UC-NRLF *B E5& 5^1 mm DENMAN SCHOOL LIBRARY. JViimber Rules jiiid. P^eg-ixlations, 1. Library Books will be distributed only on Friday afternoon of each week. 2. No pupil will receive any book from the Library un- less she is entitled to a weekly "Card of Merit," or receives a recommendation from her teacher. 3. No pupil will be allowed to draw more than one book from the Library at one time, nor will she be allowed to retain it more than two weeks, or loan it to any person out of her own house. 4. Any person losing or destroying a Library, book shall pay the cost of such book ; and any person injuring a book by marking, tearing, or unnecessarily soiling it, shall be liable to a fine not less than ten cents, or more than the cost of the book, to be determined by the Librarian. 5. The books, for the pupils of each class, must be se- lected by the teacher of the class from the catalogue, and the list must be sent to the Librarian before 1P.M. Friday of each week. P ' LIBRARY OF THF. University of California. Received ;^!^ , iSg n . Accession No. (^ yc^ 9 K • Cla^s No, /TC \t 7- ■-;. ..'y> Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/firstlessonsincoOOhartrich FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. JOHN S. HART, LL.D., PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY. PHILADELPHIA: ELDREDGE & BROTHER, No 17 North Seventh Street. 1874. A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, BY JOHN S. HART, LL.D. Erst Lessons in Composition. Composition and Khetoric. A Short Course in Literature. And for Colleges and Higher Institutions of Learning: A Manual of English Literature. A Manual of American Literature. n^^f" ^ Wintered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by ELDREDGE & BROTHER, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. ^ Sf ^ '^^ — ^^<^ Or^A J. FAGAN & SON, ^.^S^. ^^"^^^ ELECTROTYPEBS, PHILAD'A. ^^^^^^ ^^ vn ^^ CAXTON PRESS OF SHERMAN k 00. Preface. 'VTOTHING in school is usually so poorly taught as Composi- -^^ tion. This is the uniform testimony of those conversant with the subject. Yet it would be difficult to name a branch that equals it in practical value. The ability to express one's knowl- edge readily and clearly, which is only another name for skill in Composition, both helps in acquiring knowledge, and multiplies almost indefinitely the value of it when acquired. The scholar who has this skill can thereby learn faster every other branch of study, and at the same time can turn every other branch to greater account. Why should a part of education of such pri- mary importance be so generally neglected ? Is there any inher- ent difficulty in teaching Composition, which can justify this neglect ? It is my assured conviction, on the contrary, that there is no branch which can be taught with greater ease, or with more entire certainty of success. The great mistake in the matter is that the study is not begun soon enough. Teachers wait till a scholar is twelve or fourteen years old, and then, all at once, without any previous training, tell him to write a Composition. They might as well tell him to make a steam-engine. Exercises in Composition should begin as soon as a child begins to read and write, and they should at first be of the simplest possible character, such as any child can write who can write his own name. The exercise, instead of being attended to once a month, IV PREFACE. or once a quarter, should be attended to daily. It should be put on the same footing as reading and spelling. It should begin long before the study of Grammar, and should continue year after year as a part of the daily routine in school, until the study is finally merged in that of Rhetoric. A teacher who will per- sistently give his class a course of exercises of this kind, gradu- ating -the exercises to the growing capacity of the scholars, will find no more difficulty in teaching Composition than a parent finds in teaching his children to walk. Scholars by such a course of ekfcxcises acquire insensibly and almost without conscious effort the ability to express their ideas with clearness, force, and elegance, and this ability, as before remarked, gives increased value to every other acquisition. The present work is a book of exercises, rather than a text- book. These exercises, however, are throughout based upon a scheme of thought, a text, so to speak, which was in the author's mind, and by which the scholar is led on systematically, and in due logical order, from the simplest and most elementary forms of expression to those which are complex and ornamental. The exercises thus lead by natural and easy steps to the study of Grammar and Rhetoric, and are believed to be the best possible introduction to those important branches. The scholar who has been trained to write with grammatical and rhetorical correct- ness will find no difficulty in studying the theory of Grammar and Rhetoric; for here, as everywhere in the educational pro- cess, PRACTICE BEFORE THEORY is the dictate equally of common sense and of sound philosophy, J. S. H, State Normal School, Trento7i, N. J., Dec, 1870 1 PART I. ON WORDS. PAGE INTRODUCTION, 9 CHAPTER I. — Simple Words. * Section 1. Nouns, .......... 12 Section 2. Adjectives, ......... 14 Section 3. Verbs, .......... 16 Section 4. Adverbs, . . . . . . . . .17 CHAPTER II. — Derivative Words. Section 1. Nouns, .......... 19 Section 2. Adjectives, . . . . . . . . .24 Section 3. Verbs, .......... 30 Section 4. Adverbs, ......... 31 Part II. SENTENCE-MAKING. CHAPTER I. — Siraple Sentences Section 1. The Simplest Form of the Sentence, Section 2. The Parts of a Sentence, .... Pronouns, ...... Section 3. Adjuncts, ...... 1. Adjuncts to the Subject and the Object, Form 1. Adjuncts formed by Noun in Apposition, Form 2. Adjuncts formed by Noun in Possessive, Form 3. Case 1. Adjuncts formed by Adjective, Case 2. Adjuncts formed by Adjective-word, Form 4. Adjuncts formed by Preposition-phrase, 1* 33 35 38 39 40 40 41 43 44 4d Vi CONTENTS. PAGE 2. Adjuncts to the Predicate, . . . . . , .46 Form 1. Adjuncts formed by Adverb, ..... 46 Form 2. Adjuncts formed by Preposition-phrase, . . .48 Review Exercises, ......... 49 Compositions, .......... 54 CHAPTER II. — Complex Sentences. Section 1. Connective Sentences, ....... 56 Compositions, ......... 60 Section 2. Antithetical Sentences, ....... 61 Compositions, ......... 63 Section 3. Inferential Sentences, . . ..... 63 Compositions, ......... 65 Section 4. Dependent Sentences, ... .... 65 Compositions, . . . . . . . . .67 Section 5. Relative Sentences, . . . . . . .67 Compositions, ......... 68 PART III. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. CHAPTER I. — Change of Arrangement. Section 1. Prose Changed, . Compositions, Section 2. Poetry Changed, 70 70 CHAPTER II. — Change of Structure. Section 1. Subject, Object, or Predicate Changed, Compositions, .... Section 2. Change from Active to Passive, etc., Compositions, . Section 3. Change of Participial Constructions, Compositions, .... Section 4. Change of Person, . Compositions, .... Section 5. Miscellaneous Changes, . Compositions, .... Section 6. Synonyms, .... Compositions, . . Section 7. Copiousness, .... Compositions, .... 7^ 74 74 76 76 77 77 78 78 80 80 86 87 88 CONTENTS. VU PART IV. FIGURATIVE EXPRESSION. CHAPTER I. — Simile. fAOS Compositions, ........ .91 CHAPTER II. — Metaphor. Ciompositions, ........•• 94 CHAPTER III. — Metonymy. Compositions, «.......«. 96 CHAPTER IV. — Synecdoche. Compositions, . . . . . . . . . .98 CHAPTER V. — Interrogation. Compositions, . . ^ ...... . 100 CHAPTER VI. — Personification. Compositions, .......••• 102 Miscellaneous Subjects for Composition, • . 102 PART V. STYLE, or The Best Mode of Expression. I. Clearness, .......... 107 II. Emphasis, .......... 114 III. Unity, 116 IV. Strength, xl9 Part VI. LETTER-W^RlTlNG. ' I. The Heading, . . . 123 II. The Address . . 126 III. The Subscription, 126 IV. The Superscription, 127 win COI^TENTS. APPENDIX. PUNCTUATION. SECTION I. —The Comma. Rules and Exercises, ........ 132 SECTION II.— The Semicolon. Bules and Exercises, ......... 143 SECTION III.— The Colon. Rules and Exercises, . ... • . . . . 146 SECTION IV. — The Period. Rules and Exercises, ......... 149 SECTION V. —The Interrogation Point. Rules and Exercises, . . . . . . . . .151 SECTION VI. — The Exclamation Point. Rules and Exercises, ......... 151 SECTION VII.— The Dash. Rules and Exercises, . . . . . ... . • 153 SECTION VIII.— The Parenthesis. Rules, . 156 SECTION IX.— Brackets.. Rules and Exercises, . . . . . . . . .157 SECTION X. — Quotation Marks. Rules and Exercises, . . . . . . . . .158 SECTION XL — Apostrophe, Hyphen, etc. Rules and Explanations, . . . * . . . . • . IGO SECTION XII.— Capitals. Rules and Explanations, ........ 162 SECTION XIII. Proof-Reading, ........•• 166 Introduction. To THE Teacher. — In order to compose well, one needs to have, first of all, a knowledge of things. The knowledge of things, however, is not to be gained by the study of composition, but by general study and reading, and by the experience of life. Supposing a pupil to have gained some knowledge of things, he needs, in order to compose well, a knowledge — 1. Of words, which are the representatives of things. 2. Of the modes of connecting words into sentences for the expression of thought. 3. Of the modes of changing the form of a sentencQ, so as to give a variety of expression for the same thought. 4. Of the modes of embellishing a thought by means of figures. 5. Of style, or the rules to be observed in the formation <^f sentences, in order that the thought may be expressed in the manner most desirable. 6. Some directions will be given also for writing Letters, a kind of composition which almost every one is called upon to practice. The present work, therefore, is divided into six parts, as follows : Part I. Words and Word-Making. Part II. Sentence-Making. Part III. Variety of Expression. Part IV. Figurative Expression. Part V. Style, or the Best Mode of Expression. Part VI. Letter- Writing. The exercises in Part I. should be studied by children as soon as they can read and write fluently. They should go through this, and also through Part 11. , before taking up th-e subject of 9 10 INTRODUCTION. Grammar. These two parts form, indeed, an excellent prepara- tion for that study. Parts III., IV., v., and VI. may be studied to best advantage in connection with the formal study of Grammar. The exer- cises in this part of the book may be continued, indeed, up to the point where the scholar is ready to pass from the study of Grammar to that of Khetoric. It is not intended, therefore, that the book should be taken up and made a main study for a few months, and then be dropped. The best mode of using it is to assign a small portion of it daily as an exercise in connection with other studies, thus carrying it on through several years, from the time when a scholar begins to read and write to the time when he has finished Grammar, Geography, Arithmetic, and the other branches which usually go with them. The study of Composition, in other words, is not to be counted as a link in a chain, but a strand in a cord ; it should go on continuously through the whole period of childhood and youth. Skill in the art of expressing knowledge should ever go hand in hand with the acquisition of knowledge. Part L O N Wo RDS. To THE Teacher. — The object of the exercises in Part I. is twofold. 1. So much of the common grammatical classification of words is taught as to enable the scholar, without reference to any other book, to understand and apply the necessary rules for forming sen- tences. In teaching composition, it saves a great deal of circum- locution, and it makes the instruction more precise and thorough, for the scholar to know familiarly what is meant by the terms Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, and Adverb. There are some preliminary exercises, therefore, for teaching this part of the classification and uses of words. 2. Other exercises follow, the object of which is to lead the pupil by easy and gradual steps to notice both how words are formed, and how changes of form afiect the meaning. This study of verbal formation creates a habit of observation and of attention to the subject. Under the influence of this habit the scholar becomes almost unconsciously more accurate and intelligent in the use of words, and gradually acquires a larger stock of words for the expression of thought. The study promotes also a general habit of accuracy, and of logical analogy, in the use of language, and this in turn has a marked and most beneficial influence upon every other study. CHAPTER I. Simple Words. SECTION L — Nouns. Direction. — The scholar will write answers to the following questions, numbering each answer to correspond to the number of the question. 1. What is your own name? 2. Write the names of five persons that you are ac- quainted with. 3. Write the names of five persons that you are not acquainted with, but have heard of. 4. Write the names of five persons that you have read about in history, or in story books. 5. Write the names of five persons that you have read about in the Bible. Note. — ^These words which you have been writing are called Nouns, The name of any person is called a Noun. 1. What is the name of the town or city that you live in? 2. Write the names of five other places that you have seen. 12 ON WORDS. 13 3. Write the names of five places that you have heard vf, but have not seen. 4. Write the names of five places that you have read about in Geography or History. 5. Write the names of five places that you have read about in the Bible. Note. — These words which you have now been writing are also called Nouns. The name of anyplace is called a Noun. 1. What is the name of that part of your body with which you hear ? 2. Write the names of five other parts of your body. , 3. What is the name of that part of the house which is made to let in light? 4. Write the names of five other things that you can see about the house. 5. Write the names of five other things that you can- not see, but can think of. Note. — These words which you have been writing are also called Nouns, The name of any thing is called a Noun. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. Example. — In going from Philadelphia to Bristol I noun noun noun noun Baw James in the car with a basket of peaches in his noun hands. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and mark all the Nouns, as in the example. 1. Jane went to school with a satchel full of books. 2. Thomas lives in Harrisburg in a large house. 3. Mr. Johnson, the farmer, brings apples to market in a wagon drawn by two horses. 14 FIEST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Note. — You may know that a word is a Noun if it makes sense when you put a, or an^ or the before it, or when you put before it such words as good^ bad, great, small, etc. Direction. — Write the following sentences, and mark each of the Nouns. 1. The book had good covers, but was printed on bad paper. 2. The boy had .a knife with a small blade. 3. The air of the room is of a bad quality. 4. The appearance of weeds in a garden is a bad sign. 5. Temperance and industry promote health. Example. — The orange is round. What are some of the other words that would be suit- able to go with round ? Ans, Apple, ball, sun, moon, cherry, eye, globe, marble, pea. Note. — These words are all Nouns. Direction. — Write in the same way five or more Nouns which would do to go with each of the following words : 1. Slanting. 2. Straight. 3. Crooked. 4. Square. 5. Hard. 6. Soft. 7. Juicy. 8. Dry. 9. Moist. 10. Cold. 11. Hot. 12. Warm. 13. Tough. 14. Brittle. 15. Black. 16. White. 17. Green. 18. Noisy. 19. Fast. 20. Slow. 21. Short. SECTION II.— Adjectives. Example. — I have a sweet apple. What word here goes with apple, describing it, and telling what kind of an apple it is ? Ans. Sweet. ON WORDS. 15 What are some of the other words which can, in the same manner, be put before apple, describing it, or tell- ing what kind of an apple it is ? Am. Sour, red, green, yellow, hard, soft, juicy, mellow, ripe, round, large, small. [N'oTE. These words which can thus be added to nouns, describ- ing the things named, are called Adjectives. An Adjective is an added word. Direction. — Write five words which can be used in this way, describing each of the following objects. 10. Rose. 11. Dog. 12. Cat. 13. Horse. 14. Cow. 15. Garden. 16. House. 17. Book. 18. Paper. Note 1. — The words which you have been writing are Adjec- tives. They qualify or describe the things named. An Adjective is a word added to a Noun to qualify or describe what is named. Note 2. — The Adjective does not always stand immediately before the noun which it qualifies or describes. Thus, we may say, The sweet apple, or, The apple is sweet. In either case, the word " sweet" qualifies or describes "apple." 1. Stone. 2. Ice. 3. Water. 4. Glass. 5. Ink. 6. Snow. 7. Fire. 8. Sun. 9. Moon. 19. Slate. 20. Stove. 21. Boy, 22. Girl. 23. Gold. 24. Silver. 25. Iron. 26. Wood. 27. Coal. noun adjective Examples. — The boy is studious. noun adjective The moon will be full. adjective noun A wild horse. Direction. — Write the following sentences, marking the Ad- jectives and the Nouns, as in the examples, and connecting by a curved line each Adjective with the Noun which it qualifies or describes. 16 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 1. The sum is not difficult. 2. The train went to New York at a rapid rate. 3. The flowers in spring are considered beautiful. 4. You have made the fire hot. 5. His new slate is broken into many small pieces. 6. A merry heart maketh a glad countenance. 7. The old window is so dirty that you cannot see the beautiful new houses on the opposite side of the street. SECTION III. — Verbs. Example. — •" The boy plays. What are some of the other things which we can say that the boy does, just as we say, he plays? Arts, Writes, reads, walks, runs, sits, sleeps, talks, eats, drinks, laughs, swims, skates, fishes. Note. — The words in the foregoing answer are called Verbs. A word which tells thus what any one does is called a Verb. Direction. — Write in the same way two or more words show- ing what each of the following things commonly does. 1. Horse. 6. Gardener. 2. Dog. 7. River. 3. Bird. 8. Sun. 4. Bee. 9. Smoke. 5. Gat. 10. Fire. Note. — These words which you have been writing are Verbs, A word which tells you what some one does is called a Verb. To THE Teacher. — This is not intended as a strict definition of the Verb, but it is sufficiently accurate for the purposes for which it is here used, and it will not mislead the beginner. ON WORDS. 17 Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and mark the Verbs in each. 1. The stars shine in the sky. 2. The boy goes to school. 3. The warm sun melts the snow. 4. The grass in the meadow grows finely. 5. The girl looks like her mother. 6. The teacher commended him for his studiousness. 7. The scholars love their teacher. 8. Temperance promotes health. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, putting into each blank some Verb which will make sense. 1 . The boy on a horse. 2. The girl to me. ' ^ 3. The clouds over the earth. 4. The man his dinner. 6. The scholars to school early. 6. John a loud noise. 7. They him in the field. 8. Cows in the meadow. SECTION IV.— Adverbs. Example. — The boy walks rapidly. What are some of the other ways in which a boy can walk? — Ans, Slowly, lightly, heavily, easily, noisily, carefully, carelessly. Note. — These words, which tell how one does a thing, are called Adverbs, They are called Adverbs because they are usu- ally added or joined to Verbs. 2* B 18 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Direction. — Write five words ending in ly, suitable to go with each of the following verbs, and showing different ways in which each of the actions here named may be done. 1. Writes. 6. Talks. 2. Reads. 7. Laughs. 3. Studies. 8. Sings. 4. Eats. 9. Plays. 5. Sleeps. 10. Works. Note. — These words which you have been writing are called Adverbs. Most Adverbs end in ly, and are used to tell how any one does a thing. CHAPTER II. Derivative Words. Example. ■ ness. SECTION L — Nouns. - From round we form the word round- Direction. — Write the words ending in ness which are formed from the following : 1. Glad. 2. Small. 3. Good. 4. Bad. 5. Sound. 6. Rotten. 7. Sour. 8. Sweet. 9. Soft. 10. Hard. 11. Red. 12. Green. 13. White. 14. Black. 15. Dull. Examples. — Swift, swiftness; happy, happiness. Direction. — Write in the same way ten similar pairs of words, that you can think of, or can find in the dictionary. Note. — Sometimes, when a word is formed by adding ness to another word, the spelling is changed a little ; as, happy , happi- ness (not happyness). In forming these words in ness, you must be careful to get the spelling right. 20 FIRST LESSONS 11^ COMPOSITION. Direction. — Copy the following expressions, filling up the blank in each with some proper word ending in ness. 1. The of paper. 2. The of the night. 3. The of the air. 4. The of the board, 5. The of the girl. 6. The of the globe. 7. The of the journey. 8. The of the man. 9. The of the room. 10. The of the lion. Example. — Sourness; a state of being sour, acidity. Note. — The letters ness added to a word mean " a state of being." Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words, giving for the first meaning that which is formed by using the words " a state of being," and for the second meaning that which seems plainest to you of those found in the dictionary. 1. Blackness. 6. Quickness. 2. Smoothness. 7. Heaviness. 3. Smallness. 8. Truthfulness. 4. Roughness. 9. Sauciness. 5. Toughness. 10. Mirthfulness. Examples. — From build we form the word builder. From create we form the word creator. Direction. — Write the words ending in er, or or, which are formed from the following: ON WORDS. 21 1. Bake. 6. Pretend. 2. Visit. 7. Betray. 3. Write. " 8. Defend. 4. Act. 9. Pursue. 5. Uphold. 10. Besiege. Note. — Sometimes, in forming words of this kind, the spell- ing is changed a little. You must be careful to look in the dic- tionary to see how the word is spelled, and also whether it adds Examples. — Believe, believer ; run, runner ; accept, acceptor. Direction. — Write ten similar pairs of words, that you can think of, or can find in the dictionary. Example. — Actor; one who acts, a doer. Note. — The letters er or or added to a verb, generally mean ** one who." Direction. — "Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words, giving for the first meaning that which is formed by using the words " one who,'' and giving for the second meaning that which seems plainest to you of those found in the dictionary. 1. Writer. 6. Creator. 2. Driver. 7. Robber. 3. Disturber. 8. Murderer. 4. Hater. 9. Transgressor. 5. Fighter. 10. Worker. Examples. — From true we form the word truth; from strong, strength, Note. — In forming words by adding th, the spelling of the original word is often changed, as strong j strength (not strength). 22 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Direction. — Write the words ending in th formed from the following. (Be careful about the spelling.) 1. Long. 4. Young. 2. Wide. 5. Hale. 3. Slow. 6. Broad. Examples. — Strength; a state of being strong, power. Truth ; a state of being true, veracity. Note. — The letters th added to a word mean "a state of being." Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words, giving for the first meaning that which is formed by using the words " a state of being," and giving for the second meaning that which seems plainest of those found in the dictionary. 1. Dearth. 4. Width. 2. Depth. 5. Warmth. 3. Health. 6. Drouth. Examples. — From rare we form rarity ; from jynrey purity ; from able, ability. Note. — In forming words by adding ity^ the spelling of the original word is often changed, as able, ability (not ableity). Direction. — Write the words ending in ity formed from the following. (Be careful of the spelling.) 1. Noble. 6. Probable. 11. Flexible. 2. Puerile. 7. Equal. 12. Secure. 3. Divine. 8. Intrepid. 13. Vain. 4. Mature. 9. Valid. 14. Infirm. 5. Durable. 10. Visible. 15. Sterile. ON WORDS. 23 Example. — Maturity; a state of being mature, ripe- ness. Note. — The letters ity added to a word mean " a state of being." Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words, giving for the first meaning that which is formed by using the words " a state of being," and giving for the second meaning that which seems plainest of those found in the dictionary. 1. Stability. 6. Regularity. 2. Austerity. 7. Angularity. 3. Gravity. 8. Insanity. 4. Morality. 9. Rapidity. 5. Acidity. 10. Vanity. Examples. — From inspect we form inspection ; from impress, impression ; from act, action. Direction. — Write the words ending in ion formed from the following : 1. Agitate. 6. Infect. 2. Violate. 7. Indicate. 3. Vindicate. 8. Subtract. 4. Institute. 9. Operate. 5. Intersect. 10. Ventilate. Example. — Completion; the act of completing, fin- ishing. Note. — The letters ion added to a word usually mean " the act of." Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words, giving for the first meaning that which is formed by using the words '' the act of," and giving for the second meaning that which seems plainest of those found in the dic- tionary. 24 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 1. Alienation. 6. Numeration. 2. Adoption. 7. Vegetation. 3. Vibration. 8. Veneration. 4. Indication. 9. Supplication. 5. Devotion. 10. Agitation. SECTION II.— Adjectives. Examples. — From play we form the word playful; from beauty, beautiful; from awe, awful. Direction. — Write the words ending inful, formed from the following. (Be careful about the spelling.) 1. Hurt. 6. Cheer. 2. Health. 7. Fear. 3. Plenty. 8. Woe. 4. Duty. 9. Law. 5. Hope. 10. Mercy. Example. — Playful; full of play, sportive. Note. — The letters /w^ added to a word mean " full of." Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words, giving for the first meaning the one formed by using the words '' full of/' and giving for the second meaning that which seems plainest of those found in the dic- tionary. 1. Truthful. 6. Peaceful. 2. Scornful. 7. Hateful. 3. Harmful. 8. Revengeful. 4. Sorrowful. 9. Wrathful. 5. Tuneful. 10. Useful. ON WORDS. 25 Examples. — Bounty^ bountiful ; art, artful. DiitECTiOK — Write ten similar pairs of words, whicli you can think of, or can find in the dictionary, and not using any of those already given. Example. — From sleep we form the word sleepless. Direction. — Write the words ending in less formed from the following. (Be careful about the spelling when the original word ends in y.) 1. Aim. 6. Mother. 2. Fear. 7. Point. 3. Leaf. 8. Pity. 4. Speech. 9. Sin. 5. Friend. 10. Mercy. Example. — Sightless; without sight^ blind. Note. — The letters less added to a noun mean " without." Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words : 1. Fruitless. 6. Breathless. 2. Faultless. 7. Graceless. 3. Careless. 8. Godless. 4. Fatherless. 9. Groundless. 5. Bottomless. 10. Noiseless. Example. — Doubt, doubtless. Direction. — Write ten similar pairs of words which you can think of, or can find in the dictionary, and not using any of those already given. 26 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Example. — From beast we form the word beastly. Direction. — Write the words ending in ly formed from the following : 1. Brother. 6. Woman. 2. Sister. 7. Earth. 3. King. 8. Heaven. 4. Queen. 9. Month. 5. Man. 10. Body. Example. — Lordly ; like a lord, noble. Note. — The letters ly added to a noun mean " like." Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words : 1. Motherly. 7. Knightly. 2. Fatherly. 8. Scholarly. 3. Princely. 9. Maidenly. 4. Priestly. 10. Matronly. 5. Courtly. 11. Masterly. 6. Fleshly. 12. Saintly. Examples. — From rain we form the word rainy ; from sauce, saucy ; from fog, foggy* Direction. — Write the words ending in y formed from the following. (Be careful about the spelling.) 1. Brine. 6. Mud. 2. Fish. 7. Grass. 3. Flesh. 8. Water. 4. Pebble. 9. Ink. 6. Bone. 10. Arrow. ON WORDS. 27 Example. — Bloody; full of blood, having a cruel disposition. Note. — The letter y added to a noun means "full of." Direction. — Write in the same way the meanings of each of the following words : 1. Fatty. 6. Balmy. 2. Eusty. 7. Billowy. 3. Lucky. 8. Frothy. 4. Chalky. 9. Flinty. 5. Pitchy. 10. Roomy. Examples. — Film, filmy ; rope, ropy. Direction. — Write ten similar pairs of words, that you can think of, or can find in the dictionary, and not using any of those already given. Examples. — From pay we form the word payable; from pity, pitiable. Direction. — Write the words ending in hie formed from the following. (Be careful about the spelling.) 1. Account. 6. Convert. 2. Admire. . 7. Tax. 3. Attain. 8. Adore. 4. Service. 9. Conform. 5. Credit. 10. Change. EXAMPLE. — Variable; that can be varied, changeable. Note. — The letters ble added to a word mean " that can be." Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words : 28 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 1. Excusable. 6. Blamable. 2. Lamentable. 7. Commendable. 3. Valuable. 8. Conceivable. 4. Movable. 9. Allowable. 5. Debatable. 10. Consolable. Examples. — Advise, advisable ; assail, assailable. Direction. — Write ten similar pairs of words, not using any of those already given. Examples. — From ape we form apish; from wag^ waggish ; from joolj foolish. Direction. — Write the words ending in ish, formed from the following. (Be careful. of the spelling.) 1. Boy. 6. Wag. 2. Girl. 7. Self. 5. Pet. 8. Jew. 4. Fever. 9. Turk. 5. Wasp. 10. Eogue. Example. — Childish ; like a child, puerile. Note. — The letters i%h added to a noun mean " like." Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words : 1. Foppish. 6. Wolfish. 2. Clow^nish. * 7. Babyish. 3. Brutish. 8. Apish. 4. Mannish. 9. Swinish, 5. Womanish. 10. Mulish. ON WORDS. 29 Example. — Churl, churlish. Direction. — Write ten similar pairs of words, not using any of those already given. Example. — From hero we form heroic. Direction. — Write the words ending in ^c, formed from the following : 1. Alcohol. 6. Calvinist. 2. Aristocrat. 7. Druid. 3. Lyre. 8. Cherub. 4. Volcano. 9. Abraham. 5. Methodist. 10. Poet. EXA.MPLE. — Despotic; belonging to a despot, tyran- nical. Note. — The letters ic added to a word mean "belonging to." Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words : 1. Oceanic. 6. Symbolic. 2. Cubic. 7. Meteoric. 3. Idiotic. 8. Arabic. 4. Angelic. 9. Patriotic. 5. Apostolic. 10. Pedantic. Examples. — Period, periodic; Pharisee, Pharasaic. Direction. — Write ten similar pairs of words. (Be careful about the spelling.) 3* 30 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. SECTION III.— Verbs. Example. — From sweet we form the word sweeten. Direction. — Write in the same way the words ending in en^ formed from the following : 1. Damp. 6. Soft. 2. Moist. 7. Less. 3. Black. 8. Wide. 4. White. 9. Mad. 5. Hard. 10. Weak. Example. — Darhen ; to make dark, to obscure. Note. — The letters en added to an adjective mean " to make.'' Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words : 1. Deaden. 6. Cheapen. 2. Deafen. 7. Brighten. 3. Deepen. 8. Frighten. 4. Gladden. . 9. Quicken. 5. Tighten. 