THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES GIFT OF John S.Prell I ON TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND THE CONSTRUCTION OP SHIPS AND SCREW PROPELLERS, FOE NAYAL AND MARINE ENGINEERS. BY JOHN W. NYSTROM, LATE ACTING CHIEF ENGINEER UNITED STATES NAVY. SECOND EDITION REVISED, WITH ADDITIONAL MATTER. PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD, INDUSTKIAL PUBLISHER, 406 Walnut Street. 1866. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by HENEY CAREY BAIRD, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. PHILADELPHIA : COLLINS, PBINTEB, 786 JAYNK STREET. 141 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION, A SECOND edition of this work has been called for, and as Congress has taken no action on the subject, the author avails himself of the opportunity to add further arguments in favor of technological education. The topic cannot be too much discussed, and certainly merits the serious consideration of every good citizen. There are many engineers in the Navy who would be equally disposed to agitate this sub- ject and assist in the reorganization and im- provement of the corps, but their position restrains them, and they cannot expose them- selves to the ungrateful task, which is unavoid- able in the elucidation of the existing system. The lot seems to have fallen on the author to take the bull by the horns, and he fearlessly courts an open contest, if such can only be had, with the organized prejudices which now em- barrass the subject. If in fault, he is open for correction. 1* 713786 vi PREFACE. It is to be regretted that this theme cannot be fairly treated without attacking, as it were, functionaries who only happen to be illustra- tions of a decrepit system; but it is to be hoped that those gentlemen who have been thus particularized will join in the proposition at issue. If the engineers themselves are not suffi- ciently alive to the importance of this subject from a deficiency of experience in applied science, of course it will not be expected that politicians, who have no light to guide them but a sense of duty, can possibly assume the initiation of any such reformations as these. What is true in reference to the interests of the Federal Government, applies with equal force to the civil interests of all 'the separate States, each of which ought to have its Techno- logical Institute, to give the entire profession of Civil and Mechanical Engineers that com- pleteness of qualification for their career, which by the existing system is so rarely and so im- perfectly attained. PHILADELPHIA, March 28, 18G6. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. MUCH consideration has been given to the propriety of publishing the accompany ing views on technological education, as they were ori- ginally not intended for that purpose ; but as some steps must be taken in that direction before long, in compliance with what many deem an imperious public necessity, the hesita- tion was at length relinquished. In order to render the necessity of technological education more conspicuous, occasional reference has been made to actual cases of engineering disappoint- ments and mismanagement, growing out of a want of applied science. Engineers are often intrusted with responsible stations, without being possessed of adequate knowledge of their profession, or without having gradually and fairly earned such appointment in the field of yiii PREFACE. experience. It is not yet time to attempt to classify the rank and position of engineers in the several departments, civil and military, on land and sea, as, for obvious reasons, it must be deferred. The relation between engineers and sailing officers on board of steamers has, in all coun- tries, been a troublesome question, ever since the introduction of steam. The engineer knows himself to be in a very responsible position, not always appreciated by his captain. He is often of very limited education, and when he finds himself imposed upon, perhaps inadver- tently uses stronger language than necessary in his defence, which has often been the cause of discord. Education is necessary to the engineer, not, however, principally for enabling him to please the captain, but for the proper performance of his professional duty generally, and he will, at the same time, accord and harmonize better with the sailing officers by whom he is sur- rounded. The Corps of Engineers in the United States PREFACE. ix Navy is on a better footing than that of any one in Europe, but, nevertheless, it does not enjoy the standing due to its important office, either in respect to its rank or its education. The United States Navy has now taken, the lead in the new tactics of naval warfare, and through a decisive experience has developed the necessity of making a corresponding change in its executive organization, as regards the rank and learning of its engineers. What is required here cannot be learned in foreign countries, for whilst our present expe- rience is far ahead of theirs, neither their prac- tical knowledge nor their accepted theories are sufficient or altogether applicable to our case. It is therefore necessary for the Corps of En- gineers, relying only upon their characteristic enterprise and independence of mind, to carry their achievements still further onwards, and by qualifying themselves to maintain with dig- nity their appropriate rank in the service, at the same time preserve their well-earned posi- tion as pioneers in their professional career. The writer has for many years felt the X PREFACE. greatest interest in the progress and standing of this Corps, and respectfully begs leave to submit herewith, for their consideration, some views On this subject, parts of which have al- ready been communicated to the Congressional Committees on Naval Affairs, as also a further communication to the Secretary of the Navy. JOHN W. NYSTROM. CONTENTS. On Technological Education .... 