THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 John S.Prell
 
 I
 
 ON 
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 AND THE 
 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 OP 
 
 SHIPS AND SCREW PROPELLERS, 
 
 FOE 
 
 NAYAL AND MARINE ENGINEERS. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN W. NYSTROM, 
 
 LATE ACTING CHIEF ENGINEER UNITED STATES NAVY. 
 
 SECOND EDITION REVISED, WITH ADDITIONAL MATTER. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 
 
 INDUSTKIAL PUBLISHER, 
 406 Walnut Street. 
 
 1866.
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by 
 HENEY CAREY BAIRD, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States 
 in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 COLLINS, PBINTEB, 786 JAYNK STREET.
 
 141 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION, 
 
 A SECOND edition of this work has been 
 called for, and as Congress has taken no action 
 on the subject, the author avails himself of the 
 opportunity to add further arguments in favor 
 of technological education. The topic cannot 
 be too much discussed, and certainly merits the 
 serious consideration of every good citizen. 
 
 There are many engineers in the Navy who 
 would be equally disposed to agitate this sub- 
 ject and assist in the reorganization and im- 
 provement of the corps, but their position 
 restrains them, and they cannot expose them- 
 selves to the ungrateful task, which is unavoid- 
 able in the elucidation of the existing system. 
 The lot seems to have fallen on the author to 
 take the bull by the horns, and he fearlessly 
 courts an open contest, if such can only be had, 
 with the organized prejudices which now em- 
 barrass the subject. If in fault, he is open for 
 
 correction. 
 
 1* 
 
 713786
 
 vi PREFACE. 
 
 It is to be regretted that this theme cannot 
 be fairly treated without attacking, as it were, 
 functionaries who only happen to be illustra- 
 tions of a decrepit system; but it is to be 
 hoped that those gentlemen who have been 
 thus particularized will join in the proposition 
 at issue. 
 
 If the engineers themselves are not suffi- 
 ciently alive to the importance of this subject 
 from a deficiency of experience in applied 
 science, of course it will not be expected that 
 politicians, who have no light to guide them 
 but a sense of duty, can possibly assume the 
 initiation of any such reformations as these. 
 
 What is true in reference to the interests of 
 the Federal Government, applies with equal 
 force to the civil interests of all 'the separate 
 States, each of which ought to have its Techno- 
 logical Institute, to give the entire profession 
 of Civil and Mechanical Engineers that com- 
 pleteness of qualification for their career, which 
 by the existing system is so rarely and so im- 
 perfectly attained. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, March 28, 18G6.
 
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 MUCH consideration has been given to the 
 propriety of publishing the accompany ing views 
 on technological education, as they were ori- 
 ginally not intended for that purpose ; but as 
 some steps must be taken in that direction 
 before long, in compliance with what many 
 deem an imperious public necessity, the hesita- 
 tion was at length relinquished. In order to 
 render the necessity of technological education 
 more conspicuous, occasional reference has been 
 made to actual cases of engineering disappoint- 
 ments and mismanagement, growing out of a 
 want of applied science. Engineers are often 
 intrusted with responsible stations, without 
 being possessed of adequate knowledge of their 
 profession, or without having gradually and 
 fairly earned such appointment in the field of
 
 yiii PREFACE. 
 
 experience. It is not yet time to attempt to 
 classify the rank and position of engineers in 
 the several departments, civil and military, on 
 land and sea, as, for obvious reasons, it must 
 be deferred. 
 
 The relation between engineers and sailing 
 officers on board of steamers has, in all coun- 
 tries, been a troublesome question, ever since 
 the introduction of steam. The engineer knows 
 himself to be in a very responsible position, 
 not always appreciated by his captain. He is 
 often of very limited education, and when he 
 finds himself imposed upon, perhaps inadver- 
 tently uses stronger language than necessary 
 in his defence, which has often been the cause 
 of discord. 
 
 Education is necessary to the engineer, not, 
 however, principally for enabling him to please 
 the captain, but for the proper performance of 
 his professional duty generally, and he will, at 
 the same time, accord and harmonize better 
 with the sailing officers by whom he is sur- 
 rounded. 
 
 The Corps of Engineers in the United States
 
 PREFACE. ix 
 
 Navy is on a better footing than that of any 
 one in Europe, but, nevertheless, it does not 
 enjoy the standing due to its important office, 
 either in respect to its rank or its education. 
 The United States Navy has now taken, the 
 lead in the new tactics of naval warfare, and 
 through a decisive experience has developed 
 the necessity of making a corresponding change 
 in its executive organization, as regards the 
 rank and learning of its engineers. 
 
 What is required here cannot be learned in 
 foreign countries, for whilst our present expe- 
 rience is far ahead of theirs, neither their prac- 
 tical knowledge nor their accepted theories are 
 sufficient or altogether applicable to our case. 
 It is therefore necessary for the Corps of En- 
 gineers, relying only upon their characteristic 
 enterprise and independence of mind, to carry 
 their achievements still further onwards, and 
 by qualifying themselves to maintain with dig- 
 nity their appropriate rank in the service, at 
 the same time preserve their well-earned posi- 
 tion as pioneers in their professional career. 
 
 The writer has for many years felt the
 
 X PREFACE. 
 
 greatest interest in the progress and standing 
 of this Corps, and respectfully begs leave to 
 submit herewith, for their consideration, some 
 views On this subject, parts of which have al- 
 ready been communicated to the Congressional 
 Committees on Naval Affairs, as also a further 
 communication to the Secretary of the Navy. 
 JOHN W. NYSTROM.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 On Technological Education .... 13 
 The knowledge of Steam-Engineering behind the 
 
 knowledge of science 14 
 
 Failure of Steamers for a want of applied science 1 5 
 Fresh water condensers, and combustion of fuel . 16 
 Knowledge of Steamship performance ... 17 
 Expansion experiments made by the Navy De- 
 partment 18 
 
 Natural effect of Steam or maximum work per 
 
 unit of heat 19 
 
 Natural effect of S team-Engines . . . .20 
 Nystrom's Pocket-Book . . . .21 
 Eeform wanted in scientific books ... 23 
 America has taken the lead in popular education 25 
 Technological Institutions wanted ... 26 
 The National Academy of Sciences ... 27 
 Object of Technological Institutions ... 29 
 Steam-Engineering and Shipbuilding ... 30 
 Necessity of complete drawings before the build- 
 ing of steamers is commenced .... 31
 
 Xii CONTENTS. 
 
 America has taken the lead in the new naval tac- 
 tics . . . .33 
 
 The Naval Academy, at Annapolis, not proper for 
 
 a school of Steam-Engineering ... 36 
 
 Want of applied science in our workshops . . 38 
 
 Locomotive engineering 39 
 
 Communication to the Secretary of the Navy on 
 
 the science of Shipbuilding 41 
 
 Shipbuilders consider their art a craft ... 43 
 
 Shipbuilders' jealousy 46 
 
 Shipbuilding developed to the condition of a sci- 
 ence 47 
 
 Memorandum 50 
 
 Chief-Engineer Isherwood does not approve the 
 
 Parabolic Construction of Ships ... 50 
 On the Parabolic Construction of Ships ' . .53 
 Application of the Parabolic Construction of 
 
 Ships ' 72 
 
 Kecording formulas 74 
 
 Becording tables 76 
 
 The labor of calculating the shipbuilding tables . 81 
 Mr. W. L. Hans,com, Naval Constructor, on the 
 
 Parabolic Method ' 83 
 
 Mr. J. Vaughan Merrick on the Parabolic Con- 
 struction 84 
 
 Resignation, by the Author, as Acting Chief-En- 
 gineer in the Navy 85
 
 CONTENTS. xill 
 
 Memorandum 87 
 
 The science of dynamics in a confused condition . 88 
 Illustrations required in dynamics , . .91 
 Mr. Isherwood declines having the subject of dy- 
 namics cleared up * . . .92 
 The subject of dynamics submitted to the National 
 
 Academy of Sciences 95 
 
 On the elements of dynamics ; force, power, and 
 
 work, defined .96 
 
 Work, a trinity of physical elements ... 99 
 Discussion with naval engineers on the subject of 
 
 dynamics 99 
 
 Questions in dynamics submitted to the Academy 
 
 of Sciences 101 
 
 Vis-viva ........ 104 
 
 Unit for power " . . 106 
 
 Unit for work 106 
 
 Navy Department attempting to reorganize the 
 
 corps of engineers 109 
 
 Washington Navy Yard 109 
 
 Engineers in the Navy Department . . .111 
 Captain Fox on engineering and the construction 
 
 of ships 112 
 
 Secrecy respecting ships' drawings . . . 114 
 
 Steam-boiler explosions . . . . . 117 
 
 Review of screw propellers 126 
 
 To construct a plain screw 127 
 
 Propeller with a compound expanding pitch . 128 
 2
 
 XIV . CONTENTS. 
 
 Propeller as constructed by Chief-Engineer Isher 
 wood .... . 132 
 
 Propeller as constructed from Mr. Isherwood's 
 drawings 146 
 
 Centripetal propeller 148 
 
 Centripetal propeller with compound expanding 
 pitch 153 
 
 The Office of the Coast Survey an example of what 
 the Bureau of Steam-engineering should be . 159 
 
 The engineer-in-chief of the navy a grand admiral 160 
 
 Constructions owght not to be made in the Navy 
 Department 161 
 
 The Office of the Coast Survey and the Light- 
 House Board naturally belong to the navy . 162
 
 TO THE 
 
 CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE 
 
 OF 
 
 NAVAL AFFAIES, U. S. CONGRESS, 
 WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 SIR : The object of this paper is to invite the 
 attention of your Committee, and of Congress, 
 to a subject of general interest to the country, 
 and one of particularly great importance to the 
 power and prosperity of its navy. 
 
 The subject is that of establishing a Technolo- 
 gical Academy for Naval Engineers, and for the 
 promotion of sciences bearing on the immediate 
 necessities of the country in that Department. 
 Should it receive your Committee's attention 
 and approbation, and should you consider it 
 worthy of being submitted to Congress, the 
 undersigned is willing to suggest the requisite 
 plans and method for its organization. 
 I have the honor to remain, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 JOHN W. NYSTROM, 
 
 Engineer. 
 MARKOE HOUSE, 
 PHILADELPHIA, Dec. 21, 1863.
 
 ON 
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 THE immense natural resources of the New 
 World are confided to the hands of an enter- 
 prising, ingenious, and happy people; yet their 
 time, their money, their life, and their credit, 
 in imitation of the Old World, are lavishly 
 wasted, through a deficient knowledge of those 
 physical laws which constitute the most essen- 
 tial element of all human enterprise. Under 
 this impression the writer has striven, by means 
 of various scientific articles on these subjects, 
 to enforce the necessity of enlarged reform, 
 both in the study and the application of these 
 laws, which he modestly hopes may have some 
 good effect. 
 
 The efforts of a single individual, however, 
 when elevated to subjects of such magnitude, 
 only result in perpetual and unprofitable 
 struggles with organized interests and preju- 
 dices, and fail of their purpose through the 
 2
 
 14 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 misconceptions which are inseparable from new 
 and original subjects. From its novelty alone, 
 a new and valuable idea is frequently con- 
 demned on bare supposition, and the writer has 
 thus labored in vain, under the greatest disad- 
 vantages (accompanied with great expense), to 
 rescue the proposition which he is now about 
 to submit to your committee, from that neglect 
 to which, for many years, it has been doomed 
 by the indifference or imperfect appreciation 
 of those around him. 
 
 Up to the present day, the knowledge of 
 steam engineering, in which we take so much 
 pride, and which constitutes a most essential 
 part of our national existence, is far behind our 
 general knowledge of science. Our marine 
 engines and boilers are not only unnecessarily 
 complicated, but prodigally extravagant in 
 their consumption of fuel; whilst not unfre- 
 quently new machinery fails to accomplish ex- 
 pected results from the want of knowledge of 
 the physical laws bearing on the problem. 
 
 Only a few years ago there was not a single 
 " steam propeller" in the United States with 
 properly constructed air-pumps and foot-valves. 
 Some of the propellers designed to go to Eu- 
 rope succeeded in making one passage, whilst 
 others broke down at but a short distance from
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 15 
 
 the shore, and returned ; most of them existed 
 but a short time, and involved the loss of mil- 
 lions of dollars to the country, to say nothing 
 of the effect upon its scientific and mechanical 
 reputation. Enterprising merchants, who at- 
 tempted to establish lines of steamers to Europe, 
 became discouraged, and perhaps ruined by 
 their failure, and the result now is that we 
 have not a single steamer in the European 
 trade. A few names of steamers may be re- 
 ferred to in verification of these remarks 
 namely, the frigate San Jacinto, which broke 
 down through disarrangement of -her air-pumps 
 and foot- valves; the La Fayette also (whose 
 machinery contained, perhaps, the worst air- 
 pumps ever constructed); the City of Petersburg ; 
 Ben Franklin; and the Frigate Merrimac, which 
 suffered from the breaking down of her foot- 
 valves on her passage from America to Eng- 
 land, in 1856, and which had to be improved 
 in England. In addition to these, a great many 
 other first-class American steamers experienced 
 the same fate for want of applied physieal science. 
 When the writer became acquainted with 
 these defects, he attempted to correct them by 
 explaining the physical laws in operation, 
 which, at the time, was only received with 
 ridicule, and derided as theoretical. He then
 
 16 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 worked out practical 'formulas, which were 
 published in the Journal of the Franklin Insti- 
 tute, of Philadelphia, and in his "Pocket-Book 
 of Engineering," giving a solution of the prin- 
 ciples under which the air pump and foot valves 
 operate, after which many errors were cor- 
 rected ; but up to the present day there is no 
 other publication on the subject. That publica- 
 tion has been copied and republished in Europe. 
 
 Blunders of this kind are still going on, by 
 means of which millions of dollars are wasted, 
 and our national reputation impaired from this 
 general want of applied physical science. 
 
 The physical laws connected with the opera- 
 tion of fresh water or surface condensers, with 
 the combustion of fuel, with the nature and 
 properties of steam; with the dynamic equiva- 
 lent, the conducting economy, and other pro- 
 perties of heat, are yet but partly known, and 
 that by but a few scientific men in the world ; 
 and in no case are they worked out to a prac- 
 tical shape, with formulas intelligible to the 
 engineers in the shop. 
 
 We find by science that the theoretical effect 
 of one pound of pure carbon consumed per 
 hour, is over Jive horses, whilst in our present 
 practice it requires several pounds of coal per 
 hour for each horse power.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 17 
 
 Fresh water condensers have always given 
 trouble ; the combustion of fuel requires most 
 earnest attention, not so much for the cost of 
 fuel, as to enable us to navigate long distances 
 with great speed, and with something more on 
 board than boilers, machinery, and fuel. The 
 Navy Department is now having steamers built 
 intended for great speed, the arrangements of 
 which plainly show a want of proper knowledge 
 in steamship performance. 
 
 The knowledge of steamship performance is 
 yet at a very low point, and for want of it no 
 accurate record can be kept, by which to com- 
 pare the true quality of performance of one 
 steamer with that of another ; or to determine 
 what will be the performance of a steamer con- 
 structed according to given data. 
 
 Ingenious contrivances in machinery and 
 steamers, with plausible promises of high speed 
 (up to twenty and thirty miles per hour), are 
 frequently met with, whose plans, sometimes 
 confidently accepted, often result in complete 
 failure and disappointment, which properly 
 applied science would have avoided. The truth 
 of this observation will probably be realized 
 by a wild scheme now before the City Councils 
 of Philadelphia, proposing a line of steamers to 
 Europe, which has for several years remained 
 2*
 
 18 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 in a nebulous condition, unsupported by tbat 
 scientific reasoning by which alone any one 
 could be rendered confident of the result. 
 
 Some twelve years ago, the writer was com- 
 piling a Pocket-Book of Mechanics and En- 
 gineering (since published in repeated editions); 
 he analyzed many previously published data, 
 and, with the aid of his own experience, re- 
 duced the law of steamship performance to a 
 practical rule to work by. In one of the most 
 respectable journals of the country were found 
 some plausible data on steamship performance, 
 which threw the writer into the utmost confu- 
 sion, and in their solution involved him in 
 great expense of travel and practical investiga- 
 tion, only to find them bold exaggerations. 
 
 The Navy Department have made very ex- 
 tensive experiments on the expansion of steam, 
 which were commenced in New York some 
 four years ago. The well-known Erie expan- 
 sion experiments, the Washington Navy Yard 
 and Old Point boat experiments, and the ex- 
 pansion experiments made lately at the Novelty 
 Iron Works, N. Y., were all carried on in the 
 apparent attempt to overthrow natural laws, 
 and establish physical by-laws. The engineers 
 are manifestly not familiar with the scientific 
 principles which belong to the question.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 19 
 
 The natural effect in a given quantity of 
 steam, of given temperature and pressure, is as 
 specific as the natural effect in a waterfall. We 
 have only to strive, by improvements in the 
 arrangement of our steam-engines and boilers, 
 to utilize the greatest possible percentage of 
 that natural effect, as is done by water wheels 
 and turbines. If the Navy Department find 
 no utility in the expansion of steam, it only 
 exposes its position in the science of steam en- 
 gineering, which can be no indication of what 
 may be done by other parties. 
 
 Steam-engines, like water-wheels and tur- 
 bines, utilize widely different percentages of 
 the natural effect, even with equal grade of 
 expansion, which may be seen in the results of 
 the different experiments made on different 
 engines by the Navy Department. The result 
 of each experiment is applicable only to that 
 peculiar arrangement of the engine and boiler 
 experimented upon, and no more. 
 
 The maximum or natural work K, per unit 
 of heat in steam, is in footpounds. 
 
 8 
 
 144 P ( V 1) (2-3 log. + 1)* 
 JT = ; l ' 
 
 U'V 
 
 * See Nystrom's Pocket-Book, 10th edition, for the value 
 of these quantities.
 
 20 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 P = total steam pressure per square inch. 
 
 H' = units of heat per cubic foot of the 
 steam P. 
 
 V = volume of the steam compared with 
 water. 
 
 S = stroke of steam-piston, in inches. 
 
 Z == part of the stroke under which steam is 
 fully admitted, in inches. 
 
 The natural effect of the heat in the steam 
 in horse-power, will be 
 
 _ NK 
 
 550 f 
 
 N = total number of units of heat passed 
 through the steam-engine in the time T in 
 seconds. The more of this natural effect that 
 can be utilized, the more perfect is the steam- 
 engine. It is time to speak about steam-engines 
 as we do about water-wheels and turbines 
 namely, " how many per cent, it utilizes of the 
 natural effect." 
 
 On the writer's last arrival from Europe, 
 Dec. 1860, he found the anti-expansion question 
 receiving considerable attention by engineers. 
 He published, in a scientific journal, some de- 
 monstrations to prove the folly of the Erie ex- 
 pansion experiments; and, although ridiculed 
 in a New York paper, they produced good
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 21 
 
 effect. Again, he published in his Pocket-Book 
 tables for expansion of steam (hitherto the most 
 complete in print), and its connection with 
 superheated steam, which also had a great 
 effect, as subsequent experiments resulted in 
 their favor. 
 
 The Navy Department is here alluded to 
 because their blunders are more perfectly ex- 
 posed to view, and therefore better known, but 
 the evil is none the less serious in private en- 
 terprises. 
 
 The writer is in possession of 'knowledge 
 which would greatly contribute to clear up 
 these difficulties, and advance the character of 
 our steam engineering, but he cannot undertake 
 the great expense of bringing it before the 
 public, inasmuch as scientific knowledge is not 
 sufficiently diffused among our mechanics and 
 engineers to render such a work self-sustaining. 
 In proof of which he would remark that pub- 
 lishers are not willing even to get up such ex- 
 pensive books as his "Pocket-Book of Mechanics 
 and Engineering," of which copies are sent 
 herewith. 
 
 The manuscript of this book was submitted 
 to publishers in the year 1853, some of whom 
 had it examined by scientific and practical men, 
 who condemned it as useless, and unfit for
 
 22 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 publication. Some publishers objected to the 
 great expense in bringing it out, whereupon it 
 was carried through at the author's own ex- 
 pense, which has now amounted to a consider- 
 able sum. x The small profit realized is not suf- 
 ficient for the expense of experiments and in- 
 vestigation attending each succeeding edition. 
 
 I take it for granted that, in a matter so im- 
 portant to the profession and the country, many 
 others, much more highly qualified by their 
 abilities and attainments than myself, would 
 cheerfully do-operate in the efforts to further 
 the main purpose here foreshadowed, if an or- 
 ganized shape could only be given to it, or a 
 nucleus of some kind formed upon which their 
 efforts would be concentrated; and in view of 
 the great expense attending it, I consider it 
 necessary, in due regard to the interests of the 
 engineering profession, to lay the matter before 
 your committee, trusting that it may receive 
 due consideration, and that, possibly, means 
 may be appropriated for that purpose. 
 
 The labor attending the investigation of new 
 and original subjects is immense; particularly 
 in exploring unknown regions of science, and 
 bringing the products home to simple formulas 
 and tables of a practical shape. There does 
 not, at present, appear to be any one among us
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 23 
 
 who is willing or able, perhaps for want of 
 time, to undertake such a laborious task, and 
 very few know what is wanted, but too many 
 suppose we have attained perfection. 
 
 We have plenty of scientific books, mostly 
 written by professors in colleges, having very 
 little or no opportunity to apply their know- 
 ledge in practice, and which are, therefore, des- 
 titute of practical examples. 
 
 We frequently find most valuable formulas 
 given by scientific men in such a shape that it 
 requires to know more than the author in order 
 to employ them; they are not only not trimmed 
 to a practical shape, but even the meaning of 
 letters is rarely explained in a technical lan- 
 guage. 
 
 It is surprising to see how successfully ma- 
 thematicians have contrived to keep the simple 
 science of the "calculus" such a perfect mystery. 
 It reaches very few among us, not from diffi- 
 culty in learning it, but simply for want of its 
 judicious application in practice. We find 
 books on the calculus of several hundred pages 
 without a single practical example, which makes 
 the science difficult and tedious of acquisition, 
 and when acquired, very rarely further deve- 
 loped, but is stored away in the mind so that 
 it cannot be found when wanted. We find
 
 24 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 simple formulas occupying several pages in 
 explanation, which, by a solitary example ap- 
 plied to practice, would imprint it indelibly 
 upon the student's memory. All this can be 
 effectually corrected and improved by the es- 
 tablishment of proper institutions for the in- 
 struction of combined theory and practice. 
 
 There is now a very distinct line drawn 
 between scientific and practical men ; the more 
 we study and cultivate the branches sepa- 
 rately, the more distinct will this line become, 
 and the less will they understand one another, 
 and may ultimately fall into irreconcilable es- 
 trangement. The prejudice against science is, 
 in our day, a very serious evil. 
 
 Science is almost despised by many practical 
 men, not always for want of valuation of it, 
 but often because they do not understand it. 
 A blind man can walk on roads and streets, 
 but when he finds an obstacle must stop ; at a 
 ditch he may tumble down into it, he cannot 
 turn from his accustomed track. Such is the 
 case with many practical and otherwise most 
 valuable men working without a knowledge of 
 physical laws. In order to follow up the im- 
 provements of the age, the track pursued by 
 our fathers must often be abandoned, and a 
 new one selected and surveyed for ourselves.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 25 
 
 Without the application of science we go 
 ahead without knowing where we are going. 
 In verification of which we have plenty of ex- 
 amples in engineering blunders, sometimes 
 subjected to a committee of inquiry, which 
 may result in the discharge of the engineer, 
 accompanied by extravagant abuse of the de- 
 partment concerned, and the evil only tempo- 
 rarily remedied by substituting another, who 
 will most likely not repeat the same blunders, 
 but will do something worse. There is yet no 
 attempt made to permanently remove these 
 evils and secure success in our enterprises 
 by proper institutions. This your committee 
 will admit to be true, but may ask " how can 
 the evil be removed and permanently cor- 
 rected ?" 
 
 America has taken the lead of the world in 
 popular education. Its institutions are copied 
 and imitated in Europe, but it remains for us 
 to follow up and take the lead in* the nobler 
 and purer refinements of our nature. We have 
 the best materials in the world by which to 
 accomplish this object, the question is only as 
 to the time and the means to be taken. 
 
 We are a new people; our habits and cir- 
 cumstances are different from those of other 
 3
 
 26 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 nations, and our institutions must be organized 
 accordingly. 
 
 In Europe they have institutions for the dif- 
 fusion of combined theoretical and practical 
 learning, the want of which is most severely 
 felt in this country. Institutions of that kind 
 are of more importance in America than else- 
 where, for the reason that mechanical skill and 
 inventive ingenuity are here more extensively 
 developed, and the want of applied science 
 wastes away a proportionate quantity of time 
 and money. 
 
 It is very evident that we are behind some 
 other nations in science, and, at the same time* 
 it is certain that we have more science than we 
 can properly manage or utilize. It is the ap- 
 plication of science to practice which requires im- 
 mediate attention and special institutions. 
 
 It is very gratifying to know that Congress, 
 at its last session, passed a bill to establish a 
 National Academy of Science, which will no doubt 
 be of great value; but how can it be brought 
 to bear advantageously on the general interest 
 and immediate wants of the country. 
 
 Considering the peculiar circumstances in 
 which' the country is now placed (the natural 
 fruit of time and civilization), technological 
 institutions are absolutely necessary to enable
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 27 
 
 us to rise gradually and surely to the position 
 due to us among nations, and when once so 
 raised, we would never fall, but become able to 
 maintain with true dignity a National Academy 
 of Science. 
 
 Technological institutions will reveal and 
 develop the talent and ability of the nation, 
 and bring its immense natural resources to ac- 
 count. It is technological institutions which 
 alone furnish proper materials for a National 
 Academy of Science. We have now among us 
 many Newtons, Keplers, Berzelius's, Watts's, 
 Fultons, &c. &c., but have no means of bring- 
 ing them out ; but, on the contrary, plenty of 
 ingenious contrivances to screen them from 
 observation. They are not willing to enter into 
 competition with our everyday rivals, while 
 our national leaders, in their most earnest ex- 
 ertion to find the right man for the right place, 
 are continually imposed upon. This evil can- 
 not be removed by the peculiar liberty alone, 
 in which we take so much pride, but simply 
 by a diffusion of useful knowledge through es- 
 tablished institutions, which should constitute 
 the true object of our national pride. 
 
 At the present time, scientific attainments 
 and true practical knowledge are very little 
 respected ; physical laws, established by the
 
 28 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Creator of the universe, are often derided as 
 theoretical ; ignorance has taken the lead, and 
 rules in the ascendant, and often adopts that 
 which is opposite alike to science, experience, 
 and common sense. 
 
 The object of this paper, therefore, is to pro- 
 pose the establishment of a National Technolo- 
 gical Academy of a high order, whose purpose 
 should be, by the combination of practical 
 and theoretical instruction, to subserve a great 
 public want, and at the same time to inaugu- 
 rate a new era in the scientific and practical 
 reputation of the American people. 
 
 An institution of that kind cannot be a pri- 
 vate enterprise, for in order to command the 
 respect necessary to its existence and high 
 purpose, it must be a public institution. 
 
 The Writer has been educated at the Royal 
 Technological Institute, at Stockholm, where 
 they have a complete set of workshops and labo- 
 ratory, for the practical training of students be- 
 tween lecture hours. It is not expected, neither 
 is it necessary that the student shall become an 
 accomplished mechanic, but the- object is to 
 concentrate his mind on the work" about which 
 he is studying and calculating. When confined 
 only to books and blackboards, his conceptions 
 rarely extend any further. He acquires the
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 29 
 
 knowledge by routine, as it were ; the study 
 becomes tedious to him, and when brought to 
 bear on practice, the most simple problem may 
 confound him. When a student is brought up 
 in the combined science and practice, however, 
 he generally acquires a taste for work good 
 workmanship and proper proportions and the 
 application of his science becomes a pleasure. 
 He studies mathematics at the same time he 
 learns drawing; physics and mechanics at the 
 same time he makes his tools and models for 
 machinery. His science is applied as fast as it 
 is acquired, and he will never forget it. When 
 a student is thus equipped for his journey of 
 life, he is able to bring such physical laws into 
 action as to secure success in all his enterprises. 
 He will be able to record and report back to 
 the institute his future experience, by which 
 the most thorough connection may be kept up, 
 between science and practice. 
 