10. Slacken. Example. — From simple we form the word simplify. Direction. — Write in the same way ten words ending in fy, formed from the following : 1. Mode. 6. Glory. 2. Ample. 7. Class. 3. Eare. 8. Just. 4. Solid. 9. Person. 5. False. 10. Type. ON WORDS. 31 Examples. — Purify; to make pure, to free from pol- lution. Magnify ; to make great, to enlarge. Note. — The letters/?/ added to a word mean " to make." Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of each of the following words : 1. Rarefj. 6. Terrify, 2. Mortify. 7. Liquefy. 3. Horrify. 8. Dignify. 4. Gratify. 9. Diversify. 5. Stupefy. 10. Beautify. Note. — In many words ending in/i/, the first part is not by itself a complete word; as, magni-/?/. There is no such word as magni; but we find these letters forming, in like manner, the first part of a kindred word, rasigni-tude. As magnitude means great-nesBj we say, magnify means to make great. We find the meaning of the part which is not a complete word by seeing what those let- ters mean in some other kindred word. SECTION IV. — Adverbs. Example. — From swift we form the word swiftly. Direction. — Write in the same way the words ending in Ig, formed from the following. (Be careful about the spelling.) 1. Smooth. 6. Noiseless. 2. True. 7. Open. 3. Frequent. 8. Fierce. 4. False. 9. Active. 5. Grateful. 10. Secret. 32 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Example. — Boldly ; in a bold manner, bravely. Note. — The letters ly added to an adjective usually mean "in a manner.'' Direction. — Write in the same way two meanings of eaoh of the following: 1. Fiercely. 6. Awfully. 2. Stoutly. 7. Wickedly. 3. Quickly. 8. Joyfully. 4. Hastily. 9. Accurately, 5. Uprightly. 10. Pleasantly. Example. — Careful, carefully. Direction. — Write ten similar pairs of words, not using any of those already given. To Teachers. — The lessons given in Part I. should not be considered as exhausting the subject, but only as indicating a method by which chil- dren may, at a very early age, be trained to the habit of attention to the formation and the meaning of words, and to their grammatical classification. The exercises may be extended and multiplied indefinitely, at the discretion of the teacher. Some knowledge of the elements of Etymology and Gram- mar is a great help in acquiring an accurate acquaintance with words, and therefore a few studies of this kind are inserted here. It should be remem- bered, however, that this book is neither an Etymology nor a Grammar ; and only so much of those branches is introduced as is necessary for the other more general purposes of the book. At the same time, the book in all its parts will, it is believed, facilitate greatly the more formal and regular study of Grammar and Etymology. Part IL Sentence -Ma KING. CHAPTER I. Simple Sentences. SECTION I. —The Simplest Form of the Sentence EXPLANATORY REMARK. To THE Teacher. — Every Simple Sentence maybe reduced to one of the following forms : 1. The horse is swift. 2. The horse runs. 3. The horse draws the wagon. Before proceeding to analyze these forms, the scholar should have some practice in writing simple sentences after the models here given, so as to be familiar with sentence-making in its most elementary shape. This is the first step in practical composition. In the first series of exercises under this head, all the words needed are given, the scholar being required merely to put the words together properly, and to exercise his judgment in the selection. Example. — The horse is swift. Direction. — Write sentences like the one above, using each 34 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. of the words in the first or left-hand column with an appropriate word in the other column. Boy, house, dog, ^ f fierce, sharp, studious, stone, knife, apple, ' J roomy, heavy, brittle, ink, snail, grass, I j sweet, crooked, white, glass, street, paper, J (^ black, slow, green. Example. — The horse runs. DiKECTiOJsr. — Write sentences like the one above, using each of the words in the first column with an appropriate word in the other column. Lion, stream, moon, cock, bird, dog, snake, ice, girl, cat, fire, sheep, ^ f%, i i roar, crow. shine, .creep, flow, mew, bleat, ^melt, read, burn. Example. — The hoi-se draws the wagon. Direction. — Write sentences like the one above, using each of the words in the first column with an appropriate word in each of the other two columns. Ox, boy, ^ ^melt, sting. ''corn, child. tailor, sun, grind. write. c^rt, clothes, wasp. mill, draw. scorch. . < snow, eggs. hen, scythe, > < make, kick. letter, grass. fire. horse, catch. lay. linen, soil, cat. farmer. cut. till, J driver, mice. Note. — In the next series of examples, only one of the words needed is given, and the scholar is required to supply from his own invention what is necessary to make up a sentence like the example. Example. — The horse is swift. Direction. — Write sentences like the one above, using with SENTENCE -MAKING. 35 each of the following words some other appropriate word that you can think of. 1. Tiger. 2. Sheep. 3. Peach. 4. Window. 5. Meadow. 6. Star. 7. Winter. 8. Cloud. 9. Garden. 10. Plum. 11. Rose. 12. Iron. Example. — The horse runs. Direction. — Write sentences like the one ahove, using before each of the following words some other appropriate word that you can think of. 1. Shine. 2. Play. 3. Sit. 4. Quarrel. 5. Shout. 6. Squeal. 7. Jump. 8. Laup:h. 9. Sleep. 10. Growl. 11. Rise. 12. Cackle. Example. — The horse draws the wagon. Direction. — Write sentences like the one ahove, using some appropriate word before and after each of the following words : 1. Scrape. 5. Steal. 9. Pinch. 2. Build. 6. Throw. 10. Bend. 3. Drive. 7. Sell. 11. Shoot. 4. Break. 8. Twist. 12. Strike. SECTION IL— The Parts of a Sentence. EXPLANATIONS. [To THE Teaceier. — It is not intended that these and similar remarks throughout the book should be committed to memory and recited. The scholar, however, should read them attentively, and be guided by them in 36 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. writing the exercises, and the teacher should go over them in a familiar conversation with his class, while correcting the exercises.] Every Sentence must contain a Subject and a Predicate. These are the only necessary parts of a sentence. The Subject is that of which we speak. Examples. — " The horse runs." " The horse is swift." Here, in both easea^ the horse is the Subject. We ask, What runs? What is swift? Ans. The horse. That is what we are speaking of. The Predicate is that which we say of a subject. The predicates, in the two examples given above, are runs and is swi/t. The horse does what? Ans. Buns. The horse is what? AnS. Is swift. Those are the things which we say of the horse. Note. — Strictly speaking, in such a sentence as ** The horse is swift," we should call the word is the copula, and swift the predicate ; swift being the thing asserted, and is the asserting word. Every sentence, indeed, may be reduced to this form. Thus, " The horse runs " may be changed to The horse is (cop.) running (pred.). But for all ordinary purposes it is suflfi- ciently accurate to consider the predicate as including the copula or assert- ing word. Besides the Subject and the Predicate, a sentence may contain an Object also. Many predicates require an object to complete the sense. The Object is one of the main parts of a sentence, though not a necessary part of all sentences. Example. — " The horse draws the wagon." Here, after draws, we nat- urally ask. Draws what ? Ans. The wagon. The sense is not complete until we name something which the horse draws, and that something is the Object. Note. — A more precise definition of Object would require a larger intro- duction of grammatical terms than is necessary for the purposes of this book. subject predicate subject Examples. — 1. The horse is swift. 2. The horse predicate object draws the wagon. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and mark in each the Subject, the Predicate, and the Object, in the manner shown in the examples. SENTENCE -MAKING. 37 1. Birds fly. 2. Fishes swim. 3. The girl dresses the doll. 4. The boy writes the letter. 5. The gardener was digging the flower-bed. 6. The cat caught a mouse. 7. He saw a snake. 8. We found a rabbit. 9. You will learn the lesson. 10. The bench was broken. 11. John tells the truth. 12. Mary loves Susan. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, filling up the blanks with the word or words necessary to complete the sense, and marking the word or words thus inserted as Subject, Predi- cate, or Object. 1. is tired. 2. Father has given me . 3. John the lesson. 4. The sun . 5. is to be censured. 6. Jane study. 7. is fond of swimming. 8. Boys like . 9. Girls dolls. 10. Laziness is . 11. The scholars presented to the teacher. 12. Men need for writing. 13. Mr. Wilson sold . 14. Fishes scales. 15. loves her mother. 16. We all want . 17. William * the money. 18. Peaches are . Examples. — 1. The carpenter builds houses. 2. The farmer is industrious. Direction. — Make sentences like one or the other of the examples, and telling what each of those named below usually does, or is ; and mark in each case the Predicate, and also the Object, if there is one. 1. The bee. 6. The squirrel. 11. Soldiers. 2. The teacher. 7. The ox. 12. Sailors. 3. The river. 8. The hammer. 13. The wren. 4. The gardener. 9. The tongue. 14. The snow. 6. The boatman. 10. The hand. 15. The clouds. 4 38 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. PEONOUNS. Example. — Mr. Johnson brings apples to market. Mr. Johnson sells apples for a dollar a basket. Note 1. — This expression may be changed thus : "Mr. John- son brings apples to market. He sells them for a dollar a basket." In the second sentence, he is used instead of Mr. Johnson, and them is used instead of apples. An unpleasant repetition of the words is thus prevented. He and them are called Pronouns. Pro 'means for, instead of. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to prevent its being repeated. Note 2, — The principal pronouns are the following : 1. /, me; we, us. 2. Thou, thee ; you. 3. He, him ; she, her; it; they, them. I, we, thou, he, she, and they are never used except as a subject. Me, us, thee, him, her, and them are never used except as an object. You and it may be either subject or object. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and mark in each ^lie Pronouns : 1. Ellen saw Thomas. She called him. 2. Men should fear God. They should worship him. 3. The horse has broken the wagon. He has ruined it. 4. The books are torn. They are spoiled. 5. Father and I went to town. The dog followed us. Example. — John struck the table. John broke the table. Change thus : John struck the table. He broke it. Direction. — Change the following expressions, using in the proper places pronouns instead of nouns. SENTENCE-MAKING. 39 1. The men saw the bridge. The men crossed the bridge. 2. A plague visited the people. A plague destroyed the people. 3. We saw the cows. We drove the cows away. 4. The boy found the apples. The boy has eaten the apples. 5. The girl entered the garden. The girl has left the garden. Examples. — The mother loved her. He deserted them. Direction. — Make up a^sentence for each of the following verbs, using in each case a pronoun for the subject, or the object, or both. 1. Write. 2. Burn. 3. Lift. 4. Terrify. 5. Enlarge. SECTION III. -■ Adjuncts. OUTLINE OF THE SUBJECT. [To THE Teacher. — The outline here given is not to be studied and recited by the scholar at present. It is placed here merely to map out to the eye of the teacher the work to be done. After a class have gone through all the exercises in- this Section, it may be well for them then to read the out- line over and be questioned upon it.] In a simple sentence, every word which is not either the Subject, the Predicate, or the Object, is an Adjunct to one of them. Examples. — 1. The farmer ploughs the field (no adjunct). 2. The industrious farmer ploughs the field (adjunct to the subject). 3. The farmer carefully ploughs the field (adjunct to the predicate). 4. The farmer ploughs the lohole field (adjunct to the object). 5. The industrious farmer carefully ploughs the whole field (adjunct to each). 40 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. I. Adjuncts to the Subject and the Object may be formed, 1. By a noun in apposition ; as, Jacob the gardener, 2. By a noun in the possessive ; as, The boy^s gun. 3. By an adjective, or an adjective- word ; as. Boyish sports, their sports. 4. By a preposition-phrase ; as, Sports among boys, II. Adjuncts to the Predicate may be formed, 1. By an adverb; as, The boy studied diligently, 2. By a preposition-phrase ; as. The boy studied with diligence, I. Adjuncts to the Subject and the Object. Form 1. — An Adjunct formed by a Noun in Apposition. subject adjunct Examples. — 1. Jacob the gardener ploughed the object adjunct field. 2. They crossed the river Delaware. Note. — In the first of these examples, there is an adjunct to the subject ; Gardener is in apposition to Jacob, and is an adjunct to it. In the second example, there is an adjunct to the object ; Delaware is in apposition to river, and is an adjunct to it. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and in each sen- tence mark, as in the examples, the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. 1. Benjamin West the painter was a Pennsylvanian. 2. They slew the tyrant Nero. 3. The river Nile is muddy. 4. Alexander the coppersmith did harm. 5. They separated the friends, Damon and Pythias. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, filling up the blank in each with some appropriate noun as an adjunct, and SENTENCE-MAKING. 41 marking the adjunct and the subject or object, as in the previous examples. 1. Your cousin has gone home. 2. They crossed the river . 3. The dog is courageous. 4. The poet wrote Paradise Lost. 5. He finds his brother . Direction. — Make up five sentences, in each of which the stibject shall have a noun in apposition as an adjunct; also, five, in which the object shall have a noun in apposition as an adjunct ; and, in all the sentences, mark, as in the previous instances, the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. Form 2.— -An Adjunct formed by a Noun in the Possessive. adjunct subject Examples. — 1. The boy^s gun was loaded. 2. The adjunct object man bought the farmer's apples. Note 1. — In the first of these examples, there is an adjunct to the subject ; boy's is in the possessive, and is an adjunct to gun. In the second example, there is an adjunct to the object ; farmer's is in the possessive, and is an adjunct to apples. Note 2. — Boy^s is said to be in the possessive, because it tells who is the possessor of the gun. Farmer's is said to be in the possessive, because it tells who is the possessor of the apples. The possessive form of a noun usually has an apostrophe and the letter s (^s) at the end of it. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and in each sen- tence mark, as in the examples, the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. 1. The lion's roar is terrible. 2. The tailor made the man's coat. 3. The soldier's life is unpleasant. 4. The men heard the mother's voice. 5. The gardener's flowers were admired. 4* 42 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Directio:n^. — Copy the following sentences, filling up the blank in each with some appropriate possessive as an adjunct, and marking, as in the previous examples, the adjunct, and the sub- ject or object to which it belongs. 1. The lesson is not learned. 2. She has dressed doll. 3. The rules are strict. 4. Scholars should observe the rules. 5. proverbs teach wisdom. DiEECTiON. — Make up five sentences, in each of which the subject shsill have a noun in the possessive as an adjunct; also, five, in which the object shall have a noun in the possessive as an adjunct; and, in all the sentences, mark, as before, the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. Example. — The spider's web. The Aveb of the spider. Note. — A possessive adjunct is sometimes formed by using a noun with of before it, instead of 's after it. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and mark in each the adjunct, and the subject or object. 1. The song of the bird is melodious. 2. The man's pigeons are tame. 3. The scholar's diligence is praiseworthy. 4. The color of the rose is beautiful. 5. The smell of hay is fragrant. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, filling up the blank in each with some appropriate possessive, and marking in each the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. 1. The rest is sweet. 2. The time is precious. 3. The boys found nest. SENTENCE- MA KING. 43 4. The sound is terrific. 5. The men heard the roaring . Direction. — Makeup six sentences, with a possessive adjunct to the subject, and six with a possessive adjunct to the object, and let one half of the possessives in each list be formed by using o/, and the other half by using 's ; and mark in each case the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. Form 8. — Case 1. An Adjunct formed by an Adjective. adjunct subject Examples. — 1. Ripe fruit is wholesome. 2. The adjunct object teacher praises the diligent pupil. 3. The school has one adjunct object adjunct hundred and twenty-five scholars. 4. More than two subject hundred men were wounded. Note. — Observe that in expressing numbers the adjective adjunct often consists of several words. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, marking in each the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. 1. A merry heart maketh a glad countenance. 2. The smallest boy chose the biggest apple. 3. The merry girl has a ripe peach. 4. The merry young girl had two dozen ripe peaches. 5. More than four hundred and fifty large cows crossed the new bridge. Note. — In such examples as Nos. 4 and 5, a subject or an object sometimes has two or more distinct adjuncts. The pupil should be instructed, in such cases, to mark each different adjunct adjunct adjunct subject separately ; as. Two hundred frozen apples. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, filling up the 44 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. blank in each with some appropriate adjective, and marking the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. 1. The army contains soldiers. 2. A — - — son makes a father. 3. flowers are prized. 4. stockings are warm. 5. The boy loves milk. DiBECTiON. — Make up five sentences, each having an adjec- tive adjunct to the subject; five sentences, each having an adjec- tive adjunct to the object; and five sentences, each having an adjective adjunct both to the subject and the object. In all the sentences, mark the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. Case 2. An Adjunct formed by an Adjective-word. adjunct subject adjunct subject Examples. — 1. My book is lost. 2. Her eyes are adjunct subject blue. 3. Those houses are large. Note. — My, her^ and those^ in these examples, are called adjec- tive-words. The adjective- words are my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, this, that, these, those, each, every, either, neither, etc. For the purposes of composition, these words may be used as adjectives ; but, as they differ from other adjectives in some respects, they are here called adjective- words. In grammar, they are called adjec- tive-pronouns. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, marking in each the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. 1. James has learned his lesson. 2. My father bought his farm. 3. Your teacher has given a long lesson. 4. Every man makes his own fortune. 5. Each army contains fifty thousand valiant men. i SENTENCE -MAKING. 45 Direction. — Copy the following sentences, filling up the blank in each with some appropriate adjective or adjective- word, and marking the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. 1. The children have lost mother. 2. The children have lost mother. 3. A selfish man seeks interests. 4. I have forgotten the lesson. 5. deeds make men . Direction. — Make up ten sentences, each having an adjective and an adjective- word as adjuncts ^ither to the subject or to the object; and in each mark the adjuncts, and the subject or object to which they belong. Form 4. — An Adjunct formed by a Preposition-Phrase. subject adjunct Example. — The road across the common is the nearest. Note 1. — In this sentence. Across the common is a preposition- phrase, and is an adjunct to road. It tells what road is meant. It is added to road and describes it, very much as an adjective would. Such phrases are called Preposition-phrases, because they consist of a preposition and one or more words following it. Note 2. — The principal Prepositions are the following: Above^ about, according tOy across, after, against, along, amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between or betwixt, beyond, by, down, for, from, in, into, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, till, toward or towards, under, unto, up, upon, with, within, without. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and mark in each the preposition-phrase, and the subject or object to which it be- longs. 1. The tunnel under the canal is disagreeable. 46 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 2. The State-prison at Sing-Sing is well known. 3. They admired the rivulet at the foot of the hill. 4. They burnt the bridge over the river. 5. A walk by moonlight is pleasant. DiRECTiojf . — Copy the following sentences^ filling up the blank in each with some appropriate preposition-phrase, and marking the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs 1. The arbor is cool. 2. The ducks are swimming. 3. The path is pleasant. 4. They avoided the ford , 5. The scholar remembered the rule — — . Direction. — Make up ten sentences, each having a preposi- tion-phrase as an adjunct, and in each case mark the adjunct, and the subject or object to which it belongs. II. Adjuncts to the Peedicate. Form 1. — An Adjunct formed by an Adverb. predicate adjunct Example. — The horse runs rapidly. Note. — In this example, rapidly is an adverb, and is an adjunct to runs ; it tells how the horse runs. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and mark in each the predicate, and the adverb which is an adjunct to it. 1. The pupils studied their lesson diligently. 2. The man under the hill lives happily. 3. The robber suddenly left the house. 4. The men quickly extinguished the fire. 5. The birds in the grove sing sweetly. SENTENCE- MAKING. 47 Examples. — 1. The horse runs very rapidly. The horse runs more rapidly. The horse runs most rapidly. Note. — Adverbs may themselves have an adjunct, such as very, more, most. In these cases the two adverbs may be taken together as forming one adjunct. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and mark in each the predicate and its adjuncts. 1. The wind blew most violently. 2. The police very easily dispersed the mob. 3. The man most clearly was outwitted. Note. — The majority of adverbs end in ly, and express man- ner, or tell how a thing is done, as has been already explained. But there are a good many adverbs which do not end in /y, and which express various other ideas besides that of manner. Examples. — 1. The man is now? living (adverb of time). 2. The thing occurred here (adverb of place). 3. He fell backward (adverb of direction). 4. The horse was much alarmed (adverb of quantity). Note. — The following are some of the most common kinds of adverbs : 1. Adverbs of Manner or Quality : Thus, so, well, ill, swiftly ^ smoothly, truly, and some thousands ending in ly. 2. Adverbs of Place: Here, there, where; hither, thither, whither ; hence, thence, whence, etc. 8. Adverbs of Time : Now, then, when, ever, never, forever, soon, often, seldom, hereafter, etc. 4, Adverbs of Quantity : Much, little, enough, etc. 5. Adverbs of Direction : Downward, upioard, forward, back- ward, hitherward, thitherward, etc. 48 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 6. Adverbs of Interrogation : How, why, when, where, etc. 7. Adverbs of Uncertainty ; Perchance, perhaps, peradven- ture, etc. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and mark in each the predicate and the adverb which is an adjunct to it. 1. The horse seldom goes backward. 2. Weeds grow luxuriantly everywhere. 3. He never studies his lesson. 4. The party afterwards dispersed. 5. The men had no business here. Form 2. — An Adjunct formed by a Preposition-Phrase. predicate adjunct Examples. — 1. The man ran in a rapid manner. predicate adjunct 2. The man ran down the hill. • Note. — In the first example, in a rapid manner is an adjunct to ran. It tells how the man ran. In the second example, down the hill is an adjunct. It tells in what direction he ran. These phrases have the same effect as an adverb. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and mark in each the predicate, and the adverb or the preposition-phrase which is an adjunct to the predicate. 1 . The water flows silently under the bridge. 2. The apples have grown to a great size. 3. The Indians live by hunting. 4. The man died from mere exhaustion. 5. The train will be here presently. 6. The train will be in this place in a short time. 7. The child behaved shockingly. 8. The child behaved in a shocking manner. SENTENCE-MAKING. 49 Direction. — Make up five sentences, each having an adverb as an adjunct to the predicate; five sentences, each having a preposition-phrase as an adjunct to the predicate ; and five sen- tences, each having both an adverb and a preposition^phrase as adjuncts to the predicate. In each sentence, mark the predicate and its adjunct or adjuncts. Example. — There, an adverb. In that place, a pre- position-phrase meaning the same thing as the adverb. Direction. — Write ten adverbs, and after each a preposition- phrase having the same meaning as the adverb. REVIEW EXERCISES. To THB Teacher. — The exercises under this head are intended to put into practice all that has been learned in regard to each kind of adjuncts. Example. — The old man on the hill, Jacob Thomp- son, in the course of time, acquired prodigious strength of muscle by chopping wood. Analysis of the Foregoino Example. 1. The Sentence without Adjuncts, — The man acquired strength. 2. The Subject — Man. 3. The Predicate — Acquired. 4. The Object — Strength. 5. Adjuncts f Old (an adjective). to the ^ On the hill (a preposition-phrase). Subject, I Jacob Thompson (a noun in apposition). 6. Adjuncts fin the course of time (a preposition- to the ^ phrase). Predicate, I By chopping wood (a preposition-phrase) 50 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 7. Adjuncts c ^ ^, , , T .. X , ,7 J rrodigious (an adjective). Qi' . \ Of muscle (a preposition-phrase). Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and after each write an analysis of it in the manner of the foregoing example. 1. Our new horse Charley yesterday ran furiously across the bridge. 2. The bell in the church tower gives forth a musical sound on Sunday morning. 3. Webster's large dictionary is in truth a prodigious monument of learning. 4. In summer snow sometimes can be seen on the mountains. 5. The frightened horse dragged the new carriage furiously down the street. Direction. — Make up five sentences, each containing not less than three adjuncts, and after each sentence write an analysis of it. Example. — A farmer has produced peaches. The same enlarged by Adjuncts. — An enterprising farmer in Delaware, Thomas Eidgway, by skilful graft- ing, has lately produced most delicious peaches of a new variety. Direction.— Copy the following sentences, enlarging each with not less than five adjuncts. 1. The sun rises. 2. The vine gro^\s. ^ 3. The boy caught a rabbit. 4. The carpenter built a house. 5. The locomotive draws the train. SENTENCE- MAKING. 51 Example. — Emma played. The same enlarged, — On Friday afternoon of last week little Emma played gayly with her new doll in the back parlor with the rest of her companions. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, enlarging each with as great a variety of adjuncts as you can think of. 1. The kitten mewed. 2. The boys climbed the tree. 3. The river was frozen. 4. Mary sings. 5. William studied the lesson. Example. — Subject — Boy. Sentence. — A little curly-headed boy was holding a large apple in his hand. Direction. — Make up a sentence about each of the following subjects, using at least one adjunct with each subject, object, and predicate. 1. Girl. 8. Mother. 15. Snake. 2. River. 9. Brother. 16. Bird. 3. Island. 10. Sister. 17. Tree. 4. Boat. 11. Horse. 18. Garden. 5. Aunt. 12. Dog. 19. Cloud. 6. Uncle. 13. Lion. 20. Rain. 7. Father. 14. Wolf. 21. Snow. Example. — Detached Sentences, — The tree was struck. It was an oak tree. The tree was old. It was a fine tree. The tree grew in the park. The lightning struck the tree. It was night when the tree was struck. 52 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. The night was Thursday. It was twelve o'clock when the tree was struck. The same combined into One Sentence, — The fine old oak tree in the park was struck by lightning at twelve o'clock on Thursday night. Direction. — Change each of the following series of detached sentences into one sentence. 1. The boy fell. The boy was little. It was a ditch he fell into. The ditch was dry. It was this morning that he fell in. 2. The river overflowed. The river was the Potomac. The banks were overflowed. It was in November. It was on the fifteenth of that month. On both sides it was overflowed. 3. The boy came. The boy was pretty. He was little. He was blue-eyed. He had rosy cheeks. It was his mother he came to. The boy had a rabbit. It was a young one. It was white. It was lop-eared. He carried it in his pocket. 4. liconidas died. Leonidas was a king. He was king of Sparta. Three hundred of his countrymen died with him. 'They died like heroes. It was at Ther- mopylae they died. They died to defend their country. They were defending their country against the Persians. 5. Milton was born. He was a poet. He was a great poet. He was an English poet. Bread Street was the place of his birth. Bread Street is in Cheapside. Cheap- side is in London. He was born in the year 1608. 6. Thomas Jefferson was the author of a state-paper. That state paper is known in history. It is known as the Declaration of Independence. He was President of the United States. He was the third President. He died at Monticello. Monticello is in Virginia. He died July 4; 1826. SENTENCE-MAKING. 53 7. The boy wrote. He was a good boy. . He wrote a letter. He wrote to his father. He wrote from school. He wrote on his birthday. It was a long letter. He wrote it early in the morning. He wrote it before breakfast. 8. The interval was looked upon. It was looked upon as a stage of transition. It was the interval be- tween twenty and thirty. It was a stage of transition from boyhood to manhood. It was among the Spartans it was so looked upon. Example. — 1. Robert went out early in the morn- ing with light step into the garden. 2. With light step Robert went out early in the morn- ing into the garden. 3. Robert went out with a light step into the garden early in the morning. 4. Robert with light step went out into the garden early in the morning. 