13 The knowledge of Steam-Engineering behind the knowledge of science 14 Failure of Steamers for a want of applied science 1 5 Fresh water condensers, and combustion of fuel . 16 Knowledge of Steamship performance ... 17 Expansion experiments made by the Navy De- partment 18 Natural effect of Steam or maximum work per unit of heat 19 Natural effect of S team-Engines . . . .20 Nystrom's Pocket-Book . . . .21 Eeform wanted in scientific books ... 23 America has taken the lead in popular education 25 Technological Institutions wanted ... 26 The National Academy of Sciences ... 27 Object of Technological Institutions ... 29 Steam-Engineering and Shipbuilding ... 30 Necessity of complete drawings before the build- ing of steamers is commenced .... 31 Xii CONTENTS. America has taken the lead in the new naval tac- tics . . . .33 The Naval Academy, at Annapolis, not proper for a school of Steam-Engineering ... 36 Want of applied science in our workshops . . 38 Locomotive engineering 39 Communication to the Secretary of the Navy on the science of Shipbuilding 41 Shipbuilders consider their art a craft ... 43 Shipbuilders' jealousy 46 Shipbuilding developed to the condition of a sci- ence 47 Memorandum 50 Chief-Engineer Isherwood does not approve the Parabolic Construction of Ships ... 50 On the Parabolic Construction of Ships ' . .53 Application of the Parabolic Construction of Ships ' 72 Kecording formulas 74 Becording tables 76 The labor of calculating the shipbuilding tables . 81 Mr. W. L. Hans,com, Naval Constructor, on the Parabolic Method ' 83 Mr. J. Vaughan Merrick on the Parabolic Con- struction 84 Resignation, by the Author, as Acting Chief-En- gineer in the Navy 85 CONTENTS. xill Memorandum 87 The science of dynamics in a confused condition . 88 Illustrations required in dynamics , . .91 Mr. Isherwood declines having the subject of dy- namics cleared up * . . .92 The subject of dynamics submitted to the National Academy of Sciences 95 On the elements of dynamics ; force, power, and work, defined .96 Work, a trinity of physical elements ... 99 Discussion with naval engineers on the subject of dynamics 99 Questions in dynamics submitted to the Academy of Sciences 101 Vis-viva ........ 104 Unit for power " . . 106 Unit for work 106 Navy Department attempting to reorganize the corps of engineers 109 Washington Navy Yard 109 Engineers in the Navy Department . . .111 Captain Fox on engineering and the construction of ships 112 Secrecy respecting ships' drawings . . . 114 Steam-boiler explosions . . . . . 117 Review of screw propellers 126 To construct a plain screw 127 Propeller with a compound expanding pitch . 128 2 XIV . CONTENTS. Propeller as constructed by Chief-Engineer Isher wood .... . 132 Propeller as constructed from Mr. Isherwood's drawings 146 Centripetal propeller 148 Centripetal propeller with compound expanding pitch 153 The Office of the Coast Survey an example of what the Bureau of Steam-engineering should be . 159 The engineer-in-chief of the navy a grand admiral 160 Constructions owght not to be made in the Navy Department 161 The Office of the Coast Survey and the Light- House Board naturally belong to the navy . 162 TO THE CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE OF NAVAL AFFAIES, U. S. CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D. C. SIR : The object of this paper is to invite the attention of your Committee, and of Congress, to a subject of general interest to the country, and one of particularly great importance to the power and prosperity of its navy. The subject is that of establishing a Technolo- gical Academy for Naval Engineers, and for the promotion of sciences bearing on the immediate necessities of the country in that Department. Should it receive your Committee's attention and approbation, and should you consider it worthy of being submitted to Congress, the undersigned is willing to suggest the requisite plans and method for its organization. I have the honor to remain, Your obedient servant, JOHN W. NYSTROM, Engineer. MARKOE HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA, Dec. 21, 1863. ON TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. THE immense natural resources of the New World are confided to the hands of an enter- prising, ingenious, and happy people; yet their time, their money, their life, and their credit, in imitation of the Old World, are lavishly wasted, through a