what motives did Villiers promote an 
 expedition against the French government ? — Describe the object of 
 this expedition and the result. — What befell Villiers the following 
 year? 
 
 Name two other advisers of the king. — Describe the character and 
 conduct of Archbishop Laud. — How did the Puritans oppose the 
 archbishop? — Relate the persecutions which they suffered in conse- 
 quence. — Describe the conduct of Wentworth. — What was the Peti- 
 tion of Right ? — How received by the king ? — What was tonnage and 
 poundage ?— Relate Charles's conduct with regard to this tax. — On 
 what occasion did Cromwell first speak regarding public affairs ? — 
 Describe his appearance and remarks. — Relate his history up to this 
 period. 
 
 Mention the precedent which encouraged the king to levy the tax 
 called ship-money. — Describe the conduct of Hampden in this con- 
 nection. — Mention its result. — Describe Charles's attempt to intro- 
 duce Episcopacy into Scotland. — State the result. — Relate the suc- 
 cess of Wentworth's government in Ireland. — To what did he advise 
 the king at this juncture? — With what success? — Describe the con- 
 duct of the Scots at this time. — What circumstances compelled the 
 king to treat with them? — Describe the parliament which met on the 
 3d November, 1640. — Mention one of its first acts. — Give an account 
 of the trial, imprisonment, and death of Strafford. — What important 
 bills passed in parliament on the day of Strafford's attainder ?— 
 Describe the end of Archbishop Laud. — What occurred in Ireland 
 during the year 1641 ? — What accusations were brought against the 
 king? 
 
CHARLES I. 257 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 SEIZURE- OF THE FIVE MEMBERS — THE KING S FORCES — THE PARLIAMENT S 
 ARMY — CIVIL WAR — RELIGIOUS PARTIES — THE KING AND THE SCOTS — 
 CONDUCT OF CROMAVELL — THE KING'S DOWNFALL. 
 
 Distrust of King Charles grew stronger day by day. But 
 nothing so roused the fears of the nation as his attempt to 
 
 seize in their places in the . house, five members of 
 'i^"*a*' *^^ Commons on the charge of high treason. These 
 
 gentlemen withdrew, before the king entered West- 
 minster Hall, and were safely lodged in the city beyond his 
 majesty's reach. This breach of parliamentary privilege 
 injured Charles more than anything else in the eyes of his 
 subjects. His coming to the house with an armed band, 
 induced them to think of getting the military force of the 
 kingdom, for the future, under their own control. 
 
 With this view, parliament passed a bill for. the naming of 
 such lords-lieutenant of counties, as would raise a militia 
 mindful of their interests. The king refused his assent to a 
 bill which would place this power in the hands of the parlia- 
 ment. That body then resolved to muster an army and put 
 the kingdom in a state of defence, without the king's consent. 
 Of course, when affairs were in such a state, civil war could 
 not be far distant. The king, who had gone into the north, 
 issued his " Commission of Array,'' for levying troops. His 
 cause was strongest in the north, the west, and the south of 
 England. His army was raised chiefly among the nobility, 
 who were most loyal in their devotion to the king. The 
 Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and some of the 
 country gentlemen in the north, also favored the royal cause. 
 The queen, who had gone to Holland, pawned the crown 
 jewels, and sent her husband money. Many of the king's 
 officers were well skilled in the art of war, but the bad morals 
 22* R 
 
258 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of his troops, especially those commanded by his nephew, 
 Prince Rupert, who had come over from Germany, excited 
 the indignation of the people. Prince Rupert (or Prince 
 Robber, as he was nicknamed) scoured the counties of Eng- 
 land, burning and pillaging. The word plunder^ which 
 originated in Germany during the miseries of the Thirty 
 Years' War, was now heard for the first time in England. 
 Well would it have been had the deeds of robbery and wrong 
 which the word describes, been for ever and in all lands 
 unknown. 
 
 The parliament published their '' Ordinance of 
 
 16^^'. ^^i^iti^/' ^^^ enlistments, especially from among the 
 lower classes, soon swelled their ranks. Although 
 there were few well-trained soldiers amongst them, they were 
 enthusiasts for the cause in which they fought. Such zeal 
 was shown in contributions, from the bag of gold, or silver 
 plate, of the wealthy Londoner, down to the poor country- 
 woman's silver thimble, that their army was called, in derision, 
 " the thimble and bodkin army." John Hampden and Oliver 
 Cromwell had commissions as colonels in the parliament's 
 army. Colonel Hampden gathered his men under a banner, 
 bearing on one side the inscription, " God with us," and on 
 the other the Hampden motto, "Vestigia nulla retrorsum" 
 (never retracing our steps). Cromwell set about raising 
 troops who should be " men of religion," and soon he had 
 raised his famous body of "Ironsides," among whom no 
 drinking nor disorder nor impiety was allowed; nor swearing, 
 because for every oath a fine of twelve pence was paid. There 
 were nearly as many preachers as soldiers in the parliament s 
 army, and much time was spent in listeniog to sermons and 
 attending prayer meetings. The Puritans looked upon their 
 enemies as Amalekites, Philistines, and idolaters, whom they, 
 as God's chosen people, were commissioned to punish and 
 overthrow. Roundheads was a nickname given, in derision, 
 to this army, because of the fashion generally prevalent among 
 the Puritans, of cropping the hair close. Cavaliers and 
 
 Malignants were terms applied to the royalist army. 
 /// / ■•' 
 
CHARLES I. 259 
 
 164:^ It would be useless to give all the details of the 
 to history of the next four years, during which, after the 
 lapse of nearly two centuries, Englishmen again met 
 in deadly strife. It will suffice, after naming the first en- 
 counter, to mention those battles most important in their 
 results. The contest began at Edge Hill, in Warwickshire, 
 by an indecisive action, in which both parties claimed 
 
 164:3. ' ^^^ victory ; but of the four thousand who, at even- 
 ing, lay dead in the Vale of the Red Horse, at the 
 foot of Edgehill, the greater number were royalists. In a 
 skirmish fought in the following year, at Chalgrove Field, 
 near Oxford, the virtuous and admirable Hampden, ever 
 memorable for his resistance to the ship-money, lost his life. 
 His was a death lamented alike by both parties. In the west 
 of England the king's cause strengthened, and Bristol was 
 given up to the royalists. 
 
 Parliament now asked aid of the Scots. The only condition 
 on which the latter would grant it, was, that the English par- 
 liament and army should sign their " National Covenant," by 
 which the Scots hoped to establish Presbyterianism in Eng- 
 land. There was at this time a party rising into importance, 
 called the Independents, among whom Oliver Cromwell was a 
 conspicuous leader. They carried their opposition to the king 
 and his misgovernment much farther than the Presbyterians, 
 but held more enlarged views of religious liberty. Indeed, 
 " religious toleration," a doctrine very little understood or 
 relished in those days, was said by their enemies to be *' the 
 Great Diana" of the Independents. 
 
 The National Covenant of the Scots was a bond into which 
 they had entered for upholding the Presbyterian kirk of Scot- 
 land, at the time when Charles had first attempted to establish 
 Episcopacy in that kingdom. The Independents were averse 
 to the Covenant, and one of their number. Sir Harry Vane, 
 who was negotiating the treaty at Edinburgh, induced the 
 Scots to add the title of League to their national bond, thus 
 giving it something of a civil as well as religious character. 
 Under its new name, that of the '^ Solemn League and Cov*v 
 
260 ' HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 nant/' it was subscribed in both kingdoms. Afterwards, 
 however, to the great displeasure of the Scots, many were 
 allowed to serve in the army who had not taken the Covenant. 
 A l^rge Scottish army under Leslie, Earl of Leven, entered 
 England early in the following year, and being joined by the 
 parliament's forces under Lord Fairfax and the Earl of Man^ 
 Chester, besieged the royalists in the town of York. Oliver 
 Cromwell served under Manchester as his lieutenant-general. 
 Prince Rupert, hastening from the west, relieved the besieged 
 city, and then, against the advice of the Duke of Newcastle, 
 an older and better commander, insisted on aivino: 
 
 T 1 . o O 
 
 1644. ^^^^1® *o *^^ parliament forces on Marston Moor. 
 The result was, the bloodiest engagement of the 
 whole war, entire victory to the Roundheads, chiefly owing to 
 the desperate valor and able conduct of Oliver Cromwell, and 
 utter ruin to the royalist cause in the north. York surren- 
 dered, and in its glorious old minster the parliament army 
 and their Scotch allies returned thanks for this great victory. 
 The divisions between the Independents and the Presby- 
 terians were becoming daily more marked. The Independents 
 accused the Presbyterians of mismanaging the war, and, more- 
 over, of a desire to continue it, that they might keep the 
 powers of government in their own hands. The Presbyte- 
 rians were equally oifended at the Independents, on account 
 of their defence of religious liberty. The carrying in parlia- 
 ment of the celebrated " Self-Denying Ordinance" settled the 
 contest in favor of the Independents. By this ordi- 
 nance the army was to be reorganized, and all com- 
 manders who held seats in parliament, whether in* the House 
 of Lords or House of Commons, were to resign their com- 
 missions. The new commander-in-chief was Sir Thomas 
 Fairfax. In favor of Oliver Cromwell, who was too able a 
 soldier to lose, the " Self-Denying Ordinance" was dispensed 
 with. He was kept in the army, and soon won, at Naseby, 
 the most brilliant of his victories over the king. This battle, 
 fought in Northamptonshire, in the centre 'of England, in 
 June, 1645, was the last in which King Charles took TM)r^ - ' 
 
CHARLES I. 261 
 
 command. The next ten months witnessed sad reverses to 
 
 the royal cause. Bristol, Chester, Winchester, Basing-House, 
 and many other important towns and royal strongholds in the 
 south and west of England, were taken by the parliament- 
 arians. 
 
 Charles now looked with hope towards Scotland, where his 
 gallant partisan, the Marquis of Montrose, at the head of a 
 force of Irish and Highlanders, was winning important victo- 
 ries for the king. But Montrose's brilliant career was ended 
 in the autumn of this year, 1645, by a battle near Selkirk, in 
 which the Scotch General Leslie scattered his forces, and 
 drove him a hopeless fugitive back to the Highlands. The 
 king retired dispirited to his loyal city of Oxford, but even 
 there he felt far from secure. He remained in a wavering 
 state of mind for some months, seeing nothing but trouble 
 and difficulty before him wherever he turned. At 
 igIo.' ^^"g^^> dreading the approach of Cromwell's troopers, 
 and the horrors of a siege, he escaped in the disguise 
 of a groom, and fled to Newark, to throw himself into the 
 hands of the Scotch Presbyterian army. Charles hoped that 
 if he promised to tolerate their religion, they would, out 
 of jealousy of the Independents, re-establish him upon his 
 throne. 
 
 The Scots urged the king to sign the Covenant, and agree 
 to certain propositions, which had been presented by parlia- 
 ment, for the safety of the kingdom, as the only condition on 
 which they would support him. They urged in vain, and, 
 after much consultation and negotiation, agieed to deliver 
 Charles into the hands of the parliament. Commissioners 
 were sent to receive the royal captive, who was carried by 
 them to Holmby House, a stately mansion in North- 
 amptonshire, which his father. King James, had 
 purchased for him, when a boy, as a royal residence. It was 
 not far from Naseby Field. Here, in the month of June, 
 Charles was surprised by Cornet Joyce, and five hundred 
 soldiers, who had come to take him out of the hands of the 
 parliament, and carry him to the army. The king demanded 
 
262 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 by what commission they had come. The cornet replied 
 by pointing to his array of armed men. The king smiled, 
 acknowledging it was a " fair commission/' and certainly one 
 not to be resisted. He accompanied Cornet Joyce, rather 
 pleased on the whole to get out of the hands of the Presby- 
 terians. He was honorably treated by the army ; allowed to 
 have his own chaplains, and to see his children, whom he 
 tenderly loved. 
 
 At various times during the course of the war, efforts had 
 been made to bring about a reconciliation with the king; but 
 the insincerity of Charles towards all parties was such that 
 the thing was impossible. He was buoyed up either with the 
 hope of foreign assistance, or, if that failed, of being able to 
 take advantage of the divisions between the Presbyterians and 
 the Independents, and, by means of one or the other of these 
 parties, to get back to an absolute throne. 
 
 A council of officers, in which Cromwell and his son-in-law, 
 Ireton, took a leading part, had drawn up " Proposals'' 
 providing for a just and wise system of government, 
 and for religious toleration. These " Proposals," the best 
 which were ever made to the captive king, Charles rejected. 
 The deserted monarch indulged the vain hope that he should 
 yet triumph over his enemies. In a letter to the queen, 
 written at this time, he says he is courted by both the army 
 and the Scots, but thought he should close with the latter, 
 sooner than the other ; that she might be entirely easy as to 
 any concessions he might make to his enemies ; for that he 
 should know in due time how to deal with the rogues, who, 
 instead of a silken garter (the queen had charged him with 
 promising to make Cromwell a knight of the Order of the 
 Garter), should be fitted with a hempen cord. A spy told 
 Cromwell of this communication to the queen, and that a 
 messenger bearing the letter sewed up in the skirt of a saddle, 
 was to leave that night from an inn in Holborn, for Dover. 
 Disguised as troopers, Cromwell and Ireton went to the inn, 
 and awaited, over their cans of beer, the arrival of the mes- 
 senger. When he came in, they seized the saddle, and, 
 
CHARLES I. 263 
 
 ripping up the skirts of it, found the letter with the above 
 contents. From that moment it is probable that Cromwell 
 resolved to put no further trust in the king. 
 
 Shortly after this affair, Charles, being more closely watched, 
 imagined that his life was in danger, and, with a few attend- 
 ants, escaping from Hampton Court, where he had been lodged 
 by the army, threw himself into the hands of the governor of 
 the Isle of Wight. The king was actuated by several motives 
 in choosing this place of refuge. The governor, Colonel 
 Hammond, had said that he should go " down to his govern- 
 ment, because he found the army was resolved to break all 
 promises with the king, and that he would have nothing to 
 do with such perfidious actions.'' This declaration may have 
 led Charles to hope that his designs might be secretly favored, 
 if not promoted, by this ofl&cer. 
 
 In the Isle of Wight, moreover, he could better derive 
 advantage from the fleet, should the sailors at any time return 
 to their allegiance. Above all, he was on the coast, and, should 
 everything turn against him, could more readily, as his advisers 
 urged, " take boat, and dispose of his person into what part 
 beyond the seas he pleased.'' 
 
 At first the king was allowed comparative liberty. He rode 
 abroad, and received the impression that he might leave the 
 island at his own free will and pleasure. When, however, the 
 king's place of refuge became known, parliament sent orders 
 to the Governor to keep a strict guard upon his person. 
 
 These orders were obeyed, and Charles, finding himself 
 more closely a prisoner than he had ever been before, tried to 
 force the bars of his grated window at Carisbrook Castle, and 
 escape to France. He did not succeed. The miserable life 
 which the king had led told upon his appearance. The once 
 handsome monarch had become a prematurely gray and worn- 
 out old man. At Carisbrook he passed his time in reading, 
 and in conversing with the gentlemen who attended him, both 
 of whom were highly-cultivated men. 
 
 Meanwhile the hostility between the parliament and the 
 army, which was, in truth, a struggle between Presbyterianism 
 
264 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 and Independency, grew daily more bitter. The parliament 
 were still willing to consider terms of reconciliation with the 
 king, w'hilst Cromwell and the army had resolved that no 
 more treaties should be oftered him. The latter, to secure 
 possession of his person, ordered Lieutenant-Colonel Cobbet 
 to convey Charles from Carisbrook, to the solitary, 
 gloomy castle of Hurst, on the Hampshire coast. 
 Having possession of the king, a band of armed soldiers, 
 under Colonel Pride, entered London, surrounded the parlia- 
 ment house, and seized the principal members. Many fled, 
 and all that remained were fifty Independents. This seizure 
 is generally called Pride's Purge, and the members who were 
 left are known as the Rump Parliament. 
 
 In the dreary walls of his prison-house, Charles was filled 
 with fears for his life. The idea of his subjects bringing 
 their king to trial, and passing a judicial sentence upon him, 
 could never have entered into the imagination of this firm 
 believer in the divine right of kings. When, therefore, on 
 the night of the 16th December, 1648, he heard the creaking 
 of the drawbridge, and the tramp of armed men, he feared the 
 hour of his assassination was come. Great was his relief on 
 finding that their commission was to convey him to Windsor 
 Castle. On the route, Charles received touching evidences 
 of the reviving love and loyalty of the people towards their 
 discrowned and fallen monarch. On the day that his majesty 
 entered Windsor, the few Independents who now were left as 
 the House of Commons, appointed a committee to 
 
 Dec. 83, 
 104g. 
 
 draw up charges against the king. On the 6th 
 January, 1649, a high court of justice was appointed 
 for the trial. On the 20th, Charles Stuart was summoned 
 before it, and accused of treason. For seven days, in the 
 presence of that court, composed of those subjects whose 
 power he had despised, was King Charles obliged to appear, 
 and listen to the fearful charges of criminal misrule which 
 were brought against him. On the last day of the trial, 
 Charles Stuart, as "a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public 
 enemy," was sentenced to be executed. 
 
CHARLES I. 265 
 
 On the 30th January, 1649, on a scaffold erected in front 
 of the royal palace of Whitehall, the king's head was laid 
 upon the block. He met death with calmness, even cheerful- 
 ness. " I go from a corruptible to an incorruptible crown," 
 were his last words, addressed to Bishop Juxon. When the 
 executioner had performed his office, and the severed head 
 was held up in the sight of the people, "one dismal, universal 
 groan" broke from the awe-stricken witnesses of this fearful 
 deed. 
 
 Questions. — Describe Charles's attempt to seize the five members 
 of the Commons. — What effect did it produce upon the nation? — 
 Mention the bill introduced at this time in parliament. — What was 
 the consequence of the king's refusal of this bill ? — Describe the 
 king's army. — By what means did the parliament raise troops ? — 
 Describe the zeal which pervaded them. — Mention two distinguished 
 commanders. — Describe the character and discipline of the parlia- 
 ment's army. — Where was the first battle fought? — With whafre- 
 sult ? — For what was the skirmish at Chalgrove Field memorable ? 
 
 On what condition did the Scots promise to aid the parliament- 
 arians? — Describe the views of the Independents. — What was the 
 Scotch National Covenant ? — Relate the manner in which it acquired 
 the additional title of League. — How was it then received in Eng- 
 land ? — Describe the battle of Marston Moor, and the result of it. — 
 Mention the grounds of dispute between the Independents and th« 
 Presbyterians. — By what parliamentary act did the former triumph ? 
 — Relate the provisions of that act. — Who was exempted from it? — 
 Give an account of the battle won by him shortly after. 
 
 Describe Charles's reverses. — What circumstances defeated his 
 hope of aid from Scotland ? — Mention his subsequent conduct. — 
 What motive induced him to act thus ? — Relate the conduct of the 
 Scots with regard to the king. — By what means did he fall into the 
 hands of the Independents ? — How was he treated by them ? — What 
 defeated every attempt to enter into treaty with the king? — By what 
 false hopes was he actuated ? — Relate the discovery of Charles's 
 treachery made by Cromwell and Ireton. — Relate the king's subse- 
 quent conduct. — Describe his attempt at escape. — What induced the 
 king's removal to Hurst Castle ? — Describe the proceedings of the 
 army with regard to the parliament. — Describe the trial of the king. 
 — Relate the circumstances and manner of his death, 
 23 
 
266 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 ENGLAND A COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 CHANGES — IRELAND — PRINCE CHARLES — THE DUTCH WAR. 
 
 On the 9th of January, before the trial of King Charles, 
 the 2Teat seal had been broken and a new one made. 
 
 164:9. *^ 
 
 It bore on one side the words " The Great Seal of 
 England/' and on the other, " In the first year of freedom by 
 God's blessing restored 1648."* 
 
 Seldom has a great change in a nation's government been 
 effected with so little bloodshed. Three royalists and four 
 discontented mutinous soldiers were all who suffered in the 
 mighty revolution which converted England fi om a monarchy 
 into a republic. The remnant of Charles's Long Parliament 
 still continued its sittings, but the House of Peers was 
 abolished, and the government vested in a committee called 
 *' The Executive Council of State." Cromwell and other 
 distinguished members of the army were of this council. 
 
 Its secretary was John Milton. Little care we for the deeds 
 of state recorded by the • Puritan secretary ; whilst we dwell 
 with enthusiasm upon those glorious descriptions of higher 
 transactions in the Court of Heaven, which fell from the all 
 but inspired pen of the author of '^ Paradise Lost." 
 
 The affairs of the church were settled by allowing greater 
 toleration than had ever before been permitted within the 
 realm. In the army, the same masterly hands which had 
 raised it to such a pitch of greatness, retained the command. 
 In the navy, Blake, " the sea-hero of that age," was made 
 high admiral, and given the command of the fleet. 
 
 The affairs of Ireland were in a most distracted condition. 
 The native Irish and Romanists had risen against the Pro- 
 
 * Old Style. 
 
ENGLAND A COMxMONWEALTH. 267 
 
 testant English of the Pale, until scarcely a town, excepting 
 Dublin and Derry, were left, in which the latter could feel 
 safe. The Marquis of Ormond had proclaimed Charles (eldest 
 son of the late king), and the royal standard floated over the 
 island. Cromwell and Ireton crossed St. George's Channel 
 with nine thousand men. Town after town was re- 
 taken, and the spirit of insurrection crushed. 
 Ireland was quiet, but this tranquillity was secured at the 
 price of cruelty, burning, bloodshed, and massacre, which will 
 ever cast a stain on the administration of Cromwell. When 
 Cromwell had broken the strength of the rebellion, he re- 
 crossed the Channel, leaving Ireton to finish the conquest, 
 and govern the country. After the death of Ireton, which 
 occurred some years later, Cromwell's second son, Henry, was 
 sent into Ireland. Under his wise and good administration, 
 that kingdom Dot only enjoyed quiet but prosperity. 
 
 The murder of the king, for such was the execution of 
 Charles I. considered by most of the governments abroad, and 
 by the royalists at home, had raised up a host of enemies 
 against the infant commonwealth. France, Spain, Portugal, 
 and Russia committed acts of hostility. In Holland, six 
 masked royalists fell upon the English minister and murdered 
 him. In the colony of Virginia, the authority of the new 
 government was denied, and the fugitive Prince Charles was 
 invited to cross the ocean, and become king in that province. 
 This invitation had no result, save winning for that most 
 loyal colony the title of " The Old Dominion." 
 
 The darkest clouds arose from Scotland. There Prince 
 Charles had been proclaimed, and invited into the country. 
 The prince was at Breda, in Holland, when he received the 
 propositions of the Scots. In them lay his only hope of a 
 crown, and he sailed for Scotland. Before he left 
 his vessel, which anchored in Cromarty Frith, the 
 prince was obliged to sign the '' Solemn League and Covenant," 
 and he entered the- gates of Aberdeen, over which were hung 
 the limbs of that loyal partisan, the gallant Marquis of Mon- 
 trose. 
 
268 UISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The English parliament appointed Cromwell commander-in- 
 chief of the army, and sent him into Scotland. At Dunbar, 
 about twenty miles from Edinburgh, Cromwell, with only 
 twelve thousand men, was surrounded by the Scots, whose 
 forces numbered twenty-seven thousand. The latter were 
 well posted, too, on the hills which rise above the town. It 
 was unwise to attack them in this strong position, and Crom- 
 well waited. On the second day, the Scots, animated by hopes 
 of certain victory, rushed down from the hills ; whereupon 
 Cromwell joyously exclaimed : " The Lord hath delivered 
 them into our hands." On the morning of the 3d of Sep- 
 tember, a mist which had hung over the field, rolled away, 
 and the clear sunlight revealed the contending armies. " Now^ 
 let God arise, and let his enemies be scattered/' shouted the 
 Puritan general, as he rushed into the conflict. Ere it ended, 
 four thousand of the Scots army lay upon the bloody field, and 
 ten thousand prisoners swelled the train of the conquerors. 
 Cromwell oflered praise for this victory, in the glowing lan- 
 guage of King David, by ordering the 107th Psalm to be 
 sung upon the battle-field. Edinburgh, Glasgow, and other 
 towns submitted to the Puritan army. 
 
 The following year, whilst Cromwell was besieging 
 Edinburgh Castle, Charles gathered an army and 
 marched into England, hoping to be joined by the royalists, 
 and, with their aid, to gain the English crown. When this 
 news reached Cromwell, he started at once in pursuit. At 
 Worcester, on the 3d September, the anniversary of the battle 
 of Dunbar, this praying, fighting, praising, Puritan general 
 gained another great victory, which he called *' his crowning 
 mercy." No doubt he felt it to be such, for, had royalists and 
 Presbyterians united in support of Prince Charles, the power 
 of Cromwell and the army misjht have been broken. 
 
 As it was, Charles Stuart became a fugitive, indebted for 
 his life to the faithful loyalty of a family of Staffordshire 
 wood-cutters. In the humble cottage of the Penderells, amid 
 the woody shades of Boseobel, he lay concealed for many 
 weeks. On ouo occasion, the thick foliage of a friendly oak 
 
ENGLAND A COMMONWEALTH. 269 
 
 sheltered him from Cromwell's troopers, who, passing directly 
 under the tree, uttered, in gay tones, their confident hope of 
 olDtaining the price set upon the head of the fugitive Stuart. 
 " I know he is in these woods," were words that reached the 
 ears of the trembling Charles, as his pursuers passed and re- 
 passed under the boughs of the Royal Oak. After many 
 romantic and perilous adventures, and intrusting the secret 
 to forty persons, not one of whom, whether of high or low 
 degree, betrayed him, Charles succeeded in escaping to 
 France. 
 
 Meanwhile, Cromwell marched to London, where he was 
 received with great enthusiasm. Many grounds of hostility 
 existed between the republic of Holland and the common- 
 wealth of England, and, on the 19th July, 1652, parliament 
 declared war against the Dutch. This war was carried on at 
 sea, and redounded to the glory of the English navy. The 
 Dutch had three celebrated admirals : Van Tromp, De Ruyter, 
 and De Witt. They were skilful navigators, brave seamen, 
 and veterans in naval warfare. To these the English opposed 
 the genius and^ valor of Admiral Blake. 
 
 On the 29th November, Van Tromp, with a fleet of eighty 
 vessels and ten fire ships, surprised an English fleet of thirty- 
 seven ships in the Downs. Blake gave him battle. The 
 conflict lasted from ten in the morning until six in 
 the evening, and ended in the triumph of the Dutch. 
 Van Tromp was so elated with his victory that he fastened a 
 hroom to the mast-head of. his ship, to indicate his intention 
 of sweeping the seag of every EngHsh fleet. 
 • But this Dutch emblem of destruction was soon to be 
 lowered from the mast-head, and, before the war was ended, 
 the Dutch struck colors still more essential to the pride of 
 the republic, than the vaunting broom of Van Tromp. In 
 February, Blake again engaged the Dutch fleet, and, 
 after three days' hard fighting, won the victory, having 
 sunk eleven of the enemy's ships, and lost only one of his own. 
 Two more such victories, gained the following summer, closed 
 the war. 
 23* 
 
270 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The last of these engagements commenced at five o'clock in 
 
 the morning of the 31st of July. At ten o'clock, the brave 
 Admiral Van Tromp, fighting in the hottest of the battle, was 
 shot to the heart by a musket ball. " And no sooner was his 
 life spent, but the hearts of his men were broken, a general 
 consternation suddenly possessing the whole fieet, so that the 
 seamen had more mind to carry home the news of their 
 renowned admiral's death, than to take vengeance on the 
 English for killing him." In this hard-fought battle, the 
 English navy lost only two ships, whilst thirty of the Dutch 
 vessels were destroyed. With it ended the Dutch War. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the new seal. — Mention the only victims 
 who suffered in this revolution. — Describe the changes which took 
 place in the government. — Who was Cromwell's secretary ? — Repeat 
 the mention made of Milton. — What is told in relation to the church, 
 the army, and the navy ? — Describe the condition of Ireland at this 
 time. — Who undertook its subjection? — Mention the circumstances 
 with which it was effected ? — Who succeeded Ireton ? — What was the 
 character of his administration ? 
 
 What countries evinced hostility towards England ? — Describe the 
 conduct of Virginia. — What course had been taken in Scotland? — 
 Describe Charles II. 's reception in that country. — Who was sent 
 against the Scots? — Describe the battle of Dunbar. — What followed 
 upon this victoi'y ? — Relate Charles's efforts in the ensuing year.— 
 What battle was fought ? — With what result ? — Relate Charles's ad- 
 ventures in Staffordshire. — Whither did he finally escape ? 
 
 Against what country was war declared in 1652? — Mention the 
 distinguished naval commanders in this war. — Give an account of 
 the battle in the Downs. — What effect did it produce upon the 
 Dutch? — Relate the victory gained by the English the following 
 year. — Describe the battle which ended the war. 
 
CROMWELL AS LORD PROTECTOR. 271 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 CROMWELL AS LORD PROTECTOR. * 
 
 CROMWELL AND THE PARLIAMENT — THE PROTECTORSHIP — FOREIGN POLICT 
 
 THE PURITAN COURT — CROMWELL'S DOMESTIC AFFLICTION — HIS DEATH 
 
 — RICHARD CROMWELL — RESTORATION OP MONARCHY. 
 
 The Long Parliament had become unpopular with the 
 army, and with the nation. It was split into factions, and 
 was accused of being unjust and self-seeking. '^ We all 
 forget God, and He will forget us/' exclaimed Cromwell. 
 " God will give us up to confusion, and these men 
 will help it on, if they be suffered to proceed in their 
 ways ; some course must be thought of, to curb and restrain 
 them, or we shall all be ruined." And truly the course was 
 decided enough, which this remarkable man took to avert the 
 ruin he feared. 
 
 On the 20th April, he entered the house, having a band 
 of soldiers, whom he posted at the door. After listening 
 awhile to the debate, he rose, exclaiming : " Now is the time 
 — I must do it," and, telling the members that " the Lord 
 had done with them," he ordered in his soldiers, who cleared 
 the house. When the last member had departed, Cromwell 
 ordered the doors to be locked, and, putting the keys in his 
 pocket, returned to Whitehall, Thus ended the famous Long 
 Parliament. In the afternoon of the same day, Cromwell 
 went to Derby House and dissolved the council of state. 
 
 The government of England for three months remained in 
 the hands of Cromwell. At the end of that time a new par- 
 liament was called, generally known as Barebone's Parliament, 
 from the name of one of its leaders, who was a dealer in 
 leather. This parliament was far from being an assembly of 
 the wisdom of the nation, and, after they had held their 
 sittings for five months, Cromwell prevailed upon them to 
 dissolve, and resign their power into his hands. 
 
272 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 A council of officers now proclaimed Cromwell 
 ^«b"o Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England. 
 The powers of government were to be shared by a 
 parliament to assemble in less than six months, and to contain 
 a much larger representation of the English nation than had 
 hitherto met in that body. European princes hastened now 
 to seek the favor of the great protector, whose wisdom never 
 appears greater than when viewed in connection with his 
 foreign policy. Under him England became the leading 
 state in Europe. 
 
 He demanded of Spain, free trade with South 
 America and the West Indies. The minister of that 
 court replied : " It was like asking for the king of Spain's 
 two eyes." Cromwell, who declared that a ship of war was 
 the best ambassador, sent immediately a fleet, commanded by 
 Admiral Penn, to the West Indies. The conquest of the 
 valuable island of Jamaica was the result of this expedition. 
 Another English fleet, under Admiral Blake, suppressed the 
 Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean. 
 Milton had prayed, 
 
 ♦' Avenge, Lord, thy slaughtered saints, wlft>se bones 
 Lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold ;" 
 
 and the pen of the poet, and the power of the protector, were 
 the instruments by which God answered the prayer. The 
 duke of Savoy, and even the Pope, quailed before the strong 
 arm of Cromwell, and the sufi'ering Waldenses were reheved 
 from persecution. To this day, amid the mountain valleys 
 of Piedmont, the name of the English protector lives in 
 grateful remembrance. 
 
 The brilliant success of Cromwell's foreign poUcy did not 
 save him from the machinations of enemies in Eng- 
 land. Plots and conspiracies were rife, not only 
 among the royalists, but also among the Levellers, or Fifth 
 Monarchy Men. The latter were a set of fierce enthusiasts, 
 who dreamed of an ideal theocracy, in which there should be 
 
CROMWELL AS LORD PROTECTOR. 273 
 
 no king but Jesus Christ, and no parliament but a council of 
 the saints. The parliaments which met after Cromwell had 
 been named lord protector, did not co-operate with him. 
 
 He was advised by some to make himself king, and to 
 restore hereditary monarchy to England. This proposition 
 Cromwell decided it were wisest to reject. Refusing to be 
 crowned, he was solemnly inaugurated protector of the king- 
 dom at Westminster Hall, on the 26th June, 1657. The 
 court of the Puritan protector, graced by the learning of 
 Archbishop Usher, the presence of the poets Waller, Marvell, 
 and Dryden, and, above all, irradiated by the noble genius of 
 Milton, must have been a model of dignity, elegance, and 
 high-toned moral excellence. 
 
 In addition to the cares of public life which harassed his 
 mind, Cromwell was called to encounter trials of a private 
 nature. The domestic aiFections of the protector were strong 
 and ardent, and the death of a favorite daughter. Lady Clay- 
 pole, is supposed to have hastened his own. He died on the 
 afternoon of the 3d September, 1658, on the anniversary of 
 his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester. " I am a con- 
 queror, and more than a conqueror, through Jesus Christ, 
 who strengtheriteth me,'' were among the last words uttered 
 by the great protector, ere his spirit passed away from earth. 
 
 Richard Cromwell was named protector, but resigned the 
 office in a few months, beinoj utterly unable to master 
 
 1659. / _ » y 
 
 the factious spirit which now prevailed in the country. 
 General Lambert, who had hopes of attaining power, com- 
 manded the army in England. General Monk was at the 
 head Of the forces in Scotland. The latter determined to 
 revive the cause of monarchy, and secure the restoration of 
 Prince Charles. The remnant of the Long Parliament had 
 again taken their seats, and Monk, courting their favor, so 
 blinded" them as to his real designs, that they invited him to 
 London, supposing he would secure their authority. 
 
 x\ll this time Monk was in close negotiation with Charles, 
 who was at his old refuge in Holland. On the 25th of April, 
 a new parliament, consisting of both Lords and Commons, as 
 
 S 
 
274 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in the days before the Commonwealth, assembled at West- 
 tiiinster. On the 1st of May, a letter from Charles was pre- 
 sented to this body, who, after a few hours, voted a 
 
 1660. . 
 
 loyal answer to the absent prince. All the slumbering 
 feelings of loyalty seemed suddenly to awaken, and the nation 
 which had brought his royal father to the block, now rent the 
 air with shouts of " Long live King Charles II. !" The new 
 monarch, with his brother, the Duke of York, landed at Dover 
 on the 25th of the same month. 
 
 Questions. — Repeat Cromwell's remarks upon the Rump Parlia- 
 ment. — Relate his proceedings towards this assembly. — What fol- 
 lowed its dissolution ? — Name and describe the next parliament. — 
 What office was conferred upon Cromwell in 1653 ? — By whom ? — 
 By whom was the government to be administered? — Describe the 
 protector's conduct with regard to Spain. — Relate the advantages 
 gained. — Describe his further achievements among foreign states. 
 
 State some of the dangers and difficulties to which Ci'omwell was 
 exposed in England. — What is remarked of the court of the pro- 
 tector? — What domestic affliction befell Cromwell? — When did he 
 die ? — Repeat some of his last words. — Relate briefly the career of 
 his successor. — Describe the conduct of General Monk. — In what 
 did it result ?— Describe the popular feeling at this time. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 CHARLES II. 
 
 ACTS OP PARLIAMENT — THE REGICIDES — INGRATITUDE OF THE KING 
 
 SCOTLAND — FOREIGN RELATIONS — PLOTS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES. 
 
 On the 29th of May, 1660, the exiled Stuart was restored 
 to the throne of England. He entered London through 
 streets hung with tapestry and garlands, flowers strewn in his 
 path, and shouts of rejoicing rending the aii. The return- 
 ing tide of loyalty overflowed the nation with a force which 
 threatened utter destruction to every landmark of constitu- 
 tional right which the last thirty years had set up. 
 
CHARLES II. 275 
 
 Charles II. was restored to the throne of his father with 
 Bcarce a limit (save the word of a Stuart) to the royal pre- 
 rogative. The duty of tonnage and poundage was granted to 
 the king for life^ and the proposition was made to increase 
 the royal income to ovef a miUion pounds a year. The 29th 
 of May, the anniversary alike of his birth and of his restora- 
 tion, was made a religious festival. 
 
 All who had* taken part in the death of the late king were 
 called regicides, and their lives were in danger. Many fled 
 to other lands, and the colonies of New England received not 
 a few of the fugitives of the Restoration. About twenty-nine 
 were put to death in the most cruel manner, and even the 
 dead bodies of the leadinor Puritans were not allowed 
 
 1661. . , . 
 
 to rest in their graves. 
 
 On the 30th of January, the anniversary of the execution 
 of King Charles I., the remains of Cromwell, Ireton, and the 
 brave naval hero. Admiral Blake, were taken from their 
 honored tombs in Westminster Abbey. The mouldering 
 bodies were hung upon a gibbet, and when taken down, 
 were thrown with every mark of indignity into unconsecrated 
 ground. 
 
 The Presbyterians, who had been active in recalling the 
 exiled monarch, trusting that his gratitude would secure their 
 influence in bhe state, soon found cause to repent their confi- 
 dence. The church of England was restored, and all dissent- 
 ing clergymen^ Presbyterians and Puritans alike, were obliged 
 to subscribe to an "Act of Conformity" to the Estab- 
 lished Church, or to be turned out of their livings. 
 Two years later, a '■'• Conventicle Act" was passed, forbidding 
 the assembling for religious worship, anywhere but in the 
 churches of the Establishment. In the same session of 
 parliament in which this act was passed, the law obliging 
 the king to summon parliament once in three years was 
 repealed. 
 
 In Scotland, Charles II. forgot the gratitude he owed to 
 those Presbyterians who had been the first to espouse his 
 cause in his contest with Cromwell. " I placed the crown 
 
276 HISTORY OF EiNGLAND. 
 
 upon his brow, and this is my reward," said the Duke of 
 Argyle, when sentence of death was passed against him. 
 Argyle was a leading Covenanter, but had ever been a steady 
 friend to the restored Stuart. 
 
 These were unhappy days for the lyrk of Scotland : 
 
 " The assembled people dared in face of day no more 
 To worship God, or even at the dead 
 Of night, save when the wintry storm rave'd fierce, 
 And thunder peals compelled the men of blood 
 To couch within their dens." 
 
 Often these little congregations of Covenanters and Camero- 
 nians would be surprised, even in their wild hiding-places, by 
 a party of dragoons, headed by the fierce and cruel Claver- 
 house. Many were led forth to death; others were subjected 
 to torture, or languished in prison-houses. Many became 
 €xiles to a land of religious liberty, and the infant colonies 
 of America received valuable additions in the persecuted 
 Covenanters of Scotland. 
 
 The cruelty exercised in Scotland by Archbishop Sharp 
 €xcited the hatred of the people, and, instead of establishing 
 Episcopacy, they clung with almost fanatical ardor to the 
 Covenant. At the end of many years of tyranny, the arch- 
 bishop, whilst riding with his daughter, was waylaid and 
 barbarously murdered by a party of Covenanters, headed by 
 an enthusiast named John Balfour. Troops were sent into 
 Scotland. The Covenanters were defeated in* battle, — were 
 hunted and dragged from their hiding-places, and put to 
 death without mercy. Horrible tales are told of their sufler- 
 ings within the remote and gloomy prisons of Bass Rock and 
 Dunbarton Castle. 
 
 The military and political history of this reign discloses 
 little else than treachery on the part of King Charles. To 
 obtain money for his own extravagant and vicious pleasures, 
 seems to have been the sole object of this king's government. 
 He sold to the French king, Dunkirk, an important posses- 
 sion on the coast of Flanders, which Cromwell had taken 
 
CHARLES II. 277 
 
 from the Spaniards. This measure greatly exasperated the 
 nation. In the year 1664, Charles, hoping to secure for his 
 own pleasures the money raised for the expenses of the army, 
 declared war against the Dutch. Scarcely had this war begun, 
 ere a dreadful plague, the most fearful which had ever visited 
 England, spread over the land. In London alone, one hun- 
 dred thousand inhabitants were carried off in the space of five 
 months. The following year, 1666, an equally terrible fire, 
 known as the great fire of London, broke out in the capital, 
 and burned more than two-thirds of the city. The sailors, 
 unpaid and starving, were dying in the streets, and the glory 
 of the English navy was fast disappearing. The Dutch, 
 under their admiral, De Ruyter, sailed up the Medway, 
 destroyed the fortifications at Sheerness, burned some of the 
 finest English ships, and threatened* the city of London. 
 Charles was now glad to end a war which had been pro- 
 ductive of little good to the country. 
 
 When peace was made, the people clamored against 
 the Earl of Clarendon, who was accused of having 
 advised this now unpopular war. The chancellor, to escape 
 the fate of Strafford, fled to France, and the government fell 
 into the hands of a set of men, known as the Cabal, from the 
 initial letters of their names : Clifford, Arlington, Bucking- 
 ham, Ashley, and Lauderdale. 
 
 In 1669, Charles pretended to become a party to what was 
 known as the Triple Alliance ; a union of England, Holland, 
 and Sweden, against the ambitious monarch of France, Louis 
 XIV. Whilst the English ambassador was negotiating this 
 alliance at the Hague, the king was entering into a 
 secret treaty with the French monarch, promising, for 
 an annual pension of two hundred thousand pounds, to keep 
 true to the interests of that despot, and to aid him in con- 
 quering Holland. Two years later, relying on the money of 
 the French king, Charles, without his parliament's consent, 
 began a war against the Dutch. 
 
 The whole power of France, aided by England, was now 
 turned against the republic of Holland. But the Dutch were 
 24 
 
278 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 not to be destroyed. They opened their dikes; the ocean 
 flowed in and washed over their villaoes and famis, so 
 
 1673. ° ' 
 
 that no enemy could get to Amsterdam. Under the 
 young Prince of Orange (a nephew of Charles II., afterwards 
 William III. of England), they maintained a long and ob- 
 stinate struggle. Their famous admirals, De Ruyter and 
 De Witt, gained several important victories over the com- 
 ,„^. bined fleets of France and Enerland : and, in less 
 
 1674:. .... 
 
 than two years, Charles II., in spite of his promises 
 to Louis, was forced to make peace with the brave republic. 
 
 In the year 1677, the Prince of Orange was married to his 
 cousin Mary, eldest child of James, Duke of York, the brother 
 of the English king. The reign of Charles was disturbed, at 
 different times, by plots, or suspicions of plots, attributed both 
 to Roman Catholics ?md Dissenters, who were equally op- 
 pressed by the severe laws passed against them. One of 
 these plots was devised by an infamous man named Titus 
 Oat«s. He pretended that whilst in a Jesuit college on the 
 continent, he had found out a plan laid by the Romanists to 
 murder the king, and give the government of Eng- 
 land into the hands of the Jesuits. 
 Although there was not the slightest evidence that any 
 such conspiracy existed, the feeling against Popery was so 
 strong, that the nation became greatly excited. A bill was 
 passed preventing Roman Catholics from sitting as members 
 of either house; nor did they regain their seats in the English 
 parliament until the passage of the Catholic Emancipation 
 Bill, in 1829. Shortly after the above enactment, the parha- 
 ment, which had lasted seventeen years, was dissolved. 
 
 •Two other parliaments were called during this reign. The 
 first of these passed the celebrated act of Habeas Corpus, 
 which provides against unjust detention in prison 
 without trial. A bill was introduced to exclude 
 Jam'es, Duke of York, who was a Roman Catholic, from the 
 throne. Charles, fearing lest this bill should be carried, took 
 advantage of the repeal of the Triennial Act, and suddenly 
 dissolved parliament, in January, 1681. A new one waa 
 
CHARLES II. 
 
 27* 
 
 assembled in March of the same year, but as the bill of 
 exclusion was again brought up, the king dissolved it at the 
 end of the first week. 
 
 The terms Whig and Tory now became general. The 
 Whigs were opposed to Popery and absolute rule, and desired 
 to exclude a Papist from the throne. The Tories sided with 
 the king, and were generally High-Churchmen or Roman 
 Catholics. 
 
 A plot, known as the Rye-House Plot (because the 
 conspirators met at a place called The Rye, in Hert- 
 fordshire), caused the death of two noble, virtuous, and accom- 
 plished men — Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney. They 
 were accused of conspiring against the life of Charles II. and 
 the Duke of York, and of designing to place a Protestant king 
 upon the throne. They were tried by a court composed of 
 both political and personal enemies, and received with the 
 calmness and dignity of conscious virtue, the sentence of 
 death which was pronounced against them. 
 
 The prosecutions of those implicated in these plots were 
 conducted by the infamous Lord Jeffries, a man who now 
 began a career of cruel oppression, which has rendered his 
 name hateful to every lover of justice and virtue. 
 
 In the year 1683, the Princess Anne, the Duke of York's 
 
 second daughter, married Prince George of Denmark. Two 
 
 years later, Charles II. died. Previous to his death, 
 
 1685. *' ' ' 
 
 a Roman Catholic priest was privately introduced 
 into his chamber, and there is little doubt that he died in the 
 communion of the church of Rome. He had married Cathe- 
 rine of Braganza, a Portuguese princess, but she had borne 
 him no children, and the crown passed to his brother, James, 
 Duke of York. 
 
 Questions. — What is the date of the Restoration? — Describe 
 Charles's entry into London. — Mention the imprudence of the na- 
 tion on this occasion. — What became of those who had taken part 
 in the death of the king? — Mention the outrage offered to the re- 
 mains of distinguished Puritans. — Describe the king's treatment of 
 Protestant Dissenters. — Relate Charles's ingratitude towards th« 
 
280 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Duke of Argyle. — Describe the unhappy condition of the Scotch 
 church at this time. — What was the fate of Archbishop Sharp? — 
 Describe the sufferings of the Cameronians. 
 
 Mention the dishonorable acts committed by Charles in order to 
 obtain money. — Describe the two calamities which befell London in 
 the years 1605 and 1066. — What was at this time the condition 
 of the navy ? — Relate the disaster which befell England in conse- 
 quence. — Of what was the minister Clarendon accused ? — How did 
 he protect himself? — Into whose hands did the government then 
 fall ? — Relate the king's treacherous conduct during the year 1669. 
 — Against what country did he declare war three years later ? — 
 Describe the spirit and conduct of the Dutch. — In what did it 
 result ? 
 
 What classes of English subjects were tempted to form conspira- 
 cies against the government ? — Describe the one known as Titus 
 Oates's Plot. — What bill was passed in consequence of this plot? — 
 Name the important act passed in parliament in 1679. — What bill 
 of exclusion was brought in ? — How did Charles prevent its being 
 carried? — What two political parties existed at this time? — Describe 
 their respective aims. — What plot was discovered in 1683? — What 
 distinguished men suffered in consequence of this conspiracy ? — 
 Relate the circumstances of Charles's death. — Who succeeded to the 
 
 r.rcxMirn ? 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 THE FIRST YEAR OF THE REIGN OF JAMES II. 
 