 As things rfbw stand, a man of most valuable 
 information is not thus able to record his 
 achievements ; in fact, he may not know him- 
 self the very laws of his success; his experience 
 and valuable knowledge die with him ; his 
 toiling successor will reiterate his blunders, 
 and gain new experience by a new series of 
 expensive trials and error.
 
 30 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Steam-engineering and ship-building are arts 
 in which we take the greatest pride ; still there 
 is no institution in the country where we learn 
 to construct a steamer completely, or acquire 
 the physical laws under which it operates. 
 Ship-building and steam-engineering are yet 
 considered different professions, while they are 
 so intimately connected in steamboats that it 
 would be impossible to trace a line of separa- 
 tion between them. The shipbuilder cannot 
 properly construct a steamer without the know- 
 ledge of the machinery, neither can the engineer 
 construct the machinery without a knowledge 
 of the vessel ; yet we rarely find one who can 
 undertake both, and the result is a discord of 
 action. They do not please one another, and 
 neither of them takes that care in the whole 
 arrangement which one controlling mind would 
 do. In iron shipbuilding the two branches are 
 more generally brought under one mind. 
 
 We rarely find a superintendent or proprietor 
 in a machine shop or shipyard, even in our 
 navy yards, who can master an algebraical 
 formula, or who is in possession of the rudi- 
 ments of the science bearing on his profession. 
 We have no school where we learn to make a 
 proper working drawing, but students are 
 taught to color drawings before they know how
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 31 
 
 to construct a shadow ; the surface of every- 
 thing is learned, and the substance obscured. 
 We never find a complete working drawing of 
 a steamer when its building is commenced ! In 
 some cases, and even in the navy yards, the 
 drawing is 'made after the steamer is finished, when 
 an extra bill for alterations and experiments 
 augments the originally intended cost to an 
 unsatisfactory' sum, and often results in a com- 
 plicated arrangement of machinery, with don- 
 kies, fans, pumps, cocks, and pipes placed about 
 the vessel, here and there, like scattered stumps 
 and logs in a forest, and requires a more skilful 
 engineer to keep it in order than the one who 
 contrived it. In fact, ingenuity seems to sur- 
 mount any obstacle that could possibly be en- 
 countered, for, in many cases, it shows no dis- 
 position whatever to prevent or avoid the diffi- 
 culty by application of proper principles at the 
 outset ; but a machine, on the contrary, is in- 
 vented by which to overcome the obstacle, and 
 the aggregate contrivance is denominated 
 "practical." 
 
 In verification of this, we have many exam- 
 ples in the navy, but I will here refer to a new- 
 iron steamer, built for the merchant service, 
 whose machinery is one of those ingenious 
 contrivances we frequently meet with ; the
 
 32 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 slide valves alone, for only one cylinder, are 
 operated by twenty connecting rods and forty 
 journals, occupying a height of some thirty-five 
 feet in the vessel, and even then the engine 
 cannot be reversed without throwing the ma- 
 chinery out of gear, and reversing it by hand. 
 
 We must, in all ages and in all countries, 
 expect active and operative minds to come for- 
 ward with ingenious contrivances, sometimes 
 with wild ideas, ridiculous in design, and wrong 
 in mechanical principles; but then it is the 
 function of science and knowledge to step in 
 and correct their aberration, or, if necessary, to 
 guard against or prevent their further intro- 
 duction until developed to an educated design, 
 which otherwise might lead to destruction of 
 life and property. ^ 
 
 On the other hand, most ingenious and valu- 
 able ideas are sometimes submitted to the 
 opinion of scientific men with no practical 
 knowledge, who may condemn them from an 
 imperfect perception of their merit. It is only 
 a knowledge of the combined theory and prac- 
 tice that can accomplish justice in all cases. 
 
 The great prospect now opening before us 
 in the present new era of naval architecture, 
 as connected with the new national navy yard 
 (to be established at League Island, we hope),
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 33 
 
 will necessarily, at some time, concentrate our 
 serious attention upon the establishment of 
 proper institutions, and a systematic corps of 
 naval engineers ; but when, will this necessity 
 become recognized, and the proper policy be 
 pursued ? Can it be accomplished by the efforts 
 of conciliatory reasoning, or must it be forced 
 upon us by the suffering and losses consequent 
 upon engineering blunders, in which our pre- 
 sent experience does not seem sufficient to 
 bring us to the point? 
 
 The science of war has been taught by dis- 
 asters, and has been gradually advanced by the 
 force of proper institutions, and thorough dis- 
 cipline to its present perfection. 
 
 The navy has lately undergone a great and 
 very important change, and is converted into an 
 entirely new school, by the introduction of 
 steam and armored vessels, which change has 
 already reduced considerably the number and 
 length of the ropes in the old school. America 
 has taken the lead in this new direction, and is 
 the first nation on the globe which has brought 
 the new naval school to the severest test, and 
 demonstrated the necessity of a corresponding 
 system of education. The old school is now 
 proved to be incapable of conducting our new 
 naval tactics.
 
 34: TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 In the army there has been no such sudden 
 change, but the old school has been gradually 
 improved to its present condition by the instru- 
 mentality of a properly organized corps of en- 
 gineers, raised from the school-trenches to the 
 highest accomplishment, and to the elevated 
 rank which is due to their profession. 
 
 The works in the Departments of Ordnance, 
 Fortification, and the Coast Survey, are of the 
 highest order of science brought to a practical 
 shape, unequalled in Europe. 
 
 Now let us ask, on the other hand, what, in 
 like manner, the navy has done? Or what is 
 to be expected from a department not educated 
 in the lights and principles of the new school? 
 The Naval Engineer Corps, which ought to be 
 the soul of the navy, is yet a mere tool to the 
 old school, and destitute of proper organization, 
 and with but a nominal discipline, for true dis- 
 cipline is out of the question where the superior 
 officers are disciples of an obsolete school. 
 
 Our new naval warfare is an engineering 
 operation which requires special education and 
 a well-organized corps of engineers, with the 
 distinguishing rank due to that office. The 
 efficiency .of the navy is at the mercy of the 
 engineers, and cannot possibly be maintained 
 without due respect to that body.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 35 
 
 As it now stands the naval engineer, although 
 in a restricted insignificant position, can manage 
 and manipulate the old school to suit his own 
 personal interest and convenience. He has 
 none above him to fear. His superior officers 
 must trust his words oracularly, of which we 
 have plenty of examples in the navy. An en- 
 gineer can argue that he has based his opera- 
 tion on physical laws discovered by himself, 
 without being requested to explain such laws. 
 Could that be so if education had done her 
 proper work? or can we find such a case in the 
 Departments of Ordnance, Fortification, or in 
 the Coast Survey? 
 
 The country abounds in engineering talent, 
 of which there is plenty in the navy, but it is 
 very rarely much developed, and still less no- 
 ticed. It would be surprising were it other- 
 wise. The old naval school is not qualified to 
 select or appreciate the engineer of ability; 
 but, even if noticed, he is necessarily doomed 
 to an insignificant rank and a discouraging 
 career. We have the result now before us 
 the rebel pirate Alabama and others sweeping 
 our vessels from the seas; the numerous block- 
 ade-runners can make regular trips in the midst 
 of our boasting navy, on which we have spent 
 hundreds of millions of dollars.
 
 36 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 We admit that the naval operations are more 
 difficult, and require manifold more science and 
 talent than those of the army, but, in conse- 
 quence, they require a corresponding culture 
 in the officers in charge to enable them to 
 bring such physical laws into action, as are 
 involved in the success. This can be attained 
 only by adequate institutions for their educa- 
 tion in the magnificent combination of our new 
 naval school, which can only be properly esti- 
 mated by being perfectly understood. Having 
 now taken the lead of the world in naval war- 
 fare, and being unable to derive from foreign 
 sources, either by precept or example, the 
 means of giving a proper organization to the 
 navy, we must follow up and avail ourselves 
 of our own hard earned experience for this 
 purpose. 
 
 In our yet very feeble conception of the im- 
 portance and of the range of knowledge in 
 steam-engineering, it may be suggested that an 
 apartment in the old Naval Academy, to be al- 
 lotted to steam, would, perhaps, be sufficient 
 for a school of engineers. But then let us re- 
 flect for a moment on the immense spectacle 
 now before us, of our growing fleet of ironclads 
 and colossal navy yards, entailing such an un- 
 bounded expense, and all of the great interests
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 87 
 
 thus involved and confided with our national 
 reputation to the hands of the engineers, and 
 we must perceive that the latter must not only 
 be equipped with proper knowledge, but must 
 command all the respect and confidence which 
 naturally attach to their important office. It is 
 therefore necessary that a technological school, 
 designed for the special purpose, should be in- 
 stituted, of the highest possible order, and not 
 limited only to scientific attainment, but fore- 
 most in the general application of the sciences. 
 
 We have numerous examples in Europe, 
 particularly in Eussia, where engineers are 
 educated to only scientific attainments, and 
 who, when they enter a machine-shop or en- 
 gine room, are incompetent for the proper 
 conception of work, but are, nevertheless, in- 
 trusted with responsible stations where their 
 practical achievements only lead to mischief. 
 
 Our experience throughout life teaches us 
 that a practical man without science seldom 
 makes such serious blunders as a scientific man 
 without practice. The merit then of the Techno- 
 naval Academy would be in the education of 
 engineers in the practice, and not with mere 
 scientific precepts of professors. 
 
 The writer has often observed the career of 
 students from colleges, and regrets to say that 
 4
 
 38 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 too few of them turn their attention to work. 
 Those who have received scientific education 
 generally prefer to become professors, scientific 
 advocates, patent agents, lawyers, philosophical 
 secretaries, &c. &c., whilst the practical opera- 
 tion of our workshops suffer in the extreme. 
 Every once in a while we have a steam-boiler 
 explosion, killing off a great number of men, 
 with great destruction of property ; we build 
 vessels which will not float; are often disap- 
 pointed in the performance of vessels and ma- 
 chinery ; we waste great amounts of fuel, and 
 we make extensive and costly experiments in 
 steam-engineering without consulting the phy- 
 sical laws involved in the operation. 
 
 In iron foundries castings are often made 
 with too little metal, and sometimes too much; 
 the hydrostatic action of the fluid cast-iron in 
 the mould is rarely understood ; the law of 
 shrinkage, strain, direction of crystallization, 
 and sinking, in castings of irregular form, is 
 not generally comprehended ; and many other 
 defects of experience exist which often cause 
 the loss of valuable castings, for want of applied 
 science. When the casting turns out a failure, 
 it is generally said that the foundry superin- 
 tendent is not skilful, or has not experience
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 89 
 
 enough, which often means that he has not 
 made blunders enough to secure success. 
 
 The general impression about the business 
 of moulding and casting, as well as all other 
 branches of mechanic arts, is, as has been re- 
 peatedly told to the writer, namely, that " the 
 profession cannot be brought within the scope 
 of science, but must be learned by experience 
 alone." 
 
 On the other hand, scientific men without 
 technical education, intrusted with practical 
 problems, are generally not familiar with im- 
 portant circumstances involved in the opera- 
 tion, which accordingly results in blunders; 
 they are then derided as "scientific men." 
 
 Locomotive engineers still allow their thun- 
 derbolt to blow out smoke and fire to suffocate 
 passengers, and set fire to houses and forests, 
 when this nuisance of smoke and sparks could 
 be so beneficially utilized in the work for 
 which that fuel is intended. 
 
 The combustion of fuel and the utilization 
 of heat, in our present locomotives, are a dis- 
 graceful and barbarous abuse of physical laws. 
 The firebox in a locomotive dissolves many 
 times the amount of fuel realized in work, and 
 the heat there generated is so great that it is 
 difficult to find materials for the firebox that
 
 40 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 are able to withstand it ; whilst on the other 
 end of the locomotive, there is applied an ar- 
 rangement to create a vacuum by the exhaust 
 steam from the cylinders, which, in fact, is only^ 
 a cooling operation which puts the fire out 
 when it enters the tubes, and the unconsumed 
 carbon, in the form of smoke, with sparks of 
 fire, is blown out through the chimney. The 
 area of the fire-tubes in a locomotive is many 
 times greater than that of the firebox, whilst 
 the evaporative power of the firebox is many 
 times greater than that of the tubes. 
 
 We are in possession of sciences, requisite 
 for a more proper arrangement in a locomotive 
 and in steam-boilers generally, by which not 
 only all the carbon could be consumed, but 
 also to utilize the heat in work, but we have 
 not sufficient technical knowledge for their 
 judicious application. 
 
 The writer has now gone very far in criti- 
 cizing our standing as engineers, but hopes to 
 be understood that his motive in so doing is a 
 solicitude for the general interest. There are 
 too many among us to boast of and exaggerate 
 our numerous and real advantages over other 
 nations, but apparently none to point out to 
 us our deficiences. 
 
 JOHN W. NYSTROM, . 
 Engineer.
 
 COMMUNICATION 
 
 TO THE 
 
 SEORETAEY OF THE KA.VY. 
 
 NAVY DEPARTMENT, 
 WASHINGTON, D. C., June 26, 1865. 
 
 SIR : On the 14th of this month I made an 
 application to the Navy Department for orders 
 to prepare, for the Naval Engineer Cadets, a 
 " course of shipbuilding" based on the " para- 
 bolic principle," as explained in the printed 
 papers accompanying the application. 
 
 On the 15th I received your communication 
 stating that the proposition was declined. 
 
 This hasty refusal of the Department has en- 
 couraged me with all deference to renew the 
 application in a more specific form, under a 
 conviction that I had probably failed to submit 
 the subject in its true light ; inasmuch as upon 
 any other hypothesis, its intrinsic importance 
 could scarcely have failed to have insured for 
 it a different disposition. Indeed, I would deem 
 4*
 
 42 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 it a neglect of duty on my part to drop a sub- 
 ject of such great moment, merely in conse- 
 quence of a hasty and apparently inconsiderate 
 reply of the Department, particularly as so many 
 circumstances may have conspired, amidst a 
 press of business, to prevent its receiving your 
 Excellency's personal attention. 
 
 When it is considered not only that ship- 
 building has not yet been developed to the 
 condition of a true science, but that the country 
 contains no school where even the empirical 
 system under which the construction of vessels 
 is now carried on, can be learned, we cannot 
 expect our present naval constructors to dip 
 into and approve a science which they do not 
 understand, but distrust and perhaps fear. 
 
 By means of long practice and experience, 
 builders generally attain great skill and taste 
 in the construction of ships, but, at the same 
 time, they are yet ignorant of the physical laws 
 and scientific principles which govern their 
 success. Their skill and valuable knowledge 
 die with them, and their toiling successors 
 must reiterate the same blunders, and gain ex- 
 perience by the same renewed experiments and 
 errors. 
 
 Such will not be the case when shipbuilding 
 becomes really a science, for then we will be
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 43 
 
 able to demonstrate, record, and perpetuate 
 through the unerring aid of mathematical 
 formulas, a knowledge of the physical laws 
 which relate to the subject, the accomplishment 
 of which is now impossible, and the art itself 
 kept by shipbuilders in profound mystery. 
 
 The indifference or hostility of shipbuilders 
 to a scientific treatment of the subject, arises 
 mainly from their conviction that it is impos- 
 sible to bring their profession within the scope 
 of science, and they persevere in regarding it 
 as a mere craft. In verification of this, I can 
 refer to numerous examples, of which the fol- 
 lowing is one: 
 
 Last summer I made efforts to bring the 
 " parabolic construction of ships" under the 
 appreciation of Mr. John Lenthal, the Chief of 
 the Bureau of Construction, which failed not 
 only to secure his approval, but absolutely met 
 with his disparagement. Mr. Lenthal was ap- 
 prised that the " parabolic system" embodied a 
 very simple method of recording the peculiari- 
 ties of vessels, which would be of great impor- 
 tance; he refused, however, to credit the possi- 
 bility of my plan, and gave me to understand 
 (without looking at it) that he had all the re- 
 cords which could be necessary already, and 
 that nothing more was wanted.
 
 44 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Soon after, I was set to work by Mr. Isher- 
 wood, the Chief of the Bureau of Steam-En- 
 gineering, to calculate from a great number of 
 ships' drawings these very data, which were 
 not, but which ought to have been calculated 
 and recorded in the Bureau of Construction, 
 and which data are of great importance in 
 questions of steamship performance. In fact 
 the engineer cannot do well without them. 
 
 This proves conclusively that the naval con- 
 structor was in error regarding the perfection 
 of his records. 
 
 There is not to my knowledge an -engineer 
 in the naval service who is competent to un- 
 dertake such an investigation of the properties 
 of ships as that made by me, although the sub- 
 ject belongs directly to his profession. The 
 Corps of Naval Engineers should take the lead 
 in all those progressive changes which natu- 
 rally attach to their important office, and par- 
 ticularly in those changes which must eventu- 
 ally take place, namely, to combine the con- 
 struction of machinery and vessels under one 
 head. 
 
 Since the introduction into vessels of steam, 
 and other mechanical contrivances which are 
 daily increasing, the two branches have become 
 so intimately connected, that it would be dim-
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. . 45 
 
 I 
 
 cult to trace a line of separation between them. 
 The engineer cannot construct the machinery 
 without a knowledge of the vessel which is to 
 contain it, and the shipbuilder cannot properly 
 construct the vessel without consulting the en- 
 gineer respecting the machiney, and we may 
 expect what happened when the war broke out, 
 namely, to build vessels wholly of iron, for 
 which our present naval constructors are in- 
 competent. 
 
 On account, therefore, of the profession of 
 shipbuilding yet being in an empirical condi- 
 tion, and considered separate and apart from 
 that of steam-engineering, there exists much 
 jealousy between the two interests, which re- 
 sults in discord of action; neither of them 
 taking that careful supervision over the whole 
 arrangement which one controlling mind would 
 do. 
 
 In many instances where government's ves- 
 sels have been built in private establishments, 
 the quality of workmanship has suffered con- 
 siderably for this very reason, of the superin- 
 tending naval engineer not being familiar with 
 the construction of ships. 
 
 The failure of the light-draft monitors affords 
 a still stronger proof of the necessity of in- 
 structing engineers in shipbuilding.
 
 46 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 f 
 
 As matters now stand, ship constructors are 
 generally so jealous of their profession, that the 
 engineer can with difficulty obtain from them 
 the necessary information to govern him in his 
 own department; a jealousy which only indi- 
 cates ignorance. For if their profession was 
 brought to the rank of a true science, it could 
 not be kept in a state of mystery, or as a mat- 
 ter of individual knowledge. 
 
 Now, believing that I have succeeded in de- 
 veloping shipbuilding to the condition of a true 
 science, I desire to throw it wide open for the 
 benefit of all, like the books of Euclid. 
 
 My system embodies the results of many 
 years of labor, now in the form of raw materi- 
 als, to be converted into tables and drawings 
 for general use. 
 
 The details of the undertaking are too great 
 for a single individual; operating alone, it 
 would cost me several years to complete them, 
 whilst with assistance from the Navy Depart- 
 ment, it might be accomplished in a few months. 
 
 The great labor consists in calculating the 
 tables, which will extend to some five thousand 
 lines, the combination of which would compre- 
 hend the construction of an endless number of 
 vessels. 
 
 The nature of the tables are very much like
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 47 
 
 logarithms ; they will equally suit any system 
 of weights and measures, or any language and 
 country, and will give the characteristic pecu- 
 liarities of vessels at the first glance, such as 
 the displacement; areas of water-lines and 
 cross-sections; location of metacentre and cen- 
 tre of gravity, &c. &c. ; and they will also give 
 the most important item, so much sought for 
 by scientific men and shipbuilders, namely, the 
 mean angle of resistance of vessels. 
 
 The displacement of a vessel, bounded within 
 a given length, breadth, and depth, can vary 
 twenty-five per cent., for the same resistance, in 
 moving through water; a circumstance show- 
 ing the immense importance of giving the ves- 
 sel a proper shape. 
 
 Shipbuilders generally, through long prac- 
 tice, approach very near the proper shape or 
 form of lines of vessels, but they also often 
 transgress the sought-for limit, which cannot 
 possibly be determined by mere conjecture. 
 But, by the "parabolic method," the most ad- 
 vantageous forms of lines are ascertained and 
 calculated with the aid of tables, which can be 
 used by constructors without a knowledge of 
 mathematics. 
 
 For the accomplishment of the object here 
 proposed, I would respectfully request your
 
 48 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Excellency to select two or more young en- 
 gineers, and place them at my disposition for 
 the purpose of assisting in the calculation of 
 the tables, and of acquiring a thorough know- 
 ledge of the " parabolic construction of ships." 
 This would be a very simple and easy course 
 of introducing the science of shipbuilding into 
 the Corps of Naval Engineers, and the Depart- 
 ment will thus be placed in possession of scien- 
 tific resources, which will forever place it out 
 of reach of many errors, and of rash or igno- 
 rant experiments which have heretofore wasted 
 so much of its means and its hopes alike un- 
 profitably. 
 
 The mode of constructing ships, at the pre- 
 sent day, is most generally accomplished by 
 carving out a model from a piece of wood, by 
 eyesight and conjecture an operation which is 
 often repeated several times before it happens to 
 attain the desiderated end. In more advanced 
 stages of the art, as in the navy, and in some few 
 private establishments, drawings are made, from 
 which models are also executed; but even then 
 the lines are laid down repeatedly from con- 
 jecture, until sufficient approximation to the 
 truth is believed to be attained. In both cases, 
 the operation may be likened to the movements 
 of a blind man walking by himself, whilst by
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 49 
 
 the "parabolic method," the construction is 
 started right at the outset, and thus an intelli- 
 gent perception of principles and results reaches 
 its conclusion with mathematical accuracy. 
 
 In the interest of science, as well as that of 
 the Department over which your Excellency 
 has so successfully presided, I earnestly request 
 that my proposition may be considered with 
 the attention which a subject of such importance 
 deserves, and, in conclusion, would suggest, 
 that whilst the government could lose nothing 
 by granting my request, it would gain an ad- 
 vantage which, once possessed, it would never 
 afterwards relinquish. 
 
 I have the honor to remain, 
 Your Excellency's ob't serv't, 
 
 JOHN W. NYSTROM, 
 Act. Chief Engineer, U. S. Navy. 
 
 Hon. GIDEON WELLES, 
 
 Secretary of the Navy.
 
 MEMOKAKDUM. 
 
 NAVY DEPARTMENT, 
 WASHINGTON, D. C., July 8, 1865. 
 
 To-DAT I called on Secretary Welles, about 
 my application for assistance to calculate the 
 tables for the " parabolic construction of ships," 
 as expressed in the foregoing letter, when Mr. 
 Welles said that he "could do nothing with it, 
 as Mr. Isherwood does not approve your scheme, 
 but says that there is no novelty in it." I 
 then requested the Secretary to respond to my 
 letter to that effect, which he ordered Assistant 
 Secretary Fox to do, but no answer was re- 
 ceived. 
 
 Assistant Secretary Fox told me that "this 
 democratic government does not take the lead 
 in matters of this kind, as monarchical govern- 
 ments do, but leaves them for the merchant or 
 civil service." 
 
 I offered to show Captain Fox some samples 
 of tables for the "parabolic shipbuilding," but 
 he said he " would have no time to attend to it."
 
 SHIPBUILDING. 51 
 
 It is true the Navy Department has not taken 
 the lead in any matter of progress, but left that 
 for the civil service, but it has taken the lead 
 and made extensive and costly experiments in 
 the anti-expansion question of steam ; in the 
 building of vessels which will not float ; in ex- 
 perimental researches in steam engineering, 
 extensively expatiated upon in large volumes 
 of books upon which I shall make no com- 
 ments further than to state that the Navy De- 
 partment has taken the lead in pointing out to 
 the civil service where not to follow. 
 
 When the war broke out, the naval construc- 
 tors were not competent to fulfil the require- 
 ments in the new era of naval architecture, and 
 there was no naval engineer with requisite 
 technical education to meet the emergency. 
 The Chief of the Bureau of Construction, I un- 
 derstand, declined having anything to do with 
 iron or armored vessels, and the projects for 
 ironclads were necessarily intrusted to officers 
 of the line, the result of which is well known, 
 and not necessary to mention here, for the ob- 
 ject of this writing is not to find fault, or to 
 censure those who may have been inadvertently 
 at fault, but to point out the necessity of taking 
 proper steps to prevent similar occurrences in
 
 52 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 the future, and to prepare to follow up the 
 progressive times. 
 
 In regard to the Chief Engineer Isherwood's 
 saying that " there is no novelty in the para- 
 bolic system of shipbuilding," I am justified in 
 taking prompt issue with him, for his scientific 
 education does not extend so far as to enable 
 him to judge whether it embraces novelty or 
 not. 
 
 I have, however, good reason to believe, from 
 specific indications in discussion with him, that 
 Mr. Isherwood, in his own mind, really thinks 
 that there is novelty in the " parabolic method." 
 What can then constitute the object of the 
 Chief in thwarting the interests and progress 
 of the Corps of Naval Engineers ?
 
 ON THE 
 
 PARABOLIC CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS, 
 
 AS SUBMITTED TO THE 
 
 NAYY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 THE Parabolic System of constructing ships 
 was originated by the celebrated Swedish naval 
 architect, Chapman, about a century ago, at 
 which period it was well received among ship- 
 builders, but on account of its then incomplete 
 form (restrictingconductors to particular shapes), 
 it was gradually abrogated, until no trace could 
 be found of it, even in works on shipbuilding. 
 Mr. Chapman hit upon the fortunate idea that 
 the cross-sections of the displacement of a ves- 
 sel ought to follow a certain progression, in 
 order to present the least possible resistance 
 when moving through the water. He collected 
 a great many drawings of ships of known good 
 and bad performances, and made the following 
 investigation. On each drawing he transformed 
 the cross-sections of the displacement into 
 rectangles of the same breadth as the greatest 
 5*
 
 54 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 beam of the load-water-line of the vessel ; 
 placed their upper edges in the plan of the 
 load-water-line, by which he found that the 
 under edges of the rectangles formed a bottom, 
 the curve of which were parabolas in ships of 
 known good performances. 
 
 Let the accompanying figure, 1, represent a 
 ship with the load-water-line, w, dead flat cross- 
 section a & b, formed into the rectangle abed, 
 and i e i another cross-section formed into a 
 rectangle efgh,so that the breadth ef is equal 
 to a b ; then the line k I m, Fig. 1, forming the 
 bottom of the rectangles, should be a parabola 
 with the vertex at k, and k o the axis of the 
 abscissa. 
 
 Mr. Chapman found that the parabola so ob- 
 tained did not terminate at the stem n, but fell 
 a little short at m. The deviation m n was very 
 small in vessels of his days, but in modern ves- 
 sels it is more considerable, showing that there 
 must be a point of inflection p in the curve. 
 However erroneously we may set out in quest 
 of an object, experience generally leads us to- 
 wards correct scientific principles. In the case 
 before us, experience has increased the deviation 
 m n, and we know that inasmuch as nature ad- 
 mits of no physical by-laws, the curve cannot 
 be a plain parabola. It is this increasing de-
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 55 
 
 viation m n which has led me to investigate the 
 subject more carefully ; starting on the prinoi-
 
 56 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 pie that the resistance to a body in motion in a 
 fluid, is a function of the square of the sine of 
 the angle of incidence to the motion. Let abed, 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 2, be a body in motion in a fluid, in the 
 direction a c ; then the resistance to that body 
 is found by experiments to be nearly as the 
 square of the sine of the angle v , omitting fric- 
 tion. 
 
 From this it appears that the proper progres- 
 sion of the cross-sections should be as the square 
 of the ordinates in a parabola. 
 