5. Robert went out into the garden early in the morn- ing with light step. Note. — The object of the foregoing is to show how the places of the adjunct may be varied without changing the sense. Direction. — Change the place of the adjuncts in each of the following sentences, so as to make the sentence read in not less than four different ways, all meaning the same thing. 1. At the dawn of day she ascended the hill with a merry heart in company with her brother. 2. In a pensive state of mind the youth strolled along the banks of the river in the evening, at a very gentle pace. 54 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 3. For nearly a week we were becalmed in the open Pacific, in a ship almost entirely destitute of provisions. 4. The field this year yielded a much better crop, through the exertions of the proprietor. 5. He reads every morning after breakfast regularly ten pages of Cicero. 6. The boy threw himself into a violent heat yesterday by jumping in the garden. 7. At noon on account of the heat of the sun the • cattle seek the shade. 8. Pope, in his last illness, amused himself, amidst the care of his higher concerns, in preparing a corrected and complete edition of his writings. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make up ten sentences or more about Buttee, telling what you know about it, or what you think about it, whether you like it or dislike it, how it looks, how it is made, and so on. To THE Teacher. — In the exercises under this head, scholars, even the youngest, will occasionally form sentences which are more advanced than those given in the models, introducing relative pronouns, conjunctions, and subordinate clauses, in regard to which no rules as yet have been given. Such sentences should not, indeed, be required of them for the present ,• but if given by them, and if found formed correctly, they should not be dis- countenanced, but rather commended. The scholar learns to use words and form sentences, not by exercises and rules merely, or mainly, but by conversation, reciting, and reading. In making up sentences for the expression of his own thoughts or opinions, he should be encouraged to exercise his ingenuity, and to tell what he knows and thinks, in such ways as are familiar to him, so far as they are grammatical. Direction. — Make up ten sentences or more about each of the following subjects, telling what you know, think, or feel about it. 1. Honey. 3. Bread. 2. Tea. 4. Cake. SENTENCE -MA KING. 55 5. Vinegar. 8. Milk. 6. Apples. 9. Cheese. 7. Peaches. 10. Potatoes. Direction. — Make up ten sentences or more about each of the following subjects : 1. Ink. 6. Dogs. 2. Chalk. 7. Horses. 3. Paper. 8. Cows. 4. Coal. 9. Eats. 5. Wood. 10. Cats. Direction. — Make up ten sentences or more about each of the following subjects: 1. Dolls. 6. Playing Croquet. 2. Tops. 7. Blind Man's BuiF. 3. Hoops, 8. Hide and Seek. 4. Marbles. 9. Pussy in the Corner. 5. Kites. 10. Who has got the Button ? CHAPTER 11. Complex Sentences. SECTION I. — Connective Sentences. Example. — Birds fly and fishes swim. Note 1. — In this sentence, there are two component parts, each forming by itself a complete sentence, and not dependent in any way one upon the other. They merely stand alongside of each other, and are held together as one by the connecting word and. Such sentences are called Connective. Note 2. — The principal words used for connecting sentences in this way are and, too, also, likeivise, besides, moreover, further- more, not only — but also, not only — but likewise, etc. Examples. — 1. [Not only] Caesar was a great war- rior ; [but also J he was a great writer. 2. The cat catches mice ; [and] she eats them [too]. . Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and in each enclose in brackets the connective word or words. 1. The horse serves for riding; it is also used for draught. 66 SENTENCE- MAKING. 67 2. Some books are not only amusing, but they are also instructive. 3. The blacksmith not only makes new utensils, but he also repairs old ones. 4. The ass has a rough coat ; he has likewise a thick skin. 5. Day is the time for labor, and night is the time for rest. Direction. — Complete the following sentences by making an additional part for each, so as to change it into a Connective sentence. Enclose the connective words in brackets. 1. The boy is not only amiable; 2. The winter has been severe, and 3. The birds fly about the garden ; also 4. Thomas buys many books ; and too. 5. The bee is not only an industrious animal, but likewise Direction. — Make up a Complex Sentence, composed of two co-ordinate parts, with suitable connective words, about each of the following subjects. Enclose in brackets the connective words in each. 1. The street-car. 4. The sound of a chime of bells. 2. The school-house. 5. The noise of a locomotive. 3. The church spire. 6. The arrival of the train. Example. — Csesar was not only a great warrior ; but also [he was] a great writer. Contracted form, — Caesar was not only a great w^ar- rior, but also a great writer. Note. — In forming a connective sentence, the sentence may sometimes be shortened by leaving out certain words. Thus, in the example, the words he was may be left out, because the idea 58 FIEST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. has already been sufficiently expressed by the words CcBsar was, in the first part of the sentence. Direction. — Write the following sentences in a contracted form, leaving out those words which are not needed for express- ing the meaning. 1. The dog barks, and the dog bites. 2. The boy laughed, and the girl laughed. 3. You should love your brothers, and you should love your sisters. 4. Pharisee was the name of a sect, Scribe was the name of an office. 5. Pennsylvania abounds in coal, and Pennsylvania abounds in iron. Direction. — Make up five sentences, each with two subjects and only one predicate, and let the following be the subjects : 1. A dog and a squirrel. 2. A cat and a mouse. 3. A man and a horse. 4. New York and Philadelphia. 5. George Washington and Benjamin Franklin. Direction. — Make up five sentences, each with one subject and two predicates. Let the following be the subjects : 1. A steamboat. 2. The Pole star. 3. The letter S. 4. The figure 8. 6. The City of London. Direction. — Make up five sentences, each with only one subject and one predicate, but with two objects. Let the follow- ing be the objects: 1. Ham and dried beef. SENTENCE-MAKING. 59 2. Wood and coal. 3. Books and papers. 4. Girls and boys. 6. Men and women. Not only — but also. Example. — Marj was idle this morning. With the Connectives : Form 1. Not only Mary was idle this morning, [but Ellen also]. Form 2. Mary not only was idle this morning, [but mischievous also]. Form 3. Mary was idle not only this morning, [hut this afternoon also]. Note. — In using the connectives not only — but also, the words not only must be put immediately before the word which calls for a corresponding word in the other branch of the sen- tence. Thus : 1. Not only Mary, but Ellen. 2. Not only idle, but mischiev- ous, 3. Not only this morning, but also this afternoon. Direction". — Write each of the following sentences with not only placed: 1, before the subject ; 2, before the predicate ; 3, be- fore the object; and then fill out each with an appropriate addition. 1. The train approached the city. 2. The farmer planted corn. 3. This class has studied grammar. 4. The man crossed the ferry. 5. The boy caught a trout. 60 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make up not less than twenty sentences about Corn, telling what you know or think about it. Let the sen- tences be partly simple ones, and partly complex. The following Outline of topics will help you : 1. How corn is planted. 2. What is done to the corn while it is growing. 3. A description of the stalk. 4. A description of the silk, and of the tassel. 5. A description of the husk, and of the ear. 6. Different ways of using corn for food. Example. — Subject — A Sheep. OUTLINE. 1. The size as compared with two or three other domestic animals. 2. Traits of character or natural disposition of the sheep. 3. Peculiarity of its covering, as compared with those of the goose and of the dog. 4. Uses of the animal. 5. How the sheep makes its wants known. 6. Some of its natural enemies among other animals. Example. — Subject — Snow. OUTLINE. 1. Time of the year when snow usually comes. 2. Its appearance in coming down. 3. Effects of violent wind upon the snow when falling. 4. Amusements and pleasures connected with snow. SENTENCE-MAKING. 61 5. Troubles and sufferings connected with snow. 6. Cause of the disappearance of the snow. 7. Places where snow exists all the year round. DiRECTioisr. — Prepare a similar outline of topics in regard to each of the following subjects : 1. Ice. 6. A school-house. 2. Tomatoes. 7. Pies. 3. A bridge. 8. Candy. 4. A river. 9. The hand. 5. A railroad station. 10. The eye. To THE Teacher. — This exercise is of the greatest importance. The attainment of some facility in making an Outline will help the scholar very much in the work of original composition. In making these outlines, the younger scholars will need and should receive assistance from the teacher. Let the scholars begin and suggest orally whatever topics they can think of without help. Let these topics be discussed and revised in a familiar conversation in the class, and let other topics be suggested if need be. After thus talking about a subject, so that the scholars seem to get an idea of the various ways in which it may be spoken of, let them then write out an outline and hand it in to the teacher. When an outline has thus been prepared, and is approved by the teacher, let a composition be written upon it. Direction. — Write a composition of not less than twenty sentences on each of the foregoing subjects, according to the out- line which has been prepared and approved. SECTION II.— Antithetical Sentences. Example. — The peacock has a beautiful plumage; [but] its voice is harsh and unmusical. Note 1. — In this sentence there are two component parts, each complete in itself, and these parts are put in contrast. 62 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. opposition, or antithesis to each other by the word but Sen- tences thus formed are called Antithetical, Note 2. — The principal words used in forming Antithetical Sentences are but, yet, else, otherwisej however^ whereas, while, whilst, nevertheless, notwithstanding. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, enclosing in brackets the antithetical word in each : 1. Children ought to be merry sometimes ; but they should never be rude. 2. Stephen the martyr was stoned by the Jews ; yet he died praying for them. 3. We must worship God in spirit and in truth; otherwise our worship will not be accepted. 4. The kingdom of Israel was entirely destroyed by the Assyrians ; whereas that of Judah was afterward restored. 5. We must be diligent in study ; else we shall make little progress. Direction. — Complete the following sentences by making an additional part for each so as to change it to an antithetical sen- tence. Enclose the antithetical words in brackets. 1. The lion is comparatively small ; but 2. Some kinds of wood are not useful for building ; nevertheless 3. Rhode Island is a small State ; yet 4. The teacher must be very patient, otherwise 5. Time is precious ; yet Direction. — Make up an antithetical sentence, composed of two co-ordinate parts, on each of the following subjects. Enclose the antithetical word or words in brackets. 1. The common house-fly. 4. Walnuts. 2. The mosquito. 5. The wren. 3. Pins. 6. The monkey. SENTENCE -MAKING. 63 COMPOSITIONS. Example. — Subject— Eggs. OUTLINE. 1. The ordinary shape of eggs. 2. Different kinds of eggs, and the peculiarities of each. 3. Varieties of color. 4. The parts of an egg, and a description of each part. 5. The various uses of eggs. 6. Modes of cooking them. Direction. — Make up not less that twenty sentences on the foregoing subject, and let at least two of the sentences be con- nective, and two antithetical. Direction. — Make up an outline on each of the following subjects: 1. Sweet potatoes. 4. Soap. 2. Watermelons. 5. Shoes. 3. Ice cream. 6. Hats. Direction. — Make a composition of not less than fifteen sentences on each of the foregoing subjects, after the outline has been prepared and has been approved by the teacher. SECTION III. — Inferential Sentences. Example. — The man is intemperate in his habits; [therefore] he does not succeed in his business. Note 1. — In this sentence there are two component parts, each complete in itself, but one part is given as an inference from the other. This inference is expressed by the word therefore. Sentences formed in this way are called Inferential, B4 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Note 2. — If the inferential word is left out of such a sentence it is resolved at once into two independent sentences. Thus: " The man is intemperate in his habits ; [therefore] he does not succeed in his business." Note 3. — The principal words used in forming Inferential Sentences are therefore, wherefore, then, hence, whence, so, conse- quently, accordingly. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and enclose in brackets the inferential word in each : 1. The weather was unfavorable; accordingly we de- ferred our visit. 2. The ink is thick and pasty; therefore I cannot Write decently. 3. The boy is an orphan ; therefore he needs sympathy. 4. The girl is attentive to her lessons; consequently she makes rapid improvement. 5. He was at the station two minutes behind time; hence he missed the train. Direction. — Complete the following sentences by an addi- tional part for each, so as to change it into an inferential sentence. 1. The boy is often absent from school ; hence 2. The snow was two feet deep ; consequently 3. He was never known to speak an untruth ; there- fore 4. Charles presented his composition full of unsightly blots; consequently 5. I forgot to bring my book ; so Direction. — Make up an inferential sentence, composed of two co-ordinate parts, on each of the following subjects. Enclose the inferential words in brackets. 1. A pic-nic. 4. A river. 2. A soap-bubble. 5. Skating. 3. A mountain. 6. Swimming. SENTENCE-MAKING, 65 COMPOSITIONS. Example. — Subject — Eoses. OUTLINE. 1. Why roses are cultivated. 2. Some of the varieties of the rose. 3. The color. 4. The perfume. 5. The thorns which grow upon the rose-bush. 6. The bugs which infest it. 7. Rose-water. 8. Ottar of roses. Direction. — Make up twenty sentences on the foregoing sub- ject, and let at least one of the sentences be inferential, one antithetical, and one connective. Direction. — Make up an outline on each of the following subjects : 1. The peacock. 4. Cherries. 2. The squirrel. 5. Mince pie. 3. The camel. 6. Rice pudding. Direction. — Make a composition of not less than fifteen sen- tences on each of the foregoing subjects, after the outline has been prepared and has been approved by the teacher. SECTION IV. —Dependent Sentences. Example. — The children could play in the gq,rden, if they would not injure the plants. Note 1. — This sentence consists of two parts, each having a subject and a predicate of its own, yet neither making by itself a completed meaning. If any one says, '[ The children could play 6^ E 66 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. in the garden" — and stops there, we feel that the sense is not complete. So, also, when any one says — ''if they would not injure the plants" — we feel that something more must he said. One part of the sentence is dependent upon the other. Neither part can stand alone. The word expressing this dependence is if. Sentences so constructed are called Dependent Sentences. Note 2. — A great many words are used for the purpose of expressing the dependence of one part of a sentence upon another. Among the most common are the following: i/", though, although, yet, while, whilst, when, where, that, so that, in order that, unless, until, because, since, before. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and in each mark the word or words expressing dependence. 1. The train will have started before you reach the station. 2. Let me know when school will be out. 3. When spring comes the snow will disappear. 4. The heat was so long continued that the vegetation was all dried up. 5. Although the elephant is of such enormous size, yet it can be managed without difficulty. Direction". — Fill out the following sentences, putting a suit* ahle dependent part to each : 1. If the boy is not in time for school^ 2. Although your sister may be amiable, 3. Before you undertake to reprove another for any fault, 4. In order that you may obtain a prize, 5. Unless you come to school earlier, Direction. — Make up a complex sentence, composed of two dependent parts, on each of the following subjects ; SENTENCE^MAKING. 67 1. The garden gate. 4. Straw. 2. The front door. 5. Bricks. 3. New-mown hay. 6. Wood. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make an outline of not less than five topics on each of the following subjects : 1. A grape-vine. 4. Birds' nests. 2. The street corner. 5. The roofs of houses. 3. The apple-tree. 6. A flower garden. Direction. — Make up not less than fifteen sentences on each of the foregoing subjects, after the outline has been prepared, and has been approved by the teacher. SECTION v.— Relative Sentences. Example. — The tree which the gardener planted has grown to a great size. Note 1. — This sentence may be resolved into two simple sen- tences : " The gardener planted a tree/' " The tree has grown to a great size.'' These two simple sentences are combined into one complex sentence by means of the word which. This word is called a relative, and the complex sentences so formed are called Relative Sentences. Note 2. — The relatives are which, who, and that. "Who" has three forms, who, whose, and whom. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, and mark in each the relative word : 1. The man who came to our house last night was a very suspicious-looking fellow. 68 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 2. The bridge that has been built across the river is a great convenience. 3. The girl forgot all about the lesson which she had to learn. 4. George Washington is a man whom all Americans are taught to reverence. 5. The eggs which you carry in the basket were bought in the market. Direction. — Eesolve each of the foregoing complex sentences into two simple sentences. Direction. — Make up a complex relative sentence on each of the following subjects : 1. The humming-bird. 4. The stars. 2. The robin. f>. The moon. 3. The barn. ^ 6. The sun. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make up an outline of not less than five topics on each of the following subjects : 1. Candles. 4. Tables. 2. Gas. 5. Beds. 3. Spoons. 6. Eiding on horseback. Direction. — Make up not less than fifteen sentences on each of the foregoing subjects, and let three sentences at least in each be relative sentences. Part III. Variety 6f Expression. CHAPTER I. Change of Arrangement. SECTION I. — Prose Changed. Example. — What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the human soul. Varied. — Education is to the human soul what sculp- ture is to a block of marble. Direction. — Vary the arrangement of each of the following sentences, taking care to preserve the meaning. . 1. If we do not govern our passions, we may be sure our passions will govern us. 2. He who seriously intends to repent to-morrow, should in all reason begin to-day. 3. Before this surprise or fear had time to abate, Columbus ordered the great guns to be fired. 69 70 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 4. While Columbus was engaged in his successive voyages to the West, the spirit of discovery did not lan- guish in Portugal. 5. It may be laid down as a position which seldom deceives, that when a man cannot bear his own company there is something wrong. Direction. — Make up a complex sentence on each of the fol- lowing subjects, and give to each sentence two arrangements, both expressing the same meaning. 1. Going to school. 4. The study of music. 2. Going to church. 5. The study of botany. 3. The study of history. 6. The love of flowers. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make an outline of not less than five topics on each of the following subjects : 1. City pleasures. 3. .Home pleasures. 2. Country pleasures. 4. Pleasures of travel. Direction. — Write a composition of not less than ten sen- tences on each of the foregoing subjects, and give to each sen- tence two different arrangements. Let the outline be prepared and approved, before writing the composition. SECTION II.— Poetry Changed. Example. — Down in its green and shady bed A modest violet grew ; Its stalk was bent, it hung its head, As if to hide from view. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 71 Varied. — A modest violet grew down in its green and shady bed ; its stalk was bent, it hung its head, as if to hide from view. Direction. — Vary the arrangement of the following pas- sages, changing them to prose, but retaining the meaning : 1. A hermit there was Who lived in a grot, And the way to be happy, They said, he had got, 2. By cool Siloam's shady rill, How sweet the lily grows ! How sweet the breath beneath the hill Of Sharon's dewy rose ! 3. Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, The dark, unfathom'd caves of ocean tear I 4. If solid happiness we prize. Within our breasts this jewel lies ; And they are fools who roam : The world has nothing to bestow ; From our own selves our joys must flow, And that dear hut our home. 5. Serene and mild, the untried night May have its dawning ; And, as in summer's northern light The evening and the dawn unite. The sunset hues of time blend with the souFs new 6. For gold his sword the hireling ruffian draws; For gold the hireling judge distorts the laws ; 72 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Wealth hoap'd on wealth nor truth nor safety buys : The dangers gather as the treasures rise. 7. If happiness on wealth were built, Rich rogues might comfort find in guilt. As grows the miser's hoarded store, His fears, his wants, increase the more. 8. Hope, like the glimmering taper's light, Adorns and cheers the way ; And still, as darker grows the night, Emits a brighter ray. 9. When descends on the Atlantic The gigantic Storm-wind of the equinox. Landward in his wrath he scourges The toiling surges. Laden with sea-weed from the rocks. 10. At midnight, in his guarded tent. The Turk was dreaming of the hour When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, Should tremble at his power. 11. Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, With blossomed furze unprofitably gay. There, in his noisy mansion skilFd to rule. The village master taught his little school ; A man severe he was, and stern to view ; J. knew him Avell, and every truant knew. CHAPTER 11. Change of Structure. SECTION I. — Subject, Object, or Predicate Changed. Example. — Study is the road to knowledge. Subject Changed, — Study, Being studious, Studious habits, Studiousness, Attention to lessons. Object Changed. — Knowledge, Learning, Scholarship, Mental acquisitions, Scientific attainments. Predicate Changed. — Is the road to. Leads to. Conduces to, Promotes, Secures. 1. Study is the road to knowledge. 7 m 74 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 2. Being studious conduces to scholarship. 3. Attention to lessons secures mental acquisitions. 4.. Studioiisness leads to learning. 5. Studious habits promote scholarship. 6. Being studious is the way to become wise. Direction. — Vary the construction of each of the following sentences not less than five times, by changing the object, the subject, and the predicate, but without changing materially the general meaning of the sentence : 1. Temperance conduces to health. 2. Learning is better than riches. 3. Life is short. 4. A liar is not believed even when he speaks the truth. 5. Industry is the source of wealth. 6. The love of money often leads to dreadful crimes. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make up a sentence on each of the following subjects, and give to each sentence not less than five difierent constructions, without materially changing the meaning : 1. Sunset. 4. Dinner-time. 2. Memory. 5. A ship at sea. 3. Poverty. 6. A daily newspaper. Direction. — Make a composition of not less than twenty sen- tences on each of the six foregoing subjects. SECTION II.— Change from Active to Passive, etc. Example. — The French first peopled New Orleans. Changed. — New Orleans was first peopled by the French. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 75 Direction. — Vary the following sentences by changing the verb from the active form to the passive, or from the passive to the active : 1. Tea was introduced into Europe by the Dutch. 2. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Inde- pendence. 3. Poets and philosophers have compared the course of human life to that of a river. 4. Dr. Kane described the Arctic silence as something almost dreadful. 5. They asserted not only the future immortality, but the past eternity of the human soul. 6. Pedro threw away the very friendship without which he would still have been an exile. Direction". — Make up a sentence about each of the following subjects, and give the sentence both an active and a passive form. Note. — In order to do this, it will be necessary that the sen- tence in the active form should be one requiring an object. 1. The rotation of the earth on its axis. 2. The recol- lections of childhood. 3. The American War of Inde- pendence. 4. The discovery of America. 5. The elo- quence of Patrick Henry. 6. David, king of Israel. 7. Alexander the Great. 8. Ferdinand de Soto. 9. The Gulf Stream. 10. The letter carrier. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make a composition of not less than twenty sentences about each of the following subjects : 1. April Fool. 2. A Picture Gallery. 76 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 3. My birthday. 5. Shopping. 4. Thanksgiving Day. 6. Christmas. SECTION III. —Change of Participial Constructions. Example. — Having reduced the island to perfect servitude, the French withdrew their forces. Changed, — When they had reduced the island to per- fect servitude, the French withdrew their forces. Note. — What is here, in the second form, expressed as a dependent sentence (^^When they had reduced,'^ etc.), is ex- pressed in the first form as a participial construction (" Having reduced,'^ etc.). Direction. — Change the following sentences from the par- ticipial form to that of a dependent sentence, or the opposite, as the case may be. 1 . When the ten years fixed by the treaty had expired, the English were unwilling to continue the arrangement. 2. Expecting no indulgence from the reader, he showed none to himself. 3. When Henry was eleven years of age, Beaufort, who had been made Chancellor of the University, re- ceived him as a student at Queen's College. 4. Although living in the same town, I know but little of them. 5. Moses stretched his hand over the Eed Sea, as a signal for the waters to return to their channels, after the children had all passed over. Direction. — Make up a complex sentence about each of the following subjects, and give to each sentence two forms, as above. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 77 1. John the Baptist. 4. Christopher Columbus. 2. The Good Samaritan. 5. The Mayflower. 3. The Apostle Paul. 6. Charles Dickens. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make a composition of not less than twenty sentences about each of the following subjects : 1. Farming. 4. The life of a seamstress. 2. Gardening. 5. The life of a minister. 3. Teaching. 6. Being conductor on a railroad. SECTION IV. — Change of Person. Example. — When Alexander the Great was asked, " Why do you not contend in the Olympic Games ? '^ he said, '' I will, when I have kings for my competitors.^' Changed, — When Alexander the Great was asked why he did not contend in the Olympic Games, he said that he would do so when he had kings for his com- petitors. Direction. — Change the actors in the following sentences from the first or second person to the third, or the contrary : 1. Cardinal Wolsey, in his last moments, said, ^^Had I but served my God with half the zeal I served my king, I would not in my old age have been left to the malice of my enemies. '^ 2. When a friend expressed surprise that Sir Matthew Hale should have done a great favor to one who had 78 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. injured him^ Sir Matthew replied that he thanked God he had learned to forget injuries. 3. A man should never be ashamed to say that he has been in the wrong ; it is but saying, in other words, that he is wiser to-day than he was yesterday. ^ 4. A sailor, on breaking his leg by a fall from the mainmast, said to the bystanders it was a great mercy that it was not his neck, 5. The man said to the youths, " Cast your eyes up and tell me what you see/^ They replied, '' We see vast piles of clouds floating eastward/^ 6. Jesus said to Nathanael. " Thou shalt see greater things than these/^ 7. The friar said to Komeo, " I bring thee tidings of the prince's doom.'^ 8. Just before Socrates drank the fatal poison, one of his friends was lamenting that he was about to be put to death innocently. Socrates asked whether he wished him to die guilty. 9. " I am a ruined man,'^ said the hunter, as he gazed upon the landscape. COMPOSITION. Direction. — Make up a story of a conversation between two boys (naming them), one proposing an excursion for catching fish, the other arguing in favor of nutting. Put the story first in a narrative form, the sentences being all constructed in the third person ; then change it to the form of dialogue, the speakers being in the first and second person. SECTION v. — Miscellaneous Changes. Note. —The exercises which follow are intended as a sort of review of the four preceding sections. The scholar, being by VAEIETY OF EXPRESSION. 79 chis time familiar with the various modes of varying the expres- sion, may use them at pleasure in clianging the language in the examples to be given. Example. — It was a brilliant night. Beneath a dark and cloudless vault, the snowy mantle of the mountain shone resplendent with the beams of a full Italian moon. The guides lay buried in the deepest sleep. Below us, the yawning clefts and strange desolation of the glacier presented an appalling picture of dangers scarcely gone by. Changed. — The night was resplendent. The moun- tain, clad in spotless white, glistened against the deep- toned blue of the clear expanse of heaven, in the light of the moon, then at the full, and such as is seen in an Italian sky. The guides were motionless in the pro- foundest slumber. Beneath my feet lay the gaping chasm, and the wild solitude of the glacier, reminding me of the frightful perils which we had just escaped. Direction. — Ee-write the following passages, changing the expression at pleasure, but retaining carefully the meaning. 