 HIS DECLARATIONS — HIS CONDUCT — ARGYLE — MONMOUTH — CRUELTIES — 
 JEFFRIES, 
 
 When King James came to the throne, he told his council 
 that he intended to preserve the government, both in 
 church and state, as it was already by law established; 
 that he would support and defend the church of England, 
 and preserve the nation in all its just laws and privileges. 
 This declaration gave great joy, and no opposition was made 
 to his coming to the throne. 
 
 In a few days, however, his actions proved the falsity of 
 
JAMES II. 281 
 
 these fair words. He caused the Romish chapel to be opened, 
 and went publicly to mass. He proclaimed that his brother, 
 the late king, had died in communion with the church of 
 Rome, and he caused the most barbarous punishment to be 
 inflicted on Titus Oates, the author of one of the plots against 
 the Roman Catholics in Charles's reign. 
 
 The revenue granted to Charles for life, of course ceased at 
 his death, but James, acting by the advice of Judge Jefi"ries, 
 continued to levy it without calling a parliament. He also 
 courted the aid and begged the money of France, to render 
 him independent of parliament. When parliament met, a 
 revenue of a million pounds for life was voted to the king, 
 and large supplies of money to repel the threatened invasion 
 of the Dukes of Argyle and Monmouth. 
 
 Argyle was a Scotch Protestant nobleman, a son of the duke 
 who had suffered death at the Restoration. Monmouth was 
 an illegitimate son of Charles II. ; an ardent Protestant, and 
 very much beloved by the lower classes of the English. 
 These noblemen met in Holland, and planned an invasion to 
 drive James from his throne, and establish the Protestant 
 religion in the three kingdoms. The Duke of Argyle was to 
 land on the western coast of Scotland, where his own clan and 
 the Covenanters were strongest. Monmouth, at the same 
 time, was to invade the south-west of England. 
 
 The Scottish duke appeared, with a mere handful of men, in 
 the Western Highlands, but Monmouth lingered in Holland. 
 Few gathered to the standard of Argyle, who soon fell into 
 the hands of his enemies, and was put to death. His fol- 
 lowers were seized, and met their death courageously. One 
 of them confessed his share in the invasion, boldl;)^ declaring 
 that it was a sacred duty to resist tyrants, and that " he did 
 not beheve that Grod had made the greater part of mankind 
 with saddles on their backs, and bridles in their mouths ; and 
 some few, booted and spurred, to ride the rest." 
 
 Another, when examined before James, was reminded by 
 that monarch, that it was in his power to pardon him. '^ It 
 is in your power*' replied the undaunted prisoner, " but not 
 24* 
 
282 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in your nature" The truth of this bold repartee was con- 
 firmed, not only by the sentence of death, which James pro- 
 nounced against the man who uttered it, but by all the acts 
 of his cruel reign. 
 
 About a week before the defeat of Argyle, the Duke of 
 Monmouth landed in Dorsetshire. There and in Somerset- 
 shire he was received with enthusiasm by the lower classes, 
 but few men of note joined him. He entered Taunton 
 through streets strewn with flowers; a band of young maidens 
 presented him with a Bible, and a standard wrought by their 
 own hands. Monmouth received the Bible with reverence, 
 and declared he had come to defend the truths which it 
 contained. He assumed the title of king, and advanced 
 slowly into the country. He wasted much time in trying to 
 drill and discipline his army of peasants and raw recruits. 
 Many proved treacherous, and when he encountered the 
 king's forces at Sedgemoor, he was totally defeated. Mon- 
 mouth fled from the field, and wandering about for some days, 
 was at length discovered, in the disguise of a peasant, crouch- 
 ing in a ditch half hidden by ferns and nettles. He begged 
 to see the king, and when conducted into his presence, pleaded 
 hard for his life. His petition was refused, and, after a few 
 days' imprisonment in the Tower, this unhappy pretender was 
 beheaded. 
 
 The consequences of this rebellion were terrible to those 
 who were in any degree implicated in it. Colonel Kirk, a 
 soldier, who had once been governor of Tangiers, and who 
 certainly vied with heathen Moors in barbarity, was sent into 
 Somersetshire to punish the rebels. He and his soldiers 
 plundered^ burned, and killed. But even their atrocities 
 were merciful, compared to the infamous cruelties of Judge 
 Jeff"ries, who was sent to try all who had taken part in the 
 rebellion. 
 
 It would be painful to dwell upon the wickedness of this 
 most wicked judge. The old, the Infirm, the young and 
 helpless, women and children, were alike condemned to prison, 
 torture, and death. To these " Bloody Assizes," as the infa- 
 
JAMES 11. 283 
 
 mous trials were justly called, hundreds of the Protestant 
 yeomen of England fell victims. In Somersetshire, the 
 streets of thirty-six villages were filled with the heads and 
 limbs of these victims, hung in every conspicuous place, and 
 even " over the very churches devoted to a merciful God." 
 
 ''England," says a writer, "was now an Aceldama; the 
 country for sixty miles together, from Bristol to Exeter, had 
 a new and terrible sort of sign-posts and signs, — gibbets, and 
 heads and quarters of its slaughtered inhabitants." Many 
 were sold as slaves in the American colonies and in the West 
 Indies. 
 
 Questions. — What declarations and promises were made by 
 James II. at his accession ? — Describe the acts of the king which 
 falsified these promises. — By what illegal acts did he raise his reve- 
 nue ? — For what purpose did parliament vote money ? — Give an 
 account of Argyle's invasion. — In what did it result? — Mention 
 James' conduct towards some of the prisoners who fell into his 
 hands. — Relate the history of Monmouth's rebellion. — Describe 
 some of its fearful consequences. — Mention the atrocities of Judge 
 Jeffries. 
 
 CHAPTER XL VIII. 
 
 THE LAST YEARS OF THE REIGN OP JAMES H. 
 
 EFFORTS OF THE KING TO RESTORE ROMANISM — THE NATION'S RESISTANCB 
 REVOLUTION — WILLIAM OF ORANGE. 
 
 Having suppressed rebellion, James proceeded to execute 
 his favorite design, — that of restoring the Roman Catholic 
 religion to England. In defiance of the Test Act, a law 
 which had been passed in the previous reign, forbidding 
 all public employments to those who were not members of the 
 Established Church, he filled the army with Roman Catholic 
 soldiers and officers, asserting the right to suspend or entirely 
 dispense with all laws, or acts of parliament whataoever. I» 
 
284 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 Ireland, arms were taken from the Protestants, whilst the 
 Roman Catholics were allowed to possess them. 
 
 The Irish Romanists were not likely to use with modera- 
 tion, the power thus given them over enemies of another race 
 and faith, who for more than five hundred years had been the 
 triumphant oppressors of their country. 
 
 In 1687, on the 4th of April, the king published a "Decla- 
 raration of Indulgence," which granted toleration for religious 
 worship to all Christian bodies, Roman Catholics and Dis- 
 senters alike. The people of England saw through James' 
 design in this act. They knew it was only passed to favor 
 his own religion, until he should obtain sufficient power to 
 establish it in the land, without toleration for other modes of 
 faith. The great body of the Dissenters, therefore, refused to 
 acknowledge the power of the king to grant this Indulgence, 
 although it would release them from long years of banish- 
 ment, imprisonment, and disgrace. Among those who refused 
 were Baxter, Howe, and Bunyan. They united with the 
 church of England in opposing the Declaration. 
 
 James, having introduced into his court and army a goodly 
 number of Roman Catholics, proceeded to impose sucli upon 
 the universities and public schools. Oxford and Cambridge 
 had ever shown themselves loyal, but they resisted this un- 
 precedented invasion of their privileges, and although James 
 forced upon Magdalen College, at Oxford, a Romish master, 
 it was only after a manful and noble resistance on the part 
 of that ancient and wealthy institution. 
 
 On the 27th of April, 1688, James commanded the Decla- 
 ration of Indulgence to be read in all the churches. There 
 were over ten thousand clergy in the Established Church. 
 Of this number, two hundred alone complied with the royal 
 command. " In London, there were about one hundi%d 
 parish churches. In only four of these was the order in 
 council obeyed. At St. Gregory's the Declaration was read by 
 a divine of the name of Martin. No sooner had he uttered 
 the first words, than the whole congregation rose and with- 
 drew." Samuel Wesley, the father of John and Charles 
 
JAMES II. 285 
 
 Wesley, a curate in London, took for his text that day the 
 noble answer of the three Jews to the Chaldean tyrant : " Be 
 it known unto thee, king, that we will not serve thy gods, 
 nor worship the golden image which thou hast set up." 
 
 The archbishop of Canterbury (Bancroft) and six other 
 bishops drew up a petition to the king, affirming that they 
 did not refuse the Declaration " from any want of duty and 
 obedience to his majesty, nor yet from any want of tender- 
 ness to dissenters," but because it claimed a power which 
 parliament had declared illegal, and the king had no right to 
 do away with the laws passed by that body, without its con- 
 sent. The primate and the bishops were thrown into the 
 Tower, and brought to trial on the charge of seditious libel. 
 
 On the way to and from their prison to Westminster Hall, 
 they were greeted with the greatest enthusiasm. The 
 banks of the Thames were lined with people, who fell 
 on their knees, imploring the blessing of the stout-hearted 
 prelates, and even the dissenters sent ministers to condole 
 with, and encourage them. The jury who sat on the bishops' 
 trial was a packed jury : that is, men were selected who were 
 more likely to condemn than to acquit the prisoners. But 
 even this jury and the subservient judges dared not withstand 
 the strong feeling of the whole nation. 
 
 The trial, which took place on the 29th of June, lasted 
 throughout the entire day. All night the jury considered 
 the verdict. At 9 o'clock the next morning the court re- 
 opened, and a verdict of ^' not guilty" was rendered. " Then 
 there arose a loud huzza from the noblemen, gentlemen, and 
 people within the court, which anon was echoed back by a 
 louder huzza from those without, which sounded like a crack 
 of the ancient roof of Westminster Hall, and which was 
 passed on from group to group, to Temple Bar, and unto the 
 heart of the city. There was a lane of people to the water- 
 side, all on their knees as the bishops passed and repassed, 
 to beg their blessing. The delivered prelates bade them fear 
 Grod and honor the king." 
 
 James was at Hounslow Heath, reviewing -the army, when 
 
286 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the shouts from the city, echoed back by those from the 
 camp, fell upon his ear. Ou asking the meaning of it, he 
 was told it '' was nothing but the soldiers shouting, because 
 of the acquittal of the Bishops." ^' Call you that nothing ?" 
 said the king; and very good reason had James to fear that it 
 was no insignificant outburst of popular feeling. At night 
 the city blazed with bonfires, and the Pope was burned in 
 effigy before the palace. Notwithstanding the excitement 
 of the mob, but a single life was lost, that of a parish 
 beadle, who was shot by the servants of a Roman Catholic 
 nobleman. 
 
 Meanwhile the birth of a royal heir had been announced. 
 This event took place on Trinity Sunday, the 10th of June. 
 It was hailed with rejoicing by the king, but produced great 
 anxiety and depression among the Protestant portion of the 
 nation. Many declared, that the new-born infant was not 
 the offspring of the king and queen, but a child imposed 
 upon the people, to secure the succession of a Roman Catholic 
 and Stuart dynasty. 
 
 The court issued orders for the observance of a day of 
 national thanksgiving, and shortly after, the order in council 
 went forth, for inserting the name of the Prince of Wales in 
 the Book of Common Prayer. But the incredulity and antipa- 
 thy of the Protestants were not easily overcome. They were 
 ready to interpret the most accidental circumstances as signs 
 of ill-omen. The night of the celebration for the birth of the 
 young prince, was black and gloomy, and the fire-worts 
 proved a complete failure. This was declared by the popu- 
 lace to be a clear token of the anger of the Almighty at the 
 imposition practised by the Stuart king towards the Protest- 
 ant heirs of the throne. 
 
 And now the nation resolved to turn for deliverance to 
 William, Prince of Orange, who had married the Princess 
 Mary, the eldest daughter of James. 
 
 In the old manor-house, known as Lady Place, situated 
 in Berkshire, in a romantic valley on the banks of the 
 Thames, the party met who planned the revolution • of 
 
JAMES II. 287 
 
 1688. There, papers were drawn up, and signed by many of 
 the influential men of the kingdom, inviting William of 
 Orange to take the throne. 
 
 In August, William collected a large army and fleet, but 
 with so much secrecy that it was the middle of September 
 before James became aware of his danger. Then he sought 
 by fair promises to win back the hearts of his people ; but, 
 while restoring Protestants to their lost honors and oflBces, 
 he had his infant son, James Francis Edward, baptized 
 according to the rites of the Roman church ; the Pope, in 
 the person of his nuncio, standing as godfather. This action 
 spoke louder than any words, and James strove in vain to 
 recover the confidence of the nation. 
 
 On the 5th November, the anniversary of the Gunpowder 
 Plot, William landed at Torbay. In the meanwhile, James' 
 courtiers were deserting him daily. The Prince of Denmark 
 supped with him one night, and the next morning went over 
 to the Prince of Orange. His wife (James' second daughter, 
 Anne), influenced by the fascinating Lady Churchill, followed 
 her husband's example. James, when he heard it, exclaimed 
 with tears : " God help me ! my very children have forsaken 
 me." 
 
 By this time the country was all in arms for William, and 
 James saw there was nothing left for him but flight. On a 
 cold December night the queen fled, with her infant, across 
 the Thames, " lighted on her doleful way by the burning of 
 Popish chapels." Thence she escaped to the seashore, and 
 was conveyed in a yacht to Calais. The king followed, but 
 was discovered and brought back. The populace, although 
 they destroyed the property of Roman Catholics, committed 
 no murders. Even when Jefi'ries was detected, disguised as 
 a sailor, he was not left in their hands, although the mob 
 followed the carriage which conveyed him to the Tower, 
 with shouts of rage. 
 
 James was conveyed to Rochester, whence he made a 
 second and more successful escape. His flight could not but 
 be a great relief to William, and no vigilance was used to 
 
288 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 prevent it. On Christmas Day, he landed at the fishing 
 village of Ambleteuse, on the opposite shore of the Channel, 
 and proceeded with but little delay to the court of the French 
 king. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the conduct of King James with regard to 
 religion. — What extravagant claim did he assert ? — Relate his con- 
 duct towards the inhabitants of Ireland. — Describe his treatment 
 of tiie universities. — What declaration was passed by the king in 
 April, 1687 ? — How was it regarded by the Dissenters ? — Describe 
 their action on this occasion. — Relate in this connection the conduct 
 of the clergy of the Established Church. — Describe the petition of 
 the seven bishops. — What treatment did they experience in conse- 
 quence ? — Relate the history of their trial, and state its result. — 
 Describe the king's emotion on receiving the intelligence. 
 
 What event hastened the downfall of the king ? — To whom did the 
 nation turn for deliverance ? — In what manner was he invited into 
 the kingdom ? — Describe James' conduct when made aware of his 
 danger. — Relate the success which attended William's invasion. — 
 Describe the escape of the queen. — What befell James ? — Describe 
 the conduct of the populace. — Mention James' second attempt at 
 escape. — State the result. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 THE FIRST THREE YEARS OF THE REIGN OF WILLIAM HI. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF THE CROWN — CHARACTER OF THE KING RESISTANCE 
 
 IN SCOTLAND — IN IRELAND — SIEGE OF LONDONDERRY — WILLIAM'S VIC- 
 TORIES. 
 
 After the flight of James, a convention met, declared the 
 
 throne vacant, and invited William and Mary, Prince and 
 
 Princess of Orange, to fill it. A member of this convention 
 
 remarked : " I have heard that the king has his 
 
 1689. ... ^ 
 
 divine right ; but we, the people, have a divine right 
 too." In settling the crown on the new king, the rights of 
 the people were better defined than they had ever been before. 
 
WILLIAM III. 289 
 
 The power of the sovereign was limited by the constitution^ or 
 the laws which were to govern the kingdom. In the reign 
 of William III., England became a constitutional limited 
 monarchy ) under which form of government she has risen to 
 a proud eminence of national greatness and prosperity. 
 
 Some were for giving William the throne in right of his 
 wife, the Princess Mary, she being the daughter of James. 
 But the prince declined taking any part in the government, 
 unless the authority were put in his own hands. " If you 
 think fit to settle it otherwise," he said, " I will not oppose 
 you, but will go back to Holland, and meddle no more in 
 your afikirs." The full exercise of the regal power was finally 
 put into the hands of William, and in F'ebruary, 1689, the 
 Prince and Princess of Orange were proclaimed king and 
 queen of England. 
 
 The primate and seven bishops, and about four hundred 
 of the clergy, refused to take the oath of allegiance to Wil- 
 liam. They received the name of non-jurors, were ejected 
 from their sees and livings, but not otherwise persecuted. 
 Parliament granted the king a yearly revenue of one million 
 two hundred thousand pounds, half of which was to defray 
 the expenses of the royal household and of certain civil 
 offices. This was called the Civil List. The remainder was 
 to be appropriated in defence of the kingdom. Parliament 
 required, moreover, that there should be laid before it, an 
 estimate of the expenditure of the army and navy. The 
 requisite appropriations being then made, it was carefully 
 looked to, that the sums voted for these purposes should be 
 employed in no other way. This account, demanded by the 
 Commons, for the proper application of supplies, proved an 
 important check to extravagance, in which English monarchs 
 had formerly indulged. 
 
 In matters of religion, the monarch was inclined to a gene- 
 rous toleration. When a committee presented him with the 
 Scotch coronation oath, William stopped at the clause which 
 required him to "root out all heretics, &c.," and said to the 
 commissioners : " I will not oblige myself to become a per- 
 25 T 
 
-90 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 secutor." After strenuous efforts, Williairi prevailed upon 
 parliament to pass a bill allowing free toleration to all Christ- 
 ians, excepting Roman Catholics. The king would fain have 
 included them, but, in the temper of the nation, it was 
 impossible. 
 
 In Scotland, the chiefs of many of the wild Highland clans 
 declared for James II. Their leader was Graham, of Claver- 
 house, whom James had created Viscount Dundee. They 
 hated Argyle and the Lowland lords who had submitted to 
 William. A body of these fierce Highlanders, commanded 
 by Dundee, met their foes in a mountain defile of the Gram- 
 pians, known as the pass of Killiecrankie. The Lowlanders 
 fled before the fierce onset of the Celtic clans, but the latter 
 gained the victory only with the loss of their leader. It was 
 a Highland tradition that Dundee bore a charmed life, which 
 could not be taken by bullet of lead or iron. A Lowland 
 soldier, aware of this, tore a silver button from his coat, and, 
 putting it into his musket, fired a shot, which pierced Dundee 
 to the heart. 
 
 Notwithstanding this victory, the cause of James was lost, 
 and, by the end of the year, all opposition in Scotland to 
 William's government seems to have ceased. 
 
 In the meanwhile, the Roman Catholics of Ireland were 
 loud in their protestations of loyalty to the fugitive King 
 James. The Irish peasantry rose against the hated English 
 and Protestant settlers. In every county, they burned, 
 robbed, and pillaged. No dwelling of an Englishman or 
 Protestant was safe from the attacks of the wild Irish Rappa- 
 rees : in one mansion, which had contained three thousand 
 pounds worth of plate, not even a single silver spoon was left. 
 The cattle, of which the English owned large herds, were 
 stolen and butchered with savage cruelty. Many of the most 
 beautiful districts of Ireland appeared as though war, pesti- 
 lence, and famine had successively passed over them. Large 
 numbers of the English fled across the Channel, and but two 
 strongholds in the province of Ulster, Enniskillen and Lon- 
 donderry, remained to theni. 
 
WILLIAM III. 291 
 
 In March, James, having received assistance from the 
 French monarch, landed in Ireland. On leaving the court 
 of France, Louis XIV. bade him farewell, saying : " The best 
 wish I can give you is, that I may never see you again." 
 James was received in Ireland with enthusiasm; was wel- 
 comed with Te Deums in Dublin, and proceeded forthwith to 
 attempt the recovery of Ulster. In the previous year, twelve 
 hundred men had appeared before the gates of Londonderry, 
 and demanded admittance. Nine Protestant youths rushed 
 out of the city, raised the drawbridge, and shut the gates in 
 the very face of the army of King James. Ammunition was 
 collected, the walls manned, and '^ there, at length, on the 
 verge of the ocean, hunted to the last asylum, and baited in a 
 mood in which men may be destroyed, but will not easily be 
 subjugated, the imperial race turned desperately to bay."* 
 
 Finding their governor. Colonel Lundy, in correspondence 
 with the enemy, they drove him from the town, and this 
 memorable defence was conducted by the wise and spirited 
 counsels of a Presbyterian minister, named Walker. James 
 appeared in person before Londonderry, but departed at the 
 end of a few days, leaving the command in the hands of 
 General Rosen, who prosecuted the siege with merciless seve- 
 rity. When it had lasted nearly two months, English ships 
 appeared in the harbor of Lough Foyle, but more than six 
 weeks passed before they could surmount the obstructions in 
 the bay, and effect a landing. 
 
 At length, at sunset on the 30th of July,*three vessels were 
 descried approaching the town. The great boom, which had 
 80 long hindered their coming, had been destroyed, and, by 
 ten o'clock, the famine-stricken defenders of Londonderry 
 welcomed their deliverers. The population had been reduced 
 from seven thousand to three thousand, during this fearful 
 siege, and lean and ghastly were the figures of the remnant 
 which famine had spared, to witness the delivery of the 
 devoted city. 
 
 * Macaulay. 
 
292 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 On the same day with the relief of Londonderry, the 
 Protestants of Enniskillen had sallied from the town, and 
 meeting a detachment of James' army at Newton Butler, 
 had defeated them, with a loss to the latter of twenty-five 
 hundred men. 
 
 William sent an army, under the Baron Schomberg, into 
 Ireland, and, in June, 1690, he went thither himself. He 
 landed at Carrickfergus, and, advancing towards Dublin, met 
 James on the banks of the river Boyne. On the 30th of 
 June, the armies lay encamped on opposite sides of the river, 
 near the spot where now stands Slane Castle. On the morning 
 of this day, as William rode along his hues, a ball, fired by 
 the enemy, slightly grazed his shoulder. He stooped in his 
 saddle for a moment, and this action gave the impression, in 
 the army of King James, that he was killed. The news was 
 immediately sent to Dublin, thence to Paris, and from Paris 
 to Rome. 
 
 On the 1st of July, William, with his Dutch and English 
 army, dashed across the river in the face of the enemy. 
 James fled towards Dublin soon after the conflict began, and 
 his Irish troops, although fighting bravely, were beaten in 
 every quarter. Louis XIV. saw again the face of the fugitive 
 English king. The brave veteran. Baron Schomberg, and 
 the Presbyterian minister who had defended Londonderry, 
 perished in this battle. Walker's late career had given him 
 Buch a taste for war, that, although created bishop of Derry, 
 he preferred remaining in the army to returning to the duties 
 of his sacred ofl&ce. When it was told the king that the 
 bishop of Derry had been killed by a shot at the ford, 
 William laconically replied : "What business had the minister 
 there?" 
 
 On the 6th July, William returned thanks in the cathedral 
 church at Dublin for the victory of the Boyne. Other im- 
 portant towns soon surrendered, but Limerick, defended by 
 native Irish, held out so bravely that the king was compelled 
 to raise the siege. In September, he went back to England. 
 In the following year, Limerick surrendered to AVilliam's 
 
WILLIAM III. 293 
 
 erenerals, and was admitted to honorable terms. The 
 
 1691* 
 
 king endeavored, as much as possible, to check the 
 spirit of retaliation, to secure to the Irish the exercise of 
 their religion, and to prevent the indiscriminate confiscation 
 of their property. 
 
 Questions. — What followed the flight of the king? — What im- 
 portant suggestion was made in the convention ? — How was this 
 idea carried out? — What did England become in this reign? — On 
 what terms only did William consent to assume the crown ? — De- 
 scribe the conduct of a portion of the clergy. — What in consequence 
 became their position ? — Mention the course adopted with regard to 
 the king's revenue. — Describe William's disposition towards the 
 religious parties in the kingdom. — Who were excluded from the bill 
 of toleration ? 
 
 Describe the party which still held for James in Scotland. — Give 
 an account of the battle of Killiecrankie. — Relate the anecdote of 
 Dundee. — Which cause finally triumphed? — Describe the position 
 of the Protestant population in Ireland at this time. — What strong- 
 holds alone remained to them? — By what means was James II. 
 enabled to invade Ireland ? — How was he received there ? — Give 
 some particulars of the defence and siege. — Eelate the final suc- 
 cess. — Describe William's operations in Ireland. — Give an account 
 of the battle of the Boyne. — What followed the victory ? — What i3 
 related of the siege of Limerick ? — What disposition was shown by 
 the king on the occasion of its surrender ? 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 THE LAST TEN YEARS OF THE REIGN OF WILLIAM III. 
 
 GLENCOE — FOREIGN WARS — DRATH OP QUEEN MARY — HER CHARACTER 
 
 WILLIAM ABROAD — ACT OP SUCCESSION — LOUJS XIV. — WILLIAM'S DEATH. 
 
 In the year 1692, an event occurred in Scotland, which 
 
 proves that traces of barbarism were yet to be found amid the 
 
 light and civilization of the seventeenth century. After the 
 
 battle of Killiecrankie, there was no formidable opposition to 
 
 26* 
 
294 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the new government in Scotland, although a few Highland 
 clans still held out. 
 
 A proclamation was made, offering pardon to all who before 
 
 a certain day should take the oath of allegiance. One 
 169*3.' ^^^^ chieftain, Macdonald of Glencoe, held out for a 
 
 long time, but at last repaired to Fort William, to 
 make his submission. There was no officer at that po'st, com- 
 petent to administer the oath, and when the old chieftain, 
 after a toilsome winter's journey, reached Inverary, the last 
 day appointed for the reception of the oath had passed. He 
 was allowed to take it, however, and, trusting in this security, 
 Macdonald returned to his wild Highland valley near the 
 banks of Loch Lomond, and to the midst of his devoted 
 clansmen. 
 
 "Meanwhile, Lord Breadalbane, Argyle, and other personal 
 enemies of. Glencoe, by a false statement, obtained from King 
 William permission to exterminate this Highland clan, as a 
 band of thieves and rebels. In February, a party of Argyle's 
 soldiers visited the glen, and were received with unsuspecting 
 hospitality. For twelve days they ate the food and slept in 
 the cottages of the clansmen of Glencoe. Ere day-dawn on 
 the morning of the thirteenth day, the rocks and streams of 
 the mountain valley were stained with the blood of the unsus- 
 pecting hosts. Many were murdered in sleep, others fled, 
 but were buried beneath snow-drifts, or died of starvation. 
 Rightly was the spot named Glencoe, 'Hhe glen of weeping." 
 W^illiam, throughout his life, maintained a warm affection 
 for his native country, and a watchful care over its interests. 
 1690 These interests, as well as those of England, and 
 
 every country in Europe, were threatened by the 
 
 ambition of Louis XIV. of France. To check the 
 power of this monarch, a league was formed against him by 
 England, Holland, Germany, Austria, and Spain, at the head 
 of which was placed AVilliam of Orange. The pursuance of 
 this life-long design to crush the power of Louis XIV. obliged 
 the English king to spend a large portion of many successive 
 years on the continent. 
 
 to 
 1697. 
 
WILLIAM III. 295 
 
 In 1692, Louis, taking advantage of William's absence, 
 furnished James II. with a fleet and army for the invasion of 
 England. On the 22d of May, off Cape La Hogue, a brilliant 
 action took place between the English and French fleets. 
 On the heights above La Hogue, the Stuart king, with his 
 large army of invasion, beheld the destruction of the ships by 
 the aid of which he had hoped to recover his throne. The 
 fallen monarch watched the action with intense interest. For 
 one moment his natural pride in the navy of England made 
 him forget how fatal now was its prowess, and he exclaimed : 
 *' See my brave English sailors!" It was but a momentary 
 exultation. Shortly after, he beheld the utter destruction 
 of the French fleet, and sadly exclaiming, " Heaven fights 
 against me,'' he returned to the court of the French king. 
 
 In 1694, shortly after )Villiam's return from a successful 
 campaign on the continent, he met with a severe affliction in 
 the death of his queen, to whom he was tenderly attached. 
 Mary's character was very lovely. Her charities were warm 
 and liberal, and she had a great aversion to calumny and evil 
 speaking. In remarking that the most violent enemies of the 
 government had never spoken of her with harshness, she said : 
 '' God knew where her weakness lay. She was too sensitive 
 to abuse and calumny ; He had mercifully spared her a trial 
 which was beyond her strength ; and £he best return which 
 she could make to Him, was to discountenance all malicious 
 reflections on the character of others." 
 
 Mary had a very effective yet graceful way of doing this. 
 Often she would quietly ask the tattler, who was about to open 
 her budget of news, concerning elopements, duels, &c., &c., 
 whether she had ever read her favorite sermon. Dr. Tillotson's 
 on Evil Speaking. 
 
 In the year 1697, France, exhausted by long years of 
 expensive warfare, consented to terms of peace. In Septem- 
 ber, the treaty of Ryswick was signed, by which Louis XIV. 
 acknowledged the Prince of Orange as king of England, and 
 promised to abandon the cause of the house of Stuart. 
 
 Whilst in Holland, William met with one, his equal in 
 
296 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 wisdom, who was destined to become the founder of a mighty 
 empire. This was Peter the G-reat of Russia. The English 
 king found him, not surrounded by the pomp of a great 
 sovereign, but in the humble guise of a ship-carpenter, work- 
 ing in the dockyards of Holland ; his mind eagerly grasping 
 those improvements which, applied by his genius, were to 
 raise his barbarous country to a high and powerful rank 
 among the nations of the earth. The Czar visited England, 
 and was well received by William. 
 
 In the year 1701, parliament passed an Act of Succession, 
 by which the crown of England was secured to the Princess 
 Anne (Queen Mary's sister), and to her descendants. Should 
 she die, leaving no children, it was to go to the Protestant 
 Electress Sophia, and her descendants. This lady was a 
 granddaughter of James I., being the child of his daughter 
 Elizabeth, who had married the Elector Palatine. The 
 Stuarts were all excluded. 
 
 In the same year died at the palace of St. Germains, King 
 
 James II. Louis XIV., notwithstanding the treaty of Rys- 
 
 wick, immediately proclaimed the deceased monarch's eldest 
 
 son king of England, by the title of James III. 
 
 1701. o » J J 
 
 Louis's ambition moreover led him to place his grand- 
 son on the throne of Spain. These events induced another 
 formidable alliance of the nations of Europe, against the 
 schemes of the aspiring monarch. 
 
 But King William, the soul of the alliance, was not per- 
 mitted to take an active part in it. . In early manhood he had 
 had a severe attack of small-pox. This disease had under- 
 mined his constitution, and the subsequent years of his life 
 were marked by painful suffering. This consideration greatly 
 enhances the untiring activity and fidelity displayed by this 
 monarch in the discharge of his great and varied responsibili- 
 ties. A fall from his horse, in February of 1702, caused an 
 inflammation of the lungs, which hastened his death. One 
 of his last acts was a message urging his parliament to take 
 measures for the union of England and Scotland. A few days 
 later, Lord Albemarle arrived with good news from Holland, 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 297 
 
 but the interests of this world were no longer uppermost in 
 the mind of the king. " I draw near my end," were the 
 words he addressed to the nobleman; and at eight o'clock the 
 following morning, Sunday, 8th of March, 1702, he breathed 
 his last. 
 
 Questions. — Relate the history of the massacre of Glencoe. — 
 Mention the circumstances which led William to engage in foreign 
 wars. — Give an account of the battle of La Hogue. — What domestic 
 affliction befell William in 1694? — Relate the account given of the 
 character of the queen, — Describe the way in which she was wont to 
 rebuke evil speaking. 
 
 Mention the treaty concluded in 1697. — What were the terms of 
 it ? — Repeat what is told of Peter the Great. — Describe the act of 
 parliament passed in 1701. — When and where did James II. die ? — 
 What was the conduct of the French king on this occasion? — 
 Describe the suffering experienced by the king from ill health. — 
 What was his last public act? — Mention his interview with ono 
 of his courtiers. — When did he die ? 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 CONDITION OF ENGLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CEN- 
 TURY. 
 
 RELIGION — THE DRAMA — POETS— MILTON— SClEyCE— ROYAL OBSERVATORY 
 — GREENWICH HOSPITAL — ART — ARCHITECTURE — NEWSPAPERS — POST- 
 OFFICES. 
 
 One of the most important events in the history of religion, 
 during this century, was the translation of the present standard 
 edition of the English Bible. In the year 1606, by the order 
 of King James I., forty-seven of the most learned divines of 
 the universities assembled at Oxford, Cambridge, and West- 
 minster, for this great work. They were separated into six 
 divisions or companies, and a certain portion of Scripture 
 jriven to each. Each member of a division translated tho 
 
 o 
 
 assigned portion, and when all had finished, they met, to read 
 
298 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 and compare their translations, and decide upon the best. 
 When all the divisions had finished their separate portions, 
 the whole forty-seven assembled. Then the entire new ver- 
 sion was read. Each disputed point was discussed, and no 
 portion adopted until the combined wisdom of these learned 
 and good men had consented to it. Thus, in God's good 
 Providence, was given, both in the single-minded sincerity 
 and in the learning and piety of the translators, the best 
 security we could ask, for the correct translation of His Holy 
 Word. 
 
 Those Protestants, who, refusing conformity to the church 
 of England, had hitherto been generally known as Puritans, 
 became, in the course of this centui^, established in distinct 
 societies, under various denominations. There were Presby- 
 terians, Independents, Baptists, and Quakers or Friends. 
 These sects differed as much from each other as they all did 
 from the church of England The Independents alone held 
 the doctrine of toleration, and during Cromwell's administra- 
 tion there was perhaps less persecution than at any other 
 period in the century. 
 
 When the Long Parliament triumphed, an assembly of 
 Presbyterian divines met at Westminster, and there prepared 
 a Confession of Faith, a Directory for Public Worship, and 
 the Longer and Shorter Catechism, still in use among that 
 denomination of Christians. During the ascendency of this 
 parliament, many of the clergy of the church of England 
 were turned out of their livings, and suffered more or less 
 (severe persecutions. 
 
 Jei-emy Tiiylor, being driven from his living in Uppingham, 
 withdrew to a mountain district of Wales, and supported him- 
 self by teaching, whilst writing " Holy Living" and other 
 works, which have proved valuable contributions to sacred 
 literature. The learned Archbishop Usher, although tolerant 
 in his own views, was among those who suffered at this time. 
 Nor were these persecutions confined to members of the 
 church of England. 
 
 It was during the triumph of the Long Parliament, that 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 299 
 
 the Independent (afterwards the Baptist) Roger Williams fled 
 from his own country, to found a non-persecuting church in 
 the wilds of America. He learned, alas ! that the spirit of 
 intolerance reigned in New England as triumphantly as in 
 the mother country. Driven from Massachusetts by the 
 same causes which had induced him to leave England, he 
 fled to Rhode Island, and there founded a religious society, in 
 which was preached and practised the new doctrine, that men 
 should not be persecuted for any religious belief. 
 
 At the Restoration, when the English church was again 
 established, the dissenters in their turn sufi"ered the loss of 
 houses and lands. About two thousand ministers of religion 
 were driven from their livings, or resigned them, rather than 
 comply with the Act of Uniformity. 
 
 The last burning of heretics in England took place in the 
 year 1612, shortly after which a law was passed, abolishing 
 the cruel practice. But though heretics no longer suffered 
 this dreadful death, the faggot was again lighted for the 
 burning of witches. 
 
 For several years the belief in witchcraft spread over 
 Europe, and many innocent men, women, and children, suf- 
 fered at the stake, on the charge of being in league with the 
 evil one. Between the years 1640 and 1660, some three or 
 four thousand victims in Europe fell a sacrifice to this terrible 
 delusion. 
 
 Meanwhile, the spirit of persecution '^had driven thousands 
 of those honest, diligent, and God-fearing yeomen, who are 
 the strength of a nation, to seek a refuge beyond the ocean, 
 among the wigwams of red Indians and the lairs of panthers."* 
 In America was found " ample room and verge enough" for 
 the persecuted of every creed. To the churchman, the cava- 
 lier, and the courtier, Virginia opened its loyal arms. To the 
 hunted Covenanter and Cameronian, the Jerseys off'ered a 
 secure and happy shelter. The peace-loving Quaker founded 
 amid the forests of Pennsylvania, his city of brotherly love, 
 
 * Macaulay. 
 
300 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 while New England received the comers of every sect, who 
 found at least one home of toleration on the shores of Narra- 
 gansett Bay. Another was provided before the century closed. 
 The noble-minded Koman Catholic, Lord Baltimore, founded 
 on Chesapeake Bay a colony which grew and flourished under 
 the kindly influences of liberty of conscience. 
 
 Early in the seventeenth century the old miracle plays and 
 allegories began to give place to the more natural and finished 
 performances of the drama. There were many writers of plays, 
 but the master mind of Shakspeare has shed a glory over this 
 and every age, in the splendor of which, the writings of lesser 
 dramatists are quite forgotten. Shakspeare was born at Strat- 
 ford on the Avon, in the year 1564. At an early age he 
 married Ann Hathaway, a farmer's daughter, and went to 
 London, where he became the partial proprietor of the Globe 
 and Blackfriars Theatres. He wrote the greater number of 
 his plays during the early part of the reign of James I. The 
 closing years of his life were passed in New Place, at Strat- 
 ford, the home of his childhood. He died in 1616, two years 
 before the birth of Milton, and was buried in the parish 
 church of his native town. 
 
 As in the early part of this century the cotemporary drama- 
 tists of Shakspeare — Ben Jonson, Beaumont, Fletcher, &c. — 
 although writers of no mean merit, are eclipsed by the supe- 
 riority of their great master, so in the middle and close of the 
 century, the fame of the poets Waller, Cowley, Dryden, Her- 
 bert, Marvell, and others, is lost in that of the author of 
 *' Paradise Lost" — the Puritan poet, John Milton. The poem 
 which has rendered his name immortal was given to the world 
 when he was old and blind. 
 
 Nor must we omit another priceless legacy, which the 
 seventeenth century bequeathed to the hearts and minds of 
 succeeding generations. " The Pilgrim's Progress," written 
 by John Bunyan, the poor tinker of Bedford, when he lay, 
 " persecuted for conscience' sake," a prisoner in Bedford gaol. 
 The writings of Jeremy Taylor, the quaint Fuller, Archbishop 
 Leighton, Bishops Burnett, Stillingfleet, Tillotson, and South, 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 301 
 
 and the Presbyterians Baxter and Howe, rank high among 
 the valuable contributions to sacred and secular literature 
 which the seventeenth century produced. One of the poets- 
 laureate in the reign of King William, was Tate, the author 
 of the well-known Christmas hymn : 
 
 " While shepherds watched their flocks by night.*' 
 
 King Charles II. founded the Royal Society for the pro- 
 motion of science. To this noble institution, which brought 
 together the learned and scientific men from all parts of the 
 kingdom, is owing the great progress made in science at the 
 close of this, and during the succeeding period. In 1619, 
 Dr. William Harvey published his discovery of the circulation 
 of the blood through the arteries and veins of the human 
 body. So general was the ignorance of physiology at this 
 time, that the discovery was ridiculed even by men of intelli- 
 gence, and it is said that when first published it was received 
 by scarcely one " medical man who had passed his fortieth 
 year.^' 
 
 The grand discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton gave a new 
 impulse to science. The study of the stars was facilitated 
 by the improvements in telescopes ; the vagaries and dreams 
 of astrology were rapidly displaced, and the heavens made to 
 "declare the glory of G-od,'' by the wonderful and brilliant 
 discoveries in the noble science of astronomy. For the pro- 
 motion of this science, and that of navigation, Charles II. 
 founded, at Greenwich, in 1676, the *Eoyal Observatory. 
 The first astronomers royal, John Flamsteed and Fidmund 
 Halley, who held the office successively, from 1676 to 1742, 
 are distinguished for their valuable contributions to the cause 
 of science. During the erection of the observatory, Halley, 
 in the distant island of St. Helena, was engaged in mapping 
 the constellations of the southern hemisphere. He was the 
 first astronomer to predict the return of a comet. He saw 
 the one since known by his name, whilst at Paris, in Decem- 
 ber, 1680. He calculated its reappearance in the years 1758 
 and 1835, which actually occurred. 
 26 
 
302 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ;At Greenwich, Charles II. had commenced the building 
 of a beautiful palace, surrounded by terraced grounds, and 
 ornamented with shade trees. After the battle of La Hogue, 
 Queen Mary saw maimed and wounded sailors brought home, 
 with no fitting hospital for their reception. She formed the 
 noble design of converting the palace of Greenwich into an 
 asylum for disabled seamen. After her death, William erected 
 on the spot which she had chosen, Greenwich Hospital, a 
 beautiful monument to the virtues of the gentle queen. 
 
 The Stuart kings, especially Charles I. and II., were patrons 
 of the fine arts. In their reigns, the great Dutch painters, 
 Van Dyke and Rubens, were invited into England. By the 
 exertions of the latter, the celebrated Cartoons of Raphael 
 were purchased at Brussels for Charles I. These pictures, 
 of which seven only are preserved, represent subjects taken 
 chiefly from the Acts of the Apostles. They are called 
 Cartoons from the name of the material, a species of paste- 
 board, on which they are painted. Rubens came into Eng- 
 land not as an artist, but as an ambassador from the king of 
 Spain. He left behind him, on the beautiful ceiling of the 
 banqueting house at Whitehall, a noble specimen of his 
 genius as a painter. 
 
 In many of the palaces, and some of the churches of Eng- 
 land, are to be found exquisite wood carvings, the work of 
 Grinling Gibbons, a celebrated sculptor, who wrought birds, 
 fruits, and flowers, in wood, with a delicacy and perfection 
 that almost equals tlie productions of nature. 
 
 Many galleries of art contained not only fine paintings, but 
 collections of gems and antiquities. In the gallery of the 
 Earl of Arundel were placed the statues, busts, gems, and 
 monuments brought from Greece by that nobleman in 1610, 
 and generally known as the Arundelian Marbles. 
 
 In the early part of this period flourished Inigo Jones, who 
 introduced the Italian style of architecture into England. 
 He built the beautiful banqueting house at Whitehall But 
 the most famous architect of this age was Sir Christopher 
 Wren. After the great fire which in the year 1666 laid in 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 308 
 
 ruins two-thirds of the city of London, the geuius of Wren 
 was employed in the work of restoration. His greatest monu- 
 ment is the magnificent cathedral of St. Paul's, which he 
 rebuilt from its foundation, accomplishing the work in thirty- 
 five years. In London alone, fifty-one churches were erected 
 from his designs. Among these, St. Stephen's, Walbrook, 
 said to be a beautiful copy in miniature of St. Peter's at 
 Kome, has long been celebrated for its graceful proportions 
 and exquisite finish. The Koyal Hospitals at Greenwich and 
 Chelsea, the Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford, and numerous other 
 works, remain noble and enduring monuments of the genius 
 of the great architect. 
 
 The national anthem, "God save the King," was composed, 
 and first sung in the reign of James II. 
 
 The first English newspaper was printed during the session 
 of the Long Parliament, in the year 1641. It was entitled 
 "■ The Diurnal Occurrences or Daily Proceedings of Both 
 Houses in this Great and Happy Parliament, from the 3d 
 November, 1640, to the 3d of November, 1641." Between 
 this date and that of 1695, there were a number of news- 
 letters printed, but after the Restoration so many restraints 
 were put upon the liberty of the press, that there could be 
 but few free and independent publications. On the 3d of 
 May, in the year 1695, these restraints were removed. The 
 law which had been made for the censorship of the press 
 expired at that date, and was not renewed. No sooner was 
 the press rendered free by this circumstance, than there 
 followed the publication of a host of newspapers. There 
 was " The Packet Boat from Holland and Flanders," " The 
 Pegasus," "The Flying Post," "The Old Postmaster," 
 "The Postboy," and "The Postman." They were printed 
 on coarse and dingy paper, and were so small that the entire 
 sheet would not contain as much reading-matter as is now 
 to be found in a single column of one of the larger daily 
 newspapers. 
 
 The first regular post-office was established in 1635, for 
 
304 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the more speedy transmission of news between England and 
 Scotland. 
 
 Questions. — Name the most important event connected with the 
 history of religion in this century. — Describe the plan on which the 
 work was accomplished. — Mention the names of the various classes 
 of dissenters existing at this time. — What is remarked of the Inde- 
 pendents ? — Describe the acts of the Westminster Assembly. — What 
 portion of the nation suliered during the power of the Long Parlia- 
 ment? — Give the account of Roger Williams. — Describe the condi- 
 tion of dissenters after the Restoration. — Give some account of the 
 burnings for witchcraft in this century. — Mention the colonies in 
 America to which the various classes of the persecuted fled. 
 
 Relate the account given of Shakspeare. — Name some of the poets 
 of this age. — Under what circumstances was Milton's most cele- 
 brated poem written? — What other distinguished woi'k was the pro- 
 duction of this century? — Name other authors of this age. — What 
 institution was founded by Charles II.? — What benefits did this 
 foundation confer on science? — What discovery was made by Hai'vey 
 in 1619 ? — What improvements took place in astronomy at this 
 time? — Where, by whom, and for what purpose, was the Royal 
 Observatory founded? — Name the first astronomers royal. — Relate 
 the circumstances connected with the founding of Greenwich Hos- 
 pital. 
 
 Name some celebrated painters who flourished in this age. — 
 Describe the Cartoons. — What work of Rubens's art remains? — 
 Describe the work of Gibbons the sculptor — Name the collections 
 of antiquities made during this period. — In what work was Wren 
 employed ? — What mention is made of him in connection with St. 
 Paul's Cathedral? — When was the national anthem composed? — 
 Mention the first English newspaper. — Why could not newspapers 
 be independent? — When were these restrictions removed? — Describe 
 the papers of that day. — When was the first post-office established? 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 305 
 
 CHAPTER LII. 
 
 CONDITION OP ENGLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CEN- 
 TURY. 
 
 ROADS — CONDITION OF LONDON — COMMERCE — MANUFACTURES — BANK OP 
 ENGLAND — STYLE OF LIVING — CLASSES OF SOCIETY — REVENUE — WHIG 
 AND TORY — NATIONAL DEBT. 
 
 In 1663, turnpikes or toll-gates were first erected, and some 
 regard was paid to the improvement of the highways, which, 
 however, continued to a much later period in a wretched 
 condition. In many districts six horses were not sufficient to 
 drag the family coach out of the sloughs and quagmires, 
 which abounded in the king's highway. Bold highwaymen 
 and daring robbers added to the perils of the traveller. 
 Journeys were chiefly made on horseback, as the public 
 conveyances were few, and subjected the traveller to much 
 inconvenience. In 1669, a wonderful vehicle, described as 
 " The Flying Coach," performed the entire journey between 
 Oxford and London (fifty-two miles) in a single day. The 
 success of this experiment gave rise to the establishment 
 of numerous lines of stage-coaches. 
 
 The streets of the capital were in a sad condition : they 
 were unpaved, narrow, and dirty, and one writer complains 
 not only of the " ill and uneasy form of paving underfoot," 
 but also of the " troublesome and malicious disposure of the 
 spouts and gutters overhead." The streets moreover were 
 frequented by daring cut-purses, and the scene of constant 
 fights among the apprentices. Coaches, wagons, and sedan 
 chairs jostled each other, and the ear was stunned by the loud 
 variety of cries uttered by the venders of every kind of ware. 
 The importunate seller, walking before his shop-door, cried : 
 " What d'ye lack, madam?" '' What d'ye lack, sir?" to every 
 passer-by, telling over at the same time, as loud and fast as 
 possible, a list of all the commodities in which he dealt. 
 26* U 
 
306 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 Such was shopping in the seventeenth century. Large 
 painted signs, projecting into the streets, gave a gay appear- 
 ance to the shops. There were '' Saracen's Heads," " Red 
 Lions/' "Golden Lambs," " Hogs in Armor," " Swans with 
 two Necks," " Spread Eagles," and others of the most gro- 
 tesque character. 
 