 Let Fig. 3 represent a vessel with the dead- 
 flat JS? and stem n. Draw the cross section a ST 6, 
 and the rectangle a b c d, as before described; 
 draw a parabola k I n of any desired order, ter- 
 minating at the stem ; then the proper progres- 
 sion of the cross-sections should be as the 
 square of the ordinates /3. Let the depth a d= 
 1, then the ordinates j3 will be fractions of a d t 
 and the square /3 2 multiplied by the area of the 
 dead- flat cross-section JS", would give the proper
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 57 
 
 area of the ordinate cross section 0, or 0=sr P 2 , 
 Fig. 3. The line k m n should then indicate the
 
 68 
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 proper progression of the ordinate to cross- 
 sections e. The areas efg h=i e t. 
 
 The formula for a parabola in the conic sec- 
 tion is 
 
 Referring to the accompanying figure, o is 
 the vertex of the parabola, JP = parameter, x = 
 abscissa, and y = ordinate. Applying this for- 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 mula and figure to the form of a ship, we place 
 the vertex of the parabola at the dead-flat sr, 
 the axis of abscissa in the breadth b, and the 
 largest ordinate y in the length, when the 
 parabola o r s, Fig. 4, may represent a water- 
 line in a vessel, as represented in Fig. 5. 
 
 The circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola, 
 in the conic sections are lines of the second or- 
 der; but in the construction of ships we employ
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 59 
 
 these lines of any order whatever, for which 
 we will denote the index of the root in the 
 parabolic formula by the letter n. 
 
 The parameter p is the gauge for the para- 
 bola, but is inconvenient for our purpose; it 
 will be better, therefore, to make a gauge that 
 will consist of the given quantities, by limiting 
 the parabolas within the size of the vessel 
 when the limit x = Z>, half the breadth, and the 
 limit y = Z, half the length of the vessel. 
 
 The parabolic formulas will then appear 
 
 V = 
 Of which 
 
 y n 
 
 - j _ - 
 
 " 2 x 
 
 x 
 
 j"_ 
 
 26* 
 ~F 
 
 and-
 
 60 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 In these formulas the parabola is gauged by 
 the half-length Z, and half-breadth b. 
 
 Let denote the distance from the centre-line 
 of a vessel to the water-line, then = 6 a;, 
 or x = b 0, which, inserted in the above 
 formulas, will give 
 
 x = -6 
 of which 
 
 Let the depth a d, figs. 1 and 3, = 6, represent 
 the area of the dead- flat cross-section 3S, then 
 the ordinate cross-sections will be 
 
 The formula 1 gives the plain parabolas k I m, 
 fig. 1 ; or* k In, fig. 3 ; or o s, fig. 6 ; whilst the 
 formula 2 gives the paracyma k m n, fig. 3, or 
 offs, fig. 6. 
 
 Formula 1 gives nearly the form of ships as 
 constructed i n the days of Chapman, whilst 
 formula 2 gives the form of modern ships, 
 constructed for speed.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 61 
 
 I have investigated the progression of the 
 cross-sections in a great many vessels, from 
 most parts of the world, as will hereafter be 
 shown in a treatise on the parabolic construction 
 of ships now in progress. Many American ves- 
 sels agree perfectly with formula 2, of which the 
 U. S. frigate Niagara, constructed by the late 
 Mr. Steers, is one. The formula 1, which em- 
 bodies Chapman's method, is therefore not ap- 
 plicable in modern shipbuilding, which I think 
 is the reason why the original parabolic system 
 has not been more generally adopted. It is 
 not always necessary to pay the greatest atten- 
 tion to speed, as there are many other con- 
 ditions of greater importance, namely, freight, 
 shallow draught, location of metacentre, and 
 centre of gravity of the vessel, for which it 
 becomes necessary so to arrange the parabolic 
 construction of ships, that it will accommodate 
 itself to all the requirements, as well as to the 
 6
 
 62 
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 taste of the shipbuilder. This can be accom- 
 plished by raising the ordinate /3 to any arbi- 
 trary power, which we will designate with the 
 letter <?, and call it the power of the exponent 
 n, when the final formula will appear 
 
 This is the general formula for the parabolic 
 construction. Simple as it is, it gives any line 
 or form of a ship that can reasonably be re- 
 quired. It will form a square, rectangle, tri- 
 angle, circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, cyma; 
 all of any order or combination. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 b = half the breadth, or area of dead -flat ST. 
 I = length from js? to the stem or stern, or 
 depth under water-line. 
 
 For the frames, the depth d, from 
 load water-line to the keel, takes 
 the place of I.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 63 
 
 p = ordinate for the line, or ordinate cross- 
 section. 
 
 y = abscissa. 
 
 n exponent. 
 
 q => power of the exponent n. 
 
 The variety of lines represented by fig. 7 are 
 obtained by altering the power q, while n re- 
 mains constant ; or any variety of lines can be 
 obtained for each value of the exponent n. 
 
 It is here found necessary to the development 
 of the subject, to propose or establish new 
 names to such lines as have not heretofore been 
 defined or subjected to an algebraic formula. 
 The degree of development of an art may be 
 correctly measured by the perfection of its 
 vocabulary. As the construction of ships has 
 not heretofore been brought to a perfect system, 
 we have not been .able to define the great 
 variety of lines or forms of ships. We can say 
 a vessel is very sharp, or very full, with more 
 or less rise of floor ; but have no language by 
 which to convey correctly, how sharp, how full, 
 or with how much rise of floor. As an illus- 
 tration it may be mentioned, that on one occa- 
 sion I met some shipbuilders, and discussed 
 with them the construction of ships, when one 
 said, "I am constructing a ship that will be so 
 sharp, that you cannot roll a barrel on the
 
 64 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 lower deck, within fifteen feet of the bow," 
 which made me but little wiser. Now, in the 
 language of the parabolic construction, to con- 
 vey the same idea with precision and accuracy, 
 we have only to give the exponent and power, 
 which not only impress the mind clearly with 
 the correct degree of sharpness, but also with 
 the complete form of the vessel. 
 
 On anotheT' occasion I remarked to a ship- 
 builder, in his yard, that " the lines of a certain 
 vessel were too sharp, and if made fuller it 
 would go much easier through water with con- 
 siderably more displacement." The shipbuilder 
 acknowledged that it appeared to him to be so, 
 but remarked, with the usual practical sneer, 
 that " it is very easy to see that after the ves- 
 sel is finished." The great merit in- the para- 
 bolic construction is, that we know the me- 
 chanical and physical properties of the lines 
 before they are laid down; we need not even 
 look at them for such purpose. 
 
 We have both in Europe and America many 
 curiously constructed vessels, and some of them 
 reported to perform wonderfully, but we have 
 not been able to record their peculiarities ; for 
 even the drawing of their lines would, fail to 
 convey with correctness what constitutes their 
 novelty or folly.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 65 
 
 It is therefore proposed to establish the fol- 
 lowing technical terms in naval architecture: 
 
 Any line p I, in the accompanying figure 7, 
 located between the parabola p and ellipse e, is 
 to be called Paralipse. 
 
 Any line p c, located under or within the 
 parabola^?, to be called Paracyma. In archi- 
 tecture, cymas are generally constructed of 
 circle-arcs, but in this case cymas are derived 
 from parabolas. 
 
 Any line e ?, extending outside of the ellipse, 
 to be called Evolipse. 
 
 In modern constructed vessels, those lines 
 are generally distributed as follows : 
 
 All water-lines of the displacement are Para- 
 cymas, with the highest power near the keel, 
 approaching parabolas near the load water-line, 
 which latter may also be a Paracyma. The 
 frames are generally Paraltpses about the mid- 
 dle of the vessel, and terminate in Parabolas 
 and Paracymas, in the stern and bow. Above 
 the water, the horizontal lines are generally 
 Parabolas in the foreship; and in the aftership, 
 Paraltpses^ Ellipses, and Evolipses. 
 
 The power q defines the line as follow :
 
 66 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Parabola , p = I 1 1 ^ 
 \ r> 
 
 Ellipse e, 
 
 p = b (l ^\ 7: ~' 
 V Z7 
 
 Circle, 
 
 JB = K /i Y =; 
 
 
 \ R'7 
 
 
 / i; n \? !> 1 
 
 Paracyma p c, 
 
 7 /^ U \ ^ i. . 
 
 \ Tn 1 
 
 T v 7/1 / n \ 7 between 1 and i 
 
 Paralipse p ?, fl = o (1 \ 
 
 \ Zv 
 Evolipse e I, p = b (l ^Y ^ *' 
 
 In my treatise on the parabolic construction 
 of ships, now in progress, there will be calcu- 
 lated 5i values of the power 17, each with 90 
 different exponents n, making 4860 different 
 li.nes, which will cover the most general require- 
 ments in practice. Samples are here given.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 
 
 67 
 
 SAMPLE TABLE FROM FORMULA 1. 
 
 ixp. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 n.-S[v 
 
 e' 
 
 m' 
 
 t' 
 
 n. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .1250 
 
 .2.500 .37511 
 
 5000 
 
 .625t 
 
 7500 .8750 
 
 .5000 
 
 .3333 
 
 
 
 .25 
 
 .1337 
 
 .3020 .4443 .5705 
 
 .7065 
 
 .8232 .9257 
 
 .5555 
 
 .3461 
 
 
 
 ..-> 
 
 .1815 
 
 .3505 .5050 .6464 
 
 .7701 
 
 .8750;. 9558 
 
 .6000 
 
 .3571 
 
 
 
 1.75 
 
 .2084 
 
 .3955 ( .5607 .7027 
 
 .8203 
 
 .9116 .9737 1 
 
 .6363 
 
 .3666 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 .2344 
 
 .4375 .6094 
 
 .7500 
 
 .859-1 
 
 .9375 .9844' 
 
 .6666 
 
 .3750 
 
 .3021 
 
 1.333 
 
 2.25 
 
 2505 
 
 .4765 .6527 .7898 
 
 .8890 
 
 9558 
 
 .9907 
 
 .6923 
 
 .3823 
 
 .32** 
 
 1.447 
 
 2.5 - 
 
 2*3* 
 
 .5129 .6912 .8232 
 
 .9149 
 
 06S7 
 
 .9945 
 
 .7142 
 
 .3*** 
 
 .3502 
 
 1.562 
 
 2.75 
 
 .3073' 
 
 .5466 .7251 .8013 
 
 .0320 
 
 .9779 
 
 .9967 
 
 7333 
 
 .3948 
 
 .3688 
 
 1.682 
 
 [ 
 
 .3390 
 
 .57815.7558.8750 
 
 9476 
 
 9844 
 
 .9988' 
 
 .7500 
 
 .4000 
 
 .3857 
 
 1.800 
 
 !25 
 
 .3521 
 
 .6074 .7*20 .8949 
 
 .05*7 
 
 .9889 
 
 .9988 
 
 .7647 
 
 .4047 
 
 .4010 
 
 1.922 
 
 3.5 
 
 .37:!:; 
 
 .6346 *"70 .olU'i 
 
 9677 
 
 .9922 
 
 .0003 
 
 .7777 
 
 .4091 
 
 .4144 
 
 2.040 
 
 3.75 
 
 3939 
 
 .6600^82.*! .025*; 
 
 .9747 
 
 9945 
 
 .9996 
 
 .7894 
 
 .4130 
 
 .4263 
 
 2.160 
 
 4 ' 
 
 .4138 
 
 .6836 .8474 
 
 9375 
 
 9802 
 
 .9961 
 
 .9998 
 
 .8000 
 
 .4166 
 
 4376 
 
 2.285 
 
 4.5 
 
 .4517 
 
 .72(10 ,*701 .055;. 
 
 .8979 
 
 .9980 
 
 .9990 
 
 8181 
 
 ,4.'30 
 
 .4570 
 
 2.534 
 
 i 
 
 .4871 
 
 .7627 .9046 .9687 
 
 .9926 
 
 .0:100 
 
 B999 
 
 .8333 
 
 .4286 
 
 .4731 
 
 2.775 
 
 6 
 
 5512 
 
 .8220, 9404 
 
 .9841 
 
 .9972 
 
 .9997 
 
 1.000 
 
 .8571 
 
 .4375 
 
 .5000 
 
 3.270 
 
 r 
 
 
 8665 .9627 
 
 .0022 
 
 .9989 
 
 .9999 
 
 1.000 
 
 .8750 
 
 .4444 
 
 .5202 
 
 3.770 
 
 8 
 
 .6564 
 
 8999 .97('.7 1 
 
 .9996 
 
 .9999 
 
 1.000 
 
 .8888 
 
 .4500 .5354 
 
 4.272 
 
 12 
 
 7986 
 
 9683 .9964 .0007 
 
 .9999 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 .9231 
 
 .4643 
 
 .5768 
 
 6.275 
 
 16 
 
 8819 
 
 .9900J.9994 .0008 
 
 9999 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 .9412 
 
 .4720 
 
 .6060 
 
 8.273 
 
 SAMPLE TABLE FROM FORMULA 2. 
 
 n. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 a.Uiu 
 
 
 
 t' 
 
 1 
 
 : 13(33 :625t 
 
 1406 .2500 
 
 .390(1 
 
 .5625 
 
 .7656 
 
 .3333 
 
 .2500 
 
 
 
 1.2.5 
 
 :2363 :912: : . 
 
 1074 .3350 
 
 .4002 
 
 .6777 
 
 ."8569 
 
 .3968 
 
 .2691 
 
 
 
 1.5 
 
 :3295 .112." 
 
 2547 .1170 
 
 .5934 
 
 .7656 
 
 .0136 
 
 .4500 
 
 .2860 
 
 
 
 1.75 
 
 :4342 .15'!.- 
 
 31 11 . 1938 
 
 .6729 
 
 .8310 
 
 .9481 
 
 .4949 
 
 .3000 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 :5l'i.3 .101 i 
 
 .3713 .5625 
 
 .7383 
 
 8789 
 
 ,9690 
 
 .5333 
 
 3125 .2273 1.21P 
 
 2 25 
 
 :673fi .'-271 
 
 .4280 
 
 .6237 
 
 .7020 
 
 .9136 .0*15 
 
 .5(1;; 4 
 
 .3189 .2541 1.273 
 
 2 5 - 
 
 :*o.-,i; .263(1 
 
 .4777 
 
 .677.7 
 
 .837J 
 
 
 .5052 
 
 
 27701.335 
 
 2.75 
 
 :'.i445 .SB8S 
 
 
 721* 
 
 
 
 .6209 
 
 MM 
 
 .2979 1.402 
 
 3 
 
 
 5713 
 
 
 .8980 
 
 
 .642S **.. 3164 1 472 
 
 3.25 
 
 .1210 .3088 
 
 .6130 
 
 8008 
 
 
 
 .6627 
 
 .3571 .3255 1.545 
 
 35 
 
 .13!'! .40J* 
 
 .6512 
 
 8311 
 
 
 .9844 
 
 
 
 500 1.620 
 
 
 .1555 .43.V 
 
 
 8669 
 
 
 
 ooo2 
 
 .6900 
 
 1881 1.697 
 
 4 
 
 .1712 .4673 
 
 .7181 
 
 *7*0 
 
 
 
 
 .7111 
 
 .3750 .:;7li5 1 773 
 
 4.5 
 
 2045 .527o 
 
 
 9137 
 
 
 
 
 .7363 
 
 .3846 .4000 
 
 1 929 
 
 5 
 
 
 .M" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,3929 
 
 .410(1 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 .H72:i .*5t 
 
 9690 
 
 
 
 9999 
 
 .71.12 
 
 
 .4517 
 
 2.407 
 
 7 
 
 
 .75!'- 926 
 
 |*11 
 
 .997! 
 
 
 1 000 
 
 
 .4106 
 
 .4768 
 
 2 732 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 .051' 
 
 1022 .9991 
 
 
 i.ooo 
 
 .8366 
 
 .4250 
 
 .4962 
 
 3 060 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 .002 
 
 
 
 1. 000 
 
 .S*(il 
 
 1464 
 
 .5463 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 .98 
 
 
 1 0(M 
 
 1.000 
 
 .9129 
 
 ..Hi2!i .OT68 

 
 68 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 The length I from the dead flat jg to stern or 
 stern, also the draft of water from the load-line 
 to the base-line, are each divided into eight 
 parts, forming the ordinates, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 
 in the table, counted from the stem or stern of 
 the centre .BT, or from base line to water-line, 
 as represented in the accompanying plate. 
 
 Either table, exponent, or power, can be 
 employed for either frames, water-lines, or 
 displacement. 
 
 Area of any water-line a or a. 
 
 s 
 
 cross-section .& or e. \ = j $ jy t 
 Cubic contents of displacement D. ) 
 which integral coefficient is contained in the 
 column a'-Sr'i/. 
 
 The depth of the centre of gravity of any 
 cross-section, or of the displacement, or the dis- 
 tance from the dead-flat s?, to the centre of 
 gravity of the area of any water-line, or of the 
 fore or aft part of the displacement, will be 
 
 C V 
 J 
 
 a, JST, or D' 
 
 which integral coefficient is contained in the 
 column t'. 
 
 The height of the metacentre will be 
 2
 
 AND -SHIPBUILDING. 69 
 
 which integral coefficient 
 
 2 
 
 nm r --. 
 
 3 
 
 is contained in the column ra'. 
 
 When the power q and exponent n are given, 
 we have 
 
 Heiht of metacentre m 
 
 
 Momentum of stability = Q sin. v ( - - + g Y 
 
 Q = weight of the vessel, and g = vertical 
 height between the two centres of gravity. 
 
 The mean angle of resistance of the vessel 
 through water is found by the following for- 
 mula: 
 
 C / it 1 \ 2 *~ 3 T/ 3 "" 3 
 tang. v=q*b n 2 J (1 fr ) ^ST^' 
 
 The integral coefficient of this formula is 
 contained in the last column i' in the table. 
 
 It does not appear that Chapman attempted 
 to form the water-lines and frames of a vessel 
 by the parabolic method. He says the area of 
 the cross sections can be approximated by a 
 parabola, placing the vertex at the keel ; but 
 this cannot give a proper shape to the frame. 
 Inasmuch as the displacement of a vessel is the 
 integral of the areas of the water-lines and
 
 70 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 cross-sections, and as those areas are integrals 
 of the ordinates in the frames and water-lines, 
 they are all convertible into one another by a 
 common formula, which is the formula 3, and 
 which formula, simply by placing q = 1, em- 
 bodies ChapmaVs system completely. But by 
 so doing, the constructor is restricted to a 
 stiff and obstinate guide, which will not yield 
 'to his taste, and we have the result before us; 
 namely, the shipbuilder assumes his indepen- 
 dence. It would be futile to attempt to intro- 
 duce a system of constructing ships that would 
 not accommodate itself to the taste of the con- 
 structor. By Chapman's system, wnen the 
 length, breadth, depth, and the displacement 
 are given, then the sharpness of the vessel is 
 obdurately fixed ; while by giving an arbitrary 
 value (as here proposed) to q, the sharpness 
 and ease of the lines can be made to vary con- 
 siderably, and accommodate themselves to the 
 taste of the architect. 
 
 Suppose the area, length, and breadth of the 
 load-water-line of a vessel are given, which is 
 substantially the same as if the displacement, 
 dead-flat, cross-section and length were given; 
 then Chapman's method, formula 1, will pro- 
 duce the fixed line, say omms, fig. 8, while the 
 formula 2 will produce any variety of lines, as
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 
 
 71 
 
 o Q o s, or o e e s, or if we wish to go to the ex- 
 treme the wrong way, we can produce the line 
 onus; in fact, the formula 3 can manipulate 
 the displacement the same as one can work a 
 lump of soft clay in his hands. This is a pro- 
 
 perty of my parabolic system which does not 
 yet appear to have been appreciated, but whose 
 utility, when once fairly understood, must be 
 universally accepted. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that this short out- 
 line of the parabolic construction embodies the 
 full capacity of that method, for which a much 
 more complete work would be required. When 
 constructors become accustomed to the tables, 
 they can readily select the proper exponents, 
 and reason intelligibly with each other on the 
 forms of lines and vessels.
 
 72 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 APPLICATION. 
 
 Let it be required to construct a vessel of 
 the following dimensions: 
 Length in the load-line, L = 325 feet. 
 
 Breadth of beam, B = 40 " 
 
 Draft of water from base-line, d = 18 " 
 
 Let the dead flat cross-section be selected 
 from table 1, of the exponent n = 6; then the 
 numbers in the line 6, multiplied by half the 
 beam b = 20 feet, will give the corresponding 
 ordinates in the dead flat frame; and the area 
 will be N = B d j'=40 x 18 x 0.8571 = 617.112 
 square feet. 
 
 Let the load-water-line be selected from 
 table 2, of exponent n = 3 ; then the numbers 
 in the line 3, multiplied by half the beam b = 
 20 feet, gives the corresponding ordinates in 
 the water-line, and the area will be a = LBa' 
 = 325 X 40 X 0.6428=8356.4 square feet. 
 
 Let the displacement be selected from table 2, 
 and of exponent w=3.25, then the numbers in 
 the line 3.35, multiplied by the dead-flat cross- 
 section 3 = 617.112 square feet, will give the
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 73 
 
 corresponding ordinate cross-sections of the dis- 
 placement. The cubic contents of the displace- 
 ment will be D= m LD'=617.112 X 325 x 0.6627 
 = 132912 cubic feet, or 3797.4 tons. 
 
 The sample tables here given do not extend so 
 far as to allow a correct calculation of the depth 
 of the centre of gravity of the displacement, but 
 suppose the areas of the water-lines to progress 
 with the exponent w=5, table 1, then the depth 
 of the centre of gravity of the displacement 
 will be de'=18x4286=7.7148 feet. 
 
 The height of metacentre above the centre 
 of gravity of the displacement will be 
 
 325 x20 3 x 0.3164 
 ~1T~ = ~ ~T829l2~~ 
 
 This metacentre is very low on account of 
 having assumed a very sharp water-line. 
 
 The tangent for the mean angle of resistance 
 will be 
 
 mt r 617.112xl.472 nQ1A ~~ 
 tang, v = - = - ~-p - = 0.310o6 
 Ld x 325x18 
 
 = tang. 11 33'. 
 
 The actual resistance by impact and friction, 
 the wet area of the hull of the displacement, &c. 
 &c., are calculated by simple formulas not given 
 in this short outline of the parabolic construc- 
 tion. 
 
 7
 
 74 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Recording Formula. 
 
 The form of any vessel may be recorded by 
 one general formula, as follows : 
 
 \mnqj 
 The first factor J ^ I I represents the 
 
 properties of the after-body of the displacement. 
 w n q represents the exponent n and power q 
 of the load- water-line ; vnq the exponent n 
 and power q of the displacement, and I the 
 length from the stern-post to the dead-flat sr in 
 a fraction of the whole length L of the vessel. 
 
 The second factor ( \ represents the 
 
 dead-flat, or L the whole length of the vessel, b 
 the half dead-flat breadth in the load-water- 
 line, and d the drift of water from the base-line 
 to the load-water-line. ]&nq represents the 
 exponent n and power q of the dead-flat ST. 
 
 The third factor I j n %' represents the pro- 
 
 perties of the fore-body of the displacement; I 
 is the length from the dead- flat N to the stem 
 of the vessel; n and q represent the exponents 
 n and powers q for the load- water-line and the 
 displacement respectively; I and I may be ex- 
 pressed in real length, as feet.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 75 
 
 A well-proportioned sailing yacht may be 
 set up as follows, with numerical values in the 
 general formula: 
 
 w3x2) AOO-I /80x8x8\ nA1Q (2.75x2. 
 D2x2 ^ l sr3x4 ' 619 2x2. 
 
 These data will enable a shipbuilder to con- 
 struct a sailing yacht of definite shape. 
 
 When constructors become accustomed to 
 the parabolic method, they can determine with 
 great correctness the exponent n and power q 
 of any line at first sight, and thus enable them 
 to record by the above formula, the form of 
 any vessel exposed to view, from which a simi- 
 lar vessel can afterwards be constructed. 
 
 Eecords of this kind have been frequently 
 made in shipyards by the author, of which a 
 case may be mentioned, namely, the "Dictator" 
 (built by Hogan & Delamater, New York), of 
 which the following formula was recorded: 
 
 Formula for the Dictator. 
 
 w 5.5 X 1-75 \ Qfi / 240 X 21 X 16 \ 144 f 2.75 X 1.5 
 D 4.75 x 3.25 i yb V - 2.75 xO.5 ) 1 * \ 3 x 2. 
 
 From these data a vessel can, at any time, 
 be constructed similar to the "Dictator," by 
 any one familiar with the method. The draft 
 16 feet is from the base-line to the under side
 
 76 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 of guards, but she draws some four feet more 
 water. 
 
 A skilful shipbuilder may, by his empirical 
 mode of reasoning, be able to memorize, for a 
 short time, the form of a ship, but most likely 
 in a clouded condition, which will soon vanish 
 away. 
 
 Recording Tables. 
 
 The properties of a vessel can be more 
 minutely and fully recorded in a table of a 
 general form, as follows. The vessel being 
 divided from the dead-flat js. to the stern and 
 to the stem, also from the base-line to the load- 
 water-line, into eight equal parts, as shown on 
 the accompanying plate: construct the follow- 
 ing two tables, one for the after-ship and one 
 for the fore-ship. The data given in these ta- 
 bles are for a steamboat. The top line s con- 
 tains the sheer of the vessel, or height from the 
 load-water-line to the rail, at each division or 
 ordinate. The line R contains the ordinates for 
 the rail, and D that of the deck. In these tables, 
 the dimensions do not correspond with those 
 on the plate. The line D w means a line of a 
 plane tangenting the deck at &r, and parallel to 
 the load-water-line; the deck-line was not 
 shown on the drawing from which this table is
 
 *j 
 
 I 
 
 <x 
 
 s- 
 
 s
 
 AXD SHIPBUILDING. 77 
 
 made. The line Ord. contains the number of 
 each ordinate from stem or stern to the dead- 
 flat BE. The line w contains the ordinates for 
 the load-water-line, and the lines 7, 6, &c. &c., 
 contain the ordinates for the corresponding 
 water-lines. 
 
 The line o contains the half-width of throat 
 in the base-line. The line e contains the half- 
 areas of the ordinate cross-sections of the dis- 
 placement. The line n contains the exponent 
 of the frames. The line q contains the powers 
 of the frames. The line u contains the length 
 of each frame from the base-line to the load- 
 water-line. 
 
 The column a contains the area of each 
 water-line, n the exponent, and q the power for 
 the corresponding water-line. Column o con- 
 tains the half-width of throat on the stern-post 
 or stem ; in this case it shows that the boat is 
 a propeller, because the throat is widest at the 
 ordinate 4, where the propeller shaft goes 
 through the stern-post. Columns A or F con- 
 tain the ordinates for the throat on stern-post or 
 stem, measured from the perpendicular. Col- 
 umn u contains the length of the corresponding 
 water-line from stem or stern "to the dead-flat .gr. 
 
 The corner e jg? contains the half area of the 
 greatest immersed cross-section, which, in this 
 7*
 
 78 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 case, is 133.4 square feet. Corner a contains 
 the half-displacement of the vessel from sr to 
 stem 10000, or stern 8528 cubic feet. The 
 corners o n and q contain the exponent and 
 power of the displacement longitudinally ; and 
 the corners a n and a q contain the exponent 
 and power of the displacement vertically. The 
 corner q q contains the mean angle of resistance 
 13 54', or mean angle of delivery 14 49'. 
 The corner u u contains the wet surface of half 
 the displacement from T& to stern or stem. 
 The constructing draft of water and length are 
 contained in the corners o u and u o. 
 
 This form of table will suit for any shape or 
 size of vessel. It is like a tailor's measurement 
 of a coat. When the shipbuilder becomes ac- 
 customed to it, he can see, at the first glance, 
 the properties of the vessel. 
 
 When thus brought to a system, forms of 
 tables could be printed and bound in a book, 
 for the use of shipbuilders. 
 
 The general formula for this steamboat is 
 
 W 3.375X0.824) Ra fi /18S.6 X W .35 X 10\ 1(V , \ 4.5x125. 
 D 3.375 X 1.375 J 8i '" ^ jg 6. 75X1.125 ) lw $3.625X1.375. 
 
 When the shape of the vessel is thus ob- 
 tained and recorded, divide the frames as re- 
 quired in building the ship. 
 