deficient knowledge of those physical laws which constitute the most essen- tial element of all human enterprise. Under this impression the writer has striven, by means of various scientific articles on these subjects, to enforce the necessity of enlarged reform, both in the study and the application of these laws, which he modestly hopes may have some good effect. The efforts of a single individual, however, when elevated to subjects of such magnitude, only result in perpetual and unprofitable struggles with organized interests and preju- dices, and fail of their purpose through the 2 14 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION misconceptions which are inseparable from new and original subjects. From its novelty alone, a new and valuable idea is frequently con- demned on bare supposition, and the writer has thus labored in vain, under the greatest disad- vantages (accompanied with great expense), to rescue the proposition which he is now about to submit to your committee, from that neglect to which, for many years, it has been doomed by the indifference or imperfect appreciation of those around him. Up to the present day, the knowledge of steam engineering, in which we take so much pride, and which constitutes a most essential part of our national existence, is far behind our general knowledge of science. Our marine engines and boilers are not only unnecessarily complicated, but prodigally extravagant in their consumption of fuel; whilst not unfre- quently new machinery fails to accomplish ex- pected results from the want of knowledge of the physical laws bearing on the problem. Only a few years ago there was not a single " steam propeller" in the United States with properly constructed air-pumps and foot-valves. Some of the propellers designed to go to Eu- rope succeeded in making one passage, whilst others broke down at but a short distance from AND SHIPBUILDING. 15 the shore, and returned ; most of them existed but a short time, and involved the loss of mil- lions of dollars to the country, to say nothing of the effect upon its scientific and mechanical reputation. Enterprising merchants, who at- tempted to establish lines of steamers to Europe, became discouraged, and perhaps ruined by their failure, and the result now is that we have not a single steamer in the European trade. A few names of steamers may be re- ferred to in verification of these remarks namely, the frigate San Jacinto, which broke down through disarrangement of -her air-pumps and foot- valves; the La Fayette also (whose machinery contained, perhaps, the worst air- pumps ever constructed); the City of Petersburg ; Ben Franklin; and the Frigate Merrimac, which suffered from the breaking down of her foot- valves on her passage from America to Eng- land, in 1856, and which had to be improved in England. In addition to these, a great many other first-class American steamers experienced the same fate for want of applied physieal science. When the writer became acquainted with these defects, he attempted to correct them by explaining the physical laws in operation, which, at the time, was only received with ridicule, and derided as theoretical. He then 16 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION worked out practical 'formulas, which were published in the Journal of the Franklin Insti- tute, of Philadelphia, and in his "Pocket-Book of Engineering," giving a solution of the prin- ciples under which the air pump and foot valves operate, after which many errors were cor- rected ; but up to the present day there is no other publication on the subject. That publica- tion has been copied and republished in Europe. Blunders of this kind are still going on, by means of which millions of dollars are wasted, and our national reputation impaired from this general want of applied physical science. The physical laws connected with the opera- tion of fresh water or surface condensers, with the combustion of fuel, with the nature and properties of steam; with the dynamic equiva- lent, the conducting economy, and other pro- perties of heat, are yet but partly known, and that by but a few scientific men in the world ; and in no case are they worked out to a prac- tical shape, with formulas intelligible to the engineers in the shop. We find by science that the theoretical effect of one pound of pure carbon consumed per hour, is over Jive horses, whilst in our present practice it requires several pounds of coal per hour for each horse power. AND SHIPBUILDING. 