 At night the streets of London were more dangerous than 
 by day, for they were unlighted for the most part, save by the 
 torches, links, or lanterns which were carried by the few foot- 
 passengers who ventured to thread their dark and narrow 
 intricacies. In 1662, an act was passed obliging householders 
 to hang out some description of light on the side of the house 
 next the street, every night between Michaelmas and Lady 
 Day, from dark until nine o'clock in the evening. The 
 remainder of the year, and the rest of the night, the streets 
 were left in darkness. The houses were chiefly of wood, and 
 the streets so dirty, that bonfires were frequently lighted, to 
 keep off disease. London was better built after the fire. 
 
 We have seen how in the last century voyages were made 
 to Lidia and the East. Early in the present century the 
 English merchants had established factories in India, in the 
 islands of Sumatra and Java, and even in Japan. The East 
 India Company fitted out large ships, which brought to Eng- 
 land valuable cargoes. Tea and coffee were introduced ; they 
 came, however, but slowly into general use, and were for a 
 long time very expensive luxuries. The East India Company 
 in 166-1, wishing to present some valuable rarity to the king, 
 was obliged to pay forty shillings a pound for some tea, and 
 even at that price could only get two pounds two ounces. 
 
 A gentleman writing in his diary under date of September, 
 1661, says : '' I sent for a cup of tea (a Chinese drink), of 
 which I had never drunk before." Pepper, cloves, ginger, 
 and all the East India spices were now brought into England, 
 as also calico, so called from Calicut, a town in southern 
 India, and various other Indian manufactures. 
 
 In some of their quarrels with the Dutch, who were formid- 
 able rivals of the English in the East India trade, the latter 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 307 
 
 lost the island of Java, which has ever since remained a 
 valuable possession to Holland. In 1651 the English gained 
 St. Helena. A few years previously they had established 
 themselves at Madras, which soon became one of their most 
 important possessions in India. In 1669, the town of Bombay 
 was granted to the East India Company by King Charles II , 
 he having received it as a part of the marriage dower of 
 Queen Catherine, who was a princess of Portugal. 
 
 The trade of England in America, Turkey, the Levant^ and 
 elsewhere, became so considerable in Charles II. ^s reign, that 
 a " Council of Commerce" was appointed to take charge of its 
 extended interests. This was the origin of the Board of 
 Trade. The number of whalers visiting the shores of Green- 
 land and Spitzbergen increased, and whalebone was found to 
 be a useful article of commerce. Hitherto the whale had 
 been valued only for its oil. 
 
 The plantation trade, or that carried on with the colonies in 
 America, was daily growing more and more important. Early 
 in the century, in 1607, the first permanent English colony 
 was founded at Jamestown, in Virginia. In 1620, the first 
 settlement in New England was made, and before the close of 
 the seventeenth century, twelve of the old thirteen colonies 
 had been planted on the Atlantic coast of America. The 
 mother country was already beginning to reap an annual 
 revenue from the productions raised in the forests of the 
 New World, and at the close of the century, no less than five 
 hundred vessels were employed in trade with these colonies 
 and the West Indies Some of these were engaged in the 
 traffic of slaves. 
 
 Tobacco became an article of commerce. It takes its name 
 from Tabaco, a place in Yucatan, whence it was first brought. 
 James I. particularly disliked this noxious weed, and wrote a 
 book against it, called "The Counterblaste to Tobacco.'^ But 
 despite the king's book, and the additional duty which he 
 caused to be laid upon the hateful drug, the use of tobacco 
 became more and more popular Sir Walter Ealeigh was 
 very fond of smoking, and introduced the custom into 
 
308 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 England. The first time he indulged in this practice, his 
 servant, happening to enter the room with a jug of water, 
 saw Sir Walter enveloped in smoke, and, very naturally, 
 supposing him to be on fire, dashed the contents of the jug 
 over his master's head, to save him, as he believed, from 
 a terrible death. 
 
 The cotton manufactures of England took their rise in this 
 century. Manchester is spoken of in the reign of Charles I., 
 as being engaged in this important branch of industry, which, 
 however, was yet in its infancy. In 1685, Louis XIV. issued 
 his famous revocation of the Edict of Nantes This edict, 
 for more than eighty years, had granted protection to the 
 Protestants in France. That protection was now withdrawn, 
 and cruel dragoons, riding into every Huguenot village, 
 hunted the poor artisan or manufacturer to the death. Thou- 
 sands, fleeing from this persecution in their native country, 
 came to England. Among them were the silk- weavers, who 
 established at Spitalfields, London, their celebrated and beau- 
 tiful manufacture. 
 
 The Dutch and Flemings who came into England, taught 
 many excellent lessons of agriculture. They introduced cauli- 
 flowers, cabbages, turnips, carrots, parsnips, and pease, all of 
 which useful vegetables were brought from Holland in the 
 early part of this century. Many of the beautiful hop-gardens 
 of England were planted by the Flemings, nearly three hun- 
 dred years ago. 
 
 The Bank of England was established in King William's 
 reign. Its operations began in Grocers' Hall, in 1694. Then 
 fifty-four persons were employed in the transaction of its 
 business. Now its employees number nine hundred In 
 1695, all the clipped and base money of the kingdom was 
 called in, melted down, and a new coinage struck. Sir Isaac 
 Newton was appointed warden of the mint. Under his direc- 
 tion nineteen mills were in operation at the Tower, and soon 
 one hundred and twenty thousand pounds of silver coin were 
 issued weekly from the mint The new currency, " the finest 
 and most beautiful in all Europe," came into circulation m 
 
ENGLAND DURING TIIK SEVKNTEENTII CENTURY. 809 
 
 the year 1697. Guineas had been coined in Charles II. 's 
 reign; they were so called from the country in Africa whence 
 the gold was brought. 
 
 James I. discouraged the flocking of the nobles and country 
 gentlemen to court, and sent them home to cultivate their 
 estates. The long retinues which had once been essential to 
 the state of a noble, were no longer kept up. In the country- 
 houses of the gentry, great hospitality prevailed. In the 
 spacious old hall of the country squire, ornamented with the 
 trophies of the chase, the oaken board was spread, and bent 
 beneath a generous weight of roast beef and plum pudding. 
 The gentry treated their tenants to annual feasts, and among 
 the farmers, sheep-shearings and harvest-homes were occasions 
 of great jollity to all their dependents. 
 
 As intercourse with India and the countries of the Levant 
 became frequent, articles of luxury, both in furniture and 
 dress, multiplied. Carpets continued to be used rather as 
 table than floor covers ; on the floors, even of palaces, rushes 
 were still strewed, or at best superseded by a covering of 
 matting. Oil-cloth was first manufactured in 1660. The 
 extravagance in dress which prevailed at court during the 
 reigns of the Stuarts, is justly censured in a poem written by 
 a Thames waterman. He says they 
 
 "Wear a farm in shoe-strings edged with gold, 
 And spangled garters worth a copyhold ; 
 A hose and doublet which a lordship cost, 
 •A gaudy cloak, the manor's price almost; 
 A beaver band and feather for the head, 
 Prized at the church's tithe — the poor man's bread." 
 
 In King William's reign, monstrous periwigs and cocked 
 hats were in vogue among the men, whilst the women wore 
 hair-powder, high caps, stomachers richly laced, and flowing 
 skirts, looped back to display the flounces and furbelows with 
 which the petticoat was adorned. The court dames and city 
 ladies of this century cared far less for the improvement of 
 the mind, than those noble women whose learning, virtues, 
 
810 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 
 
 and accomplishments adorned the court and reign of Eliza- 
 beth. In fact, gross ignorance of the common rudiments of 
 education prevailed amongst them. In the library of the 
 Hague may be seen an English Bible, presented to the 
 queen of William III. on the day of their coronation. In 
 Mary's own handwriting on the title page is the following 
 inscription: "This book was given the king and I at our 
 crownation, Marie R." Both the manners and morals of 
 the court during the reigns of Charles and James II., were 
 exceedingly profligate. The coarsest and most boisterous 
 places of amusement were frequented by women, who in- 
 dulged in gambling and profanity. There were those of 
 both sexes who, amid general corruption, preserved a dignity 
 and purity of character and manners as beautiful as it was 
 remarkable. 
 
 In the time of Cromwell, a far greater degree of propriety 
 prevailed, amounting almost to austerity. Plays, dances, 
 merry-makings, &c,, were all discountenanced. Psalm singing 
 and sermons were the only recreations. To prevent the in- 
 dulgence of the popular sport of bear-baiting, which was 
 esteemed especially cruel and sinful, the Puritan protector 
 caused all the bears to be killed. This gave rise to a 
 very famous burlesque poem, called " Hudibras^" written by 
 Samuel, Butler, in ridicule of the Puritans. 
 
 When, at the Restoration, the restrictions, which the as- 
 cendancy of Puritanism had laid upon the nation, were 
 removed, they plunged at once into the greatest excesses 
 of vice and folly. Every species of amusement was restored, 
 and the horse-races at Newmarket absorbed large sums of 
 money. The tournament had passed away with the reign of 
 James I., and we take leave of armor in that of his son and 
 successor. Swords, pistols, and bayonets (the latter invented 
 at Bayonne, in France, whence thoir name) took the place 
 of spears, battle-axes, and cross-bows. Masques and pageants 
 lingered a few years later than the tournament, but gradually 
 disappeared, before the superiority of the regular drama. 
 
 The condition of the people of England during this cen- 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE SKVENTEENTH CENTURY. 311 
 
 tury, especially of the lower classes, was greatly improved. 
 The population in 1662 was about six millions and a half. 
 At the time of the Revolution' it had increased to seven 
 millions. Many places, now among the largest and most 
 thriving in the kingdom, were then just rising into import- 
 ance, as manufacturing or commercial towns. Such were 
 Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Plymouth, Hull, Liverpool, &c. 
 
 Henry VII. had allowed the large domains of the nobility 
 to be subdivided or disposed of at their will. Henry VIII. 
 had apportioned among his favorites the large estates belong- 
 ing to the church. Consequently there arose a class of land- 
 holders second in rank, but scarcely so in power, to the 
 nobility. These are the gentry of England. From them 
 came most of the men distinguished in the civil wars, on the 
 parliament's side. Such was Hampden; such was Oliver 
 Cromwell. 
 
 The kingly prerogative was greatly limited after the Resto- 
 ration, and neither Charles nor James II. dared to supersede 
 the laws by royal proclamations, as their father and grand- 
 father had done. The bills for granting supplies of money 
 originated exclusively in the House of Commons. After the 
 Revolution they became appropriations, and an account of 
 their expenditure .was strictly required. At the close of 
 William's reign the revenues of the crown amounted to more 
 than three millions of pounds sterling. This was raised from 
 the customs or duties laid on merchandise, the excise or 
 taxes on various articles, and the inland duties. The money 
 appointed for the support of the king's government, and for 
 the royal household, is called the Civil List. 
 
 Before the Revolution, the terms Whig and Tory were 
 applied to the parties of the king and parliament. The term 
 Tory was given to the wild Irish beyond the Pale, and was 
 first applied in derision to the Duke of York's friends, 
 because they favored the Irish and Roman Catholics. After- 
 wards it was applied to the whole party of the king, and 
 after the Revolution, to all who favored the cause of the 
 
312 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 house of Stuart, and still later to the conservative party who 
 opposed all sweeping reforms. 
 
 The term Whig signifies in Scotland, where it originated, 
 sour whey, and was given to the Puritans by their enemies 
 about the year 1680. After the Revolution it was applied to 
 all who opposed the house of Stuart and upheld William, 
 and subsequently to all who favored thorough reforms. 
 
 The National Debt of England began in the reign of King 
 William. The government borrowed the money to support 
 the great expenses of their foreign wars. 
 
 Questions. — What improvement took place in the roads in this 
 century? — Describe the condition and appearance of the streets of 
 London at this time. — Give some account of the introduction of tea 
 into England. — What island was lost by the English in the East? — 
 What two important settlements did they gain ? — With what other 
 countries was trade carried on ? — Relate the origin of the Board of 
 Trade. 
 
 What is said of thtf trade with America? — How many colonies 
 were founded there ? — Whence did tobacco take its name ? — How 
 did King James seek to put down the use of this drug? — Relate 
 the anecdote of Sir Walter Raleigh. — What English manufacture 
 took its rise in this century ? — What was the Edict of Nantes ? — 
 Describe its eflfect upon England. — What vegetable productions were 
 introduced in this century ? — What is told of the Bank of England ? 
 — Relate what is told of the coinage in William III.'s reign. 
 
 What change in court society took place in the reign of James I. ? 
 — Describe the living of the gntry in those days. — What is said of 
 coverings for the floor ? — Describe the dress worn by the men and 
 women of those days. — Relate what is told of the morals and man- 
 ners of that age. — What change took place in the time of Cromwell? 
 — Describe the effect of the Restoration upon manners and amuse- 
 ments. — What towns rose into importance in this century ? 
 
 Relate the circumstances which gave rise to the gentry of Eng- 
 land. — What is said of the prerogative after the Restoration ? — 
 Relate what is told of the supplies voted by parliament. — How was 
 the royal revenue raised ? — Describe the origin and application of 
 the terms Whig and Tory. — What was the origin of the National 
 Debt? 
 
QUEEN ANNE. — GEORGE I. 313 
 
 PART X. 
 
 ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 QUEEN ANNE— GEORGE L— GEORGE II.— GEORGE III. 
 A. D. 1702—1800. 
 
 *' What seas were traversed, and what fields were fought, 
 And England's peace, how oft, how dearly bought, 
 Till earth's extremes her mediation own. 
 And Asia's tyrants tremble at her throne." 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 QUEEN ANNE. — GEORGE I. 
 
 FOREIGN WARS — POLITICAL PARTIES — UNION — LITERATURE — HOUSE OP 
 HANOVER — THE PRETENDER — SEPTENNIAL BILL — SOUTH SEA SCHEME. 
 
 Queen Anne was the second daughter of James II, , and 
 aister-in-law of the late king. Though a Stuart, she was a 
 Protestant, and no opposition was made to her succes- 
 sion. The war begun with Louis XIV. in the pre- 
 vious reign, was carried on in this. John Churchill, Duke 
 of Marlborough, the greatest general of his age, was sent to 
 command the allied armies of England, Austria, and Holland, 
 on the continent. 
 
 By the splendid victories of Blenheim, RamilHes, Oude- 
 narde, and Malplaquet, gained between tlie years 1704 and 
 1709, he brought the great power of Louis XIV. to the verge 
 of destruction. From this, the French monarch was saved 
 only by the quarrels of the two great political parties in 
 England. In the same year with the battle of Blenheim was 
 27 
 
ol4 HlSTOKi OF ENGLAND. 
 
 made the conquest of one of the most valuable of England's 
 possessions — the Eock of Gibraltar. This strong fortress was 
 carried after a siege of three days, by Sir George. Rooke. It 
 has ever since remained in the hands of the English, resisting 
 every effort on the part of Spain to retake it. 
 
 Since the year 1705, the Whig party had been in power, 
 but in 1710, the Tories, who opposed the war, gained the 
 ascendancy. The Duke of Marlborough was recalled; the 
 ministers who supported the war were turned out of office, 
 and, in 1713, the peace of Utrecht was signed. By this long 
 contest England fearfully augmented her public debt, and 
 her people acquired that passion for military glory* always 
 hurtful in its effect upon national character. 
 
 The war had deprived France of its great influence, and 
 restored what is called the ha/ance of power in Europe ; that 
 is, preventing any one state usurping an authority injurious 
 to the interests of others in the great family of nations. 
 
 The queen was at heart always a Tory. During the first 
 half of her reign, she was completely under the control of the 
 high-spirited Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough. When the 
 Marlboroughs sided with the Whigs, Anne was obliged to 
 yield to a Whig administration. Later in the reign the 
 influence of the duchess was supplanted by Mrs. Masham, a 
 relation of her own, whom she had raised from obscurity to a 
 position at court. Through this woman the Tories obtained 
 an ascendancy over the queen which led to their restoration 
 to power JU 
 
 Anne was a true Stuart in her views of royal prerogative 
 and divine right. She revived the practice of touching for 
 the king's evil, or scrofula, and an office was inserted in the 
 Prayer-Book to be used on such occasions. The celebrated 
 Dr. Johnson, when a child, was touched by Queen Anne. 
 His only remembrance of her, he declared in after years, was 
 '' a confused, but somehow a kind of solemn recollection, of a 
 lady in diamonds, and a long black hood." The believers in 
 this practice supposed a miraculous power to reside in the 
 royal touch, whereby the patient was healed of the disease. 
 
QUEEN ANNE. — GEORGE I. 315 
 
 In Queen Anne's reign, in the year 1707, was effected the 
 union between England and Scotland. Thenceforth the two 
 countries became one, under the title of the Kingdom of Great 
 Britain. By the treaty which accomplished this union, Scot- 
 land ceased to be an independent country. One parliament 
 sits for the united kingdoms, in which Scotland is represented 
 by sixteen peers in the House of Lords, and forty-jBive mem- 
 bers in the House of Commons. 
 
 The reign of Queen Anne was distinguished by a more 
 imperishable glory than that thrown around it by the victories 
 of the great Duke of Marlborough. It was made brilliant by 
 the writings of Addison, Swift, and Pope, who, together with 
 a long list of other scarce less illustrious authors, have con- 
 tributed to, make this period one of the most remarkable in 
 the history of English literature. 
 
 When Queen Anne died, in the year 1714, George, elector 
 of Hanover, became king of England. He was the great- 
 grandson of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I., who had 
 married Frederick, king of Bohemia. 
 
 From the accession of the house of Hanover, the influence 
 of the ministers and of parliament becomes of much greater 
 importance, in the history of the nation, than the personal 
 character of the sovereign. At the death of Queen Anne 
 the Tory party lost its power, and the, Whigs, with the wise 
 and powerful Sir Robert Walpole as their leader, came into 
 office. 
 
 The year after the accession of King George L, Great 
 Britain was invaded by Prince James Frederick 
 
 X '7X5 
 
 Edward Stuart. He was the only son of James II. 
 Aided by the French king and the Jacobite party in England, 
 and especially encouraged by the devoted Stuart-loyalty of the 
 Highland clans of Scotland, he landed in that country, and 
 prepared to assert his claim to the throne. His plans were 
 badly laid; he had very little personal bravery, and, notwith- 
 standing the ardent enthusiasm of his followers, he became 
 dispirited, and finally gave up the cause, and fled back to 
 France in disguise. Mauy paid the penalty of death for the 
 
816 KISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 share they had taken in this insurrection. Among the most 
 distinguished victims who suffered for the Pretender, were 
 Lord Kenmure, a Scotch nobleman, and James Radcliff, 
 Earl of Derwentwater. 
 
 In the third year of the reign of King George I. 
 was passed the Septennial Bill, prolonging the dura- 
 tion of parliament to seven years. Under the triennial law, 
 the elections of members every three years had caused great 
 disturbances, owing to the excited state of political feeling 
 between the Whigs and Tories. The continuance of the 
 same parliament for seven years was therefore a beneficial 
 measure, and contributed greatly to the tranquillity of the 
 country. 
 
 In the year 1711, the public debt of England amounted to 
 ten millions of pounds, which was thought at that time quite 
 insupportable. To get rid of this great national encumbrance, 
 in the course of a certain prescribed number of years, a specu- 
 lator named Sir John Blount, proposed in 1719 the following 
 plan : to make a certain wealthy and prosperous commercial 
 company, known as the South Sea Company, the sole public 
 creditor. Then to increase this company's privileges and 
 monopolies, to such a degree, as to make it enormously rich, 
 and thus enable it, not only to pay off the national debt, but 
 also to lend money to government at a low rate of interest. 
 
 Immense numbers to whom the government owed 
 money bought stock in this company, which, instead 
 of being able to fulfil its engagements, failed, and involved in 
 ruin thousands who had put their trust in it. This scheme 
 is usually called the South Sea Bubble. Sir Robert Walpole 
 earnestly opposed it from the first, and when the bubble 
 burst, did all that a wise financier could do, to lessen the 
 mischief and misery which it brought upon the nation. 
 
 In 1727, George I. died suddenly in his carriage, whilst 
 journeying in Germany to the palace of his brother, the 
 bishop of Osnaburgh. 
 
 Questions. — Who was Queen Anne? — Who commanded the allied 
 
GEORGE II. 317 
 
 forces on tlie continent ? — Mention the result of his operations on 
 the continent. — Describe the capture of Gibraltar. — What party came 
 into power in 1710? — What was the result of their ascendancy? — 
 What had been the effect of these continental wars upon England ? — 
 What the effect on France and Europe generally ? 
 
 Mention an important event which occurred in 1707. — Describe 
 the effect of the union upon Scotland. — Mention some names of lite- 
 rary distinction during this reign. — Name some of their works. — 
 Who succeeded Queen Anne ? — By what right ? — What change took 
 place at this time affecting the personal importance of the sovereign ? 
 — What party came into office on the accession of George I. ? — AVho 
 invaded England in 1715? — By whom was he encouraged ? — What 
 was the issue of this invasion? — Name some of those who suffered 
 in consequence of it. 
 
 What bill affecting parliament was passed in 1716 ? — Describe the 
 effect of the previous law. — State the amount of the public debt at 
 this time. — Describe Sir John Blount's plan for getting rid of it. — 
 Relate the history and result of this scheme. — By what name is it 
 known ? — Who opposed it ? — When and where did George I. die ? 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. 
 
 GEORGE II. 
 
 WALPOLe'S ADMIXISTRATION — FOREIGN WARS — THE YOXTNa PRETENDKR— 
 ENGLAND AND THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 
 
 George II., the son of the late king, came to the throne 
 in the year 1727. For jSfteen years longer, the administra- 
 tion of Sir Robert Walpole, who had become prime minister 
 in the year 1721, continued, with great advantage to the 
 nation. It was an administration of peace. He sought to 
 advance his country in those arts which contribute to social 
 prosperity, and cared little for the doubtful glories of the 
 battle-field. Notwithstanding these peaceful dispositions, in 
 which he was greatly aided by a similar policy on the part 
 of the good Cardinal Fleury, then prime minister of France, 
 Walpole, rather than resign office, yielded his sense of right 
 27* 
 
318 HISTORY OF EiNGLAND. 
 
 and justice to the clamors of the nation, and engaged in a 
 war with Spain. The English people, indignant against the 
 Spaniards, because they searched English ships engaged in 
 unlawful trafl&c with the Spanish colonies in America, and 
 lured on by the hope of the rich spoils which the conquest of 
 those colonies would afford, were loud in their rejoicings when 
 the war was declared. Walpole, on the day that the procla- 
 mation was made, hearing joyful peals resounding from the 
 church-bells, exclaimed: "They may ring the bells now; 
 before long they will be wringing their hands." And so it 
 proved. The war was disastrous. Walpole became unpopular 
 with the nation, and in 1742, after having guided the helm 
 of state with ability and success for a period of twenty years, 
 was compelled to resign his post as prime minister. 
 
 Before Walpole's resignation, however, England had en- 
 gaged in another war, by becoming the ally of Maria Theresa 
 of Austria. This noble and high-spirited queen had been 
 robbed of a portion of her territory by the king 
 of Prussia, whilst the elector of Bavaria disputed 
 her accession to the imperial throne. England espoused the 
 cause of the injured Maria Theresa, whilst France sided with 
 Frederick of Prussia and the Bavarian prince. 
 
 Some of the most important operations during the course 
 
 1744: ^^ ^^^® ^^^f ^ ^^' ^ France and England were con- 
 and cerned, were carried on in their colonial possessions 
 
 ^'^^^' in America. The English had settled the seaboard 
 colonies from Maine to Georgia. The French had planted 
 Canada and Louisiana. The settlements which England, 
 during a century of war and persecution, had founded, had 
 now grown into hardy and prosperous colonies. The colonists 
 loved their mother country, and, almost unaided by England, 
 they maintained her possessions in the New World against 
 the attacks of the French. Indeed the only successes which 
 crowned the English arms in America during this war, were 
 gained by colonial bravery and enterprise. 
 
 Whilst the armies of England were thus engaged 
 in foreign wars, the kingdom was again invaded by a 
 
GEORGE II. 319 
 
 Stuart pretender. This was Charles Edward Louis Philip 
 Cassimir Stuart, the son of James Frederick, or " the Old 
 Pretender/' as the latter is usually called. In July, 1745, 
 with only a handful of followers, he landed in one of the 
 western islands of Scotland. To the enthusiasm of the High- 
 land chieftains no dark " coming events cast their shadow 
 before," and before the Young Pretender had been three 
 months in Scotland, he raised, by the mere power of his 
 personal influence, an army of twenty-five hundred men, and 
 took possession of Edinburgh. 
 
 At Preston Pans he encountered the royal army, which 
 quailed and fled before the furious onset of the Highlanders. 
 In this action fell the brave and pious Colonel Gardiner, 
 whose remarkable history has been made familiar to the world 
 by the pen of Doddridge. Charles's adherents were chiefly 
 Highland chieftains and their clans, who hoped to see the 
 independence of Scotland restored, with a lineal descendant 
 of the ancient royal line seated upon the throne. 
 
 When, therefore. Prince Charles Edward led them across 
 the border, and plainly showed that his ambition aspired to 
 the rule of the united kingdom, the enthusiasm and the 
 number of his followers declined. He advanced within one 
 hundred and thirty miles of London, but his officers absolutely 
 refused to encounter the English forces, and the prince was 
 obliged to yield to their opposition, and retreat into Scotland. 
 In the winter he was again compelled to give way to the 
 demands of his followers, and, abandoning the fruits of a 
 victory gained over the P]nglish at Falkirk, and the siege of 
 Stirling Castle, he retired to the Highlands. Thither he was 
 followed by a large force of English and Lowland cavalrj'-, 
 commanded by King George's second son, the Duke of Cum- 
 berland. 
 
 The two armies met in "battle array'' on Culloden Moor, 
 a few miles from Inverness, and there was fought the fatal 
 action^ which for ever blasted the hopes of the Stuarts, and 
 crushed the last attempt to place this unfortunate race upon 
 a kingly throne. The cruelties inflicted after the battle of 
 
320 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Culloden, have cast a dark stain on the character of the Duke 
 of Cumberland. 
 
 A reward of thirty thousand pounds was placed on the 
 head of the Young Pretender. Amid the wretched cabins 
 of the Highlands and the Western Isles, there was not found 
 one who would betray the hiding-place of the royal fugitive. 
 After a series of striking and romantic adventures, Charles 
 Edward escaped in a fishing-boat to France. No family of 
 royal lineage seem to have inspired more ardent devotion to 
 their persons, than the unhappy race of Stuarts. 
 
 In the year 1748, the contending states of Europe entered 
 into a treaty of peace, which was signed at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 A few years later, another contest, called, from its duration, 
 *' the Seven Years' War," engaged the nations of Europe. 
 
 The position of parties, however, was greatly changed. 
 England and France were still enemies, but France fought 
 with Maria Theresa, and England was the ally of Frederick 
 of Prussia. The opening scenes of this war were laid in the 
 French and English colonies of America. 
 
 The French, in the year 1754, began the erection of a chain 
 
 of posts, extending along the great lakes, and the Ohio and 
 
 the Mississippi rivers. These were designed to connect their 
 
 colonies in Canada with those in Louisiana. In carrying out 
 
 this design they intruded on territory claimed by the English 
 
 colony of Virginia. The English remonstrated ; no attention 
 
 was paid to their remonstrances, and war ensued. The first 
 
 1755 y^^^ 0^ t^6 ^'^^ i^ America, as well as on the conti- 
 
 to nent, were unfortunate for the English. They were 
 
 ' marked by such disasters as Braddock's defeat, and 
 
 the loss of the island of Minorca. 
 
 This latter possession, granted to England by the peace of 
 Utrecht, was much valued by the nation, and as much envied 
 and coveted by the French. In the spring of 1756, the latter 
 government sent out a large force for the conquest of the 
 island. The English ministry became alarmed, and, knowing 
 Minorca to be too feebly garrisoned to hold out long against a 
 superior force, despatched Admiral Byng to the Mcditerra- 
 
GEORGE II. 321 
 
 nean for its relief. The admiral encountered the French 
 fleet; an indecisive action ensued, after which, Byng, thinking 
 that another encounter, even if successful, would not suffice to 
 raise the siege, withdrew to Gibraltar, leaving Minorca to its 
 fate. After a gallant resistance, the brave garrison surren- 
 dered. Admiral Byng was taken to England, tried by a 
 court-martial on the charge of neglect of duty, found guilty, 
 and, by the severe penalty of the 12th Article of War, con- 
 demned to be shot. The sentence was executed on the 
 quarter-deck of the ship Monarque, in Portsmouth harbor. 
 
 The ill-success of the war aroused the displeasure of the 
 nation against the ministry, and the Duke of Newcastle, then 
 premier, was forced to resign. He was succeeded by the 
 Duke of Devonshire as nominal premier, whilst William Pitt, 
 the new secretary of state, was virtually at the head of affairs. 
 Pitt possessed the confidence of the nation, but was disliked 
 by the king, who, at the end of a few months, dismissed him 
 from office. Popular resentment became so strong, however, 
 that even the monarch was compelled to bow before it, and 
 restore the able minister, in whom alone the nation confided 
 as competent to guide the ship of state through the storms 
 which threatened. 
 
 William Pitt (afterwards Earl of Chatham) was a member 
 of the House of Commons : a representative of the gentry of 
 England. x\ble and eloquent, supported by the love and 
 confidence of the nation, this statesman raised his country to 
 a brilliant pitch of military glory. 
 
 The war assumed a new aspect. In x\merica, success 
 
 crowned the arms of the Enghsh and colonial troops. Quebec 
 
 surrendered to the heroic valor of the young General Wolfe. 
 
 The hero fell in the moment of victory, leaving as a glorious 
 
 lesracy to the country he so nobly served, the French 
 1759. ^ f • /. A • 
 
 colonial possessions oi America. 
 
 Questions. — Who succeeded George I. ? — Describe the administra- 
 tion of Walpole. — Mention the causes and motives which led to a war 
 with Spain. — In what way did Walpole express his opinion of this 
 
 X 
 
322 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 war? — What befell this minister in 1742? — Describe the wrongs in- 
 flicted upon Maria Theresa. — What power sided with her enemies? — 
 How did England act ? 
 
 In what part of America had the English planted colonies? — 
 Describe their condition.— What was the conduct of the English 
 colonies in this war? — Give the history of the invasion of the 
 "Young Pretender." — What treaty was signed in the year 1748? — 
 Describe the position of the parties engaged in the "Seven Years' 
 War." — State the circumstances which led to hostilities in America. 
 — What is remarked of the early years of this war? — Relate the 
 history of the expedition sent to Minorca. — What was the fate of 
 Admiral Byng? — How did the results of the war affect the ministry ? 
 — Who succeeded Newcastle ? — Describe the position and character 
 of Pitt. — Relate the successful operations of the war in America. 
 
 CHAPTER LV. 
 
 GEORGE II. — THE ENGLISH IN INDIA. 
 
 THEIR COLONIES — THE GREAT MOGUL — FRENCH RIVALS — OLIVE — THE 
 BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA — PLASSEY — SUBSEQUENT VICTORIES. 
 
 Before the glory of England's arms had been retrieved in 
 the New World, and Wolfe had fallen on the ramparts of 
 Quebec, another young and ardent English hero had laid the 
 foundation of British empire in a more distant portion of the 
 globe. We have seen that the East India Company had 
 established factories for trade in Hindostan. On the eastern 
 coast they had built Fort St. Greorge. The village of a half- 
 dozen fishermen's huts, with the dwelling of a French priest, 
 found there in 1640, had grown into the flourishing town of 
 Madras. 
 
 A little further south, on the Coromandel coast, was built 
 
 Fort St. David, whilst on the Hoogly, Fort William, the 
 
 origin of the splendid city of Calcutta, arose a few years 
 
 1698 ^®^*^^® Peter the Great had laid the foundations of 
 
 his capital of St. Petersburg on the banks of the 
 
 Neva. On the Malabar coast, Bombay was the important 
 
GEORGE II. — THE ENGLISH IN INDIA. 323 
 
 settlement. All these had been founded before the close of 
 the seventeenth century. Difficulties with the Dutch and 
 Portuguese no longer existed, but another formidable rival 
 had appeared, to dispute with England her lucrative trade in 
 India. 
 
 The French had established factories on the Hooorly 
 
 16T0. . . 
 
 and also at Pondicherry, about eighty miles below 
 Madras, in the large southern province of India known as the 
 Carnatic. When France and England were at war, their 
 colonies, whether in India or America, were involved in the 
 same calamity. In the year 174G, Fort St. George fell into 
 the hands of the French. The garrison, surrendering after a 
 short but brave defence, were promised honorable treatment. 
 This promise was broken, and they were carried prisoners to 
 Pondicherry. Numbers of them contrived to escape, and 
 among these, habited in the disguise of a Hindoo, Robert 
 Clive, a young merchant's clerk of twenty-one, fled to Fort 
 St. David. Such was the position of affairs when the treaty 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle obliged the French to restore Madras. We 
 shall find, however, that, as allies of the native princes, the 
 French and English in India carried on hostilities even when 
 the mother countries were at peace. 
 
 From the early part of the sixteenth century India had 
 been governed by a potentate called "the Great Mogul," who 
 resided in much pomp at his capital of Delhi, and appointed 
 viceroys, who, nominally under him, but truly by their own 
 power, ruled the provinces of Hindostan. Of the splendor 
 of the court of Aurungzebe, one of the greatest of the Great 
 Moguls, descriptions are given, which surpass the wonders of 
 a fairy tale. 
 
 A French traveller, who visited Aurungzebe's court in the 
 year 1665, tells us of his '^ seven splendid thrones; one 
 covered with diamonds, another with rubies, with emeralds, 
 or with pearls.'' Whilst the Great Mogul was seated on his 
 Peacock Throne, so called from its back being formed by 
 jewelled representations of peacocks' tails, thirty splendid 
 horses stood ready caparisoned, with bridles set with precious 
 
324 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 gems, and a large and valuable jewel hanging from the neck 
 of each. Elephants were taught to kneel before the throne, 
 and do homage with their trunks. 
 
 The French traveller must have been struck with the 
 insignificant pomp of the court of his Grand Monarque, then 
 the most splendid in Europe, when he contrasted it with the 
 surpassing magnificence of this oriental despot. But the 
 great Aurungzebe, when the years of his earthly glory had 
 numbered nearly one hundred, was gathered to his fathers, 
 and the throne of Delhi was mounted by another Mogul, as 
 great in outward state and splendor, but of feeble character. 
 
 He had no power to withstand the gradual but sure progress 
 of the strange nation from fifteen thousand miles afar, who in 
 God's providence were destined to overthrow the power of the 
 Great Mogul, and plant a Christian dominion in India. This, 
 too, they were to aecompli.sh in less than half a century. 
 
 Meanwhile the powers of the viceroys in the provinces 
 greatly increased. In the quarrels continually arising among 
 them, the French and English interfered, taking, of course, 
 opposite sides. In the wars which followed, the French and 
 their Indian allies were so successful, that they threatened to 
 drive the English from the Carnatic. By the year 1751, the 
 latter were reduced to great extremity. The nabob of Arcot, 
 the only Indian prince remaining faithful to their interest, 
 was besieged by the French in his last stronghold, which, if 
 captured, would render the victors undisputed masters of the 
 country. 
 
 At this juncture, Robert Clive planned and executed an 
 expedition which saved British India. The English, feebly 
 garrisoned at Madras and Fort St. David, could spare no 
 piilitary force to send to the relief of their ally. Clive raised 
 9, little band of five hundred men, three hundred of whom 
 were Sepoys (natives who made miserable soldiers), and placed 
 over it officers, who, like himself, were mostly merchants' 
 clerks. With this force he suddenly marched to Arcot, the 
 capital of the Carnatic, hoping to excite fears for the safety 
 
GEORGE II. — THE ExNGLISH IN INDIA. 325 
 
 of this important place, and thus draw the French and Indian 
 foes from their attack on the English ally. 
 
 Advancing during a violent thunderstorm, he made him- 
 self master of the strong town and fortress, not by assault, but 
 by taking advantage of the panic which his dauntless courage 
 struck in the minds of the superstitious natives. The French 
 ally sent a large detachment to recover Arcot, but Clive held 
 the town, bravely repulsed the besiegers, conquered other 
 possessions from the French, relieved the nabob of 
 
 and Arcot, and eifectually restored the influence of the 
 1758. gjjgiig}^ jjj ^^Q Carnatic. 
 
 A few years later, this merchant's clerk, who seems to 
 have been " born a soldier," gained victories which still more 
 firmly established the power of the English in India. In the 
 northern province of Bengal, there ruled, in the year 1756, 
 the Nabob Surajah Dowlah, a cruel and detestable tyrant. 
 Becoming jealous of the English, who he fancied had accu- 
 mulated great wealth in their factories at Calcutta, he ad- 
 vanced against that place with a large army. After a fruitless 
 attempt at defence, the garrison of Fort William surrendered, 
 under promise that their lives should be spared. 
 
 Left to the charge of the officers of the guard, these inhu- 
 man servants of an inhuman master thrust " in the common 
 dungeon of the fort," the Black Hole, as it was called, " its 
 size only eighteen feet by fourteen; its air-holes only two 
 small windows, and these overhung by a low verandah, one 
 hundred and forty-five European men and one English woman, 
 some of them suff'ering from recent wounds, and this in the 
 night of the Indian summer-solstice, when the fiercest heat 
 was raging." The horrors of that night the pen shrinks from 
 recording. 
 
 In vain were bribes offered to their gaolers for relief. The 
 only answer was: " The nabob is asleep." No one dared to 
 disturb him. Mid agonizing cries of " water ! water !" these 
 wretched beings trampled down each other, to get near the 
 air-holes, outside the bars of which were held skins of water, 
 but, as if in awful aggravation of their misery, these were too 
 28 
 
326 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 large to get through the grating. Meanwhile their fiend-like 
 gaolers made most inhuman mirth at their fearful condition, 
 and held the lanterns high to gaze upon the scene within, as 
 though it had been the struggle of brute beasts, intended for 
 the amusement of beings scarcely less brutal. 
 
 Ere morning dawned, a fearful silence reigned in the Black 
 Hole of Calcutta. Of one hundred and forty-six 
 
 1756. * ^^^^" beings, who had been there imprisoned, 
 twenty-three alone came out through the passage 
 made between dead bodies. Strange to say, one of these was 
 the Englishwoman. 
 
 When the news of this dreadful outrage reached Madras, 
 the horror and indignation of the English knew no bounds. 
 Clive proceeded with an army to Calcutta, and on the 2d of 
 January, 1757, regained possession of the town and fort 
 In a few months he fought Surajah Dowlah at Plassey, 
 gained a complete and brilliant victory with three thousand 
 men fighting against fifty thousand, drove the inhuman mon- 
 ster from his throne, and laid the foundation of English 
 power in Northern India. 
 
 Hitherto the East India Company had been only merchants 
 and traders; henceforth we shall find them conquerors and 
 sovereigns. The battle of Plassey was fought on the 23d of 
 June, 1757. Three years later, Sir Eyre Coote won from the 
 French the battle of Wandewash. This victory, 
 ''iTGO^' together with the fall of Pondicherry, which oc- 
 curred within a year, established the supremacy 
 of the English in the Carnatic, as firmly as that of Plassey 
 had done in Bengal. Clive, whose health had become im- 
 paired, returned to England in the year 1760. He was 
 created a peer, with the title of Baron Clive of Plassey. In 
 1765, he returned to India as governor of Bengal. 
 
 In the year 1760, before the news of the great victories of 
 Wandewash and Pondicherry had reached England, George 
 II. died, and was succeeded by his grandson, George III. 
 
 Questions. — Give some account of the diflferent establishments of 
 
GEORGE III. 327 
 
 the English in India. — Mention the establishments of the French. — 
 What followed the surrender of Fort St. George? — How was this 
 state of affairs affected by the peace ? — Relate what is told of the 
 Great Mogul. — Describe the condition of India after the death of 
 Aurungzebe. — Describe the part taken by the French and English 
 in these quarrels. — Relate the success of the French at this time. — 
 Describe the position of the English. 
 
 Relate the conduct of Clive, and the result. — By whom was Bengal 
 ruled at this time ? — What was his treatment of the English ? — 
 Describe their sufferings in the Black Hole of Calcutta. — What re- 
 venge was inflicted by the English ? — AVhen and where, and with 
 what result, was the battle fought ? — Where, by whom, and with 
 what result, was a battle fought three years later? — What honors 
 were bestowed upon Clive ? — When did George II. die ? 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. 
 
 GEORGE III. 
 
 CHARACTERS OP THE SOVEREIGNS — WILLIAM PITT — WAR WITH SPAIN- 
 PROSECUTION OP WILKES — TAXATION OP THE AMERICAN COLONIES- 
 WAR IN CONSEQUENCE — THE RESULT OP THE CONTEST — SIEGE OP GIB- 
 RALTAR. 
 
 On the 25tli of October, 1760, George III., at the age of 
 twenty-two, entered upon the longest, and, in some respects, 
 the most prosperous reign in the annals of English history. 
 Pious, and endued with kindly affections, the personal cha- 
 racter of this monarch gained the ever-increasing love and 
 respect of his subjects. The royal household afforded an 
 example of good morals and domestic happiness, to which 
 the nation had been long unaccustomed in the courts of its 
 sovereigns. 
 
 Some years before King George's accession, Charlotte, the 
 young princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, had sent a letter to 
 Frederick the Great, remonstrating against the cruelty of his 
 troops, then laying waste a German province. She writes in 
 this letter : " I know, sir, that, in this vicious age, I may be 
 
328 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 laughed at for allowing my heart to mourn my country's ruin, 
 to deplore the evils of war, and to wish with ^11 my soul for 
 the return of peace. You, sir, will perhaps think that I 
 ought rather to practise myself in the arts of pleasing, or in 
 my household affairs. But be this as it may, my heart feels 
 so much for these poor unhappy peoprle, that it cannot with- 
 hold a pressing entreaty in their behalf." 
 
 This letter was sent by King Frederick to the court of his 
 ally, George II. There it was seen by the Prince of Wales, 
 on whom it made a deep impression. When he became king 
 he married the good and gentle princess of Mecklenburg- 
 Strelitz. The marriage took place the year succeeding that 
 of his accession to the throne, and shortly after, the royal 
 couple were crowned with magnificent ceremonies at West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 When George III. came to the throne, the power and glory 
 of William Pitt were at their height. The French had been 
 defeated in America, in India, and on the continent, and the 
 victories of Quebec and Pondicherry were chiefly due to the 
 spirit of military ardor with which this statesman had inspired 
 the army and navy of Great Britain. 
 
 These triumphs, although flattering to national pride, had 
 been gained at an immense expense, and a party headed by 
 the Earl of Bute, then the most influential adviser of the 
 king, was solicitous for peace. Whilst the ambassadors at 
 the courts of the interested nations were arranging 
 the terms of a treaty, the kings of France and Spain 
 entered into a secret compact, which tended to disturb the 
 balance of power in Europe, and to prove highly injurious to 
 the interests of England. 
 
 This Family Compact, so called because the kings who 
 made it were both Bourbons, came to the knowledge of 
 William Pitt. In order to prevent its evil results, he pro- 
 posed that England should at once declare war against Spain 
 Unable to carry this measure, the minister retired from office 
 He bore with him the affection and confidence of the nation 
 which was not given to his successor, the Earl of Bute. 
 
GEORGE III. 329 
 
 To add to Pitt's popularity, the new ministry was obliged, 
 within three months of his resignation, to declare war against 
 Spain. And still higher to raise the triumph of the great 
 commoner, the most glorious achievements of the war — the 
 conquest of Havana in the West, and of Manilla in the East 
 Indies — were enterprises both of which Pitt was known to 
 have planned. 
 
 France and Spain, humbled by their losses, were 
 soon willing to make peace. The Earl of Bute, who 
 ruled in the councils of England, was so anxious for peace, 
 that he agreed to terms which were deemed less favorable than 
 those which the nation had a right to demand, considering 
 the advantages which England had gained, and the expense 
 .she had incurred. The treaty was signed at Paris, February 
 10th, 1763. 
 
 The unpopularity of the Earl of Bute became so great that 
 he was obliged to resign office. Sir George Grenville suc- 
 ceeded him as prime minister. His administration was 
 marked by two important events : the prosecution of Wilkes, 
 and the taxation of the American colonies. 
 
 John Wilkes was a member of parliament, and editor of a 
 newspaper called " The North Briton." In the forty-fifth 
 number of this paper he made an attack on the personal 
 character of the king. For this offence, a general warrant 
 was issued, under which Wilkes's papers were seized, and 
 Wilkes himself was arrested and thrown into the Tower. A 
 few days after, he was brought by writ of habeas corpus before 
 the chief justice of the Court of Common Pleas, who declared 
 that general warrants were illegal, and Wilkes was conse- 
 quently liberated. Prosecuted in parliament, he was sum- 
 moned to appear at the bar of the Commons, on a charge of 
 libel. He refused at first on the plea of ill health, and then 
 taking the opportunity of an adjournment of the house, 
 escaped to Paris. He was expelled from the House of Com- 
 mons, and a sentence of outlawry was passed against 
 to him. A few years after, Wilkes returned to Ew^- 
 *'*^' land, and was elected member of parliament for 
 28* 
 
330 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Middlesex, but he was not allowed to take his seat. These 
 attacks on the freedom of elections and liberty of the press, 
 made Wilkes, although a man of corrupt morals, extremely 
 popular, and excited much feeling throughout the country. 
 At length, in 1774, government grew tired of this perse- 
 cution, lie was elected lord mayor, and allowed to sit in 
 parliament. 
 
 The English colonies in the wilds of America, although 
 harassed by Indian and colonial wars, had grown in numbers 
 and prosperity. They had received but little fostering care 
 or kindly encouragement from the mother country, yet their 
 affection for England was both ardent and sincere. They 
 had fought in her battles, and rejoiced in her triumphs. 
 They gloried, too, in the rights of English freemen, and were 
 determined that these rights should flourish in the new land 
 to which they had been transplanted. 
 
 One of these rights, best known and valued, was that of 
 not being taxed without their own consent. Once, during 
 Sir Robert Walpole's administration, a suggestion was made 
 to levy a tax on the American colonies. " He who shall 
 propose it will be a much bolder man than I am," was the 
 wise statesman's reply. And in the days of Walpole, the 
 colonies were far less capable of resisting than in 1765. But 
 in 1765 the bolder man was found. In that year, Sir George 
 Grenville, at the suggestion of the king, not only proposed, 
 but carried through parliament, an act imposing a stamp duty 
 on the North American colonies, — colonies unrepresented in 
 the parliament of England. 
 
 Sir George Grenville had retired from office, when news 
 came across the waters that the indignant colonies, from 
 Massachusetts to Georgia, had, with one consent, resisted this 
 unjust attack upon their English rights and liberties. When 
 the announcement was made, Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, rose 
 in the House of Commons, and exclaimed: "I rejoice 
 
 1766. . . ' •' 
 
 that America has resisted. Three millions of people 
 BO dead to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit 
 
GEORGE III. 331 
 
 to be skves, would have been fit instruments to make slaves 
 of the rest." 
 