 The formula for the steam-propellor repre- 
 sented on the plate is 
 
 W2.SXU g,,;,, /150X15X15\ c.,.07, J 2X1.18. 
 D 2X 2 \ 65-025
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 
 
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 AND SHIPBUILDING. 81 
 
 The general shipbuilding tables from formula 
 3, have been calculated, corrected, and rear- 
 ranged several times. The undertaking is simi- 
 lar to that of calculating tables of logarithms, 
 and although equally extensive, is much more 
 complicated, and too great a task for a single 
 individual. The immense amount of labor 
 which has been spent on logarithms by different 
 mathematicians, in different countries, is well 
 known, as also that it required some two cen- 
 turies before they were brought to a condition 
 of thorough reliability. 
 
 Baron Napier invented the foundation of 
 logarithms printed in his Canon Mirdbilis Lo- 
 gariihmorum, in the year 1614, but started on 
 an inconvenient basis, which was improved by 
 Professor Henry Briggs in 1615, who calcu- 
 lated our present common logarithms for the 
 natural numbers up to 30,000, and in 1628, the 
 logarithms for all natural numbers were com- 
 puted for the first time up to 100,000. Since 
 then the logarithms have been calculated over 
 and over again by different mathematicians, 
 who have continually discovered errors in the 
 same, until very recently the last edition of 
 Vega's tables has been generally accepted as 
 correct.
 
 82 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 The shipbuilding tables may be considered 
 in a similar situation. 
 
 The difficulty is first to calculate a complete 
 and well-arranged set of tables, then to have 
 them perfectly corrected and purged from 
 errors; all of which could have been accom- 
 plished in the Bureau of Steam-Engineering, 
 had I only succeeded in securing for them the 
 appreciation of the Navy Department. 
 
 The individual sacrifice of labor and time 
 necessary to perfect these tables is altogether in- 
 conceivable by the uninitiated, and would never 
 be compensated by the immediate sales of such 
 a publication. I, therefore, amidst my multi- 
 farious and pressing engagements, leave to 
 others both the profit and distinction that may 
 accrue from their ultimate perfection, and will 
 cheerfully contribute my quota as a purchaser, 
 to their cost, rather than assume this herculean 
 labor myself.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 83 
 
 CONSTRUCTOR'S OFFICE, II. S. NAVY YARD, 
 PHILADELPHIA, Sept. 14, 1865. 
 
 SIR : I have examined your proposed method 
 of constructing ships, called the parabolic con- 
 struction, and am of the opinion it will be very 
 useful for the shipbuilding profession, and think 
 it embraces, in full, the merit therein described. 
 I am, very respectfully, 
 Your obedient servant, 
 W. L. HANSCOM, 
 
 Naval Constructor. 
 J. W. NYSTROM, 
 Civil Engineer, 
 Philadelphia.
 
 84 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, Sept. 14, 1865. 
 
 SIR: Having been shown the system pro- 
 posed by you for calculating the data necessary 
 in the construction of the models of vessels, I 
 am of the opinion that so certain and easy a 
 mode of ascertaining the shape and dimensions 
 hitherto assumed by individual judgment, 
 would be immensely valuable to the profession. 
 
 And with regard to the principle on which 
 said system is based, I have no reason, from 
 my present knowledge of it, to doubt that by 
 its adoption, at least a great improvement in 
 models over the average now made would 
 result. 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 J. VAUGHAN MERRICK. 
 
 J. W. NYSTROM, ESQ.
 
 RESIGNATION. 
 
 NAVY DEPARTMENT, 
 WASHINGTON, D. C., July 8, 1865. 
 
 SIR : I respectfully beg leave to tender my 
 resignation as Acting Chief Engineer in the 
 U. S. Navy. 
 
 At the time the Navy Department paid me 
 the compliment of declining a previous resig- 
 nation (tendered on the 3d of February last), I 
 gave as a reason that "the pay was much less 
 than I could obtain in private employment, 
 whilst the living was much higher in Wash- 
 ington." 
 
 However true this may have been, the real 
 reason for tendering my resignation, both then 
 and now, as stated to Mr. Isherwood, the Chief 
 of the Bureau of Steam-Engineering, was that 
 I have failed in bringing my attainments and 
 qualifications to the notice and due appreciation 
 of the Department. 
 
 My present duties are limited, I may say, to 
 questions of simple arithmetic, which could be
 
 86 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION, ETC. 
 
 performed by a schoolboy, whilst my engineer- 
 ing knowledge, which is actually needed, and 
 could be advantageously employed for the 
 benefit of the navy and the country, is thrown 
 away. 
 
 Under a conviction that my knowledge of 
 naval engineering would render me eminently 
 useful, and that from the present condition of 
 the country the Department actually requires 
 the utilization of every possible means which 
 could be directed to the advancement of this 
 paramount interest, I cannot conscientiously 
 continue on the pay-rolls of the navy whilst 
 the class of services I am required to render 
 are at once so unworthy of myself, and so in- 
 adequate a requital to the government for the 
 emolument which it so generously confers 
 upon me. 
 
 I have the honor to remain, 
 Your Excellency's ob't serv't, 
 JOHN W. NYSTROM, 
 Act. Chief Engineer, U. S. N. 
 
 Hon. GIDEON WELLES, 
 Secretary of the Navy.
 
 MEMOEANDUM. 
 
 WASHINGTON, July 10, 1865. 
 
 THE acceptance of my resignation, tendered 
 on the 8th inst., was received this morning. 
 
 I have thus resigned a position in the navy 
 where my professional attainments are most 
 needed, and where my engineering knowledge 
 could not be utilized because there was no one 
 in the Navy Department who could appreciate 
 or employ them. There is work in the Bureau 
 of Steam-Engineering for a dozen engineers of 
 my qualifications, -and there are now many 
 good mathematicians in that Bureau who would 
 be very glad to undertake such work as is now 
 needed in the organization and instruction of 
 the Engineer Cadets, but there is>no one in the 
 Department with adequate technical knowledge 
 to take the lead in such an important enter- 
 prise. 
 
 The Navy Department is apparently unaware 
 that our present scientific books are not only 
 inadequate to meet the requirements of the
 
 88 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 day, but much of the matter existing in them 
 is very confused, without order or classification, 
 and some of it is not correct. Besides, many 
 of our scientific books contain an unnecessary 
 burden for students. 
 
 In the multifarious studies required in our 
 days by Naval Engineers, it is of great im- 
 portance to economize their time and labor. 
 
 The science of dynamics is yet in a very 
 complicated and confused condition, without a 
 specific meaning being attached to the terms 
 employed. Correspondents are constantly 
 seeking information, through scientific jour- 
 nals, on the subject of dynamics, and invariably 
 receive confused answers, in verification of 
 which a few examples may be given. 
 
 The Scientific American, of November 26. 
 1864, informs its correspondents that "the size 
 "and weight of a fly-wheel must be in proper 
 "proportion to the machine which it is designed 
 " to regulate, and this is determined by observa- 
 tion and experience; it cannot be calculated 
 "by any mathematical rule. Within the limit 
 "usually adopted by mechanics, our preference 
 "is for light wheels of large diameter, rather 
 "than for heavier ones of smaller diameter. The 
 "regulating power of fly-wheels is in proportion
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 89 
 
 " to their weight multiplied by the square of 
 " their velocity." 
 
 Here it is asserted that the weight of a fly- 
 wheel must be in proper proportion to the 
 machine! whilst we know that many machines 
 run well without a fly-wheel ; its sole function 
 and office is to approach uniformity of motion 
 by regulating alternate irregular work. The 
 Scientific American says that "the proper size of 
 the fly-wheel cannot be calculated." The action 
 of a fly-wheel, however, is calculated and de- 
 termined as easily as a simple problem in ge- 
 ometry; but we have yet no books where this 
 is properly explained. 
 
 An English scientific journal informs its cor- 
 respondent that " the size and weight of fly- 
 " wheels are usually determined from practical 
 "experiment. There is given an elaborate 
 "theory of the fly-wheel in Moseley's Mechanical 
 "Principles of Architecture and Engineering, but 
 " the formulas deduced are very intricate." 
 
 The formulas here quoted are complicated, 
 because the subject is not properly under- 
 stood. 
 
 The Scientific American also for Sept. 10, 1864, 
 informs its correspondent that " when a body 
 "is raised slowly, the power required to over- 
 " come the inertia is inappreciable, and must be
 
 90 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 " disregarded in reckoning the work done. But 
 "when the velocity is appreciable, it must be 
 " considered in computing the work. This part 
 " of the work is in proportion to the square of 
 -" the velocity." Now the work required to raise 
 a body is equal to the weight of the body mul- 
 tiplied by the height to which it is raised, inde- 
 pendently of velocity. The work expended on 
 the inertia in starting the body, is re-utilized 
 when it is brought to rest. From the Scientific 
 American, we may infer that work is required 
 to overcome the inertia, while the body is raised 
 with a uniform velocity. 
 
 Another correspondent is informed that " the 
 " vis- viva, or force of a moving body, is in pro- 
 " portion to the square of the velocity, and the 
 " power required to impart velocity is in the 
 "same ratio. It therefore requires an expencli- 
 "ture of four times the force to impart double 
 " velocity either to a projectile or to a revolving 
 " wheel." 
 
 Here force, power, and work are, as usual, 
 confounded with each other. A force of one 
 pound can give as much velocity to a body free 
 to move as a force of a hundred pounds, if 
 time be disregarded. In equal times, the force 
 is directly as the velocity. In equal space, the
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 91 
 
 force is as the square of the velocity, or in- 
 versely as the square of the time. 
 
 The science of dynamics is yet in the condi- 
 tion which geometry would be without illus- 
 trations. Dynamical quantities are physical 
 operations, and cannot be recognized as mate- 
 rial or geometrical objects, but must be con- 
 ceived from algebraical formulas. But among 
 the very best mathematicians, there are few who 
 can conceive the true configuration of an ob- 
 ject when it is simply expressed in a compli- 
 cated formula. Dynamical quantities, such as 
 force, velocity, and time, and their combinations, 
 into power, space, and work, can be compared 
 with and illustrated by geometrical objects, and 
 thus made to present a clear conception to the 
 mind, without which it is often difficult, if not 
 impossible. At least, I have not myself been 
 able to form a clear conception of dynamics 
 without the aid of adequate illustrations. 
 
 It yet remains to explain and illustrate how 
 work is accumulated in, and distributed by a 
 fly-wheel ; how the combination and distribution 
 of work in machinery in general is performed 
 such as the operation of the moving mass in 
 our present propeller-engines, which constitutes 
 a very important item in the success of the 
 machinery; how the work required to transport
 
 92 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 a given cargo a given distance, in different 
 forms of ships with different speeds is achieved; 
 all this, yet remains a mere conjecture, is spoken 
 of as a craft to be acquired only by experience, 
 and the rationale of the problem has never been 
 given. 
 
 I proposed to the Engineer-in-Chief of the 
 Navy, Mr. Isherwood, to clear up this subject 
 of dynamics for the Naval Engineer Cadets, 
 but the proposition was in vain. 
 
 "Whatever I proposed in that quarter, whether 
 based upon true scientific principles which 
 could not be disputed, or upon ideas which are 
 avowedly in successful operation in different 
 parts of the world, was obdurately declined 
 and invariably overwhelmed with quack reason- 
 ing, informing me that what they already did 
 was perfection, and that every possible idea was 
 exhausted for ages to come. 
 
 The disposition to suppose that we have 
 reached perfection actually bars the path of 
 progress in the Navy Department, and that 
 illustrious Chief, with all his talent, will never 
 progress, until he finds out that he is behind 
 the time. 
 
 By reason of a want of a proper development 
 of the science of dynamics, even Mr. Isherwood 
 has committed serious blunders in his elaborate
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 93 
 
 works on steam-engineering; a reference to 
 one instance of which will be sufficient to jus- 
 tify this statement. 
 
 In the Engineer's Precedent, vol. 2, page 26, 
 Mr. Isherwood divides the equivalent of horse- 
 power 33,000 foot-pounds by Joule's dynamic 
 equivalent of heat 772 foot-pounds; and he 
 calls the quotient 42.7461 pounds of water 
 raised one degree Fab.., the thermal equivalent 
 of an indicated horse-power ! This is non- 
 sense. 
 
 The equivalent of one horse-power is a force 
 of 33,000 pounds, moving with a velocity of one 
 foot per minute, or the product of force and 
 velocity; whilst the dynamic equivalent of heat 
 is a force of 772 pounds moved through a space 
 of one foot. But space is the product of time 
 and velocity, for which the dynamic equivalent 
 of heat, will be the product of the three simple 
 elements, force, velocity, and time, which is work. 
 
 Therefore, if poiver is divided by work, the 
 quotient will be the reciprocal of time, instead 
 of the thermal equivalent of indicated horse- 
 power, as erroneously asserted by Mr. Isher- 
 wood. 
 
 This error is carried through his two vol- 
 umes of Experimental Reseaches in Steam- Engi- 
 neering, and he has based thereon some very
 
 94 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 important calculations and decisions, on the 
 efficiency of different kinds of coal, on the 
 evaporative efficiency of different kinds of 
 boilers, and on the economy of the expansion 
 of steam ! 
 
 Other engineers have thus been led into the 
 same errors, some of which have been repeated 
 in scientific journals. 
 
 We have yet no books for the schools or 
 colleges, which explain the difference between 
 foot-pounds of power, foot-pounds of work, and 
 foot-pounds of momentum. 
 
 In order to clear up the science of dynamics, 
 it will be necessary to abolish a number of 
 useless terms which now confuse the subject 
 and to establish a specific meaning for the 
 terms retained. To give authority to such a 
 proposition, I submitted a paper on the subject 
 to the National Academy of Sciences, at its 
 meeting last January; but the Academy de- 
 clined to act upon it, and informed me that 
 the subject has been sufficiently discussed. 
 
 The paper submitted is as follows:
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 95 
 
 NAVY DEPARTMENT, 
 BUREAU OF STEAM-ENGINEERING, 
 
 WASHINGTON, Dec. 14, 1865 
 
 To the Chairman of the National Academy of Sciences, 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 SIR: I most respectfully request that you 
 would invite the attention of your scientific 
 association, at its next meeting, to the enclosed 
 papers on the science of dynamics, and oblige, 
 Yours, most respectfully, 
 JOHN W. NYSTROM, 
 
 Engineer U. S. N. 
 
 COMMUNICATION TO THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF 
 SCIENCES, ON DYNAMICS. 
 
 The science of dynamics seems yet to be in 
 an unsettled condition, since students from 
 different colleges and even from the same col- 
 lege, are found to differ as regards the true 
 meaning of dynamical terms; and our school- 
 books seem to be unnecessarily ambiguous on 
 that subject. 
 
 Independently of the numerous terms differ- 
 ently applied, the substance of the subject is 
 often misconceived, and not altogether rightly
 
 96 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 represented. This want of order and perspi- 
 cuity in the subject is not at all due to intrinsic 
 causes, and it would seem that the science of 
 dynamics can be represented in a very clear 
 and simple form. An effort to this effect is 
 contained in the accompanying papers. 
 
 ON THE ELEMENTS OF DYNAMICS. 
 
 FORCE is a mutual tendency of bodies to at- 
 tract or repel each other. Its physical consti- 
 tution is not yet known. We only know its 
 action, which is recognized as pressure and 
 measured by weight. The unit of weight being 
 assumed from the attraction of the earth upon 
 a determined volume of any specific substance; 
 for example, the force of attraction between 
 the earth and 27.7 cubic inches .of distilled 
 water, at the temperature of 39.8 Fah., in an 
 atmosphere balancing 30 inches of mercury, 
 at the level of the sea is called one pound 
 avoirdupois. 
 
 Force is the first element of power and work, 
 and may be likened to length, which is a pri- 
 mary element in geometry. Force will here 
 be denoted by the letter F } expressed in 
 pounds.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 97 
 
 VELOCITY is the second element of power 
 and work, and may be likened to breadth in 
 geometry. It is that continued change of po- 
 sition recognized as motion, and is here denoted 
 by the letter F, expressed in feet per second. 
 Velocity is a simple element, although it ap- 
 pears to be dependent on time and space, but 
 the space is divided by the time, and therefore 
 both eliminated from the velocity. 
 
 TIME is the third element of work, and may 
 be likened to thickness in geometry. It im- 
 plies a continuous action recognized as dura- 
 tion. Time is here denoted by the letter T, 
 expressed in seconds. 
 
 POWEE is a function of the first two elements 
 force F, and velocity F, as area in geometry 
 is a function of length and breadth. Power is 
 here denoted by P=F F, which means that 
 the power P is the product of the force F mul- 
 tiplied by the velocity F. The power so ob- 
 tained is expressed in foot-pounds, and called 
 dynamic effect, of which there are 550 in a 
 horse-power; or, if the velocity is measured 
 in feet per minute, there will be 33,000 foot- 
 pounds in a horse-power. Power is independ- 
 ent of space and time, but it has often been 
 confounded with work, which essentially de- 
 pends on time and space. 
 9
 
 98 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 SPACE is a function of the second and third 
 elements velocity F, and time 2\ and may 
 be likened to a cross-section of a solid, which 
 is a function of breadth and thickness. Space 
 is here denoted by S= V T, which means that 
 the space S is the product of the velocity V 
 and the time T, expressed in linear feet. 
 
 WORK is a function of the three elements 
 force F, velocity V, and time T. It may be 
 likened to a solid in geometry which has the 
 three dimensions, length, breadth, and thick- 
 ness. Work is here denoted by K=F V T, 
 which means that the work Kis the product 
 obtained by multiplying together the three 
 elements force F, velocity F, and time T. 
 
 Work may be denoted by K = F S, or the 
 product of the force F multiplied by the space 
 S, where it appears as if the work was inde- 
 pendent of time, but the time is included in 
 the space S = F T. 
 
 Work may also be denoted by K= P T, 
 which means the power P multiplied by the 
 time jP. Either of the three cases expresses 
 the work in foot-pounds. 
 
 Force, velocity, and time are simple physical 
 elements. 
 
 Power, space, and work are functions or 
 products of those elements.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 99 
 
 It appears that F V T is the mathematical 
 definition of a trinity of physical elements 
 which governs the -material universe. All 
 acj|jon of whatever kind, whether mechanical, 
 chemical, or derived from light, heat, electricity, 
 or magnetism ; all that has been, and is to be 
 done or undone, is comprehended by this triume 
 function, F VT. It is omnipotent, ubiquitous, 
 and eternal. 
 
 I am, at present, stationed in the Bureau of 
 Steam-Engineering of the U. S. Navy Depart- 
 ment, where occasions have often arisen to 
 discuss the subject of dynamics with naval en- 
 gineers, some of whom have studied Moseley's, 
 Bartletfs, or WeisebacKs Mechanics ; and yet 
 most of them not only differ with me, but also 
 disagree amongst themselves regarding the 
 precise meaning of dynamical terms. They 
 all seem to agree that time is included in power, 
 but that time is not included in work. Their 
 argument runs thus : " The unit of power is 
 " 33,000 Ibs., lifted one foot per minute, whilst 
 " the unit of work is one pound lifted one foot, 
 " independent of time" Some of them do not 
 recognize the term power, and say that power 
 is work done in a certain time. 
 
 My own argument is, that space is the pro- 
 duct of time and velocity ; and when we say 
 per minute or per any unit of time in the ex-
 
 100 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 pression of horse-power, meaning a force of so 
 many pounds raised so many feet in a given 
 tirrie, we divide the space by the time, and the 
 result is only force and velocity, the time beiiig 
 eliminated, as appears in the formulas follow- 
 ing. 
 
 The popular expression of power is 
 
 But when S=VT 
 
 we have P - FVT = p y t 
 
 or T disappearing, and power thus contains no 
 time. 
 
 Work is generally known to be the ope- 
 ration of raising a given weight to a given 
 height, as a force passing through a given 
 space. But this height or space cannot be 
 attained without time and velocity its consti- 
 tuent elements as before stated. 
 
 The popular conception of work is 
 
 but when 
 
 S 
 we have 
 
 K=F VT, 
 or time is one element in work. 
 
 I am the author of a pocket-book of mechanics 
 and engineering, of which a copy accompanies
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 101 
 
 this paper. This book is now to be found in 
 most parts of the civilized world. It was 
 compiled when I was a boy, and as soon as 
 time and means will allow, it is my intention 
 to rearrange the whole book, adding much 
 valuable matter which has not heretofore ap- 
 peared in print, and putting the subject of 
 dynamics into some kind of standard form. 
 But before so doing, I wish to consult the 
 National Academy of Sciences as to what dy- 
 namical terms are to be accepted as proper. 
 The first question stands thus 
 
 Elements? Functions? 
 
 Force = F? Power P=F V? 
 Velocity - V? Space S VT? 
 Time = T? Work K=F VT? 
 
 Is it right to consider F, V, and T as ele- 
 ments ? 
 
 Is it right to denominate P, S, and K func- 
 tions ? 
 
 Are power P, space S, and work K, com- 
 posed, as indicated by the above formulas ? 
 
 In chemistry the combination of simple ele- 
 ments is called "a compound." By what corre- 
 sponding term can we denominate the combi- 
 nation of physical elements ? 
 
 In mathematics a function is called any 
 9*
 
 102 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 quantity obtained by whatever process or ope- 
 ration indicated by a formula. Accordingly 
 a simple element might be called a function, 
 although it is self-evident that a simple ele- 
 ment by itself cannot be considered a function. 
 
 or 
 
 When V=jf,, can we not say that the function 
 S is resolved into its elements? 
 
 Let a constant force F, act on a body of 
 weight TF, in the direction of the arrow. F 
 and W being measured by the same unit of 
 weight, and no other force acting on W; then 
 we know that the acceleratrix of the force F 
 will be 
 
 - 
 
 w 
 
 when g = 32.166, the acceleratrix of the force of 
 gravity at the surface of the earth. 
 
 Let the force F act for any length of time 
 T, then we know from the law of gravity, that 
 the velocity attained will be 
 V= GT. 
 
 Let v denote the velocity at any time t, then 
 the power in operation will be
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 103 
 
 and the differential work will be 
 
 but 
 
 v= Gt 
 and 
 
 dK=FGtdt, 
 the work 
 
 FGt 3 
 
 2 
 
 Let the work be integrated from t = o to 
 have 
 
 FGT* . 
 
 K=- r > . . . 1 
 
 
 which are the three forms of work accom- 
 plished by the force F acting on a body W. 
 
 We know that F= - , which inserted 
 
 9 
 
 in the above formulas, will give the same work, 
 expressed by the weight of the moving body. 
 
 9 
 WG-VT
 
 104: TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 These formulas give the three forms of work 
 concentrated in a moving body W. We have 
 thus six different formulas expressing the 
 same work K. Cannot this work be denomi- 
 nated by one generic term ? 
 
 The case is the same for all circular motion, 
 
 where F=-4?r^ r= radius of gy ration 
 oU 
 
 n= revolutions per minute. 
 
 Vis-viva, or living force, expressed by AT F 2 , 
 seems to be the most unfortunate term in 
 dynamics, as it has caused so much controversy 
 and confusion. When H means the mass of a 
 moving body, the term M V 2 represents double 
 the work concentrated therein^ the true work 
 being that represented by formula six. 17s- 
 viva is, therefore, substantially the same as 
 work. In fact, if vis-viva means living force, 
 there is no more vis-viva in a moving mass than 
 in one at rest, and therefore it does not express 
 what it means. It requires F F^Tand nothing 
 else to set a body in motion. It requires FVT 
 and nothing else to bring a moving body to 
 rest. It is F V T and nothing else that can 
 change the motion of a body. F being an 
 external force, equal to the force of inertia in 
 the moving body. I would, therefore, pro-
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 105 
 
 pose to reject the term vis-viva in its present 
 acceptation in dynamics. 
 
 In the estimate of foot-pounds of power, I 
 have made a deviation from Watt's rule. The 
 unit 33,000 pounds raised one foot per minute 
 I think is very unnatural. A velocity of only 
 one foot per minute cannot be clearly con- 
 ceived; it is only 0.2 or of an inch per 
 second, the velocity of a snail; on the other 
 hand the weight of 33,000 pounds, or about 15 
 tons, is too large, and very few can form a clear 
 conception of its magnitude. A horse cannot 
 lift directly a weight of 15 tons ; the ordinary 
 pull of a horse is 200 to 300 pounds, and a 
 horse cart-load is about one ton. Therefore it 
 is my humble opinion that the foot-pounds of 
 power ought to be brought nearer the ordi- 
 nary performance of a horse, or one pound 
 lifted one foot per second as a foot-pound, of 
 which there will be 550 foot-pounds per horse 
 power. A velocity of one foot per second is 
 conceivable, and 550 pounds can be lifted by a 
 horse. This kind of foot-pounds is used in 
 most parts of Europe. The Swedish horse- 
 power is 600, and the German 513 foot-pounds. 
 
 Would it not, therefore, for the reason stated, 
 be better to call a horse-power 550 foot-pounds, 
 instead of 33,000? Would it not be well, also,
 
 106 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 to establish an additional unit for work? One 
 pound raised a space of one foot is called one 
 unit of work, by which the labor a man is capa- 
 ble of performing in a day, will be represented 
 in millions. The power of an ordinary man is 
 about fifty pounds raised with a velocity of one 
 foot per second, which will amount to between 
 one and two millions of foot-pounds of work in 
 one day. 
 
 Let us assume the work accomplished by one 
 horse-power in a time of one hour to be a unit 
 for physical work ; which will be the same as 
 that of eleven men working one hour, or that 
 of one man working one day of eleven hours. 
 In order to clearly distinguish this unit from 
 that of power, let it be called a workmanday, 
 which means a man's day's work. 
 
 A workmanday expressed in force and space 
 will be 550x3600=1,980,000 foot-pounds. 
 
 All kinds of work can be estimated in work- 
 mandays, such as building a house, steamboat, 
 or a bridge, digging a canal, ploughing the 
 ground, steam-boiler and gunpowder explo- 
 sions, the capacity of heavy ordnance, &c. &c. 
 
 Would it be proper, then, to introduce such 
 unit as this for work? 
 
 The National Academy of Sciences declined 
 to answer the foregoing questions at the time,
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 107 
 
 and as I do not feel disposed to lay the subject 
 aside, have now published the same in my 
 Pocket-Book of Mechanics and Engineering, 
 and hope the Academy of Sciences, at its conve- 
 nience, will give me the benefit of its criticisms. 
 
 The attention of our scientific men seems to 
 be wholly absorbed in the polarized light, the 
 compound microscope, and spectrum analysis; 
 which indeed are very interesting subjects, and 
 we hope may ultimately lead to the revelation of 
 the physical constitution of light, heat, and 
 force, and thereby relieve us from our present 
 method of generating power by means of the 
 cumbrous steam-boiler. But they have gone 
 so far and deeply into the sciences that they 
 have left us practical engineers far behind, toil- 
 ing in the dark, and when we hail them we 
 receive no answer. 
 
 If we could only succeed in bringing steam- 
 engineering under the compound microscope, 
 or if it would produce a line in the spectrum, 
 it might be profoundly analyzed by our scien- 
 tific professors. But although our naval engi- 
 neering was magnified some thirty millions ($ ?) 
 in the case of the light draft monitors, a certain 
 Fox was not detected in it, whilst in the spec- 
 trum he could not possible have escaped making 
 a line.
 
 108 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 In a period when steam-engineering is not 
 considered sufficiently important, or is not 
 sufficiently advanced, for the Corps of Naval 
 Engineers to be worthy to be represented in 
 the National Academy of Sciences, we cannot 
 expect the members of such an 'Academy to be 
 familiar with, or to appreciate what is wanted 
 in the practical operation of machinery, with 
 which they have no connection. 
 
 The science of dynamics is represented in its 
 simple form in the tenth edition of Nystrom's 
 Pocket Book, but the space is there so crowded 
 that it does not admit of full explanation with 
 illustrations. 
 
 About a year ago, when I told Captain Fox 
 that I had some valuable matter on hand 
 which would be useful for the naval engineer 
 cadets, he answered, "If you have anything 
 " new, you just take out a patent for it ; we have 
 " a patent office for that purpose." 
 