1. Soon the mountain-top became a pyramid of gold; the delightful token that the rising sun, between which and us the mountain intervened, had redeemed the pledge given by his departing rays. 2. I doubt much whether the average Englishman, on putting his recollections together, would not say that the fresh-mown hay-field is the place where he has spent the most hours which he would like to live over again, the fewest which he would like to forget. 3. As children, we stumble about the new-mown hay, revelling in the many colors of the prostrate grass and wild flowers, and in the power of tumbling v/here we please without hurting ourselves. 80 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 4. As small boys, we pelt one another, and the vil- lage school-girls, and our nurse-maids, and young-lady cousins with the hay, till, hot and weary, we retire to tea or syllabub beneath the shade of some great oak or elm standing up like a monarch out of the fair pasture. 5. As big boys, we toil ambitiously with the spare forks and rakes, or climb into the wagon and receive with open arms the delicious load as it is pitched up from below, and rises higher and higher as we pass along the long line of haycocks. Note. — The teacher may continue exercises of this kind at discretion, selecting examples from the text-books in the hands of the scholars. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Write a composition of not less than ten sen- tences on each of the following subjects ; and after writing the compositions, re-write each sentence, giving it a different form, but retaining the same general meaning. 1 . A description of some bridge. 2. A narrative of some adventure. 3. Something which I once read in a book. 4. Some things which happened to me in childhood. 6. Some .things which I expect in the years to come. SECTION VI. —Synonyms. ExAMi>LE. — Custom, habit Note. — Custom is that which produces habit The habit of doing a thing results from the custom of doing it. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 81 Direction. — Supply the proper word in the following sen- tences : 1. The of punctuality is acquired only by being punctual from day to day. 2. I hope you have already acquired the of rising early. 3. The foolish among children of using superla- tives in expressing their likes and their dislikes, soon becomes habitual. Direction. — Make up two sentences, in one of which custom shall be correctly used ; in the other, habit Example. — Silence, stillness. Note. — Silence is applicable to persons ; stillness to things. Direction. — Fill the blank in each of the following sen- tences with the proper words : 1. The gentlemen entered the room in profound . 2. At midnight a solemn fills the air. Direction. — Make up four sentences, in two of which silence shall be correctly used, and in two stillness shall be correctly used. Example. — Discover, invent Note. — We discover what existed before, but was unknown ; we invent what is new. Direction. — Fill the blank in each of the following sen- tences with the proper word : 1. The man who the sewing-machine was a benefactor of his race. 2. The engineer of the Delaware and Raritan Canal F 82 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. has an apparatus for pulling boats through the locks by steam. 3. America was by Christopher Columbus in 1492. Direction. — Make up four sentences, in two of which dis- cover shall be rightly used, and in two invent shall be rightly used. Example. — Lucid, luminous. Note. — A thing is lucid when it is pervaded with light ; it is luminous when it sends forth light to other bodies. Direction. — Fill the blank in each of the following sen- tences with the proper word : 1. The waters of Lake George are so that you can see the bottom at the depth of twenty feet. 2. The moon is at times so that we can read by its light. 3. No author is more than Macaulay ; his rea- soning is made clear to the most ordinary apprehension. Direction. — Make up four sentences, in two of which lucid shall be used correctly, and in two luminous shall be used cor- rectly. Example. — Abandon, abdicate, desert, forsake, re- nounce, resign, relinquish. Note. — In the examples which follow, the scholar should consult the dictionary for the purpose of learning the precise meaning of these several words. Direction. — Fill the blank in each of the following sentences with the proper word : 1. A young man should all intercourse with per- eons of low habits. 2. The guilty wretch his design. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 83 3. The Emperor Charles V. his throne. 4. The clerk on account of his negligence is obliged to his situation. 5. How hard it is for a mother to her child. 6. The heir vexy generously has all claims to the property. 7. The guard his post, and went over to the enemy. Direction. — Make up two sentences for each of the foregoing words, using it in each case according to its appropriate meaning. Examples. — Attainments, acquirements, qualifications. Direction. — Fill up the blank in each of the following sen- tences with the appropriate word : 1. There is no doubt but that the man has ample for the office. 2. His in Latin and Greek are of the highest order. 3. The variety of his fitted him to shine in any circle. Direction. — Make up three sentences for each of the foregoing words, using it in each case according to its appropriate meaning. Examples. — Pardon , forgiveness. Direction. — Fill up the blank in each of the following sen- tences with the appropriate word : 1. The man's anger soon subsided, and he gave the oflPenders full . 2. I beg for interrupting you. Direction. — Make up three sentences for each of the fore- going words, using it in each case according to its appropriate meaning. 84 FIEST LESSONS IN' COMPOSITION. Examples. — Abjure, recall, recant, disavow, coun- termand, repeal. Direction. — Fill up the blank in each, of the following sen- tences with the proper word : 1. There was a strong effort in the last Congress to have the Internal Eevenue Law . 2. The President has our minister from England, but has not any of his acts. 3. Every man should be willing to his errors, when convinced of them. 4. The order to advance was by the superior officer. 5. He to-day the opinions which he asserted with vehemence yesterday. Direction. — Make up three sentences for each of the fore- going words, using it in each case according to its appropriate meaning. Examples. — Active, assiduous, diligent, industrious, laborious. Direction. — Fill up the blank in each of the following sen- tences with the proper word : 1. After a search, I found the passage that you referred to. 2. The conductor on a railroad needs to be a man of habits, as much of his work has to be done promptly. » 3. The pursuit of wealth through long years of plodding industry had its natural reward. 4. Street-paving is a occupation. 5. The Chinese are an -^ — people. Direction. — Make up three sentences for each of the fore- VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 85 going words, using it in each case according to its appropriate meaning. Example. — Short, brief. Sentences. — Tom Thumb is a short man. How brief is the life of man ! Direction. — Make up sentences in this way for each of the following pairs of words. 1. Greatness, magnitude. 2. Weight, heaviness. 3. Healthy, salubrious. 4. Youthful, juvenile. 5. Strong, powerful. 6. Wealth, opulence. 7. Stifle, suppress. 8. Pale, pallid. 9. Kill, murder. 10. Sufficient, enough. Example. — The light was put out. Varied, — The light was extinguished. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, using some syn- onymous expressions instead of those printed in italics. 1. The country air invigorated them. 2. In seasons of retirement everything disposes us to be serious. 3. The recollection of the past becomes dreadful to a guilty man. 4. I have more than once found fault with those gen- eral reflections which strike at nations in the gross. 8 86 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 5. The coachman was ordered to drive to the railway station with the utmost expedition. DirectiOjS'. — Copy the following sentences, selecting the most suitable word, where two are given in a parenthesis, and omitting the other. 1. While the cities of Italy were thus (advancing, pro- gressing) in their (career, course) of improvement, an event happened, the most (remarkable, extraordinary) perhaps in the history of mankind. 2. This event, instead of (retarding, stopping) the (trading, commercial) progress of the Italians, (made, rendered) it more rapid. 3. The (martial, warlike) spirit of the Europeans, (heightened, increased) and inflamed by religious (zeal, fervor), (induced, prompted) them to attempt the (deliv- erance, rescue) of the Holy Land from the (government, dominion) of the Infidels. 4. (Great, vast) armies (composed, made up) of all the (nations, countries) in Europe, marched towards Asia upon that wild (enterprise, expedition). 5. The Genoese, the Pisans, and the Venetians (sup- plied, furnished) the transport-ships which (carried, con- veyed) them thither. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make up an outline of not less than six topics on each of the following subjects : 1. A canal boat. 2. An evening party. 3. A fishing excursion. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION, 87 4. The starry heavens. 5. The country in spring. Direction. — Write not less than fifteen sentences on each of the foregoing subjects, after the outline has been prepared, and has been approved by the teacher. SECTION VII. — Copiousness. To THE Teacher. — The object of the following exercises is to cultivate copiousness of expression. By using such exercises properly, two ends are gained ; the scholar becomes more observ- ant of the qualities of objects, and he stores his memory with the words needed for expressing those qualities. He increases at once his knowledge, and his power of expressing it. Example. — We may say of a forest, it is dense, dark, deep, gloomy, entangled, pathless, primeval, unin- habited, lonely, mysterious. Direction. — Write, in like manner, not less than ten things which you can think of as applicable to each of the following objects : 1. A tree in the forest. 2. The foliage of the tree. 3. The branches of the tree. 4. The trunk of the tree. 5. The bark of the tree. Example. — The sky is — serene, cloudy, stormy, clear, overcast, misty, hazy, foggy, lowering, bright, re- splendent, brilliant, blue, azure, red, boundless, threat- ening. 88 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Direction". — Write, in like manner, as many things as you can think of (not less than ten) as being applicable to each of the following objects : 1. The clouds. 5. Fire. 2. The stars. 6. Snow. 3. The ground. 7. Ice. 4. The horse. 8. Rain. Note. — No additional examples under this head are given, because any one can make them to any extent to suit himself. The teacher should pursue the method, selecting examples to suit the degree of advancement of the scholars, until he has established in them a habit of attention to the subject. When once a scholar gets into the way of noticing accurately whatever he sees, and of thinking what word or words are needed to express . exactly his notions of the same, both his knowledge and his power of expressing it will grow apace. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make up an outline of not less than six topics on each of the following subjects : 1. A voyage lo the moon. 2. A description of a snow-storm. 3. A description of some mountain. 4. A description of a large public building. 5. A description of some river that you have seen or read about. Direction. — Write a composition of not less than fifteen sen- tences on each of the foregoing subjects, after the outline has been prepared, and has been approved by the teacher. Part IV. Figurative Expression. CHAPTER I. Simile. Example. — Talkative persons are like empty bar- rels ; the less there is in them, the more noise they make. Note 1. — Here talkative persons and empty bar7^efs are com- pared. The word which expresses the comparison is like. The point of the comparison is that they both make a noise in pro- portion to their emptiness. When things are thus compared, we say there is a Siynile. The words commonly used to express simile are like, as, as — so, as — such, etc. Sometimes a verb is used ; as, " Talkative persons reseinhle empty barrels.^' Note 2. — The point of the comparison is not always expressed. In such a case, the scholar must think it out, and express it in his own language. Thus : " Books for the mind are like food for the body." Here the point of the comparison is that both fur- nish nourishment. Books nourish the mind, as food nourishes the body. 8* 89 90 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Example. — My doctrine shall drop as the rain. Analysis* — The things compared are doctrine and rain. The comparison is expressed by as. The point of the comparison is that both come down gently and in a great many minute portions, DiEECTiON. — Copy the following Similes, and analyze each, as is done in the foregoing example. If the point of the com- parison is not expressed, find out what it is, and express it in your own words. Note. — The teacher will have to give young beginners some help in finding out the point of a comparison, when it is not expressed. This help should be given by talking with the pupils on the subject, until they see the point, and then leaving them to express it without help. 1. Grateful persons resemble fertile fields, which al- ways repay more than they receive, 2. The mind of a young person is like soft wax. 3. Prosperity is like sunshine, bright and fleeting. 4. The Bible resembles a mine ; the more deeply you • search into it, the richer will be the treasures which you bring forth. 5. My words shall distil as the dew. Example. — Subjects — A child and an April shower. Simile, — The troubles of a child are liko an April shower. Both are of brief duration. Both alternate rapidly with their opposites. The . rain and sunshine come and go over the landscape ; so do tears and smiles over the face of childhood. Direction. — Make up a Simile for each of the following pairs of subjects, and in each express as fully as you can the point of the comparison ; FIGURATIVE EXPRESSION. 91 1. Death and sunset. 2. Old age and winter. 3. Misfortunes and clouds. 4. An infant and a flower. 5. Language and a mirror. 6. Hope and the morning star. 7. The wings of a bird and the sails of a ship. Direction. — Make up a Simile for each of the following sub- jects, telling what it is like, or what it resembles : 1. An industrious man. 2. An angry man. 3. The prattle of a child. 4. Obtaining the results of one's labor. 5. Youth. 6. Life. 7. Habit. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make up an outline of not less than five topics' on each of die following subjects : 1. Procrastination. 2. The love of country, 3. Undue love of dress. 4. The formation of habits. 5. The improvement of time. . DiUECTiON. — Make up not less than fifteen sentences on each of the foregoing subjects, after the outline has been made, and has been approved by the teacher. Let each composition contain at least two similes. CHAPTER 11. Metaphor. Example. — Idleness is the rust of the soul. Note 1. — Plere there is a comparison, but the comparison is not made in a formal manner. The meaning is that idleness has the same effect upon the soul that rust has upon iron. Idleness and rust are assumed to be so much alike that what is true of one is affirmed of the other without stopping to make the formal comparison. When a likeness is thus assumed, without being expressed in form, it is called a Metaphor. Note 2. — A Metaphor may be changed into a Simile, and also into plain language, containing neither metaphor nor simile. Thus: Metaphor. — Idleness is the rust of the soul. Simile. — As rust is to iron, so is idleness to the soul, taking away its strength and power of resistance. Plain, — Idleness takes away from the soul its strength and power of resistance. Direction. — Copy the following sentences containing meta- phors ; and change each, first into a simile, and then into plain, language without metaphor or simile : 1 . The Lord is a tower of defence to his people. 2. The sunset of his life was one of unclouded serenity. 3. The love of money is the root of all evil. 4. The wicked man shall reap the fruit of his misdeeds. 5. Books are a fountain of knowledge. 92 FIGUKATIVE EXPRESSION. 93 Direction. — Change the following Similes into Metaphors : 1. Heaven is to the Christian like home, the place toward which his aspirations and his affections constantly point. . . 2. Love resembles the sudden blaze of a fire ; friend- ship, the steady rays of the sun. 3. The spider^s web is like a cord, is like a cable, com- pared to man^s slender hold of earthly bliss. 4. Heavenly love is like a ladder on which men climb up to a likeness with God. 5. Night, even in the zenith of her dark domain, is but as sunshine, compared to the color of my fate. Note. — Often a metaphor is expressed by a single word, a noun, an adjective, or a verb, the rest of the words in the sen- tence being plain, and taken in their ordinary acceptation. Thus: " The sourness of her disposition ; '^ that is, some quality in her disposition which is like the sourness of certain material objects. " Golden corn ; " that is, corn having a color like that of gold. " Inflamed with anger ; '^ that is, affected by anger in a manner like to that of a material substance which is in flames. DiEECTiON. — Change the following expressions from meta- phorical language to plain language : - 1. Corroding cares. 2. The head of the class. 3. A ship ploughing the ocean. 4. Fields smiling with fertility. 5. His mother's death was a heavy blow. Direction. — Change the following expressions from plain to metaphorical. The words in brackets give jsl clue to the metaphor intended. 1. A soil needing moisture [thirst]. 2. Time passes unperceived [tread, step]. 94 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 3. He lias an easy life [stream, smooth], 4. Ignorance will cease [cloud, roll awayj. 5. The cannon made a great noise [thunder]. Direction. — Make up a sentence containing a metaphor, about each of the following subjects : 1. Riches. 4. Beauty. 2. Anger. 5i Old age. 3. The tongue. 6. Childhood. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make a composition of not less than fifteen sentences on each of the following subjects, and in each composi- tion use at least one Metaphor and one Simile : 1. My opposite neighbor. 2. Pussy^s counsels to her kittens. 3. What I saw in the mermaids' cavern. 4. A girPs advice to her dolly before sending her to school. 5. The hen's advice to her chickens before going out into the field. CHAPTER III. Metonymy. Example. — The botth was the cause of this man's ruin. Note 1. — Here the meaning is that what is contained in the bottle, that is, intoxicating liquor, caused the man's ruin. The container is used for the thing contained. A change like this is called a Metonymy. Metonymy means a change of name. It is calling a thing, not by its own name, but by the name of some- thing else with which it is connected. Note 2. — The principal Metonymies are the following; 1. Container for thing contained. 2. Cause for effect : " The letter is written in a beautiful hand; " that is, " handwriting,^^ 3. Effect for cause : " Man shall live by the sioeat of his brow ; " that is, by the labor which causes sweat, 4. Sign for thing signified : *' He assumed the sceptre; '' that is, the sovereignty. Example. — I have been reading Shakespeare. Plain. — I have been reading Shakespeare's writings. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, marking the metonymy in each, and then writing the sentence over again, changing it to plain language : 95 96 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 1. The kettle boils. 2. The chair decides. 3. He smokes his pipe. 4. The man has a long purse. 5. Napoleon assumed the purple. 6. The pulpit everywhere is the advocate of tem- perance. Direction. — Change the language of the following sentences so as to introduce a metonymy into each : 1. The men were fighting for their homes and their religion. 2. Literature has a mighty influence in public affairs. 3. Judges and lawyers united in condemnation of the practice. 4. At the present day, the newspaper is a power in the land. 5. Old age should be treated with reverence. Direction. — Make up a sentence containing a metonymy, about each of the following subjects : 1. Voting. * 4. War. 2. The kingly office. 5. Cavalry and infantry. 3. The Presidential office. 6. Popular education. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make up not less than twenty sentences about each of the following subjects : 1. The horrors of war. 2. Reading the newspaper. 3. The advantages of reading poetry. 4. Things to be observed in conversation. 5. Modes of travel in different ages of the world. CHAPTER IV. Synecdoche. Example. — The superintendent reported that he would need five Jiands £men] more to get the work done in time. Note. — Hand is here used for marij a part for the whole. When a part is thus used for the whole, or the whole for a part, it is called Synecdoche. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, .marking in each case the word used as a Synecdoche, and inserting after it in brackets the word for which it is used. 1. He abjured all roofs, and dwelt in the forest. 2. The colt will be three years old next grass. 3. The sailor's home is on the wave. 4. From some points on the Hudson fifty sail can be Been at once. 5. He was an old man of eighty winters. Direction. — Change the following sentences so as to intro- duce a Synecdoche into each : 1. A ship was seen at a distance. 2. My house shall always shelter you. 3. She was a maiden of sixteen years. 9 a 97 98 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 4. There were sixty horsemen attached to the regiment. 5. There were one hundred and twenty cattle in the drove. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make up not less than twenty sentences about each of the following subjects, and mark with italics any Similes, Metaphors, Metonymies, or Synecdoches that you may use. 1. The importance of commerce. 2. The importance of agriculture. 3. The pleasures of school life. 4. The vexations of school life. 5. The advantages of an educated person over one not educated. CHAPTER V. . Interrogation. Example. — " Who goeth a warfare at any time at his own charges ?^^ Note 1. — This question is not for the sake of getting an answer, or of learning anything on the subject, but as an emphatic way of saying that one who enters military service expects to have at least his expenses paid. It is a thing that admits of no question. Who ever heard of its being otherwise ? When a question is thus asked, not for the purpose of getting an answer, but as a means of expressing one's opinion more strongly, the figure is called Interrogation. Note 2. — A negative Interrogation afiirms. "Am I not an apostle ? " means, I am an apostle. On the other hand, an affirm- ative Interrogation denies. " Who hath believed our report ? " means. No one has believed our report. Direction. — Copy the following Interrogations, and after each, write it changed to plain language : 1. Do we provoke the Lord to jealousy? Are we stronger than he ? 2. Who planteth a vineyard, and eateth not of the fruit of the vineyard ? Who feedeth a flock, and eateth not of the milk of the flock ? 3. Have I not seen Jesus Christ our Lord ? Are not ye my work in the Lord ? 100 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 4. Who shall lay anything to the charge of God^s elect ? Who shall separate us from the love of Christ ? Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword ? 5. Is this then worst. Thus sitting, thus consulting, thus in arms? Direction. — Write a sentence, expressing a very strong and decided opinion about each of the following subjects, but putting your opinion into the form of an Interrogation : 1. A love for home. 2. The sin of lying. 3. The existence of God. 4. The immortality of the soul. 5. The immensity of the universe. COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make up not less than twenty sentences about each of the following subjects, and mark with italics anySimiles, Metaphors, Metonymies, Synecdoches, or Interrogations which you may use : 1. The Suez Canal. 2. The Gulf Stream. 3. The Pacific Railroad. 4. The Atlantic Telegraph. 5. Difference between Spring and Fall. 6. Difference between Summer and Winter. CHAPTER VI. Personification. Example. — " The mountains sing together, the hills rejoice, and clap their handsJ' !N"0TE. — Here it is not meant literally that the mountains sing, that the hills rejoice and clap their hands. These are acts which can be performed by persons only, and not by mountains and hills. When aiiy thing which belongs to living things only is thus attributed to inanimate objects^ the figure is called Personi- fication, Direction. — Copy the following sentences, marking in each the word or words which indicate personification. 1. Nature sighing, through all her works, gave signs of woe. 2. The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad. 3. The voice of thy brother's blood- crieth unto me from the ground. 4. When summer reigns, the flowers rejoice. 5. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. Direction. — Change the following sentences, introducing a Personification into each : 1, There was a pestilence in the land. 9* 101 102 FIEST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 2. The waters came down over the precipice with overwhelming force. 3. The man has immense wealth. 4. There was a violent storm on the ocean. 5. The locomotive went over the embankment, and sent forth a terrific noise as it fell into the abyss. Direction. — Make up a sentence about each of the following subjects, and introduce a personification into each sentence: 1. Time. 4. The sun. 2. Death. 5. The moon. 3. Disease. 6. The tide. Of=®^*^ COMPOSITIONS. Direction. — Make up not less than twenty sentences about each of the following subjects, and mark with italics any Similes, Metaphors, or other figures that you may use : 1. Air castles. 2. John Chinaman. 3. The coming man. 4. The long summer days. 5. The long winter nights. 6. The character of the American Indian. SUBJECTS FOE COMPOSITION. 1. What I intend to do next vacation. 2. What I did last vacation. 3. An hour in Hollywood [or any other cemetery with which the pupil is familiar]. PERSONIFICATION. 103 4. Is travelling by railroad, or travelling by steam- boat, most agreeable? 5. The pleasures of memory. 6. What I can recollect of the first school that I attended. 7. Some account of the oldest person I ever knew. 8. A description of a snow-storm. 9. Some of the rules of behavior which a young per- son should observe. 10. Reflections suitable for one's birthday. 11. Reflections suitable for Christmas. 12. Things which are a hindrance to study. 13. Is the country more beautiful in spring, or in autumn ? 14. Is the city, or the country, most desirable for a residence ? 15. The pleasure of conversation. 16. Uses of the ocean. 17. Uses of the mountains. 18. Thoughts suggested by looking up into the starry heavens. 19. A description of my birthplace. 20. A description of a marriage ceremony which I once witnessed. 21. Recollections of an evening party. 22. The importance of perseverance. 23. My first school-book. 24. The evils of carelessness. 25. A history of my pets. 26. Difference between the two disciples, John and Peter. 27. Difference between Moses and Joshua. 28. Some of the changes that William Penn might notice, were he now to visit Philadelphia. 104 FIRST LESSOIirS IN COMPOSITION. 29. Some of the changes that Hendrick Hudson might notice, were he now to sail up the Hudson. 30. Guesses at what one may see in the year 1900. 31. Is it desirable that large numbers of the Chinese should settle in this country ? 32. Is a fondness for flowers, or a fondness for birds, most to be cultivated by the young ? 33. The evils of a quarrelsome disposition. 34. Some of the miseries of school-life. 35. My favorite game, and what I have to say in its defence. 36. My first friend, and what has be'bome of him [or her]. 37. What the cricket on the hearth told me one even- ing, when we were all alone together. 38. Advantages of studying history. 39. Source of anxiety to one who lives by farming. 40. What kind of life affords the greatest promise of happiness ? 41. A description of my home. 42. An account of the town or place I live in. 43. A history of my skates. 44. A history of my work-basket, 45. Our old family clock. 46. What I saw at the fair. 47. My grandfather's watch. 48. Which profession do you think most desirable ? 49. How to travel, so as to get the greatest benefit and pleasure from it. 50. The miser and the spendthrift. 51. Rainy Saturdays. 52. Wlien and how I learn my lessons. 53. The treatment of the Indians by the white men. fTTF ^'^'^ PERSONIFICATION. 105 fv 54. Life in the mountains. 55. What I know about Egypt. 56. Life in a coal mine. 57. My motto, and what it means. 58. What the man in the moon sees when he passes over our place. 59. Blowing soap-bubbles. 60. The advantages of being a good penman. 61. The effect of scenery upon national character. 62. Means by which a love of country may be pro- moted. 63. How to make children fond of home. 64. Duties which I owe to my father and mother. 65. Things to be observed in the intercourse between brothers and sisters. 66. Things to be observed by scholars in their way to and from school. 67. A description of the hottest day that I can re- member, and what we did to keep ourselves cool. 68. A description of the coldest day that I can re- member, and what we did to keep ourselves warm. 69. The different kinds of fur used, and where they come from. 70. How candles are made. 71. Manners and customs among the Chinese [or any other foreign nation]. 72. Different kinds of lace, where and how made. 73. Waiting for something to turn up. 74. Is coal or iron more important to mankind? 75. Lotteries at church fairs. 76. The influence of circus exhibitions. 77. An excursion by steamboat on the Potomac [or any other river with which the scholar is familiar]. 106 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 78. A journey by railroad from Chicago to Dubuque [or any other route with which the scholar is familiar], 79. Some of the discomforts of travel. 80. Importance of having a good memory, and means of improving it. 81. Some of the pleasures of travelling on foot. 82. Importance of cultivating a talent for conversa- tion. 83. An imaginary diary kept by a scholar during the first week of the term. 84. The experiences of a penny, as related by itself, to the little girl who holds it in her hand. 85. A dialogue between two dollies, Minnie and Susan, about their mother. 86. A dialogue between two boys, James and William, about the choice of amusements ; James arguing for fish- ing, and William arguing for skating. 87. A dialogue between two girls, Emma and Lucy, about the choice of studies ; Emma arguing for grammar, and Lucy for history. 