17 Fresh water condensers have always given trouble ; the combustion of fuel requires most earnest attention, not so much for the cost of fuel, as to enable us to navigate long distances with great speed, and with something more on board than boilers, machinery, and fuel. The Navy Department is now having steamers built intended for great speed, the arrangements of which plainly show a want of proper knowledge in steamship performance. The knowledge of steamship performance is yet at a very low point, and for want of it no accurate record can be kept, by which to com- pare the true quality of performance of one steamer with that of another ; or to determine what will be the performance of a steamer con- structed according to given data. Ingenious contrivances in machinery and steamers, with plausible promises of high speed (up to twenty and thirty miles per hour), are frequently met with, whose plans, sometimes confidently accepted, often result in complete failure and disappointment, which properly applied science would have avoided. The truth of this observation will probably be realized by a wild scheme now before the City Councils of Philadelphia, proposing a line of steamers to Europe, which has for several years remained 2* 18 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION in a nebulous condition, unsupported by tbat scientific reasoning by which alone any one could be rendered confident of the result. Some twelve years ago, the writer was com- piling a Pocket-Book of Mechanics and En- gineering (since published in repeated editions); he analyzed many previously published data, and, with the aid of his own experience, re- duced the law of steamship performance to a practical rule to work by. In one of the most respectable journals of the country were found some plausible data on steamship performance, which threw the writer into the utmost confu- sion, and in their solution involved him in great expense of travel and practical investiga- tion, only to find them bold exaggerations. The Navy Department have made very ex- tensive experiments on the expansion of steam, which were commenced in New York some four years ago. The well-known Erie expan- sion experiments, the Washington Navy Yard and Old Point boat experiments, and the ex- pansion experiments made lately at the Novelty Iron Works, N. Y., were all carried on in the apparent attempt to overthrow natural laws, and establish physical by-laws. The engineers are manifestly not familiar with the scientific principles which belong to the question. AND SHIPBUILDING. 19 The natural effect in a given quantity of steam, of given temperature and pressure, is as specific as the natural effect in a waterfall. We have only to strive, by improvements in the arrangement of our steam-engines and boilers, to utilize the greatest possible percentage of that natural effect, as is done by water wheels and turbines. If the Navy Department find no utility in the expansion of steam, it only exposes its position in the science of steam en- gineering, which can be no indication of what may be done by other parties. Steam-engines, like water-wheels and tur- bines, utilize widely different percentages of the natural effect, even with equal grade of expansion, which may be seen in the results of the different experiments made on different engines by the Navy Department. The result of each experiment is applicable only to that peculiar arrangement of the engine and boiler experimented upon, and no more. The maximum or natural work K, per unit of heat in steam, is in footpounds. 8 144 P ( V 1) (2-3 log. + 1)* JT = ; l ' U'V * See Nystrom's Pocket-Book, 10th edition, for the value of these quantities. 20 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION P = total steam pressure per square inch. H' = units of heat per cubic foot of the steam P. V = volume of the steam compared with water. S = stroke of steam-piston, in inches. Z == part of the stroke under which steam is fully admitted, in inches. The natural effect of the heat in the steam in horse-power, will be _ NK 550 f N = total number of units of heat passed through the steam-engine in the time T in seconds. The more of this natural effect that can be utilized, the more perfect is the steam- engine. It is time to speak about steam-engines as we do about water-wheels and turbines namely, " how many per cent, it utilizes of the natural effect." On the writer's last arrival from Europe, Dec. 1860, he found the anti-expansion question receiving considerable attention by engineers. He published, in a scientific journal, some de- monstrations to prove the folly of the Erie ex- pansion experiments; and, although ridiculed in a New York paper, they produced good AND SHIPBUILDING. 21 effect. Again, he published in his Pocket-Book tables for expansion of steam (hitherto the most complete in print), and its connection with superheated steam, which also had a great effect, as subsequent experiments resulted in their favor. The Navy Department is here alluded to because their blunders are more perfectly ex- posed to view, and therefore better known, but the evil is none the less serious in private en- terprises. The writer is in possession of 'knowledge which would greatly contribute to clear up these difficulties, and advance the character of our steam engineering, but he cannot undertake the great expense of bringing it before the public, inasmuch as scientific knowledge is not sufficiently diffused among our mechanics and engineers to render such a work self-sustaining. In proof of which he would remark that pub- lishers are not willing even to get up such ex- pensive books as his "Pocket-Book of Mechanics and Engineering," of which copies are sent herewith. The manuscript of this book was submitted to publishers in the year 1853, some of whom had it examined by scientific and