 Captain Fox then also told me about what 
 Democratic Governments do not do, and what 
 Monarchical Governments do do, very much in 
 the style of his previous observation. 
 
 I wish Captain Fox to know that I believe 
 myself to have a better opinion of a Democratic 
 or Republican form of Government than lie has. 
 My humble proposition had nothing whatever 
 to do with the form of Government. Captain
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 109 
 
 Fox, however, left the impression on me that 
 his ideas about Monarchical Governments are 
 what he has learned in Shakspeare, and as it 
 was in Europe a hundred years ago. 
 
 The Navy Department is now attempting to 
 reorganize the Corps of Naval Engineers. 
 Captain Fox tries his best to subordinate the 
 engineers to the Line Officers, and the engineers 
 in the Department strain their efforts to secure 
 rank and position, all with self-interest in view, 
 but no proposition seems to be offered to pre- 
 pare the new corps of engineers (by receiving 
 the proper learning) to maintain with dignity 
 whatever rank and position may be assigned 
 to it. Give the corps a thorough technological 
 education, and it will become able to take care 
 of itself respecting rank and position ; for in 
 the present feeble conception of the value and 
 importance of mechanical skill and of the 
 range of knowledge in steam-engineering pre- 
 valent in the Navy Department, it is useless to 
 argue about questions of rank, position, and 
 responsibility of the corps of engineers. 
 
 The Washington Navy Yard contains a very 
 extensive mechanical establishment for -the 
 building of marine engines and boilers, the 
 superintendence of which is now intrusted to a 
 mechanic brought up in that place, and with 
 10
 
 110 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 no further scientific education. However ac- 
 complished this mechanic might be in his 
 limited profession, he cannot possibly fulfil the 
 requirements of such an establishment in con- 
 nection with the different mechanic arts and 
 sciences which it involves; neither can he 
 command the respect requisite in the proper 
 execution of such a responsible office. 
 
 These remarks were made in the Navy De- 
 partment, and were answered thus: "All the 
 drawings are made here in minute details, and 
 there is no more knowledge necessary in the 
 yard than to follow the drawings." 
 
 Such expressions of disregard for the know- 
 ledge required in the execution of work were 
 frequently met with. 
 
 The Navy Department, where the drawings 
 are made, is some three miles from the yard 
 where the work is executed. The chief 
 draughtsman visits the works perhaps once a 
 week, and remains there an hour or two, which 
 is considered a sufficient connection between 
 the drawing-room and the workshops. The 
 absurdity of this arrangement can well be con- 
 ceived, for we know by experience, in well- 
 regulated establishments, that for the proper 
 execution of the drawings, in regard to economy
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. Ill 
 
 and utility in the work, the draughtsman re- 
 quires constant access to the patterns, pattern- 
 shop, and to the different branches of the es- 
 tablishment ; and that there is constant con- 
 sultation going on between the draughtsmen 
 and the foremen in these different branches. 
 
 In Washington these parties are separated 
 by a distance of several miles, in consequence of 
 which the character of the design, the economy 
 and the progress of the work, suffer consider- 
 ably. However able or talented draughtsmen 
 or engineers may be when entering the Navy 
 Department, they will soon be spoiled, which is 
 readily evinced in their fancy design of ma- 
 chinery with mouldings and ornaments, not to 
 be found nowadays outside the Bureau of 
 Steam-Engineering. 
 
 These draughtsmen, I believe, are all En- 
 gineers in the Corps, and seem to display a 
 goodly array of talent. Many of them have 
 received collegiate educations, are accomplished 
 mathematicians, and well versed in the physical 
 sciences, but for want of a technological educa- 
 tion, they are naturally deficient in the applica- 
 tion of their scientific knowledge; and much of 
 what they would be able to apply and cultivate, 
 cannot be utilized when thus separated from
 
 112 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the field where the seed of their education 
 ought to be planted. 
 
 The Navy Department is now about to pump 
 steam-engineering into Line Officers at the Na- 
 val Academy, Annapolis, and to make engine- 
 drivers (as they call it) out of ensigns, masters, 
 and midshipmen, by sending them to sea, and 
 having them stand watch in the engine-room ; 
 by which means it is expected to make steam- 
 engineers in the space of two years! How easy 
 the Navy Department must think steam-en- 
 gineering to be! This mode of making steam- 
 engineers is surely the greatest invention of 
 the age; and Captain Fox, the ostensible au- 
 thor of it, had better take out a patent for that 
 bubble before it bursts; "we have a patent 
 office for that purpose." 
 
 During the war Captain Fox kept in his 
 room models of machinery and vessels sub- 
 mitted by civilians to the Navy Department. 
 He decided what was to be done and not to be 
 done in questions of naval engineering. He 
 undertook to superintend the construction of 
 vessels in the Bureau of Construction. He 
 selected models for the constructors to make 
 drawings of. 
 
 Now, for the sake of argument, let us sup- 
 pose that Captain Fox is, by nature, gifted with
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 113 
 
 a peculiar faculty which enables him to guess 
 which model of vessel is best for a desired 
 purpose. A vessel is built from that model, 
 and proves to be satisfactory or not. Neither 
 Captain Fox nor the constructors in the navy 
 are yet able to judge or record the peculiarities 
 of that vessel, in form of scientific arguments, 
 why it did or did not come up to what was 
 anticipated. In case it proved to be a good 
 vessel, there might still never be another one 
 built like it, and Captain Fox's superintendence 
 will thus only satisfy his own personal ambition, 
 without leaving recorded and permanent results 
 for the future benefit of the navy. 
 
 Now if Captain Fox had allowed the intro- 
 duction of the science of shipbuilding into the 
 Department, the achievements of his own talent 
 'might have been recorded and perpetuated for 
 the benefit of the country. 
 
 In my humble judgment, I believe Mr. Len- 
 thal has attained great perfection in the con- 
 struction of ships, for which reason I was very 
 anxious to give his lines a scientific investiga- 
 tion, but he would not allow me to see his best 
 drawings. The ship's drawings intrusted to 
 me in the Department, through the request of 
 Mr. Isherwood, for information required in the 
 Bureau of Steam-Engineering, were of some 
 10*
 
 1 14 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 twelve different vessels, of which only two were 
 of Mr. Lenthal's construction. It appeared that 
 Mr. Lenthal would not allow me to explore his 
 late ships' drawings, even at the request of 
 Mr. Isherwood. The engineers in the Depart- 
 ment are not allowed to see the ship's draw- 
 ings, except through the kindness of some 
 clerks, who, in Mr. Lenthal's absence, ran the 
 risk of letting some of them be seen. I did 
 not avail myself of such an opportunity, for 
 although I have the highest regard for Mr. 
 Lenthal as a constructor and shipbuilder, his 
 drawings would not warrant such a proceeding 
 on my part. 
 
 The engineers in the Department generally 
 evince a strong appetite for learning, and when 
 I received some few old ships' drawings from 
 the Bureau of Construction, they generally 
 surrounded them with a manifest anxiety to 
 gather information, and remarked that "it 
 " must have broken Mr. Lenthal's heart to have 
 "given these drawings out of his office." 
 
 In case it were the policy of the Government 
 to keep their ships' drawings secret from a de- 
 sire to promote the interest of the country, I 
 would heartily acquiesce; but it is a question 
 of considerable importance whether such a
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 115 
 
 policy would not act detrimentally rather than 
 otherwise. 
 
 If a knowledge of shipbuilding is to be re- 
 stricted only to a chosen few constructors in 
 the navy, it would be by a rare accident 'only 
 that those of adequate capacity would be hit 
 upon, while if thrown generally open, it would 
 scarcely fail to reach many whose talent in that 
 particular would be unquestionable. 
 
 In reality, this attempt at secrecy is a folly, 
 for in view of the conspicuous enterprise and 
 fertility of the American mind, we need not 
 fear to be behind the time by a liberal diffusion 
 of useful knowledge, for unless we sow, there 
 can be no harvest. 
 
 The farther we look back on the art of ship- 
 building, the more secret it appears to have been 
 kept, until, at the present time, some of our first 
 shipbuilders not only freely expose their draw- 
 ings to observation, but even allow them to be 
 published. 
 
 The lines of the fastest and best of the Eu- 
 ropean steamers, namely, the "Persia," and 
 others, are published in McKensy's Shipbuild- 
 ing, and those of the "Scotia" also are published 
 in Scott Russel's work. 
 
 The sloop of war of the Wampanoag class, 
 intended for great speed, we have reason to
 
 116 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 suppose, have the most perfect lines of the day, 
 which, in connection with their intended great 
 propelling power, afford a very interesting field 
 for scientific investigation, the result of which 
 might be of great value to the Corps of En- 
 gineers, but will now probably be lost to them 
 through a personal jealousy. 
 
 This jealousy is by no means limited to the 
 Navy Department, but is met with in all direc- 
 tions, and frequently intercepts scientific in- 
 quiry. It is an epidemic disease which can be 
 cured only by technological education. 
 
 * Once, in a scientific meeting, efforts to ex- 
 plain the science of steamboiler explosions, and 
 how to prevent the same, were silenced by the 
 president of the meeting calling me to the chair 
 and whispering, "Don't say anything about 
 " boiler explosions." The discussion was ac- 
 cordingly dropped and lost. 
 
 An explanation of the cause of steamboiler 
 explosions is a question demonstrably within 
 the reach of science, as much so as a problem 
 of geome*?ry. 
 
 In many cases explosions are indicated a 
 long time before they occur, and could be easily 
 prevented. The terrible explosion on board 
 the steamer Sultana, on the Mississippi, and a 
 great many other similar disasters, were indi-
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 117 
 
 cated several hours before they occurred, all of 
 which could have been prevented, and a great 
 number of lives saved. 
 
 ON STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 
 
 It has hereinbefore been explained what is 
 meant by work, namely, the product of the three 
 simple physical elements force F, velocity V, and 
 time T, or work 
 
 K=FVT. . 1 
 
 The heat required to elevate the temperature 
 of one pound of water one degree Fah. is as- 
 sumed to be one unit of heat, and found to be 
 equivalent to the dynamic effect of 772 foot- 
 pounds ; or one unit of heat can raise 772 pounds 
 one foot, or one pound to a height of 772 feet. 
 
 The heat in the steam and water in a steam- 
 boiler is equivalent to such a proportion of 
 work, or the steam-boiler is a reservoir of work 
 which is generally dealt out in homoeopathic 
 doses to work a steam-engine. But when the 
 entire stored work, K=FVT, is suddenly 
 started, as in the case of the bursting of a boiler, 
 the steam and water in the form of a foam, im- 
 pelled by the heat, performs a proportionate
 
 118 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 destruction in the explosion, the force of which 
 will be 
 
 From this formula we see that the less time 
 occupied by the explosion the greater will the 
 force be, or if the time is infinitely small, the 
 force of the explosion will be infinitely great. 
 
 It has been assumed that explosive gases are 
 sometimes formed in steam-boilers, which cause 
 explosions; but the concentrated work in the 
 steam and water is amply sufficient to perform 
 the destruction without the aid of any further 
 explosive gas. 
 
 DESTRUCTIVE WORK OF STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSION. 
 
 When steam-boiler explosions take place, the 
 inclosed water is resolved into one volume of 
 boiling hot water, and one volume of steam, as 
 follows : 
 
 Notation of Letters Prior to Explosion. 
 
 W' = total weight in pounds of the water 
 in the boiler under full steam pressure.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 119 
 
 w f = pounds of water evaporated in the ex- 
 plosion. 
 
 h = units of heat per pound in the water W. 
 
 11= units of heat per pound in the steam of 
 pressure P. 
 
 H' = units of heat per cubic foot in the 
 steam P. 
 
 P = pressure of steam in pounds per square 
 inch. 
 
 V = volume coefficient of steam. 
 
 Then the water evaporated in the explosion 
 will be 
 
 82.8 
 
 The destructive work K of the explosion 
 will be in foot-pounds. 
 
 -1.6848298) ... 4 
 
 By exemplifying this formula, it will be 
 found what an enormous destructive energy 
 there exists in steam-boilers. 
 
 For values of the letters, and also examples, 
 see Nystrom's Pocket-Book, tenth edition. 
 
 When the steam pressure in any part of a 
 boiler is suddenly removed, the entire work 
 concentrated therein is started with a violence
 
 120 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 proportioned to the removed pressure, and 
 the steam and water, in the form of a foam, 
 strike the sides of the boiler, by which the 
 work is suddenly arrested. If the time of 
 arresting the work is infinitely small, we see 
 from the formula 2, that the force of the work 
 will be infinitely great, and thus the boiler ex- 
 plodes. 
 
 The sudden removal of pressure, which in- 
 variably leads to the explosion, is derived either 
 from bursting or by collapse of some part of the 
 steam-boiler; for instance: 
 
 1st. By long use boilers become corroded 
 and give way in some unexpected place, which 
 ought to have been detected by inspection, or 
 in cleaning. 
 
 2d. The general construction with staying 
 and bracing of steam-boilers is often very care- 
 lessly executed and results in explosion. This 
 kind of explosion is often indicated, long 
 before the accident occurs, by leakage of the 
 boiler ; when the engineer, not suspecting the 
 approaching danger, limits his remedies gene- 
 rally at efforts to stop the leak. The leakage 
 from bad calking or packing is easily distin- 
 guished from that of bad or insufficient bracing. 
 In the latter case the fire ought to be hauled out, 
 the steam blown off very slowly and carefully,
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 121 
 
 so as to make as little disturbance in the work 
 as possible, or it would be safest to work off 
 most of the steam by the engine; after which 
 the boiler should be secured by proper bracing.* 
 
 * TERRIBLE STEAMBOAT DISASTER. Memphis, March 5. 
 The R. J. Loci-wood, bound from New Orleans to St. Louis> 
 exploded, about seven o'clock last evening, while eighteen 
 miles below this city, and afterwards burned until she 
 sunk. She was inspected at New Orleans on last Wednes- 
 day, and pronounced seaworthy. After running a day or 
 two her boilers were discovered to be in a leaky condition. 
 Captain Howard proposed to the engineer to stop at Helena 
 and repair, but the engineer thought it unnecessary until 
 the boat should arrive at Memphis. Thus the delay 
 proved fatal. The explosion tore away the cabin as far 
 back as the centre, killing twenty persons instantly, and 
 scalding, wounding, or otherwise injuring about twenty- 
 five others. Fortunately the At. S. Mepham was coming 
 down at the time, and rendered most timely aid to the 
 distressed passengers and officers of the boat. As the 
 Lockwood caught fire immediately, the Mepham rounded 
 to and landed her bow against the stern of the ill-fated 
 steamer, thus saving every person not killed by the ex- 
 plosion. 
 
 A number of cabin passengers, crew, cooks, and negro 
 firemen were lost ; but their names are not known. All 
 the lady passengers, besides the two chambermaids, were 
 saved. I think the number of killed amounts to forty 
 or fifty, as survivors state there were a number of deck 
 hands and deck passengers on the lower deck, who were 
 killed by the explosion, and whose names are unknown. 
 St. Louis Republican. 
 11
 
 122 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 3d. Explosions are sometimes caused from 
 low water in the boiler, but more rarely than 
 generally supposed. When the fire-crown and 
 tubes are subjected to a strong heat and not 
 covered with water, the steam does not ab- 
 sorb the heat fast enough to prevent the iron 
 from becoming too hot so that it cannot with- 
 stand the pressure, but softens and collapses. 
 Sometimes, when the boiler bursts, the tubes 
 and flues may also collapse by the force of ex- 
 plosion, when it has been erroneously supposed 
 that the explosion was caused from such col- 
 lapse. 
 
 4th. Steam-boilers often burst by strain in 
 uneven expansion or shrinkage, occasioned by 
 the fire being too quickly lighted or extin- 
 guished. Explosions of this kind frequently 
 occur on Saturday nights or Monday morn- 
 ings, or before or after a holiday. The reason 
 for this is, that on Saturday nights the engi- 
 neer generally puts out the fire too quickly 
 in his haste to go home, by which the most 
 heated part of the boiler is too suddenly 
 
 Cases of this kind are occurring over and over again. 
 It is perfectly clear that the engineer on the steamer Lock- 
 wood did not understand the character of the leak, and 
 he was most probably unfamiliar with the rudiments of 
 the operating natural principles involved in the subject.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 123 
 
 cooled, and may burst in too rapidly shrinking. 
 On Monday mornings the engineer may be 
 late, and in his hurry to get up steam in 
 time, throws in dry shavings or wood which 
 heats the flues or tubes in the boiler too 
 rapidly whilst other parts remains cool, when 
 the unequal expansion thus occasioned may 
 strain some parts sufficiently to burst, and 
 explosion follows. 
 
 Throughout the week the fire is not hauled 
 out but tossed against the bridge and fresh 
 coal thrown on the top of it in the evenings, 
 where it will remain and keep the boiler hot 
 until started for work the next morning. 
 
 5th. It is a very bad practice to make boiler 
 ends of cast iron, composed of a flat disk of 
 from two to three inches thick, with a flange of 
 from one to two inches thick with cast rivet- 
 holes. The first shrinkage in the cooling of 
 such a plate causes a great strain, which is in- 
 creased by riveting the boiler to it. Any sud- 
 den change of temperature, therefore, either in 
 starting or putting out the fire, might crack the 
 plate and thus occasion an explosion. Such 
 accident may be avoided by making the cast- 
 iron ends concave and of even thickness. 
 
 6th. In cold weather, when the boilers have 
 been at rest for some time, they may be frozen
 
 124 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 full of ice, then when the fire is made in them 
 some parts are suddenly heated and expand, 
 whilst other parts still remain cold, causing an 
 undue strain, which may also burst the boilers. 
 Such accident can be avoided by a slow and 
 cautious firing. 
 
 7th. Sometimes a great many boilers are 
 joined together by solid connections of cast-iron 
 steam-pipes, which expand when heated, whilst 
 the masonry inclosing the boilers contracts. 
 Should such a steam-pipe burst from expansion 
 or shrinkage, explosion will likely follow in all 
 the connected boilers, of which numerous ex- 
 amples have occurred. Such accident may be 
 avoided by making the connections elastic, or 
 free to expand or contract without straining the 
 boilers. The fragments of one exploded boiler 
 striking the next, also cause continued explo- 
 sions of several boilers.* 
 
 Steam-boiler explosions are thus not always 
 caused by pressure of steam alone, but often by 
 expansion and contraction of the materials of 
 the boiler. A boiler which is perfectly safe 
 with a working pressure of 200 pounds may 
 explode with a pressure of only 20 pound's to 
 the square inch. 
 
 * Such a case occurred lately at Harrisburg, I'eun., 
 where eight boilers exploded in one succession.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 125 
 
 Four hundred and ninety lives were lost by 
 boiler explosions in this country from the fifth 
 of January to the ninth of February, 1866. 
 
 If the president who stopped my discus- 
 sion on steam-boiler explosion, were seated 
 on the top of a boiler when it exploded, 
 and were blown up a few hundred feet in the 
 air, and came down corrifortably and unhurt, it 
 would be interesting to ascertain whether he 
 would stop a discussion on steamboiler explo- 
 sion at the next meeting, or if he would not 
 like to know how it happened ? 
 
 It will perhaps be remarked that it is very 
 improper to take so much upon myself, and 
 speak so plainly about all these things, as has 
 been done in this book, but I have been kept 
 so long in silence, whilst the neglect and igno- 
 rance which still control the subject have con- 
 signed so many thousands of souls to heaven, 
 and so many millions of dollars in the opposite 
 direction, that these protestations cannot be 
 suppressed. 
 
 The appropriate remedy for the evil is THE 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITU- 
 TIONS THROUGHOUT THE LAND. 
 
 11*
 
 A EEYIEW 
 
 SUBJECT OF SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 The screw propeller has at length become such 
 a familiar instrument, that every engineer 
 knows how to construct one. It is frequently 
 declared to have reached perfection, and it h;is 
 even been said that "sufficient has been written 
 to put this subject in a true light;" nevertheless, 
 the writer has no apology to offer for bringing 
 forward the following views on this hackneyed 
 theme. 
 
 The common straight-bladed screw will Grst 
 be considered ; afterwards the same with ex- 
 panding pitch; and then the different forms of 
 curve-bladed screws in like manner. 
 
 It will not be necessary, in this article, to 
 enter into minute details of the construction 
 of the screw, as the same will be found in a 
 practical treatise on the subject now in prepa- 
 ratoin for the press.
 
 Plain Screw Propeller riate tt.
 
 SHIPBUILDING. 127 
 
 TO CONSTRUCT A PLAIN SCREW PROPELLER WITH 
 A UNIFORM PITCH. (PLATE II.) 
 
 Draw the line a b (Plate II.), and the lines 
 c d and e c' at right angles thereto. Draw the 
 circumference of the propeller, fig. 2, with the 
 given diameter D ; divide the quadrant o' c' into 
 any number (say eight) equal parts, and num- 
 ber them as show a in the figure. Set off from 
 o, fig. 1, one-quarter of the assumed pitch P, 
 and divide it into an equal number of parts 
 with that of the quadrant o' c'. Draw from each 
 division point the rectangular ordinates 8', 
 7', 6', 5', 4', &c. &c., and the intersection of 
 those by lines of equal numbers will constitute 
 points in the helix of the screw. 
 
 Repeat the same operation with the hub, 
 and draw the two helixes 8' n o m, and r s o t, 
 as shown in the figure. Set off the assumed 
 length L, fig. 1, then project n o m, to n' o' ra', 
 fig. 2 ; join n' and m' with the centre C, which 
 thus forms one blade of the propeller. Com- 
 plete the assumed number of blades (say four), 
 then the curve or helix g' c' h f , fig. 2, projected 
 on fig. 1, will appear as g c h, so that c g = c h 
 = 8' 7' G'. 
 
 Let v denote the projecting angle of each 
 blade, then
 
 128 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 P : L ~ 360 : F. 
 Pitch P=?^, . . . 1 
 
 The angle of the blades with the axis of the 
 propeller, at the periphery, will be 
 
 and 
 
 Pitch P= " . . . 
 
 tang. W 
 
 TO CONSTRUCT A PROPELLER WITH A COMPOUND 
 EXPANDING PITCH. (PLATE III.) 
 
 The pitch of a propeller may expand in the 
 direction of the axis as well as in the direction 
 of the radius or generatrix. Let the generatrix 
 have a uniform motion around the axis, and an 
 accelerated motion in the direction of the axis; 
 then the pitch will expand in the direction of 
 the axis. When the generatrix has a quicker 
 motion in the direction of the axis at the peri- 
 phery than at the axis, then the pitch will be 
 expanding in the direction of the radius or gen- 
 eratrix, and when the pitch is composed of the 
 two expansions, it may be denominated a com- 
 pound expanding pitch.
 
 Propeller with tlxpanditig Pilch, PIM. 
 
 \
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 129 
 
 The propelling energy of the blades near 
 the hub of the propeller is very inconsiderable, 
 and acts mainly to agitate the water, for which 
 reason it has been proposed to construct pro- 
 pellers, so that the pitch at the periphery is to the 
 pitch at the hub, as the velocity of the pitch of the 
 periphery is to the velocity of the ship : so that 
 the water will pass through at the hub without 
 being further disturbed. Having given, say 
 the diameter, D = 12 ft. ; length, L = 3 ft. ; 
 mean pitch, P = 18 ft. ; it is proposed to con- 
 struct a propeller with a compound expanding 
 pitch. (Plate III.) 
 
 Draw the centre lines a Z>, c d, and c' d r . Cal- 
 culate from formula 2, the angle 
 
 tang.TF= 8 - 14 * 12 = 2.0933 = tang. 69 30', 
 
 lo 
 
 the angle required. 
 
 Draw the arc W, fig. 1, and set off' the angle 
 17= 64 30' = n o o r \ draw the dotted line 
 n o m. Set off the length L = 3 feet. Draw 
 from n and w, the lines n p and m q, parallel 
 to a b. Assume the pitch to expand from 16 
 feet at w, to 20 feet at n, then calculate the 
 angles w and w' from formula 2. 
 
 tang.z0' = 8 ' 14 * = 2.356 = tang. 67
 
 130 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 tang.w - 8 ' 14 * 12 = 1.884 = tang.62 
 
 Set off the angles w and w r , as shown in 
 fig. 1 ; draw the dotted lines t r and r t'. Draw 
 a curved line n e m, which will tangent t r at ?i, 
 and t' r at m, then n e m forms the outer edge 
 of the propeller, bladed with the required ex- 
 panding pitch. 
 
 Draw the circumference of the propeller fig. 
 2, project n to n' and m to m'. Draw the curved 
 generatrix about as o r h C. Draw from n' and 
 m' the genatrixes h' and h" of the same curve 
 as h so that they meet on the other side of G 
 somewhere at i; then the helicoidal surface G 
 h' n' o f m' h" forms the blade of the required 
 compound expanding pitch. 
 
 A propeller of this construction will not be 
 a true screw, on account of the generatrixes k' 
 and h" not meeting in the centre G. The error 
 is greatest in the centre or near the hub. But 
 when the blades are fashioned off', as shown on 
 the plate, the error is inappreciable in practice. 
 This kind of propeller is now made to the ex- 
 tent of hundreds or perhaps thousands, by one 
 of the most experienced firms in this country, 
 namely Neafie & Levy, of Philadelphia. 
 
 Although the construction is not conducted 
 strictly as here described, their propellers are
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 131 
 
 substantially the same, for on account of their 
 great experience the patterns are got up entirely 
 by "rule of thumb," and generally produce 
 good propellers, which have the additional ad- 
 vantage (so much sought for) of having " no 
 science in them." They have on hand a great 
 number of patterns of different diameters. 
 When, therefore, a screw is ordered, they 
 select the pattern of nearest diameter, and the 
 difference, if any, is cut out or filled in, in the 
 mould. 
 
 They rarely ever make a drawing of a screw; 
 but when an order is given for one, the draughts- 
 man gets the required angle W of the blade at 
 the periphery from a diagram constructed for 
 that purpose. The draughtsman writes down 
 the diameter of the propeller, the angle of the 
 blade, the diameter and bore of the hub, on 
 a printed form of card, which is given to the 
 moulder, who then, as before stated, selects the 
 nearest pattern. 
 
 The blades on the patterns are generally made 
 loose so that they can be set at the desired 
 angle, which is done by an instrument com- 
 posed of a spirit-level and a graduated circle 
 arc. The angle and pitch are thus adjusted 
 with greater precision in the foundry, than by
 
 132 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the draughtsman from the diagram. The angle 
 of the blades at the hub, in such a method, is 
 not considered of any importance, in relation 
 to that at the periphery. 
 
 THE U. S. NAVY PROPELLER AS CONSTRUCTED BY 
 CHIEF ENGINEER B. F. ISHERWOOD. 
 
 Plate IV. represents the propeller constructed 
 in the U. S. navy department for a great many 
 years past. 
 
 The generatrix for the screw is a circle arc 
 with the centre c, fig. 1 ; but the generatrix at 
 right angle to the axis is a curved line a m b. 
 Either of those generatrixes will generate the 
 same helicoidal surface, or if the propeller was 
 made straight like a m bfn d, fig. 1, the blade 
 would appear a m bf n d, fig. 2, that is to say, 
 that ithe part a m b c is taken off and put on 
 the blade at d ef n, the same propeller would 
 appear as the dotted lines, whilst the direction 
 of the helicoidal surface, and the propelling 
 efficiency of the propeller, would in both cases 
 be the same, because the outer configuration of 
 the blades (as stated by Mr. Isherwood) does 
 not affect the propelling efficiency. 
 
 Mr. Isherwood says in his Engineer Prece-
 
 Cent. Prop.KxpJ^itcli U SK TIM
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 133 
 
 dents, vol. i. page 96 r "The only improve- 
 ment possible on the true screw of uniform 
 length from hub to periphery, is that due to the 
 use of an expanding pitch or curved directrix." 
 
 I ftave examined Mr. Isherwood's propeller, 
 which, *as it has found a place in the Navy, 
 appears worthy of a few remarks. 
 
 The peculiarity of Mr. Isherwood's screw con- 
 sists in the formation of the helicoidal surface by 
 a curved generatrix, instead of a straight gene- 
 ratrix, as usually employed. 
 