 The Stamp Act was repealed, but the right of taxation was 
 still claimed, and in the following year duties were laid upon 
 tea and various articles imported into the American 
 colonies. During the next nine years, acts most 
 unjust in themselves, and irritating to the Americans, were 
 passed in the British parliament. The colonists were roused 
 to rebellion. 
 
 In April of the year 1775, General Glage, governor of the 
 colony of Massachusetts, sent from Boston a body of British 
 soldiers to seize stores of powder which the colonists had 
 collected at Concord, a place about sixteen miles from Boston. 
 As the soldiers passed through the village of Lexington, they 
 found the Minute Men gathered on the common to oppose 
 their march. The soldiers fired upon the colonial militia. 
 It was the opening scene in the eight years' war of independ- 
 ence. In June followed the battle of Bunker's Hill, and the 
 American Revolution fairly began. 
 
 In the ensuing year, July 4th, 1776, the last bond of 
 political union between England and her American colonies 
 was broken. The voice of the latter went forth in the ever- 
 memorable Declaration of Independence, that " these united 
 colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent 
 states, and that they are absolved from all allegiance to the 
 British crown." 
 
 For seven years England refused to acknowledge this inde- 
 pendence, and troops were sent over to force the colonists 
 into submission. But the measures of the infant republic 
 were guided by true and able counsellors, and for the com- 
 mander of her soldiers she had chosen, in General Washington, 
 one of the wisest and best men the world has ever seen. 
 Then, too, amid even the darkest reverses of the contest, the 
 spirit of the people remained faithful to the Declaration of 
 Independence. 
 
 The first years of the war, although marked by some sue- 
 
iioZ HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 cesses, were^ on the whole, disastrous to the colonies. But on 
 the IGth of October, 1777, a British army under General 
 Burgoyne capitulated to the Americans on the plains of 
 Saratoga, and the result of this important victory was to win 
 for the struggling colonies the alliance of France. At the 
 end of four more years of varying success, in the contest 
 between England and her colonies, another British army, 
 commanded by Lord Cornwallis, surrendered to the united 
 forces of the United States and France, at the battle of 
 Yorktown. This event, which took place on the 19th of 
 October, 1781, was, in fact, the conclusion of the war. 
 
 The conduct of the ministry towards the American colonies 
 had been censured by a strong party in parliament during the 
 entire struggle. In June, 1781, a motion was made in the 
 House of Commons, " that his majesty's ministers ought im- 
 mediately to take every possible measure for concluding peace 
 with our American colonies." This motion was ably defended 
 by William Pitt, the youthful son of the great orator and 
 statesman who, in 17C5, had so strongly censured the taxing 
 of the colonies. By the year 1782, the war had become so 
 unpopular, that the minister. Lord North, resigned. A new 
 Whig ministry succeeded, and a treaty of peace was concluded, 
 by which the independence of the United States of 
 
 1783. "^ ^ 
 
 America was acknowledged. 
 
 In the treaty of Paris, signed September, 1783, England 
 by no means resigned all her possessions in America. The 
 country whose independence she acknowledged stretches from 
 the river St. Lawrence and the great lakes on the north, to 
 the Gulf of Mexico on the south. Beyond the northern 
 boundary of the United States, still lie the vast possessions 
 of British America, including the valuable island of New- 
 foundland. 
 
 When Mr. Adams, the first minister sent from the United 
 States of America to the court of St. James, appeared in the 
 presence of the king, his majesty said to him: ''I was the 
 last man in the kingdom, sir, to consent to the independence 
 
GEORGE III. 333 
 
 of America ; but, now it is granted, I shall be the last man 
 in the world to sanction a violation of it." 
 
 The war as conducted in x\merica had been unfortunate for 
 England, but in Europe, where she was contending against 
 France and Spain, the closing year of the contest was marked 
 by the defence of G-ibraltar, one of the bravest and noblest 
 achievements ever recorded in the annals of war. 
 
 The recovery of this strong fortress had for years been the 
 
 constant hope and aim of the Spaniard. Again and again 
 
 had it been attempted, but the firm old rock, and the firm 
 
 hearts upon it, had defied every attack. At length, in the 
 
 summer of the year 1782, after the fortress had been in a 
 
 Since ^^^^® ^^ sicgc for three years, vast preparations were 
 
 July, made for an assault, before which it was deemed that 
 
 Gibraltar must inevitably fall. 
 
 Forty thousand French and Spaniards were assembled for 
 the land attack. In the bay floated a formidable fleet. Ten 
 huge floating batteries, made fire-proof, as the besiegers fondly 
 believed, and armed with two hundred and twelve brass guns, 
 threw bomb-shells into the fortress, whilst one thousand pieces 
 of artillery thundered against the rock. *' Is it taken ?" was 
 the first question asked by the Spanish king each morning on 
 awaking. '' Not yet," was the daily repeated reply. " Well ! 
 but it must soon be ours/' was the response of the confident 
 monarch. 
 
 To resist this mighty array, one of the greatest ever brought 
 against a single fortress, there were but seven thousand 
 English soldiers, coniimanded by General Eiliot, and in the 
 bay a single brigade of gun-boats, under Captain Curtis. 
 
 On the morning of the 13th of September were seen crowds 
 of Spaniards assembled on the hills which surround Gibraltar. 
 From this natural amphitheatre they gazed upon a scene of 
 intense and fearful interest. By nine o'clock, the enemies' 
 fleet came within gun-shot of the walls of the fortress, and a 
 fire was opened upon it, which was soon returned. Four 
 hundred pieces of heavy artillery made the hills resound. 
 
334 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 All day long the firing was kept up, but early in the evening 
 the hearts of the assailants failed them, for the red-hot shot 
 from the garrison had set the ships on fire, and by midnight 
 ** the only flashes from the floating batteries were the flames 
 that were consuming them." At five o'clock on the morning 
 of^the 14th, one of these huge constructions blew up with a 
 fearful explosion, and a second soon shared the same fate. 
 
 "What followed on the part of the conquerors," says a 
 narrator, " is become a household word — a touching and a 
 sacred tale, which two generations of Englishmen have learned 
 in the cradle, and which succeeding generations will tell to 
 their children, as the best exemplification of the axiom, that 
 the bravest are ever the most merciful." On shore, General 
 Elliot ordered the firing to cease, whilst the noble crew of 
 Captain Curtis, those few but gallant spirits, dashed among 
 the burning wrecks, to save, not their own men, but the 
 drowning, burning Spaniards, who, clinging to spars, or still 
 on the blazing decks, were exposed to a fearful death. From 
 the flames and from the waves, two hundred and fifty were 
 rescued by the intrepidity of this noble enemy. 
 
 The French and Spanish navy was still formidable, and 
 they hoped that by intercepting supplies to the garrison, 
 they might yet compel Gibraltar to surrender. This hope 
 vanished when Admiral Lord Howe, on the 11th October, 
 sailed through the straits, and a few days later landed stores 
 and troops within the devoted fortress. 
 
 The hopeless siege was continued, but with little spirit on 
 the part of the Spaniards, until the peace was signed. From 
 the rock of Gibraltar, at the proud height of fourteen hun- 
 dred and thirty-seven English feet, the flag of Great Britain 
 still waves over those narrow straits, the key of the Mediter- 
 ranean, which she has so bravely won, and so nobly guarded. 
 The year succeeding the treaty, William Pitt, 
 second son of the Earl of Chatham, became prime 
 minister. He was only in the twenty-fifth year of his age 
 when he thus assumed the government of the country. With 
 
GEORGE III. 835 
 
 great ability and success he guided the hehn of state for 
 Beventeen years ; through a period, too, so eventful and 
 perilous to England, that his administration almost eclipses 
 that of his illustrious father. The elder Pitt, created, in 
 1766, Earl of Chatham, had, in the year 1778, been com- 
 mitted to an honored tomb in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Questions. — When and at what age did George III. ascend the 
 throne ? — Describe his character. — Relate the circumstances which 
 led to his marriage. — What was the position of Pitt at this time ? — 
 What victories had been gained ? — Why was the war opposed ? — By 
 whom? — Relate the conduct of France which delayed the peace. — 
 What caused the resignation of Pitt ? — Relate the occurrences which 
 followed his resignation. — To what did these lead ? — What is re- 
 marked of the treaty of Paris ? 
 
 Mention the two distinguishing acts of Grenville's administration. 
 — Relate the account given of Wilkes. — Describe the position and ' 
 character of the English colonies in America at this time. — What 
 right did they especially value ? — By what act was this right vio- 
 lated? — Describe the effect produced by it in the colonies. — How 
 did Pitt regard their resistance? — Relate the conduct of government 
 towards the colonies during the next nine years. — What was the 
 result ? 
 
 State the occurrences jvhich began the Revolutionary war. — When 
 and by what act was the political connection between the two 
 countries severed ? — Describe the condition of the republic during 
 this war. — Mention the result of the battle of Saratoga. — When and 
 by what battle was the contest terminated ? — How had the conduct 
 of the government been regarded by parliament ? — Relate the cir- 
 cumstances which led to the peace. — Describe the provisions of the 
 treaty. — Describe the reception of the American minister at the 
 English court. 
 
 With what enemies on the continent was England contending ? — 
 Give an account of the siege of Gibraltar. — State its result. — Name 
 and describe the prime minister who came into office in 1784. 
 
336 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER LVII. 
 
 THE ENGLISH IN INDIA. 
 
 BRITISH CONQUESTS — THE RULE OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY — WARREN 
 HASTINGS — HIS CAREER IN INDIA — HIS I.MPEACHMENT AND TRIAL IN 
 ENGLAND — INDIA AT THE CLOSE OF THIS PERIOD. 
 
 Although England during this period had lost her colo- 
 nies in America, in the opposite quarter of the globe she had 
 in the same years been gaining an empire. The foundation 
 of the great power of the English in India had been laid by 
 the victories of Olive, Sir Eyre Coote, Major Munro, and 
 other commanders; by arbitrary exactions; by treaties made 
 with Indian princes greatly to the advantage of the Company, 
 and by intimidation and conquest when these treaties were 
 violated. In all these transactions there existed no small 
 amount of that injustice and oppression which the strong are 
 ever apt to exercise towards the weak. 
 
 At various times the state of Indian affairs was discussed in 
 parliament, and bills brought in to restrain the Eaat India 
 Company, especially in the acquisition of territory, and in the 
 exercise of legislative and executive power. In the year 
 1773, a bill passed in parliament, by which a court of justice 
 was established in Bengal, consisting of judges appointed by 
 the crown. The same bill also provided for the appointment 
 of a governor-general of India, with four counsellors, to be 
 nominated in the first instance by parliament, but at the end 
 of five years by the court of directors of the East India 
 Company, subject, however, to the approbation of the crown. 
 
 Under this act, there was appointed for India a ruler whose 
 character and achievements were as remarkable as 
 
 1770. 
 
 those of Clive, and who, like him, devoted all his 
 energies to maintain and increase English supremacy in the 
 East. This was Warren Hastings. He claimed descent 
 
THE ENGLISH IN INDIA. ooT 
 
 from the Danish Viking of that name, who, in Alfred's time, 
 had ravaged England. He went to India as a writer in the 
 Company's service, and rose by his talents to the post of 
 ITT*, governor-general. The dauntless character and un- 
 scrupulous conduct of the merchant's clerk did not 
 belie his descent from the illustrious sea-king of old. 
 
 The position of Hastings as governor-general of India was 
 one of great temptation and difficulty. His object was to 
 maintain the supremacy of England against a combination 
 of enemies, French and natives, and to approve himself to the 
 board of directors of the East India Company at home. This 
 Company, at the distance of fifteen thousand miles, either 
 could not, or would not, understand, that, in order to obtain 
 the large commercial profits which they expected, the native 
 population must be robbed or oppressed. Whilst, therefore, 
 they urged that the Hindoos should be kindly and justly 
 dealt with, they at the same time demanded that more money 
 should be sent to England. The governor-general found it 
 impossible to obey both these commands, and, to use the 
 words of Macaulay, ^' being forced to disobey them in some- 
 thing, he had to consider what kind of disobedience they 
 would most readily pardon ; and he correctly judged that the 
 safest course would be to neglect the sermons, and find the 
 rupees." 
 
 This led him into acts of cruelty and injustice. He seized 
 
 two provinces belonging to the Great Mogul, and sold them 
 
 1773 ^^^ ^ large sum to the nabob of Oude. Then, in 
 
 and consideration of another large sum, he sold the ser- 
 vices of the English troops to the same nabob, to 
 enable the latter to conquer a brave, free, and happy people 
 in the vale of Rohilcund, and subject them to his own miser- 
 able rule. Some years later Hastings committed that which 
 in the eyes of the Hindoos was a far greater crime. On the 
 banks of the Ganges stands the city of Benares." It is as 
 sacred in the eyes of the Brahmin worshippers of India, as is 
 Jerusalem to the devout Jew, and Mecca to the followers of 
 29 Y 
 
338 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Mohammed. Its splendid temples, its jewelled shrines, its 
 graceful minarets, the flights of marble steps leading down 
 to the sacred stream, the consecrated bulls and apes which 
 thronged the streets or clung to the temples, were objects 
 of time-honored veneration throughout India. Besides the 
 costly offerings of religion, commerce had enriched this favored 
 city. " In its bazaars the muslins of Bengal and the sabres 
 of Oude were mingled with the jewels of Golconda and the 
 shawls of Cashmere." Warren Hastings was in need of 
 
 money. His was the hand by which might made. 
 
 right, and, in defiance of the horror which such a 
 deed awakened, he plundered the holy city of Benares. 
 
 Whilst these transactions were going on in Bengal, the 
 attention of the governor-general was suddenly demanded in 
 another quarter. Hyder-Ali, the famous Mohammedan chief- 
 tain of Mysore, had burst upon the plains of the Carnatic. 
 With an army of ninety thousand men, and the powerful 
 co-operation of the French, he threatened to drive the English 
 jygj from Southern India. Hastings raised an army, gave 
 to it in command of the venerable old soldier. Sir Eyre 
 
 Coote, who drove back the bold invader, and restored 
 to the English the presidency of Madras. This war had 
 drained the governor-generars treasury, and the wealth gained 
 by the plunder of Benares was not sufficient to replenish it. 
 To obtain, therefore, anotlier supply, he robbed two Indian 
 princesses, the mother and grandmother of the nabob of Oude. 
 These aged women were imprisoned in their palace, until, 
 half famished, they consented to give their rapacious gaoler 
 one million two hundred thousand pounds. 
 
 By such means did Warren Hastings obtain the large 
 revenue requisite to carry on the expenses of his Indian 
 government. In February, 1785, the governor-general re- 
 signed his office, and embarked for England. Notwithstand- 
 ing these glaring instances of oppression and wrong on the 
 part of Hastings, they by no means marked the general cha- 
 racter of his administration. This had, in fact, been so wise 
 
THE ENGLISH IN INDIA. 339 
 
 and beneficent, that lie left India admired and regretted by 
 the natives, by the servants of the East India Company, and 
 by the army. 
 
 Three years later Warren Hastings stood before the high 
 
 court of parliament assembled in Westminster Hall, 
 
 and listened to the following impeachment from the 
 
 lips of Edmund Burke, one of the most brilliant orators that 
 
 England has ever produced. 
 
 " Ordered by the Commons, 
 
 " I impeach Warren Hastings, Esquire, of high crimes and 
 misdemeanors. 
 
 " I impeach him in the name of the Commons of Great 
 Britain, in parliament assembled, whose parliamentary trust 
 he has betrayed. 
 
 " I impeach him in the name of all the Commons of Great 
 Britain, whose national character he has dishonored. 
 
 ^' I impeach him in the name of the people of India, whose 
 laws, rights, and liberties he has subverted, whose properties 
 he has destroyed, whose country he has laid waste and deso- 
 late. 
 
 " I impeach him in the name and by virtue of those eternal 
 laws of justice which he has violated. 
 
 '' I impeach him in the name of human nature itself, which 
 he has cruelly outraged, injured, and oppressed, in both sexes, 
 in every age, rank, situation, and condition of life. 
 
 " And I conjure this high and sacred court to let not these 
 pleadings be heard in vain I" 
 
 In the speech which preceded this impeachment, Burke 
 drew such a vivid picture of the wrongs which the late 
 governor-general had inflicted on the inhabitants of India, 
 that "■ sobs and tears, which are said not all to have proceeded 
 from the gentler sex, were heard and seen in nearly every part 
 of the hall." Even Hastings himself said : " For half an hour, 
 I looked up at the orator in a reverie of wonder ; and during 
 that space, I actually felt myself the most culpable man on 
 earth;" he adds, "but I recurred to my own bosom, and there 
 found a consciousness that consoled me under all I heard and 
 
340 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 all I suffered." Such was the magic power of this remarkable 
 orator. 
 
 Never in the annals of England's histbry, has there been a 
 trial of such high and intense interest as that of AVarren 
 Hastings. On the 13th of February, 1788, there were 
 gathered in the magnificent old hall which the Norman 
 Kufus had built, the royalty, nobility, talent, and beauty 
 of the realm. From the galleries gazed those whose united 
 presence would alone have rendered the scene one of sur- 
 passing interest. There sat Gribbon the historian, Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds the painter, Gainsborough, and Dr. Parr. Mrs. 
 Siddons, the celebrated actress, looked down upon a scene 
 and listened to words which dimmed with tears the eyes 
 of even this queen of tragedy. The trial was managed by 
 such men as Burke, Sheridan, and Fox, whose eloquence 
 thrills us with enthusiasm even when read at this distant day, 
 unaided by the impassioned tones and gestures of the living 
 orator. 
 
 Nor was the criminal unworthy of such a bar. For twelve 
 years he had been the ruler of the millions of India, and had 
 rescued and preserved British power there in the hour of its 
 greatest peril. During years in which England suffered 
 greater losses in her foreign possessions than she had ever 
 before sustained, during the years which witnessed the 
 independence of her colonies in the New World, Warren 
 Hastings preserved and extended for her in Asia, an empire 
 the most valuable of all ' her colonial dependencies, and that 
 which enables her to boast that " on the dominions of the 
 sovereign of Great Britain the sun never sets." 
 
 The trial of Warren Hastings was continued in every 
 session of parliament through seven long years. Of the one 
 hundred and sixty peers who in gold and ermine had walked 
 in procession to Westminster Hall on the first day of the trial, 
 only twenty-nine were present at the final judgment. Sixty 
 were in their graves. Hastings complained that ^' the arraign- 
 ment had taken place before one generation, and the judg- 
 ment was pronounced by another." On the 23d of April, 
 
THE ENGLISH IN INDIA. 341 
 
 1795, this long trial was ended, and the criminal was pro- 
 nounced " not guilty.'^ 
 
 Hastings retired to his ancestral seat at Daylesford, and 
 devoted the remaining twenty-four years of his life to literary 
 and agricultural pursuits. He became a liberal patron of 
 education, discoveries, and improvements, especially such aa 
 might conduce to the well-being of India. 
 
 In that country other governors-general of ability had suc- 
 ceeded Hastings, and towards the close of the century, the 
 East India Company had become the predominant power in 
 Hindostan. The powerful successor of Hyder-Ali, Tippoo 
 Saib, was defeated during Lord Cornwallis's administration, 
 in the battle of Seringapatam. During the Marquis 
 of Wellesley's wise and beneficent rule, Tippoo was 
 finally conquered, and his vast kingdom of Mysore fell into 
 the hands of the English. The fierce Mahrattas were sub- 
 dued, French power annihilated, and British rule or influence 
 extended throughout the peninsula. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the means by which the power of the Eng- 
 lish in India had been established. — What was the object of the bills 
 regarding India? — State the provisions of the bill passed in 1773. — 
 Who was Warren Hastings ? — Describe his position as governor- 
 general. — Narrate the acts of injustice committed by him in India in 
 the years 1773 and 1774. — Repeat the description given of Benares. 
 — What was Hastings's conduct towards this city ? 
 
 What was the condition of Southern India at this time?— How did 
 the governor-general act in this emergency? — How did he defray 
 the expenses of this war. — What had been the general character 
 of Hastings's rule in India? — Where and by whom was his impeach- 
 ment read? — Recite the articles. — Describe the- effect of Burke's 
 speech. — Describe the audience and scene at the time of the trial. — 
 State the benefits which Hastings's administration had conferred on 
 England. — Repeat the account given of the close of this trial. — 
 What was Hastings's subsequent history? — Describe the position 
 of the English in India towards the close of the century. — During 
 whose administrations had these events occurred ? 
 29* 
 
342 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII. 
 
 GEORGE III. 
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION — ITS EFFECT UPON ENGLAND — WAR — VICTO- 
 RIES — MUTINY IN THE FLEET — CAMPEUDOWN — BATTLE OP THE NILE — 
 ACRE — IRELAND — THE UNION. 
 
 Long before Warren Hastings's trial was ended, the inte- 
 rest of the nation was diverted from the fate of an individual 
 (however remarkable), to become absorbed in that of their 
 ancient rival, the monarchy of France. The people of this 
 country, rendered miserable by oppression, rose against their 
 1789 r^l^^s- They elected a national assembly, declared 
 to war against royalty and nobility, which they believed 
 the source of all their sufferings, and finally, after 
 many acts of violence, brought their monarch and his queen 
 to the block. 
 
 The French Revolution produced a great sensation through- 
 out England, dividing the country into two parties. The 
 clear-sighted Edmund Burke saw from the first the tendency 
 of its principles, and the evils of espousing the cause of the 
 revolutionists. " Men," he wisely observed, " must have a 
 certain fund of natural moderation to qualify them for free- 
 dom, else it becomes noxious to themselves, and a perfect 
 nuisance to everybody else.'' William Pitt, too, although he 
 took a more hopeful view of this blow for freedom, refrained 
 from interfering, in French affairs. 
 
 Another party, headed by Mr. Fox, applauded the princi- 
 ples of the French Revolution. To this party rallied all the 
 discontented spirits in the kingdom, and for many years the 
 English constitution was in no small peril. Excited by 
 French emissaries, whose motto was " war to the palace and 
 peace to the cottage," the people in many places, especially 
 in the manufacturing districts, grew turbulent, committed 
 outrages, and clamored for a reform in parliament. 
 
GEORGE III. 343 
 
 The difference of opinion on the tendency of the French 
 Revolution, and the consequent duty of encouraging or op- 
 posing it, produced violent contentions in the British parlia- 
 ment. It severed the friendship of Fox and Burke, " which/' 
 to use the words of the latter, "had stood the strain of a 
 whole lifetime.^' 
 
 On the execution of the French king, the English 
 government remonstrated against the course taken 
 by the revolutionists, and especially protested against their 
 introducing their republican principles into other countries. 
 In the year 1793, the French National Convention declared 
 war against Great Britain. Then commenced the long and 
 dreadful contest of the French Revolution, which lasted, with 
 but a short interval of peace, through a period of more than 
 twenty years. 
 
 England's victories were won chiefly on the sea, whilst 
 France, especially after the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, re- 
 mained mistress of the continent. 
 
 The year succeeding the declaration of the war, 
 
 1T94:. "^ ... 
 
 Admiral Lord Howe gained a brilliant naval victory 
 off Brest, on the French coast. The moral effect of this 
 victory was felt throughout England. It roused the enthu- 
 siasm of the people, united them with the government, and 
 suppressed in a great measure the disaffection excited by 
 French revolutionary principles. 
 
 A few years later, the navy of England, that strong 
 
 arm which had for centuries upheld her glory, was 
 imperilled by a mutiny which began in the Channel fleet. 
 The pay of the sailors was very low. They received no more 
 than in the days of Charles II., whilst nearly every article of 
 life had doubled in price since that time. The discipline of 
 the navy, too, was excessively harsh. These grievances 
 created a wide-spread feeling of discontent, and on the morn- 
 ing of the 15th of April, 1797, when Lord Bridport gave 
 orders to the Channel fleet to prepare for sea, instead of 
 obeying the command, his crew ran up the shrouds, and gave 
 three cheers. These were answered with a vigor from the 
 
344 HISTORY OF England. 
 
 other vessels, which proved the spirit of mutiny to be general 
 throughout the fleet. 
 
 The mutineers sent a petition to the House of Commons 
 and to .the Board of Admiralty, expressing unshaken loyalty 
 to king and country, but stating their grievances, and de- 
 manding redress. Their reasonable demands were agreed to 
 by the Board of Admiralty. To reassure them. Lord Howe, 
 who was revered and beloved by the whole navy, went down 
 to the fleet at Spithead, assured them of the good intentions 
 of the government, and induced them to strike the red flag 
 of insurrection. 
 
 Two months later, a still more formidable mutiny broke out 
 in that part of the squadron stationed at the Nore. This 
 outbreak was headed by a seaman on board the Sandwich, 
 who took the title of President of the Floating Republic. 
 When this outbreak occurred, Admiral Duncan, with part 
 of the squadron, was blockading the Dutch in the Texel. 
 Every vessel, save his own line-of-battle-ship and two frigates, 
 deserted. With the firmness of a true and noble patriot, the 
 admiral refused to give up the blockade. Gathering his own 
 crew around him, he addressed them in a speech of such 
 touching eloquence, that they responded by a unanimous and 
 enthusiastic promise to abide by him iu life or death. 
 
 Meanwhile the mutineers, who had drawn themselves up 
 in battle array across the Thames, becjanc so unreasonable in 
 their demands, which were urged, moreover, in so threatening 
 a manner, that government, despite the imminent peril, de- 
 termined to resist them. " Shall we yield," exclaimed Mr. 
 Sheridan in parliament, "to mutinous sailors? Never! for in 
 one moment we should extinguish three centuries of glory." 
 The buoys were removed from the Thames, every precaution 
 was taken to prevent the mutinous vessels ascending the river, 
 and throughout the country, merchants, sailors, and soldiers 
 volunteered to stand by the government. The sailors of the 
 Channel fleet patriotically remonstrated with those at the 
 Nore, and urged them to return to duty. 
 
 Finding the whole nation against them, the spirit of the 
 
"GEORGE III. 345 
 
 mutineers was subdued. Vessel by vessel deserted the bad 
 cause, and by the 15th of June, the red flag had been struck 
 throughout the squadron. The ringleader with several others 
 was put to death. After the suppression of this mutiny, the 
 grievances of both army and navy were carefully redressed, and 
 the condition of both arms of the service greatly improved. 
 
 During this very year, a striking proof of the true 
 loyalty of the fleet was given by the victories of St. 
 Vincent and Camperdown. Admiral Jarvis met the Spanish 
 fleet ofi* Cape St. Vincent on the coast of Portugal., It con- 
 sisted of twenty-seven ships of the line and twelve frigates. 
 Jarvis had but fifteen sail of the line and six frigates. Yet 
 he boldly attacked the Spanish fleet, and gained the victory. 
 In this engagement Lord Nelson greatly distinguished himself. 
 In October, 1797, a large Dutch fleet left the Texel, to 
 unite with a French squadron at Brest, for the invasion of 
 Ireland. Admiral Duncan intercepted the Dutch ships before 
 they had left the shores of Holland, and engaging them off 
 Camperdown, won a hard-fought but brilliant and important 
 victory. This battle, gained by the very squadron which a 
 few months before had been in open mutiny, spread joy 
 throughout England. Bonfires and illuminations in town 
 and country testified the universal enthusiasm of the nation. 
 Before the close of another year, England again blazed with 
 illuminations, and resounded with artillery, in honor of an- 
 other splendid victory, won by Lord Nelson at the battle of 
 the Nile. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, then at the head of the 
 armies of France, invaded Egypt, hoping to become 
 master of that country, and thence to strike a fatal blow at 
 the English possessions in India. Lord Nelson, who had 
 been ordered to the Mediterranean, learned at Messina the 
 course which Napoleon's fleet had taken, and started in pur- 
 suit Nelson sailed in June, but missed the French fleet, 
 and several weeks elapsed before he found the enemy he was 
 so eager to encounter. On the morning of the 1st of August, 
 as Nelson's fleet hove in sight of the Pharos of Alexandria, 
 
346 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 he beheld the harbor crowded with French vesseli, and the 
 tri-color of the republic floating over the walls of the town. 
 '' Before this time to-morrow/' exclaimed Nelson, as he gazed 
 upon them, " I shall have gained a peerage or Westminster 
 Abbey." 
 
 The French fleet, forming a cuiTed line, occupied a strong 
 position in Aboukir Bay. Nelson determined to send a part 
 of his squadron between the enemy and the shore, and to 
 attack with the rest on the other side, thus placing the 
 French between two fires. On communicating this design to 
 one of his captains, the latter exclaimed : " If we succeed, 
 what will the world say ?" " There is no ' if in the case,'' 
 replied Nelson. " That we shall succeed is certain ; who may 
 live to tell the story is a very difi"erent question." The 
 engagement began at three o'clock in the afternoon, and 
 lasted until midnight. At night the blaze of two thousand 
 pieces of artillery illuminated the scene, " and the volumes 
 of flame and smoke that rolled away from the bay, gave it 
 the appearance of a terrific volcano suddenly bursting forth 
 m the midst of the sea." By nine o'clock three French 
 ships had struck their colors, two were dismasted, and flames 
 were fast enveloping a third, " L' Orient," although she still 
 made a brave defence. 
 
 On the burning deck of that vessel stood the youthful 
 Casabianca. He was the son of the French admiral, and 
 only ten years of age. With heroic firmness he refused to 
 quit his post, even when the guns had been abandoned, and 
 
 " The flames that lit the battle's wreck, 
 Shone round him o'er the dead." 
 
 A few moments more, and those flames had reached the 
 powder magazine. Then followed the fearful destruction of 
 the " Orient" and her gallant crew, 
 
 "With mast, and helm, and pennon fair, 
 That well had borne their part, — 
 But the noblest thing that perished there. 
 Was that young faithful heart." 
 
GEORGE III. 347 
 
 When the battle ended at midnight, of the entire French 
 fleet, but four vessels escaped to carry the melancholy tidings 
 to France. 
 
 Before the close of the action, Nelson was severely wounded. 
 When carried below, the surgeon immediately left the seamen, 
 to dress the wounds of their admiral. ''No,^' said Nelson, 
 ^' I will take my turn with my brave fellows." Nor would he 
 receive the surgeon's attention until that officer had attended 
 to all who had been previously brought down. From his 
 grateful country Nelson received a handsome pension and the 
 title of Baron Nelson of the Nile. 
 
 The emissaries of France, by declaring "■ war to the palace, 
 and peace to the cottage," had sought to rouse the middle 
 and lower classes against their rulers. In the year 1798, the 
 monarch and ministry of England gave a strong proof of 
 their reliance on the loyalty of true British hearts, by estab- 
 lishing the volunteer system throughout the kingdom. By 
 this system, arms were placed in the hands of one" hundred 
 and fifty thousand of the people, that they might therewith 
 defend their country and the constitution. These volunteer 
 corps proved faithful to the trust reposed in them. Even in 
 the manufacturing towns, where discontents and clamors for a 
 reform of the constitution had been most violent, the volun- 
 teers were zealous in their loyalty, and suppresseii in a great 
 measure the disturbances which had prevailed. 
 
 Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, which was a province 
 A*98 ^^ ^^® Turkish empire, induced the sultan to declare 
 war against him. A few months later, being threat- 
 ened with an attack from the Turks by land and by sea. Na- 
 poleon formed the bold design of crossing the desert to Syria, 
 where the principal army of the sultan was assembled. He 
 hoped to destroy this army, to rouse the inhabitants of the 
 country against their rulers, and to found a splendid empire 
 in the East. Filled with visions of oriental conquest and 
 dominion, the French army entered the Holy Land. The 
 sacred hills and plains of Galilee, the heights of Carmel, the 
 
348 HISTORY OF ENC4LAND. 
 
 sea of Gennesaret, Nazareth, and Caiia*, names hallowed by 
 Scriptural associations, now resounded with the din of arms. 
 
 Napoleon laid siege to Acre. It was defended by the 
 Turks, and in the Bay of Carmel lay a small English fleet, 
 commanded by Sir Sidney Smith. This trying siege con- 
 tinued from the 16th of March to the 7th of May. 
 
 1799. ^ 
 
 On the evening of the latter day an Ottoman fleet of 
 thirty sail, with stores of ammunition and artillery, anchored 
 in the bay. Napoleon at once ordered an assault, hoping to 
 take the town before relief could be thrown into it. This 
 assault, renewed for three days, was made with all the energy 
 of despair. It was unavailing, and at last there fell from 
 Napoleon's lips the first order for retreat which that successful 
 general had ever uttered. He left on the Syrian plains three 
 thousand of his brave men — there, too, lay buried his glorious 
 visions of oriental empire. With heavy hearts the remnant 
 of his army retraced their march to Egypt, through the burn- 
 ing sands of the desert. Of Sir Sidney Smith, Napoleon 
 often said : " That man made me miss my destiny." 
 
 The domestic history of Great Britain during the closing 
 years of this century was hardly more peaceful than her 
 foreign relations. The principal causes of disturbance arose 
 in Ireland. That country, ever since its conquest in the days 
 of Henry Plantagenet, had been as a thorn in the side of its 
 English neighbor. But it was the unjust and cruel policy of 
 the conqueror which had made it so. On every fresh con- 
 quest the fair domains of Ireland were wrested from the 
 native owner, and bestowed upon the foreign lord. The new 
 proprietor, instead of dwelling on his "estate, caring for his 
 tenantry, and becoming Irish in his sympathies and interests, 
 returned to England, leaving an agent to collect rents and 
 raise as much money as he could from the estate. These 
 agents oppressed the peasantry, and thus awakened a feeling 
 of hostility towards the absent proprietor. Then, too, there 
 lingered in the land a great number of the old disinherited 
 families, who kept up in the minds of their former dependants 
 
GEORGE III. 349 
 
 a feeling of indignation against the Saxon invaders. When 
 the Reformation took place, England became Protestant, whilst 
 Ireland adhered to the Komish Church. Thus was added the 
 bitter element of religious animosity to the causes of hatred 
 which already existed. 
 
 In the year 1791, " The Society of United Irishmen" was 
 established. They declared themselves " a union of Irishmen 
 of every religious persuasion, in order to obtain a complete 
 reform of the legislature, founded on the principles of civil, 
 political, and religious liberty.'' To this association belonged 
 many who were animated by pure and ardent patriotism, and 
 many among them were Protestants. The majority of the 
 Protestants in Ireland, however, especially of the lower orders, 
 united in an opposing society, called " Orangemen," for the 
 upholding of Protestant and English supremacy Both asso- 
 ciations committed acts of violence and depredation, spreading 
 disorder and misery throughout Ireland. 
 
 On the breaking out of the French Revolution, the Irish, 
 excited by hopes of throwing off the galling yoke of England, 
 listened eagerly to French offers of assistance. The views of 
 the " Society of United Irishmen" now changed materially. 
 They sought to sever the national connection with England, 
 to establish a republic, restore the Romish religion, and give 
 back to the disinherited Celt his long-forfeited lands. Two 
 expeditions from France, intended for the invasion of Ireland, 
 were destroyed : the first in 1796, by a storm in Bantry Bay, 
 and the second before it had left the shores of France, by the 
 victory of Camperdown. In Ireland, however, a formidable 
 insurrection broke out, and two hundred and fifty thousand 
 men were in arms. The leaders were discovered and seized, 
 and after a few encounters in the county of Wexford, the 
 insurgents laid down their arms, and submitted to 
 the government. 
 
 To reconcile, if possible, the divided interests of England 
 and Ireland, to prevent the invasion of the latter island by 
 France, and to put an end to the frightful disorders pre- 
 vailing there, the English government proposed to unite the 
 30 
 
350 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 two countries under one parliament. This measure met with 
 violent opposition on the part of the great body of the Irish 
 people. Curran and Grattan, the most eloquent orators of 
 their day, pleaded earnestly against it, as subversive of the 
 dignity and liberty of their country. The bill for the union, 
 which had passed in the English parliament, was agreed to in 
 the Irish House of Lords, and the Commons were won over by 
 bribery. 
 
 Thus, in the last year of the century, the union of England 
 and Ireland was effected. The Irish parliament ceased to 
 exist, and twenty-eight peers and one hundred commoners 
 represent that kingdom in the national council of the realm 
 Henceforth the British Isles assumed the title of " The 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." 
 
 Questions — Relate the events which had taken place in France 
 from 1789-93. — Repeat the views expressed by Burke on the French 
 Revolution. — Describe the party which favored this cause. — What 
 remonstrances were made to France by the English government ? — 
 When and by whom was war declared? — What naval victory was 
 gained in 1794? — Describe the condition of the English navy. — 
 Give an account of the mutiny in the Channel fleet. — Describe the 
 mutiny at the Nore. — How did the danger terminate? 
 
 Describe the battle of St. Vincent. — That of Camperdown. — Who 
 invaded Egypt? — With what object? — Relate the efi'orts of Nelson to 
 find the French. — Describe the battle of Aboukir. — Relate the story 
 of Casabtanca. — State the result of the battle. — Describe Nelson's 
 conduct. — Give some account of the volunteer system. — What were 
 Napoleon's designs and operations towards the close of 1798? — 
 Describe the siege and relief of Acre. — Describe Napoleon's defeat 
 and its consequences. 
 
 State the treatment which Ireland for centuries had experienced 
 from England. — When was the *' Society of United Irishmen" found- 
 ed? — What objects did it profess? — Describe the rival society. — 
 What hopes were excited in Ireland by the French Revolution ? — 
 What now became the designs of "The United Irishmen?" — Men- 
 tion the fate of the French expeditions to Ireland. — What was the 
 result of the insurrection of 1798 ? — What proposition was made by 
 the English government ? — Relate the history and final result of 
 this bill. — What is henceforth the proper designation of the British 
 Islands ? 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 351 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. 
 
 CONDITION OP ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 RELIGION — LITERATURE — DISTINGUISHED WRITERS. 
 
 During no period perhaps since the Reformation was 
 '' pure and undefiled'' reHgion at so low an ebb as during the 
 first half of the eighteenth century. The clergy of the 
 Established Church were in many instances worldly-minded 
 men, devoted to fox-hunting and the pleasures of the table. 
 Among the dissenters great coldness and formality prevailed, 
 and the laity generally, as might be -expected, "when no man 
 cared for their souls," were corrupt in their principles and 
 vicious in their lives. 
 
 From this low estate, religion was revived in England, by 
 the preaching of two remarkable men — Greorge Whitfield and 
 John Wesley. The movement begun by them soon exerted 
 an awakening and salutary influence upon the. Established 
 Church. 
 
 Whitfield and Wesley had been members of the same college 
 at the University of Oxford, and were distinguished whilst 
 there for purity of morals and for their religious character. 
 They, with a few other kindred spirits, were so strict and 
 regular in the observance of religious duties, that they ac- 
 quired the nickname of " Methodists," an appellation which 
 was subsequently adopted by the society of which they were 
 the founders. They visited America, where Wesley became 
 much impressed by the religious establishments of the Mora- 
 vians who had settled in Georgia. Whitfield went to New 
 England, became acquainted with the views of the Puritans, 
 and adopted many of their doctrines. 
 
 As early as 1739, Whitfield began the practice of preaching 
 in the open air. At Bristol the colliers, drawn from the dark 
 and dismal coal-pits, gathered round him, under the blue 
 canopy of heaven, sometimes to the number of twenty thou- 
 
352 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 sand. Whitfield afterwards preached m the vicinity of Lon- 
 don, at Moorfields, at Kennington Common, and Blackheath, 
 to congregations of forty thousand. 
 
 Wesley, too, on his return from America, finding the 
 churches of the Establishment closed against him, and no 
 room sufficiently large to hold those who flocked to his ser- 
 vices, " determined to do the same thing in England which" 
 he " had often done in a warmer climate — namely, to preach 
 in the open air." At first he hesitated about adopting this 
 course, but afterwards concluded that " our Lord's sermon 
 on the mount was a pretty remarkable precedent for field- 
 preaching," and one that he might safely follow. 
 
 Wesley was a clergyman of the church of England, and 
 became greatly displeased on learning that Thomas Maxfield, 
 a layman whom he had employed to watch over and pray with 
 his congregation at Moorfields, whilst he was ministering 
 elsewhere, had commenced preaching. Returning hastily to 
 London, Wesley exclaimed to his mother: "So, Thomas iMax- 
 field is turned preacher, I find !" His mother in reply told 
 him, it was .the Lord's work, and begged him not to oppose it. 
 Wesley, after hearing Maxfield, became convinced that good 
 might be done in this way, and consented that laymen should 
 preach, but not administer the sacraments. Thus originated 
 the practice of lay-preaching. 
 
 Another peculiarity of the Methodists, that of classes and 
 class-leaders, arose from the following circumstance : on at- 
 tempting to raise money to build a meeting-house, the poverty 
 of the brethren was found to be a serious obstacle. At length 
 one said : " Put eleven of the poorest with me, — I will call on 
 each of them weekly, and if they give nothing, I will give for 
 them as well as 'for myself." This gave rise to the division 
 of the brethren into classes, with a leader, who, in course of 
 time, instead of calling on each member at his own house, 
 assembled them together weekly, for the purposes of mutual 
 prayer, exhortation, and supervision. 
 
 Wesley, although a clergyman of the Establishment, found 
 himself denied the church pulpits, on account of his pecu- 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 353 
 
 liarities. This circumstance originated itinerancy, another 
 distinguishing feature of Methodism. Wesley "and his 
 brethren wandered into every section of England, from the 
 Northumbrian moorlands to the innermost depths of the Cor- 
 nish mines, in the most tumultuous cities, and in the most 
 unfrequented hamlets." At Wesley's death, there were 
 seventy-one thousand Methodists in England, and forty-eight 
 thousand in America. 
 
 Whitfield, aided by the influence of Selina, Countess of 
 Huntingdon, awakened an interest among the higher circles 
 of society, whilst the Methodism of Wesley found its warmest 
 welcome among the working classes. It was truly, in many 
 respects, what it has often been called, " the poor man's 
 religion." The powerful and eloquent preaching of these 
 men, together with the labors of Watts, Doddridge, and 
 others, was the means, in God's hand, of producing a purer 
 and higher tone of religion throughout England, and we soon 
 find in the annals of its church history, such men as Fletcher, 
 the good vicar of Madeley, Romaine, the elder Venn, John 
 Newton, and Rowland Hill. 
 
 At the close of the preceding century laws extremely severe 
 'had been passed against the Roman Catholics. A reward of 
 one hundred pounds was ofi"ered to any one apprehending a 
 priest in the act of saying mass, or exercising any other office 
 of religion within the realm. No Roman Catholic was allowed 
 to keep a school, or in any way to employ himself in the edu- 
 cation of youth. If a Roman Catholic youth, on attaining 
 tihe age of eighteen, should refuse to abjure his religioD, he 
 was liable to be disinherited, and the next of kin, being a 
 Protestant, might seize his property. 
 
 These oppressive laws, although not always strictly enforced, 
 gave rise to much suffering among a large population in the 
 realm, and especially in the sister kingdom of Ireland. Nearly 
 a hundred years, however, passed before they were rescinded 
 by the passage of the first Catholic Relief Bill. This bill, 
 passed in 1778, allowed Roman Catholics to engage in educa- 
 tion without being liable to imprisonment, to exercise the 
 30* Z 
 
354 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 rites of their religion, and to enjoy their property. They 
 were still debarred the right of holding any civil office, and 
 many other privileges of English subjects. 
 
 The concessions of the Relief Bill, limited as they were, 
 met with some opposition in England, and when it was pro- 
 posed to extend them to Scotland, the most tumultuous 
 excitement broke out in that country. A society was formed 
 called "The Protestant Association,'' the object of which was 
 to oppose all relief to Roman Catholics. The president was 
 Lord George Gordon, a fanatical nobleman, who is supposed, 
 from some of his extravagances, to have been insane. The 
 " Protestant Association" soon extended to England, and an 
 immense body of men, animated by a spirit of bitter intoler- 
 ance, ranged themselves under the command of Lord George. 
 
 On the 2d of June, 1780, sixty thousand members of this 
 association assembled in St. George's Fields, and thence pro- 
 ceeded through London to the parliament house, bearing a 
 petition, signed, it is said, with names or marks of one hun- 
 dred and twenty thousand Protestants. Entering the house, 
 the rabble made the old hall of Westminster ring with their 
 shouts of " No Popery I" " No Popery !" 
 
 The riots continued during the week from the 2d to the 
 9th of June, with ever-increasing violence. On the night of 
 the 7th, thirty-six fires blazed in difierent parts of the city, 
 whilst the uproar of the mob and the firing of the military 
 added to the terror of the scene. At length, by armed force, 
 the rioters were subdued, but not before five hundred lives 
 had been lost, and an immense amount of property destroyeci. 
 
 Lord Mansfield's beautiful mansion and valuable law-library 
 fell a sacrifice to the fury of the mob. When this learned 
 and aged judge pleaded, a few days later, the lawfulness of 
 employing the military against the rioters, he made a slight 
 but touching allusion to his own great loss. "I have founded 
 my opinion without consulting my books," said he ; adding, 
 *' Indeed, I have no books to consult." These riots, and the 
 excited state of feeling in Scotland, prevented the extension 
 of the Relief Bill to that country. 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 355 
 
 The same period which witnessed so low a state of religion 
 and morality in England, exhibited a corresponding want of a 
 pure and ennobling literature. To supply this want, and to 
 diffuse a more refined and Christian tone throughout society, 
 was the aim of those benefactors of literature, the English 
 essayists. They were also the founders of periodical litera- 
 ture, their essays being issued in small tri-weekly sheets, at 
 the cost of a penny each. These papers became extremely 
 popular, and, reproving in a gentle but lively manner the 
 follies and extravagances of fashionable life, soon produced a 
 most happy effect in improving the manners of the age. 
 The first of these papers, called "The Tatler," was established 
 by Sir Richard Steele. The most celebrated is " The Spec- 
 tator,'' which received its most valuable and beautiful contri- 
 butions from the pen of Addison. 
 
 Among "the wits of Queen Anne's reign," Jonathan Swift, 
 the dean of St. Patrick's, holds perhaps the first rank as a 
 prose writer. He is best known as the author of that famous 
 satire, " Gulliver's Travels." Although an original and power- 
 ful writer, his personal character was far from attractive. 
 The bitterness, almost cruelty, of his satirical writings, indi- 
 cate the heartlessness of the man. The last nine years of his 
 life were passed in a state of hopeless insanity. 
 
 In the early part of the century, the poet Pope, in his 
 beautiful villa of Twickenham, assembled around him the 
 most brilliant wits of his day. There gathered Swift, Gay, 
 Arbuthnot, Parnell, and Prior. To Pope we are indebted for 
 the first English translation of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. 
 He wrote many elegant and celebrated poems, but, like Swift, 
 sullied the genius with which he was gifted, by employing it 
 in bitter satires against his enemies There were other poets 
 of this age whose writings are scarcely less beautiful than 
 Pope's, whilst their personal characters were far more winning. 
 Young, the author of "Night Thoughts;" Thomson, who has 
 given Us his much-admired poem of "The Seasons;" and 
 Gray, whose beautiful "Elegy in a Country Churchyard" 
 is so familiar to all, were cotemporaries. In the reign of 
 
366 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 George III. lived Goldsmith, the author of " The Traveller" 
 and " The Deserted Village/' and that immortal prose work, 
 <'The Vicar of \yakefield." With the. century closed the 
 life of a poet, dear to the hearts and homes of all, — Cowper, 
 the sweet Muse of Olney. His " Task,"- " Table-Talk," the 
 " Lines to his Mother's Picture," and his hymns, will charm 
 as long as there are found hearts to delight in pure and 
 natural poetry. 
 