practical men, who condemned it as useless, and unfit for 22 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION publication. Some publishers objected to the great expense in bringing it out, whereupon it was carried through at the author's own ex- pense, which has now amounted to a consider- able sum. x The small profit realized is not suf- ficient for the expense of experiments and in- vestigation attending each succeeding edition. I take it for granted that, in a matter so im- portant to the profession and the country, many others, much more highly qualified by their abilities and attainments than myself, would cheerfully do-operate in the efforts to further the main purpose here foreshadowed, if an or- ganized shape could only be given to it, or a nucleus of some kind formed upon which their efforts would be concentrated; and in view of the great expense attending it, I consider it necessary, in due regard to the interests of the engineering profession, to lay the matter before your committee, trusting that it may receive due consideration, and that, possibly, means may be appropriated for that purpose. The labor attending the investigation of new and original subjects is immense; particularly in exploring unknown regions of science, and bringing the products home to simple formulas and tables of a practical shape. There does not, at present, appear to be any one among us AND SHIPBUILDING. 23 who is willing or able, perhaps for want of time, to undertake such a laborious task, and very few know what is wanted, but too many suppose we have attained perfection. We have plenty of scientific books, mostly written by professors in colleges, having very little or no opportunity to apply their know- ledge in practice, and which are, therefore, des- titute of practical examples. We frequently find most valuable formulas given by scientific men in such a shape that it requires to know more than the author in order to employ them; they are not only not trimmed to a practical shape, but even the meaning of letters is rarely explained in a technical lan- guage. It is surprising to see how successfully ma- thematicians have contrived to keep the simple science of the "calculus" such a perfect mystery. It reaches very few among us, not from diffi- culty in learning it, but simply for want of its judicious application in practice. We find books on the calculus of several hundred pages without a single practical example, which makes the science difficult and tedious of acquisition, and when acquired, very rarely further deve- loped, but is stored away in the mind so that it cannot be found when wanted. We find 24 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION simple formulas occupying several pages in explanation, which, by a solitary example ap- plied to practice, would imprint it indelibly upon the student's memory. All this can be effectually corrected and improved by the es- tablishment of proper institutions for the in- struction of combined theory and practice. There is now a very distinct line drawn between scientific and practical men ; the more we study and cultivate the branches sepa- rately, the more distinct will this line become, and the less will they understand one another, and may ultimately fall into irreconcilable es- trangement. The prejudice against science is, in our day, a very serious evil. Science is almost despised by many practical men, not always for want of valuation of it, but often because they do not understand it. A blind man can walk on roads and streets, but when he finds an obstacle must stop ; at a ditch he may tumble down into it, he cannot turn from his accustomed track. Such is the case with many practical and otherwise most valuable men working without a knowledge of physical laws. In order to follow up the im- provements of the age, the track pursued by our fathers must often be abandoned, and a new one selected and surveyed for ourselves. AND SHIPBUILDING. 25 Without the application of science we go ahead without knowing where we are going. In verification of which we have plenty of ex- amples in engineering blunders, sometimes subjected to a committee of inquiry, which may result in the discharge of the engineer, accompanied by extravagant abuse of the de- partment concerned, and the evil only tempo- rarily remedied by substituting another, who will most likely not repeat the same blunders, but will do something worse. There is yet no attempt made to permanently remove these evils and secure success in our enterprises by proper institutions. This your committee will admit to be true, but may ask " how can the evil be removed and permanently cor- rected ?" America has taken the lead of the world in popular education. Its institutions are copied and imitated in Europe, but it remains for us to follow up and take the lead in* the nobler and purer refinements of our nature. We have the best materials in the world by which to accomplish this object, the question is only as to the time and the means to be taken. We are a new people; our habits and cir- cumstances are different from those of other 3 26 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION nations, and