 It may be necessary to define what is meant 
 by a generatrix. Let any right line whatever 
 be taken and called the axis of the helicoid or 
 screw, and let any other line curved or straight 
 of definite length be taken, lying at any incli- 
 nation to the axis, and with one extremity 
 touching the axis; this line is the generatrix of 
 the helicoid when it is moved simultaneously 
 with a rotary speed around the axis, and a 
 rectilineal speed along the axis. 
 
 As previously remarked, Mr. Isherwood 
 
 uses a curved line for the generatrix, instead 
 
 of a straight line, as usually used; and the 
 
 object .of using the curved generatrix is (appa- 
 
 12
 
 134: TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 rently) to prevent the alleged loss of effect, 
 caused by the centrifugal force imparted by 
 the rotary motion of the helicoidal surface to 
 the particles of water' with which it is in con- 
 tact. Before proceeding to cure an alleged 
 evil, it may be advisable to ascertain if it exist, 
 and to what extent. 
 
 If the helicoid had no slip, and moved 
 through water a distance equal to its pitch per 
 revolution, there evidently could be no cen- 
 trifugal force communicated to the water in 
 contact with it, for as the helicoid continuously 
 advanced, it would no sooner press any mole- 
 cule of water than the pressure on that mole- 
 cule would be removed by the advance of the 
 helicoid. The helicoid in this case would be 
 in contact with the molecule but an infinitely 
 short time, and of course could endow it with 
 no centrifugal motion. But if the helicoid 
 have slip, the effect of that slip is to keep the 
 molecule of water in contact with the helicoid 
 for a time proportionate to the slip, and conse- 
 quently to endow it with a proportional cen- 
 trifugal force. If the slip be considerable, the 
 throwing off of the water at the periphery of 
 the helicoid may become sensible, in conse- 
 quence of that force and the property of water 
 to escape by the easiest road. This effect
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 135 
 
 was observed in the experiments of Taurines, 
 which were performed on fixed screws, not ad- 
 vancing rectiliueally, but having only a rotary 
 motion on the axis; by which arrangement 
 the slip amounted to unity. The amount of 
 centrifugal force imparted to the particles of 
 water by the rotating helicoidal surface in con- 
 tact with them was, however, very trifling, even 
 under the most favorable condition of maximum 
 slip ; for the very effect of that slip was to dis- 
 charge the water from the helicoid, the vacuity 
 being filled by fresh water flowing in. Having 
 thus determined the existence of a small amount 
 of this centrifugal force, and the condition of 
 slip modifying it; let us inquire whether, even 
 in the event of the amount of this force becom- 
 ing considerable, there would result any loss 
 of effect. 
 
 And, first, what would be the nature of that 
 loss of effect, if any exists? It would be shown 
 in the increased slip of the screw, for the follow- 
 ing reason. The water being thrown off radi- 
 ally in all directions from the axis by the 
 centrifugal force communicated to it by the re- 
 volving screw, there would be a vacuum about 
 the axis, provided the centrifugal force forming 
 the vacuum exceeded the force with which the 
 surrounding water would flow in to fill it, and
 
 136 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the resistance to the screw would be decreased 
 in proportion to the extent of their vacuum ; 
 that is, the slip of the screw would be increased. 
 The loss of effect, therefore, due to this centrifugal 
 force would be measured by the increased slip of 
 the screw. But if the water flowed into the 
 vacuum as fast as it was formed, the resistance 
 to the screw would evidently remain the same 
 as though there were no centrifugal force in 
 action; and this is what actually occurs in 
 practice. 
 
 Let it then be considered the depth to which 
 the axis of a thirteen feet diameter screw 
 (mean size) is immersed, and the consequent 
 pressure of water about it, and then the slip 
 found in practice ranging from fifteen to thirty 
 per cent, for maximum, and it will be seen how 
 enormously the effect of any centrifugal force 
 must be exaggerated to make it productive of 
 a vacuum at the axis of the screw. 
 
 Supposing now a centrifugal force to be given 
 to the molecules of water in contact with the 
 helicoidal rotating surface of any amount less 
 than requisite to produce a vacuum at the axis; 
 would it be attended with loss of effect by the 
 screw? Evidently not, for the following rea- 
 son : 
 
 With a straight generatrix touching the axis,
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. % 137 
 
 the lateral component of the oblique surface of 
 the screw if tangential to a cylinder, by which 
 the screw may be supposed to be enveloped ; 
 or is at right angles to the radii of that cylinder. 
 With a straight generatrix touching an inner 
 cylinder, having a common axis with the screw, 
 the lateral composition is no longer at right 
 angles to the radii of the enveloping cylinder, 
 but either converges to, or diverges from, the 
 axis, as either the acute or obtuse angle is 
 used for propulsion. In both cases the com- 
 ponent in the direction of the axis continues 
 the same ; that is, parallel to the axis. Now it 
 is the component in the direction of the axis 
 that alone propels; hence the slip of screws of 
 the same diameter, pitch, and length, but the 
 one having a straight generatrix touching the 
 axis, and the other a straight generatrix touch- 
 ing tangentially a cylinder having the same 
 axis as the screw, should be the same. The 
 only effect, then, of converging the lateral com- 
 ponent to, or diverging it from the axis, is to 
 cause a flowing of water to or from the axis, 
 proportioned to the obliquity of the lateral 
 component to the axis, and as this component 
 does not affect the propulsion, it is obviously of 
 no importance what may be its direction. There 
 can be no loss of labor attending it, for all 
 12*
 
 133 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 
 
 angles are in function of form equally efficient 
 for propulsion, consequently their components 
 are equally so. 
 
 The same slip, or, in other words, the same 
 resistance, as obtained from the water, with 
 screws of equal diameter,* pitch, and length, 
 whether they have straight, inclined, or curved 
 generatrices ; for the curved generatrix is ob- 
 viously but a modification of the inclined gen- 
 eratrix ; that is, it is an inclined generatrix, 
 whose inclination momentarily changes. It is 
 therefore governed by the same principles. 
 
 There is, however, a practical disadvantage 
 and loss of labor attending ihe use of a curved 
 generatrix, though non-theoretically ; that is, 
 in function of form; for the friction of the he- 
 licoidal surface on the water, which, in differ- 
 ently proportioned screws, varies from 10 to 
 20 per cent, of the power applied ; being as the 
 surfaces with equal speeds, and the surface of a 
 screw of a given diameter, pitch, and length, 
 or fraction of one convolution. of the thread, is 
 greater with the curved than with the straight 
 generatrix, because the arc of a circle is greater 
 than its chord ; it follows then, that in other- 
 wise similar screws, the greater the curvature 
 of the generatrix, the greater the loss by fric- 
 tion. The Only real loss of power attending
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 139 
 
 the imparting of a centrifugal force to the 
 molecules of water is that due to their mo- 
 mentum, that is, will be expressed .by multi- 
 plying the weight of water, to which centrifu- 
 gal force is imparted by the square of the 
 speed, with which if flies off radially from the 
 centre. In the most favorable case of maxi- 
 mum slip, that is, a slip of unity, this product 
 would be an .almost insensible proportion of 
 the total power applied. 
 
 From the foregoing, then, it will be perceived 
 that a curved generatrix, so far from being 
 advantageous, is positively a disadvantage ; nor 
 is it necessary to depend entirely on induction 
 for this opinion ; for it has been fully confirmed 
 by experiments. 
 
 About the year 1847 (I give the date from 
 memory) a series of most complete experiments 
 were made by Bourgois, by order of the French 
 government, on a vast number of screws of 
 different proportions and shape, among them 
 the form of screw (i. e., with a curved genera- 
 trix) afterwards introduced into the U.S. Navy 
 by Isherwood. These experiments were made 
 with great sagacity of method, and determined 
 most satisfactorily the total uselessness of a 
 curved generatrix. I give the condensed -re-
 
 140 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 suits of the experiments, which will be the first 
 time they have appeared in an English work. 
 
 It was perfectly comprehended by Bourgois, 
 that in order to make the influence of a curved 
 generatrix sensible, it would be necessary that 
 the screw have a very considerable slip; its 
 surface, during the experiments, was therefore 
 sufficiently reduced to satisfy this condition. 
 
 To fully test this influence, the screw was 
 first tried propelling with the convex face, then 
 tried propelling with the concave face, and 
 lastly tried after the flexure had been taken 
 out of the generatrix ; that is, after the genera- 
 trix had been made straight. 
 
 The results are as follows :
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 
 
 141 
 
 Time. 
 
 Conditions. 
 
 Slip of Screw. 
 
 f Strong breeze, river rough, 
 
 March 4 J P r P e ] lin S ^ the con - 
 vex face of the screw. 
 
 |_ Mean of six experiments, 
 a d f P r P e Ui n g with the concave 
 .. , \ face of the screw. Mean 
 Same time | of six experiments. 
 
 per cent. 
 50.2 
 49.3 
 
 With curved generatrix. 
 
 {Calm. Propelling with the 
 convex face of the screw. 
 Mean of six experiments. 
 . ("Propelling with concave 
 
 a \ face of the screw. Mean 
 feame time | Qf g - x eiperimentg . 
 
 44.4 
 
 47.6 
 
 f Calm. Propelling with con- 
 
 M T, >A vex ^ ace f tne -screw. 
 Mean of four experi- 
 [ ments. 
 
 Samp dav f Pr P ellin g with the concave 
 3 ?. ay 1 face of the screw. Mean 
 Same time | O f four experiments. 
 
 45.4 
 
 48.8 / 
 
 Same day 
 Same time { 
 
 The same screw having the 
 generatrix made straight. 
 Mean of eight experi- 
 ments, four being made 
 on each face. 
 
 51.2 
 
 2 * 
 
 Allowing for unfavorable errors of observa- 
 tion, dimensions, &c., in experiments of this 
 nature, it will be observed that sensibly the 
 same result was obtained, propelling with either 
 face of the curved generatrix, and the straight 
 generatrix, showing that the employment of a 
 curved generatrix was at least useless, even
 
 142 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 with the exaggerated slip of 50 per cent. ; 30 
 per cent, being the maximum in practice. 
 
 After reviewing some experiments carefully 
 made on other screws, for the purpose of deter- 
 mining the effect of a curved generatrix, 
 Bourgois remarks, which I translate, as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 In the second place, if we observe helicoid 
 at surfaces with curved generatrices, or what 
 amounts to the same thing, generated by a 
 straight line inclined on the axis, we perceive 
 the liquid thread does not rest on the same heli- 
 coidal thread.* As the periphery of the screw 
 is approached, the helicoidal thread inclines 
 itself slightly to the centre ; there, on the con- 
 trary, and for the same reason, the liquid threads 
 tend to remove themselves from the axis, but 
 being endowed with less momentum than the 
 first, there results a flowing of water towards 
 the centre of the screw, with so much the more 
 abundance as the curvature of the generatrix 
 is greater. This is the only notable effect 
 resulting from the employment of a curved 
 generatrix ; and there is nothing to prove that 
 effect favorable. 
 
 * The curvature of the generatrix was not proportioned 
 to the centrifugal force or to the slip. N.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 143 
 
 In the experiments made on screws, B 7 and 
 B 8* show, on the contrary, an increase of 
 slip of 04.7, proving that the employment of 
 curved generatrices directs the water towards 
 the axis in consequence of their obliquity. 
 
 The experiments on screws (j> 3 and <t> 4 under 
 similar conditions, gave sensibly the same 
 result, either the water was pushed towards the 
 axis or it was deflected out towards the peri- 
 phery.f 
 
 Finally, in passing from screw & to Q u the 
 slip increased 07.5 per cent4 
 
 The experiments of Sabloukoff on a screw 
 turned in air, and having the phenomena made 
 
 * Which were precisely alike, and formed with the 
 generatrix tangent to an inner cylinder, which is virtually 
 a curved generatrix. B 7 propelled with the obtuse 
 or convex face, and gave a slip of 26.1 per cent. * B 8 
 propelled with an acute or concave face, and gave a slip 
 of 30.8 per cent., or 4.7 per cent. more. B. F. I. 
 
 f Screws <f> 3 and <f> 4 were precisely alike, and formed 
 with the generatrix tangent to an inner cylinder. Screw 
 <f> 3 propelled with the obtuse or convex face, and gave a 
 slip of 32.8 per cent. Screw <f> 4 propelled with the acute 
 or concave face, and gave a slip of 33 per cent. B. F. I. 
 
 J Both screws being precisely alike, except that screw 
 n had a straight generatrix, and gave a slip of 34.5 per 
 cent., while screw &, had a curved generatrix, and gave 
 a slip of 42 per cent. B. F. I.
 
 144 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION" 
 
 .visible by smoke, also corroborates the above. 
 It was found that after a high rotary speed had 
 been given to the screw, the smoke being then 
 let on at its anterior extremity at any point 
 near its periphery, was drawn towards the screw, 
 and carried towards the other- extremity. 
 When let on at its anterior extremity near the 
 axis, the smoke coursed along parallel to the 
 axis, without any appearance of having any 
 circular movement, and which was the same in 
 the first case; spreading out from the axis, 
 which should have been the case had the rota- 
 tion of the screw been able to give a sensible 
 centrifugal force to the smoke. 
 
 But even supposing (which we have seen is 
 far from being the case), that the centrifugal 
 force communicated to the particles of water in 
 contact with the propelling surface by its rotary 
 movement, were great enough to produce so 
 sensible a result as a vacuum at the axis of the 
 screw equal to a diameter one-fourth the dia- 
 meter of the screw, and supposing the use of a 
 curved generatrix to wholly obviate this, or 
 restore solid water in the place of the vacuum; 
 even then the employment of a curved genera- 
 trix would be useless as far as its reduction of 
 the slip of the screw is concerned, and this fact 
 also depends on the carefully conducted ex-
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 145 
 
 periments of Bourgois. In those experiments 
 there were tried two screws, exactly alike, ex- 
 cepting that the one had a projected area at 
 right angle to the axis of 187.86, while the 
 other had a similar area of 182.59, the reduction 
 being made by cutting out the surface imme- 
 diately around the axis. The diameter of the 
 screw was 15.752, and the diameter of the cut 
 out part of the last screw was 3.938. The slip 
 of the first was 35.2 per cent., of the last 32.6 
 per cent. 
 
 Similar experiments on two other screwsj 
 differing from the above in pitch only, gave with 
 the full screw a slip of 26.9 per cent., with the 
 cut out screw 24.4 per cent. On these experi- 
 ments Bourgois remarks, which I translate as 
 follows : 
 
 "The difference (between the slip) being 
 little enough to be attributed to irregularities 
 of construction or slight errors in the observa- 
 tions, nothing could be concluded from it, ex- 
 cept that a hollowing out, of which the diameter 
 is equal to the fourth part of the exterior dia- 
 meter of the screw, has no influence on the 
 slip. 
 
 "Believing that sufficient has been written to 
 put this subject in a true light, there only remains 
 to notice that, when the date of Bourgois' ex- 
 13
 
 146 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 periments are considered so far antecedent to 
 Isherwood's screw, it is really amazing that our 
 Navy Department should have adopted a pro- 
 peller without novelty ; but as I apprehend no 
 one will ever use it outside of the navy, the 
 mischief will do no further harm. 
 
 In order to prove beyond a shadow of doubt 
 that the substance of the above argument is 
 based upon a solid foundation, I beg to refer to 
 the highest authority of the land ; namely, Mr. 
 Isherwood's Contribution to Journal of the 
 Franklin Institute for July, 1851, page 42, &c. 
 
 A PROPELLER AS CONSTRUCTED FROM MR. ISHER- 
 WOOD'S DRAWINGS. (PLATE V.) 
 
 . 
 Having commented upon the propeller, as 
 
 constructed in the Bureau of Steam-Engineer- 
 ing, and represented by Plate IV., it is now 
 proposed to describe how propellers have been 
 constructed for the navy by contractors in pri- 
 vate establishments. 
 
 The specifications of the construction of pro- 
 pellers made in the Bureau of Steam-Engineer- 
 ing, although perfectly correct, were not suffi- 
 ciently clear to enable the contractors to follow 
 the drawings; for which reason, a great many
 
 Screw Propeller ff. S. Wavr Pl.V 
 
 * 
 
 ^- 
 
 T> 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 sy 
 
 ""-, 
 
 
 
 -J 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 rX 
 
 
 _.-^ ^^-"
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 147 
 
 propellers have been constructed as represented 
 by Plate V., which appear to have a curved 
 generatrix in both figs. 1 and 2, but in reality 
 the generatrix is a straight line at right angles 
 with the axis, as represented by the dotted 
 lines.* Take off the part a be, and put it on at 
 d e /, without changing the direction of the 
 helicoidal surface, the propeller will be the 
 same as represented by Plate II., or a common 
 propeller with straight generatrix. The pro- 
 pelling efficiency of both the propellers on 
 Plates II. and V. will be alike. Yiewing the 
 propeller at fig. 2, Plate V., it appears as if the 
 blades would assist the centrifugal force in 
 throwing the water out, which is not the case. 
 
 The only advantage of this propeller is, that 
 it will not shake the vessel so much as those 
 represented in Plates II., III., and IY., but its 
 propelling efficiency is some ten per cent, less 
 thanthat of Plate IY. 
 
 A great many propellers of Plate Y. were 
 made for naval vessels, and on one occasion the 
 writer remarked in a private establishment that 
 the propeller then moulding was not rightly 
 constructed, or was not according to the draw- 
 ing furnished by the Navy Department, when 
 
 * A large brass propeller of this construction is now 
 lying in tlie Washington Navy Yard, probably condemned. 
 March 1, 1866.
 
 148 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 a discussion arose, which resulted in stopping 
 the moulding of the propeller, and the making 
 of a new pattern according to the drawing. 
 
 Perhaps some of these errors, the extent and 
 character of which can only be detected and 
 calculated by the application of scientific prin- 
 ciples, may serve to explain why it is that the 
 speed of vessels in the navy is so unsatisfac- 
 tory. 
 
 TO CONSTRUCT A CENTRIPETAL PROPELLER OF A 
 UNIFORM PITCH. (PLATE VI.) 
 
 Let us now forget all that has been said about 
 the propellers of curved generatrix, and start 
 on an entirely new basis. 
 
 The water acted upon by a straight-bladed 
 propeller, is thrown out radially towards the 
 periphery by the action of the centrifugal force; 
 in which case dynamic effect is evidently ex- 
 pended in giving this motion to the water, and 
 as the direction of the motion is at right angles 
 with that of the Vessel, the effect expended 
 upon it is thrown away. It is, therefore, now 
 proposed to construct the helicoidal surface of 
 the propeller blades, so as to utilize this lost 
 effect and prevent the water from being thrown 
 out by the centrifugal force.
 
 Cmlripital Propeller Pl.YT
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 149 
 
 Let TF, fig. 2, Plate VI., represent a drop of 
 water acted upon by a force whose magnitude 
 and direction are represented by the arrow J5, 
 at right angles with the radius r. If acted upon 
 by no other force, the drop W would move in 
 the direction of B towards s, but as it is desired 
 to move the water in the direction of the circle 
 nm, or more correctly, in the direction of the 
 helix of the screw, it will be necessary to apply 
 a centripetal force, whose magnitude and direc- 
 tion may be represented by the arrow C, in the 
 direction of the radius r. If the centripetal force 
 C be equal to the centrifugal force of the water, 
 then the combined action of the two forces B 
 and Oj would move the drop W in the direc- 
 tion of the circle n m. The resultant of B and 
 C may be represented by the magnitude and 
 direction of the arrow F, which is the diagonal 
 of the rectangle of B and C. If the direction 
 of the generatrix of the propeller blade was at 
 right angles with F, it would drive the drop W 
 in the direction of the circle n m, as desired. 
 
 The Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces 
 can be represented by the formula 
 
 C=^. 4 
 
 gr 
 
 13*
 
 150 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 in which letters denote 
 
 W weight of the drop of water, fig. 2. 
 
 v = velocity in feet per second of W. 
 
 r = radii in feet of the circle n m. 
 
 g = 32.166, the acceleratrix of gravity. 
 
 = centripetal force, expressed in the same 
 units of weight as W. 
 
 n number of revolutions per minute of the 
 propeller. 
 
 60 
 Insert formula 5 for v in formula 4, we have 
 
 C= 
 
 Let the propelling force B represent the 
 magnitude and direction of the water W. Then 
 W : 0=1: tang. x. 
 
 or 
 
 0= Wtang. x. ... 7 
 but 
 
 
 This formula 8 gives the angle of the gene- 
 ratrix to the radii r. 
 
 of which 
 
 4 ft 2 rn 2
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 151 
 
 Let X be the angle of the generatrix at the 
 extremity of the blades, we have 
 
 -P- 2 ft D ri 2 D n n 
 
 tanq.X = = . . .9 
 
 60 2 # 5870 
 
 The centripetal generatrix will be an arith- 
 metic spiral of the angle X at the periphery. 
 
 r\ 
 
 tang. X- 
 
 180 
 
 when w is the angles in degrees, in which the 
 spiral is constructed, as shown in fig. 2. 
 
 ~"" D n 2 
 
 tc o_180Dn_ Dn* 
 
 5870 102.4 ' 
 
 This formula 10, will give the proper angle 
 w if the slip of the propeller is unity, but 
 the number of revolutions n must be multi- 
 plied by the slip S expressed in a fraction of 
 unity, or 
 
 m^* 
 
 102.4 ' 
 
 From this formula 11, calculate the centripetal 
 angle w fig. 2, Plate VI. Divide the arc and 
 the radius into any number of (say eight) equal 
 parts and construct the arithmetic spiral as 
 shown by the fig. 2. This spiral will then be
 
 152 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 centripetal under the condition of formula 11, 
 that is to say, the water will not be thrown 
 out by the centrifugal force. 
 
 A curved generatrix at right angles with the 
 axis will form the same helicoidal surface as a 
 straight generatrix inclined to the axis, as 
 before stated. 
 
 From the point c?, where the dotted line i d 
 intersects the generatrix a d c, draw the line 
 d d r parallel to the axis of the propeller fig. 1; 
 join i' d', continued to p, then i' p is the inclined 
 generatrix which will generate the same heli- 
 coidal surface as the curved one a d c. 
 
 The inclination of the generatrix will be 
 
 tana, y = -. . . 12 
 
 180 D 
 
 But w *= -I 1 , and tang. y= 
 
 102.4 102.4 x 180 D 
 
 13 
 
 18482 ' 
 in which P must be expressed in feet. 
 
 Draw u b and tf parallel with i' p, project a 
 and e, as shown in the figures. Draw from the 
 corners of the blades, fig. 2, the dotted lines to 
 the centre; the dotted lines will represent a 
 propeller with apparently straight blades in 
 fig. 2, and with an inclined generatrix in fig. 1.
 
 Centrip Prop.ExpdJidmg Pitch /'/ I7/
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 153 
 
 Both these propellers will produce the same pro- 
 pulsive effect, but that with curved blades indi- 
 cated by the dark lines in the drawing will not 
 shake the vessel so much as the other shown 
 by the dotted lines. 
 
 Captain John Ericsson makes his propellers 
 as shown by the dotted lines, which in reality 
 is a centripetal propeller with a curved genera- 
 trix at right angles to the axis. 
 
 TO CONSTRUCT A CENTRIPETAL PROPELLER WITH 
 A COMPOUND EXPANDING PITCH. (PLATE VII.) 
 
 Having given the diameter Z>, pitch P, 
 and length L, of the propeller, calculate the 
 angles W, w 1 and w z by formula 2. Construct 
 the outer edge of the blade as described for 
 the propeller on Plate III. Calculate the cen- 
 tripetal angle w from formula 11, for the mean 
 pitch of the propeller. The projecting angle 
 of the blades will be - 
 
 360 
 v =-p , ... 14 
 
 Make the centripetal angle of the leading 
 generatrix m' m" C, 
 
 o v S 
 
 w = w .
 
 154 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Make the centripetal angle of the delivery 
 generatrix n' n" G, 
 
 Construct the two generatrices forming the 
 sides of the blades, which will then constitute 
 a centripetal propeller with a compound ex- 
 panding pitch. 
 
 In making the pattern, or in the moulding 
 of this propeller, it is best to construct several 
 (say five) generatrices, as shown in one blade, 
 which is accomplished by dividing the dotted 
 arcs u u and z z, each into four equal parts, 
 which form the required generatrices.' 
 
 This is the propeller which the writer would 
 recommend as the best. 
 
 Let the helicoidal surface of the propeller 
 be projected backwards at the hub, as shown 
 by the dotted lines, fig. 1, so that the part ef 
 g h be removed to a b c d i, then the propeller 
 blades would appear straight in fig. 2, though 
 the helicoidal surface and propelling efficiency 
 would be the same in tooth cases. 
 
 The propeller represented by the dotted 
 lines is nearly the same as that on Plate IV., as 
 constructed by Mr. Isherwood. The propeller 
 on Plate VII. is constructed on true scientific 
 principles, which is not the case with the one 
 on Plate IV.
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 155 
 
 It may be well to explain to the readers 
 who are not familiar with the subject, that the 
 remarks on Mr. Isherwood's curve-bladed pro- 
 peller (Plate IY.) commencing at page 133, are 
 his own, as applied to the author's propeller 
 (Plate VII.), and a transposition of names is 
 therefore necessary to make the sense intelli- 
 gible. See Journal of the Franklin Institute, 
 July, 1851. 
 
 It indicates what pains the chief took in 
 condemning the curve-bladed propeller, "be- 
 lieving," as he said, "that sufficient has been 
 written to put this subject in a true light." I 
 was very much obliged to the chief for the 
 clearness of his true light, and sincerely hoped 
 its brilliancy would not serve merely to make 
 darkness visible, but the hope has not been 
 realized. 
 
 Soon after, Mr. Isherwood constructed the 
 San Jacinto propeller, which turned out a fail- 
 ure, and disgrace to the nation, at her arrival 
 in Constantinople, as the indignant correspond- 
 ence of Americans from that place abundantly 
 testified. 
 
 On the return of this frigate, Mr. Isherwood's 
 propeller was condemned, and a better one 
 from a private establishment was substituted. 
 
 When Mr. Isherwood became more enlight- 
 ened on the subject, he found that the curve-
 
 156 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 bladed propeller was all right, and quietly 
 adopted it in the navy. 
 
 His empiricism thus triumphed not only over 
 me, but over the navy and the nation, and the 
 country has been most severely injured by it 
 too. True scientific principles applied by a 
 civilian, have been attacked and vanquished 
 by quackery from the navy. 
 
 Neglecting all science and theory, experience 
 alone has led to the adoption of curve-bladed 
 propellers. I have made experiments with a 
 great many different kinds of screws, in which 
 the powers expended and delivered were cor- 
 rectly measured by a delicate dynamometer, 
 and which indicated a decided advantage on 
 the side of the curve-blades. In 1846 I 
 proposed a curve-bladed propeller to Captain 
 Carlsund, at Motala, Sweden, who rejected it 
 for the reason that it would not back so well 
 as the straight-bladed one. Captain Carlsund, 
 however, has since adopted the curve-screw 
 exclusively. 
 
 The French experiments quoted by Mr. Tsh- 
 erwood, I am inclined to believe, are not reli- 
 able, inasmuch as they are at variance with 
 subsequent experience, and declare a preference 
 for convex over concave surfaces in propelling. 
 
 There is a propeller introduced in this
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 157 
 
 country, called the " buffalo wheel," in which 
 the curve is turned the wrong way, or in other 
 words, propels with a convex surface. I have 
 been on board of several steamers with this 
 screw, and the engineers have invariably told 
 me that it works better in backing than ahead, 
 which confirms the principles herein given, 
 and conflicts with the results of the French 
 experiments. 
 
 Some years ago there was a steamer built in 
 Chicago, 111., with two propellers. It was de- 
 cided to put a common straight-bladed propel- 
 ler on one side, and a curve-bladed on the 
 other. After she had been running for some 
 time, I received an order for another curve- 
 bladed propeller to take the place of the 
 straight-bladed one, in consequence of the su- 
 periority of the former. 
 