 "Nor ever shall he be in praise 
 By wise and good forsaken ; 
 Named softly as the household name 
 Of one whom God hath taken." 
 
 The eighteenth century gave rise to a new species of com- 
 position, that of prose fiction or novels. The first writer in 
 this style was Daniel Defoe, the author of the well-known 
 story of '' Robinson Crusoe." To him succeeded more de- 
 cided novelists, such as Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, and 
 Sterne. All these writers partook of the artificial character 
 of the age in which they lived, and their works, though read 
 with delight then, would scarcely interest the present genera- 
 tion, whilst the coarseness which is found in many of them, 
 would repel the more refined taste of the readers of our day. 
 
 Among the prose writers of this period stand the Dames of 
 some of our greatest historians. Hume, whose well-written 
 ** History of England" has long continued a standard work ; 
 Robertson, who wrote a celebrated '* History of the Reign of 
 the Emperor Charles V.;" and Gibbon, the brilliant author of 
 the " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." It is painful 
 to record that the religious infidelity of two of these historians, 
 Hume and Gibbon, casts a dark shadow over their works, and 
 makes the reader feel that there is in them a painful lack of 
 sympathy with that which is, above all, the best part of a 
 people's history, — its Christian character; — the "righteous- 
 ness" which " exalteth a nation." 
 
 Among the productions of this century, may be named the 
 curious literary impostures of Macpherson and Chatterton, 
 
ENGLAND DURING THK EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 357 
 
 and also the celebrated" anonymous " Letters of Junius/' 
 Macplierson, a Scotchman, published, in the year 1760, a 
 volume called the " Poems of Ossian,'^ which he pretended 
 was a prose translation of ancient Gaelic poetry, written as 
 fiir back as the fourth or fifth century of the Christian era. 
 A violent controversy as to the authenticity of these poems 
 arose among the learned men of Scotland and England, and 
 it was only at the end of a long and critical investigation that 
 they were pronounced to be forgeries. Chatterton, a mere 
 boy of sixteen, the son of a sexton at Bristol, deceived, for a 
 long time, the literary world, by the Rowley Poems. He 
 pretended to have found the manuscript in an old chest in 
 the church of St. Mary Redcliffe, at Bristol, deposited there 
 by a priest named Thomas Rowleie, in the fifteenth century. 
 They were in fact his own compositions, but so admirably had 
 this "marvellous boy" imitated the style of a past age, that 
 even the acutest critics for a time believed them to belong to 
 the century to which their young author attributed them. 
 The ^' Letters of Junius" were powerful political writings, 
 which, appearing anonymously, and being full of point and 
 sarcasm, created a great excitement in the political world. 
 Their probable author was Sir Philip Francis. 
 
 Undoubtedly the greatest literary hero of his age, whether 
 considered as an essayist, a moralist, a biographer, or as the 
 compiler of the celebrated '' Dictionary of the English Lan- 
 guage," is Dr. Samuel Johnson — the sage of Lichfield. As a 
 poet, his satires, especially the one entitled "Vanity of Human 
 Wishes," written in imitation of the Latin poet Juvenal, have 
 placed him in a high rank. His " Lives of the Poets'' belongs 
 to the classic literature of England, but the most glorious 
 monument of his literary fame is his Dictionary. In this 
 great work he was occupied only seven years, an incredibly 
 short period, when we consider the amount of research and 
 labor required, for such a task on the part of a single scholar. 
 
 Blackstone's valuable " Commentaries on the Laws of Eng- 
 land" were published in the year 1765. In a century, the 
 literary annals of which are so full, we can do no more than 
 
868 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 cull a few names here and there, leaving the youthful student 
 to become acquainted with the valuable literature of this age, 
 as his sphere of knowledge enlarges. We must not, however, 
 quite omit a mention of the female writers, whose works were 
 the delight of their own day, and many of which have proved 
 a precious legacy to succeeding generations. There was Miss 
 Burney, afterwards Madame D'Arblay, who wrote the agree- 
 able and celebrated novels, "Evelina/' and "Cecilia;" the 
 learned Greek scholar, Elizabeth Carter; Mrs. Barbauld, 
 Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, and the crowning glory of 
 female authorship, Hannah More. In her pleasant home at 
 Cowslip Green, and later at Barley Wood, this good and 
 gifted woman drew around her the best and most accom- 
 plished men and women of her day. The great Dr. Johnson, 
 often rough and uncouth in his manners to others, was ever 
 gentle and affectionate towards Hannah More. Garrick the 
 dramatist, Horace Walpole, Newton, Wilberforce, and Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds, were all numbered among her friends. 
 
 When the principles of the French Revolution were spread- 
 ing throughout England, creating discontent in many an 
 artisan's hamlet and husbandman's cottage, Hannah More 
 wrote " Will Chip's Village Politics." The sound sense and 
 lively wit of this little tract soon made its influence felt 
 throughout the land. " Will Chip, with no more, as it were, 
 than a sling, and a few smooth stones, ventured forth to meet 
 the great Goliath of the times." Other tracts followed, and 
 the pages of the " Cheap Repository," as the whole collection 
 was called, fostered a spirit of contentment and piety, which 
 was an inestimable blessing to England in those days. 
 
 Questions — What was the state of religion duving the first half 
 of the eighteenth century ? — Through the influence of what two 
 preachers was religion revived in England ? — Give briefly some ac- 
 count of each of these men. — What led Wesley to adopt the practice 
 of street preaching? — State the incident which gave rise to lay- 
 preaching. — What circumstance originated class meetings? 
 
 Against what religious sect did severe laws exist during this 
 period? — When and by what act were they repealed? — Give the 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 359 
 
 history of "The Protestant Association." — Repeat the anecdote of 
 Lord Mansfield. 
 
 What was the object of the English essayists who wrote in this 
 age ? — In what form did these essays appear ? — Name and describe 
 the author of "Gulliver's Travels." — Name some of the poetical 
 ■works written during this period, and give their authors. — Who 
 wrote "Robinson Crusoe?" — What novelists lived in the eighteenth 
 century? — What famous historians? — What were the "Letters of 
 Junius?" — What is remarked of Dr. Johnson? — What celebrated 
 law book was published in this century? — Name some of the female 
 writers of this time. 
 
 CHAPTER LX. 
 
 CONDITION OP ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 THE MINISTRY — OLD AND NEW STYLE — ARCHITECTURE — PAINTING — MUSIC 
 —MANUFACTURES — TRAVELLING— AGRICULTURE— COMMERCE — MANNERS 
 AND CUSTOMS — AMUSEMENTS. 
 
 Towards the close of the preceding century the king's 
 chief officer, who was the lord treasurer, received the name 
 of premier, or prime minister. In the course of time, this 
 minister became the first executive officer in the realm. By 
 him all the principal departments of government are filled. 
 The men at the head of these departments, with the premier, 
 are called " the ministry,'^ and to them the administration of 
 public afiFairs is intrusted. 
 
 Towards the close of this century, that important change 
 in the method of reckoning time, known as "the New Style/' 
 was introduced into England. In " the Old Style," which 
 had been used since the days of Julius Cassar, there was 
 found a difi'erence between the real and apparent year, 
 amounting, during the lapse of ages, to some ten or eleven 
 days. An act of parliament passed in 1752, provided that 
 the latter number of days should be left out of the calendar, 
 the 3d of September being reckoned as the 14th. Thia 
 
360 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 alteration excited, at first, a great commotion among the 
 common people. They declared that it was equivalent to 
 shortening the period of their natural lives by that amount 
 of time ; mobs carried through the streets, placards, on which 
 were inscribed : " Give us back our eleven days \" 
 
 On the 25th of February, 1723, Sir Christopher Wren closed 
 his long and useful career. At the advanced age of ninety- 
 one, this great architect was laid in his tomb in the crypt of 
 St. Paul's Church. On a tablet is the following expressive 
 epitaph : " Lector, si monumentum requiris, circumspice." 
 *' Reader, if you would inquire for my monument, look around 
 you." To Wren succeeded Vanbrugh, the most magnificent 
 monument of whose fame is Blenheim House — the palace 
 which a grateful nation bestowed on John, Duke of Marl- 
 borough, for his victories on the continent. In the tenth 
 year of Queen Anne's reign, an order for the building of fifty 
 new churches in London and its neighborhood, gave an 
 impulse to architecture, and produced many beautiful edifices. 
 
 During the early part of the century, flourished Sir Godfrey 
 •Kneller, the court painter of Queen Anne's reign Ten years 
 after Kneller's death, appeared Hogarth, of whose original 
 and unrivalled genius his country may well be proud. His 
 reputation first began as an engraver, but his " pictured 
 morals,^' the vivid and forcible representations of real life 
 depicted on his canvas, have secured his greatest and most 
 wide-spread fame. There are few who have not enjoyed the 
 inimitable humor of ''The Enraged Musician" Hogarth 
 died in 1764. Four years later was founded " The Royal 
 Academy of Arts." Its first president was Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds, who may be called the founder of the English school 
 of painters. It was on the occasion of Reynolds's inaugu- 
 ration as president of the Royal Academy, that George III., 
 himself a liberal patron of the fine arts, conferred on the 
 distinguished painter the honor of knighthood. Among the 
 founders of the Royal Academy were West, Wilson, and 
 Gainsborough, all honored names in the history of art. West 
 was an American by birth. 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 361 
 
 To the sister-art of music, in nearly every department, new 
 cliarms were added, and this century is particularly rich in 
 beautiful collections of church music. The Oratorio, that 
 noble triumph of musical genius, was brought out in the year 
 1720, by Frederick Handel, a German by birth, but who made 
 England the country of his adoption. The Itahan Opera was 
 introduced early in the century, but no English production 
 was performed until the year. 1727, when Gay's composition. 
 " The Beggars* Opera," was brought out at Drury Lane 
 Theatre, with great success. 
 
 In the industrial arts this period was one of wonderful 
 progress. Improvements were made in the production of 
 nearly every useful article of life. Hitherto the woollen 
 manufacture had been the one of greatest importance. Says 
 an English writer in 1694 : '• Nine parts in ten of our ex- 
 ported commodities doth come from the sheep's back, and 
 from hence alone is the spring of our riches." We now 
 enter upon a century in which this statement ceases to be 
 true, and the cotton manufacture becomes the great source of 
 British wealth. As the cotton yarn was spun by hand, great 
 difficulty had been experienced in getting a sufficient supply 
 for the purposes of weaving. The little that could be pro- 
 cured from the most industrious spinners was used only in the 
 woof, it not being strong enough for the warp of any fabric. 
 About the year 1764, James Hargreaves invented the spin- 
 ning-jenny, which spun first eight, and soon twice that number 
 of threads at a time. The ignorant spinners, fearing their 
 occupation would be gone if the fast-spinning jennies took 
 the place of hand labor, destroyed these useful machines 
 wherever they could find them. 
 
 A few years later Sir Richard Arkwright,at first a poor 
 barber, gave to the world his invaluable invention of spinning 
 by rollers. In this machine the cotton is drawn swiftly and 
 carefully between a pair of rollers, thus reducing it to a 
 coarse thread. This thread being drawn between a second 
 set of rollers, revolving more quickly than the first, is mad^ 
 31 
 
362 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 proportion ably finer ; a third part of the machine twists the 
 threads as they advance, and thus by this system of artificial 
 thumbs and fingers, the cotton yarn is supplied not only in 
 sufiicient quantity for the weaver's use, but also of so strong a 
 fibre that he need no longer hesitate to employ it for the warp 
 as well as the woof of his manufacture. Cromford, on the 
 river Derwent, has the honor of being " the nursing-place of 
 the factory opulence and power of Great Britain." There, in 
 1771, Ark Wright erected the first spinning-Ttheel worked by 
 water-power. 
 
 But another power was soon to be appHed to cotton spin- 
 ning, which was immeasurably to increase the value of this 
 manufacture. This was the steam-engine, iuvented by James 
 Watt, and first used in the cotton factories in 1785. The silk 
 manufacture increased and improved greatly, especially when 
 the revocation of the Edict of Nantes had brought many 
 skilful French artisans into England. Early in this century 
 the Silk Weavers' Company reported the manufacture in 
 England as twenty times greater in extent than in the year 
 1664, and the silk equal in quality to that imported from 
 France. Until the year 1715 the weavers were dependent 
 upon Italy for their supply of silk thread, in which country 
 the machinery for its manufacture had been brought to great 
 perfection. In the above-named year an English silk mer- 
 chant went to Italy, determined to learn the secret of this 
 superior machinery. After much difficulty he obtained em- 
 ployment in an humble capacity in one of the Italian mills. 
 Pleading great destitution, he was permitted to sleep in the 
 work-room. Here he employed his nights in making draw- 
 ings of the machinery. After obtaining the requisite infor- 
 mation, he left his Italian employers, returned to England, 
 and in 1719, established at Derby, in connection with his 
 brothers, the first English silk-factory. 
 
 In the manufacture of porcelain and earthenware, the most 
 useful discoveries and improvements were made during the 
 course of this century. In 1763, Wedgewood produced the 
 beautiful artiple known aa queens ware. It was of a delicate 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 363 
 
 cream color, coated with a fiue and durable glazing, and so 
 cheap that in a very short time it came into universal use. 
 
 The manufacture of cutlery had been established at Shef- 
 field as early as the fourteenth century.. In 1761, there were 
 forty thousand persons employed in the making of hardware. 
 At Birmingham, too, fifty thousand were busy in every variety 
 of steel and iron manufacture. During this century many 
 large and valuable iron works were established in England, 
 which were greatly aided by the vast improvements made in 
 machinery, especially by the invention of the steam-engine. 
 The coal-mines were greatly indebted to this valuable agent 
 for their more effective and extended working. 
 
 Travelling, even as late as the middle of the eighteenth 
 century, presented none of those facilities which now render 
 the tour of England a journey of pleasure. Turnpikes had 
 been introduced, but they w^ere little used^ and seldom or 
 never kept in good repair. From the report of a tourist who 
 wrote in 1770, there seems to have existed no idea of the 
 proper construction of a road. " The turnpikes," he ex- 
 claims, '" as they have the assurance to call them, and the 
 hardiness to make one pay for," are " mere rocky lanes full 
 of hugeous stones as big as one's head, and abominable holes.'' 
 The same traveller complains of the ruts being four feet deep, 
 flooded with mud, and the roads in some places so narrow 
 that a mouse cannot pass by any carriage. The method of 
 transportation by canals was introduced about the middle of 
 this century. The first was the Bridge water Canal, con- 
 structed in 1755 by the Duke of Bridgewater, for the purpose 
 of carrying coals from the mines at Worsley to jManchester. 
 This new and easy mode of conveyance produced so great a 
 reduction in the charge of transportation of goods, that it 
 soon obtained the preference over land carriage. Brindley, 
 the architect of the earliest canals in Great Britain, cut 
 through a hill in Staffordshire a tunnel nearly three thousand 
 yards in length. This was on the Trent and Mersey, or 
 Grand Trunk Canal. It was considered a wonderful achieve- 
 ment in those days. , 
 
364 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Agriculture became much improved. Very beautiful gar- 
 dens were laid out, and even the cottager's plot of ground 
 produced a quantity and variety of vegetables unknown in 
 former times. The potato was cultivated, and before the 
 close of the century became a common article of food. In 
 1717, greenhouses, for the raising of tropical fruits and 
 flowers, w^ere introduced into England. Hitherto the green- 
 house had only been used for the protection of delicate plants 
 during the winter. 
 
 The foreign commerce of Great Britain brought stores 
 of wealth to her treasury. Her trade with the American 
 colonies, valuable as it had been before their independence, 
 became still more so after that event. Tobacco, rice, and 
 other valuable imports were brought from the United States, 
 whilst the English West Indies afforded large supplies of 
 sugar, and Honduras furnished mahogany and logw^ood. The 
 East India trade became yearly more extended and more 
 profitable, and that carried on with the countries of Europe, 
 especially with Holland, produced a constant revenue. To 
 the merchantman, and indeed to every mariner, one work of 
 this century will ever be acknowledged with gratitude — the 
 Eddystone Lighthouse, erected by Smeaton in 1755. Pre- 
 vious to this date two lighthouses had been erected on the 
 dangerous rocks which line the coast of Hampshire. Both 
 had been destroyed — the one by the violence of the elements, 
 and the other by fire. But Smeaton's structure of stone, 
 erected on the same spot, has now stood for more than a 
 century, defying the winds and waves, and proving a beacon 
 and a blessing to the countless vessels that navigate the 
 English Channel. 
 
 The state of society in England before the accession of 
 George III., was disgraceful in the extreme. It seems in- 
 credible to the more moral and refined taste of our own. day, 
 that such vices and frivolous pursuits could have existed 
 among the higher classes of society, as those of which the 
 essayists complain. It was thought sufl&cient for a fashion- 
 able lady if she could barely read an^ write ; — be able to pen 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 365 
 
 a sKort letter without a great deal of misspelling, understand 
 enough arithmetic to answer the purposes of the card-table, 
 and dancing sufficient to exhibit in the assemblies called, 
 most characteristically, routs, drums, and hurricanes. Her 
 days and nights were spent in a career of dissipation. The 
 toilette occupied a large part of every morning, after which 
 she dashed over the city on a round of visiting, in a coach with 
 four laced and powdered footmen behind it. In these visits 
 all the gossip and scandal of the day were talked over. 
 
 Even the outward observances of religion were neglected. 
 If a woman of fashion ever went to church, it was only occa- 
 sionally of an afternoon, to display her dress, see frivolous 
 companions, and " deal curtsies from her pew." Generally, 
 however, the sacred day was spent in drives on the public 
 parks, and its evenings in playing at cards. 
 
 A writer in the Pictorial history, describing a woman of 
 these days, says : "■ She patronized French milliners, French 
 hair-dressers, and Italian opera-singers ; she loved tall footmen 
 and turbaned negro footboys ; she doted upon monkeys, paro- 
 quets, and lap-dogs; was a perfect critic in old china and 
 Indian trinkets ; and could not exist without a raffle or a sale." 
 It is to this passion for old china that the poet Pope probably 
 alludes, in his unworthy Essay on Woman, when he describes 
 his perfect character as 
 
 "Mistress of herself though china fall." 
 
 The day spent as above described, necessarily encroached 
 upon the hours which should have been given to sleep. 
 Sometimes these votaries of fashion would not return to their 
 homes before two o'clock in the morning, although the regular 
 hour for bed, among the sober portion of the community, was 
 eleven. The night was divided between the gaming-table and 
 the opera Loo and faro were the names of two favorite games 
 of cards, at which immense sums were lost and won. We hear 
 of the Princess Amelia, a daughter of George II., playing till 
 midnight at loo, and of Charles Fox, the famous orator, losing 
 81* 
 
866 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 five hundred pounds per hour at a game of hazard, which 
 lasted twenty-two hours. 
 
 Such being the character of the women of that day, we 
 shall not look for a much higher standard in that of the 
 opposite sex. Addison's two admirable papers in the Specta- 
 tor, called "Dissection of a Beau's Head," and "A Coquette's 
 Heart," give a fair idea of the accomplishments, both mental 
 and moral, of both sexes. The lower classes copied the vices 
 of their superiors — dishonesty, drunkenness, and impudence 
 prevailed among them to an astonishing extent. The drink- 
 ing of ardent spirits, and especially of gin, was so common, 
 that the streets of London were filled with wretched drunk- 
 ards, often lying insensible upon the pavement, and only 
 removed by the charity of some passer-by from the danger 
 of being run over. 
 
 In this century we lose all traces of the feudal nooic 
 surrounded by his retinue of dependants. The nobility now 
 resided near the court, and depended upon court influence for 
 their importance, rather than upon a host of retainers. The 
 country gentleman still existed, and in his hospitable mansion 
 lingered those customs and festivals which had been practised 
 in the days of the Stuarts. The admirable picture which 
 Addison has given in the Spectator of Sir Roger de Coverley, 
 is a perfect representation of the sentiments and life of a 
 country gentleman of the eighteenth century. Many of 
 these rustic squires passed their lives in the pleasures of the 
 chase. Their powers of body and mind were devoted to fox- 
 hunting Their only ambition was to become renowned as 
 sportsmen, and to have their halls adorned with trophies 
 of the chase. The country ladies, cut ofi" by the badness 
 of the roads from their frivolous sisters of the metropolis, 
 spent their days in more useful and innocent employments. 
 They devoted themselves to cookery, preparing cordials and 
 medicines for the sick, visiting their tenantry, and performing 
 in as perfect a manner as their limited intelligence would 
 enable them to do, the duties of a Lady Bountiful. 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 367 
 
 The most striking peculiarities in the dress of this period 
 were the cocked hats, powdered wigs, and gold-laced scarlet 
 coats of the men, and the hoops, patches, flowered brocades, 
 and powdered hair of the women. The fashion of wearing 
 patches on the face had been introduced towards the close of 
 the preceding century, but was at its height in the reign of 
 Queen Anne. The ladies of her day were apt to be violent 
 politicians, and the side which they took, whether Whig or 
 Tory, was made known by the side of the face on which they 
 wore the patches. In the year 1748, George II. saw the 
 Duchess of Bedford in a riding habit of blue faced with 
 white. The beauty of the contrasted colors so struck the 
 fancy of his majesty, that he ordered them to be adopted for 
 the uniform of the navy. 
 
 With regard to furniture, vast improvements took place. 
 Mahogany was discovered to be a beautiful material for 
 cabinet furniture, and came by degrees into general use. 
 Chinese porcelain and Japan ware were much valued, and 
 jars, vases, cabinets, and every imaginable article of orna- 
 ment were made of them. The chairs, tables, bedsteads, 
 cabinets, &c., of this period were so beautifully wrought and 
 durably made, that this old-fashioned furniture is considered 
 far more valuable than that of the present day. About the 
 middle of the century, carpet making was begun at Kidder- 
 minster, and from that time the floors of all the better class 
 of houses were furnished with this luxury. 
 
 Public gardens were favorite places of amusement. The 
 most noted of these were Ranelagh and Vauxhall. The 
 grounds were laid out in beautiful walks, ornamented with 
 shade-trees, artificial cascades, and fountains. The trees were 
 hung at night with lamps, and bands of music played the 
 beautiful compositions of Handel. Summer-houses and bowers 
 were dispersed over the grounds, and fireworks frequently en- 
 livened the scene. For nearly fifty years crowds gathered in 
 Ranelagh Gardens every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday 
 evenings, to listen to the fine compositions of Handel, or to 
 
368 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the lighter music of the popular songs and ballads of the 
 day. 
 
 A very fashionable place of amusement among the nobility 
 was Almack's, a celebrated club-house opened in 1765. In 
 its assembly room were given some of the most magnificent 
 balls of that day. The aristocracy made very splendid and 
 expensive entertainments, especially on royal birthdays, and 
 at marriages, christenings, &c. The principal amusements at 
 these gatherings were dice, cards, dancing, music, and some- 
 times fireworks. 
 
 Watering-places were extremely fashionable. Bath was the 
 chief place of resort for the nobility, whilst Tunbridge and 
 Epsom attracted the families of the wealthy Londoners and 
 country gentry. Among the middle classes, puppet shows, 
 the exhibitions of Punch, bowls, foot-ball, prize fighting, and 
 above all, the charms of a Bartholomew Fair, were the grand 
 sources of amusement. This fair was held annually in Lon- 
 don, and every description of diversion was devised to allure 
 and delight the people. For about a fortnight a scene of 
 uproarious merriment was kept up, which greatly disturbed 
 the tranquillity of every quiet-loving citizen. In the country, 
 shooting, fishing, and fox-hunting were the absorbing amuse- 
 ments of the men, whilst county and subscription balls, and 
 occasional fairs, were sources of recreation to their wives and 
 daughters. The annual horse-races at Epsom and New- 
 market, presented great attractions to the citizens as well as 
 to the country gentry. 
 
 After the accession of George III., a better influence 
 gradually gained ground among the upper classes of society. 
 More rational and refined amusements took the place of the 
 boisterous merriment which had prevailed since the days of 
 the Restoration. Concerts, lectures, and assemblies of lite- 
 rary people became fashionable. Among the latter were the 
 famous Blue Stocking Clubs, which acquired their singular 
 name from the circumstance that one of their chief orna- 
 ments, a gentleman of rare conversational powers, always 
 
ENGLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 369 
 
 wore stockings of that color. When he absented himself, his 
 loss was so sensibly felt by the rest of the company, that they 
 were wont to say : " We can do nothing without the blue 
 stockings." 
 
 Questions. — Describe the position of the prime minister. — What 
 do you understand as to time by the terms Old and New Style? — 
 What gave an impulse to architecture in Queen Anne's reign? — 
 Name the most distinguished painters of this period. 
 
 What manufacture became the source of great wealth ? — Name 
 some of the inventions wiiich gave importance to this manufacture. 
 — Relate the account given of the silk manufacture. — By what 
 means was the art of making the silk thread introduced into Eng- 
 land ? — What is said of the Sheffield manufactures ? — Of those at 
 Birmingham ? — What branches of industry were especially benefited 
 by the discovery of steam power ? 
 
 Describe the highways of this time. — When were canals first used? 
 — Repeat the account given of agriculture, gardening, and green- 
 houses. — Describe the accomplishments necessary to a fashionable 
 woman during this period. — Describe the condition of the lower 
 classes. — Describe the manner of life of the country gentlemen of 
 this period. — In what way did country ladies pass their time ? — 
 Mention the striking peculiarities in the dress of these times. — 
 What incident gave rise to the naval uniform ? — Name some of the 
 amusements of the eighteenth century. — State the origin of the 
 appellation, "Blue Stocking." 
 
370 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 PART XI. 
 ENGLAND DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 GEORGE III.— GEORGE IV.— WILLIAM IV.— VICTORIA. 
 A. D. 1800—1860. 
 
 •'That name which scattered by disastrous blare 
 All Europe's bound-lines drawn afresh in blood. 
 Napoleon — from the Russias west to Spain ! 
 
 And Austria trembled — till we heard her chain." 
 
 E. B. Browning. 
 
 CHAPTER LXI 
 
 GEORGE III. — THE LAST TWENTY YEARS OF HIS REIGN. 
 
 THE ARMED NEUTRALITY — TRAFALGAR — PEr^INSULAR WAR— WATERLOO — 
 WAR WITH AMERICA — BARBARY PIRATES. 
 
 At the opening of this century a confederacy hostile to 
 the commercial interests of Great Britain was entered into 
 by the northern powers of Europe. The governments of 
 Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, instigated by France, com- 
 mitted acts of hostility, and showed a determination to make 
 England yield her naval supremacy. Resolved to strike a 
 blow asi-ainst the '* Armed Neutrality," as this con- 
 
 1801. 
 
 federation of her enemies was called, Great Britain 
 sent a fleet to the Baltic. An envoy was dispatched to 
 Copenhagen to obtain by negotiation, if possible, the demands 
 of the British government. He was unsuccessful however, 
 and the English fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir Hyde 
 Parker and Lord Nelson, advanced to the attack of the capital. 
 
GEORGE in. 871 
 
 On the morning of the 30th of March, eighteen English 
 ships of the line, and a number of smaller vessels, entered 
 the narrow sound which separates Denmark and Sweden. 
 Before them frowned the battlements of the three old 
 fortresses of Helsinborg, Cronenberg, and Elsinore, while 
 beyond, the stately capitol of Copenhagen rose proudly from 
 the water's edge. The shore was lined with multitudes who 
 beheld the novel spectacle of a fleet bearing past the castle 
 of Elsinore without lowering its topsails to the flag of Den- 
 ■ mark. All the patriotism and valor of the land had rallied 
 to defend its shores. Ramparts were raised and manned with 
 the bravest hearts; a formidable line of ships, floating bat- 
 teries, and gunboats were provided, and the buoys were 
 removed from a channel famous for its shoals and sand-banks. 
 
 Notwithstanding all these obstacles, Lord Nelson, with only 
 twelve line-of-battle ships, anchored on the 1st of April within 
 two leagues of Copenhagen. Sir Hyde Parker remained with 
 the rest of the fleet at the entrance of the sound. At 10 
 o'clock, on the morning of the 2d of April, the battle began, 
 and raged furiously for three hours. At 1 o'clock, the 
 cannonade from the Danish batteries and ships being still 
 kept up, and three of the best English vessels, unable to 
 join in the engagement, having grounded on the shoals, 
 Admiral Parker gave the signal to withdraw. Nelson was 
 in the thickest of the fight when this signal was reported to 
 him. Instead of obeying it, he exclaimed to one of his 
 captains : " What think you, the admiral has hung out No. 
 39.* You know I have only one eye ; I have a right to be 
 bhnd sometimes." Then putting the glass to his blind eye, 
 he continued, '' I really don't see the signal. Keep mine for 
 closer battle, still flying." Such was the intrepidity that won 
 a battle of which the hero remarked : *' I have been in above 
 a hundred engagements, but that of Copenhagen was the most 
 terrible of them all." 
 
 This decisive blow had the effect, in conjunction with 
 
 * The signal for breaking off the action. 
 
372 HISTOKY CF ii.N GLAND. 
 
 another important event, of putting an end to the Armed 
 Neutrality. The latter event was the death of the emperor 
 of Kussia, and the accession of a new czar, Alexander I., 
 who immediately entered into friendly negotiations with 
 Great Britain. 
 
 In the spring of 1802, the treaty of Amiens was signed 
 between France and England. It made but a brief pause 
 in the fearful contest raging throughout Europe. War was 
 renewed in 1803, and continued its destructive course until 
 the sun of Napoleon went down on the field of Waterloo. 
 To dwell minutely on these scenes of strife would be unne- 
 cessary ; we will therefore only glance at the more important 
 events in the history of the struggle. 
 
 Napoleon had returned to Europe in the year 1799, leaving 
 his generals to pursue the conquest of Egypt. In March, 
 1801, the French general Moreau sustained a severe defeat 
 in a battle fought near Alexandria, and a few months later he 
 was besieged in that city by the united English and Turkish 
 forces under General Hutchinson. Moreau, finding no pros- 
 pect of relief, surrendered j and, before the close of the year, 
 the French were compelled to abandon Egypt. 
 
 On the 18th of May, 1804, Napoleon was declared Emperor 
 pf the French, and during the following year carried on a 
 successful campaign in Northern Italy and Austria. On the 
 surrender of the old Austrian town of Ulm, by General 
 Mack, on the 20th of October, 1805, Napoleon gazed upon 
 an array of sixty thousand prisoners of war as they defiled 
 before him. He exclaimed : " I jnust have greater things 
 than these — ships, colonies, commerce ! <Jhese are what I 
 want I" The moTrow's sun shone down tfpon the battle of 
 Trafalgar, by which these much-coveted advantages were 
 confirmed to his enemies, and the hope of their acquisition 
 was for ever crushed in the mind of Napoleon. 
 
 The battle of Trafakar, gained by Lord Nelson, on 
 
 1 805* o ' o J > 
 
 the morning of the 21st October, 1805, will be ever 
 memorable in the annals of Great Britain's naval history j 
 memorable for the bravery with which an English fleet of 
 
GEORGE III. 373 
 
 twenty-seven s»il encountered and almost annihilated the 
 combined squadrons of France and Spain ; memorable for the 
 death of the gallant Lord Nelson, who fell in the moment of 
 hard-earned victory; but more memorable still for the la^t 
 signal which that brave hero made to his fleet on going into 
 action, and which was responded to with enthusiasm by every 
 ship in the line. Those simple words, "England expects 
 every man to do his duty," animated with rapturous enthu- 
 siasm the men who fought at Trafalgar, and their sentiment 
 availed in many a succeeding conflict to turn the field of 
 battle on which Englishmen strove, into a field of victory. 
 
 In the year- 1808, Napoleon was at the height of his power 
 and glory. All continental Europe lay prostrate at his feet. 
 He had seized the thrones of Holland and Naples for two of 
 his brothers, Louis and Joseph, and for a third had erected 
 Westphalia into a kingdom. He now sought to transfer 
 Joseph Bonaparte to the throne of Spain, providing for the 
 vacant crown of Naples by placing it on the head of Murat, 
 one of his bravest generals. This attempt, resisted by Spain, 
 in alliance with Portugal and England, resulted in the long 
 and disastrous Peninsular War. In July, Sir Arthur Wel- 
 lesley (soon afterwards Duke of Wellington) was sent out 
 with a force of ten thousand men. At Vimeira, in 
 
 1808. . . 
 
 Portugal, he gained a victory over the French 
 marshal Junot; but the generals who immediately superseded 
 Wellesley, instead of pursuing this victory, entered into an 
 agreement by which the French, on terms in the highest 
 degree favorable to themselves, abandoned Portugal. This 
 agreement, the Convention of Cintra, as it is called, gave 
 great dissatisfaction in England. The generals who had 
 concluded it were summoned home, and Sir John Moore 
 was appointed to the command of the English forces in the 
 Peninsula. 
 
 This general advanced into Spain, but Napoleon had 
 
 entered that country with near 200,000 men, defeated the 
 
 Spaniards in several engagements, taken Madrid, and being 
 
 now with fifty thousand men in pursuit of the English, Sir 
 
 32 
 
374 IllSTOIiV OF ENGLAND. 
 
 John Moore was forced to retreat. Napoletn was himself 
 recalled to France, but Marshal Soult assumed the command, 
 and continued the march upon the retreating English. 
 • When, on the 11th of January, 1809, the army of Sir 
 John Moore gazed from the heights of Corunna upon the 
 sea, and saw not a single transport in the harbor, they knew 
 their only hope lay in successful battle with the pursuing foe. 
 That battle, fought on the IGth, in the face of overwhelming 
 numbers, was won, but with the sacrifice of their brave com- 
 mander. Sir John Moore perished upon the field of victory. 
 The enemy were repulsed, but there was no time to be lost in 
 the embarkation of the troops on board the transports which 
 two days before had anchored in the harbor. Hastily, and 
 in silence, a grave was dug on the ramparts of Corunna, in 
 which was laid the body of the departed general. But the 
 scene of that touching burial is best described in the exquisite 
 lines of the poet — 
 
 " Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, 
 As his corse to the ramparts we hurried: 
 Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 
 O'er the grave where our hero we buried ;" 
 
 This noble funeral dirge will ever give to the name and 
 memory of Sir John Moore an association of interest. 
 
 During the first years of the Peninsular War, the generals 
 of Napoleon made themselves masters of the finest provinces 
 and strongest fortresses of Spain. Sir Arthur Wellesley as- 
 sumed the command of the English forces in the Peninsula 
 in 1809. Whenever these forces encountered the French, 
 they won important and splendid victories, as at Talavera, 
 Busaco, Albuerra, Salamanca, &c. ; but Spain being occupied 
 by immense armies of the French, and no dependence to 
 be placed on the Spanish allies, the prospect of recovering the 
 Peninsula seemed indeed hopeless. It was not until the close 
 of the year 1810 that the genius of Wellington first turned 
 the tide of conquest. Opposed by vastly superior forces, 
 which, moreover, were commanded by Napoleon's ablest 
 
GEORGE III. 375 
 
 marshals; with an army disheartened by hardships and 
 reverses; receiving no efficient support from the ministry in 
 England, and constantly thwarted by the most base and 
 cowardly conduct on the part of his Spanish allies and the 
 government of Portugal, Wellington, with the patient courage 
 of the true hero, maintained for three years longer the unpro- 
 mising struggle. 
 
 At last came his reward. At the close of the year 1813, 
 the eagles of the empire, which, in 1810, had jfirst quailed 
 before him at the rock of Torres Vedras, took their final 
 flight from the Peninsula. On the 21st of June was fought 
 the great battle of Yittoria, wherein victory rested with the 
 English. Fortress after fortress was wrested from the enemy, 
 and Wellington, having crossed the Bidassoa, was fighting 
 the French successfully on the soil of their own kingdom. 
 
 In the spring of 1812, Nmpoleon, thinking the conquest of 
 Spain secure, had set out at the head of five hundred thousand 
 men for the invasion of Russia. This memorable expedition 
 resulted in the burning of Moscow to prevent its being occu- 
 pied by the French for their winter quarters, and in the 
 disastrous retreat and destruction of Napoleon's hosts. 
 
 Of the vast multitudes which had followed the imperial 
 eagles across the Niemen, but twenty thousand repassed that 
 1813 river. Misfortunes dark and manifold now gathered 
 to around the throne of Napoleon. From the rock of 
 Lisbon to the shores of the White Sea, all Europe 
 rose against him. A million of his soldiers had perished in 
 eighteen months. Whence could he raise new armies ? On 
 the 11th of April, 1814, after several desperate but disastrous 
 struggles. Napoleon yielded to the power of his enemies. He 
 abdicated his throne and retired to the island of Elba. Escap- 
 ing thence, in the spring of 1815 he returned to France. 
 By the old army he was welcomed with enthusiasm ; soldiers 
 rallied once more under the imperial eagles, and now drew on 
 the last act in this long fearful tragedy of war. 
 
 Napoleon, having raised an army of one hundred and twenty 
 thousand men, strong both in artillery and cavalry, suddenly 
 
376 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 entered Belgium. The emperor's intention was to interpose 
 between the English army under Wellington, stationed at 
 Brussels, and that of its Prussian ally, which, under Marshal 
 Blucher, was posted some seventy miles distant ; — to defeat 
 the Prussians first, and afterwards, as he expressed it, '' to 
 measure himself with this Wellington. '^ 
 
 Intelligence that Napoleon had crossed the frontier reached 
 the English duke on the evening of the 15th of June. With 
 characteristic calmness he gave the necessary orders for the 
 march of the troops, and then went to the Duchess of Rich- 
 mond's ball — an incident made so familiar by Lord Byron's 
 lines in Childe Harold : — 
 
 There was a sound of revelry by night, 
 And Belgium's capital had gathered there 
 Her beauty and her chivalry. 
 
 On the 16th of June two battles were fought. That of 
 Ligny, where Napoleon had attacked the Prussians; and 
 that of Quatre-Bras, where Welfington, in endeavoring to 
 unite with Blucher, encountered the French under Marshal 
 Ney. In the former the Prussians were defeated, and com- 
 pelled to retreat, but the advantage to the French was 
 counterbalanced by the success of the British at Quatre- 
 Bras, where Ney, after four hours' hard fighting, had lost the 
 battle. 
 
 Wellington's army fell back towards Brussels in order to 
 secure communication with the Prussians. Blucher sent 
 word to the duke, that although defeated he should be ready 
 again for action so soon as his men should receive a supply 
 of bread and cartridges. W^ellington in return communicated 
 his intention to engage the French, provided he could rely on 
 the support of two Prussian divisions, and the brave old mar- 
 shal instantly promised to advance with his whole force. 
 
 On the opposite summits of low ranges of hills which 
 overlook the plain of Waterloo, the French and English 
 armies bivouacked on the night of the 17th June. Rain 
 fell in torrents, and its melancholy hours were spent upon 
 
GEORGE III 877 
 
 the soaking wet ground. Some English battaHons, still more 
 unfortunate, lay among the rye-fieids, the tall grain of which 
 was dripping from top to bottom. 
 
 On the morning of the 18th June, 1815, amid the rolling 
 of drums and bursts of martial music, the French forces took 
 up their position. The English in silence, broken only by 
 the rumbliug of artillery or the word of command, secured 
 their ground When Napoleon gazed upon the British 
 legions, arranged in compact squares, and marshalled for the 
 fight, he exclaimed: ^'I have them, these English!" "Sire,'' 
 replied Soult, '•'! know these English; they will die on the 
 ground on which they stand, before they lose it/' 
 
 As the clock from a neighboring village struck eleven, the 
 first gun was fired from the French lines, and the action 
 commenced by their attack on an old chateau, where was 
 posted a body of English light • troops. By a fierce assault 
 the wood surrounding the chateau was carried, but the house 
 held out, an iuvincible citadel, until consumed by the- fire 
 from the French howitzers. ' Even then the brave foot-guards 
 maintained the garden and courtyard, and turned the storm 
 of battle from that quarter. It then burst in full force upon 
 the British left, to be not only repelled, but returned by such 
 a brilliant charge of cavalry from- the Scotch Greys, as to 
 extort admiration from Napoleon himself " Those terrible 
 Greys, how they fight !" he exclaimed, when he beheld his 
 column of five thousand strong scattered by their charge, two 
 thousand prisoners taken, and eighty pieces of cannon ren- 
 dered useless. Pictou, the brave leader who repelled the 
 French onset, and Ponsonby, who led the charge, both fell in 
 the moment of their brilliant success. 
 
 And now the massive columns of the French turned upon 
 the British centre. There Wellington commanded, and Na- 
 poleon animated the attack. For four hours it was the scene 
 of the intrepid charge of the French cavalry, and the heroic 
 resistance and repulse of the British infantry. 
 
 Thus the battle raged long past the hour of noon, and the 
 Prussians under their brave old marshal had not yet come up. 
 82* 
 
378 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 They had begun their march by daybreak, but the route lay 
 through forest roads made deep and miry by recent rains, 
 crossed by rivulets which had become torrents, and inter- 
 spersed with deep pools. The gun-carriages often sank 
 axle-deep in mud, and the exhausted and almost despairing 
 soldiers would exclaim : " We shall never get on." " But we 
 must get on," urged Blucher, " I have given my word to 
 Wellington, and you will not make me break it. Courage, 
 children, courage, for a few hours longer; and then victory 
 will be ours." It was past four o'clock in the afternoon 
 when they reached the scene of action. 
 
 But when the fire of their artillery rung upon the ear, 
 Napoleon felt that the last decisive moment was fast ap- 
 proaching. One more hope remained. It lay in the old 
 Imperial Guard, — those brave veterans of the empire, than 
 whom there were on earth none braver. But even they were 
 powerless to win back the fatal day of Waterloo ; and as the 
 Bun went down there rose the despairing cry: ''All is lost j 
 the Guard recoils I" Its departing rays beheld the flight 
 of the last columns of the imperial army. Waterloo was lost, 
 and Napoleon, attended only by a few followers, fled from the 
 battle-field. He returned to Paris, and thence endeavored to 
 escape to America, but the shores of France were watched by 
 English cruisers. Disappointed in this hope, he surrendered 
 himself into the hands of the captain of an English vessel in 
 the harbor of Rochfort — 
 
 •'And trusting to his noblest foes, 
 When earth was all too gray for chivalry, 
 Died of their mercies 'mid the desert sea."* 
 
 The allies entered Paris : the old line of French kings was 
 restored, and the terrible struggle of the French Revolution 
 was ended. 
 
 During the latter years of these wars on the continent, 
 England and the United States had become involved in 
 
 * At St. Helena, after an exile of six years. 
 
GEORGE III. 379 
 
 hostilities, arising chiefly from disputes about the right of 
 search, and their commercial and maritime relations. The 
 war, begun in 1812, lasted until the close of 1814. The 
 Americans made several invasions of Canada, in the hope of 
 annexing it to the United States, but the Canadians very 
 generally remained loyal to the mother country, and the 
 invaders were repulsed In the summer of 1813, the Atlantic 
 coast of the United States sulFered from the depredations of a 
 British fleet commanded by Admiral Cockburn. In August, 
 1814, the British entered Washington, and burned the pubHc 
 buildings. In the following month they threatened the city 
 of Baltimore, but were repulsed, and soon after abandoned 
 the Atlantic sea-board. 
 
 In the naval combats which occurred during this war, both 
 on the ocean and on the lakes, the Americans, under their 
 intrepid commanders, Hull, Decatur, Perry, and McDonough, 
 achieved some noble triumphs over the hitherto invincible 
 navy of England. Early in 1815 the battle of New Orleans 
 was fought. General Jackson repulsed the English com- 
 mander, with the loss of only thirteen men, whilst the British 
 numbered nearly one thousand in killed alone. A few weeks 
 before this battle, which was fought on the 8th of January, 
 commissioners who had met for this purpose at Ghent, 
 in Holland, had signed a treaty of peace between the 
 two countries. Hostilities ceased immediately after the pub- 
 lication of this treaty. 
 
 During the wars of the French Revolution, the Barbary 
 pirates had ravaged at will the great inland sea of Europe. 
 They were the terror of every sail, which, engaged in the 
 peaceful enterprises of commerce, passed the Straits of Gib- 
 raltar, and ships of all nations had furnished captives for the 
 dungeons of Algiers. One Neapofitan lady, the mother of 
 eight children, had endured an imprisonment of thirteen 
 years, during which six of her family who were confined with 
 her had died. In 1816 the British government sent Lord 
 Exmouth to the coast of Barbary to demand reparation, and 
 compel these powers to give up their practice of making 
 
880 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 Christians slaves. Tunis and Tripoli acceded to these de- 
 mands, but Algiers hesitated, on the ground that being a 
 subject of Turkey, she could enter into no treaty without the 
 consent of that government. An embassy was sent to the 
 sultan, but before any answer could be returned, the Alge- 
 rines committed so gross an outrage on the fla*'- of Great 
 Britain, that the British government determined to destroy 
 this stronghold of piracy. A fleet commanded by Lord Ex- 
 mouth was sent to Algiers. The city, built on a hillside, 
 which rises from the sea, presented an imposing and for- 
 midable appearance. It was well defended with fortifications, 
 batteries, and gunboats. On the 27th of August, Lord Kx- 
 mouth entered the harbor, and sent to the Dey a flag, with 
 the demands of the British government. An answer was 
 promised in the course of two hours, but as none came at 
 the appointed time, Lord Exmouth opened a fire upon the 
 town. At four o'clock, p.m., the British fired some Algerine 
 ships in the harbor : the flames spread to the arsenals and 
 stores on the shore, and when on the following morning the 
 Dey sent in his submission, his capital presented a melancholy 
 appearance. A treaty was entered into, by which three 
 thousand and three captives were liberated, and the abolition 
 of Christian slavery was promised by the government of 
 Algiers. 
 
 On the 29th of January, 1820, King George III. died, in 
 the eighty-second year of his age, and the sixtieth of his 
 reign. For nearly ten years, attacks of insanity had ren- 
 dered him wholly incapable of administering the govern- 
 ment, and since February, 1811, it had been conducted by a 
 regency, having the Prince of Wales at its head. The 
 Prince-Regent now succeeded to the crown, with the title of 
 George IV. 
 
 Questions. — Give an account of the "Armed Neutrality." — De- 
 scribe the battle of Copenhagen. — Mention the circumstances which 
 put an end to the ** Armed Neutrality." — What misfortune befell the 
 French army in Egypt? — Describe Napoleon's position in the spring 
 
GEORGE IV. 381 
 
 of 1804. — Repeat the account of the battle of Trafalgar, — Relate the 
 circumstances which brought on the Peninsular War. — Describe the 
 operations of the war in Spain during the year 1808. — Give the 
 account of the battle of Corunna. — What was the character of the 
 war in Spain? — Describe the difficulties which beset the Dulie of 
 Wellington. — Relate his subsequent successes. — What was the issue 
 of Napoleon's invasion of Russia '? — Describe the position and con- 
 duct of Napoleon during the year 1814. — When did he return to 
 France, and how was he received ? — What were Napoleon's designs 
 at this time? — Describe the conduct of W^ellington. — Describe the 
 battles of Quatre-Bras and Ligny. — The battle of Waterloo. — State 
 the results of this conflict. 
 
 Mention the principal operations of the war in America during 
 the years 1812-13. — Describe the battle of New Orleans. — Describe 
 the outrages of the Barbary pirates. — What was the result of Lord 
 Exmouth's embassy to the Barbary powers? — Describe the attack 
 on Algiers, and state the result, — When did George III. die? — 
 Who succeeded to the throne ? 
 