our institutions must be organized accordingly. In Europe they have institutions for the dif- fusion of combined theoretical and practical learning, the want of which is most severely felt in this country. Institutions of that kind are of more importance in America than else- where, for the reason that mechanical skill and inventive ingenuity are here more extensively developed, and the want of applied science wastes away a proportionate quantity of time and money. It is very evident that we are behind some other nations in science, and, at the same time* it is certain that we have more science than we can properly manage or utilize. It is the ap- plication of science to practice which requires im- mediate attention and special institutions. It is very gratifying to know that Congress, at its last session, passed a bill to establish a National Academy of Science, which will no doubt be of great value; but how can it be brought to bear advantageously on the general interest and immediate wants of the country. Considering the peculiar circumstances in which' the country is now placed (the natural fruit of time and civilization), technological institutions are absolutely necessary to enable AND SHIPBUILDING. 27 us to rise gradually and surely to the position due to us among nations, and when once so raised, we would never fall, but become able to maintain with true dignity a National Academy of Science. Technological institutions will reveal and develop the talent and ability of the nation, and bring its immense natural resources to ac- count. It is technological institutions which alone furnish proper materials for a National Academy of Science. We have now among us many Newtons, Keplers, Berzelius's, Watts's, Fultons, &c. &c., but have no means of bring- ing them out ; but, on the contrary, plenty of ingenious contrivances to screen them from observation. They are not willing to enter into competition with our everyday rivals, while our national leaders, in their most earnest ex- ertion to find the right man for the right place, are continually imposed upon. This evil can- not be removed by the peculiar liberty alone, in which we take so much pride, but simply by a diffusion of useful knowledge through es- tablished institutions, which should constitute the true object of our national pride. At the present time, scientific attainments and true practical knowledge are very little respected ; physical laws, established by the 28 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION Creator of the universe, are often derided as theoretical ; ignorance has taken the lead, and rules in the ascendant, and often adopts that which is opposite alike to science, experience, and common sense. The object of this paper, therefore, is to pro- pose the establishment of a National Technolo- gical Academy of a high order, whose purpose should be, by the combination of practical and theoretical instruction, to subserve a great public want, and at the same time to inaugu- rate a new era in the scientific and practical reputation of the American people. An institution of that kind cannot be a pri- vate enterprise, for in order to command the respect necessary to its existence and high purpose, it must be a public institution. The Writer has been educated at the Royal Technological Institute, at Stockholm, where they have a complete set of workshops and labo- ratory, for the practical training of students be- tween lecture hours. It is not expected, neither is it necessary that the student shall become an accomplished mechanic, but the- object is to concentrate his mind on the work" about which he is studying and calculating. When confined only to books and blackboards, his conceptions rarely extend any further. He acquires the AND SHIPBUILDING. 29 knowledge by routine, as it were ; the study becomes tedious to him, and when brought to bear on practice, the most simple problem may confound him. When a student is brought up in the combined science and practice, however, he generally acquires a taste for work good workmanship and proper proportions and the application of his science becomes a pleasure. He studies mathematics at the same time he learns drawing; physics and mechanics at the same time he makes his tools and models for machinery. His science is applied as fast as it is acquired, and he will never forget it. When a student is thus equipped for his journey of life, he is able to bring such physical laws into action as to secure success in all his enterprises. He will be able to record and report back to the institute his future experience, by which the most thorough connection may be kept up, between science and practice. As things rfbw stand, a man of most valuable information is not thus able to record his achievements ; in fact, he may not know him- self the very laws of his success; his experience and valuable knowledge die with him ; his toiling successor will reiterate his blunders, and gain new experience by a new series of expensive trials and error. 