88. A dialogue between two teachers about the choice of scholars; one preferring to teach boys, and the other preferring to teach girls. Part V. Style. CHAPTER I. Clearness. Rule. — The words of a sentence should be so arranged that the meaning cannot be mistaken, CASE I. — Position of Adverbs. Example. — By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view. Here " only '* is so placed as to refer to the word " mean." It naturally raises the question, what else does the author mean? But that evidently is not what he wished to say. He wished to discriminate between ^'a single object" and ^'a whole view." The adverb ^* only " should be so placed, therefore, as to bring out this point, and that is done by placing it after "object." " By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object only^ but the largeness of a whole view." 107 108 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. The rule, in such cases, is to place the adverb as near as possi- ble to the word or words which it is intended to designate, and in such a position that it cannot well be taken to designate any- other word or words. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, changing, in each case, the position of the adverb, so as to make the meaning more clear. Show, in each case, what other meaning, different from that intended, could be put upop the sentence. 1. It is by hunting and fishing that the Indians chiefly subsist. 2. I merely copied the rules ; I forgot to copy the ex- amples also. 3. The teacher only explained the method of reciting to the lower classes. 4. I never expect to be any taller than I am now. 5. California not only produces gold in abundance, but quicksilver also. Direction. — Find, or make up, five sentences, in each of which the meaning is obscured by the misplacing of an adverb ; and in each case re-write the sentence, placing the adverb cor- rectly. CASE II. — Position of Clauses. Example. — The following lines were written by an esteemed friend, who has lain in the grave fourteen years, for his own amusement. What the author meant to say was, "that the lines were written by his friend for his own amusement." What he does say, is that his friend "has lain in the grave fourteen years for his own amusemenf The clause " for his own amusement " is out of place. It should come immediately after " written." " The STYLE. 109 following lines were written for his own amusement, by an es- teemed friend, who has lain in his grave fourteen years." The rule for the position of a clause, in such cases, is the same as for the position of an adverb. Place the clause as near as possible to the word or words to which it refers, and in such a position that it cannot well be made to refer to anything else. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, changing, in each case, the position of some clause, so as to make the meaning more clear. Show, in each case, what other meaning, different from that intended, could be put upon the sentence. 1. The men of that day painted their faces, as well as the women. 2. I would like the congregation to be seated, as I wish to say a few words, before I begin. 3. He went to town^ driving a flock of sheep before him, on horseback. 4. I remember when the Duke Alexis was in Phila- delphia reading in the Ledger that the weather was uncommonly fine. 5. Wanted, a room for a single gentleman, twelve feet long and eight feet wide. Direction. — Find, or make up, ^ye sentences, in each of which the meaning is obscured by the misplacement of some clause ; and in each case re-write the sentence, placing the clause correctly. CASE III. — Squinting Clauses. Example. — This is an exploit which no one, who is born an American, in any circumstances, need to be ashamed to own. Here the clause " in any circumstances " is said to squint, that 10 110 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. is, to look in two opposite directions. It may look backward, referring to "born," *' no one who is born an American in any circumstances ; " or it may look forward, referring to " ashamed/' " no one who is born an American need in any circumstances to be ashamed." The rule, in such cases, is that no clause should be so placed between two other clauses or words, that its meaning can be re- ferred indifferently to one or the other. DiRECTioisr. — Copy the following sentences, changing, in each case, the position of the squinting clause, so as to make the mean- ing clearer. Show in each case what other meaning, different from that intended, could be put upon the sentence. 1. This monument is erected in honor of Walter Hammond, who was killed in battle, by his surviving comrades. 2. Say to Elizabeth, as soon as she has finished her composition, she must begin her grammar lesson. 3. One who has proved himself brave, in time of trial, is not easily driven from his purpose. 4. When breakfast was over, to their surprise, the train had already passed. 5. If he sees the danger of the habit, in time, he will overcome it. DiEECTiON, — Find, or make up, five sentences, in each of which some clause or word is capable of a squinting construction ; and, in each case, re- write the sentence, placing the clause or the word correctly. CASE IV. — Incorrect Use of Pronouns. Example. — John, having at last found the key, locked the door, and went off, carrying it in his pocket. STYLE. Ill Here the author means to say that John carried off the key in his pocket. What he does say is, that John carried off the door in his pocket. The pronoun " it '^ refers grammatically to the noun last mentioned, which is " door." To avoid this mistake, the sentence must be so reconstructed that the noun next pre- ceding the word " it " shall be " key." Thus : " John locked the door, having at last found the key, and went off, carrying it in his pocket." The main difficulty in the use of pronouns grows out of the fact that, in most sentences, two or more nouns precede the pro- noun, for any one of which nouns the pronoun might be a suita- ble representative. The rule is : Construct the sentence in such a manner that no noun to which grammatically the pronoun could refer shall come between it and the noun which is intended to be represented. Sometimes the evil is remedied by a change of persons. " Mary asked her mother if she might go with her, as she was sure she was going to buy something for her." Here the " she " and the " her " may refer indifferently to the mother or to the daughter. All ambiguity in this case may be avoided by a change of persons, thus: "Mary said to her mother, ^May I go with you? lam sure you are going to buy something for me.' " Sometimes the evil is remedied by changing the number of one of the nouns. " Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others ; and think that their reputation obscures them, and their commendable qualities stand in their light ; and therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure them." Here are no less than four words, " men," " others," " qualities," and " virtues," for any one of which " they," " them," and '* their " may be a fitting representative ; and the four words named are so mixed up in the construction that the sentence becomes a perfect ^ jumble. By changing "others" to the singular, the pronouns adjust themselves without difficulty, so that the meaning of the author becomes perfectly clear, thus : " Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in another ; and think that his reputation obscures them, his commendable qualities stand in their light ; and there- fore they do what they can to cast a cloud over him, that the bright shining of his virtues may not obscure them." 112 FIRST LESSOKS IN COMPOSITION. Or the number of" men " may be changed, thus : " Such a man will look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others ; and think that their reputation obscures him, their commendable qualities stand in his light ; and therefore he does what he can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure him." Sometimes the only remedy is to repeat the noun, instead of using a pronoun, thus : " The lad cannot leave his father, for if he should leave his father, his father would die." A less skil- ful writer would have said, " If he should leave his father, he would die," leaving it uncertain whether it was the father or the son that would die. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, changing the construction of each sentence so that there shall be no ambiguity in the use of the pronouns : 1. Robert promised his father that he would pay his debts. 2. The habit of wasting time and money, which some acquire in their youth, adheres to them through life. 3. The father should be careful not to find fault with the tutor in the presence of the boy, as it weakens his influence. 4. Mary asked her cousin to bring her work-basket along, that she might make something for her mother. 6. When the travellers complained courteously to their host of the ferocity of his dogs, he said they were ill- bred curs. Direction. — Find, or make up, five sentences, in each off which there is some ambiguity in the use of a pronoun ; and, in each case, reconstruct the sentence so that the ambiguity shall disappear. Note. — From the examples and exercises which have been given, it will be seen that the first requisite of a good sentence is Clearness. The words should be so arranged that the meaning STYLE. 113 cannot be mistaken. To this end, in constructing a sentence, these three things must be observed : 1. Every adverb or adverbial clause should be made to adhere as closely as possible to the word or words intended to be desig- nated by it. ^ 2. When a circumstance of any kind is thrown in, it should not hang loosely in the midst of a period, but should be so placed as by its position to show to which member of the sentence it belongs. 3. When a pronoun is used, the noun to which it relates should be so placed as to suggest the relation instantly to the mind of the reader. 10* H CHAPTER IL Emphasis. Rule. — A sentence should he so constructed as to give a con- spicuous position to those words on which the meaning chiefly depends. Example. — He that tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakes ; for he must be forced to invent twenty more, to maintain one. Here, in the latter part of this sentence, the principal asser- tion intended is the necessity of inventing twenty more lies. Yet leaving the sentence as it is, it would be difficult to read it so as to make this idea prominent. Change the sentence to read thus : " For, to maintain one lie, he must invent twenty more.^^ Now, it would be difficult to read the sentence without making these words emphatic. Note. — In every sentence of any considerable length, there is some one word, or set of words, which forms the topic or subject mainly spoken of, and which may be called the principal subject; and there is also some one word, or set of words, which forms the main assertion, and which may be called the principal predicate. The writer, in constructing such a sentence, should consider what words constitute his main subject and his main predicate, and should arrange the other and subordinate parts, so that these most important words shall stand clear and disentangled from all needless accessories, and so that the voice, in reading them, will almost necessarily render them emphatic. 114 STYLE. 115 No uniform rule can be given for the position of these em- phatic words ; but the best place, usually, is either at the begin- ning of the sentence or at the end. Direction. — Copy the following sentences, rearranging each so as to give a more conspicuous position to the emphatic words : 1. That our elder writers, to Jeremy Taylor inclusive, quoted to excess, it would be the blindness of partiality to deny. 2. On whatever side we contemplate Homer, his won- derful invention is that which principally strikes us. 3. That the empire has provinces which blend some- thing of foreign genius with their national character, on her every frontier, is of the greatness of France one of ,the elements. 4. To subject passengers arriving from foreign ports to unnecessary inconvenience is equally undesirable and impolitic, while it is very necessary to take proper meas- ures to prevent smuggling. 5. Trifles float and are preserved in the shipwreck of the state ; while everything sinks to the bottom and is lost that is solid and valuable. Direction. — Make up, or find, five sentences which are faulty in regard to the position of the emphatic words, and re- construct each sentence so that the emphatic words shall have a more conspicuous position. CHAPTER IIL Unity. BULE. — A sentence should be so constructed as to maintain unity of thought. Example. — The vessel made for shore, and the pas- sengers crowded into the boats, and reached the beach in safety, where the inhabitants received them with the utmost kindness, and a shelter was provided lor them. This sentence is about as defective, in regard to unity, as it could well be. There are various ways of remedying the defect. One is to divide the sentence into two or more independent sentences. Thus: "The vessel having made for shore, the passengers crowded into the boats and reached the beach in safety. There the inhab- itants received them with the utmost kindness, and pravided for them a shelter." Another way is to select some leading word as the subject, — " passengers," for instance, — and so to change the construction that this word shall be nominative to every verb that is intro- duced. Thus : *' The vessel having made for shore, the passengers crowded into the boats, and, having reached the beach in safety, were re- ceived by the inhabitants with the utmost kindness, and were provided with shelter." Note. — The foregoing example shows that Unity in a sen- 116 STYLE. 117 tence is not incompatible with including in the sentence a great number and variety of particulars. A sentence may contain a dozen different thoughts or ideas, and yet may have these all so subordinated to the one governing idea, which forms the basis of the sentence, as to make on the mind the impression of one undivided whole. We may take an illustration from house-building. When we see heaps of sand, brick, lime, and stone, piles of beams and boards, kegs of nails, screws, bolts, hooks, and other implements of iron, all scattered about miscellaneously, here and there, we have a picture of many of the sentences, so called, that we find in authors. When again, under the hand of the architect and the builder, those scattered materials have been brought into harmonious and orderly arrangement, — when they stand before us, not a confused mass of rubbish, but a compacted and commo- dious house for the dwelling of man, in which every particle of sand and lime, every brick and stone, every piece of wood and iron has its place and serves one general design, — we have a pic- ture of the perfect period, as it comes from the hand of some master-builder. It is not easy to construct these long complex periods without some sacrifice of unity. Nor should such periods be multiplied. They should be employed occasionally. But short independent sentences should form the main staple of discourse. Direction. — -Ee- write the following sentences, so as to correct the want of unity. Make the correction, either by keeping the whole in one complex sentence, or by dividing it into two or more sentences. If the example admits of it, make the correc- tion in both ways. 1. After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness. 2. The equinoctial storm occurred last Tuesday, during which the lightning struck a tree near the church that was built last spring. 3. As we rode to town, we met a man with a flock of 118 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. geese, who was talking to a little girl, in a pink sun- bonnet, who was carrying a basket on her arm, contain- ing a few radishes which her mother had grown in a garden which her parents rented of farmer Jones who lived on the other side of the river. 4. Thus with her few notes does nature ring the changes of the seasons ; which we admire, and endeavor- ing to imitate, find but shadowy success. 5. The boy left, the house with a rake in his hand, which his father bought at Smithville, where Mr. Cook lives, who lost four children by the scarlet fever last w^in- ter, when we had that dreadful snow-storm. Direction. — Make up, or find, five sentences defective in unity, and reconstruct the sentences so as to correct them in this respect CHAPTER IV. Strength. Rule. — A sentence should be so constructed as to give to the thought expressed its full force. Note. — The rules already given are preparatory to this. Clearness, emphasis, and unity all tend to make the expression forcible. Something more than these, however, is needed, in order that the thought may produce the strongest impression of which it is capable. It is, indeed, no part of style to give strong thoughts. These come, if at all, from native power. But it is within the province of style to give to the thought which a man has all the force of which it is capable. It is especially within the province of style to remove whatever hinders or obstructs the thought in its way to the mind of the reader. 1. Redundancy. — An expression is made stronger by leaving out redundant words. Whatever in a sentence does not add to the meaning enfeebles it. Every redundant word is so much dead weight. "The least that is said on the subject, the soonest it will be mended," has not half the force of the usual expres- sion, " Least said, soonest mended." 2. Use of ^^veryy — A sentence is often made stronger by avoiding the use of "very," and of intensive and superlative expressions of all sorts. It is a safe plan, after completing any piece of composition, to go through it, pen in hand, and strike out three-fourths of the epithets, and nine-tenths, if not all, of the superlatives and the " verys." " It is not very easy to describe in words merely the precise and exact impressions which very no 120 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. great and sublime objects make upon us. The emotion most certainly is extremely delightful, but still it is altogether of a very serious and solemn kind." By striking out about a dozen unnecessary words from this sentence, we add greatly to its force. Thus : *' It is not easy to describe in words the precise impression which great and sublime objects make upon us. The emotion is certainly delightful, but it is altogether of the serious kind." 3. Connecting Words, — A sentence is often strengthened by care in the use of the words employed to mark connection and transi- tion. The little words butj andj which, whose, where, &c., are fre- quently the most important of any ; they are the joints or hinges upon which sentences turn. Hence much, both of the beauty and the strength of sentences, depends upon such words. The word "and," especially, is often used for stringing one clause upon another, in a careless, slipshod way, which has an enfeebling effect upon the style. " The Academy set up by Cardinal Riche- lieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country and divert them from raking into his politics and ministry, brought this into vogue ; and the French wits have, for this last age, been wholly turned to the refinement of their style and language, and, indeed, with such success, that it can hardly be equalled, and runs equally through their verse and their prose." Here are two faults, — using too many ands, and putting into one sentence what would be more effective if made into two or three sentences. Thus : "The Academy set up by Cardinal Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country, and [to] divert them from raking into his politics and ministry, brought this into vogue. The French wits have [accordingly], for this last age, been wholly turned to the refinement of their style and language, and with such success that it can hardly be equalled. It runs equally through their verse and their prose." 4. Bringing to a Conclusion. — The strength of a sentence is often promoted by due care in bringing it to a conclusion. The mind naturally dwells upon the last word. Care should be used, therefore, not to end a sentence with a word which is compara- tively unimportant, mean, or belittling. It is rarely expedient to end with an adverb. "Such things were not allowed formerly. ^^ This sentence gains force by trans- posing thus : " Formerly such things were not allowed." Avoid ending with a preposition, " Avarice is a vice which STYLE. 121 wise men are often guilty o/." Change thus : " Avarice is a vice of which wise men are often guilty." The pronoun it, especially when accompanied by a preposition, as with it, in it, to it, &c., makes a feeble ending. " The wrongs of Ireland will crumble under one well-directed blow, and Mr. Disraeli is the one man in Parliament who knows how to attend to it,'' Change thus : " And the one man in Parliament who knows how to attend to it is Mr. Disraeli." 5. Putting the Longest Last, — In sentences which consist of more clauses than one, it is better usually to end with the clause which is longest. " We flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken our passions, when they have forsaken us." Better thus : " When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them." 6. Putting the Strongest Last. — This is what is called Climax. The principle which underlies it is that a weaker term or clause should never come after a stronger. Climax is sometimes very elaborate, and when used with judgment is very powerful. The following passage from Cicero is often admired on this account : " To bind a Koman citizen is an outrage ; to scourge him is an atrocious crime; to put him to death is almost a parricide; but to put him to death by CRUCIFIXION, what shall I call it?" This elaborate climax, however, is seldom needed or allowable. But there is a kind of minor climax which comes in use in the construction of almost every sentence. When several terms or clauses are used, that which expresses the more general or the more important idea should come last. "He lost, at one fell sweep, his child, his household goods, and his dog." Better thus : " He lost, at one fell sweep, his dog, his household goods, and his child." Direction. — Reconstruct the following sentences so as, in each case, to give to the thought greater force. Explain the defect in the sentence, as it now stands. 1. The whole of it is everywhere pervaded by a spirit of judicial calmness. 2. I was very sorry indeed to hear that you were in such very bad health. I hope that before very long 11 122 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. your health will be S9 completely and entirely restored, that you can enjoy this perfectly splendid and lovely weather. 3. There was no evidence of habitation about the place, and neither leaf nor bud was to be seen, and the quail piped, and the crow croaked dismally and unceas- ingly, and all things were dreary and unattractive in it. 4. David was a great statesman, a great warrior, a great poet, and a skilful harper. 5. I do not know what the house is built of. Direction. — Make up, or find, five sentences deficient in strength through bad construction, and reconstruct each so as to give greater force to the thought expressed. Part VL Letter-Writing. Note. — The general principles which underlie all composition must guide the writer in the composition of the substance or body of a letter. All that needs to be said, in the way of special direction, refers to the form of a letter. Custom has prescribed certain forms for this species of composition, and these forms, whether founded on practical convenience or on social propriety, ought not to be lightly disregarded. The points in the form of a letter requiring special attention are four in number: 1, The Heading; 2, The Address; 3, The Subscription ; 4, The Superscription. I. The Heading. The Heading of letters includes what is generally called The Date, and requires attention to several particulars, as follows : 1. The Place. — In giving i\\Q place at which the letter is written, we should insert all those particulars which will be needed by our correspondent in directing his reply. These particulars are the following : State, county, city or town, street and number. Each of these deserves consideration. The State. — In writing from a very large city, like New York or Philadelphia, the name of the State is not needed. In all other cases, the name of the State should be given. The County. — The name of the County is sel- dom required; never, indeed, except in the case of very small 123 124 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. places which are little known. Street and Number. — The larger the place, the greater is the necessity for giving the street and number. In very large cities, like New York, Philadelphia, Boston, &c., this is indispensable. Even although your corres- pondent may know your street and number, it is well to give them. He may perhaps not remember them at the time of writ- ing, or he may get them wrong. Post-Office. — Letters are some- times written from small outlying settlements, or from country- seats, which have a name of their own, but which have no post- office. In such cases, if the writer choose to insert the name of the country residence, or of the settlement, he should be careful to add also the name of the Post- Office town through which his letters are mailed. 2. The Time.— li is important, in every kind of letter, but espe- cially in business letters, to give the time of writing the letter; that is, to register the month, the day of the month, and the year ; thus, January 28, 1872. This is called dating the letter, and the time itself is called the date, although, strictly speaking, the date of any transaction includes the place as well as the time. 3. Order of Arrangement. — In writing the heading of a letter, it is customary to put the place first, and then the time ; and, in writing the place, to put the least and smallest first, and the largest last ; namely, 1, the house, 2, the street, 3, the city or town, 4, the county, 5, the State ; thus. No. 1828, Pine Street, Philadelphia. (County and State not given.) Bursonville, Bucks Co., Penn'a. (County given, but no street or number.) Dutch Neck, near Bridgeton, New Jersey. (The nearest Post-Office added.) Easton, Maryland. (County not given, and no street or number.) 4. Place and Form of the Heading. — The heading is usually placed near the top of the page, and near the right hand corner. If the heading is long, it is sometimes broken into two parts or lines, the words expressing the place being in one line, those express- ing the time in another line. Thus : Bursonville, Bucks Co., Penn'a., Jan. 31, 1872. This, however, is a matter of fancy. It is, in fact, a question of penmanship. Care should be taken, in all cases, not to crowd the heading close to the top of the page, or close to the side. Either of these LETTEK-WRITINO. 125 faults gives the letter a mean appearance. See that there is a generous margin above, and a clear space to the right. 5. Date at the Bottom- — Some persons have a fancy for giving the date at the bottom of the page, or at the end of the letter. But this custom is not to be recommended. The practical conveni- ences of the ordinary method are so great that every one engaged in business ought to feel bound to conform to it. II. The Address. By the Address of a letter is meant the name and title of the person to whom the letter is written. The address consists usually of two parts : 1. The precise, formal name and title of the person, as William H. Allen, LL. D., President, Girard College ; and, 2. Some particular term of re- spect or affection, varying according to circumstances, as Dear Sir, My Dear Sir, My Dear Dr. Allen, My Dear Friend, &c. The two parts of the address should be written separately, the first part often occupying two lines ; thus, Edward T. Brooks, A. M., Principal of the State Normal School at Millersville: My Dear Professor : The more formal part of the address, giving the precise name, title, &c., may be placed either at the top, as in the instance above, or at the end of the letter, on the left hand corner ; thus : My Dear Mr. Wickersham. Your obliging letter of yesterday is received. I shall be happy to comply with your request, and will have the article ready in time for the April number of the Journal. I am, Very Respectfully Yours, John Jones. Hon. J. P. Wickersham, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg. In the case of business letters, this formal address should be at the top. In other letters, and especially in all letters of cere- mony, it is common to put this part of the address at the bottom, and, in extremely ceremonious letters, at the bottom of the first page, whether the letter ends on that page or not. This formal part of the address, whether given at the top or the bottom, should be the same that is put on the outside, and should not be omitted, even in the most familiar letters. It is a 11* 126 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. safeguard against the letter going, by mistake, into wrong hands. The envelope is often lost or destroyed. The letter, therefore, should be self-identifying, independently of the envelope. When there is, in the letter itself, nothing to identify clearly both the writer and the one written to, there is an appearance of something clandestine. A proper respect, therefore, for the per- son addressed, particularly if the person is a lady, requires the formal recognition implied by giving in full, at the close of the letter, the proper pame and address, whatever terms of badinage or of endearment may have preceded it. Indeed, the more free and easy the first address and the body of a letter are, the more propriety there is in this formal recognition and identification at the close. III. The Subscription. In closing a letter, the writer subscribes his name with more or less fulness, and in such terms of respect or affection as the circumstances seem to warrant. Business Letters, — Business letters very commonly close with " Your Obedient Servant,'^ or, if it be a firm, " Your Obedient Servants." Initials. — Many persons, in subscribing their name, have a fancy for giving only their first or given name, thus: K. E. Jones, J. M. Smith. No one can determine, from such a signa- ture, whether the writer is Reuben or Rebecca, James or Juliet ; and the person addressed, who is often a stranger, is at a loss whether to send his reply to Mr. Jones or Miss Jones, to Mr. Smith or Miss Smith. Sex, — In signing one's name to a letter, it is advisable that the name should be so written as to show whether the writer is a man or a woman. This is particularly important in addressing a stranger. Married Women and Widows. — A married woman or a widow, in writing to a stranger, should prefix Mrs. to her name. A married woman gives, with the Mrs., the first name of her hus- band, so long as he lives, but drops it after his death. " Mrs. William Southcote'' implies that Mr. Southcote is still living. "Mrs. Joanna Southcote" implies that Mr. S. is dead, and that she is his widow. Arrangement. — The arrangement of the subscription, like that LETTER-WRITING. 