 In a great many steamers in the navy there 
 is not room enough between the stern and 
 rudder posts to admit the drawn propeller 
 represented on Plate IV., but there is room for 
 the "dotted one, which is equally efficient in 
 propelling, and, still better, the drawn pro- 
 peller represented on Plate VII. But in so 
 doing, Mr. Isherwood's empiricism might be 
 exposed in regard to curve bladed propellers, 
 although it would not be necessary to infringe 
 14
 
 158 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 upon the centripetal propeller and make the 
 generatrix a true arithmetic spiral which it 
 ought to be; and in order to avoid the risk of 
 science he can easily make a quack spiral, 
 which would still make a good propeller. 
 
 Mr. Isherwood hastily and erroneously com- 
 mitted himself in the propeller question, pre- 
 cisely as in the anti-expansion question, so 
 that now he cannot act "according to his own 
 convictions, but constrains the navy to suffer 
 the consequences. 
 
 In all this, Mr. Isherwood is not so much to be 
 blamed as the custom by which the profession 
 has so long been guided, and from which it 
 has suffered such serious evils. It is lamenta- 
 ble for the country to ruin such extraordinary 
 talent as that with which Mr. Isherwood is 
 naturally gifted. 
 
 Under the present organization, experience 
 has demonstrated that it matters little who is 
 the engineer-in-chief, for he is so overruled by 
 politics that he cannot, even with all his good- 
 will, act altogether advantageously for his 
 office. 
 
 The Bureau of Steam-Engineering has been 
 required by Congress to adopt machinery so 
 perfectly absurd, that not a shadow of success 
 for it could have been anticipated. After im-
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING, 159 
 
 mense sums of money have been expended, 
 and the failure proclaimed, then the engineer- 
 in-chief, as well as the navy department, have 
 been attacked and shamefully abused for what 
 they have not been at fault ; as has also been 
 the case in the notorious trials of the steamers 
 Algonquin and Winooski. 
 
 The people know only what has been pub- 
 lished in the newspapers, where it is impossible 
 to separate the chaff from the grain, and the 
 true state of the case has not yet been revealed. 
 In the course of this protracted controversy, 
 however, our engineering standing has been 
 impaired, and great loss of money has ensued ; 
 not from any want of talent in the Bureau of 
 Steam-Engineering, but simply because it does 
 not control the confidence, and command the 
 respect and- dignity due to its important office. 
 
 Take the office of the Coast Survey as an ex- 
 ample. The chief there not only understands 
 his business, but he is master of his situation. 
 Congress will not impose upon him the adop- 
 tion of some gimcrack instrument in his sur- 
 veying. "We never hear complaints of the 
 maps and reports of that department, which 
 command respect throughout the world, and 
 are second to none of their kind. On the one
 
 160 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 side there is dignity and learning, and on the 
 other, pedantry and dogmatism. 
 
 The engineer-in-chief of the U. S. navy 
 ought to be endowed with the highest rank of 
 that department. He ought to be brought up 
 from some properly established technological 
 academy, through all the different branches of 
 naval engineering, including experience in the 
 workshops and yards, and even in the coast- 
 survey, lighthouse board and observatory de- 
 partments, all of which are proper appurtenants 
 of the navy. 
 
 When an engineer has thus reached the im- 
 portant and responsible station of engineer-in- 
 chief, he would be able to command all the 
 respect and confidence due to so distinguished 
 an office, and in intellectual rank would be 
 equivalent to a Grand Admiral. He should be 
 the engineer-in-chief not only for "engine 
 cfriving," l?ut for the yards and docks, con- 
 structions and works of every kind. He would 
 himself be far above the drudgery and detail of 
 mere construction, but would intrust that to 
 the commodore-engineer in each yard where 
 the work is to be executed, thus giving a chance 
 of development and display to whatever talent 
 the corps of engineers might possess, and create
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 161 
 
 an emulation which would elevate the navy to 
 a condition of the highest perfection. 
 
 The Grand Admiral Engineer would know 
 how to select and surround himself with the 
 highest ability, and how to detail appropriate 
 persons to their respective stations. He would 
 certainly build no light draft monitors which 
 would not float. He would make no anti- 
 expansion experiments and researches in steam- 
 engineering without consulting the physical 
 laws involved in the operation. He would not 
 build any gimcrack-hair-cut-off-antifriction-double- 
 double-crank-macliinery. There would be no 
 pamphlets or newspapers abusing the engineer- 
 in-chief and the navy department in general. 
 The seed of technological education would be 
 realized in a valuable harvest, and give no 
 occasion for attacks upon high officials " who 
 have not the savoirfaire to chop up an opponent 
 without hurting his feelings." 
 
 As it now stands, the chief takes upon him- 
 self to restrict all construction to his individual 
 notions (except so far as he is himself controlled 
 by the politicians), and from a censurable ambi- 
 tion, is afraid to endow with discretion any of 
 his subordinates whom he suspects of talent 
 which may surpass his own. 
 
 Constructions ought never to be made in the
 
 162 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 navy department, for engineers, not being im- 
 mediately connected with the workshops, can- 
 not keep pace with the practical progress which 
 is going on there. 
 
 When Mr. Isherwood entered the U. S. navy, 
 his natural talent for engineering made him at 
 once his own master. There was none above 
 him whose distinction he feared, none having 
 sufficient technological education to control or 
 analyze his reasonings, and restrain the amaz- 
 ing impetuosity which characterized all his 
 movements. 
 
 Now, in a properly educated and well organ- 
 ized corps of engineers, Mr. Isherwood would 
 have been subjected to such a wholesome super- 
 vision that his great talent would have been 
 usefully developed and utilized, and most of 
 his well-meant errors would not have occurred 
 to the detriment of his own rising reputation, 
 and to the damage of that esprit de corps which 
 we all are so desirous to encourage. 
 
 The technological academy, as above hinted, 
 should also embrace ordnance, coast survey, 
 and lighthouse engineering, all of which natu- 
 rally belong to the navy, and ought to be 
 superintended by naval engineers. Lighthouse 
 engineering presents a wide field, but is yet 
 very little studied. The construction of light-
 
 AND SHIPBUILDING. 163 
 
 houses and lightships with their appurtenances, 
 as lamps, lenses, reflectors, electric lights, and 
 the different kinds of machinery connected 
 therewith, requires great mechanical skill, and 
 ought to be the work of naval engineers. 
 
 The navy yards, which are now under the 
 charge of line-officers, ought to be intrusted to 
 engineers of the same rank. In private life, we 
 never find a shipyard or machine shop in charge 
 of a sea-captain. A carpenter cannot super- 
 intend the work of a blacksmith. 
 
 The magnificent combination of a properly 
 organized corps of naval engineers would at 
 once elevate the country as well as economize 
 its means, and utilize its resources. 
 
 The money lost or squandered during the 
 rebellion for want of such a corps may be esti- 
 mated at a hundred million a/dollars, the interest 
 of which, through all future time, would be 
 more than sufficient to build and support a 
 technological academy of the highest order, and 
 pay the salary of the whole corps of engineers. 
 
 Who can predict the coming destiny of the 
 country ? Who can tell how soon we may have 
 another protracted war ? Are we prepared to 
 meet it without extravagant sacrifices? 
 
 There is no doubt of our capability to defeat 
 any enemy that would dare to meet us, but the
 
 164 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION, ETC. 
 
 question is, not to waste. our means and ammu- 
 nition at random, or to give him the satisfaction 
 of knowing that we have overstrained ourselves 
 in the conflict, but to convince him on the con- 
 trary that our power is a manifestation of skill, 
 and is not measured by numbers of guns and 
 dollars. 
 
 Great discoveries are frequently made of the 
 highest national importance, and we are unable 
 to grasp hold of them for want of a competent 
 bureau of technical knowledge. 
 
 Take, for example, the Bessemer process of 
 refining iron, which, although announced in 
 England some ten years ago, aDd although 
 every nation in Europe took hold of it at once, 
 there is yet but one establishment of the kind, 
 and that only recently erected, in the United 
 States. Had we been less dilatory, and secured 
 the immense resources its introduction would 
 have given us, it would have saved us many 
 thousands of lives, and many millions of dollars, 
 during our late naval and military operations.
 
 CATALOGUE 
 
 OP 
 
 PRACTICAL AND 
 
 PUBLISHED 
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 
 
 Industrial Jjublisfttr, 
 
 NO. 4O6 WALNUT STRKET, 
 
 *S- Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail, free of 
 postage, at the publication price 
 
 *3~ A Descriptive Catalogue, 96 pages, 8vo., will be sent, free of postage, to any 
 one who will furnish the publisher with his address. 
 
 ARLOT. A Complete Guide for Coach Painters. 
 
 Translated from the French of M. ARLOT, Coach Painter ; for eleven 
 years Foreman of Painting to M. Eherler, Coach Maker, Paris. By 
 A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. To which is added an Ap- 
 pendix, containing Information respecting the Materials and the 
 Practice of Coach and Car Painting and Varnishing in the United 
 States and Great Britain. 12mo $1.25 
 
 ARMENGATJD, AMOROTJX, and JOHNSON. The 
 Practical Draughtsman's Book of Industrial De- 
 sign, and Machinist's and Engineer's Drawing 
 Companion : 
 
 Forming a Complete Course of Mechanical Engineering and Archi- 
 tectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud the elder, Prof, 
 of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and M M. 
 Armengaud the younger, and Amoroux, Civil Engineers. Rewritten 
 and arranged with additional matter and plates, selections from and 
 examples of the most useful and generally employed mechanism of 
 the day. By WILLIAM JOHNSON, Assoc. f nst. C. E., Editor of " The 
 Practical Mechanic's Journal." Illustrated by 50 folio steel plates, 
 and 50 wood-cuts. A new edition, 4to. .... $10.00
 
 2 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 ARRO WSMITH. Paper-Hanger's Companion : 
 
 A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are Sys- 
 tematically laid down : with Copious Directions Preparatory to Paper- 
 ing ; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on W alls ; the Various 
 Cements and Pastes Adapted to the Several Purposes of the Trade ; 
 Observations and Directions for the Panelling and Ornamenting of 
 Rooms, etc. By JAMES ARROWSMITH, Author of "Analysis of Dra- 
 pery," etc. 12mo., cloth ^!..~> 
 
 ASHTON. The Theory and Practice of the Art of De- 
 signing Fancy Cotton and Woollen Cloths from 
 Sample : 
 
 Giving full Instructions for Reducing Drafts, as well as the Methods 
 of Spooling and Making out Harness for Cross Drafts, and Finding 
 any Required Reed, with Calculations and Tables of Yarn. By 
 FREDERICK T. ASHTON, Designer, West Pittsfield, Mass. With 52 
 Illustrations. One volume, 4to $10.00 
 
 BAIRD. Letters on the Crisis, the Currency and the 
 
 Credit System. 
 By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. Pamphlet 05 
 
 BATED. Protection of Home Labor and Home Pro- 
 ductions necessary to the Prosperity of the Ameri- 
 can Farmer. 
 By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 8vo., paper 10 
 
 BAIRD. Some of the Fallacies of British Free- Trade 
 Revenue Reform. 
 
 Two Letters to Arthur Latham Perry, Professor of History and Politi- 
 cal Economy in Williams College. By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 
 Pamphlet 05 
 
 BAIRD. The Rights of American Producers, and the 
 
 Wrongs of British Free-Trade Revenue Reform. 
 By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. Pamphlet 05 
 
 BAIRD. Standard Wages Computing Tables : 
 
 An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so arranged 
 that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a specified rad |..-i 
 day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By T. SPANGl.ERB.\n:i>. 
 Oblong folio $5.00 
 
 BAIRD. The American Cotton Spinner, and Mana- 
 ger's and Carder's Guide : 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinnini,'; .giving the Dimensions and 
 Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calculations, etc. ; with 
 notices of recent Improvements : toyetlier with liulcs and Examples 
 for making changes in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn. 
 Compiled from the papers of the late ROBERT H. BAIRD. 12mo. $1.50
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 3 
 
 BAKER. Long-Span Railway Bridges : 
 
 Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and Prac- 
 tical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type Systems 
 of Construction ; with numerous Formulae and Tames. By B. BAKER. 
 12rno $2.00 
 
 BAUERMAN. A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron : 
 
 Containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of 
 Assay, and Analysis of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron 
 and Steel, etc., etc. By H. BAUERMAN, F. G. S., Associate of the 
 Royal School of Mines. First American Edition, Revised and En- 
 larged. With an Appendix on the Martin Process for Making Steel, 
 from the Report of ABRAM S. HEWITT, U. S. Commissioner to the 
 Universal Exposition at Paris, 1867. Illustrated. 12mo. . $2.00 
 
 BEANS. A Treatise on Railway Curves and the Loca- 
 tion of Railways. 
 By E. W. BEANS, C. E. Illustrated. 12mo. Tucks. . . $1.50 
 
 BELL. Carpentry Made Easy : 
 
 Or, The Science and Art of Framing on a New and Improved System. 
 With Specific Instructions for Building Balloon Frames, Barn Frames, 
 Mill Frames, Warehouses, Church Spires, etc. Comprising also a 
 System of Bridge Building, with Bills, Estimates of Cost, and valuable 
 Tables. Illustrated by 38 plates, comprising nearly 200 figures. By 
 WILLIAM E. BELL, Architect and Practical Builder. 8vo. . $5.00 
 
 BELL. Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelting : 
 An Experimental and Practical Examination of the Circumstances 
 which determine the Capacity of the Blast Furnace, the Temperature 
 of the Air, and the proper Condition of the Materials to be operated 
 upon. By I. LOWTHIAN BELL. Illustrated. 8vo. . . $6.00 
 
 BEMROSE. Manual of Wood Carving : 
 
 With Practical Illustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and 
 Selected Designs. By WILLIAM BEMROSE, Jr. With an Introduction 
 by LLEWELLYN JEWITT, F. S. A., etc. With 128 Illustrations. 4to., 
 cloth ( $3.00 
 
 BICKNELL. Village Builder, and Supplement : 
 
 Elevations and Plans for Cottages, Villas, Suburban Residences, 
 Farm Houses, Stables and Carriage Houses. Store Fronts, School 
 Houses, Churches, Court Houses, and a model Jail ; also, Exterior and 
 Interior details for Public and Private Buildings, with approved 
 Forms of Contracts and Specifications, including Prices of Building 
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 7"i plates drawn to scale; showing the style and cost of building in 
 different sections of the country, l>cm<_c an original work comprising 
 the designs of twenty leading architects, representing the New Eng- 
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 4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 BLENKARN. Practical Specifications of Works exe- 
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 To which are added a series of practically useful Agreements and Re- 
 ports. By JOHN BLENKARN. Illustrated by 15 large folding plates. 
 8vo. $9.00 
 
 BLINN. A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, 
 
 Sheet-Iron, and Copperplate Workers : 
 Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns used by 
 Tin, Sheet-Iron, and Copper-plate Workers ; Practical Geometry ; 
 Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the Weights of Metals, 
 Lead Pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Circumferences of Circles ; 
 Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc., etc. By 
 LEROY J. BI.INN, Master Mechanic. With over 100 Illustrations. 
 12mo $2.50 
 
 BOOTH. Marble Worker's Manual: 
 Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, their 
 Cutting, Working, and Polishing; Veneering of Marble; Mosaics; 
 Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, 
 Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from the French by M. L. BOOTH. 
 With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. 12mo. > cloth. $1.50 
 
 BOOTH AND MORFIT. The Encyclopedia of Che- 
 mistry, Practical and Theoretical : 
 
 Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Ge- 
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 Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chemistry in 
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 of " Chemical Manipulations," etc. Seventh edition. Royal 8vo., 
 978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. . $5.00 
 
 BOX. A Practical Treatise on Heat : 
 
 As applied to the Useful Arts ; for the Use of Engineers, Architects, 
 etc. By THOMAS Box, author of " Practical Hydraulics." Illustrated 
 by 14 plates containing 114 figures.. 12mo $4.25 
 
 BOX. Practical Hydraulics : 
 
 A Series, of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc. By 
 THOMAS Box. 12mo $2.50 
 
 BROWN. Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical 
 
 Movements : 
 
 Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics. Hydrau- 
 lics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam Engines, Mill and otner Gear- 
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 many movements never before published, and several of which have 
 only recently come into use. Bv HKXKY T. BROWN, Editor of the 
 " American Artisan." In one volume,. 12mou .. . . $1.00
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 5 
 
 BUCKMASTER. The Elements of Mechanical Phy- 
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 By J. C. BUCKMASTER, late Student in the Government School of 
 Mines ; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of Science 
 and Art ; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the Royal College 
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 Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated with numerous engravings. 
 In one volume, 12mo . . $1.50 
 
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 for Homes for the People; together with Warming, Ventilation, 
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 For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, Engi- 
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 American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 250 engravings. In one 
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 By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. 12mo $1.50 
 
 BURGH. The Slide-Valve Practically Considered. 
 
 By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. Completely illustrated. 12mo. $2.00 
 
 BYLES. Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Politi- 
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 By a BARRISTER (Sir JOHN BARNARD BYLES, Judge of Common 
 Pleas). First American from the Ninth English Edition, as published 
 by the Manchester Reciprocity Association. In one volume, 12mo. 
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 Or Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of Brewing 
 Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making Bavarian Beer, 
 all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Ginger-pop, Sarsaparilla- 
 beer, Mead, Spruce Beer, etc., etc. Adapted to the use of Public 
 Brewers and Private Families. By M. LA FAYETTK BYRN, M. D. 
 With illustrations. 12mo $1.25
 
 6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 BYRN. The Complete Practical Distiller : 
 
 Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Practical De- 
 scription of the Art ot Distillation and Rectification ; including all of 
 the most recent improvements in distilling apparatus; instructions 
 for preparing spirits from the numerous vegetables, fruits, etc. ; direc- 
 tions for the distillation and preparation ot all kinds of brandies ami 
 other spirits, spirituous and other compounds, etc., etc. By M. I. A 
 FAYETTE BYRN, M. D. Eighth Edition. To which are added Prac- 
 tical Directions for Distilling, from the French of Th. Fling, Brewer 
 and Distiller. 12mo $1.50 
 
 BYRNE. Handbook for the Artisan, Mechanic, and 
 
 Engineer : 
 
 Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive 
 Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Yariii-liin<,' 
 and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding ami 
 Polishing, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by 185 wood en- 
 gravings. In one volume, 8vo $5.00 
 
 BYRNE. Pocket Book for Railroad and Civil Engi- 
 neers : 
 
 Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out Rail- 
 road Curves, Switches, Frog Angles, and Crossings; the Staking 
 out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; 
 Earth-work, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE. 18mo., full bound, pocket- 
 book form >l.7.~> 
 
 BYRNE. The Practical Model Calculator : 
 For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval 
 Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By OLIVER BYRNE. 1 volume, 
 8vo., nearly 600 pages $4.50 
 
 BYRNE. The Practical Metal- Worker's Assistant: 
 Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry ; the Arts of Working all Metals 
 and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering; 
 Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding; Works in Sheet Metal ; 
 The Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Suldcrinv ; 
 and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed 1>\ Metal- 
 workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metulluii:} to 
 Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from 
 the Works of Holtzapflfel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, 
 Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn, and others. By OLIVER Bvr.Ni.. A new, 
 revised, ami improved edition, to which is added An Appendix, con- 
 taining THE MANUFACTURE OF RUSSIAN SHEET-IRON. By JOHN 
 PERCY, M. D., F.R.S. THE MANUFACTURE OF MALLEABLE Ii:ox 
 CASTINGS, and IMPROVEMENTS IN BESSEMEK STI:I:I.. i:\ A. A. 
 FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. With over (i(K) Engravings, illus- 
 trating every Branch of the Subject. 8vo $7.00 
 
 Cabinet Maker's Album of Furniture : 
 
 Comprising a Collection of Designs for Furniture. Illustrated by 48 
 Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one vol., oblong $5.00
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 7 
 
 CALLINGHAM. Sign Writing and Glass Emboss- 
 ing: 
 
 A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By JAMES 
 CALLINGHAM. In one volume, 12mo $1.50 
 
 CAMPIN. A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engi- 
 neering : 
 
 Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding^ Casting, Forging, Tools, Work- 
 shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation. Manufacture of Steam- 
 engines, etc., etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and 
 Iron Ores. By FRANCIS C AMPIN, C. E. To which are added, Obser- 
 vations on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon 
 Furnaces used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. 
 By R. Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating 
 the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel- 
 cutting Machine. By J. LA NiCCA. Management of Steel, Includ- 
 ing Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and Ex- 
 pansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. EDE. 8vo. Illus- 
 trated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings . . . $6.00 
 
 CAMPIN. The Practice of Hand-Turning in Wood, 
 
 Ivory, Shell, etc. : 
 
 With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be re- 
 quired in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also, au Appen- 
 dix on Ornamental Turning. By FRANCIS CAMPIN; with Numerous 
 Illustrations. 12mo., cloth $3.00 
 
 CAREY. The Works of Henry C. Carey : 
 FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper . 25 
 HARMONY OF INTERESTS: Agricultural, Manufacturing, and 
 
 Commercial. 8vo., cloth $1.50 
 
 MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's " Prin- 
 ciples of Social Science." By KATE McKEAN. 1 vol. 12mo. $2.25 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORKS : comprising " Harmony of Interests," 
 " Money," " Letters to the President," Financial Crises," " The 
 Way to Outdo England Without Fighting Her," " Resources of 
 the Union," "The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion?" 
 " Review of the Decade 1857-'67," " Reconstruction," etc.. etc. 
 
 Two vols., 8vo., cloth $10.00 
 
 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo $2.50 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 vols., 8vo., cloth $10.00 
 
 THE SLAVE-TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN ; Why it Ex- 
 
 ists, and How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo., cloth . $2.00 
 
 LETTERS ON INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT (1867) . 50 
 
 THE UNITY OF LAW : As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, 
 
 Social, Mental, and Moral Science (1872). In one volume, 8vo., 
 
 pp. xxiii., 433. Cloth $3.50 
 
 CHAPMAN. A Treatise on Ropemaking : 
 
 As Practised in private and public Rope yards, with a Description 
 of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the 
 Trades, .Shipping, Mining, Railways, Builders, etc. By ROBERT 
 CHAPMAN, 24mo $1.50
 
 8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 COLBURN. The Locomotive Engine : 
 Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its Capa- 
 bilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Manage- 
 ment. By ZERAH COLBUKN. Illustrated. A new edition. 12mo. $1.25 
 
 CBAIK. The Practical American Millwright and 
 
 Miller. 
 
 By DAVID CRAIK. Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en- 
 gravings, and two folding plates. 8vo $5.00 
 
 DE GRAFF. The Geometrical Stair Builders' Guide : 
 Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its 
 necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel Engrav- 
 ings ; together with the use of the most approved principles of Prac- 
 tical Geometry. By SIMON DE GRAFF, Architect. 4to. . $5.00 
 
 DE KONINCK. DIETZ. A Practical Manual of Che- 
 mical Analysis and Assaying : 
 
 As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron, 
 Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. DE KON- 
 INCK, Dr. Sc., and E. DIETZ, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by ROBERT 
 MALLET, F.R.S., F.S.G., M.I.C.E., etc. American Edition, Edited 
 with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A. FESQCET, Chemist 
 and Engineer. One volume, 12mo. $2.50 
 
 DUNCAN. Practical Surveyor's Guide: 
 Containing the necessary information to make any person, of common 
 capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aii of a teacher. By 
 ANDREW DUNCAN. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth. . . . $1.25 
 
 DTJPLAIS. A Treatise on the Manufacture and Dis- 
 tillation of Alcoholic Liquors : 
 
 Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol from 
 Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Asphodel, 
 Fruits, etc. ; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy, Whis- 
 key, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aromatic Wa- 
 ters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromptic Tinctures, 
 Liqueurs, Cordial Wines. Effervescing Wines, etc., the Aging of Brandy 
 ana the Improvement of Spirits, with Copious Directio> s and Tables 
 for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors, etc., etc. Translated 
 and Edited from the French of MM. DUPLAIS, Ain6 et Jeune. By 
 M. McKENNIE, M.D. To which are added the United States Internal 
 Revenue Regulations for the Assessment and Collection of Taxes on 
 Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen folding plates and several 
 wood engravings. 743 pp., 8vo $10.00 
 
 DUSSATTCE. A General Treatise on the Manufacture 
 
 of Every Description of Soap : 
 
 Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, with Remarks on Alkalies, Sa- 
 poninable Fatty Bodies, the apparatus necessary in a Soap Factory, 
 Practical Instructions in the manufacture of the various kinds of Snap, 
 the assay of Soaps, etc., etc. Edited from Notes of Larmo, Fontent-llc, 
 Malapayre, Dufonr, and others, with large and important additions by 
 Prof. H. DUSSAUCE, Chemist. Illustrated. In one vol., 8vo. . $10.00
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 9 
 
 DUSSAUCE. A General Treatise on the Manufacture 
 
 of Vinegar : 
 
 Theoretical and Practical. Comprising the various Methods, by the 
 Slow and the Quick Processes, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain. Malt Cider 
 Molasses, and Beets ; as well as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar etc.' 
 etc. By Prof. H. DUSSAUCE. In one volume, 8vo. . . $5.00 
 
 DUSSATJCE. A New and Complete Treatise on the 
 Arts of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing : 
 
 Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in France 
 Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from Notes and Docu- 
 ments of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval, Dessables, Labarraque 
 Payen, Rene, De Fontenelle, Malapeyre, etc., etc. By Prof. H. Dus- 
 SAUCE, Chemist. Illustrated by 212 wood engravings. 8vo. $25.00 
 
 DUSSATJCE. A Practical Guide for the Perfumer : 
 
 Being a New Treatise on Perfumery, the most favorable to the Beauty 
 without being injurious to the Health, comprising a Description of the 
 substances used in Perfumery, the Formulae of more than 1000 Prepa- 
 rations, such as Cosmetics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, 
 Extracts, Tinctures, Infusions, Spirits, Vinaigres, Essential Oils, Pas- 
 tels, Creams, Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto 
 described. Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, LB- 
 nel, etc. With additions by Prof. H. DUSSAUCE, Chemist. 12mo. $3.00 
 
 DUSSAUCE. Practical Treatise on the Fabrication 
 
 of Matches, Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powders. 
 
 By Prof. H. DUSSAUCE. 12mo $3.00 
 
 Dyer and Color-maker's Companion: 
 
 Containing upwards of 200 Receipts for making Colors, on the most 
 approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now in exist- 
 ence ; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for Preparing, 
 Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. In one vol., 12mo. . $1.25 
 
 EASTOW. A Practical Treatise on Street or Horse- 
 power Railways. 
 