 CHAPTER LXII. 
 
 GEORGE IV. 
 
 TRIAL OP THE QUEEN — CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION — PARLIAUENTART 
 REFORM. 
 
 In 1795, when Prince of Wales. George had married his 
 cousin, the Princess Caroline of Brunswick. The union 
 proved an extremely unhappy one, and in 1814 the queen 
 went to reside on the continent. 
 
 Charges of immoral conduct having been alleged on the 
 part of her husband, efforts were made on his accession to 
 induce her to remain abroad, and renounce the style and 
 title of queen of Great Britain. To all these propositions 
 she gave a decided refusal. Irritated by the indignities 
 offered her at foreign courts, where English ambassadors were 
 forbidden to recognise her, and especially incensed at the 
 
382 HISTORY OJ/" ENGLAND. 
 
 omission of her name in the prayers for the royal family, she 
 
 returned to England, and demanded an investigation of her 
 
 conduct. A bill to deprive her of her rights as queen, 
 
 and to dissolve her marriage with the king, was proposed, 
 
 and she was tried before the House of Lords. Although 
 
 the nation were by no means convinced of Queen Caroline's 
 
 entire innocence, they regarded her in great measure as a 
 
 persecuted woman, and so unpopular were the proceedin<»-s of 
 
 the king and his ministers, that after a trial of three months 
 
 they were obliged to abandon the bill and drop the prosecu- 
 
 ^g^^ tion. In the summer of the following year the grave 
 
 closed over the sufferings and sorrows of this unhappy 
 
 lady, and saved the ministers the painful task of inquiring 
 
 into her fitness to preside as queen in an English court. 
 
 In turning to the domestic history of Great Britain during 
 
 jygg the long period of the French Kevolution, three im- 
 
 t" portant topics — Catholic Emancipation, Parliamentary 
 
 Keform, and the Abolition of Slavery — demand our 
 
 attention. These objects were all subsequently attained and 
 
 within a few years of each other. We will consider their 
 
 history in the order in which the bills passed in parliament. 
 
 First : Catholic Emancipation. 
 
 When, in the year 1800, the union of England and Ireland 
 was contemplated, Mr Pitt, then at the head of the adminis- 
 tration, held out to those Roman Catholics who were most 
 violently opposed to this measure, the assurance that as soon 
 as the union should be effected, all political disabilities would 
 be removed, and Romanists allowed an equal participation in 
 civil rights with the Protestant subjects of the realm. The 
 scruples of George III. were not to be overcome ; the assur- 
 ance could not be realized, and Mr. Pitt deemed himself 
 in honor bound to resign his position as prime minister. 
 This he did in February, 1801, after having guided the 
 councils of Great Britain with consummate ability for 
 the long period of seventeen years. 
 The discontents of the disappointed Irish increased. In 
 
QEORGK IV. 383 
 
 1803 a short-lived rebellion broke out, headed by a young 
 lawyer named Robert Emmett. lie, with the few who joined 
 him, were seized and executed. The youth, talents, and 
 enthusiasm of this misguided patriot, together with his mourn- 
 ful end, have combined to make him an object of romantic 
 interest. 
 
 The question of relief for the Roman Catholics from 
 political disabilities, came up in parliament almost every 
 session ; but so strong was public sentiment against it, and so 
 violent the opposition of the government, and especially the 
 prejudices of the aged king and his successor, that no bill 
 granting political privileges to Roman Catholics could be 
 carried. In the year 1821, a horrible famine, occasioned 
 by the failure of the potato crop, broke out in Ireland. 
 Disease followed, and misery and death spread over this 
 unhappy country. In the 'year 1824, the people established 
 a Catholic Association, to obtain, if possible, by union, agita- 
 tion, and clamor, what had been denied to their petitions and 
 remonstrances. The state of Ireland during the next six 
 1834 y^^^'^ ^^^ miserable in the extreme. The '^Agitators," 
 as they were called, headed by their chief, Daniel 
 O'Connell, a lawyer of eminence and ability, increased 
 throughout the country. Orange Societies and Brunswick 
 Clubs were organized by the Protestants, and the old feeling 
 of bitter antagonism aroused in all its strength. 
 
 At length the views of sovereign and cabinet gave way 
 before the miseries of Ireland. The bill for the relief of the 
 Roman Catholics was introduced by Mr. Peel, hitherto one 
 of the firmest opposers of the measure, on the 5th of March. 
 1829. The king, the Duke of WelHngton, then prime 
 1838 ^iiiiiistcr, and other members of the government, had 
 and long been opposed to the removal of political disa- 
 bilities from the Roman Cathclics, but alarmed at the 
 state of Ireland, and dreading civil war, they were now 
 induced to yield. It was a touchino- scene when the Iron 
 Duke, that veteran soldier, so long the conscientious foe to 
 Catholic Emancipation, declared in parliament: "Rather 
 
 to 
 1839. 
 
884 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 than a country I love should be visited with the calamities 
 which I have seen — with the unutterable horrors of a civil 
 war — I would run any risk ; I would make any sacrifice ; 1 
 would freely lay down my life." 
 
 By this bill, which passed the 10th of April, 1829, the 
 Koman Cathohcs received equal political rights with other 
 English subjects, saving a few special exceptions. No Roman 
 Catholic can be lord chancellor, or keeper ol' the great seal, oi- 
 lord lieutenant of Ireland Nor can he receive an appoint- 
 ment in any Protestant university or college. All Roman 
 Catholics holding civil office are bound by an oath to support 
 the existing institutions of the state, and not to injure those 
 of the church. 
 
 We turn now to the second subject which demands our 
 attention. 
 
 During the American war there were frequent complaints 
 of the imperfect representation of the nation in the House of 
 Commons. Associations were organized for the purpose of 
 petitioning for a reform in parliament, and the subject was 
 brought forward by Mr. Pitt in 1782. His motion for an 
 investigation into the state of the national representation, met 
 with strong opposition, and was lost. Resolutions for the 
 same object met with the same fate the following year, and a 
 similar bill was lost in 1785. 
 
 When the subject again came up, in 1700, on the motion 
 of Mr. Flood, an eloquent Irish orator, the French Revolution 
 had begun. The agitation of men's minds was such, that 
 Mr. Pitt, deprecating any measure that would affect the 
 British constitution at such a time, opposed the motion. In 
 the session of 1793 a motion for parliamentary reform was 
 introduced by Mr. Grey, who had prepared a scheme for this 
 object. It was stated by the mover, that the total number of 
 representatives for Scotland was only one greater than that 
 for the county of Cornwall ; moreover, that large and flourish- 
 ing towns, such as Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, &c., 
 were not. represented at all, whilst old decayed places, with 
 
GEORGE IV. 385 
 
 scarcely a score of voters, sent members to parliament. These 
 latter were called rotten boroughs. One of them in par- 
 ticular, Old Sarum, furnished the most glaring instance of 
 the defect in the national representation. Two miles from 
 Salisbury, in Wiltshire, lay a few barren acres and deserted 
 dwellings ; and yet this uninhabited spot was represented in 
 the British parliament by two members, whilst large and 
 populous manufacturing towns were denied the right of 
 sending even one. It was also asserted that a large number 
 of the freeholders of the kingdom were deprived of a share 
 in the elections on account of religious opinions ; Papists not 
 being allowed to vote, and in some places Protestant dissenters 
 being debarred this right. Mr. Grey's bill was opposed by 
 Pitt and Burke, who feared any change in the constitution, 
 lest it should lead to the introduction of French revolu- 
 tionary principles. The motion was lost by an overwhelming 
 majority. 
 
 When the restoration of peace enabled the people 
 
 to turn to other interests than those of war, the 
 subject of the unequal representation of the nation in par- 
 liament became an all-engrossing topic. Among the lower 
 classes it grew into a sort of popular idol. When scarcity 
 prevailed, through failure of the crops, or the high prices of 
 food, which are among the evils of war, or when the intro- 
 duction of new machinery gave alarm to ignorant operatives, 
 relief was looked for through a reform of the constitution. 
 Meetings were held to petition for reform. In the year 
 1819, an immense meeting of this kind, headed by a radical 
 reformer named Hunt, was convened at Manchester. The 
 assembly was declared illegal, and the magistrates were 
 ordered to arrest the leaders of it. Unable to efiect this, 
 without military force, they called in the aid of the soldiery. 
 A melee ensued, in which five or six lives were lost. This 
 produced the greatest indignation throughout the country, 
 and inflamed the passions of many against the government. 
 isao ^^ *^® following year, just after the accession of 
 
 George IV., occurred the Cato Street Conspiracy, 
 33 2B 
 
386 HISTOHV UF ENGLAND. 
 
 SO named from the meeting-place of those engaged in the 
 plot. Its design was to murder the ministers whilst assembled 
 at a cabinet dinner at Lord Harrowby's. The conspiracy was 
 betrayed, and the leaders of it were seized and executed. 
 Although opposed by George IV., by his ministers, and by the 
 peers generally, the cause of parliamentary reform gained 
 isao strength. Year by year more intelligent views of the 
 to necessity and justice, as well as the beneJSts, which a 
 
 1 830 
 
 wise measure of reform would confer, prevailed among 
 all classes, and few sessions of parliament passed without the 
 subject being introduced by its prominent supporters. Lord 
 Grey' Mr. Brougham, and Lord John Russell Associations 
 called Political Unions were formed in all the large manufac- 
 turing towns, in order to raise such an outcry for parliamentary 
 reform, as should compel the passage of the measure in spite 
 of all opposition. Such was the position of this subject in 
 the year 1830, when George IV. died, and was succeeded by 
 his brother, William Henry, Duke of Cla^^ence. 
 
 Questions. — Whom had George IV married? — To what indigni- 
 ties was she subjected ? — How did she resent this treatment? — Relate 
 what is told of the queen's trial. — Name the three topics prominent 
 in the domestic history of Great Britain during this period. — What 
 assurances had been given to the Roman Catholics by Mr. Pitt ? — 
 Relate his conduct in this connection. — Describe the Irish rebellion 
 of 1803. — What obstacles delayed the passage of a Catholic Relief 
 Bill? — Describe the condition of Ireland during the year 1821. — 
 What was the object of the Catholic Reform Association? — Describe 
 the condition of Ireland between the years 1824-1829.— Describe the 
 passage of the Catholic Emancipation Bill. — State the provisions of 
 this bill. — What was the result of the petitions for parliamentary 
 reform between the years 1782-1785? — Relate the history of this 
 question during the session of 1793. — When was the subject re- 
 newed? — Describe the state of feeling existing in the country with 
 regard to parliamentary reform. — State the results of the meeting 
 at Manchester in 1819.— Give the history of the Cato Street Con- 
 spiracy. 
 
WILLIAM IV. 387 
 
 CHAPTER LXIII. 
 
 WILLIAM IV. 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY REFORM — MUNICIPAL REFORM — ABOLITION OP THE SLAVE- 
 TRADE — SLAVERY EMANCIPATION BILL — POOR LAWS — CRIMINAL LAW. 
 
 On the opening of the ne.w parliament after the accession 
 of William IV., Earl Grrey, the leader of the Whigs, in the 
 House of Lords, and Mr. Brougham, in the House of Com- 
 mons, introduced the all-engrossing topic of parliamentary 
 reform. The former contended that it was at that time an 
 imperative duty to secure the institutions of Great Britain, 
 by introducing into them a temperate measure of reform. 
 The Duke of Wellington, in reply, stated as his conviction, 
 that England possessed the best legislature in the world, and, 
 holding this opinion, that he should consider it his duty to 
 oppose any measure for the reform of the constitution. This 
 speech overthrew the duke's ministry The accession of Earl 
 Grey, who had been for years a consistent advocate of parlia- 
 mentary reform, to the premiership, followed. On the 1st 
 March, 1831, Lord John Russell introduced a reform bill, 
 but the strength of the opposition was such, that, foreseeing 
 the failure of the bill, the king, with great reluctance, agreed 
 to dissolve parliament. 
 
 The new parliament met in June, and the bill, 
 after warm debate, and every delay which a strong 
 opposition could invent, passed the House of Commous on 
 the 21st of September. This event rejoiced the nation. 
 " Before daylight, the news was on its way into the country; 
 and wherever it spread, it floated the flags, and woke up the 
 bells, and filled the air with shouts and music." These 
 feelings of joy were soon followed by anxiety for the fate 
 of the bill in the House of Lords. In that house it was lost 
 by a majority of forty-one. The king prorogued parliament 
 to the 6th December. Meanwhile the failure of the bill 
 
388 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 produced the greatest excitement throughout the land. At 
 Bristol, Derby, Nottingham, Birmingham, Manchester, and in 
 fact all over'the kingdom, mobs and riotous proceedings testi- 
 fied the feeling of large bodies of the people. 
 
 When parliament reassembled, Lord John Russell again 
 brought in a reform bill. Again the ministry found them- 
 selves unable to carry the measure through the House of 
 Lords, and they resigned their places. The resignation of 
 Earl Grey and his colleagues produced such a storm of indig- 
 nation, that the king was forced to bow before it, and recall 
 the discarded ministers. This took place on the 15th of May, 
 1832, and on the 4th of June, the opposition gave way, and 
 the reform bill passed A few days later it received the 
 royal assent, and was hailed as a law of the land by universal 
 festivals and rejoicings. By the reform bill all boroughs not 
 having two thousand inhabitants were disfranchised; those 
 containing less than four thousand were only allowed to send 
 each one member to parliament j the right of electing mem- 
 bers taken thus from these borouorhs, was bestowed 
 
 1833. . ° ' 
 
 upon the large manufacturing towns, upon four dis- 
 tricts in London, and upon certain divisions of the larger 
 counties hitherto inadequately represented. . 
 
 Three years later, another reform, in a measure consequent 
 upon that of parliament, was effected. This was a recon- 
 struction of the corporations of towns and boroughs. The 
 powers and funds of municipal institutions had long been in 
 the hands of close corporations : — men self-elected, — respon- 
 sible to no one for their administration, — the records of whose 
 transactions were never exhibited, and among whom, in many 
 instances, the greatest amount of corruption was known to 
 prevail. The funds were misapplied, justice was withheld, 
 and for the large mass of honest and respectable citizens there 
 was no appeal against this municipal tyranny. At length, in 
 
 1835, a law was enacted by which this disgraceful 
 
 1835. 
 
 system was broken up. Henceforth the affairs of 
 each incorporated borough were to be administered by a town 
 council, consisting of a mayor, aldermen, and burgesses, and 
 
WILLIAM IV. 389 
 
 the election of these officers thrown op'en to the inhabitants 
 
 under certain qualifications, regarding property and residence. 
 
 The year following the reform bill, another important 
 
 legislative act, passed the houses of parliament — a 
 
 bill for the abolition of slavery in all the dominions 
 
 of Great Britain. 
 
 As early as 1783, the Quakers had presented a petition to 
 parliament for the abolition of the slave-trade, the horrors of 
 which had awakened the sympathies of these benevolent 
 people. A few years later, William Wilberforce, one 
 of the purest and most Christian statesmen of that 
 day, determined to make the cause one of the two great objects 
 of his parHamentary life. The other was the reformation of 
 manners. Out of the house it numbered among its advocates 
 Granville Sharp, Thornton, Clarkson, and other noted friends 
 of humanity. In May, 1788, Wilberforce being absent from 
 parliament, on account of ill-health, his friend, William Pitt, 
 moved that the house should, " in the ensuing session, take 
 into consideration the circumstances of the African slave-trade, 
 complained of in petitions presented to parliament; and what 
 may seem fit to be done." During the discussion of this 
 motion, Sir William Dolben called attention to the sufi"erings 
 of the negroes in the passage from Africa to the West Indies, 
 and a bill for alleviating these sufferings was passed. 
 
 The time given to the consideration of this question, du^ring 
 the ensuing sessions of parliament, was chiefly spent in listen- 
 ing to evidence on the subject of the slave-trade. At length, 
 in 1791, Wilberforce asked leave to bring in a bill to prevent 
 any further importation of slaves into the British West Indies. 
 At the close of an able speech, which he delivered in support 
 of the motion, this Christian statesman made the following 
 solemn apppeal : — " There will be a day of retribution 
 wherein we shall have to give account of all the 
 talents, faculties, and opportunities which have been intrusted 
 to us. Let it not then appear that our superior power has 
 been employed to oppress our fellow-creatures, and our 
 superior light to darken the creation of our God.'' 
 33* 
 
390 History of England. 
 
 The question of the abolition of the slave-trade was sup- 
 ported by Fox and Pitt, but met with such strong and 
 determined opposition on the part of West India merchants, 
 planters, and other influential bodies, that the motion was 
 lost. A bill, however, passed for founding at Sierra Leone a 
 trading colony. This was done in the hope of promoting a 
 lawful and eventually profitable trade with the African coast, 
 and thus opening a way for the work of civilization and 
 Christian conversion in that part of the world. After a 
 struggle of twenty years' continuance, Wilberforce gained the 
 object to which he had devoted life, fortune, and every energy 
 of a gifted mind and benevolent heart. On the 23d of 
 March, 1807, a bill for the aboHtion of the slave-trade passed 
 the British parliament. So great had been the change in 
 public sentiment, since the day when this motion was 
 first made and lost, and so clearly was the iniquity of 
 the slave-trade now perceived by the nation, that only sixteen 
 voices were found bold enough to oppose the overwhelming 
 majority which rose in behalf of this humane and righteous 
 cause. 
 
 Twenty-six years were yet to pass before a bill for the total 
 abolition of the institution of slavery in the British 
 
 1833. . -^ . 
 
 West Indies should be carried through parliament. 
 A motion to this effect was introduced into the House of 
 Commons by Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton in the year 1823. 
 The following ten were years of incessant effort on the part 
 of the friends of this measure, who at length succeeded. 
 The bill passed on the 30th August, 1833. On the 1st 
 of August, 1834, eight hundred thousand slaves were eman- 
 cipated in the British West Indies, and twenty millions 
 sterling were paid to the slaveholders as compensation. 
 
 Besides the three prominent reforms, the history of which 
 has just been given, there were other evils connected with 
 the operation of English law, which for years had occupied 
 the attention of humane and wise statesmen. The poor, the 
 criminal, and the game laws were especially oppressive to 
 
WILLIAM rv. 391 
 
 those immediately affected by them, as well as injurious to 
 every class of society. 
 
 In 1832, a commission was appointed to investigate the 
 condition of the parishes throughout England and Wales. 
 It was shown by their report, that, although millions of pounds 
 were yearly collected for poor-rates, yet the operation of the 
 poor-laws was such as rather to increase than to relieve poverty, 
 — to check honest industry and to encourage vice and crime. 
 In 1834, a bill for the amendment of the poor-laws, founded 
 on the report of this commission, was passed in parliament. 
 It provided for a system of well-arranged efficient workhouses, 
 into which the destitute might be admitted, those who were 
 able-bodied obtaining employment therein, whilst the 
 sick and aged received the requisite support and care. 
 So effectual was the operation of this law, that in five years 
 after its enactment the poor-rates had decreased from seven 
 to four millions sterling ; — honest industry was protected and 
 encouraged, and the pauperism which had hitherto supported 
 itself by crime and beggary was greatly reduced. 
 
 Sir Thomas More, the upright chancellor of Henry YIII.^s 
 time, says, in his Utopia, written in the year 1516 : '^ Nor so 
 stoical ordinances are to be borne withal, as to count all 
 offences of such equality, that the killing of a man, or the 
 taking of his money from him, were both one matter." And 
 yet the criminal laws of England, in each succeeding century, 
 had grown more and more severe, until they had indeed 
 become such '^stoical ordinances" as were not "to be borne." 
 The penalty of death was inflicted almost without distinction 
 of crime. Such offences as stealing to the amount of forty 
 shillings from a dwelling-house, or picking a pocket of five 
 shillings, or robbing a bleachiog-ground or a coal-vessel, was 
 each subjected to capital punishment. The con^quence was 
 that the laws were but partially executed, and crime increased 
 at a fearful raib. Thieves were encouraged in their wicked- 
 ness, because few were willing to bring a fellow-being to trial 
 for stealing a small amount of property, when they knew the 
 penalty to be death. 
 
892 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Sir Samuel Romilly, a statesman ever wise and active for 
 good, labored during the entire course of his long and valu- 
 able life to procure an amelioration of these cruel laws. He 
 succeeded in getting the penalty of death remitted 
 for stealing from the person to the amount of five shil- 
 lings, and subsequently for stealing from bleaching-grounds. 
 After the death of Komilly, Sir James Mcintosh, Sir Robert 
 Peel, and others labored in this good cause. An amelioration 
 of the criminal code was obtained by the latter statesman in 
 1827. Ten years later, a bill passed the houses of parliament, 
 abolishing the death penalty in twenty-one out of thirty-one 
 cases in which it had hitherto existed. 
 
 On the 20th of June, 1837, William IV. died. Alexan- 
 drina Victoria, the daughter of his brother, the Duke of 
 Kent, succeeded to the throne. 
 
 Questions. — How was the question of political reform treated in 
 the first parliament of William IV. ? — Give the history of Lord John 
 Russell's bill of March, 1831. — What was the effect of the resigna- 
 tion of the ministry? — When and under what circumstances did the 
 reform bill pass? — Describe the provisions of this bill. — Describe 
 the condition of municipal corporations prior to 1835. — What reform 
 was eflfected in that year. — Who were the earliest advocates of the 
 abolition of the African slave-trade? — Relate the history of Pitt's 
 motion on this question in 1788. — Describe Wilberforce's advocacy 
 of this cause in 1791. — What occasioned the defeat of this bill? 
 
 With what object was a colony founded at Sierra Leone? — When 
 did the bill for the abolition of the slave-trade pass? — When was 
 slavery in the West Indies abolished ? — What number was emanci- 
 pated ? — How were the planters remunerated ? — Give the report of 
 the committee appointed for the inspection of parishes in the year 
 1832. — State the provisions of the poor-law of 1834. — Describe the 
 criminal law of England prior to 1837. — What was the result of its 
 severity? — When did William IV. die ?— Who succeeded to the 
 throne ? 
 
QUEEN VICTORIA. 393 
 
 CHAPTER LXIV. 
 
 QUEEN VICTORIA. 
 
 THE QUEEN — CHARTISTS — CORN-LAW — REPEAL AGITATION — FATHER 
 MATTHEW — MAY.NOOTH COLLEGE — FAMINE — INSURRECTION. 
 
 A YOUNG queen of eighteen years, reared in healthful, 
 simple habits, truthful, conscientious, and with a heart full 
 of devotion to her subjects, ascended the throne. No 
 wonder that the hearts and hopes of the nation clus- 
 tered around her. From childhood she had been noted for 
 punctuality and strict adherence to principle. A simple 
 anecdote of these early years well illustrates her habits in 
 these respects. 
 
 One summer, when at Tunbridge Wells, her childish fancy 
 was attracted by some little article which she greatly desired 
 as a present for one of her cousins. Finding, however, that 
 she had not sufficient ready money to buy it, this young 
 princess, too conscientious to incur even a trifling debt, cheer- 
 fully gave up the purchase until the reception of her quarter's 
 allowance should enable her to pay for it. The shopkeeper 
 kept the article for her, and at seven o'clock on the morning 
 of quarter-day, with all the eagerness of childhood, Victoria 
 was seen riding down on her little donkey to secure the 
 desired purchase. The guarantee which this little incident 
 in the child gave against royal extravagance when she should 
 become a queen, has been amply fulfilled. 
 
 Three years after her accession, Victoria, to the general 
 satisfaction of her people, married Albert, Prince of Saxe- 
 Coburg and Grotha. 
 
 For several years bad seasons, and consequently bad har- 
 vests, had produced great distress throughout England. The 
 condition of agricultural laborers and manufacturing opera- 
 tives was dreadful in the extreme. The price of food was 
 exorbitant, whilst wages were low, and employment scarce. 
 
394 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Many of the operatives united in Trade Associations, de- 
 manding work and higher wages. Soon they held torchlight 
 processions, burned factories, assaulted their employers, and 
 showed a determination to obtain redress by physical force. 
 
 One of the most formidable of these insurrections, was the 
 strike of the Cotton-Spinners' Association in Glasgow. This 
 took place in the spring of 1837, upon which, all the works 
 of that description throughout Scotland were stopped, and 
 more than fifty thousand persons deprived of the means of 
 subsistence. New hands employed by the manufacturers, 
 were so much intimidated by the conspirators, that they 
 dared not enter the works. 
 
 At length, information having been obtained of the number 
 and place of meeting of the ringleaders, the sherifT of Lan- 
 arkshire, with twenty policemen, succeeded in arresting the 
 whole committee, numbering sixteen. No sooner were these 
 men arrested than the intimidation ceased, and all the cotton- 
 mills went again into operation. 
 
 The evidence elicited on the trial of some of the conspira- 
 tors, proved the existence of " secret select committees,'* 
 ready to perpetrate the most fearful crimes to attain the 
 objects of the strike. These disclosures roused public opinion ; 
 and since then, insurrections of this nature, however violent 
 and formidable, have never been attended by secret organiza- 
 tions for purposes of crime. 
 
 In the year 1838, the general discontent manifested itself 
 in the serious political combination known as Chartism. A 
 convention of Chartist deputies met in London, and presented 
 to parliament a petition, called a charter, signed by over a 
 million of men. This petition was drawn up on a cylinder 
 of parchment, and literally rolled like a wheel into the house. 
 It demanded the consideration of the six following points : — 
 Universal Sufii-age ; . Vote by Ballot ; Paid Representatives 
 in Parliament j E({ual Electoral Districts : The Abolition of 
 a Property Qualification ; and Annual Parliaments. This 
 charter was presented in June, 1839. 
 
 Meanwhile the violence of the ignorant operatives and 
 
QUEEN VICTORIA. 395 
 
 deluded Chartists increased. Htrange crimes began to abound 
 — crimes perpetrated by miserable operatives in manufac- 
 turing towns, or in the collieries, or by farm servants in the 
 rural districts, who were maddened by hunger, and whose 
 worst passions were acted upon by factious Chartists. Mur- 
 ders were committed for purposes of theft. Holes were bored 
 in ships, that they might be cast away, and the wretched 
 perpetrators share in the insurance money. Many of the 
 unemployed resorted to the practice of opium-eating, to ward 
 off the pangs of hunger. In fact, the condition of the work- 
 ing-classes in England from the year 1839 to 1843 was truly 
 frightful. The price of food, which was ascribed to the 
 oppressive operation of the corn-laws, was so high, that in 
 Home districts the population was in a state bordering hard 
 upon starvation. 
 
 As early as the year 1815, parliament had passed a corn- 
 law, by which no foreign grain was allowed to be imported, 
 until the price of corn should have risen to 80s. per qr. 
 This law was passed in reply to the clamors of the agricul- 
 turists for protection. It was sorely oppressive to the manu- 
 facturer, the merchant, and all other industrial classes of the 
 country. It met with general approbation in parliament, 
 where the landed interest was strong, but even there, it was 
 said : " We cannot persuade ourselves that this law will ever 
 contribute to produce plenty, cheapness, or steadiness of price, 
 .... and to confine the consumer of corn to the produce of his 
 own country, is to refuse to ourselves the benefit of that 
 provision which Providence itself has made for equalizing to 
 man the variations of season and of climate." 
 
 Of course, these laws, affecting injuriously the mercantile 
 and manufacturing classes, met with earnest and powerful 
 opposition. To their operation was mainly ascribed the dis- 
 tress prevailiog throughout the country. In 1838, an Anti- 
 Corn-Law-League was formed at Manchester, ''for establishing 
 the principles of free trade, especially in grain." It soon 
 gained members all over the country, and among them were 
 many able writers and speakers. They investigated the 
 
396 HisTony of England. 
 
 coudition of the manufacturers and other classes, and the 
 facts elicited were set fort^ in pamphlets, tracts, speeches, and 
 ballads, which were distributed throughout the country, and 
 had great weight with the people. 
 
 The eight years following the formation of the League, 
 witnessed much political agitation on the subject, wliich was 
 greatly promoted by the distress prevailing throughout the 
 country. Bad harvests for five successive seasons, Chartist 
 and other insurrections, the failure of the potato crop, and 
 finally the application of the principles of free trade to other 
 articles of import, were the combined causes, which led event- 
 ually to the repeal of the corn-laws. The measure was carried 
 in parliament by Sir Robert Peel on the 16th of May, 1846. 
 
 He had been for many years a firm opponent of the repeal 
 of these duties. The abandonment of principles which he 
 had avowed and supported during the whole of his previous 
 political career, subjected him to no small amount of obloquy. 
 Shortly after the passage of The Corn Law Repeal Bill, Sir 
 Robert Peel resigned his office as premier. In his last speech 
 in parliament, after alluding to the censures which he had 
 endured, he added the following consoling assurance : " But 
 it may be that I shall be sometimes remembered with good- 
 will in the abodes of those whose lot it is to labor, and to earn 
 their daily bread by the sweat of their brow, when they shall 
 recruit their exhausted strength with abundant and untaxed 
 food, the sweeter because it is no longer leavened with a 
 sense of injustice." 
 
 The passage of the Roman Catholic Emancipation Bill did 
 not bring tranquillity to Ireland. One great cause of the 
 disturbances remained. While six millions and a half of the 
 population were Roman Catholics, the members of the church 
 of England numbered but little over eight hundred and fifty 
 thousand. Yet the church of England was by law established 
 in Ireland, and the entire population, Roman Catholic and 
 Protestant alike, were compelled to pay tithes for its support. 
 In 1834 the revenues of the Establishment in that country 
 were more than eight hundred thousand pounds — there were 
 
QUEEN VICTORIA. 397 
 
 fourteen hundred parishes, of which forty-one did not contain 
 a single Protestant, twenty had only five each, and one hun- 
 dred and sixty-five could number only twenty-five each. Yefc 
 there were four Protestant archbishops and eighteen bishops- 
 The Roman CathoUc Church received no support by law. 
 Its priests were poor, and the little which their poor parish' 
 ioners could ofi"er them — the cow, the pig, the sack of corn, 
 or the bit of money — was carried off by a tithe collector, often 
 backed by an armed police, to support the clergyman of the 
 Establishment. No wonder, then, that the Irish peasantry 
 had little love for a church supported by such oppressive acts. 
 Often in the attempt to collect the tithes, the clergyman or 
 his agent was assaulted or murdered, and dreadful deeds of 
 revenge were perpetrated by the outraged tithe-payers. 
 
 The necessity of doing something to remedy the miseries 
 of Ireland was debated session after session in the British 
 parliament. Between the years 1835 and 1840, a system of 
 national education was introduced into Ireland with beneficial 
 results. Under the administration of Lord Mulgrave the 
 country enjoyed more of quiet and prosperity than had been 
 known there since the union. 
 
 During the years 1841-43, Daniel O'Connell raised the cry 
 for the repeal of the union throughout Ireland. The Repeal 
 Association was formed. Among its members were collectors 
 who received, under the name of rent, large sums of money 
 in aid of this association. Meetings were held in every 
 part of the country, and harangued by the repeal agitators. 
 O'Connell, at a meeting held at Tara, in August, 1843, 
 promised that within a year an " Irish parliament should be 
 held in College Green, Dublin, and the hurrahs for repeal be 
 heard over all the land." So errcat was the enthusiasm of 
 the people, that the rent collections reached the almost in- 
 credible sum of three thousand pounds a week. At length 
 government interfered. A proclamation against a monster 
 meeting summoned by O'Connell at Clontarf was published, 
 and measures were taken to prevent the assembling of the 
 people. A few days later, O'Connell and other leaders of the 
 34 
 
398 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Repeal Association were arrestee^ and tried. They were con- 
 victed of conspiracy, sedition, and unlawful assembling, but 
 an appeal having been made against the sentence, some tech- 
 nical difficulty was allowed by the judges to whom the last 
 reference was had, and the prisoners, in consequence, were 
 set at liberty. This magnanimity on the part of the British 
 government had a great eifect in lessening the moral influence 
 which O'Connell possessed over his countrymen. His political 
 sincerity was questioned, his popularity deserted him, and a 
 few years later he died at Genoa. 
 
 The temperance movement, begun by Father Matthew 
 about the year 1841, exerted for the next four or five years a 
 most beneficent influence upon Ireland. Drunkenness, and 
 with it crime, rapidly decreased. Unfortunately this reform 
 went hand in hand with the repeal agitation. When the 
 latter failed, the cause of temperance languished, and there 
 followed years of misery, crime, and famine. 
 
 Sir Kobert Peel attributed these calamities in a great 
 measure to the want of a liberal provision for religious and 
 secular education among the priests and people of that un- 
 happy country. To supply this want, a bill for the estab- 
 lishment of three colleges, at Belfast, Cork, and Limerick, 
 
 was introduced and passed through parliament. To 
 1845* ^"^^^® ^ ^^® priests an education in their own laud, 
 
 another bill proposed an enlargement of the grant to 
 Maynooth College. This institution, for the training of 
 Roman Catholic priests in their own faith, had been founded 
 in the year 1795, but the grant made to it, being only nine 
 thousand pounds per annum, was inadequate to the numbers 
 requiring education there ; nor could it secure a very high 
 order of instruction. The bill for increasing the grant to 
 Maynooth met with violent opposition, being regarded by 
 many as injurious to the principles of the Protestant Reform- 
 ation, and providing for the maintenance of religious error. 
 It was carried, however, and the grant to the college increased 
 to twenty-six thousand three hundred and eighty pounds. 
 During the years 1846-7, one of the most terrible famines 
 
QUEEN VICTORIA. 399 
 
 ever recorded in history spread over Ireland. This was owing 
 to the failure of the potato crop, the staple food of the Irish 
 laborer. The disease in the potato plant extended with 
 such fearful rapidity, as often to convert in a single night 
 acres of bloom into a mass of putrefaction. The scenes of 
 suffering presented during this calamitous time were heart- 
 rending. Often when the door of the wretched cabin was 
 opened, there was found a whole family lying dead in a 
 group. The wail of the starving arose in every district. The 
 workhouse doors were besieged by famishing multitudes beg- 
 ging for bread. Government, roused by the magnitude of 
 the calamity, applied itself to immediate measures of relief. 
 Above half a million of peasantry had been deprived of their 
 usual food — potatoes. There was grain, but they had no 
 money to buy it. To afford employment and wages to the 
 laborer, government appropriated several millions sterling to 
 the erection of public works in Ireland, and in March, 1847, 
 seven hundred and thirty four thousand laborers found em- 
 ployment, their aggregate wages amounting to two hundred 
 thousand pounds. Large sums were subscribed for sending 
 food to Ireland. All duties were taken off of grain, the 
 navigation laws were suspended, so that relief might be trans- 
 mitted immediately, and food imported from foreign countries. 
 Yet with such fearful strides had disease and death followed 
 in the train of famine, that hundreds died before relief could 
 be brought to them, or perished from exhaustion before they 
 could reach the public works. The scenes of horror exceeded 
 anything which the pen of Dante or Defoe, or the canvas of 
 Poussin, had depicted. In the words of Lord John Russell : 
 ^' A famine of the thirteenth had fallen on the population of 
 the nineteenth century." 
 
 The conduct of the British government reflects the highest 
 honor on its character for generous liberality. During these 
 
 1846 y^^^® of wide-spread distress no less than eight mil- 
 ana lions of pounds were bestowed upon Ireland, either 
 
 ■^^*^* in the form of public appropriations or private sub- 
 scriptions. Nor were the people and government of the United 
 
400 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 States less liberal in their efforts to mitigate the horrors of the 
 Irish famine. Private subscriptions were opened, large sup- 
 plies of provisions collected, and shipped in a public armed 
 vessel to the coast of Ireland. During the year of the famine, 
 and those immediately succeeding, the immigration of the 
 Irish to foreign shores was immense. The population, which 
 in 1841 was over eight millions, is now (1860) but little over 
 six. The Irish have left the land of their birth, to find 
 subsistence in the country of strangers, but their affections 
 still centre in the home they have left. In proof of this, 
 the remittances made to Ireland from her children abroad, 
 amounted in the year 1853 to nearly seven millions of dollars. 
 Theirs is the feeling which breathes so touchingly in the 
 familiar song of " The Irish Emigrant's Lament :" 
 
 " They say there's bread and work for all, 
 And the sun shines always there, 
 But I'll ne'er forget old Ireland, 
 Were it fifty times as fair." 
 
 In July of 1848 an insurrection broke out in Ireland, 
 headed by Smith O'Brien, Thomas Francis Meagher, and 
 others. It had for its object the old aim, repeal of the union 
 and restoration of the ancient constitution and native rule. 
 This rebellion w9s put down with little difficulty on the part 
 of the government. O'Brien and other leaders were arrested, 
 tried, and sentenced to death. The sentence was commuted 
 to that of transportation for life. At the conclusion of the 
 Russian war an amnesty was proclaimed, under which these 
 political exiles, excepting only those who had broken their 
 parole, returned to their country after an absence of eight 
 years. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the character of the young queen. — What 
 ■was the condition of the laboring classes of England during the 
 early years of her reign? — What did the Chartists demand? — What 
 were the corn-laws? — When were they repealed? — Who was prime 
 minister at that time ? — Repeat his remarks. 
 
 What was the object of the Repeal Association? — Give the account 
 
QUEEN VICTORIA. 401 
 
 of its suppression. — Give the history of the temperance movement 
 in Ireland. — State the results of Sir Robert Peel's efforts for the 
 promotion of education. — Relate the history of Maynooth College. — 
 What caused the great famine in Ireland? — Describe this calamity. — 
 What measures were taken by government for the relief of the suf- 
 ferers ? — What effect had the famine upon immigration ? — What is 
 said of the charity of the Irish emigrants ? — Relate the history 
 of Smith O'Brien's insurrection. 
 
 CHAPTER LXV. 
 
 QUEEN VICTORIA. 
 
 THE CHARTIST REBELLION — FOREIGN RELATIONS — TROUBLES IN TURKEY 
 
 MILITARY OPERATIONS. 
 
 In the spring of 1848 occurred a revolution in France, by 
 which the king, Louis Philippe, was driven from the throne. 
 The success of this revohition in France, coupled with the 
 great distress then pi*evailing throughout the manufacturing 
 districts of England, encouraged the Chartists to renew their 
 efforts to force their Charter upon the government. To afford 
 the occasion for assembling, they got up a monster petition to 
 be presented on the 10th of April by as many as could effect 
 an entrance into the House of Commons. This point gained, 
 they expected to intimidate government by their numbers, 
 and to proclaim a republic. 
 
 Under the orders and superintendence of the Duke of 
 Wellington, every measure was taken to defeat this formidable 
 attempt. A proclamation forbade more than ten persons to 
 present a petition at any one time, and likewise asserted that 
 any attempt to organize a procession in returning from the 
 House of Commons would be stopped by force of arms. To 
 provide for the carrying out of these designs, large bodies of 
 police were stationed at the several bridges by which the 
 Chartists might pass from Kennington Common, where they 
 were assembled, into Westminster. Cannon also and troops 
 84* 2C 
 
402 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 were concealed in the vicinity. Regiments were kept in 
 reserve at various other unseen points, and artillery was in 
 readiness at the Tower, to be conveyed on board armed 
 steamers to any part of the metropolis which might require 
 such defence. All the public ofl&ces were well guarded, and 
 the Bank of England was occupied by bodies of infantry, and 
 strongly barricaded. One hundred and seventy thousand 
 special constables, previously trained for duty, were stationed 
 throughout London j and among these served on that import- 
 ant occasion, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the present emperor 
 of the French. 
 
 These wise precautions effectually frustrated the hopes and 
 designs of the Chartists. Being informed by a few resolute 
 policemen that they might send their petition in a proper 
 manner to the House, but that any attempt to pass the bridges 
 in procession would be resisted, the large body of some fifty 
 thousand men broke their ranks and gave up their attempt. 
 A few bodies of Chartists tried to force their way into West- 
 minster, but were repelled by the police, and by seven o'clock 
 in the evening all had dispersed, and order and quiet reigned 
 in the vast metropolis. The most violent Chartist leaders, 
 who still kept up the spirit of insurrection in London, were 
 seized during the course of the summer, tried, convicted, and 
 transported for life. 
 
 The year 1854 witnessed the strange spectacle of the 
 armies of England and France contending, not against each 
 other, as for centuries past, from the days of Cre§y and of 
 Agincourt, but unitedly in behalf of the threatened empire 
 of Mohammed. If ever these nations had combined before, 
 it had been in the days of the Crusades, to war against this 
 very power whose existence they now joined to defend. This 
 singular anomaly of European armies transported to the East, 
 to fight for and with the Turk, arose from the following 
 circumstances. 
 
 The empire of the czars of Russia during several centuries 
 had gone on increasing in power and dominion, until it 
 swayed one-half of the continent of Europe, large territories 
 
QUEEN VICTORIA. 403 
 
 in Asia, and threatened to become the predominant power in 
 Christendom. In her career of conquest, Eussia had come 
 into collision with Turkey, and by military successes and sub- 
 sequent treaties had gained important advantages. In fact, 
 the provisions of the peace of Adrianople, concluded between 
 Russia and the Porte in 1829, threatened the future inde- 
 pendence, if not the very existence, of the Ottoman Empire. 
 
 The aggrandizing spirit of Russia awakened the fears of 
 England and France, as well as those of other powers on 
 the shores of the Mediterranean. The dominions of the 
 sultan on the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles were the chief 
 barrier which prevented the czar's supremacy over the waters 
 of Europe's great inland sea; these once passed, Russia would 
 rival England as a naval power, and imperil moreover the 
 empire of Great Britain in the East. These considerations 
 induced the western powers of Europe to view with jealous 
 eye the ambition of Russia. The circumstances which brought 
 on the war, however, arose from a quarrel between the Grreek 
 and Roman Catholic or Latin Churches, on the subject of the 
 holy places at Jerusalem. 
 
 Syria was a province of Turkey, but the sultan permitted 
 both Greek and Latin Christians to maintain places for 
 worship in the Holy City. There for centuries had been 
 established churches, shrines, and grottoes commemorative 
 of various scenes in our Saviour's life, sufferings, and death. 
 Among these the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, built over 
 the supposed site of the tomb of our Lord, was held especially 
 sacred. For the exclusive possession of this holy place, the 
 monks of the Greek and Latin churches kept up incessant 
 disputiugs. Some idea of the extent of these disgraceful 
 quarrels may be gathered from the following conversation, 
 which took place between an English missionary and a Turk- 
 ish pasha of Jerusalem, whom the former sought to convert to 
 Christianity: "What are the advantages of your religion over 
 mine ?" asked the pasha. " Peace on earth and glory after 
 death," replied the missionary. '' As to the latter," said the 
 Turk, " our prophet promises that too ; and for the peace on 
 
404 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 earth, the Church of the Sepulchre has a band of Greek 
 Christians on the one side, and a band of lloman Christians 
 on the other, and in the centre is a Turkish guard, to keep 
 them from cutting each others' throats." 
 
 The Russian czar, Nicholas, as head of the Greek Church, 
 and Louis Napoleon, as the representative and protector of 
 the Latin Christians, demanded of the sultan for their re- 
 spective churches exclusive privileges quite incompatible with 
 each other. The sultan, Abdul-Medjid, was placed in an 
 embarrassing position ; — between two formidable and rival 
 claimants, both of whom he was desirous to please. After 
 much delay and perplexity he issued a firman (or decree) 
 designed to be sufficiently liberal towards the Greek Church, 
 and yet not so partial as to give umbrage to the Latin 
 Christians. The Czar Nicholas, on the very day the firman 
 was issued, demanded through his ambassador the right of 
 absolute protection over all Greek Christians. This demand, 
 it was asserted, implied the control over twelve millions of 
 the sultan's subjects. It was refused by the Ottoman Porte. 
 The western powers then interfered, and at the end of eight 
 months of diplomatic negotiations, England and France an- 
 nounced their intention to take up arms in aid of the sultan, 
 against the "unprovoked aggression" of the czar. Then 
 these western powers united as the ally of Turkey, and the 
 troops of these nations saw service in strangely foreign parts. 
 
 On the 4th of the preceding October, the New Year's day 
 of the Mohammedans, the sultan's declaration of war against 
 Russia had been read in all the mosques, and large Turkish 
 armies were collected in the Dauubian provinces and on the 
 frontiers of Asia. In the wild mountain region of Caucasus 
 the native tribes, to the number of twenty thousand, under 
 their brave chief and prophet, Schamyl, united with a Turkish 
 army to attack the Russians. The heroism of this mountain 
 chief, and the enthusiasm which he awakened in his followers, 
 occasioned severe reverses to the Russian arms during the 
 year 1854. The latter, however, finally prevailed, and the 
 czar triumphed in that quarter by the capture of the import- 
 
QUEEN VICTORIA. 405 
 
 ant town of Kars, towards the close of 1855. The defence 
 of this place had been conducted by the English General 
 Williams. 
 
 The operations which reflected greatest honor upon the 
 armies of the sultan were performed in the Dobrudscha, an 
 unhealthy district lying between the river Danube and the 
 Black Sea. The Russians with a powerful army occupied the 
 Danubian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, and the 
 Turks, under Omar Pasha, in the autumn of 1853, addressed 
 themselves to the difficult task of opposing their further 
 advance upon the dominions of Turkey. The victory of 
 Oltenitza, won in November, and other successes obtained 
 during the winter, animated the spirits and courage of the 
 Turks. In the spring of 1851 a Russian army laid siege to 
 Silistria, an important town situated on the Danube. From 
 the 11th of May to the 22d of June, the place was besieged. 
 The defence was maintained with great spirit, skill, and 
 bravery on the part of the Turks under the command of 
 Mussa Pasha. At length the Russians — aware that the allied 
 armies had reached Varna; that a detachment of French 
 and Jilnglish had been sent forward for the relief of Silistria; 
 and that the combined fleet had passed the Bosphorus; — raised 
 the siege, and turned to the defence of their dominions, now 
 formidably threatened, on the shores of the Black Sea. At 
 tlic expiration of forty-two days, the Russian army, which at 
 one time had numbered sixty thousand, and had thrown, from 
 sixty pieces of ordnance, no less than fifty thousand shot and 
 shell into the town, were forced to abandon the first siege of 
 this campaign, the defence having been maintained by the 
 skill and valor of Turks alone. 
 
 Meanwhile the armies of the English and French allies 
 had arrived in Turkey. Owing to lamentable mismanage- 
 ment on the part of the commissariat, when the troops 
 reached that country no adequate provision had been made 
 for their support. This neglect occasioned a vast amount 
 of suffering, especially at Varna, a port on the Black Sea, 
 where the allied forces were quartered from June until 
 
406 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 August, 1854. The soldiers were in want of tents, proper 
 food, bedding, and medical stores. During the stay at Varna, 
 the cholera and typhus fever broke out, and these frightful 
 diseases, spreading through the camps and in the fleets, added 
 to the intense sufierings which the allied armies endured 
 throughout the entire war. 
 
 Questions. — Mention the circumstances which led to the Chartist 
 insurrection. — What were the designs of the Chartists? — What pre- 
 parations were made to resist them? — State the result. — Describe 
 the progress of Russian power and dominion. — What powers were 
 threatened by the aggrandizement of Russia? — State the causes 
 which awakened the fears of the English government. — State the 
 circumstances which were the immediate occasion of the war. 
 
 Name the two powers which united with Turkey. — When did the sul- 
 tan declare war? — What is said of the operations in the Caucasus? — 
 Relate the success of the Turks in the Danubian provinces. — Describe 
 the siege and defence of Silistria. — What led to the abandonment of 
 the siege? — Describe the condition of the allied troops in Turkey. — 
 To what was this owing ? — Mention other causes of suffering. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVI. 
 