127 of the address, is a matter of penmanship. Still, it may not be amiss to observe that the terms of respect, affection, or endear- ment usually occupy a line by themselves, sometimes two lines, and the name of the writer another line. Examples. — The following addresses and subscriptions have been copied from writers of good standing, and may serve as models, according to circumstances. My Dear Mr. Jebb, Most Truly Yours, Alexander Knox. My Dear Sir, Affectionately Yours, John M. Mason. Your unseen God-father and Friend, Samuel Taylor Coleridge. My Dear God-child, • My Dearest Wife, — Your Loving Husband, Robert Burns. IV. The Supersceiption. By the superscription of a letter is meant the address which is written upon the envelope. Important — Care in this is important, both because correct- ness in the superscription is the chief means for securing the safe delivery of the letter, and because any want of propriety in the superscription is sure to attract criticism. What is inside of a letter may meet the eye of indulgent friendship only. But the outside is subject to the scrutiny of many. It is a poor com- pliment to your friend, that what he receives from you, at the hand of third parties, should give them the impression that his correspondent is an ignoramus or a boor. Penmanship. — The superscription of a letter, so far as the pen- manship goes, should be written with entire distinctness and legibility, with neatness and care, with some attention to ele- gance, but never with ornamental flourishes. Exact Name and Title. — Intimate friends often have familiar pet names for each other, nicknames, which they use in the free intercourse of friendship. These may be allowable inside of a letter, but never outside. The name and title should be written on the outside with formal propriety and correctness, as it would be expected to be written by an entire stranger. 128 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Residence. — In writing upon the envelope of a letter the resi- dence of the person introduced, the same general rules should be observed which have already been given for writing one's own residence at the top of the letter. Name of the State. — The name of the State should be written in full, especially when the letter is to go to some other State than that in which the letter is written. Abbreviations of the names of States, on the outside of letters, are one of the chief causes of letters going astr^-y. Arrangement of the Items. — The name and title should occupy the central portion of the envelope. If they are placed higher up than the middle, the appearance is awkward. Besides, a clear space is needed for the stamp and the post- mark. If the name is written much below the middle, there is not suitable room for the residence. Nor should the name be crowded ofi" to the ex- treme right, but should be placed about centrally between the two ends. Each item of the residence should occupy a separate line, thus : Bridgeton, Cumberland County, New Jersey. • 315 Green St., Trenton, New Jersey. Direction. — Write Letters as follows, enclosing in an envel- ope, ready for mailing, and observing the rules given in regard to Heading, Address, Subscription, and Superscription. 1. A Letter from a scholar to a former schoolmate, who is now a resident in some other State. 2. A Letter from a scholar in Philadelphia to a former teacher, living in New Orleans. 3. A Letter from a girl in Charleston to her brother in San Francisco. 4. A Letter from a boy at some place of summer re- sort in Virginia to his mother at some place of summer resort in New England. LETTER-WRITING. 129 5. A Letter from a girl at boarding-school in New- York, or any other large city, to her father at his home in the country. Note. — The teacher should continue to assign exercises of this kind, varying in each case the conditions of the letter to be written, until the scholar becomes perfectly familiar with all the forms, as prescribed in the preceding rules and observations. di^o ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 1. Write a letter to a friend, giving an account of a wedding which took place in church. The following are some of the particulars, which you may give with more or less minuteness, according to circumstances : The attendant minister, and the form used. The appear- ance, dress, and behavior of the bride. The number of bridesmaids, and any peculiarities in the dress of each. Incidents in the church, after the ceremony was over. The wedding tour proposed. 2. Write a letter to a friend, giving an account of the exercises at the last exhibition in your school. The fol- lowing are among the particulars that may be noticed, although you are not limited to these. The day on which the exhibition took place, and what kind of weather you had. Name and describe some of the notable persons present. Give a list of the principal exercises, and de- scribe some of them particularly. The names of those scholars who were prominent in the exhibition, and the part taken by each. 3. Write a letter, describing a journey which you once took. The following particulars are suggested : The time of taking the journey, the state of the weather, things I 130 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. seen on the way, persons met with, incidents which oc- curred on the way, anything, in short, that tended to make the journey agreeable, or disagreeable. 4. A letter to one who was formerly a member of the school, telling the changes which have taken place since he or she left. The following are suggested: New scholars, naming and describing them, and telling whether they are agreeable and studious, or the opposite. New teachers, and any peculiarities in their modes of conduct- ing recitations. New studies, and new regulations. Changes in the school-house, or in the furniture. 5. Write a letter, giving an account of your Sunday- school. Tell where it is kept, on what part of the day, how large it is, what are the principal exercises, what class you are in, who is your teacher, who are some of your classmates, what lessons you study, whether you have a good library, what books you have been reading lately, which of them you found most interesting, and so on. Appendix. Punctuation and Capitals. The principal Points are five ; namely, 1. The Comma, , 2. The Semicolon, ; 3. The Colon, : 4. The Period, 5. The Interrogation, ? Note. — For a full illustration of the rules and exercises in this part of the book, the teacher is referred to my larger work, " Composition and Rhetoric," where the subject of Punctuation is treated at length. Besides the five points just named, several other characters are used for similar purposes. The most common of these are the following ; The Exclamation, ! The Dash, — The Parenthesis, ( ) The Bracket, [ ] _^,.-:.-. The Quotation, " " "^^^^^ The Apostrophe, ^ 131 132 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. SECTION I. — The Comma. The Comma marks the smallest of the grammatical divisions of discourse that require a point. Rule 1. Parenthetical Expressions. — Phrases and single words, used parenthetically, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.* Note 1. — Some of the phrases in common use, which require to be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following: in short, in truth, to be sure, in fact, as it were, to be brief, in fine, as it happens, after all, in reality, no doubt, you know, in brief, in a word, of course. Note 2. — Some of the single words used parenthetically, and ordinarily requiring to be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following : therefore, then, however, perhaps. namely, consequently, indeed, too. moreover, surely, accordingly, finally. Examples for PRACTiCE.f 1. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to real en- joyment. * It is not intended that these rules and definitions should be committed to memory by the pupil. They are merely to guide him in correcting the exercises. fTo THK Teacher, — 1. In these and the other examples for practice which will be given in Punctuation, constant vigilance must be used to prevent the pupils from marking the cnrrectinns in the. honk. A book so marked is valueless for the pur- pose of study or instruction. It should at once be destroyed and replaced by a new copy at the expense of the offending party. A stated inspection of the books, for the PUNCTUATION. 133 2. The locomotive bellows as it were from the fury of passion. 3. He knows very well come what may that the note will be paid. 4. He had no doubt great aptitude for learning lan- guages. 5. He went home accordingly and arranged his busi- ness in the manner described. 6. There are in truth only two things to be considered namely his honesty and his ability. 7. Come then and let us reason together. 8. No nation in short is free from danger. 9. When however the hour for the trial came, the man was not to be found. 10. Why those are the very books you want. 11. I proceed fourthly to prove the fact from your own admissions. 12. On the other hand there is great danger in delay. 13. We must however pay some respect to the opinions of one who has had so large an experience. 14. I have shown how just and qquitable the arrange- ment is ; and now what is the fair conclusion ? 15. Attend first to the study of arithmetic; and sec- ondly to that of algebra. 16. If I cannot induce you to grant my request, why I shall almost regret having made it. purpose of preventing this fraud, is as necessary a part of the teacher's duty, as it is to examine the exercises presented. 2. The exercises should not be brought in written out beforehand, but should in all cases be written in the class-room. This should be considered an essential part of the recitation. There is no other way of ascertaining that the pupil makes the correc- tions from his own independent judgment, and unless he does this, the exercise is a mere waste of time. 3. In most cases, the following will be found a convenient mode of procedure. 1. Let the students seriatim present their books at the teacher's desk for inspection, each book, as presented, being open at the page containing the lesson, and let the books remain there piled, until the lesson is over. 2. Let the teacher dictate the •examples, and the students write and correct them, using for this purpose either tha blackboards, slates, or papet, according to circumstances. 12 134 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 17. But on the other hand do not suppose that there is no use in trying. 18. Feudalism is in fact the embodiment of pride. 19. The meeting after all was something of a failure. 20. Besides it may be of the greatest importance to you in your business. 21. Thou knowest come what may that the light of truth can never be put out. EuLE 2. Intermediate Expressions. ^ /- Clauses and expres- sicns, not parenthetical in character, yet so placed as to come between some of the essential parts of the sentence, as, for in- stance, between the subject and the predicate, may be called intermediate expressions, and they should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Examples for Practice. 1. Classical studies regarded merely as a means of cul- ture are deserving of general attention. 2. The sun with all its train of attendant planets is but a small and inconsiderable portion of the universe. 3. We have endeavored in the preceding paragraph to show the incorrectness of his position. 4. Nature through all her works delights in variety 5. The speaker proceeded with the greatest animation to depict the horrors of the scene. 6. Christianity is in a most important sense the reli- gion of sorrow. 7. A man of great wealth may for want of education and refinement of manner be a mere cipher in society. 8. Truth like gold shines brighter by collision. 9. Charity on whatever side we contemplate it is one of the highest Christian graces. PUNCTUATION. 136 10. One hour a day steadily given to a particular study will bring in time large accumulations. Rule 3. Dependent Clauses. — A dependent clause should be separated by a comma, or by commas, from the clause upon which it depends. Examples FOR Practice. [N. B. In punctuating these examples and those which are to follow, insert not only the points required by the rule under consideration, but also those required by the preceding rules.] 1. If you would succeed in business be punctual in observing your engagements. 2. Every man if he would succeed in business must be punctual in observing his engagements. 3. The days in December you know are at their short- est and therefore you must rise by the dawn if you would have much daylight. 4. The index at the end of the book will enable the pupil if his memory fail him to discover the particular rule which he needs. 5. The reader should however as he proceeds from sen- tence to sentence make a note of whatever strikes his at- tention. 6. The good which you do may not be lost though it may be forgotten. 7. Good deeds though forgotten are not in every case lost. 8. John went last year to Canton where he is doing they say an excellent business. 9. If wishes were horses beggars might ride. 10. Unless you bridle your tongue you will assuredly be shut out from good society. 136 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 11. We should in all probability be ashamed of much that we boast of could the world see our real motive. 12. Attend that you may receive- instruction. 13. You may go home as soon as you like. 14. One object of studying rhetoric is that we may compose better. 15. He studied rhetoric in order that he might become a better writer. EuLE 4. Eelative Clauses. — A clause introduced by a rela- tive pronoun , should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, unless the clause is restrictive in its character. Note. — The teacher should refer to the larger book, " Com^ position and Ehetoric," for an explanation of what clauses are to be considered restrictive. Examples for Practice. 1. A fierce spirit of rivalry which is at all times a dangerous passion had now taken full possession of him. 2. The spirit which actuated him was a thirst for ven- geance. 3. The man of letters who has constantly before him examples of excellence ought himself to be a pattern of excellence. 4. Books which are the repositories of knowledge are an indispensable part of the furniture of a house. . 5. Every teacher must love a pupil who is docile. 6. The child was much attached to his teacher who loved him dearly. 7. Patriotism consists in loving the country in which we are born. 8. The eye which sees all things is unseen to itself. 9. Death is the season which tests our principles. PUNCTUATION. 137 10. Civil war is an awful evil of which however his- tory furnishes many examples. 11. No man can be thoroughly proficient in navigation who has never been at sea. 12. The father of Epic poetry is Homer Avho has given us in the Iliad the story of Troy divine. 13. The powers which now move the world are the printing-press and the telegraph. 14. America may well boast of her Washington whose character and fame are the common property of the world. 15. The man who uses profane language condemns the man who takes his neighbor's property though both in the eyes of God are alike guilty. Rule 5. Co-ordinate Clauses. — In continued sentences, the several co-ordinate clauses or members, if simple in construc- tion, are separated from each other by commas. Examples for Practice. 1. Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and wise men use them. 2. Speak as you mean do as you profess perform what you promise. 3. Csesar was dead the senators were dispersed all Rome was in confusion. 4. Modern engineering spans whole continents tunnels alike mountains and rivers and dykes out old ocean him- self. Rule 6. Expressions in the same Construction. — Gram- matical expressions forming a series in the same construction should be separated from each other, and from what follows, by a comma. 12* 138 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Examples for Practice. 1. Love for study a desire to do right and carefulness in the choice of friends are important traits of character. 2. To cleanse our ojjinions from falsehood our hearts from malignity and our actions from vice is our chief concern. 3. Did God create for the poor a coarser earth a thin- ner air a paler sky ? 4. Infinite space endless numbers and eternal duration fill the mind with great ideas. 5. On the rich and the eloquent on nobles and priests the Puritans looked down with contempt. Rule 7. Words in the same Construction. — When words of the same kind follow each other in a series, in the same gram- matical construction, the following three cases may arise : 1. There may be a conjunction between each two of the words; as, "In- dustry and honesty and frugality and temperance are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, none of the words in the series are to be separated by commas. 2. The conjunction may be omitted, except between the last two of the words : as, " Industry, honesty, frugality, and temperance arc among the cardinal virtues." In this case, all the words are to be separated from each other by commas. 3. The conjunction may be omitted between the last" two words, as well as between the others ; as, " Industry, honesty, frugality, temperance, are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, not only all the words of the series are to be separated from each other by commas, but a comma is to be inserted also after the last word, to separate it from what follows. Note. — A comma is not in any case to be inserted after the last word of a series, if what follows is only a single word ; as, " The good will form hereafter stronger, purer, holier ties." Examples for Practice. 1. He was brave and pious and patriotic in all his aspirations. PUNCTUATION. 139 2. He was brave pious and patriotic in all his aspira- tions. 3. He was brave pious patriotic in all his aspirations. 4. He was a brave pious patriotic man. 5. Aright aleft above below he whirled the rapid sword. 6. The address was beautifully elegantly and forcibly written. 7. Can flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death ? 8. Within around and above us we see traces of the Creator's hand. 9. We are fearfully wonderfully made. 10. The sun the moon the planets the stars revolve. 11. The sun the moon the planets the stars are all in motion. 12. The sun the moon the planets and the stars are all in motion. 13. Virtue religion is the one thing needful. 14. It is a useful accomplishment to be able to read write spell or cipher with accuracy. 15. Woe woe to the rider that tramples them down. 16. Aristotle Hamilton Whately and McCosh are high authorities in logic. 17. Lend lend your wings. 18. The earth the air the water teem with life. 19. Grand ideas and sentiments elevate and ennoble the mind. EuLE 8. Words or Phrases in Pairs. — A series of words or phrases in pairs take a comma after each pair. Examples for Practice. 1. Anarchy and confusion poverty and distress deso- lation and ruin are the consequences of civil war. 140 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 2. Truth and integrity kindness and modesty rever- ence and devotion were all remarked in him. 3. The poor and the rich the weak and the strong the young and the old have one common Father. 4. To have and to hold for better for worse for richer for poorer in sickness and in health to love and to cherish. 5. Eating or drinking laboring or sleeping let us do all in moderation. KuLE 9. Nouns in Apposition. — When a noun is in appo- sition to some preceding noun or pronoun, and has an adjunct consisting of several words, the said noun and all its connected words should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma before and a comma after. Examples for Practice. 1. We the people of the United States do hereby or- dain and establish this Constitution. 2. Paul the great apostle of the Gentiles was a man of energy. 3. Virgil the chief poet among the Romans was fond of rural life. 4. The English dramatic poet Shakspeare is now con- sidered the greatest of writers ancijent or modern. 5. Newton the great mathematician was a devout be- liever in Christianity. 6. Spenser the author of the Faery Queen lived in the time of Queen Elizabeth. 7. Plutarch calls anger a brief madness. 8. The chief work of Chaucer the Canterbury Tales suggested to Longfellow the plan of the Tales of a Way- side Inn. 9. The wisest of the ancients Socrates wrote nothing. PUNCTUATION. 141 10. Much stress was laid by the greatest of the ancient orators Demosthenes upon delivery. EuLE 10. The Vocative Case. — A noun in the vocative case, or case independent, as it is called, together with its adjunct words, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, or commas. Examples for Practice. 1. Accept my dear young friends this expression of my regard. 2. I beg sir to acknowledge the receipt of your favor, 3. I rise Mr. President to a point of order. 4. Show pity Lord ! O Lord forgive ! 5. Remember sir you cannot have it. EuLE 11. The Case Absolute. — A clause containing the construction known as the case absolute should be "separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, or commas. Examples for Practice. 1. Then came Jesus the doors being shut and stood in the midst. 2. A state of ease is generally speaking more attain- able than a state of pleasure. 3. Shame lost all virtue is lost. 4. His father being dead the prince ascended the throne. 5. I being in the way the Lord led me to the house of my master's brother. 142 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Rule 12. Inverted Clauses and Expressions. — A clause, or a grammatical expression, that is inverted, or transposed from its natural order, is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. Note. — The infinitive mood, especially when used to express object or design, is often inverted in this way ; as, " To obtain an education, he was willing to make sacrifices." The expressions To proceed, to conclude, etc., when placed at the beginning of a paragraph, and referring to the whole of it, should be separated from what follows by- a colon. Examples for Practice. 1. Awkward in person he was ill adapted to gain re- spect. 2. Of all our senses sight is the most important. 3. To supply the deficiency he resorted to a shameful trick. 4. Living in filth the poor cease to respect one another. 5. To confess the truth I never greatly admired him. Eule 13. Ellipsis op the Verb. — In continued sentences, having a common verb, which is expressed in one of the mem- bers, but omitted in the others, the elUpsis of the verb is marked by a comma. Examples for Practice. 1. Eeading maketh a full man; conference a ready man ; writing an exact man. 2. Homer was the greater genius; Virgil the better artist. 3. Semiramis built Babylon; Dido Carthage; and Romulus Rome. Rule 14. Short Quotations. — A short quotation, or a sen- tence resembling a quotation, should be preceded by a comma. PUNCTUATION, Examples for Practice. 143 1. Patrick Henry began his celebrated speech by say- ing "It is natural to man to indulge the illusions of hope." 2. A good rule in education is Learn to be slow in forming your opinions. * 3. I say There is no such thing as human perfection. 4. Some one justly remarks " It is a great loss to lose an affliction.'^ SECTION II.— The Semicolon. The Semicolon marks a division of a sentence somewhat larger and more complex than that marked by a comma. Note, — The word is compounded of semi, half, and colon, and means a division half as large as the colon. EuLE 1. Subdivided Members. — When a compound sen- tence consists of two members, and these members are themselves subdivided by commas, the larger divisions of the sentence should be separated by a semicolon. Examples for Practice. 1. The most ridiculous weaknesses seeme(i'to meet in the wretched Solomon of Whitehall pedantry buffoonery garrulity low curiosity the most contemptible personal cowardice. 2. Men reasoned better for example in the time of Elizabeth than in the time of Egbert and they also wrote better poetry. 3. Milton was like Dante a statesman and a lover and 144 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. like Dante he had been unfortunate in ambition and in ' love. 4. You may quit the field of business though not the field of danger and though you cannot be safe you may cease to be ridiculous. 5. This is an inconsistency which more than anything else raises his character in our estimation because it show^ how many private tastes and feelings he sacrificed in order to do what he considered his duty to mankind. EuLE 2. Clauses having a Common Dependence. — When several clauses or expressions of similar construction follow each other in a series, all having a common dependence upon some other clause, they are separated from each other by a semicolon, and from the clause on which they all depend^ by a comma. Example : " Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her opera- tions; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries." Examples for Practice. 1. Mr. Croker is perpetually stopping us in our pro- gress through the most delightful narrative in the lan- guage to observe that really Dr. Johnson was very rude that he talked more for victory than he did for truth that his taste foe port wine with capilliare in it was very odd that Boswell was impertinent and that it was foolish in Mrs. Thrale to marry the music-master. 2. To give an early preference to honor above gain when they stand in competition to despise every advan- tage which cannot be attained without dishonest acts to brook no meanness and to stoop to no dissimulations are the indications of a great mind. PUNCTLTATION. 145 Rule 3. Sentences Connected in Meaning, but without Grammatical Dependence. — When several sentences follow each other, without any grammatical dependence, but connected in meaning, they are usually separated from each other by semi- colons. Example: "She presses her child to her heart; she drowns it in her tears ; her fancy catches more than an angel's tongue can describe." Examples for Practice. 1. Stones grow vegetables grow and live animals grow live and feel. 2. The summer is over and gone the winter is here with its frosts and snow the wind howls in the chimney at night the beast in the forest forsakes its lair the birds of the air seek the habitation of men. 3. The temples are profaned the soldier's oath resounds in the house of God the marble pavement is trampled by iron hoofs horses neigh beside the altar. Rule 4. The Clause Additional. — When a sentence com- plete in itself is followed by a clause which is added by way of inference, explanation, or enumeration, the additional clause, if formally introduced by some connecting word, is separated from the main body of the sentence by a semicolon ; but, if merely appended without any such connecting word, by a colon. 1. Apply yourself to study ; for it will redound to your honor. 2. Apply yourself to study : it will redound to your honor. NoTK 1. — Some of the connecting words most commonly used for this purpose are namely, for, hut, yet, to wit, etc. Note 2. — The word as, when used to connect an example with a rule, should be preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. Examples for Practice. 1. Greece has given us three great historians namely Herodotus Xenophon and Thucydides. 13 K 146 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 2. Some writers divide the history of the world intsj four ages viz. the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the iron age. 3. Some writers divide the history of the world into four ages the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the iron age. 4. Cicero in his treatise on morals enumerates four cardinal virtues to wit Fortitude Temperance Justice and Prudence. EuLE 5. A General Tekm in Apposition to the Partic- ulars UNDER it. — When a general term stands in apposition to several others which are particulars under it, the general term is separated from the particulars by a semicolon, and the particu- lars are separated from each other by commas. Note. — If the enumeration of the particulars is given with much formal- ity, so as to make the several expressions complex, containing commas of their own, then these particulars imist be separated from the general tern- by a colon, and from each other by semicolons j as, — Adjective Pronouns are divided into three classes ; Distributive, Demons strative, and Indefinite. Adjective Pronouns are divided into these three classes : first, the Dis- tributive, which are four in numl?er,- secondly, the Demonstrative, which are four; and thirdly, the Indefinite, which are nine. SECTION III.— The Colon. The Colon marks a division of a sentence more nearly complete than that of a semicolon. EuLE 1. Greater Divisions of Complex Sentences. — When the minor divisions of a complex sentence contain a semi- colon, the greater divisions should be separated by a colon; thus. — PUNCTUATION. 147 As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not per- ceive it moving; and it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody ever saw it grow : so the advances we make in knowledge, as ihey consist of such insensible steps, are only perceivable by the distance. Rule 2. Before a Quotation". — A colon is used before a direct quotation ; as, Speaking of party. Pope makes this remark : " There never was any party, faction, sect, or cabal whatsoever, in which the most ignorant were not the most violent." Rule 3. Yes and No. — The words yes and no, when in answer to a question, should be followed by a colon, provided the words which follow are a continuation or repetition of the answer ; as, — "Can these words add vigor to your hearts? Yes: they can do it; they have often done it." Examples for Practice on the Rules for the Comma, the Semicolon, and the Colon. [To THE Stitdrnt. — This mark o is inserted at the places where a point of some kind is due.] 1. jSTo one denies that there are greater poets than Horace o and much has been said in disparagement even of some of the merits most popularly assigned to him o by scholars who have o nevertheless o devoted years of laborious study to the correction of his text or the elMci- dation of his meaning. 2. Satire always tends to dwarf o and it cannot fail to caricature o but poetry does nothing o if it does not tend to enlarge and exalt o and if it does not seek rather to beautify than deform. 3. When he invites Tyndaris to his villa o the spot is brought before the eye o the she-goats browsing amid the arbute and wild thyme o the pebbly slopes of Us- 148 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. tica o the green nooks sheltered from the dog-star o the noon-day entertainment o the light wines and the lute. 4. The fundamental characteristic of man is spiritual hunger o the universe of thought and matter is spiritual food. 5. He feeds on Nature o he feeds on ideas o he feeds o through art o science o literature o and history o on the acts and thoughts of other minds. 6. It must be observed o that in suggesting these pro- cesses o I assign them no date o nor do I even insist upon their order. 7. This is an iambic line in which the first foot is formed of a word and a part of a word o the second and third o of parts taken from the body or interior of a w^ord o the fourth o of a part and a whole o the fifth o of two complete words. 8. Melissa o like the bee o gathers honey from every weed o while Arachne o like the spider o sucks poison from the fairest flowers. 9. The present life is not wholly prosaic o precise o tame o and finite o to the gifted eye o it abounds in the poetic. 10. Are these to be conquered by all Europe united ? No o sir o no united nation can be o that has the spirit to resolve not to be conquered. 