30 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION Steam-engineering and ship-building are arts in which we take the greatest pride ; still there is no institution in the country where we learn to construct a steamer completely, or acquire the physical laws under which it operates. Ship-building and steam-engineering are yet considered different professions, while they are so intimately connected in steamboats that it would be impossible to trace a line of separa- tion between them. The shipbuilder cannot properly construct a steamer without the know- ledge of the machinery, neither can the engineer construct the machinery without a knowledge of the vessel ; yet we rarely find one who can undertake both, and the result is a discord of action. They do not please one another, and neither of them takes that care in the whole arrangement which one controlling mind would do. In iron shipbuilding the two branches are more generally brought under one mind. We rarely find a superintendent or proprietor in a machine shop or shipyard, even in our navy yards, who can master an algebraical formula, or who is in possession of the rudi- ments of the science bearing on his profession. We have no school where we learn to make a proper working drawing, but students are taught to color drawings before they know how AND SHIPBUILDING. 31 to construct a shadow ; the surface of every- thing is learned, and the substance obscured. We never find a complete working drawing of a steamer when its building is commenced ! In some cases, and even in the navy yards, the drawing is 'made after the steamer is finished, when an extra bill for alterations and experiments augments the originally intended cost to an unsatisfactory' sum, and often results in a com- plicated arrangement of machinery, with don- kies, fans, pumps, cocks, and pipes placed about the vessel, here and there, like scattered stumps and logs in a forest, and requires a more skilful engineer to keep it in order than the one who contrived it. In fact, ingenuity seems to sur- mount any obstacle that could possibly be en- countered, for, in many cases, it shows no dis- position whatever to prevent or avoid the diffi- culty by application of proper principles at the outset ; but a machine, on the contrary, is in- vented by which to overcome the obstacle, and the aggregate contrivance is denominated "practical." In verification of this, we have many exam- ples in the navy, but I will here refer to a new- iron steamer, built for the merchant service, whose machinery is one of those ingenious contrivances we frequently meet with ; the 32 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION slide valves alone, for only one cylinder, are operated by twenty connecting rods and forty journals, occupying a height of some thirty-five feet in the vessel, and even then the engine cannot be reversed without throwing the ma- chinery out of gear, and reversing it by hand. We must, in all ages and in all countries, expect active and operative minds to come for- ward with ingenious contrivances, sometimes with wild ideas, ridiculous in design, and wrong in mechanical principles; but then it is the function of science and knowledge to step in and correct their aberration, or, if necessary, to guard against or prevent their further intro- duction until developed to an educated design, which otherwise might lead to destruction of life and property. ^ On the other hand, most ingenious and valu- able ideas are sometimes submitted to the opinion of scientific men with no practical knowledge, who may condemn them from an imperfect perception of their merit. It is only a knowledge of the combined theory and prac- tice that can accomplish justice in all cases. The great prospect now opening before us in the present new era of naval architecture, as connected with the new national navy yard (to be established at League Island, we hope), AND SHIPBUILDING. 33 will necessarily, at some time, concentrate our serious attention upon the establishment of proper institutions, and a systematic corps of naval engineers ; but when, will this necessity become recognized, and the proper policy be pursued ? Can it be accomplished by the efforts of conciliatory reasoning, or must it be forced upon us by the suffering and losses consequent upon engineering blunders, in which our pre- sent experience does not seem sufficient to bring us to the point? The science of war has been taught by dis- asters, and has been gradually advanced by the force of proper institutions, and thorough dis- cipline to its present perfection. The navy has lately undergone a great and very important change, and is converted into an entirely new school, by the introduction of steam and armored vessels, which change has already reduced considerably the number and length of the ropes in the old school. America has taken the lead in this new direction, and is the first nation on the globe which has brought the new naval school to the severest test, and demonstrated the necessity of a corresponding system of education. The old school is now proved to be incapable of conducting our new naval tactics. 