 QUEEN VICTORIA. 
 
 ENGLISH TROOPS IN THE CRIMKA — ALMA — THE SIEGE OF SEBASTOPOL — 
 FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE. 
 
 On the Crimea, a peninsula extending into the Black Sea, 
 stood the Russian naval depot of Sebastopol. Powerful forts, 
 mounting from sixty to one hundred and ninety guns each, 
 commanded the fine harbor in which floated a fleet, the second 
 if not the first in importance of the Russian navy. Besides 
 the commanding batteries of Forts Constantine and iVlexander, 
 which crowned the northern and southern points of the en- 
 trance to the great harbor, that entrance was further protected 
 by sunken ships, which eff'ectually barred it against the allied 
 
QUEEN VICTORIA, 407 
 
 fleet. To capture this stronghold of the czar, and destroy the 
 Kussian fleet, thus rendering it impossible for Russia to obtain 
 naval supremacy in the waters of the Mediterranean Sea, was 
 the grand object of the allied governments. 
 
 An army consisting of twenty-seven thousand English, 
 twenty-five thousand French, and eight thousand Turkish 
 troops, landed in the Crimea on the 14th September, 1854, 
 and on the 19th commenced its march towards Sebastopol, 
 which lay about thirty miles to the south of the place of 
 debarkation. The route was crossed by three small rivers, 
 the most northerly of which was the Alma ; on the heights 
 which rise from this stream, Prince Mentschikofi", with from 
 forty-five to fifty thousand Russian troops, awaited the ap- 
 proach of the allied forces. The latter were commanded by 
 the English Lord Raglan and the French Marshal de St. 
 Arnaud. During a halt on the march, St. Arnaud, as he 
 rode past the fifty-fifth regiment of the allies, exclaimed : 
 '' English ! I hope you will fight well to-day!" " Hope !" 
 shouted a voice from the ranks, " sure, you know we will." 
 
 About half past one o'clock in the afternoon of the 20th, 
 the French and English divisions began the assault on the 
 strong position of the enemy, partially entrenched on the 
 heights of Alma. These formidable heights were defended 
 by large masses of Russian infantry, and a powerful and 
 numerous artillery. They were won by the valor of the 
 French and English 'soldiers, after a sharp contest which 
 lasted about three hours. The French Zouaves under Grene- 
 ral Bosquet, the English artillery under Sir. George Brown, 
 and the Highland brigade under Sir Colin Campbell, were 
 conspicuous for their brilliant conduct during this action. 
 The divisions displayed a rivalry for the first occupancy of 
 the enemy's redoubts. " We'll hae none but Highland 
 bonnets here !" exclaimed the brave veteran Sir Colin, as, far 
 in advance of his men, he rushed on to take possession of the 
 battery of the defeated enemy. After the battle of the 
 Alma the allies pursued their march towards Sebastopol. 
 
 Finding no harbor on the north side of the town which 
 
408 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 might serve as a refuge for their transports, and a dep6t for 
 their supplies, the allies made a flank march to the left, and, 
 turning Sebastopol, seized the village and harbor of Balaklava, 
 about six miles to the south of it. From the 28th of Septem- 
 ber until the 10th of October, the allies were engaged chiefly 
 in landing their siege trains and stores, and making prepara- 
 tions for the attack. The greater part of the French armv 
 landed at Kamiesch Bay, and their divisions during the first 
 weeks of the siege were posted chiefly to the west and south- 
 west of Sebastopol, whilst the English were in strongest posi- 
 tion on the south and south-east of the town. 
 
 The entrance to Sebastopol on the south was open and 
 quite unprotected. Above the town on that side arose heights 
 commanding the harbor, dockyards, and arsenal buildings, 
 which, if secured by an enemy, would render the place un- 
 tenable. The Russians seized these heights and erected 
 upon them their lines of defence, and it now became the 
 object of the allies to drive them from these hills and secure 
 possession for themselves. Under cover of night on the 10th 
 of October, the allies dug their first trench two thousand 
 yards from the Russian defences. 
 
 A trench is a sort of ditch or sunken road, three feet in 
 depth, and of sufficient dimensions to allow the passage of men 
 and cannon. The earth thrown up from the excavation forms 
 a breastwork, which, from the bottom of the ditch, is about six 
 feet high, thus affording an effectual" covering to the troops 
 within the trench, against the shot of the enemy's guns. At 
 certain intervals are constructed batteries or platforms on 
 which guns are mounted. These are placed in such position 
 as to fire with effect upon the defences of the besieged. A 
 second trench is dug parallel to the first (and for that reason 
 technically named a parallel), and still nearer to the place in 
 siege. This also is provided with batteries, and communicates 
 with the first trench by diagonal cuts called zigzags or ap- 
 proaches. In this manner, during the siege of Sebastopol, 
 trench after trench was dug, until the approaches of the allies 
 were made up to the very edge of the Russian defences. 
 
QUEEN VICTORIA. 409 
 
 Whilst the works of the besiegers were in progress, the 
 Russians on their part were actively engaged in mounting 
 artillery behind similar works constructed on the heights 
 which they had occupied above the town. Among these 
 defences, which at intervals surrounded and commanded Se- 
 bastopol in a semicircular line, were those which became so 
 famous under the names of the Malakoff Tower, the Great 
 and the Little Redan, &c. Not only did the Russians erect 
 and man the above-named positions, but they even advanced 
 six hundred yards beyoad them, to a hill thirty feet higher 
 than the MalakoflF. On this height, called the Mamelon, 
 with great skill and boldness they erected batteries, thus 
 advancing upon the works of the allies as the latter drew 
 their approaches nearer the Russian line. It would perhaps 
 be impossible to exaggerate the difficulties encountered by 
 both armies in constructing these siege works and defences ; 
 in some places the almost incredible labor of digging trenches 
 through limestone rock was performed, whilst the earth to 
 form the parapets was actually conveyed in bags and baskets 
 from a distance of seven hundred yards. The approaches 
 of the allies, moreover, were greatly retarded by frequent 
 sorties of the Russians, filling up the trenches and spiking 
 the guns. The latter operation consists in driving a round 
 steel file firmly into the vent of the piece, so that it is 
 impossible to discharge it. 
 
 The contest to destroy the artillery mounted in the re- 
 spective works engaged both parties during the entire siege. 
 Until the allies had thus succeeded, and gained the mastery 
 over the Russian guns, there was no probability of success in 
 an assault. 
 j^gg^ At half past six o'clock on the morning of the 17th 
 October, the French and English batteries began the 
 first of the seven bombardments which during the siege they 
 opened upon the defences of Sebastopol. During this first 
 bombardment, the Malakofi" Tower, a small building only 
 capable of holding about a hundred men, was nearly destroyed 
 by the guns of the allies. About its ruins was erected the 
 
410 HISTORY OF KNGLAND. 
 
 Korniloff Bastion, the assault and carrying of which, and not 
 of the Mahikoff Tower, as usually stated, was the great and 
 final achievement of the siege. 
 
 On the 25th of October, a sortie of thirty-five thousand 
 Russians seized some redoubts which were erected on hills 
 that crossed the valley of Balaklava. The Turks charged 
 with the defence of these forts fled, and the enemy, after 
 taking possession of them, continued their advance towards 
 the town of Balaklava. They were met and driven back by 
 the English cavalry. Before the day was over occurred that 
 brilliant but fatal action so well known as " The Charge of 
 the Light Brigade." 
 
 Acting under a misapprehended order from Lord Raglan, 
 to advance upon the gun& of the enemy. Lord Cardigan with 
 his light cavalry charged over a plain a mile and a half in 
 length, directly in the face of the foe. The Russians were 
 in strong position, and scarcely had this devoted band begun 
 their advance before a deadly fire from thirty pieces of artil- 
 lery was opened upon them. The first line was broken, but 
 the second closed up, and "with ranks thinned by those 
 thirty Russian guns, — with a halo of flashing steel above 
 their heads, — 
 
 "Charging an army, while 
 
 All the world wonder'd : 
 Plunged in the battery-smoke 
 Eight through the line they broke ; 
 Cossack and Russian 
 Reel'd from the sabre-stroke, 
 
 Shatter'd and sunder'd. 
 Then they rode back — but not, 
 
 Not the six hundred." 
 
 Later in the year occurred another Russian sortie. On the 
 heights of Inkermann, on the extreme right of the allied 
 position, were a few outposts of the English but slightly 
 guarded. These were surprised by a large body of Russians 
 on the morning of the 5th of November, and a fearful and 
 
QUEtTN VICTORIA. 411 
 
 sanguinary action ensued. " The battle of Inkermann," says 
 Russell, "admits ol! no description. It was a series of 
 dreadful deeds of daring, of sanguinary hand-to-hand fights. 
 of despairing rallies, of desperate assaults-r-in glens and 
 valleys, in brushwood glades and remote dells, and from 
 which the conquerors, llussian or British, issued only to 
 engage fresh foes," until at the end of six hours the bat- 
 talions of the czar gave way before the desperate valor of the 
 French infantry, who about ten o'clock came to the aid of 
 their hard-fought and still hard-fighting allies. 
 
 In the following year, on the 7th of June, 1855, the 
 French troops stormed and carried the Eussian works on 
 the Mamelon. But this great success was not achieved 
 without a fearful loss of life. Some accounts state the loss 
 of the French in this assault alone, at three thousand seven 
 hundred in killed and wounded. 
 
 About a month previous to the capture of the Mamelon a 
 body of Sardinian troops arrived in the Crimea, and took 
 part in the siege. On the 16th of August a Russian sortie 
 was made upon the outposts of these new allies, as also upon 
 the French lines upon the banks of the river Tcheruaya. 
 It resulted in a brief but important action, in which the 
 Russians were repulsed with a loss of some nine thousand 
 men, and the allies gained a nearer approach to the devoted 
 town. Such are a few of the incidents of this memorable 
 siege, carried on during twelve long and weary months. 
 
 And now the approaches of the allies had gained the edge 
 of the enemy's defences. From the French trench in front 
 of the MalakofF one might lay his hand on the abattis of the 
 Korniloff Bastion. The final, the successful assault was at 
 hand. As soon as day dawned on the 5th of September, 
 1855, the final bombardment was opened, with eight hundred 
 pieces, upon the defences of Sebastopol. For three days it 
 was maintained with concerted irregularity. These changes 
 in the mode of fire, from slow to quick, and from an entire 
 suspension to ordinary, accelerated, and rapid rate, were de- 
 signed to leave the enemy no means of forming a judgment 
 
412 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of the moment of the expected assault. In the bewilderment 
 thus occasioned, lay the only hope of success for the com- 
 mander-in-chief Nor was he disappointed. Precisely at 
 noon on the 8th of September, with dauntless bravery and 
 enthusiasm, amid cries of " Vive L'Empereur," the French 
 troops under Pelissier rushed to the assault of the Korniloff 
 Bastion (the so-called Malakoff Tower). For a few anxious 
 moments they disappeared in descending into the trenches, 
 and in whirlwinds of dust, but when they emerged it was to 
 plant the colors of France upon the ramparts of the enemy. 
 
 Reverse and defeat attended the operations of both the 
 French and English at the Great and Little Redan, and at 
 every other point of attack. The secret of the success at the 
 Malakoff lay in the power that accompanies the chief who 
 commands, and calls to his aid all the resources far and near, 
 while his subordinates have but the special troops assigned 
 them to depend upon. If any comparison be drawn in rela- 
 tion to the failures at the several unsuccessful points, it would 
 seem that the English under General Windham possessed and 
 contrived to hold the Great Redan, for a longer period and 
 with a more determined resistance than was effected in any 
 of the positions attacked by the French troops. Success 
 crowned the efforts of the commander-in-chief, although, no 
 one of his heroic generals could accomplish the task assigned 
 them. And success at the Korniloff was victory. Sebastopol 
 was no longer tenable. 
 
 During the night the Russians quietly withdrew across the 
 harbor A few hours later, and upon the darkness of the 
 night burst forth the flames of the burning city, and the fear- 
 ful sounds of explosion arose from magazines and batteries. 
 When the allies entered Sebastopol it was a city of ruins. Of 
 the Russian enemy, says Russell : '' He left us few trophies 
 and many bitter memories.^' The proclamation of peace 
 reached the allied armies in Sebastopol on the 2d of April, 
 and a few weeks later the troops returned to their respective 
 countries. They left in the soil of the Crimea the graves of 
 many, many thousands of their comrades. 
 
QUEEN VICTORIA. 413 
 
 We would not close this brief account of the Crimean 
 expedition, without an allusion to Florence Nightingale — that 
 heroic woman who devoted herself with so much skill and 
 tenderness to the relief of the sick and the wounded. Nor 
 was the alleviation of individual suffering the only or indeed 
 the greatest good effected by the labors of this self-denying 
 woman. She was the means of awakening governments and 
 nations to a sense of the fearful responsibility of sending 
 armies into foreign climates, to undertake long and dangerous 
 military operations, without adequate supplies of medical 
 stores, and the means of removing the wounded from the 
 field of battle. 
 
 All these privations in their worst form the Crimean army 
 was called to er^dure. There was fearful suffering at Scutari, 
 at Varna, and in the camp before Sebastopol. "All the 
 pictures ever drawn of plague and pestilence,'' says the cor- 
 respondent of the London Times, " from the work of the 
 inspired writer who chronicled the woes of infidel Egypt, 
 down to the narratives of Boccaccio, Defoe, or Moltke, fall 
 short of individual ' bits' of disease and death, which any one 
 might see in half a dozen places during half an hour's walk 
 in Balaklava!" "At the close of 1854- there were three 
 thousand five hundred sick in the British camp before Sebas- 
 topol, caused mostly by hard work in bad weather, in trenches 
 like canals, and in which the men were saturated to the 
 skin." 
 
 Florence Nightingale was the daughter of an English 
 gentleman of good family and estate Some accounts assert 
 that she is of the same age as the English queen. Others, 
 that she was- born in Florence four years later than Victoria, 
 and received her name in memory of that fair Italian city. 
 From childhood she exhibited a sympathy with the weak, the 
 suffering, the destitute, and the desolate Her ministry of 
 love began early in the schools and among the poor of the 
 parishes where she resided. In later years she frequented 
 the hospitals of London and Edinburgh, and finally, in 1851, 
 Bhe repaired to the celebrated German Lutheran Hospital, 
 86* 
 
414 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 established at Kaiserwerth, near Diisseldorf, on the Rhine. 
 Here she went through a thorough course of instruction and 
 practice, passing several months in daily and nightly attend- 
 ance upon the sick and the afflicted. 
 
 From the Hospital at Kaiserwerth no person receives a 
 certificate to practise as a nurse, without having first been 
 subjected to a severe examination. Through this ordeal Miss 
 Nightingale passed triumphantly. Pasteur Fliedner, the head 
 of the establishment, declared that since his acquaintance with 
 the institution no one had ever gone through so distinguished 
 an examination, or shown herself so thoroughly mistress of all 
 she had to learn, as Florence Nightingale. Thus was she 
 fitted by accumulated experience for the noble mission to 
 which God's providence called her in the Crimean war. 
 
 At the request of the Right Hon. Sidney Herbert, Miss 
 Nightingale accepted the control of the entire establishment 
 for the nursing of British soldiers and sailors, the sick, the 
 wounded, and the suffering in that trying campaign. By a 
 singular coincidence, the same day upon which this proposal 
 was made to her, she had herself written to Mr. Herbert, 
 volunteering her services for the self-denying work. 
 
 On the 24th of October, 1854, with a band of thirty-seven 
 nurses, she left England. In passing through France, they 
 were received with the most gratifying demonstrations of 
 respect and admiration : in many instances hotel-keepers de- 
 clining to make their customary charges, and all classes mani- 
 festing the deepest interest and sympathy in their mission. 
 
 Miss Nightingale reached Scutari on the 5th of November, 
 just before the wounded in the action of Balaklava were 
 brought down. From that time, until the end of»the war, she 
 devoted herself, amid innumerable trials and discouragements, 
 arising from the want of proper supplies and medical stores, 
 to the care and nursing of the sick and wounded. Her very 
 presence was a blessing. Said one poor soldier : " Before she 
 came, there was such cursin' and swearin' ; and after' that, it 
 was as holy as a church." 
 
 " When all the medical officers had retired for the night, 
 
QtJEEN VICTORIA. 415 
 
 and silence and darkness had settled down upon those miles 
 of prostrate sick, she might be observed alone, with a little 
 lamp in her hand, making her solitary rounds." One poor 
 fellow, describing the comfort it was, even thus to see Florence 
 pass, said : " She would speak to one and to another, and nod 
 and smile to as many more; — but she couldn't do it to all, 
 you know ; we lay there by hundreds ; but we could kiss her 
 shadow as it fell, and lay our heads on our pillows again 
 content !" 
 
 ** On England's annals, through the long 
 Hereafter of her speech and song, 
 That light its rays shall cast 
 From portals of the past 
 
 " A lady with a lamp shall stand 
 In the great history of the land, 
 A noble type of good 
 Heroic womanhood." 
 
 Questions. — Describe the position and defences of Sebastopol. — 
 Why was the capture of this place important to the allies? — When 
 and with what force did they land in the Crimea? — Describe the 
 battle of the Alma. — Give an account of the further advance of the 
 allies. — Describe their position at Balaklava. — Where were erected 
 the Russian lines of defence? — Describe the trenches and siege- 
 works of the allies. » 
 
 Name and describe the defences of the Russians.— State some of 
 the difficulties encountered by both parties. — What was the object 
 of both during the siege ?— What was the result of the first bombard- 
 ment?— Repeat the account of the action at Balaklava.— Of the 
 battle of Inkermann.— When was the Mamelon carried ?— What led 
 to the battle of the Tchernaya-? — Describe the final assault on Sebas- 
 topol. — When did the allies leave the Crimea ? — Relate the account 
 given of Florence Nightingale. 
 
416 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVII. 
 
 ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Tt would be impossible within tbe limits of a small volume, 
 much less of a single chapter, to give any adequate description 
 of the condition of England during this age of wonderful 
 development and progress. We can but glance at a few 
 prominent incidents in those departments of social improve- 
 ment, which in other centuries have been considered more at 
 length. 
 
 The most pleasing feature in the history of religion during 
 the present period, has been the establishment of societies for 
 the promotion of the Christian faith, and the spread of its 
 glorious light throughout the world. Of these, noblest in de- 
 sign and success is "The British and Foreign Bible Society.^' 
 God chose a little child to be the instigator of this mighty 
 enterprise. 
 
 A Welsh girl, tripping over her native hills, was met by 
 the Rev. Mr. Charles of Bala. He stopped the child,. and 
 asked if she could tell him the text on which he had preached 
 the preceding Sunday. The little girl hung her head as she 
 replied that she had not been able to get at the Bible that 
 week. On inquiting the reason, the clergyman found that 
 there was but one Bible within several mile's, and that this 
 child was in the habit of walking a long distance every week, 
 over rugged mountain paths, for the privilege of reading the 
 word of God. 
 
 The fact that a large district of Great Britain was destitute 
 of Bibles, made a deep impression on the mind of Mr. Charles. 
 He visited London and spoke of it to others : Christian hearts 
 were roused, nor was it long before the resolution was made 
 to print and sell Bibles at such prices as would enable the 
 poor to obtain them. Thus began, in 1804, with a subscrip- 
 tion of only three thousand dollars, "The British and Foreign 
 
ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 417 
 
 Bible Society/' which now has a revenue of nearly eight 
 hundred thousand dollars, and has circulated thirty-seven 
 millions of Bibles and Testaments. 
 
 The operations of those societies already established in 
 England for the promotion of Christianity, were greatly 
 extended, whilst new institutions for the same noble purpose 
 were founded both by the Established Church and by dis- 
 senters. By the exertions of such societies in ICngland and 
 America, the blessings of Christianity have been carried to 
 the remotest colonies of Great Britain, and to many heathen 
 lands. Christian schools have been founded, and Christianity 
 preached in China, amid the jungles of India, the sands of 
 Africa, and the isles of the Pacific. The Sandwich Islands 
 have become Christianized, and of barbarous New Zealand it 
 is beautifully recorded : ^' the lion has been converted into 
 the lamb, and the lamb has been gathered into the fold of the 
 Kedeemer.'' 
 
 Sunday-schools, for the instruction of the young, first 
 founded in 1780, by Robert Raikes, have become ao general, 
 that there is scarcely a parish or religious society throughout 
 England or the United States, in which they do not now exist. 
 
 In the train of Christianity 
 
 " Steals on, large-hearted Charity, 
 Tempering her gifts, that seem so free, 
 
 By time and place, 
 Till not a woe the bleak world see, 
 But finds her grace." 
 
 We cannot dwell upon all that she has been doing in this 
 (lur day — the institutions that men, animated by her pure 
 .spirit, have founded for the sick, the blind, the afflicted, and 
 the outcast. 
 
 One such noble institution, " The Metropolitan Lunatic 
 Asylum," at Han well, must stand as a type of others. Here 
 for the first time in England the barbarous system of coercing 
 the insane, gave place to that of judicious medical treatment. 
 Instead of being chained in cells, and left in idleness, a prey 
 
 2D 
 
418 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 to the fancies of their own disordered intellects, employment 
 has been furnished according to the abilities of the inmates : 
 the men engaged in gardening and building; the women 
 made happy by the industry of the needle. 
 
 In the history of literature during the past half century, an 
 interesting feature has been the new style of periodical review. 
 The first which appeared was " The Edinburgh Review/' 
 established in 1802 by the Rev. Sydney Smith, Messrs., 
 afterwards Lords Jeffrey and Brougham, and other men of 
 distinguished talent. The contributors to the columns of 
 this periodical were Whigs, who advocated successively the 
 great reform questions of the day. The boldness and ability 
 of their writings gave no little support to the promoters of 
 the abolition of slavery, the repeal of the corn-laws, &c. " The 
 Quarterly Review," a Tory publication, was established in 
 London in the year 1809. It is distinguished for beauty of 
 literary composition, and its columns have been enriched by 
 the genius of Sir Walter Scott, Southey, and Lord Canning. 
 "Blackwood's Magazine," designed to counteract the Whig 
 influence of ^' The Edinburgh Review," was set up in 1817 
 by its able editor. Professor Wilson, so well known as " Chris- 
 topher North." 
 
 In the year 1827 " The Society for promoting the Diffusion 
 of Useful Knowledge" commenced its noble career. It was 
 founded mainly by the exertions of Mr. Brougham, Lord 
 John Russell, and the benevolent Friend, WilHam Allen, in 
 order to effect the publication, in a cheap forin, of elementary 
 treatises on scientific subjects; — such as the workingman could 
 understand and profit by. 
 
 The society has since greatly extended its operations. 
 Through the efforts of Mr. Knight in conjunction with it, 
 such valuable works as "The Penny Magazine," "The Penny 
 Cyclopedia," and " The Library of Entertaining Knowledge," 
 and many others of an equally useful character, have been 
 given to the world. 
 
 In the useful and industrial, as well as in the fine arts, the 
 improvements and discoveries of the last fifty years well-nigh 
 
ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 419 
 
 surpass those of all preceding centuries combined. From the 
 invention of lucifer matches up to the wonders of steam and 
 the electric telegraph, each year seems to unfold some ever 
 new and marvellous triumph of the genius of man over the 
 world of matter. 
 
 In the year 1811, ^'The Comet/' the first British steamboat, 
 was launched upon the Clyde, and now one-half the navy of 
 Great Britain consists of steam-vessels of war. Steamboats 
 ply by hundreds around the British islands. The voyage to 
 America only occupies ten days, and that to India, which once 
 required three or four months, is now reduced to six weeks. 
 In less than fifty years after ^' The Comet/' "The Great 
 Eastern," 700 feet in length, of 22,000 tons burthen, with a 
 power equal to 11,000 horses, and room for the transportation 
 of 10,000 troops, has made her first passage across the Atlantic 
 in eleven days. 
 
 The first successful experiment of a steam-carriage propelled 
 over an iron railway, was performed in the year 1805, at 
 Merthyr Tydvil, in Wales. On this occasion the locomotive 
 moved at the rate of five miles an hour, drawing ten tons of 
 coal. Several years passed before the construction of a rail- 
 way for travelling On the 15th September, 1830, the Liver- 
 pool and Manchester Railroad was opened Now many thou- 
 sand miles of railway spread over the surface of England, and 
 intersect it like a net-work : first-class carriages give ease to 
 the traveller, whilst with security and comfort he pursues his 
 journey at the rate of less than one and a half penny per mile. 
 
 In triumphs of architecture, especially as exhibited in the 
 construction of great public works, the age has been peculiarly 
 fruitful. Among such works may be mentioned, the famous 
 Thames Tunnel, the Tubular and Suspension Bridges over 
 the Menai Straits, the new Houses of Parliament, and several 
 of the beautiful bridges over the Thames. Of the latter, 
 Waterloo, erected, as the name would intimate, in the year 
 1815, was declared by Can ova to be the finest bridge in 
 Europe, and alone worth the journey from Rome to London 
 to see. 
 
420 llltSTOKi Ui' L.NULAiND. 
 
 A marvel of this age, which has scarcely yet ceased to 
 astonish the world, is the electric telegraph This wonderful 
 application of the power of electro-magnetism was first made 
 in the United States in the year 1832. Its earliest introduc- 
 tion into England was in 1840. Along these wires messages 
 are transmitted, almost with the rapidity of thought, and 
 there is scarcely a village in England where communications 
 may not be forwarded by telegraph. 
 
 In closing this brief review, we would not omit all mention 
 of the Crystal Palace, that remarkable monument of social 
 progress, which has well been named the last wonder of the 
 world. 
 
 To the Prince Consort of England is due the praise of 
 having originated the grand idea of an " Exhibition of the 
 Industry of all Nations." To Mr. (afterwards Sir Joseph) 
 Paxton belongs the honor of having designed the marvellous 
 structure of iron and glass, wherein might be exhibited fair 
 samples of the world's art and industry. This, the largest 
 compact building on the face of the earth, was erected in 
 Hyde Park, London, in less than nine months, out of mate- 
 rials hitherto wholly untried in the great constructions of 
 ancient or modern times. 
 
 *♦ Like Arabia's matchless palace, 
 Child of magic's strong decree, 
 One vast globe of living sapphire, 
 Floor, walls, columns, canopy." 
 
 Nor was the exhibition within unworthy of the beautiful 
 structure There, during the summer of 1851, was repre- 
 sented all that was most excellent in use or beauty of the 
 industry of all lands. Literally one hundred nations from 
 Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and the fifth continent, 
 Australia, united in the celebration of this jubilee of art. 
 From the 1st day of May, when the queen in person opened 
 to her subjects and to the world the portals of this marvellous 
 palace, so great was the throng of admiring visitors, from 
 every rank and class in society, and almost from every quarter 
 
ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 421 
 
 of the globe, that the great exhibition of 1851 was aptiy 
 named " The World's Fair/' To the looker-on in London, it 
 might have seemed as if the world had indeed given itself a 
 holiday, and gone thither to enjoy it. 
 
 When the exhibition was over, many schemes were devised 
 for the future disposition of the building. At length, in May 
 of 1852, the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park was purchased by a 
 private company of English gentleihen. They designed that 
 this noble structure " should rise again, greatly enhanced in 
 grandeur and beauty ) that it should form a palace for the 
 multitude, where, to the inhabitants of London especially, 
 should be alForded, in wholesome country air, amidst the 
 beauties of nature, the elevating treasures of art, and the 
 instructive marvels of science, an accessible and inexpensive 
 substitute for the injurious and debasing amusements of a 
 crowded metropolis." 
 
 The Crystal Palace rising amid the natural beauties of 
 Sydenham", in Kent, within a few miles of London, has amply 
 fulfilled this noble design. The palace and its grounds occupy 
 two hundred acres. To the lover of out-door beauty, parterres 
 filled with the richest and gayest flowers, green terraces, 
 fountains, parks, lakes, and every attraction of landscape- 
 gardening, allure in this fascinating spot. To the lover of art 
 there exists within a world of interest and dehght. And yet 
 so simple is the arrangement of the treasures witKin this 
 mighty edifice, that there is no confusion, — nothing inharmo- 
 nious. In the fine arts and industrial courts and galleries, 
 the visitor, whether a man of science or of literature — poet, 
 painter, sculptor, artisan, or mechanic, may learn, as it were 
 in epitome, of all that his fellow-man has accomplished, almost 
 from the first dawn of civilization down to the present moment. 
 
 In the great nave, sixteen hundred and eight feet in length, 
 is beheld- a glorious vista of fountains and foliage, flowers and 
 statuary. On either side, tiers of pendant baskets filled with 
 graceful vines and richest bloom, perfume the air with deli- 
 cious fragrance. The ear is regaled with the singing of birds, 
 the playing of the grand orgaii, or the music of the orchestra, 
 36 
 
422 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 or, if these are hushed, with the refreshing sound of the 
 fountains. Prominent in the foreground of the picture rises 
 the transparent fountain of glass, which, gUttering with all 
 the colors of the rainbow, and towering from a solid base up 
 to a point, pours its unceasing streams upon the crystal basin 
 below. In this sheet of water float the gigantic leaves of the 
 Victoria Regia. In the basins of other fountains are to be 
 found rare and curious aquatic plants, water-lilies, gold-fish, 
 and in some basins all the curiosities of the aquarium. 
 
 Beds or borders ranging on either side of the nave, in front 
 of the various courts, contain the rich botanical treasures of 
 the palace. In these groves may be found the trees and 
 shrubs and plants of almost every clime. Their waving foli- 
 age forms a pleasing background to the numerous specimens 
 of statuary, which singly or in sculptured groups, adorn the 
 whole extent of this magnificent nave. And over all, height- 
 ening immeasurably the efiect of this scene of beauty, stretches 
 the arched roof, with its delicate aerial tint, spanning the 
 whole as it were with a vault of opal. 
 
 Thus stands the Crystal Palace — an enduring monument 
 of a new and wonderful architecture, a permauent palace of 
 education and art for the use of mankind, and an ample ful- 
 fillment of the noblest designs of its foundation. 
 
 "Forms of beauty, shapes of wonder, 
 Trophies of triumphant toil ; 
 Never Athens, Rome, Palmyra, 
 Gazed on such a costly spoil." 
 
 Questions. — Mention the most prominent features in the history 
 of religion during this period. — Relate the account of the origin of 
 the Bible Society. — When and by whom were Sunday-schools found- 
 ed ? — What is said of the reviews and magazines of this time ? 
 
 By whom was the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 
 established? — What valuable works has it published? — What is re- 
 marked of the improvements and discoveries of this century? — What 
 mention is made of steam-vessels ? — Relate what is' said of railways. 
 — Name some of the architectural triumphs of this age. — Repeat the 
 account given of the electric telegraph.— Repeat the description 
 given of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. 
 
INDIA. 423 
 
 PART XII. 
 
 COLONIAL. 
 A. D. 1801—1860. 
 
 Look to the East, where Ganges' swarthy race 
 Shall shake your mighty empire to its base. 
 Lo ! there Rebellion rears her ghastly head, 
 And glares the Nemesis of native dead." 
 
 CHAPTER LXVm. 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 MA.HRATTA WARS — BURMESE WARS — THE AFGHAN INVASION AND DISASTER. 
 
 At the opening of the nineteenth century we find the 
 extent and importance of the British dependencies so greatly 
 increased, that from this date a separate chapter will be 
 devoted to the colonial history of Great Britain. First in 
 importance is India. 
 
 During the first quarter of the century upon which we 
 have entered, the English were engaged in wars with various 
 robber tribes of Hindostan, and in an important contest with 
 the Burmese empire. Among the native powers which most 
 formidably threatened the Company's territories in India, 
 were the Mahrattas, the Grhoorkas, and the Pindarrees. 
 
 The sway of the Mahrattas extended over a population of 
 forty millions; their frontier on the north reaching to the 
 Indus and the Himmalayas, and on the south nearly to the 
 extremity of the Indian peninsula. They had overthrown the 
 power of the Great Mogul, and spread devastation, tyranny, 
 and anarchy throughout the land. 
 
424 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 It was in wars with the Mahrattas, that Sir Arthur 
 
 1803. . 
 
 Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, laid the 
 foundation of his military fame. In the great battle of 
 Assaye, won in September, 1803, against overwhelming num- 
 bers of the enemy, began the victories of the " Iron Duke" — 
 the hero of Waterloo ; the conqueror of Napoleon. General 
 Lake, another of the East India Company's able soldiers, 
 defeated an army of French and natives in a battle fought 
 within sight of the palaces and minarets of Delhi, and restored 
 the Mohammedan sovereign to his throne. These victories 
 broke the power of this formidable tribe. 
 
 The Company, anxious to pursue a policy of peace and 
 conciliation towards the natives, and thus to avoid the expense 
 of conquest, authorized a "treaty with the Mahrattas, which 
 was far too favorable in its concessions to the conquered 
 enemy. The moral influence of such a treaty over a 
 vain-glorious and treacherous people, who are to be 
 trusted as subjects, allies, and neighbors, only so long as they 
 are kept in awe, was extremely prejudicial to the Company's 
 interests in India. Ten years later the Mahrattas organized 
 a formidable confederacy against British power. 
 
 Meanwhile the English had come into collision with the 
 Ghoorkas, a warlike tribe, inhabiting, the mountain regions 
 of Nepaul, in the northern part of India. They were superior 
 in skill and bravery to any Hindoo people whom the con- 
 querors had yet encountered, and at first their unlooked-for 
 valor made even British troops recoil. In the end they were 
 defeated, and entered into a treaty, by which a large district 
 of country lying east of the Sutlej River was added to the 
 British dominions. 
 
 Scarcely had the Ghoorka war ended, before the English 
 troops were required to take the field against the powerful 
 Mahrattas and their confederates — the active, cruel Pindar- 
 rees. These latter were bands of cavalry gathered from every 
 part of India. They would burst upon the cultivated plains 
 and rich villages of the Company's territory, with all the 
 suddenness and fury of a whirlwind. They came and were 
 
INDIA. 425 
 
 gone, leaving behind them ruin, devastation, and death. 
 Truly of them it might be said : " The land is as the garden 
 of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate wilderness." 
 
 ,c,« Vigorous measures for the destruction of these 
 and cruel banditti were taken by the Indian government. 
 
 ^ * ' They were pursued and surrounded by the troops of 
 the Presidencies ; were cut off from their Mahratta confede- 
 rates; sustained successive defeats, and at length, when 
 Chutoo, the most darmg of the robber chieftains, had fallen 
 by a death more fearful than that upon the battle-field, — a 
 prey to the fierce tiger in the lonely jungle, — he was the last 
 warrior of the Pindarrees. By the year 1818, the power of 
 these marauders was subdued. In those provinces which had 
 been so long devastated by war, rapine, and cruelty, order and 
 tranquillity were established, and the inhabitants had reason 
 to bless the new rule, under which they might sow and reap 
 their fields, without fear of the Pindarree robber or the harsh 
 Mahratta master. 
 
 Between the years 1823-1826, during the administration 
 of Lord Amherst, war was carried on with the Burmese. In 
 the year 1798, ten thousand wretched Burmese had rushed 
 across the frontier, and implored, in British territory, protec- 
 tion from the intolerable oppression of their own governmoit, 
 These poor people declared they would flee to the recesses of 
 the pestilent jungle, and there, amid the haunts of the lion 
 and the tiger, subsist on leaves and reptiles, rather than 
 return to live again under Burmese tyranny. 
 
 The British government, though alarmed at their numbers, 
 could not refuse a shelter to the starving suppliants. AVaste 
 lands were appropriated to their use, and a settlement of forty 
 thousand of these peaceful invaders was made upon them. 
 In the course of subsequent years, the expulsion of the fugi- 
 tives was frequently demanded by the Burmese government, 
 and invariably refused by the English. This refusal, in the 
 year 1823, led to hostilities on the part of the king of Ava, 
 the ruler of the Burmese Empire, which precipitated war. 
 Neither party had sufficiently counted the cost of th's 
 36 ^* 
 
426 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 undertaking. The vain-glorious king of Ava, ever the con- 
 queror in his wars with surrounding states, doubted not of 
 victory over the EngHsh, — and on one occasion even provided 
 golden fetters, with which to bind the Governor-General of 
 India. The Enghsh, on their part, had not fully considered 
 the nature of the contest, — carried on amid swamps and jun- 
 gles and dense forests, under the burning sun of Birmah, and 
 against almost innumerable foes, intrenched behind stockades 
 of the nearly impervious teak-wood. The natives, moreover, 
 were animated by a tradition that their capital would remain 
 invincible till, a "magical vessel should advance against it 
 without oars or sails." 
 1824 ^^ ^^® ^^^ British perseverance ana valor tri- 
 to umphed. The two important towns of Rangoon and 
 Prome were taken, and Sir Archibald Campbell, 
 advancing within forty miles of the capital, gained such deci- 
 sive victories, that the Burmese government were glad to sue 
 for peace. Nor were the conditions of the native prophecy 
 wholly unfulfilled. With the reinforcements sent from Hin- 
 dostan, came the war-steamer Diana, "the magical vessel 
 without oars or sails," which aided greatly to secure victory to 
 the conqueror. By the terms of the treaty, which was con- 
 cluded in February of 1826, the king of Ava paid a million 
 pounds towards the expenses of the war, and ceded to the 
 English the provinces which they had conquered. 
 
 Whilst the hostilities with Birmah were in progress, an 
 event occurred in Hindostan which tended greatly to confirm 
 the power of the British there. This was the capture of 
 Bhurtpore, a fortress north of the river Ganges, near x\gra, 
 considered the most impregnable in India. The nation 
 believed that " it was destined never to be taken, and that 
 against its ramparts the tide of British invasion would beat in 
 vain.'' In the summer of 1823 the rajah of Bhurtpore died, 
 and a usurper claimed the throne. The English espoused 
 the cause of the rightful successor, but the usurping rajah, 
 confiding in the strength of his fortress, and encouraged by 
 tlir hoRt of discontented spirits who flocked to him from all 
 
INDIA. 427 
 
 parts of India, determined to defy the hitherto invincible 
 power of the conquerors. Lord Combermere was sent against 
 Bhurtpore. Mines were run under the strong fortress, and 
 on the 18th of January, 1826, the assault was made. The 
 mines were sprung with fearful effect; and the breaches were 
 stormed and carried with desperate bravery. " The bulwark 
 of Hindostan" was won, " and the halo of invincibility again 
 settled round the brows of the victors.'' During Lord Am- 
 herst's administration, Malacca, Singapore, and other 
 Dutch possessions in India were ceded to the British 
 government by the king of the Netherlands. 
 
 After the fall of Bhurtpore, the Directors of the East India 
 Company became more stringent than ever in requiring of 
 their governors-general the strict pursuance of a pacific policy 
 towards the native states. They deprecated the expense of 
 wars and subsidiary alHances. The army was greatly reduced, 
 and changes made which tended to lessen both its strength 
 and its efficiency. 
 
 Meanwhile danger threatened from the north. Russia, in 
 her march of conquest, had humbled Persia, and now menaced 
 the English possessions in India. The wild mountain regions 
 of Afghanistan presented the only remaining barrier to the 
 aggressions of the czar. 
 
 With the design of establishing in that country a power, 
 which, owing its elevation and support to the English, would 
 remain faithful to them, the Indian government deposed Dost 
 Mohammed, and placed Shah Soojah upon the throne. Dost 
 Mohammed, though an usurper, was an able and efficient 
 prince, and extremely popular with his subjects. Shah 
 Soojah was a weak and cruel tyrant, and as much detested as 
 his rival was beloved. 
 
 To conduct the new Shah to his throne, two large European 
 forces made a long and perilous march through the Bolan 
 and Khyber passes — terrific defiles in the mountains which 
 separate Afghanistan from India. In August of 1839, the 
 English, with their puppet sovereign, arrived at Cabul. Their 
 advance had been victorious. They had captured the far- 
 
428 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 famed fortress of Ghizni, whicli lies to the south-west of 
 Cabul. 
 
 During the approach to Ghizni, an act of barbarity was 
 committed, which displayed the ferocious character of the 
 sovereign whom the British sought to invest with power. 
 The Ghazees, a fanatic sect of Mohammedans, instigated by 
 their priests, had fallen upon the invading army. They were 
 defeated, and the captured, fifty in number, brought into the 
 presence of Shah-Soojah. Bold with the fearlessness of fana- 
 ticism, they reviled the king to his face, and one of them 
 attacked an attendant in the royal presence. Upon this the 
 Shah gave an order for the massacre of them all, and himself 
 witnessed the execution of the dreadful deed. 
 
 " This atrocious massacre/' says Alison, " was never forgotten 
 in Afghanistan; it increased the indisposition of the people to 
 receive the sovereign sought to be forced upon them, and led 
 to an awful retribution, when the Afghans got the upper hand, 
 and the wild cry of the Ghazees was heard in the Coord Cabul 
 pass." 
 
 Dost Mohammed fled to the solitudes of the Hindoo-Koosh. 
 He had exhibited the conduct of a hero. Commanding the 
 timid and the irresolute to leave his ranks, he endeavored to 
 rally the true believers around the standard of their religion. 
 But the coward, traitorous Asiatics were overawed by the 
 English bayonets. They refused his earnest appeal to stand 
 by him in one last charge against the invaders, in which 
 onset he had resolved to die, leaving them, his followers, free 
 to make their own terms with his successful rival. 
 
 The conquerors entered the capital; and, accompanied by a 
 magnificent retinue, Shah-Soojah was reinstated in his strong- 
 guarded palace in the citadel of Bala-Hissar. At the close 
 of the year a portion of the army returned to India, leaving 
 garrisons at Cabul, Ghizni, Candahar, and Jellalabad. 
 
 So prosperous seemed the issue of the expedition, so agree- 
 able the life of the oflScers in Cabul, that they sent for their 
 families to join them, and had not a thought of danger. But 
 perils of the most fearful kind were gathering around them. 
 
INDIA. 429 
 
 The hatred of the Afghans towards the Shah and his English 
 supporters was intense, and during the two following 
 
 to years the troops were constantly engaged in putting 
 
 down disaffection among the native tribes. The 
 
 English were more than a thousand miles away from their 
 
 strongholds in India, and in the midst of a country where 
 
 treachery and enmity surrounded them on every side 
 
 Andyet so great was their confidence in British power and 
 prestige, that it blinded them to their danger. Even when 
 insurrection was rife around them, the general stationed his 
 men in cantonments outside of the walls, instead of concen- 
 trating them in the impregnable fortress of the Bala-Hissar. 
 On the night of the 2d of November, 1841, the storm which 
 had been so long gathering, burst upon the heads of this 
 infatuated garrison. The houses of the English officers were 
 first attacked, many were put to death, the guard of Sepoys, 
 twenty-eight in number, were massacred, and all the horrora 
 of plunder and murder were enacted. The terrified English 
 hoped in vain for aid from Jellalabad and Candahar. At 
 those distant points, General Nott and Sir Robert Sale were 
 holding out against the enemy. At length, after a defence 
 of forty days' duration, the English garrison at Cabul was 
 forced to conclude a treaty, by which they agreed to abandon 
 Afghanistan, and restore Dost Mohammed to the throne. 
 On the 6th of January, the festival of the Epiphany, began 
 that fearful, fatal retreat. Far and wide spread a deep 
 covering of snow; the intense cold defied the warmest 
 clothing; their way lay through the Coord Cabul pass, a 
 narrow, deep defile, five miles in length, and the bed of a 
 mountain torrent, which had twenty-eight times to be crossed 
 in the descent. Hostile Afghans, from the precipices over- 
 head, fired down upon the defenceless fugitives; the edges 
 of the waterfall were so coated with ice, that no secure 
 footing could be found for the beasts of burden. The few 
 who emerged alive from this fearful defile, continued their 
 march over the table-land. Here fresh perils awaited them. 
 Many perished from hunger, cold, and disease, others fell by 
 
430 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the swords of the Afghans, and of the seventeen thousand 
 souls who had started from Cabul, hut one man reached 
 Jellalabad ahve, to tell the mournful tale. Intense was the 
 mingled feeling of horror and grief which thrilled every heart, 
 when the news of this catastrophe spread over India. Fear- 
 ful* was the anxiety for those who were left still exposed in 
 that wild hostile country. There was the little garrison under 
 Sir Robert Sale in the unprotected fortress of Jellalabad. 
 
 At Candahar, in an equally perilous position, was the force 
 under General Nott. And more terrible still, was the dreadful 
 uncertainty as to the fate of Lady Sale and the captive women 
 who had been carried off by the Afghan chiefs, after emerging 
 from the horrors of the frightful Coord Cabul pass. These 
 anxieties were greatly heightened by the effect which the 
 recent disaster had produced on the vain-glorious, treacherous 
 natives of India. The jMohammedans especially, hated those 
 who maintained supremacy in the country which had so long 
 owned the Moslem's sway, and, elated by this check to British 
 power, they conceived the hope of a general rising, in which 
 Hindoo and Moslem should unite to expel the hated conqueror. 
 
 Never had British power in India been so fearfully im- 
 perilled, and never were the energies of the Anglo-Saxon 
 more thoroughly aroused, or more efficiently put forth to meet 
 the danger. First the beleaguered garrisons must be relieved. 
 We cannot dwell upon the incidents which followed.. The 
 noble heroism on the part of the stout-hearted few who held 
 the fortresses against such fierce and fearful numbers, nor the 
 bravery of those who, for their relief, scaled the frightful 
 mountain-passes swarming with foes. At length, after months 
 of agonizing suspense on the one side, and hard conflict on the 
 other, these brave garrisons were relieved, and from Candahar 
 and Jellalabad, the latter station being seventy-eight miles 
 cast of Cabul, English troops moved towards that place. On 
 the 7th September, 1842, the division under General Pollock, 
 from Jellalabad, began their march 
 
 The route lay through the terrible Coord Cabul pass, literally- 
 strewed and lined with the skeletons and bones of the thou- 
 
INDIA. -ii)! 
 
 sands of their fellow-soldiers who had perished in the massacre 
 of the preceding winter. They could not tread but on the 
 bones of their fallen comrades. The entrance of the pass was 
 disputed by the fierce and confident Afghans, but they were 
 driven from their heights by the intrepid onset of the British, 
 and the soldiers entered the fearful defile, their feelings roused 
 to the highest pitch as at every step they encountered the 
 remains of their murdered countrymen. On the 15th they 
 entered Cabul, and from the fortress of the Bala-Hissar soon 
 floated the British flag ; and whilst salutes of artillery thun- 
 dered from the battlements, the bands of the several regi- 
 ments played the national anthem, and cheers of exultation 
 resounded from the whole army. Fifteen thousand troops 
 united at Cabul were enough to strike terror into the Aighans^ 
 and their chiefs hastened to tender their submission. The 
 king whom the British had attempted to place on the throne 
 had been murdered. The Afghans had been punished for 
 their treachery and cruelty, and now it was determined by 
 the government to abandon the country, release Dost Mo- 
 hammed, and leave Afghanistan to the sovereign of its 
 choice. 
 
 One duty more remained before they should abandon this 
 fatal country — the rescue of Lady Sale and the captive women 
 who had been seized during the retreat from Cabul. They 
 had been carried to the mountain regions of Afghanistan, 
 towards the Hindoo Koosh. They were not treated harshly, 
 but suffered great anxiety concerning the husbands, fathers, 
 and brothers, whom they had left in the hostile country. 
 They knew not of the victories there achieved, but when 
 intelligence of these reached their gaolers, the latter prepared 
 to send their captives across the mountains to be sold for 
 slaves in Turkestan. From this horrible fate they were saved 
 by the approach of an English force for their relief 
 
 Questions. — Describe the power of the Mahrattas. — By whom 
 and in what battles were they defeated? — What motives induced the 
 English to treat with them favorably ? — Relate the result of this 
 
432 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 conduct. — Give the account of the Ghoorka war. — Describe the Pin- 
 darrees. — Relate the account of their destruction. — Mention the 
 circumstances which led to the Burmese war. — What difficulties did 
 the English encounter during this contest? — What was the result of 
 it. — Repeat the account given of Bhurtpore, and of its capture. — 
 What policy animated the East India Company ? 
 