 By ALEXANDER EASTON, C. E. Illustrated by 23 plates. 8vo., 
 cloth $2.00 
 
 ELDER. Questions of the Day: 
 
 Economic and Social. By Dr. WILLIAM ELDER. 8vo. . $3.00 
 
 FAIRBAIRN. The Principles of Mechanism and Ma- 
 chinery of Transmission : 
 
 Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, 
 Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engaging 
 and Disengaging Gear. By Sir WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, C.E., LL.D., 
 F.R.S., F.G.S. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In 
 one volume, 12mo $2.50 
 
 FORSYTH. Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, 
 
 and other Monuments : 
 
 Containing 78 Designs. By JAMES FORSYTH. With an Introduction 
 by CHARLES BOUTELL, M. A. 4to., cloth $5.00
 
 10 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 GIBSON. The American Dyer: 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Coloring of Wool, Cotton, Yarn and 
 Cloth, in three parts. Part First gives a descriptive account of th" 
 Dye Stuffs; if of vegetable .origin, where produced, how cultivated, 
 ami how prepared for use; if chemical, their composition, specific 
 gravities, and general adaptability, how adulterated, and how to de- 
 tect the adulterations, etc. Part Second is devoted to the Coloring of 
 Wool, giving recipes for one hundred and twenty-nine different colors 
 or shades, and is supplied with sixty colored samples of Wool. l':;rt 
 Third is devoted to the Coloring of Raw Cotton or Cotton Wn<te. tin- 
 mixing with Wool Colors in the Manufacture of all kinds of Fabrics, 
 gives recipes for thirty-eight different colors or shades, and is supplied 
 with twenty-four colored samples of Cotton Waste. Also, recipes tin- 
 Coloring Beavers, Doeskins, and Flannels, with remarks upon Ani- 
 lines, giving recipes for fifteen different colors or shades, and nine 
 samples of Aniline Colors that will stand both the Fulling and Scour- 
 ing process. Also, recipes for Aniline Colors on Cotton Thread, and 
 recipes for Common Colors on Cotton Yarns. Embracing in all over 
 two hundred recipes for Colors and Shades, and ninety-four samples 
 of Colored Wool and Cotton Waste, etc. By RICHARD H. GIIISON, 
 Practical Dyer and Chemist. In one volume, 8vo. . . $12.50 
 
 GILBART. History and Principles of Banking : 
 A Practical Treatise. By JAMES W. GILBART, late Manager of the 
 London and Westminster Bank. With additions. In one volume, 
 8vo., 600 pages, sheep $5.00 
 
 Gothic Album for Cabinet Makers : 
 
 Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Illustrated 
 by 23 large and beautifully engraved plates. Oblong . . is'i.uii 
 
 GRANT. Beet-root Sugar and Cultivation of the 
 
 Beet. 
 By E. B. GRANT. 12mo $1.25 
 
 GREGORY. Mathematics for Practical Men : 
 Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and 
 Civil Engineers. By OLINTHUS GREGORY. 8vo., plates, doth $3.00 
 
 GRISWOLD. Railroad Engineer's Pocket Compan- 
 ion for the Field : 
 
 Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Andes, 
 Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for Engi- 
 neers ; also the art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the < '011- 
 struction of Railroads, intended Kxpressly for the Yonnu' Knirinecr, 
 together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By \\~. 
 GRISWOLD. 12mo., tucks $1.75 
 
 GRUNER. Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena. 
 By M. L. GRUNER, President of the General Council of >iines of 
 France, and latelv Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines. 
 Translated, with the Author's sanction, with an Appendix, byL. D. B. 
 Gordon, F, R, S, E.. F. G. 8. Illustrated. 8vo. . . . $2.50
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 11 
 
 GUETTIER. Metallic Alloys: 
 
 Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Properties, 
 their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated from the 
 French of A. GUETTIER, Engineer and Director of Foundries, author 
 of" La Fouderie en France," etc., ete. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist 
 and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo $3.00 
 
 HARRIS. Gas Superintendent's Pocket Companion. 
 
 By HAREIS & BROTHER, Gas Meter Manufacturers, 1115 and 1117 
 Cnerry Street, Philadelphia. Full bound in pocket-book form $2.00 
 
 Hats and Felting: 
 
 A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter. 
 Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . . $1.25 
 
 HOFMANN. A Practical Treatise on the Manufac- 
 ture of Paper in all its Branches. 
 
 By CARL HOFMANN. Late Superintendent of paper mills in Ger- 
 many and the United States ; recently manager of the Public Ledger 
 Paper Mills, near Elkton, Md. Illustrated by 110 wood engravings, 
 and five large folding plates. In one volume, 4to., cloth; 398 
 pages $15.00 
 
 HUGHES. American Miller and Millwright's Assist- 
 ant. 
 By WM. CARTER HUGHES. A new edition. In one vol., 12mo. $1.50 
 
 HURST. A Hand-Book for Architectural Surveyors 
 and others engaged in Building: 
 
 Containing Formulae useful in Designing Builder's work, Table of 
 Wrights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda connected 
 with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of Builders' Measure- 
 ment, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Property, Summary of the 
 Practice in Dilapidation, etc., etc. By J. F. HURST, C. E. Second 
 edition, pocket-book form, full bound $2.50 
 
 JERVIS. Railway Property : 
 
 A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways ; de- 
 signed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the holders 
 of this class of property; as well as Railway Managers, Officers, and 
 Agents. By JOHN B. JERVIS, late Chief Engineer of the Hudson 
 River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. In one vol., 12mo., cloth $2.00 
 
 JOHNSTON. Instructions for the Analysis of Soils, 
 
 Limestones, and Manures. 
 By J. F. W. JOHNSTON. 12mo 38
 
 12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 KEENE. A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging : 
 For the Use of Beginners, to which is added, A Chapter on Distilla- 
 tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom House for 
 ascertaining the strength of wines. By JAMES B. KEENE, of H. M. 
 Customs. 8vo. $1.25 
 
 KELLEY. Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on In- 
 dustrial and Financial Questions. 
 
 By Hon. WILLIAM D. KELLEY, M. C. In one volume, 544 pages, 
 8vo $3.00 
 
 KENTISH. A Treatise on a Box of Instruments, 
 And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Loga- 
 rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim- 
 ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By THOMAS 
 KENTISH. In one volume. 12mo $1.25 
 
 KOBELL.ERNI. Mineralogy Simplified : 
 A short Method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by means 
 of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way. Translated from 
 the last German Edition of F. VON KOBELL, with an Introduction to 
 Blow-pipe Analysis and other additions. By HENRI ERNI, M. D., 
 late Chief Chemist, Department of Agriculture, author of " Coal Oil 
 and Petroleum." In one volume, 12mo. .... $2.50 
 
 LANDRIN. A Treatise on Steel: 
 
 Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, 
 and Use. By M. H. C. LANDRIN, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated 
 from the French, with Notes, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engi- 
 neer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Processes 
 for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt, United 
 States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. In one 
 volume, 12mo. $3.00 
 
 LARKIN. The Practical Brass and Iron Pounder's 
 
 Guide : 
 
 A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and their 
 Alloys, etc. : to which are added Recent Improvements in the Manu- 
 facture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By J A. Mies 
 LARKIN, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in Ri-any, 
 Neafie & Co's. Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, 
 with Extensive additions. In one volume, 12mo. . . $2.25 
 
 LEA VITT. Pacts about Peat as an Article of Fuel : 
 With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities in 
 which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manufacture, and 
 the various Uses to which it is applicable ; together with many other 
 matters of Practical and Scientific Interest. To which is added a chap- 
 ter on the Utilization of Coal Dust with Peat for the Production of an 
 Excellent Fuel at Moderate Cost, specially adapted for Steam Service. 
 By T. H. LEA VITT. Third edition. 12mo. . . . $1.75
 
 HENRY CAEEY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 13 
 
 LEROUX, C. A Practical Treatise on the Manufac- 
 ture of Worsteds and Carded Yarns : 
 
 Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied 
 to Spinning ; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools ; the English 
 and French methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds 
 and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of 
 CHARLES LEROUX, Mechanical Engineer, and Superintendent of a 
 Spinning Mill, by HORATIO PAINE, M. D., and A. A. FESQUET, 
 Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by 12 large Plates. To which is 
 added an Appendix, containing extracts from the Reports of the Inter- 
 national Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee appointed 
 by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woollen and Worsted 
 Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Universal Exposi- 
 tion, 1867. 8vo., cloth $5.00 
 
 LESLIE (Miss). Complete Cookery: 
 
 Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss LESLIE. 
 60th thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New Re- 
 ceipts. In one volume, 12mo., cloth. . . . . $1.50 
 
 LESLIE (Miss). Ladies' House Book : 
 A Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo., cloth. 
 
 LESLIE (Miss). Two Hundred Receipts in Trench 
 Cookery. 
 
 Cloth, 12mo. 
 
 LIEBER. Assayer's Guide : 
 
 Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the 
 Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all 
 the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of 
 Coal, etc. By OSCAR M. LIEBER. 12mo., cloth. . . $1.25 
 
 LOTH. The Practical Stair Builder: 
 
 A Complete Treatise on the Art of Building Stairs and Hand-Rails. 
 Designed for Carpenters, Builders, and Stair-Builders. Illustrated 
 with Thirty Original Plates. By C. EDWARD LOTH, Professional 
 Stair-Builder. One large 4to. volume. .... $10.00 
 
 LOVE. The Art of Dyeing, Cleaning, Scouring, and 
 Finishing, on the Most Approved English and 
 French Methods: 
 
 Being Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons, 
 Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc. Scouring and Cleaning Bed and Window 
 Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc. French and English Cleaning, any 
 Color or Fabric of Silk, Satin, or Damask. By THOMAS LOVE, a 
 Working Dyer and Scourer. Second American Edition, to which are 
 added General Instructions for the Use of Aniline Colors. In one 
 volume, 8vo., 343 pages. $5.00
 
 14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 MAIN and BROWN. Questions on Subjects Con- 
 nected with the Marine Steam-Engine : 
 And Examination Papers : with Hints for their Solution. By THOMAS 
 J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, and THOMAS 
 BROWN, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12mo", cloth. . . . $1.50 
 
 MAIN and BROWN. The Indicator and Dynamo- 
 meter : 
 
 With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS 
 J. MAIN, M. A.F. R., Assistant Professor Royal Naval College, Ports- 
 mouth, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer, R. 
 N., attached to the Royal Naval College. Illustrated. From the 
 Fourth London Edition. 8vo. $1.50 
 
 MAIN and BROWN. The Marine Steam-Engine. 
 By THOMAS J. MAIN, F. R. ; Assistant S. Mathematical Professor at 
 the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. 
 Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval Col- 
 lege. Authors of " Questions connected with the Marine Steam-En- 
 gine," and the " Indicator and Dynamometer." With numerous Illus- 
 trations. In one volume, 8vo. $5.00 
 
 MARTIN. Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Me- 
 chanical Engineers : 
 
 Showfng the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads 
 of Screws of any required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Uni- 
 versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. MARTIN, Engineer. 
 8vo 50 
 
 Mechanics' (Amateur) Workshop: 
 
 A treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipula- 
 tion of Wood and Metals, including Casting, Forging, Braxinir, Sol- 
 dering, and Carpentry. By the author of the " Lathe and its I 
 Third edition. Illustrated. 8vo ."..00 
 
 MOLESWORTH. Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae 
 and Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engi- 
 neers. 
 
 By GIJILFORD L. MOLESWORTH, Member of the Institution of Civil 
 Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Second 
 American, from the Tenth London Edition. In one volume, full 
 bound in pocket-book form Si'.no 
 
 NAPIER. A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing. 
 By JAMES NAPIER, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised K<li- 
 tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, inclu- 
 ding the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Fi-xjri.r, < hem 1st 
 and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and ( 'alico 1'rintinir, as 
 shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illustrated. In one 
 Volume, 8vo., 41'2 pages $5.00
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 15 
 
 NAPIER. Manual of Electro-Metallurgy : 
 
 Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. By 
 JAMES NAPIER. Fourth American, from the Fourth London edition, 
 revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In one vol., 8vo. $2.00 
 
 NASON. Table of Reactions for Qualitative Chemical 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 By HENRY B. NASON, Professor of Chemistry in the Rensselaer Poly- 
 technic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated by Colors. . 63 
 
 NEWBERY. Gleanings from Ornamental Art of 
 
 every style : 
 
 Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
 Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862, 
 and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of one hundred 
 exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. By 
 ROBERT NEWBERY. 4to $15.00 
 
 NICHOLSON. A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding : 
 
 Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, 
 Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and 
 Paper. By JAMES B. NICHOLSON. Illustrated, l.'mo., cloth. $2.25 
 
 NICHOLSON. The Carpenter's New Guide: 
 
 A Complete Book of Lines for Carpenters and Joiners. By PETER 
 NICHOLSON. The whole carefully and thoroughly revised by H. K. 
 DAVIS, and containing numerous new and improved and original De- 
 signs for Roofs, Domes, etc. By SAMUEL SLOAN, Architect. Illus- 
 trated by 80 plates. 4to. $4.50 
 
 NORRIS. A Hand-book for Locomotive Engineers 
 
 and Machinists: 
 
 Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco- 
 motives ; Manner of Setting Valves ; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas, 
 etc., etc. By SEPTIMUS NORRIS, Civil and Mechanical Engineer. 
 New edition. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth $2.00 
 
 NYSTROM. On Technological Education, and the 
 
 Construction of Ships and Screw Propellers : 
 For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W. NYSTROM, late Act- 
 ing Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second'edition, revised with additional 
 matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo. . . $1.50 
 
 O'NEILL. A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Print- 
 ing: 
 
 Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in use 
 in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical 
 Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES O'NEILL, Ana- 
 
 Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their application to Dyeing and Calico 
 Printing. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. With an Ap- 
 pendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Universal 
 Exposition, Paris, 1867. In one volume, 8vo., 491 pages. . $6.00
 
 16 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 ORTON. Underground Treasures : 
 How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination 
 of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By JAMES 
 ORTON, A. M. Illustrated, 12mo. $1.50 
 
 OSBORN. American Mines and Mining: 
 Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Prof. H. S. OSBOKN. 
 Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo. (In preparation.) 
 
 OSBORN. The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel : 
 
 Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches ; with special reference 
 to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. OSBORN, LL. D., 
 Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton, 
 Pennsylvania, Illustrated by numerous large folding plates ana 
 wood-engravings. 8vo. $15.00 
 
 OVERMAN. The Manufacture of Steel : 
 Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. 
 A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon 
 Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- 
 ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By FRED- 
 ERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manufacture of 
 Iron," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By A. A. FESQUET, 
 Chemist and Engineer $1.50 
 
 OVERMAN. The Moulder and Founder's Pocket 
 
 Guide : 
 
 A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam, 
 and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow- 
 ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues ; Description of Moulds 
 for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals ; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, 
 Wax, and other articles commonly used in Casting ; the Construction 
 of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and Founding of Metals ; the Com- 
 position of Alloys and their Nature. With an Appendix containing 
 Receipts for Alloys, Bronze, Varnishes and Colors for Castings ; also, 
 Tables on the Strength and other qualities of Cast Metals. By FRED- 
 ERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer, Author of "The Manufacture 
 of Iron." With 42 Illustrations. 12mo $1.50 
 
 Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher's Companion : 
 
 Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the Arts 
 of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Grainini:, Marbling, 
 Sign- Writing, Gilding on Glass, and Coach Painting and Varnishing; 
 Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in Oils, Colors, etc. ; and a 
 Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, with 
 the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition, fit-vised, with 
 an Appendix. Containing Colors and Coloring Theoretical and 
 Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional 
 Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, and 
 Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with Chevreul's 
 Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. 12mo., cloth. $1.50
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 17 
 
 PALLETT. The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's 
 
 Guide. 
 By HENRY PALLETT. Illustrated. In one volume, 12mo. $3.00 
 
 PERCY. The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. 
 By JOHN PERCY, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Royal 
 School of Mines, and to The Advanced Class of Artillery Officers at 
 the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich ; Author of " Metallurgy." 
 With Illustrations. 8vo., paper 50 cts. 
 
 PERKINS. Gas and Ventilation. 
 
 Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation to 
 Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific 
 Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams. 
 By E. E. PERKINS. 12mo., cloth $1.25 
 
 PERKINS and STOWE. A New Guide to the Sheet- 
 iron and Boiler Plate Roller : 
 
 Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles 
 to produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of 
 Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness of the Bar Gauge in 
 decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or Wire 
 Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch ; the Weight per sheet, and 
 the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various dimensions 
 to weigh 112 Ibs. per bundle; and the conversion of Short Weight 
 into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. Estimated and col- 
 lected by G. H. PERKINS and J. G. STOWE $2.50 
 
 PHILLIPS and DARLINGTON. Records of Mining 
 
 and Metallurgy ; 
 
 Or Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and Smelter. 
 By J. ARTHUR PHILLIPS, Mining Engineer, Graduate of the Imperial 
 School of Mines, France, etc., and JOHN DARLINGTON. Illustrated 
 by numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo. . . $2.00 
 
 PRO TEATJX. Practical Guide for the Manufacture 
 of Paper and Boards. 
 
 By A. PROTEAUX, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School of Arts 
 and Manufactures, and Director of Thiers' Paper Mill, Puy-de-D6me. 
 With additions, by L. S. LE NORMAND. Translated from the French, 
 with Notes, by HORATIO PAINE, A. B., M. D. To which is added a 
 Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from Wood in the United 
 States, by HENRY T. BROWN, of the " American Artisan." Illus- 
 trated by six plates, containing Drawings of Raw Materials, Machi- 
 nery, Plans of Paper-Mills, etc., etc. 8vo $10.00 
 
 RE GNAULT. Elements of Chemistry. 
 By M. V. REGNAULT. Translated from the French by T. FORREST 
 BETTOX, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by JAMES C. BOOTH, Melter 
 and Refiner U. S. Mint, and WM. L. FABER, Metallurgist and Mining 
 Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. Comprising 
 nearly 1500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth. . . . $7.50
 
 18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 REID. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
 
 Portland Cement : 
 
 By HENRY REID, C. E. To which is added a Translation of M. A. 
 Lipowitz's Work, describing a New Method adopted in Germany lor 
 Manufacturing that Cement, by W. F. REID. Illustrated l>y plates 
 and wood engravings. 8vo $6.00 
 
 RIPPAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. A 
 Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Var- 
 nishes. 
 
 By M M. RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOIJSSAINT. Revised and 
 Edited by M. F. MALEPEYRE and Dr. EMIL WINCKLER. Illustrated. 
 In one volume, 8vo. (In preparation.) 
 
 RIPPAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. A 
 Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors 
 for Painting: 
 
 Containing the best Formulae and the Processes the Newest and in 
 most General Use. By M M. RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and Tut SSA INT. 
 Revised and Edited by M. F. MALEPEYRE and Dr. EMIL WINCKLKI:. 
 Translated from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Knd- 
 neer. Illustrated by Engravings. In one volume, 650 pages, 8vo. 
 
 $7.50 
 
 ROBINSON. Explosions of Steam Boilers: 
 How they are Caused, and how they may be Prevented. By J. R. 
 ROBINSON, Steam Engineer. 12mo $1.25 
 
 ROPER. A Catechism of High Pressure or Non- 
 Condensing Steam-Engines : 
 
 Including the Modelling, Constructing, Running, and Management 
 of Steam Engines and Steam Boilers. With Illustrations. By 
 STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Full bound tucks . . . $2.00 
 
 ROSELEUR. Galvanoplastic Manipulations : 
 
 A Practical Guide for the Gold and Silver Electro-plater and the 
 Galvanoplastic Operator. Translated from the French of Ai.i KKI> 
 ROSELEUR, Chemist, Professor of the Galvanoplastic Art, Manufactu- 
 rer of Chemicals, Gold and Silver Electro-plater. Hy A. A. l-'r.si.n IT, 
 Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by over 127 Engravings on wood. 
 
 8vo., 495 pages *'i.<>< 
 
 %^-This Treatise is the fullest and by far the best on this subject ever 
 
 published in the United States. 
 
 SCHINZ. Researches on the Action of the Blast 
 
 Furnace. 
 
 By CHARLES SCHINZ. Translated from the German with the special 
 permission of the Author by WILLIAM II. MAW ami MOIIIT/ M i i - 
 LER. With an Appendix written by the Author expressly fur this 
 edition. Illustrated by seven plates, containing 28 figures. In one 
 volume, 12mo. $4.25
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 19 
 
 SHAW. Civil Architecture : 
 
 By THOMAS W. SILLOWAY and GEORGE M. HARDING, Architects. 
 The whole illustrated by One Hundred and Two quarto plates finely 
 engraved on copper. Eleventh Edition. 4to., cloth. . $10.00 
 
 SHUNK. A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves 
 
 and Location, for Young Engineers. 
 By WILLIAM F. SHUNK, Civil Engineer. 12mo. . . $2.00 
 
 SLOAN. American Houses : 
 
 A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 26 
 colored Engravings, with Descriptive References. By SAMUEL SLOAN, 
 Architect, author of the " Model Architect," etc., etc. 8vo. $2.50 
 
 SMEATON. Builder's Pocket Companion: 
 
 Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture ; 
 with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. 
 By A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, etc. In one volume, 12mo. $1.50 
 
 SMITH. A Manual of Political Economy. 
 By E. PESHINE SMITH. A new Edition, to which is added a full 
 Index. 12mo., cloth $1.25 
 
 SMITH. Parks and Pleasure Grounds: 
 
 Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and 
 (lardens. By CHARLES H. J. SMITH, Landscape Gardener and 
 Garden Architect, etc., etc. 12mo. $2.25 
 
 SMITH. The Dyer's Instructor: 
 
 Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton, 
 Wool, and Worsted, and Woollen Goods: containing nearly 800 
 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and 
 the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the 
 various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. 
 My DAVID SMITH, Pattern Dyer. 12mo., cloth. . . . $3.00 
 
 SMITH. The Practical Dyer's Guide: 
 
 Comprising Practical Instructions in the Dyeing of Shot Cobourgs, 
 Silk Striped Orleans, Colored Orleans from Black Warps, Ditto from 
 White Warps, Colored Cobourgs from White Warps, Merinos, Yarns, 
 Woollen Cloths, etc. Containing nearly 300 Receipts, to most of which 
 a Dyed Pattern is annexed. Also, A Treatise on the Art of Padding. 
 By DAVID SMITH. In one volume, 8vo. Price. . . $25.00 
 
 STEWART. The American System. 
 
 Speeches on the Tariff Question, and on Internal Improvements, princi- 
 pally delivered in the House of Representatives of the I nitcd States. 
 By ANDREW STEWAKT, late M. C. from Pennsylvania. With a Portrait, 
 and a Biographical Sketch. In one volume, 8vo., 407 pages. $3.00
 
 20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 STOKES. Cabinet-maker's and Upholsterer's Com- 
 panion : 
 
 Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making and Up- 
 holstery, with Familiar Instructions, illustrated by Examples lor 
 attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabi- 
 net-work ; the Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-work ; the 
 Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, Bone, Tortoise Shell, etc. Direc- 
 tions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French 
 Polish ; to prepare the Best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a 
 number of Receipts particularly useful for workmen generally. By 
 J. STOKES. In one volume, 12mo. With Illustrations. . $1.25 
 
 Strength and other Properties of Metals: 
 
 Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of Metals 
 for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for testing Metals, 
 and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers of the Ord- 
 nance Department U. S. Army. By authority of the Secretary of War. 
 Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. In one volume, 4to. . $10.00 
 
 SULLIVAN. Protection to Native Industry. 
 By Sir EDWABD SULLIVAN, Baronet, author of " Ten Chapters on 
 Social Reforms." In one volume, 8vo $1.50 
 
 Tables Showing the Weight of Round, Square, and 
 
 Flat Bar Iron, Steel, etc., 
 By Measurement. Cloth 63 
 
 TAYLOR. Statistics of Coal : 
 
 Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and 
 Manufactures ; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial 
 Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the 
 American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu- 
 facture. By R. C. TAYLOR. Second edition, revised by S. S. II A L- 
 DEMAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo., 
 cloth $10.00 
 
 TEMPLETON. The Practical Examinator on Steam 
 
 and the Steam-Engine : 
 
 With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of 
 Engineers, Students, and others. By WM. TEMPLETON, Engineer. 
 12mo $1.25 
 
 THOMAS. The Modern Practice of Photography. 
 By R. W. THOMAS, F. C. S. 8vo., cloth 75 
 
 THOMSON. Freight Charges Calculator. 
 By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent. 24mo. . . . $1.25 
 
 TURNING: Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed 
 
 on the Hand or Foot Lathe: 
 
 With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting 
 Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs. 
 4to $3.00
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 21 
 
 Turner's (The) Companion: 
 
 Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn- 
 ing: also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments ; and Di- 
 rections for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and 
 Circular Rest ; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. A 
 new edition in one volume, 12mo. $1.50 
 
 URBIN. BRULL. A Practical Guide for Puddling 
 
 Iron and Steel. 
 
 By ED. URBIN, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Essay 
 read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of 
 Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1 865-6. To which is added 
 A COMPARISON OF THE RESISTING PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL. 
 By A. BRULL. Translated from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Che- 
 mist and Engineer. In one volume, 8vo $1.00 
 
 VAILE. Galvanized Iron Cornice- Worker's Manual: 
 
 Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and Ma- 
 king Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, Tables 
 of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other Mattel- 
 calculated to Benefit the Trade. By CHARLES A. VAILE, Superin- 
 tendent " Richmond Cornice Works," Richmond, Indiana. Illustra- 
 ted by 21 Plates. In one volume, 4to $5.00 
 
 VILLE. The School of Chemical Manures : 
 
 Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From the 
 French of M. GEORGE VlLLE, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engi- 
 neer. With Illustrations. In one volume, 12 mo. . . $1.25 
 
 VOGDES. The Architect's and Builder's Pocket Com- 
 panion and Price Book: 
 
 Consisting of a Short but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo- 
 decimals, Geometry and Mensuration ; with Tables of U. S. Measures, 
 Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone, and various 
 other Materials, Quantities of Materials in Given Sizes, and Dimen- 
 sions of Wood, Brick, and Stone; and a full and complete Bill of 
 Prices for Carpenter's Work ; also, Rules for Computing and Valuing 
 Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Painting, Plastering^ etc. By 
 FRANK W. VOGDES, Architect. Illustrated. Full bound in pocket- 
 book form $2.00 
 
 Bound in cloth. 1.50 
 
 WARN. The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: 
 
 For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain- 
 ing a selection of Geometrical Problems; also, Practical and Simple 
 Rules for describing the various Patterns required in the different 
 branches of the above Trades. By REUBEN H. WARN, Practical Tin- 
 plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing Instruc- 
 tions for Boiler Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, Rules for 
 Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and Steel, Tables 
 of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by 32 Plates and 37 
 Wood Engravings. 8vo. $3.00
 
 22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 WARNER. New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams 
 
 for the Computation of Earth- Work : 
 Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates, 
 of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-pnilt-,- 
 sional Computers. In Two Parts, with an Appendix. Part I. A 
 Practical Treatise ; Part II. A Theoretical Treatise; and the Appen- 
 dix. Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I. ; Expla- 
 nations 'of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a 
 Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level 1 1 eights. 
 The whole illustrated by numerous original Engravings, comprising 
 Explanatory Cuts for Definitions and Problems, Stereometric > 
 and Diagrams, and a Series of Lithographic Drawings from Models, 
 showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad 
 Excavations and Embankments. By JOHN WARNER, A. M., Mining 
 and Mechanical Engineer. 8vo $T>.OU 
 
 WATSON. A Manual of the Hand-Lathe: 
 
 Comprising Concise Directions for working Metals of all kinds, Ivory, 
 Bone and Precious Woods; Dyeing, Coloring, and French Polishing; 
 Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to prodtiee Klabo- 
 rate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By EGBERT P. 
 WATSON, late of "The Scientific American," Author of " The Modern 
 Practice of American Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 7S 
 Engravings 
 
 WATSON. The Modern Practice of American Ma- 
 chinists and Engineers: 
 
 Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe 
 
 Together 
 
 with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steum- 
 Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By EGBERT P. WATSON, 
 late of the " Scientific American." Illustrated by 86 Enirravings. In 
 one volume, 12mo 
 
 WATSON. The Theory and Practice of the Art of 
 Weaving by Hand and Power : 
 
 With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with the 
 Trade. By JOHN WATSOX, Manufacturer and Practical Machine 
 Maker. Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms. 
 8vo $10.00 
 
 WEATHERLY. Treatise on the Art of Boiling Su- 
 gar, Crystallizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum 
 Goods. 
 12mo $2.00 
 
 WEDDING. The Metallurgy of Iron ; 
 
 Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Dr. If KKM ANN Wi.n- 
 DING, Professor of the Metallurgy of Iron at the Roval Mining 
 Academy, Berlin. Translated by JULIUS Du MONT, Bethlehem, I'a. 
 Illustrated by 207 Engravings on Wood, and three Plates. In one 
 volume, 8vo. (In press.)
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 23 
 
 WILL. Tables for Qualitative Chemical Analysis. 
 By Professor HEINRICH WILL, of Giessen, Germany. Seventh edi- 
 tion. Translated by CHARLES F. HIMES, Ph. D., Professor of Natu- 
 ral Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. . . . $1.50 
 
 WILLIAMS. On Heat and Steam: 
 
 Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explosions. 
 By CHARLES WYE WILLIAMS, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $3.50 
 
 WOHLER. A Hand-Book of Mineral Analysis. 
 By F. WOHLER, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottin- 
 gen. Edited by HENRY B. NASON, Professor of Chemistry in the 
 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated. In 
 one volume, 12mo $3 00 
 
 WOBSSAM. On Mechanical Saws: 
 
 From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. W. 
 WORSSAM, Jr. Illustrated by 18 large plates. 8vo. . . $5.00
 
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