11. Be our plain answer this o The throne we honor is the people's choice o the laws we reverence are our brave fathers' legacy o the faith we follow teaches us to live in bonds of charity with all mankind o and die with hope of bliss beyond the grave. 12. The discourse consisted of two parts o in the first was shown the necessity of exercise o in the second o the advantages that would result from it. PUNCTUATION. 149 SECTION IV.— The Period. The Period marks the completion of the sentence. EuLE 1. Complete Sentences. — Sentences which are com- plete in sense, and not connected in construction with what fol- lows, and not exclamatory, or interrogatory, in their character, should be followed by a period. Eule 2. After Titles, etc. — A period should be used after the title, or any of the headings, of a book ; after the author's name and titles, on the title-page ; after the address of a person, on a letter or note ; and after each signature to a letter or other document. Eule 3. After Abbreviations. — A period is used after all abbreviated words. Note 1. — The most common method of abbreviation is to use the first letter of a word for the whole word, as B. Franklin for Benjamin Franklin. Sometimes, in abbreviating the word, the first letter is doubled; as, p. for page, pp. for pages, M. for Monsieur, MM. for Messieurs. In such cases, a period is not inserted between the two letters which represent the plural of one word. Sometimes a word is abbreviated by taking the first two or three letters, as Eng. for England; sometimes by taking the first letter and tho last, as Wm. for William, Ca. for California; sometimes by taking the first letter and some leading letter in the middle of the word, as Mo. for Mis- souri, MS. for manuscript. In these cases, the period is to be used only at the end of the combined letters. Note 2. — When an abbreviated word comes at the end of a sentence, it is not necessary to use two periods. One point is sufiicient to mark both the abbreviation and the end of the sentence. But if the construction requires some other point, as the comma, semicolon, colon, interrogation, etc., both points must be inserted, one to mark the grammatical construc- tion, the other to mark the abbreviation; as, "He reported the death of John Chapman, M.D." "John Chapman, M.D., at the early age of twenty- four, was carried off by disease." Note 3. — AVhen two or more abbreviated titles follow each other, they must be separated from each other by commas, just as they wouiji be if written out in full. Thus: "Thomas Sumner, Doctor of Divinity, Doctor of Laws, Bishop of London," abbreviated, becomes, "Thomas Sumner, D.D., LL.D., Bp. of London." 13* 150 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Note 4. — When the letters of the alphabet are used to represent numer- als, it is customary to insert a period at the end of each completed numeral; as, Psalms iv., xxi., Ixxxvi., cxix., etc. When dates are thus expressed, the whole number is separated into periods of thousands, hundreds, and the portion less than a hundred ; as, M.DCCC.LXXI. for the year one thousand, eight hundred, and seventy-one, or 1871. Examples for Practice. 1. Excellence in conversation depends o in a great measure o on the attainments which one has made o if o therefore o education is neglected o conversation will become trifling o if perverted o corrupting. 2. The laws of Phoroneus were established 1807 B C o those of Lycurgus o 884 B C o of Draco o 623 B C o of Solon o 587 B C o See chap vii § xiv T 7 p 617 3. The reader is requested to refer to the following pas- sages of Scripture o Ex xx 18 Deut xx 21 2 Sam xix 2 4. Bought o on 9 mos credit o the following articles o 4 yds 3 qrs 2 n of broadcloth at $12 a yd o 6 gals 1 pt 2 gi of vinegar at 65 cts a gal o and 3 J cords of wood at $7.50 a cord 5. Poetry was not the sole praise of either o for both excelled likewise in prose o but Pope did not borrow his prose from his predecessor. 6. Dryden's page is a natural field o rising into in- equalities o and diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant vegetation o Pope's is a velvet lawn o shaven by the scythe o and levelled by the roller. 7. Of genius o that power which constitutes a poet o that quality without which judgment is cold o and knowledge is inert o that energy which collects o com- bines o amplifies o and animates o the superiority must o with some hesitation o be allowed to Dryden o 8. It is not to be inferred o that of this poetical vigor PUNCTUATION. 151 Pope had only a little o because Diyden had more o for every other writer since Milton must give place to Pope o and even of Dryden it must be said o that o if he has brighter paragraplis o he has not better poems o SECTION v.— The Interrogation Point. An Interrogation Point is used for marking questions. Rule. Direct Quegtions. — • The Interrogation Point should be placed at the end of every direct question. NoTK. — A direct question is one in regular form, requiring, or at least admitting an answer; as, "Why do you neglect your duty?" An indirect question is one that is merely reported or spoken of 5 as, " He inquired why you neglected your duty." SECTION VI. — The Exclamation Point. The Exclamation Point is used for marking strong emotion. Rule 1. — The Exclamation Point must be used at the close of every sentence, clause, or grammatical expression, intended to convey strong emotion. Rule 2. — The Exclamation Point must be used after an inter- jection ; as, — Fie on him ! Ah me ! Oh ! it hurts me. Oh that I could find him ! father Abraham ! Lord ! Note. — Where the interjection does not stand by itself, but forms part of a sentence, clause, or expression, the exclamation point should be placed at the end of the whole expression, and not immediately after the interroga- tion : as, "0 wretched state ! bosom black as death!" 152 FIKST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. KuLE 3. — Where the emotion to be expressed is very strong, more than one exclamation point is sometimes used ; as, " That man virtuous ! ! You might as well preach" to me of the virtue of Judas Iscariot ! ! " Examples for Practice. Note. — These examples, though intended merely for illustrating the Rules for the marks of Interrogation and Exclamation, will yet serve the incidental purpose of reviewing all the preceding rules. 1. Why o for so many a year o has the poet wandered amid the fragments of Athens and Eome o and paused o with strange and kindling feelings o amid their broken columns o their mouldering temples o their deserted plains o 2. Greece o indeed o fell o but how did she fall o Did she fall like Babylon o Did she fall like Lucifer o never to rise again o 3. Rouse o ye Romans o rouse o ye slaves o 4. Down o soothless insulter o I trust not the tale o 5. Have you eyes o Could you on this fair mountain leave to feed o and batten on this moor o Ha o have you eyes o You cannot call it love o for o at your age o the hey-day in the blood is tame, it 's humble, and waits upon the judgment o and what judgment would step from this to this o 6. Charge o Chester o charge o on o Stanley o en o 7. Who o in a sea-fight o ever thought of the price of the chain which beats out the brains of a pirate o or of the odor of the splinter which shatters his leg o 8. King Charles o forsooth o had so many private virtues o And had James no private virtues o Was even Oliver Cromwell o his bitterest enemies themselves being judges o destitute of private virtues o And what o after all o are the virtues ascribed to Charles o PUNCTUATION 153 9. Ho o trumpets o sound a war-note o 10. Oh o was there ever such a knight o in friendship or in war o as our sovereign lord o King Henry o the soldier of Navarre o SECTION VIL — The Dash. The Dash is used chiefly either to mark a sudden change or interruption in the structure of the sentence, or to mark some elocutionary pause. Rule 1. Construction Changed. — A Dash is used where the construction of the sentence is abruptly broken off or changed ; Was there ever a bolder captain of a. more valiant band ? Was there ever - but I scorn to boast. Rule 2. Unexpected Change in the Sentiment. — The Dash is sometimes used to mark a sudden and unexpected change in the sentiment ; as, — He had no malice in his mind — No ruffles on his shirt. Rule 3. Emphatic Generalization. — A Dash is sometimes used to mark the transition from a succession of particulars to some emphatic general expression which includes them all ; as, — He was witty, learned, industrious, plausible, — everything but honest. Rule 4. Elocutionary Pause. — A Dash is sometimes used to mark a significant pause, where there is no break in the gram- matical construction ; as, — You have given the command to a person of illustrious birth, of ancient family, of innumerable statues, but — of no experience. 154 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION, EuLE 5. Rhetorical Repeti tion. — When a word or an expression is repeated for rhetorical purposes, the construction being begun anew, a Dash should be inserted before each such repetition ; as, — Shall I, who was born, I might almost say, but certainly brought up, in the tent of my father, that most excellent general — shall I, the conqueror of ^pain and Gaul, and not only of the Alpine nations, but of the Alps themselves — shall I compare myself with this half-year captain ? Rule 6. Reflex Apposition. — Words at the end of a sen- tence, and standing somewhat detached, and referring back by apposition to preceding parts of the sentence, should be separated from the previous portions by a Dash ; as, — The four greatest names in English poetry are among the first we come to, — Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, and Milton. Kings and their subjects, masters and their slaves, find a common level in two places, — at the cross, and in the grave. Rule 7. The Dash Parenthetical. — Parenthetical expres- sions are sometimes included between two Dashes, instead of the usual signs of parenthesis ; as, — The smile of a child — always so ready when there is no distress, and so soon recurring when that distress has passed away — is like an opening of the sky, showing heaven beyond. The archetypes, the ideal forms of things without, — if not, as some phi- losophers have said, in a metaphysical sense, yet in a moral sense, — exist within us. Rule 8. Titles run in. — When a title, instead of standing in a line by itself, over a paragraph, is run in, so as to make a part of the paragraph, it should be separated from the rest of the line by a dash ; as, — FiDEMTY TO God. — Whatever station or rank Thou shalt assign me, I will die ten thousand deaths sooner than abandon it. — Socrates. Note. — If, at the end of a paragraph, the name of the author or of the book from which the paragraph has been taken is given, it is separated from the rest of the paragraph by a dash. See the word Socrates at the end of the preceding example. PUNCTUATION. 155 EuLE 9. Question and Answer. — If question and answer, instead or" beginning separate lines, are run into a paragrapli, tliey should be separated by a dash ; as, — Who made you? — God. What else did God make? — God made all things. Why did God make you and all things ? — God made all things for his own glory. Examples for Practice. 1. Almost all kinds of raw material extracted from th^ interior of the earth o metals o coals o precious stones o and the like o are obtained from mines differ- ing in fertility. 2. The inferiority of French cultivation o which o taking the country as a whole o must be allowed to be real o though much exaggerated o is probably more owing to the lower average of industrial skill in that country o than to any special cause o 3. Each of these great and ever memorable struggles o Saxon against JS'orman o villein against lord o Round- head against Cavalier o Dissenter against Church- man o Manchester against Old Sarum o was o in its own order and season o a struggle on the result of which were staked the dearest interests of the human race o 4. Time was growing to be of high worth o and o from causes which justified a good deal o though not quite all o of their delay o the English at this time were behindhand o 5. Though o as I was saying o it is only the shallow part of one's heart o I imagine that the deepest hearts have their shallow^s o w-hich can be filled by it o still it brings a shallow relief o 6. Here lies the great o False marble o where o No- thing but sordid dust lies here o 156 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 7. Greece o Carthage o Rome o where are they o 8. ^^ I plunged right into the debate o and ^^ o ^^ Did not say a word to the point o of course ^' o 9. The essence of all poetry may be said to consist in three things o invention o expression o inspiration o 10. ^' How are you o Trepid o How do you feel to- day o Mr. Trepid ? '^ ^^ A great deal worse than I was o thank you o almost dead o I am obliged to you ^^ o " Why o Trepid o what is the matter with you ^^ o ^^No- thing o I tell you o nothing in particular o but a great deal is the matter with me in generaP^ o SECTION VIII. — The Parenthesis. The Marks of Parenthesis are used to inclose words which have little or no connection with the rest of the sentence. Note. — Sometimes commas, and sometimes dashes, are used instead of the curved lines, to inclose words that are of a parenthetical character, and it is not always easy to determine when to use one of these modes, and when to use another. It may be observed, in general, that the curved lines mark the greatest degree of separation from the rest of the sentence ; the dashes, the next greatest; and the commas, the least separation of all, EuLE. — Words inserted in the body of a sentence, and nearly or quite independent of it in meaning and construction, should be inclosed with the marks of parenthesis. SECTION IX. — Brackets. Brackets are used to inclose in a sentence a word, or words, which do not form part of the original composition. Note 1. — Brackets are somewhat like the marks of parenthesis in form, PUNCTUATION. 157 oti3, however, being angular, the other curved, and are also in some respects like the latter iu signification and use. Note 2. — Brackets are used to inclose a sentence, or a part of 9. sentence, Within the body of another sentence, and thus far are like the marks of parenthesis. But the matter included within brackets is entirely inde- pendent of the sentence, and so differs from what is merely parenthetical. Further, the matter within the brackets is usually inserted by one writer to correct or add to what has been written by another, while the parenthesis is a part of the original composition, and is written by the same person that wrote the rest of the sentence, Rule. — In correcting or modifying the expressions of another, by inserting words of your own, the words thus inserted should be inclosed in brackets ; as, — A soft answer turn [turns] away wrath. The number of our days are [is] with thee. The letter [which] you wrote me on Saturday came duly to hand. The captain had several men [who] died on the voyage. Examples for Practice. 1. Last Words of Remarkable Meno The last words of Raleigh were o " Why dost thou not strike o Strike o man o ^^ to the executioner o who was paus- ing o The last of the Duke of Buckingham o '' Trai- tor o thou hast killed me o " to the assassin Felton o The last of Charles II. o "Don't let poor Nelly starve o " referring to Nell Gwynne o The last of William III. o " Can this last long o '' to his physician o The last of Locke o " Cease now o '' to Lady Markham o who had been reading the Psalms to him o 2. If we exercise right principles o and we cannot have them unless we exercise them o they must be per- petually on the increase o 3. Are you still o I fear you are o far from being comfortably settled o 4. She had managed this matter so well o oh o how 14 158 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. artful a woman she was o but my father's heart was gone before I suspected it was in danger. 5. Know then this truth o enough for man to know o Virtue alone is happiness below o 6. Our last king o Whose image even but now appeared to us o Was o as you know o by Fortinbras of Norway o o Thereto pricked on by a most emulate pride o Dar'd to the combat o in which our valiant Hamlet For so this side of our known world esteemed him o Did slay this Fortinbras o 7. The Egyptian style of architecture o see Dr. Po- cock o not his discourses o but his prints o was appa- reatly the mother of the Greek o 8. Yet o by your gracious patience o 1 will a round unvarnished tale deliver Of my whole course of love o what drugs o what charms o What conjuration o and what mighty magic o For such proceeding I am charged withal o 1 won his daughter o SECTION X. — Quotation Marks. A Quotation is the introduction into one's discourse of a word or of words uttered by some one else. Note. — The marks of quotation are two inverted commas (^') at the beginning, and two apostrophes ('*) at the end, of the portion quoted. Rule 1. — A word or words introduced from some other author should be inclosed by quotation marks. PUNCTUATION. 159 Rule 2. — When a quotation incloses within it another quota- tion, the external quotation has the double marks, and the one included has only the single marks ; as, — It has been well said, " The command, ' Thou shaltnot kill,' forbids many crimes besides that of murder." Some one has said, "What an argument for prayer is contained in the tyords, ' Our Father which art in heaven ! ' " Examples for Practice. 1. This definition o Dr o Latham o from whom we borrowed it o illustrates o in his work on the o English Language o p o 359 o by the expression o a sharp- edged instrument o^ which means an instrument with sharp edges. 2. The words o all-wise o , o incense-breaking o , o book-seller o, and o noble-man o are compounds. 3. o There is but one object o o says Augustine o o greater than the soul o and that one is its Creator o o 4. Let me make the ballads of a nation said Fletcher of Saltoun and I care not who makes the laws 5. When Fenelon^s library w^as on fire o o God be praised o o said he o o that it is not the dwelling of a poor man o o 6. o Stop a moment here o o said Corinne to Lord Nevil o as he stood under the portico of the church o o pause before drawing aside the curtain which covers the entrance of the temple o o 7. A drunkard once reeled up to Whitefield with the remark o o Mr o Whitefield o I am one of your con- verts o o I think it very likely o o was the reply o o for I am sure you are none of God's o o 8. Sir Walter Scott's novel o o Guy Mannering o o % one of his best. 160 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. SECTION XI. —Apostrophe, Hyphen, Caret, etc. Note. — The other marks used in composition are either so purely grammatical, or they relate so much more to printing than to authorship, that the consideration of them may be despatched very briefly. 1. The Apostrophe (*) is a comma placed above the line. It is used chiefly to mark the omission of a letter or of letters ,• as, O'er for over. 2. The Hyphen ( - ) is used to separate a compound word into its con- stituent parts, or to divide a word into its syllables for the purpose of show- ing the pronunciation; as, Neo-Platonic, de-riv-a-tive. 3. The Caret ( \ ), used chiefly in manuscript, shows where something has been omitted, and afterward interlined ; as, — his He has just finished \ letter. 4. The Index, or Hand ( ^^** ) calls special attention to a subject; as, ^^^ Terms, invariably cash in advance. 5. The Paragraph {%), inserted in a manuscript, denotes that a para- graph should begin at that point. 6. The Brace ( ] ) is used to connect several items under one head ; as. The Liquids are Ir 7. Marks of Ellipsis are sometimes a long dash, sometimes a succession of stars, or of points ; as. He denounced C s [Congress] for its venal- ity, and threatened to impeach W ''■' * * [Webster], and A . . . . [Adams]. 8. The Accents are three, the acute ( ' ), the grave, ( ^ ), and the circum- flex ( " ). 9. The marks of Quantity are three, the long ( - ), the short ( v), and the diaeresis ( •• ). 10. The Cedilla is a mark like a comma placed under the letter c, in words taken from the French, to denote that the letter has in that case the sound of «; as, facade [pronounced /a-«ac?]. 11. Marks of Reference are the asterisk or star (*), the dagger (f ), the double dagger ( J ), the section ( § ), parallel lines ( 1| ), the paragraph ( ^ ). 12. Leaders are dots used to carry the eye from words at the beginning of a line to something at the end with which jthey are connected ; Thus, Orthography, page 7 Etymology, "14 Syntax, "87 13. Double Commas inverted are used to show that a word is to be sup- plied from the line above. • (See example under No. 12, where " supplies the place of the word " page.") PUNCTUATION. 161 14. The Title-page of a book is that which contains the title, and is usually the first page. 15. Running Titles, or Head-lines, placed at the top of the page to shovr the subject, are usually printed in capitals, or small capitals. 16. Captions, or Sub-heads, are headings placed over chapters or sections, but standing in the body of the page, not at the top. 17. Side-heads are titles run into, or made part of, the line. 18. A Frontispiece is a picture opposite to the title-page. 19. A Vignette is a small picture, not occupjdng a full page, but mixed up with other matter, either on the title-page, or in any other part of the book. 20. Italics are letters inclined to the riglit. They are so called because type of this kind was first used by Italian printers. Note 1. — In manuscript, one lino drawn under a word shows that it should be printed in italics ; two lines, that it should be printed in small capitals ; and three linos, that it should be printed in CAPITALS. Ordinary letters are called Roman, as opposed to Italic. Note 2. — Some writers use Italics to mark emphatic words. This is a weak and foolish device, and cannot be too strongly condemned. Note 3. — In the English Bible, words are printed in italic to show that they are not in the original, but are supplied by the translators to complete the meaning. 21. The principal kinds of type are the following : English, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o. Pica, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r. Small Pica, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q. Long Primer, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s. Bourgeois, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v. Brevier^ a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x. Minion, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Nonpareil, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Agate, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Pearly a, b, c, d, e, f. g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Diamond, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, b, t, u, y, \r, x, y, z. Brilliant, a, b, o, d, •, t, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, d, Oi p. 4, r. (, t, a, T, w, x, j, a. 22. Leads are thin plates of type-metal, by which the lines may be spaced further apart. Matter thus spaced is said to be leaded. Matter not leaded is called solid. 23. Composing, as a part of the printing business, is putting matter in type, or setting up the type. 24. The amount of printed matter is counted by ems, that is, by the num- her of spaces of the length of the letter m. 25. A Folio is a leaf or sheet of paper with a single fold, that is, making two leaves or four pages. ^ 14* L 162 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 26. A book is called a Folio when the sheets on which it is printed are so folded that each sheet makes but two leaves. It is called a Quarto, when each sheet makes four leaves; an Octavo, when each makes eight leaves; a Duodecimo, when each makes twelve leaves; a 16mo, 18m0, 24mo, 32mo, 48mo, 64mo, 96mo, etc., according as each sheet makes 16, 18, 24, 32, 48, 64, ■ or 96 leaves. SECTION XII. — Capitals. Rule 1. Title-Pages and Headings. — Title-pages and the headings of chapters should be entirely in capitals. Rule 2. The First Word in a Book, etc. — The first word of every book, tract, essay, etc., and of every chapter or section, also of every letter, note, or writing of any kind, should begin with a capital. Rule 3. The First Word in a Sentence. — The first word of every sen- tence should begin with a capital. Rule 4. Numbered Clauses. — Clauses, when separately numbered, should begin with a capital, though not separated from each other by a full-point ; as, — This writer asserts, 1. That Nature is unlimited in her operations ; 2. That she haa inexhaustible treasures in reserve; 3. That knowledge will always be progressive, and, 4. That all future generations will continue to make discoveries. Rule 5. — The first word after a period, except when used as an abbre- viation, should begin with a capital. Rule 6. First Word of an Example. — The first word of a sentence or clause which is given as an example should begin with a capital; as, "Tem- perance promotes health." Rule 7. Quoting Titles. — In quoting the title of a book, every noun, pronoun, adjective, and adverb should begin with a capital ; as, '< Sparks's Life of Washington." Rule 8. First Word op a Direct Question. — The first word of a direct question should begin with a capital ; as, — (Direct question.) His words are, " Why do you not study the lesson ? " (Indirect question.) He desires to know why you do not study the lesson. Rule 9. First Word of a Direct Quotation. — The first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital ; as, — Plutarch says, " Lying is the vice of slaves." PUNCTUATION. 163 NoTK. — If this quotation be changed to the indirect form, no capital will bo needed at the point where the quotation begins ; as, Plutarch says that lyi«g is the vice of Rule 10. Capitals used for Figures. — Numbers are sometimes rep- resented by capital letters } as, I., II., III., IV., etc. Note. — In referring to passages in books, it is very common to number the chapter, book, sections, etc., in this way, and to begin with a capital each name of the division mentioned, as, "Mill's Political Economy, Vol. I., Book III., Chap. IV., Sec. VI., p. 673." If the references are numerous, this method is found to be cumbersome and unsightly, and small letters are preferred ; as, " Mill's Political Economy, vol. i., book iii., chap, iv., sect, vi., p. 573." Rule 11. — The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, should always be capital letters. Rule 12. Poetry. — The first word of every lino of poetry should begin with a capital. Rule 13. Names or God. — All names and titles of God should begin with a capital ; as, Jehovah, Father, Creator, Almighty, etc. Rule 14. Proper Names. — All proper names should begin with capi- tals'; as, Jupiter, Mahomet, Brahma, Pompey, Lake Erie, Monday, Good Friday, Rome, China, France. Rule 15. "Words derived from Proper Names. — Words derived from proper names should begin with a capital; as, Mahometan, Brahmin, Chris- tian, Roman; French, Spanish, Grecian; to Christianize, to Judaize, to Romanize, etc. Rule 16. Titles of Honor and Office. — Titles of honor and oflBce should begin with a capital ; as, The President of the United States, Hia Honor the Mayor of Philadelphia, President Madison, Queen Victoria, Sii Robert Murchison, Your Royal Highness, etc. Rule IT. The Bible. — A capital is always used for the terms ordinarily employed to designate the Bible, or any particular part or book of the Bible; as, The Holy Bible, the Sacred Writings, the Old Testament, the Gospel of Matthew, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistle to the Ephesians, the Revela- tion, the Psalms, etc. In like manner, a capital is used in giving the names of other sacred writings, as the Koran, the Zend Avesta, the Puranas, etc. Rule 18. Words of Special Importance. — Words describing the great events of history, or extraordinary things of any kind, which have acquired a distinctive name, begin with a capital ; as, the Reformation, the Revolu- tion, the war of Independence, the Middle Ages, Magna Charta, the Gulf Stream, etc. 164 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. Miscellaneous Examples for Practice. [Punctuate the iFollowing sentences, and make the necessary corrections in regard to capitals.] 1. Charles notwithstanding the delay had left england to work his way as best he might out of his Difficulties 2. the scots therefore at the break of day entered the Castle 3. Fashion is for the most part the ostentation of Riches 4. besides if you labor in moderation it will conduce to Health as well as to Wealth 5. Sir Peter Carew for some unknown reason had written to ask for his pardon 6. The Man when He saw this departed 7. the crowd as Throgmorton left the court threw up their caps and shouted 8. Elizabeth who had been requested to attend was not present 9. The frost had set in the low damp ground was hard the Dykes were frozen 10. a brown curling beard flowed down upon his chest 11. she thought the isle that gave her birth the sweetest mildest land on earth 12. The first Seven carried maces swords or pole-axes 13. She plans provides expatiates triumphs there 14. Who to the enraptured heart and ear and eye Teach beauty virtue truth and love and melody 15. Give me a sanctified and just a charitable and humble a religious and contented spirit 16. Now a man now a seraph and now a beast 17. the dragon stands the hieroglyph of evil and gnaws at the tree of life 18. The ocelot a beautiful and striped fiend hisses like a snake PUNCTUATION. 165 19. He that calls upon thee is Theodore the hermit of Teneriffe 20. Hate madness ruled the hour 21. We saw a large opening or inlet 22. The Egyptian serpent the ass-headed devil deserves the first mention as among the oldest personifications of the spirit of evil 23. Well Sir Nicholas what news 24. Zaccheus make haste and come down 25. The conspiracy being crushed without bloodshed an inquiry into its origin could be carried out at leisure 26. Thus preciously freighted the Spanish fleet sailed from Corunna 27. Cruel and savage as the persecution had become it was still inadequate 28. Faith is opposed to infidelity hope to despair charity to enmity and hostility 29. Elizabeth threw herself in front of Marie An- toinette exclaiming I am the queen 30. Kant said give me matter and I will build the world 31. Whatever happens Mary exclaims Elizabeth I am the wife of the Prince of Spain crown rank life all shall go before I will take any other husband 32. In the regions inhabited by angelic natures un- mingled felicity forever blooms joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream nor needs any mound to check its course 166 PIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. AN EXAMPLE OF PROOF-SHEET, SHOWING THE MANNEE IN WHICH EREORS OF THE PRESS ARE MARKED FOR CORRICTION. ^^ / Though sever<^l differing opinions exist as to / / 2 ^ the individual by w^om the art of printing was v first discovered ; yet all authorities concur in admitting Peter Schoeffer to be the person 3 ^ who invented cast metal types^ having learned ^ ^ the' art -ef- of cutting the letters from the Gut- ^; I tenbergs/ he is also supposed to have been c^ the first whoengraved on copper plates. The'^f^f following testimony is preseved in the family, ^ / pv-^ by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of Aschafienburg : ,,. lOQ] >* Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiving ^ ^^ 11 \y his master Fausts design, and being himself ^' '^^^ ^^ fdesirous\ ardentl£ ) to improve the arty found out (by the good providence of God) the 13 method of cutting ( incidcn di) the characters ^^^ in a matrix^ that the letters might easily be '// singly cast I instead of bieng cut He pri- ^^^^y ^*J vately cut matrices] for the whole alphabet: a la Faust was so pleased with the contrivanp /that he promised Peter to give him h^s^nly f^ 16 /(ja^ughter Christina in marriage, a/promise 3 ^ i /^l^ich he soon after performed. ^^ ^^1 (fBut there were many (Mfculties at first ^^ l| with these letters, as there had been before ^ ^:of7z, ao 1 ^^*^ wooden ones, t)aB metal being too soft ^^/^ to support the fop<^ of the inTpression: but9^--N / this defect was soon remedied, by mixing a substance with the metal which sufficiently ^, hardeji^ it/ ' PUNCTUATION, ^ 167 EXPLANATIONS OF THE CORRECTIONS. Note. — The numbers refer to the figures in the margin. 