 What danger threatened the English possessions in India ? — How 
 did the Indian government seek to avert this danger ? — Relate the 
 account given of the expedition to Cabul. — What was the result of 
 this expedition ? — Describe the i-etreat through the Coord Cabul 
 pass. — Relate the effect of this disaster upon the natives. — Mention 
 the efforts made for the defence and relief of the beleaguered garri- 
 sons. — Describe the passage of General Pollock's army to Cabul. — 
 Relate the account given of Lady Sale and the captives. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIX. 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 WAn WITH SINCE — GWALIOR — SIKH CONFEDERACY — BtTUMESE WAR — AN- 
 NEXATION OP OUDE — THE INDIAN MUTINY. 
 
 The fruitless and fatal invasion of Afghanistan led to an- 
 other war and another conquest. A portion of the English 
 troops on their way to Cabul, marched through Sinde, a rich 
 territory bordering the lower course of the river Indus. The 
 country was governed by a body of nobles called Ameers, who 
 were jealous of the encroachments of British power. When 
 the first English vessel ascended the Indus, they exclaimed : 
 ^' Alas ! Sinde is gone ; the English have seen the river." 
 
 Nor were their fears groundless. The English, covetous 
 of the advantages which the control of this province would 
 afford, forced treaties peculiarly advantageous to themselves, 
 upon the unwilling Ameers. The government of Sinde 
 showed no disposition to observe these treaties, and Sir 
 Charles Napier was sent to reduce them to submission. Two 
 important victories achieved the conquest of the province, 
 and Sinde was annexed to the British dominions. The 
 
INDIA. 483 
 
 Ameers, like all the native rulers of India, had exercised 
 tyranny and cruel oppression towards their subjects. The 
 removal of the military despotism under which they had so 
 long suffered, was a great blessing to the native peasantry. 
 They welcomed English rule, and afterwards proved their 
 appreciation of its value, when, during the terrible rebellion 
 of 1857, they remained faithful to the government. , ^-z/j^ ^^ X/^6 
 
 To the north of Sinde lies a district called the Punjaub, 
 "the country of five rivers," which was held in subjection by 
 a brave, well-organized confederacy, known as the Sikhs. 
 They were originally a religious sect, founded about the end 
 of the fifteenth century, by a Hindoo named Nanik. The 
 word Sikh means disciple. Under a powerful chief, ^-unjeet 
 Singh, surnamed " the lion of the Punjaub/' they had, about 
 the beginning of the present century, grown into a powerful 
 nation. Runjeet Singh maintained friendly relations with 
 the English, but after his death, a decidedly hostile feeling, 
 especially in the army, which numbered seventy-three thou- 
 sand reguLir, well-disciplined soldiers, manifested itself to- 
 wards the government at Calcutta. This was encouraged by 
 the fearful disaster in Afghanistan, and the Governor-General 
 foresaw that war with the Sikhs was an impending evil. 
 
 Another native province, that of Gwalior, in Central Hin- 
 dostan, contained a party adverse to the English. This state 
 lay in a position which would enable it to do much mischief 
 as an enemy, in case of war with the Sikhs. It was there- 
 fore of the first importance, before engaging in hostilities with 
 that powerful confederacy, to secure Gwalior. Under pretext 
 of quelling the disorders and disturbances prevailing there, the 
 English forces, under Sir Hugh Gough and Major General 
 Grey, entered the country, and after two hard-fought battles, 
 won by the British troops, the government of Gwalior solicited 
 peace A treaty was concluded, by the terms of which, those 
 persons who were in the British interest were to be restored 
 to power, and a contingent of seven regiments of infantry and 
 two of cavalry were to be furnished and maintained by the 
 Gwalior government in the service of the East India Company. 
 37 2E 
 
434 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 War in the Puujaub began on the 24th of November, 
 1845. On that day two brigades of Sikh soldiery, beUeving 
 that the English would not dare to face their formidable 
 battaHons, rushed down from Lahore, crossed the river Sutlej, 
 the eastern boundary of their country, and burst upon the 
 Company's territories. The remainder of the Sikh army 
 followed the evil example, and crossed the river on the 12th 
 of the following month. 
 
 The Governor-General, Lord Hardinge, and Sir Hugh 
 Gough marched into the hostile country. At the end of 
 sixty days, after four pitched battles, fought against the 
 bravest of Asia's armies, the power of the English triumphed, 
 and a^ treaty was entered into, by which a large tract of 
 country was surrendered to the British, and one million and 
 a half pounds paid to that government as indemnity for the 
 expenses of the war. 
 
 The martial spirit of the Sikhs was not yet subdued. Two 
 years later there was a general uprising in the Punjaub, to 
 drive the British from the country, and recover its inde- 
 pendence. Again Lord Gough marched thither, and again 
 encountered the desperate valor of the Sikh soldiery. At 
 length, on the 21st of February, 1849, a great victory gained at 
 Goojerat, and the surrender of Mooltan, one of the strongest 
 of the Sikh fortresses, decided the contest. To prevent fur- 
 ther aggression on the part of this warlike nation^ the whole 
 of the Punjaub, the most powerful native kingdom in the 
 land, was incorporated with the British dominions. These 
 once formidable enemies became the most faithful of subjects, 
 and during the terrible revolt of 1857, the recently-conquered 
 Punjaub was, under the wise and Christian rule of Sir John 
 Lawrence, a tower of strength to the British empire in India. 
 1847 "^^ ^^^^ Hardinge, who returned to England before 
 
 and the jfinal conquest of the Sikhs, succeeded Lord Dal- 
 
 * ho.usie. During his administration occurred another 
 
 war with Birmah, brought on by a violation on the part of 
 
 tjie Burmese, of the treaty of 1826. The result of the contest 
 
 obtained for the English the acquisition of the valuable pro- 
 
INDIA. 4o5 
 
 vince of Pegu, as well as the possevssion of Rangoon and other 
 important towns commanding the entrance to the Irrawaddy. 
 These advantages were secured to the English by the treaty 
 made with the king of Birmah in June, 1853. 
 
 By the year 1856 the disorders and misery which prevailed 
 in the native kingdom of Oude, had risen to such a height, 
 that the unhappy people begged to be rescued from the cruel 
 tyranny of their rulers, and placed under British protection. 
 As no redress for these wrongs could be obtained from the 
 king of Oude, his dominions were declared to be henceforth 
 annexed to those of the East India Company. This was done 
 by a simple proclamation of the governor-general, issued on 
 the 14th of February, 1856. 
 
 One hundred years had passed away, since, in January of 
 1757, Clive had laid the foundations of the Anglo-Indian 
 Empire. By the victories of subsequent generals, and the 
 wisdom of subsequent rulers, it had risen to a proud height 
 of prosperity Its territory spread over an area of nearly a 
 million and a half of square miles, " and within that vast 
 country there existed not a chief or sovereign, a state, a 
 people or tribe, which was not subject to the English in 
 dependence or alliance." The population thus controlled is 
 estimated to exceed one hundred and eighty millions of souls. 
 
 Among these were several milHons of fierce, restless Mus- 
 sulmans, who added to their hatred against all unbelievers, a 
 peculiar enmity towards the English conquerors. For half a 
 century the prophecy had been current in the land, that the 
 Christian rule of the " Feringhee," as the natives term the 
 English, was destined by Allah to endure but a hundred 
 years; — and now the centennary of the battle of Plassey drew 
 on. Animated by a superstitious hope, the Mohammedan 
 princes set themselves to accomplish, if possible, the fulfil- 
 ment of this prophecy. 
 
 Long years of prosperity had induced a sense of security 
 and confidence in the government of British India. The 
 European army was small. The battalion of Sepoys raised 
 by Clive in January of 1757, and officered by a handful of 
 
436 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Englishmen, had now grown into the Bengal Native Army, 
 numbering upwards of a hundred and fifty thousand men, 
 and far exceeding the European forces throughout the entire 
 country. The troops were composed of Mussulmans and 
 Hindoos. The former were ripe for revolt, and nothing was 
 needed for their purpose, but to awaken in the Hindoo a 
 spirit which would secure his co-operation. 
 
 This was effected by working upon the peculiar prejudices, 
 both religious and social, of the Sepoy. A new weapon, the 
 Enfield rifle, was about being introduced into the service, and 
 with it a new cartridge. The Mussulmans spread a report 
 that the new-fashioned cartridges were greased with the fat 
 of cows — animals especially sacred in the eyes of the worship- 
 pers of Brahma. To touch or taste the fat of animals incurs 
 defilement tp the Hindoo, and consequent loss of caste, a 
 calamity regarded by the natives of India as the greatest 
 which could befall them. 
 
 England had not stood out as a Christian government 
 before the millions of her Indian subjects. Fearful of of- 
 fending their religious prejudices, she had pandered to those 
 prejudices, and withholding from them the knowledge of true 
 Christianity, had left them to judge of it by their own low 
 ideas of religion. Consequently, the native believed it to be 
 a something which was contagious, and feared that by contact 
 with Christians and Christian substances, he might thereby 
 be entrapped into Christianity. 
 
 The Mussulman instigators of the rebellion therefore as- 
 serted, that it was the design of the English to cause the 
 Sepoys to lose caste by biting the cartridge, and having 
 effected this, to compel them by force to embrace Christianity 
 Fearfully fatal was the success of these appeals to the cre- 
 dulity, ignorance, and religious fanaticism of the Hindoo. 
 During the winter, disaffection in consequence of the intro- 
 duction of the new cartridge was observed in some of the 
 stations in the neiorhborhood of Calcutta. Every 
 
 1867. 
 
 effort was made to allay the unfounded and unwar- 
 rantable fears of the Sepoys. One regiment, which had 
 
INDIA. 437 
 
 openly refused to receive the cartridges, was disbanded, and 
 it was hoped that this warning would intimidate others. 
 
 When an example had thus been made of the mutineers, 
 the manufacture of the obnoxious cartridge was carefully and 
 clearly explained by the commanding officers at the head of 
 the several native regiments, and in the general orders read 
 to each company in the service, the most explicit assurances 
 of protection to religious scruples were given. It was believed 
 that disaffection was at an end, when suddenly, fearfully, like 
 a whirlwind from the south, the storm burst forth in another 
 quarter. Anarchy spread its tempest-wing over the land, and 
 for a time English dominion gave way before it. 
 
 At Delhi, the ancient capital of the Mohammedan power 
 in India, still resided the descendant of the Great Mogul. 
 Deprived of power, but surrounded by pomp and splendor, 
 he was allowed " to play at being a sovereign" by the real 
 masters of the country. On the ruins of the old, a new Delhi 
 had been built by the English. It was strongly fortified by 
 British engineers, contained an arsenal adequate to the supply 
 of the Indian army, and also a vast amount of treasure. In 
 deference to Mussulman feelings, the custody of this import- 
 ant fortress and station was confided to a native garrison, 
 consisting at this time of three regiments of Bengal Sepoys 
 and an artillery company. 
 
 Forty miles north-east of Delhi was the large military 
 cantonment of Meerut. It was at this place that on the 
 evening of Sunday, the 10th of May, began a mutiny, the 
 fearful atrocities of which have thrilled with horror the whole 
 civilized world. It was the uprising of fiends, rather than 
 of beings endued with human feelings and afiections. The 
 annals of revolt, bloodshed, and massacre, can present no 
 parallel to the deeds perpetrated by these Indian Sepoys 
 against defenceless women and children— against friends and 
 benefactors. " Dark as the world's history is with crime and 
 woe, they have made it darker still." 
 
 After finishing the dreadful work of massacre at Meerut, 
 setting fire to the European bungalows, and liberating from 
 37* 
 
438 * HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the gaol twelve hundred prisoners, the mutineers took the 
 road to Delhi. There they were joined by the whole of the 
 native regiments, who added to the atrocity of their conduct 
 by permitting, and in some instances joining in the massacre 
 of their officers. Within the devoted city, every European 
 resident, whom the mutinous rabble could find, was killed. 
 Plunder accompanied murder. The government treasure was 
 seized. The magazine, however, by the heroism of Lieu- 
 tenant Willoughby, who had charge of it, was blown up, and 
 it is estimated that from fifteen hundred to two thousand of 
 the rebels were involved in the destruction. 
 
 The- king of Delhi was proclaimed emperor, and united in 
 this fearful treachery. Helpless women and children fled to 
 him for protection. He delivered them to the mercies of 
 infuriated Sepoys, to endure at their hands tortures and 
 death, and outrages worse than death. 
 
 When the tidings of the outbreak reached the commander- 
 in-chief of the Eengal army, as large a force as could be 
 assembled, was put in motion for Delhi. By the 8th of June, 
 six thousand troops appeared before the town, drove the rebels 
 from their outposts, and only awaited the arrival of a proper 
 siege-battery, to make the assault. By August, the numbers 
 within Delhi amounted to thirty thousand. They had two 
 hundred guns, with abundant stores of arms and ammunition, 
 and were intrenched within barricaded streets and buildings 
 well provided for defence. 
 
 During that long and trying summer the besiegers were 
 constantly engaged in repelling sorties made upon them from 
 the town. By the 6th of September the siege-train and 
 reinforcements arrived at the camp, and active operations 
 for the attack at once commenced. At four o'clock on the 
 morning of the 14th, four columns advanced to the assault. 
 The strong defence of the Cashmere Gate was blown open. 
 Through it, and the breaches simultaneously made by the 
 other columns, the English with a cheer and a rush sprang 
 into the town Every building was fought for, and the 
 storming cf Delhi cost the lives of one-third of the brave 
 
INDIA. 439 
 
 troops engaged in it. By the 20th, the headquarters of the 
 conquerors were established in the ancient palace of the 
 Great Mogul. The traitor king had fled, but he was over- 
 taken six miles from the city by Lieutenant liodson, to whom 
 'he surrendered on promise of his life being spared. He was 
 subsequently tried, and received sentence of transportation. 
 In December of 1858, this last descendant of the once power- 
 ful dynasty of Mohammedan sovereigns was conveyed to a 
 desolate station in Birmah, some three hundred miles inland 
 from Rangoon. 
 
 Whilst the transactions already recorded were taking place 
 at Delhi, the whole of north-western and central India was in 
 revolt. Christian men and women were murdered, tortured, 
 and mutilated, on every road and in every village throughout 
 the land. Pre-eminent in horror where all is horrible, stands 
 forth in this history of crime and blood, the massacre of 
 Cawnpore. 
 
 This station, situated on the Ganges, in the upper 
 province of Bengal, was garrisoned at the time of the 
 outbreak by General Sir Hugh Wheeler, with a very small 
 detachment of Europeans. He had in fact only two hundred 
 and forty men, whilst the mutinous troops amounted to four 
 thousand. The disaffection which had manifested itself for 
 some weeks previous, broke out into open mutiny on the 4th 
 of June. A Mahratta prince of wealth and influence, known 
 as the Nana Sahib, resided at Bithoor, about twelve miles 
 from Cawnpore. To him had been intrusted the charge of 
 the Company's treasure. No sooner had the mutiny begun, 
 than the guard appointed by him for its protection, seized the 
 treasure, and marching to Bithoor, placed themselves under 
 the command of this treacherous rajah. 
 
 Cawnpore being built on a level plain, there was no fort or 
 place of refuge to which the English residents might flee. 
 To supply this pressing want. Sir Hugh Wheeler selected a 
 group of low buildings, fortified them as well as he was able, 
 and surrounded the whole by an intrenchment. Within this 
 he collected all the European population, amounting, at the 
 
440 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 time of tl'ie outbreak, to some eight hundred and seventy 
 persons. 
 
 For twenty-two days this devoted band held out against 
 attacks from every quarter. 2sight and day, twelve pieces of 
 ordnance played upon their exposed defences To add to 
 their calamities, the hospital took fire, from the red-hot shot 
 of the enemy, and forty invahds perished in the flames. The 
 walls of the buildings were battered and riddled with cannon 
 shot J the feeble garrison had been reduced by more than one 
 hundred deaths since they entered the intrenchmentj and yet 
 those coward Sepoys, now numbering twelve thousand men, 
 dared not attack in their position this handful of defenceless 
 Europeans 
 
 ' ' At length, on the 26th of June, Sir Hugh Wheeler, seeing 
 nothing in a further resistance but certain death for the few 
 survivors of his gallant band, surrendered to the Nana Sahib • 
 He did so on a solemn promise from the rajah, ratified by the 
 oath held most sacred among the whole Hindoo race, that the 
 lives of the Europeans and native converts should be spared, 
 and a safe passage furnished them down the Ganges to Alla- 
 habad. On the 27th, the little party entered the boats pro- 
 vided by the Nana Sahib. No sooner was the embarkation 
 complete, than, from guns which had been masked near the 
 ghat, or landing-place, a deadly fire was opened upon the 
 wretched fugitives. Many were shot down in the boats, — 
 others were drowned. Volleys of musketry poured upon 
 them from either bank of the river. The boats were seized 
 and brought back. The men within them were all put to 
 the sword. The helpless women and children were reserved 
 for a fate still more terrible. 
 
 On the 16th July, General Havelock, advancing from 
 Allahabad for the relief of Cawnpore, inflicted a severe defeat 
 upon the rebels. That night the English forces bivouacked 
 before the town. Each heart beat high with hope of the 
 rescue they were to effect on the morrow. When day came, 
 they entered the town. With eager steps they pressed to- 
 wards the prison-house of the captive women and children. 
 
INDIA. 441 
 
 Alas ! they found there nothing that had life ; — nothing but 
 the traces of a fearful savage massacre. A well in which lay 
 festering the mangled bodies of two hundred and eight wives, 
 mothers, and daughters, — a row of little children's shoes, and 
 in them bleeding amputated feet; — the gory and tangled 
 tresses of woman's hair, — these were the sights which met 
 the gaze, and froze with horror the very life-blood of the 
 deliverers of Cawnpore. One being alone survived this mas- 
 sacre, which was ordered by the Nana Sahib, the day on 
 which he heard of Ilavelock's victorious approach. 
 
 One more instance of suffering and heroism, and we will 
 turn from these heart-sickening details of the Indian mutiny. 
 Lucknow was the capital of the recently-annexed kingdom 
 of Oude. There, when rebellion was rife around him, Sir 
 Henry Lawrence gathered the European population within 
 the llesidency The Residency of Lucknow was in itself a 
 small town, containing buildings, courts, walls, and improvised 
 earth-works and defences of various kinds. AVithin this en- 
 closure, a little band of Europeans, their perils increasing and 
 their resources diminishing every hour, repelled for three long 
 months the assaults of the fiend-like enemy, who outnumbered 
 them by thousands. Thus they stood, an isolated stronghold 
 in that surging sea of insurrection, until the hour of relief 
 drew on. The noble Sir Henry Lawrence, whose name is 
 one of the brightest in the annals of Christian heroism, was 
 killed on the second day of the siege, by the bursting of a 
 shell, in the apartment where he was resting after hours of 
 se\^re and exhausting labor. 
 
 To »raise the siege of Lucknow, G-eneral Havelock began 
 his march on the 21st of July, immediately after the capture 
 of Cawnpore. Compared to tfie swarming rebels, for from 
 the province of Oude was drawn the greater proportion of 
 the Bengal Sepoys, the army of Havelock was but a handful. 
 These troops had to fight their way " step by step through a 
 country whose entire population was in arms against them, 
 and whose every town, village, and house even, had been 
 converted into a fortress, only to be reduced by blood and 
 
442 HISTORY OF England. 
 
 toil." Disease, engendered by the pestilent jungle, thinned 
 their ranks. The bridges over the swollen rivers and streams 
 had been destroyed, and on the opposite banks hosts of armed 
 rebels, strongly intrenched, and well supplied with artillery, 
 opposed their progress. 
 
 Within thirty-seven days, Havelock had fought and won 
 ten pitched battles, against overwhelming numbers ; but, to 
 quote the simple statement of one of his officers, *'We found 
 that it was impossible for us to proceed on to Lucknow, on 
 account of our army being so small; for though we are a 
 brave little band, and could easily fight our way thither, yet 
 we could not compel them to raise the siege when we got 
 there, as we should have no men to do it with." 
 
 On the 17tli of September, General Havelock's little army 
 of seven hundred men was reinforced by General Sir James 
 Outram, and the united forces, twenty-five hundred strong, 
 pushed on for the relief of the beleaguered town. On the 
 evening of the 25th, they reached Lucknow, the Residency 
 was relieved, and for a moment the waves of rebellion were 
 parted. But they quickly closed in again. The city was 
 still in the hands of the enemy. Nearly one-third of Have- 
 lock's army had been killed. The rescuers had in their turn 
 become the besieged, and now began a second defence, as 
 full of patient endurance and heroism as the former one had 
 been. 
 
 The second relief of Lucknow was accomplished by Sir 
 Colin Campbell, on the afternoon of the 17 th of November. 
 A few days later, the noble Christian soldier, Sir Henry 
 Havelock, overcome by the severe and protracted exertions 
 of the last few months, closed his victorious career. 
 
 As it was impossible to hold with a small force a city 
 swarming with fifty thousand rebels, the commander-in-chief 
 determined to withdraw every European resident. The women 
 and children, that remnant who had outlived the horrors of 
 two sieges, were sent to Cawnpore, and finally to Calcutta, 
 where early in the following year they were received with 
 feelings of the profoundcst emotion, by the entire city. 
 
INDIA. 443 
 
 Troops under G-eneral Outram were left in a fortified position 
 known as the Alumbagh, about four miles from Lucknow. 
 In March of 1858, Lucknow was finally captured by Sir Colin 
 Campbell, and the supremacy of the English firmly re-estab- 
 lished in Oude. By the summer of that year, the strength 
 of the rebellion in every province had been broken. A 
 writer, alluding to the anniversary of the battle of Plassey, on 
 the 23d of June, 1858, says : " India is ours to-day, — ay, 
 more firmly and more enduringly ours than ever it was since 
 its fetters were forged on the plains of Plassey.'' 
 
 . With the suppression of the mutiny came a great political 
 change — the extinction of the rule of the East India Com- 
 pany By a legislative and royal act passed on the 2d of 
 August, 1858, the government of the English possessions in 
 India was transferred to the crown. 
 
 '' The Company of Merchant Adventurers trading to the 
 East Indies," had founded there a magnificent empire. Wher- 
 ever its rule extended, native anarchy and misery fled before 
 it, and protection for life and property took their place. The 
 East India Company had established railways, roads, canals, 
 telegraphs, colleges, and village schools throughout India. 
 By them not only had the blessings of civilization been con- 
 ferred upon the land, but greater, nobler things had been 
 achieved — triumphs over which both Christianity and hu- 
 manity rejoice. 
 
 Between the years 1831-1835, during the administration 
 of Sir William Bentinck, the horrible crime of Thuggee was 
 detected and prevented. The Thugs were a tribe of heredi- 
 tary thieves and murderers, who, under the protection, as they 
 claimed, and in order to propitiate a heathen goddess, roved 
 through the land to rob and murder the unwary traveller. 
 With a strip of cloth or ai^ unfolded turban they strangled 
 the victim of this horrid sacrifice. So great was their skill 
 and dexterity in eluding detection, that, although hundreds 
 and thousands porished yearly under their hands, none knew 
 where or how the crime had been committed. After more 
 
444 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 than two thousand Thugs had been seized, and executed, or 
 otherwise punished, the confederacy was entirely broken up. 
 
 By the humane efforts of the Company, the crime of in- 
 fanticide had been suppressed. Suttee, or the burning of the 
 widow on the funeral pile of a deceased husband, had been 
 abolished, and the cruel, merciless sacrifices before the car 
 of the demon idol of Juggernaut, had been abandoned. Such 
 blessings bestowed by the East India Company upon its sub- 
 jects, may well constitute her proudest monument as she 
 points to the history of the past. 
 
 Questions. — Relate the circumstances and motives which led to 
 the war with Sinde. — State the result of this war. — Describe the 
 eflfect of the English rule. — Give the history of the Sikh confede- 
 racy. — Relate the circumstances and motives which led to a war 
 with Gwalior. — State the result of this war. — What action precipi- 
 tated war with the Sikhs? — Mention the results of the first cam- 
 paign. — How was war renewed? — State the final result of the con- 
 test, — Relate the brief account of the second Burmese war. 
 
 What circumstances induced the annexation of Oude ? — What was 
 the extent of the English dominion in India? — By what feelings was 
 the Mussulman population animated ? — What was the condition of 
 the European force in India in 1857? — Where did disaffection first 
 manifest itself? — How was it treated? — Describe the position of 
 Delhi. — When and where did the mutiny break out? — Describe the 
 conduct of the mutineers at Delhi. — Describe the siege and capture 
 of that city. — Describe the state of other parts of the country. 
 
 Give the history of the transactions at Cawnpore during June and 
 July, 1857. — Relate the account given of the defence and relief of 
 Lucknow. — What was the position of the English in the summer of 
 1858? — What great political change followed the mutiny? — What 
 benefits were conferred upon India by the rule of the East India 
 Company ? 
 
THE ENGLISH IN CHINA. 445 
 
 /^ 
 
 . CHAPTER LXX. J 
 
 THE ENGLISH IN CHINA. 
 
 / EMBASSIES TO CHINA — COMMERCIAL RELATIONS — WAR OP 1842. 
 
 As early as the year 1792, an attempt was made by Eng- 
 land to induce the Chinese to abandon the exclusive policy 
 which prohibited foreigners access to that empire. 
 
 Lord Macartney was sent with an embassy for that purpose, 
 but was unable to effect any change in the opinions of tho 
 Chinese, who doubtless were aware of the results of British 
 influence in Hindostan, and deprecated its admission into the 
 Celestial Empire. Lord Macartney was forced to leave Pekiu 
 in 1793. 
 
 In 1816, Lord Amherst went to China with the same 
 object in view, but having given offence to the emperor, in 
 the course of his residence there, he failed as signally as Lord 
 Macartney had done. 
 
 The Chinese were willing to carry on commercial trans- 
 actions, but desired their relations with foreigners to be con- 
 fined solely to those of trade. The East India Company, 
 yielding to these views, carried on for many years a profitable 
 commercial intercourse with that country. By caution, con- 
 cessions, and bribes, the servants of the Company either 
 avoided or quickly healed the disputes to which they were 
 occasionally liable from the jealousy this singular people 
 entertain towards foreigners. This policy, however, had 
 unhappily given to the Chinese the impression that the 
 English were merely a money-loving people, and would sub- 
 mit to any indignity, rather than lose the profits arising from 
 their trade with the Celestial Empire. 
 
 In the year 1833 an act was passed in the British parlia- 
 ment, throwing open the China trade to all English merchants. 
 A commissioner was to superintend tbeir commercial interests 
 88 
 
446 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 
 
 in that country. Lord Napier was the first person sent out 
 for that purpose. The Chinese jealousy of foreigners was 
 thoroughly roused by theie proceedings. They refused Lord 
 Napier entrance into Canton, and threatened to stop all 
 trade with the English. Lord Napier ordered two vessels to 
 ascend the river to Whampoa, his residence outside of Canton, 
 for the protection of British merchant vessels there. When 
 the two ships, the "Andromache" and " Imogen e," irfobe- 
 dience to this order, attempted to pass the Bocca Tigris, one 
 of the principal defences on the river below Canton, they 
 received a fire from the Chinese. It inflicted but little 
 injury, and having demolished the enemy's batteries, the 
 two vessels proceeded to Whampoa. The Chinese viceroy 
 then consented to reopen the trade, provided the British 
 commissioner would give up his residence at Whampoa, and 
 retire to Macao. 
 
 During the years 1835-1836, there was Ho hostile colli- 
 sion between the two nations. The English traders during 
 that period, however, were engaged in an unjust and illegal 
 trafiic, which led to the most disastrous results. In defiance 
 of severe imperial edicts, large quantities of opium were 
 smuggled by the English into China. This intoxicating 
 drug, sought with such passionate avidity by the lower classes 
 of the Chinese population, produced the most injurious and 
 demorahzing effects. Rigid edicts issued by the emperor, 
 forbade the importation of an article so hurtful to the health 
 and morals of his subjects. But English traders, because the 
 trafiic in opium was a source of enormous profit, persisted in 
 smuggling this drug into the country ; nor did the British 
 government take any measures to prevent this gross and open 
 violation of Chinese law. In January, 1839, a Chinese man- 
 darin named Lin came to Canton, and at once took vigorous 
 measures for putting a stop to this unlawful trafiic. He 
 demanded that all the opium in the factories should be given 
 up, and a bond entered into by the English merchants, pro- 
 mising to abandon for the future any attempt to bring opium 
 into the country. To enforce his demands, Lin caused all 
 
THE ENGLISH IN CHINA. 447 
 
 the factories containing this obnoxious drug to be blockaded. 
 Thus pressed, the English delivered up the opium, but evaded 
 signing the bond. The feeUngs of both parties, English mer- 
 chants and Chinese officials, had now become greatly exaspe- 
 rated, and various circumstances tended to increase this. 
 
 In August an affray occurred between some ' Chinese vil- 
 lagers and English sailors, in which one of the former was 
 killed The imperial government demanded the surrender 
 of the murderer, which was refused The Chinese authorities 
 then forbade their people to furnish supplies to the British, 
 and moreover began a series of hostile acts which led in the 
 course of a few months to actual war. Ships and land forces 
 were ordered to the Chinese waters. 
 
 .An assault headed by Sir Henry Gough was made 
 on Canton, the protecting forts speedily carried, and 
 the city itself only saved by the submission of the inhabitants. 
 In the north the important towns of Amoy, Chinghae, Ningpo, 
 and the valuable island of Chusan, fell before their victorious 
 arms. The great blow which terminated the war was struck 
 upon the Yang-tse-kiang. This fine river, flowing through the 
 empire from west to east, intersects, at the strongly-fortified 
 town of Chin-Kiang-Foo, the Grand Imperial Canal. This 
 canal, running from north to south, seven hundred miles, 
 connects the capital of the Celestial Empire with the southern 
 provinces The mouths of the Yang-tse-kiang, or Blue Biver, 
 were strongly defended, and batteries containing no less than 
 two hundred and fifty-three guns, frowned down upon the 
 invading force. So satisfied were the Chinese of the strength 
 of these defences, that they not only permitted, but seemed 
 to exult in the close inspection which the British made of 
 them, preparatory to opening the attack. This exultation 
 was changed into astonishment aj^d fear, when, at the end of 
 two days, all their defences were stormed and carried, three 
 hundred and sixty-four pieces of cannon captured, and the 
 ships of the barbarians anchored before the great city of 
 Shanghai. The Chinese government endeavored to stop the 
 progress of the English, by offering to enter into treaty with 
 
448 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 them. But the latter, well aware that this was but an artifice 
 to gain time and renewed strength for further resistance, were 
 not deterred by it from prosecuting their successes. They 
 sailed up the river to Chin-Kiang-Foo. In this city the 
 garrison was mainly composed of Tartars, a far braver race 
 of soldiers than the natives of southern China. Under an 
 intrepid chief, Haeling, they obstinately defended their city. 
 It was attacked by three separate columns of the British 
 at as many different points, and was won, after a hard 
 day's fight, on the 21st July, 1842. This victory, enabhng 
 the British to cut off from the imperial capital, Pekin, all 
 supplies of grain, for which it was dependent on the southern 
 provinces, decided the result of the war. The British fleet 
 advanced up the. river to the large city of Nankin,^ once the 
 great capital of the empire. This city they were preparing to 
 storm, when hostilities were suspended by the intelligence 
 that a treaty of peace was negotiating between the English 
 commissioner, Sir H. Pottinger, and the Chinese government. 
 By this treaty, which was signed on the 29th of August, the 
 Chinese agreed to pay a large sum of money to the British 
 government, to cede the island of Hong-Kong for ever into 
 the hands of the same power, and to open five ports, namely, 
 Canton, Amoy, Shanghai, Foo-Choo, and Ningpo, to English 
 merchants. 
 
 Questions. — When was Lord Macartney sent to China? — What 
 was the object of his mission? — Mention its result. — Give the ac- 
 count of Lord Amherst's mission. — What views were held by the 
 Chinese regarding intercourse with foreigners ? — Describe the policy 
 of the East India Company. — What changes took place in the year 
 1833 ? — Relate the causes of the war with China. — Mention the cir- 
 cumstances which precipitated hostilities. — Describe the victorious 
 career of the British in this war^j— When were hostilities terminated ? 
 — Mention the provisions of the treaty. 
 
AUSTRALIA — NEW ZEALAND — CAPE COLONY. 449 
 
 CHAPTER LXXI. 
 
 AUSTRALIA — NEW ZEALAND — CAPE COLONY. 
 
 The vast island-continent to which Dutch navigators gave 
 the name of New Holland, has received from the English the 
 more appropriate designation of AustraHa. The colonies of 
 New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, occupy the 
 south-eastern part of the island. The Swan River Settlement 
 is in western Australia. " These colonies have an area many 
 times the size of the British Islands." 
 
 When the independence of the United States had deprived 
 England of her American colonies, the proposition was made 
 to establish a penal settlement at Botany Bay, on the eastern 
 coast of Australia, or New Holland, as the country was then 
 called. This colony was founded in the year 1788, not at 
 Botany Bay (although that name was for many years applied 
 to it), but twelve miles distant, on the shores of Sidney Cove. 
 Until the year 1821, this colony, known as New South Wales, 
 was only a penal settlement. By convict pioneers the forests 
 were cleared, roads and bridges constructed, and all the 
 preliminary hard work of colonization effected. 
 
 In the year 1820 free immigration to Australia was en- 
 couraged, and a few years later, colonfsts were pressing 
 towards the interior, and settling down upon fertile lands, in 
 the midst of their fast-multiplying herds and flocks. The 
 twenty-four Merino sheep, purchased by rare favor from the 
 flocks of George III., and introduced into Australia in 1803, 
 had rapidly increased. The wool sent from this colony to the 
 London market, vied with the finest fleeces of Spain and 
 Saxony. 
 
 The province now known as Victoria was founded in 1835, 
 
 on the site of its present capital, Melbourne. By the year 
 
 1851 it had grown in wealth and prosperity, and at that dat« 
 
 was erected into a separate colony. South Australia was first 
 
 38 * 2 F 
 
450 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 settled in the year 1836. This colony, composed of free 
 settlers, found -many difficulties to contend with during its 
 early history. These have been gradually overcome, and 
 now, the rich copper-mines and fine wheat-fields of South 
 Australia bid fair to give it a high rank among the prosperous 
 settlements of this region 
 
 Australia is no longer shunned as the land of the felon. 
 Free and industrious immigrants have opened up its rich 
 resources as a wheat and wool producing country. The 
 forests of New South Wales and Victoria have been converted 
 into corn-fields, and their mountains and valleys afford pas- 
 turage to vast flocks and herds. 
 
 In the year 1851, gold was discovered at Bathurst, in New 
 South Wales, and at Ballarat and Mount Alexander, in the 
 colony of Victoria. For a time all industrial pursuits were 
 abandoned, and one universal mania for gold digging possessed 
 the entire population. About the time of the gold discoveries, 
 England made Van Diemen's Land, now Tasmania, the penal 
 colony. When the fame of the gold-fields was attracting 
 adventurers from every class of society, many of the convicts 
 contrived to escape from Van Diemen's Land, and under the 
 dreaded name of bush-rangers, rendered themselves, by their 
 deeds of murder and robbery, the terror of the country. 
 
 The government of the two gold colonies took active mea- 
 sures to put down these marauders. The constabulary forces 
 were increased, antl their salaries raised. The mihtary were 
 called into requisition, and every effort made to prevent the 
 demoralizing effects of a sudden revolution upon a community 
 hitherto devoted to pastoral pursuits. The success of these 
 measures may be inferred from the report of an American 
 traveller who visited the gold-fields of Ballarat in 1856. He 
 states that the roads, even through unpeopled districts, are 
 rendered safe by a patrol of mounted police. The members 
 of this corps are described as large, fine-looking men, mounted 
 on noble horses, and armed with a carbine and dragoon sword. 
 *'The existence of this force," it is further stated, "has spared 
 Australia the horrors of lynch law ; and prevented a great 
 
AUSTRALIA — NEW ZEALAND — CAPE COLONY. 451 
 
 deal of bloodshed, by allowing no weapons to be carried." 
 Even at the diggings robbery is unknown, " although many 
 diggers keep large quantities of gold in their tents." 
 
 Forty years ago Australia was only known as Botany Bay, 
 the country of the convict and the outcast. Now the island 
 contains several different colonies, and is the home of many 
 thousand British subjects. To these (as to all her depend- 
 encies save India) Grreat Britain has accorded the right of 
 self-government under free representative assemblies, and 
 Australia bids fair to take her place with Europe, Asia, 
 Africa, and America, as the fifth grand political division 
 of the earth. 
 
 New Zealand received its first European settlement from 
 the deserters of whale ships, and a little band of missionaries 
 from Australia. As early as the year 1814, the Rev. Samuel 
 Marsden, the colonial chaplain of New South Wales, estab- 
 lished in these islands a mission station of the English church. 
 This example was followed by the Wesleyans in 1821. The 
 labors of the missionaries have met with a success unparalleled 
 in the history of modern times. New Zealand, where canni- 
 balism existed, and where slavery, polygamy.^ infanticide, and 
 all the abominations of heathenism prevailed, has become, in 
 less than forty years, a civilized and Christian country. 
 
 When the first direct colonization from Great Britain took 
 place in New Zealand, which was not until the end of 1839, 
 the emigrants found no fewer than twelve stations planted in 
 that distant land by the Church Missionary Society. Two 
 years later, many of the native chiefs agreed to acknowledge 
 the supremacy of the English queen; "giving up," as they 
 happily expressed it, "the shadow of the land, but retaining 
 the substance." British sovereignty over the isles of New 
 Zealand was proclaimed by the lieutenant-governor, Capiain 
 Hobson, on the 21st of May, 1840. 
 
 At present, the colonial population is small, but the fine 
 and healthful climate of these islands, and the high-toned 
 moral and social f^haracter of the colonists there, will, in time, 
 
452 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 no doubt render New Zealand one of the most favored of 
 England's colonial dependencies. 
 
 Cape Colony, in South Africa, formerly in possession of 
 the Dutch, was ceded to Great Britain in 1815. The first 
 English settlement established there was made in the year 
 1820, by a body of five thousand Scotch emigrants. The 
 colonies at the Cape have been greatly harassed at difiierent 
 periods, by wars with the fierce Cafiir tribes, and by the 
 disaiFection of the Boors, as the descendants of the old Dutch 
 settlers are called. 
 
 At the close of the last campaign against the Caffirs in 
 1852, these hostile tribes were subdued. By the treaty of 
 peace which followed, the English have gained a defensive 
 frontier, which has never since been disturbed. 
 
 The noble labors of the Scotch missionary and explorer, 
 Dr. Livingstone, and of other men of like-minded beneficence, 
 are fast opening up the commercial and industrial resources 
 of the vast unexplored territory north of this now extended 
 colony. The exertions of the intelligent Christian missionary, 
 at Cape Colony, at Cape Coast Castle, and at Sierra Leone, 
 make these colonies of Glreat Britain centres from which we 
 may hope to see the light of Christianity and civilization 
 spread abroad over the benighted land of Africa. 
 
 Questions. — Give the names of the English colonies in Australia. — 
 Where and with what object was the earliest settlement founded ? — 
 Describe the labors of the early settlers. — Describe the condition 
 of New South Wales after free immigration had taken place. — When 
 and where was Victoria settled? — What of the condition of the 
 colonies at this time? — When and where was gold discovered? — 
 Describe the effect of these discoveries upon the condition of the 
 colonies.— What was the state of things in 1856?— By whom was 
 New Zealand settled ?— Give a sketch of its history.— Relate what is 
 told of the colony of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
CANADA. 453 
 
 CHAPTER LXXII 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 EARLY HISTORY — POLITICAL DISCONTENTS — REBELLION — SUBSEQUENT 
 HISTORY — CONCLUSION. 
 
 The British possessions in America, including New Bruns- 
 wick, Nova Scotia, &c., and thence extending north from the 
 river St. Lawrence and the great lakes to the Arctic Ocean, 
 comprise a vast area of territory. The greater part of it is 
 still the abode of Indian tribes. Here and there among them 
 is an English fort or trading settlement. These settlements, 
 which number about a hundred, in what is called the Hud- 
 son's Bay Territory, are occupied by fur-hunters, or men 
 engaged in trading with the Indians for their valuable com- 
 modities. 
 
 On the banks of the St. Lawrence and the borders of the 
 Great Lakes, lies the large and populous province of Canada. 
 This country, discovered and colonized by the French, came 
 into possession of the British in the year 1763. It had then 
 a population of seventy thousand, nearly all of whom were 
 French 
 
 For many years these people were allowed to retain the 
 customs and laws which they had as colonists of France. 
 In the year 1791 Canada was divided into two provinces ; 
 one remaining almost exclusively French, whilst the other 
 was assigned more particularly to British residents. After 
 the peace of 1815, when emigration from England increased, 
 the French in the lower province became alarmed lest their 
 French customs and laws should be superseded by the influx 
 of English ideas, views, and manners of this new population. 
 • Nor was this new English emigration better received in the 
 upper province. There the old Tory residents wanted to keep 
 the rule in their own hands. The government since 1791 had 
 been administered by a council appointed by the crown, the 
 
454 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 members of which held office for life ; and an assembly elected 
 
 by the inhabitants under certain property qualifications. On 
 
 the increase of emigration the council became jealous of the 
 
 assembly, and these in turn felt overawed by the 
 1835.* . . 
 
 great power of the upper house, and strife ensued. 
 
 In the lower province, the French population, instigated 
 by the radical party in England, demanded political changes 
 which should throw a greater amount of power into the hands 
 of the people. This alteration in the Canadian constitution 
 was refused by the English government, and an insurrection 
 followed. It was suppressed in the lower province, without 
 great loss of life on either side, by the active measures of the 
 governor, in concert with the military. In the upper pro- 
 vince, the English population generally were loyal, but there 
 was a party of radicals there, who, aided by American sympa- 
 thizers, promoted insurrection. The rebels occupied Navy 
 Island in the Niagara River, about two miles above the falls. 
 They were supplied with ammunition and provisions by a 
 little steamer, the "■ Caroline," which plied between this 
 island and the American shore. Colonel McNab, the com- 
 mander of the British militia, gave orders to destroy this 
 vessel. She was consequently boarded by a strong body of 
 militia, who drove away the armed force which guarded her, 
 carried the vessel, and after removing the crew, sent her 
 drifting in flames over the edge of the mighty cataract. 
 
 When the news of these outbreaks reached England, a 
 military force was sent over, and Lord Durham appointed 
 governor of the lower province, with very ample powers for 
 remodelling the government. On arriving in Canada, Lord 
 Durham found a large number of prisoners taken in the late 
 insurrections awaiting trial. Knowing that in the excited 
 Btate of public feeling, no juries fairly summoned could be 
 found to convict them, the governor used his discretionary 
 powers in passing an ordinance, by which the most guilty of 
 the prisoners were to be sent to Bermuda, and there await (he 
 queen's pleasure. Influenced partly by political opposition, 
 the English government refused to sanction this ordinance. 
 
CANADA. 455 
 
 and Lord Durham immediately resigned his oflSee. The 
 Bermuda prisoners returned, and, in the autumn of 
 1838, stirred up another rebellion. The promptness 
 and vigor with which .military force was employed at the 
 outset, entirely put down this insurrection in both provinces 
 in the course of a few weeks. The firmness and moderation 
 with which the insurgents were subsequently treated, did 
 honor to the British government, whilst it evinced a great 
 advance in humanity since the days of the Highland rebel- 
 lions, when streams of blood were poured upon the scaffold. 
 
 Lord Sydenham, the successor of Lord Durham, entered 
 
 into the wise and beneficent plans of his predecessor for the 
 
 government of Canada. The two provinces were united in 
 
 one, and under srood rule and more liberal institutions 
 
 1841. > fo . 
 
 the country has not only remained tranquil, but has 
 exhibited a growth in prosperity almost unparalleled. 
 
 Besides the greater dependencies above enumerated, there 
 are many others. Indeed, the power of G-reat Britain " has," 
 to use the language of an eminent American statesman, 
 " dotted over the surface of the whole globe with her posses- 
 sions and military posts, — whose morning drum-beat, following 
 the sun, and keeping company with the hours, circles the 
 earth with one continuous and unbroken strain of the martial 
 airs of England." 
 
 Questions. -T-Describe the condition of a large portion of British 
 America.— Where is the province of Canada situated? — By whom 
 was it first settled ? — Describe its condition on becoming an English 
 colony.— ^State the origin of political discontents in the two pro- 
 vinces. — Give an account of the insurrections in Canada. — Describe 
 the subsequent condition of Canada. — Repeat the concluding remarks 
 respecting the extent of England's colonial possessiona. 
 
456 
 
 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 r 
 
 Name. 
 
 Surname. 
 
 Began 
 
 to 
 Reign. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Year*. 
 
 Uth Century. 
 
 William I 
 
 William II 
 
 12th Century. 
 
 Henry I 
 
 Stephen 
 
 The Conqueror . . . 
 Rufus 
 
 Beauclerc . . . . . 
 
 1066 
 1087 
 
 1100 
 1135 
 1164 
 1189 
 
 1199 
 1216 
 1272 
 
 1307 
 1327 
 1377 
 
 1399 
 
 1413 
 
 1422 
 
 1461 
 
 1483 - 
 
 1483 
 
 1485 
 
 1509 
 1547 
 1553 
 1658 
 
 •1603 
 1625 
 1649 
 1660* 
 1685 
 1688 
 
 1702 
 1714 
 1727 
 1760 
 
 1820 
 1830 
 1837 
 
 ' 21 
 13 
 
 35 
 19 
 35 
 10 
 
 16 
 56 
 35 
 
 20 
 60 
 22 
 
 U 
 
 9 
 
 39 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 6 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 22 
 24 
 
 9 
 25 
 
 3 
 14 
 
 12 
 13 
 33 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Henry II 
 
 Richard I 
 
 13th Century. 
 
 John 
 
 Henry III ... . 
 
 Plantagenet .... 
 Cceur-de-Lion . . . . 
 
 Lackland 
 
 Edward I 
 
 
 Uth Century. 
 Edward II 
 
 
 Edward III 
 
 
 Richard II 
 
 15th Century. 
 
 Henry IV 
 
 Henry V 
 
 of Bordeaux .... 
 of Lancaster .... 
 
 Henry VI 
 
 
 Edward IV 
 
 Edward V 
 
 of York 
 
 Richard III 
 
 Henry VII 
 
 16th Century. 
 Henry VIII 
 
 of Gloucester .... 
 Tudor 
 
 Edavard VI. . . . 
 
 
 Mary 
 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 
 17 th Century. 
 James I 
 
 Stuart 
 
 Cromwell 
 
 
 
 Charles II 
 
 ....*.... 
 
 
 
 William III 
 
 18th Century. 
 Anne . ... 
 
 of Orange 
 
 George I 
 
 George II 
 
 of Hanover 
 
 George III 
 
 
 19th Century. 
 George IV . . 
 
 
 William IV 
 
 
 Victoria 
 
 Guelph 
 
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