1. "Wrong Letters or "Words. — A wrong letter in a word i8 noted by- drawing a short slant line through it, as here through the e in severel, making a similar slant line in the margin, and writing to the left of it the correct letter. A whole word, if wrong, is corrected by drawing a line across it, and writing the cor- rect word in the margin opposite. 2. liCtters Upside-down. — A letter that is upside-down is noted by draw- ing a slant line through it, and making in the margin the mark here given. 3. Caps, Small Caps, and Italics. — If letters or words are to be altered from one character to another, it is noted by drawing parallel lines below the letters or words so to be altered ; namely, three lines for Capitals, two lines for Small Capi- tals, and one line for Italics ; and by writing in the margin the word Caps, Sm. Caps, or Italics. 4. Dele-.ing. — When a word or a letter is to be taken out, make a slant lino through it, and place in the margin the mark here given, which is the old way of "Writing the letter c?, and stands for the Latin deZe, destroy. 5. Clianging Punctuation. — A point is to be corrected in the same man- ner as a letter (No. 1). If the point to be inserted is a period, it should be enclosed in a circle. (See example at the bottom of the page.) 6. Space Omitted. — If a space is omitted between two words or letters, put a caret under the place where the space ought to be, and put in the margin the char- acter here given. 7. Hyplien Omitted. — If a hyphen has been omitted, put a caret under the place, and write the hyphen in the margin between two slant lines. 8. lietters Omitted. — If a letter has been omitted, put a caret under tho place, and put in the margin a slant line with the letter to the left of it. 9. Closing Up. — If aline is too widely spaced, or letters are separated that should be joined, the letters that are to bo brought together should be connected by a curved mark, either above, or below, or both, and a corresponding mark should bo placed in the margin, 10. Ne-w Paragraph. — When a new paragraph is required, put a caret at the place where the new paragraph should begin, and a quadrangle in the margin. 11. Apostrophe, &.c. — When the apostrophe, inverted commas, the star and other references, or letters and figures of any kind that go over the line, have been omitted, put a caret at the place, and write the omitted apostrophe or other character in the margin, in the bosom of an angle made for the purpose, and opening upwards. 12. Transposing. — When a word is to be transposed, draw a line round it and carry the line over to the place where the word is to be put, writing in the margin tr. (transpdtee). If two or three letters in a word are misplaced, draw a line under them, ' and write them correctly in the margin. If several words are misplaced, draw a lino Tinder them all, write over them the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., to show the order in which they should stand, and put tr. in the margin. 13. Stet. — When by mistake a word has been marked to be struck out, and you ■wish it to stand, put a row of dots under it, and the word sttt (let it stand) in tho margin. 14. Space Projecting. — When aspace (a thin slip of metal used for spacing) projects, draw a line under it and the corresponding mark in the margin. 15. "Words Out. — When several words have been left out, write them at tho foot of the page, and draw a line from them to the place where they should be in- serted. If the matter omitted is too much to be thus written at the foot of the page, write on the margin the words Out^ see copy, and write likewise on tho margin of th9 copy the word Out, and enclose the omitted words in brackets. 16. Ijetters Standing Crooked. — The marks here given show the mode of noting this defect. 17. "Wrong Fount. — When a letter of a different fount has been inserted, mark it with a slant line, and write wf. (wrong fount) in .ne margin. 18. No Paragrapb. — When a paragraph has been made Avhere none was intended, draw a line from the broken-ofif matter to the next paragraph, and write in the margin No ^. 19. lieft Out. — When a word has been left out, make a caret at the place, and write the word in the margin. 20. Faulty lictter. — When a letter is faulty, draw a cross under it, and make a email cross in the margin. 168 ^IKST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. THE CORRECTED PROOF-SHEET. Though several differing opinions exist as to the individual by whom the art of printing was first discovered; yet all authorities concur in admitting PETER SCHOEFFER to be the person who invented cast metal types, having learned the art of cutting the letters from the Guttenbergs : he is also supposed to have been the first who engraved on copper-plates. The following testimony is preserved in the family, "by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of Aschaffenburg : 'Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiv- ing his master Faust's design, and being him- self ardently desirous to improve the art, found out (by the good providence of God) the method of cutting (incidendi) the characters in a matrix, that the letters might easily be singly cast, instead of being cut. He privately cut matrices for the whole alphabet: and when he showed his master the letters cast from these matrices, Faust was so pleased with the con- trivance, that he promised Peter to give him his only daughter Christina in marriage, a promise which he soon after performed. But there were as many difficulties at first with these letters, as there had been before with wooden ones, the metal being too soft to sup- port the force of the impression : but this defect was soon remedied, by mixing the metal with a substance which sufficiently hardened it.' THE END. FOR SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND COLLEGES. To Teachers. Your attention is respectfully invited to the following list of our leading publications. In most cases a short statement is given of the grade of classes for which the various books are designed, and their claims to the consideration of teachers. Those who desire to know more of them will be supplied with specimen copies for examination at reduced rates. Most of these books are in general use in all sec- tions of the country. Upon the liberal terms offered for first introduction, it will in most cases be more economical to introduce these books than to continue to use the old ones, which must in many instances be re- placed by new books at full prices. Our Circular, giving prices to teachers for examination, terms for introduction, &c., will be sent to any teacher or school officer on application. We are anxious 'to procure a copy of the Catalogue, Circular, or Advertisement of every College, Academy, Seminary, High School, Normal School, or other Educational Institution, in the United States. Teachers receiving this Circular will confer a favor (which we will be glad to reciprocate) by sending us a late copy of the circular or catalogue of the School of which they are the Principal, or with which they are connected. Please address, ELDREDGE & BROTHER, No. 17 North Seventhi Street, PHILADELPHIA. Model Tex.t-Books k\mh^ "^mMm, awl t^lk^u, o>Ho CHASE AND STUART'S CLASSICAL SEEIES. EDITED BY THOMAS CHASE, A.M., GEOEGE STUAET, A.M., PROFESSOR OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE, HAVSRFOHD COLLEGE, PENNA. AND PROFESSOR OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADA. E. P. CKOWELL, A.M., PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN AMHERST COLLEGE. REFERENCES TO HARKNESS'S LATIN GRAMMAR, ANDREWS & STODDARD'S LATIN GRAMMAR, BULLIONS & MORRIS'S LATIN GRAMMAR, GILDERSLEEVE'S LATIN GRAMMAR, ALLEN'S MANUAL LATIN GRAMMAR, AND ALLEN & GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR. The publication of this edition of the Classics was suggested by the constantly increasing demand by teachers for an edition which, by judicious notes, would give to the student the assistance really necessary to render his study profitable, furnishing explanations of passages difficult of interpretation, of peculiarities of Syntax, &c., and yet would require him to make faithful use of his Grammar and Dictionary. It is believed that this classical Series needs only to be known to insure its very general use. The publishers claim for it peculiar 3 merit, and beg leave to call attention to the following important particulars : The purity of the text. The clearness and conciseness of the notes, and their adaptation to the wants of students. The beauty of type and paper, The handsome style of binding, The convenience of the shape and size. The low price at which the volumes are sold. The preparation of the whole Series Is the original work of American scholars. The text Is not a mere reprint, but is based upon a careful and painstak- ing comparison of all the most im- proved editions, with constant refer- ence to the authority of the best manuscripts. No pains have been spared to make the notes accurate, clear, and helpful to the learner. Points of geography, history, mythology, and antiquities are explained in accordance with the views of the best German scholars. The generous welcome given to these books, proves very con- clusively that they are well adapted to the wants of the class-room. They have been adopted in every State of the Union, and we have the proud satisfaction of stating that they are at this time the stand- ard text-books in more than ;|Pnie ^Itottsand mchQol§, and the number is daily increasing. Among these are many of the largest and most important classical institutions in the country. The Publishers desire to acknowledge their indebtedness to the teachers of Latin throughout the country who are using these books, for the high position that has been accorded to them. Grateful for the very flattering welcome they have received, we pledge ourselves that the entire Series shall be In Scholarship Inferior to None. In Appearance The Most Attractive. In Binding The Most Durable. In Price The Most Eeasonable. To those teachers who do not use them we suggest the consider- ation of two facts ; 1. Large and permanent success follows only real merit. 2. Such success has been obtained by these books. And we are confident that if they will inquire into the merit which has insured this success, they will find that they are well worthy of the commendation bestowed upon them. The Series contains the following works, viz. : piRST TtESARIS commentaries on the Gallic War. ^ With Explanatory Notes, Lexicon, Geographical Index, Map of Gaul, Plan of the Bridge, &c. By Prof. George Stuart. Price by mail, postpaid, SIX BOOKS OF VIRGIL'S iENEID, with Explanatory Notes, Lexicon, Remarks on Classical Versification, Index of Proper Names, &c. By Prof. Thomas Chase. Price by mail, postpaid, ^1.25. yiRGIL'S iCNEID. With Explanatory Notes, Met- rical Index, Remarks on Classical Versification, Index of Proper Names, &c. By Prof. Thomas Chase. Price by mail, postpaid, ^1.50. yiRGIL'S ECLOGUES, GEORGICS, AND MORE- TUM, With Explanatory Notes, Lexicon, &c. By Prof. George Stuart. Price by mail, postpaid, ;?i.25. riCERO'S SELECT ORATIONS. With Explanatory ^ Notes, Lexicon, Life of Cicero, List of Consuls during his Life, Plan of the Roman Forum and its Surroundings, &c. By Prof. George Stuart. Price by mail, postpaid, ^1.50. CALLUST'S CATILINE AND JUGORTHINE WAR. With Explanatory Notes, Lexicon, &c. By Prof. George Stuart. Price by mail, post- paid, ^1.25. rORNELIUS NEPOS. with Explanatory Notes, ^ Lexicon, &c. By Prof. George Stuart. Price by mail, postpaid, ;?i.25. IJORACE'S ODES, SATIRES, AND EPISTLES. -■--*■ With Explanatory Notes, Metrical Key, Index of Proper Names, &c. By Prof. Thomas Chase. Price by mail, postpaid, $1.$^- I IVY. BOOKS I., XXL AND XXil. With extracts ^ from Books ix. , xxvi. , xxxv. , xxxviii. , xxxix. , and XLV. With Explanatory Notes, Geographical Index, &c. By Prof. Thomas Chase. Price by mail, postpaid, ^1.50. riCERO DE SENECTUTE ET DE AMICITIA. ^ With Explanatory Notes, &c. By E. P. Crowell, A.M., Professor of Latin, and H. B. Richardson, Instructor of Latin in Amherst College. Price by mail, postpaid, ^1.25. riCERO DE OFFICIIS. With Explanatory Notes, ^ &c. By E. P. Crowell, A.M., Professor of Latin in Amherst College. Price by mail, postpaid, ^1.50. riCERO'S TUSCULAN DISPUTATIONS. Book ^ First. The Dream of Scipio, and Extracts from the Dialogues on Old Age and Friendship. With Ex- planatory Notes. By Prof. Thomas Chase. Price by mail, postpaid, J1.25. A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By John S. Hart, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and of the English Language in the College of New Jersey. The Series comprises the following volumes, viz. : First Lessons in Composition, ^ . . Price, $0.90 Composition and Rhetoric, ... •' 1.50 A Short Course in Literature, ... " 1.50 And for Colleges and Higher Institutions of Learning : A Manual of American Literature, . . ♦' 2.50 A Manual of English Literature, . • *• 2.60 Hart's First Lessons in Composition is intended for beginners. A greater help to the Teacher never was invented. It will revo- lutionize the whole work of teaching. By the increased power of, expression which it gives to the pupil, it doubles his progress in every study. There is not a school but in which a class can be formed for its advantageous use. Any pupil able to read tolerably well can use it to advantage. Hart's Composition and Rhetoric has been prepared with a full knowledge of the wants of both teacher and scholar in this impor- tant branch of education, and the author has spared no pains to make the book eminently practical and adapted to use in the class- room. Dr. Hart has been engaged for more than one-third of a century in the practical duties of the school-room, and for years past has made a specialty of the subject of which the present volume treats. The great variety and copiousness of the " Examples for Practice" will commend the book to general favor. In this respect it is unequalled by any similar work heretofore published. Hart's Short Course in Literature, English and American, is intended as a text-book for Schools and Academies. It is designed for the use of those who have not the time to devote to the study of Literature as laid down in the larger books of the Series. Hart's Manual of English Literature is intended as a text book for Colleges, and as a book of reference. Hart's Manual of American Literature is a companion volume to the *' English Literature," with which it corresponds in general character and design. It is intended as a text-book for Colleges, and as a book of reference. In these volumes Prof. Hart has embodied the matured fruits of his life-long studies in this department of letters. We believe they will be found in advance of any other text-books on the subject, in the comprehensiveness of the plan, the freshness of much of the materials, the sound judgment shown in the critical opinions, the clearness with which the several topics are presented, and the beauty as well as the practical convenience of the mechanical arrangements. The scholarly culture and excellent literary judgment displayed, entitle these books to a high place among the works on English liter- ature. The plan and arrangement present many novel features, and the thoroughness of detail, brevity and precision of statement, elegance of style, and soundness of opinion which characterize the volumes, call for the sincerest commendation. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, a rx Text-Book for Schools, Academies, Colleges, and Families. By Joseph C. Martindale, M.D., late Principal of the Madison Grammar School, Phila- delphia. Price by mail, postpaid, ^1.30. The study of Physiology and the Laws of Health is as important as it is interesting. Its importance has become so generally recog- nized that there are now few schools in which it does not occupy a prominent position in the course of instruction. Dr. Martin dale's Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene presents the following claims to the consideration of teachers. Technicalities have been avoided, so far as consistent with the treatment of the subject. The style in which it is written is not only pleasing, but such as to be readily comprehended by those for whose use it is designed. Superfluous matter has been omitted, so that the book can be completed in a much shorter period than any other text-book on the subject as yet published. Descriptive circular sent on application. FIRST LESSONS IN NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. -■- For Beginners. By Joseph C. Martindale, M.D., late Principal of the Madison Grammar School. Price by mail, postpaid, 60 cents. This book is what its title indicates, " First Lessons in Natural Philosophy;" and it presents each division of the subject in such an easy and familiar style, that it cannot fail to interest and instruct any child of ordinary intelligence. Beginning as it does in a simple and easy manner, it secures the interest of the pupil by first directing his attention to objects in nature with which he is familiar. When the interest is thus excited, the subject is gradually unfolded by presenting, one after another, the familiar things met with in the e very-day walks of life ; thus, the most common objects are made the means of teaching great philosophical truths. Only so much of the subject is presented as can be taught with profit in our public and private schools, yet what has been given will be found to em- brace all the more common phenomena met with in every- day life. The facts are so clearly and so plainly set forth, that they arc en- 9 tirely capable of comprehension by those for whose use and benefit ' this little work is designed. Teachers interested in the "Object Lesson" system of teaching will find this little book a valuable aid, in furnishing subjects for discussion. Circular containing specimen pages, &c., sent to any address on application. AN ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA, FOR SCHOOLS ^ AND ACADEMIES. By Joseph W. Wilson, A.M., Professor of Mathematics in the Philadel- phia Central High School. Price by mail, post- paid, $l.2S^ The present work is the result of an effort to produce an Ele- mentary Algebra suited to the wants of classes commencing the study. It has been prepared by one who for years has felt the need of just such a book, and is the fruit of long experience in the school-room. With this book in hand, the pupil cannot help avoiding the diffi- culties which invariably present themselves at the very threshold of the study of Algebra. It has been the aim to give such a presentation of the subject as will meet the wants of Common Schools and Academies. It is an elementary work, and no attempt has been made to include every- thing which might be brought under the head of Algebra. The treatment of the subject is on the principle of "step by step," so that the pupil at the very outset is inspired with a degree of confi- dence which induces self-reliance; rendering unnecessary a con- stant application to the teacher for help. The book is commended to teachers in the hope that it will satisfy a need which the author has himself frequently felt. Descriptive circular sent on application. A KEY TO WILSON'S ELEMENTARY ALGE- BRA for the use of Teachers only. By Prof. Joseph W. Wilson, A. M. Price by mail, post- paid, $1.25. THE CRITTENDEN COMMERCIAL ARITH- * METIC AND BUSINESS MANUAL. Designed for the Use of Teachers, Business Men, Academies, High Schc^ls, and Commercial Colleges. 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Circulars containing full descriptive notice, testimonials, &c., will be sent to any address on application. A MANUAL OF ELOCUTION. Founded upon the "^ Philosophy of the Human Voice, with Classified Illustrations, Suggested by and Arranged to meet the Practical Difficulties of Instruction. By M. S. Mitchell. Price by mail, post-paid, ^1.50. SUBJECTS TREATED OF. Articulation, Pronunciation, Accent, Emphasis, Modulation, Melody of Speech, Pitch, Tone, Inflections, Sense, Cadence, Force, Stress, Grammatical and Rhetorical Pauses, Movement, Reading of Poetiy, Action, Attitude, Analysis of the Principles of Gestures, and Oratory. The compiler cannot conceal the hope that this glimpse of our general literature may tempt to individual research among its treas- ures, so varied and inexhaustible; — that this text-book for the II school-room may become not only teacher, but friend, to those in whose hands it is placed, and while aiding, through systematic de- velopment and training of the elocutionary powers of the pupil, to overcome many of the practical difficulties of instruction, may accomplish a higher work in the cultivation and refinement of character. THE MODEL SPEAKER: Consisting of Exercises '- in Prose, Poetry, and Blank Verse, Suitable for Declamation, Public Readings, School Exhibitions, &c. Compiled for the Use of Schools, Academies, Colleges, and Private Classes, by Prof. Philip Lawrence. Price by mail, post-paid, 1^1.50. The book is printed on superfine, tinted paper, and handsomely and durably bound in fine English cloth, with- bevelled sides. For variety and freshness of selections, beauty of mechanical execution, and economy in price, it is unequalled by any similar work extant. Great care has been taken to consult the authorized editions of the various writers represented, that the extracts from their works may be relied upon as accurate ; though, in some instances, pre- ference has been given to an early edition, when, in later issues, the alterations have not been deemed improvements. Many poems have been introduced which have never before found their way into any book of selections, being now for the first time published in this country in a permanent form. It is believed that this book will be found admirably adapted for use as a "Reader," either in connection with any of the regular series of reading books, or to be taken up by classes that, having used the higher readers of the different series, need variety as an incentive to interest. For this purpose we particularly commend it to the attention of Principals of Academies, Seminaries, High Schools, Normal Schools, and Institutions for Young Ladies. Descriptive Circular, containing entire List of Contents, sent to any address on application. ^IM^ JHE 12 MODEL DEFINER. An Elementary Book for Beginners, containing Definitions, Etymology, and Sentences as Models, exhibiting the correct use of Words. By A. C. Webb. Price by mail, post- paid, 25 cents. THE MODEL ETYMOLOGY. Giving not only the ■*' Definitions, Etymology, and Analysis, but also that which can be obtained only from an intimate ac- quaintance with the best authors, viz. : the correct use of Words. With a Key containing the analysis of every word which could present any difficulties to the learner. By A. C. Webb. Price by mail, post-paid, 60 cents. The plan adopted in the Model Definer and Model Etymology is not new. All good Dictionaries illustrate the meaning by a Model. To quote from a good author, a sentence containing the word, as proof of its correct use, is the only authority allowed. A simple trial of the work, either by requiring the child to form sentences similar to those given, or by memorizing the sentences as models for future use, will convince any one of the following advantages to be derived from the Model Word-Book Series. 1. Saving of time. 2. Increased knowledge of words. 3. Ease to teacher and scholar. 4. A knowledge of the correct use of words. Descriptive Circular sent on application. MARTINDALE'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. From the Discovery of America to the close of the late Rebellion. By Joseph C. Mar- TiNDALE, M.D., Principal of the Madison Grammar School, Philadelphia. Price by mail, post-paid, 60 cents. 13 With this book in his hand, the scholar can in a single school- term obtain as complete a knowledge of the History of the United States as has heretofore required double the time and effort. Descriptive circular sent on application. THE YOUNG STUDENT'S COMPANION; or, ■*■ Elementary Lessons and Exercises in Translating from English into French. By M. A. Longstreth, Principal of a Seminary for Young Ladies, Phila- delphia. Price by mail, postpaid, ^i.oo. TABLES OF LATIN SUFFIXES. Designed as an "■- Aid to the Study of the Latin Grammar. By Amos N. Currier, A.M., Professor of Latin in the Uni- versity of Iowa. Price by mail, postpaid, 50 cents. A FRENCH VERB BOOK; or, the New Expositor ^ of Verbs in French. By Ernest Lagarde, A.M., Professor of Modern Languages in Mount St. Mary's College. Price by mail, postpaid, ;gi.oo. Lagarde's French Verb Book embraces a comprehensive analysis of the conjugations, a new method for the formation and use of the tenses, and a complete paradigm of all the verbs, the whole ex- plained and exemplified by full illustrations. It is believed that the book will bfe found a valuable aid to the study of the French language. fOMPENDIUM OF FRENCH RULES, a Com- ^ pendium of the Grammatical Rules of the French Language. By F. A. Bregy, A.M., Professor of French in the University of Pennsylvania. IN THREE PAKTS. PABT FIEST. Price by mail, postpaid, 75 cents. PAKT SECOND. " " 50 ". PART THIRD. In Preparation. H These hand-books can be advantageously used in connection with any system. They lead the student from the first elements of the language to anci through the principal rules of the French Syntax, enabling him, in a short time, to master intelligently what otherwise would prove a tedious and difficult task. CELECTIONS FOR LITTLE FOLKS. A Book of ^ Poetical Selections for Children. Price by mail, postpaid, 50 cents. That sympathy which loves to link the present with the past, has prompted the preparation of this volume. Simply to make a child glad, is a worthy motive for storing its mind with poetic utterances, especially when the remembrance of such happiness becomes a well-spring of delight for a lifetime. This little book is intended for children not more than nine or ten years of age, and the compiler would feel it a good excuse for adding another book to those already extant, should the little ones find pleasure in it. TN THE SCHOOL-ROOM; or, Chapters in the -*■ Philosophy of Education. By John S. Hart, LL.D., Principal of New Jersey State Normal School. Price by mail, postpaid, ^1.25. This work gives the results of the experience and observation of the author "in the School-room" for a period of years extending over more than one-third of a century. No teacher can afford to be without it. It is a teacher's library in a single book. Descriptive circular sent on application. THE MODEL ROLL-BOOK, No. 1. For the Use * of Schools. Containing a Record of Attendance, Punctuality, Deportment, Orthography, Reading, Penmanship, Intellectual Arithmetic, Practical Arith- metic, Geography, Grammar, Analysis, Parsing and History, and several blanks for special studies not enumerated. Price by mail, postpaid, J5.00. IS THE MODEL ROLL-BOOK, No. 2. For the use ^ of High Schools, Academies and Seminaries. Con- taining a Record of all the studies mentioned in Roll-Book No. I, together with Declamation, Elo- cution, Algebra, Geometry, Composition, Rhetoric, French, Latin, Philosophy, Physiology, and several blanks for special studies not enumerated. Price by mail, post-paid, ;?5.oo. Since the fii'st publication of the Model Roll-Books, they have been very materially improved. They have been made uniform in size and price ; each page has been arranged to exhibit a record for one month, and space has been assigned for a monthly summaiy. These Roll-Books are in use in the leading schools in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis, and very extensively in Academies, Seminaries, and High Schools throughout the Country. They will, on examination, be found to be the most complete and practical yet published. All teachers who use them speak of them with unqualified approval. THE MODEL POCKET REGISTER AND GRADE- BOOK. A Roll-Book, Record, and Grade-Book combined. Adapted to all grades of classes, whether in College, Academy, Seminary, High or Primary School. Handsomely bound in fine English cloth, bevelled sides, crimson edges. Price by mail, post- paid, 65 cents. MODEL SCHOOL DIARY. Designed as an aid in securing the co-operation of parents. It con- sists of a Record of the Attendance, Deportment, Recitations, &c., of the Scholar, for every day in the week. At the close of the week it is to be sent to the parent or guardian for his examination and signature. Copies will be mailed to teachers for examination, post-paid, on receipt of ten cents. Price per dozen, by mail, post-paid, ^1.05. THE i6 THE MODEL MONTHLY REPORT. The general ■■" character of the Monthly Report is the same as that of the Model School Diary, excepting that it is in- tended for a Monthly instead of a Weekly Report of the Attendance, Recitations, &c., of the Pupil. Copies will be mailed to teachers for examination, postpaid, on receipt of ten cents. Price per dozen, by mail, postpaid, $^^o^* DOOK- KEEPING BLANKS. Consisting of six ^ blank books, as follows : Day Book, Cash Book, Ledger, Journal, Bill Book, and Book for Miscel- laneous Exercises. Price for each book by mail, postpaid, 15 cents; or the entire set of six books by mail, postpaid, 90 cents. These books have been prepared as a matter of practical con- venience for students in Book-keeping. They can be used with any treatise, and will be sold singly or in sets, as may be desired. Teachers corresponding with us are requested to supply us with a copy of the circular or catalogue of the school of which they are the Principal, or with which they are connected. Descriptive circulars of all our publications will be sent to any address on application. Please address, ELDREDGE & BROTHER, No. 17 North Seventh Street, PHILADELPHIA. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA LIBRAEY BERKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of oOc per volume after the third day overdue, increasing to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is made before expiration of loan period. J131 >.7 1917 50m-7,'16 * 1 .tV,:C. #''i.* ^/ *; ^. ^Cff.