34: TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION In the army there has been no such sudden change, but the old school has been gradually improved to its present condition by the instru- mentality of a properly organized corps of en- gineers, raised from the school-trenches to the highest accomplishment, and to the elevated rank which is due to their profession. The works in the Departments of Ordnance, Fortification, and the Coast Survey, are of the highest order of science brought to a practical shape, unequalled in Europe. Now let us ask, on the other hand, what, in like manner, the navy has done? Or what is to be expected from a department not educated in the lights and principles of the new school? The Naval Engineer Corps, which ought to be the soul of the navy, is yet a mere tool to the old school, and destitute of proper organization, and with but a nominal discipline, for true dis- cipline is out of the question where the superior officers are disciples of an obsolete school. Our new naval warfare is an engineering operation which requires special education and a well-organized corps of engineers, with the distinguishing rank due to that office. The efficiency .of the navy is at the mercy of the engineers, and cannot possibly be maintained without due respect to that body. AND SHIPBUILDING. 35 As it now stands the naval engineer, although in a restricted insignificant position, can manage and manipulate the old school to suit his own personal interest and convenience. He has none above him to fear. His superior officers must trust his words oracularly, of which we have plenty of examples in the navy. An en- gineer can argue that he has based his opera- tion on physical laws discovered by himself, without being requested to explain such laws. Could that be so if education had done her proper work? or can we find such a case in the Departments of Ordnance, Fortification, or in the Coast Survey? The country abounds in engineering talent, of which there is plenty in the navy, but it is very rarely much developed, and still less no- ticed. It would be surprising were it other- wise. The old naval school is not qualified to select or appreciate the engineer of ability; but, even if noticed, he is necessarily doomed to an insignificant rank and a discouraging career. We have the result now before us the rebel pirate Alabama and others sweeping our vessels from the seas; the numerous block- ade-runners can make regular trips in the midst of our boasting navy, on which we have spent hundreds of millions of dollars. 36 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION We admit that the naval operations are more difficult, and require manifold more science and talent than those of the army, but, in conse- quence, they require a corresponding culture in the officers in charge to enable them to bring such physical laws into action, as are involved in the success. This can be attained only by adequate institutions for their educa- tion in the magnificent combination of our new naval school, which can only be properly esti- mated by being perfectly understood. Having now taken the lead of the world in naval war- fare, and being unable to derive from foreign sources, either by precept or example, the means of giving a proper organization to the navy, we must follow up and avail ourselves of our own hard earned experience for this purpose. In our yet very feeble conception of the im- portance and of the range of knowledge in steam-engineering, it may be suggested that an apartment in the old Naval Academy, to be al- lotted to steam, would, perhaps, be sufficient for a school of engineers. But then let us re- flect for a moment on the immense spectacle now before us, of our growing fleet of ironclads and colossal navy yards, entailing such an un- bounded expense, and all of the great interests AND SHIPBUILDING. 87 thus involved and confided with our national reputation to the hands of the engineers, and we must perceive that the latter must not only be equipped with proper knowledge, but must command all the respect and confidence which naturally attach to their important office. It is therefore necessary that a technological school, designed for the special purpose, should be in- stituted, of the highest possible order, and not limited only to scientific attainment, but fore- most in the general application of the sciences. We have numerous examples in Europe, particularly in Eussia, where engineers are educated to only scientific attainments, and who, when they enter a machine-shop or en- gine room, are incompetent for the proper conception of work, but are, nevertheless, in- trusted with responsible stations where their practical achievements only lead to mischief. Our experience throughout life teaches us that a practical man without science seldom makes such serious blunders as a scientific man without practice. The merit then of the Techno- naval Academy would be in the education of engineers in the practice, and not with mere scientific precepts of professors. The writer has often observed the career of students from colleges, and regrets to say that 4 38 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION too few of them turn their attention to work. Those who have received scientific education generally prefer to become professors, scientific advocates, patent agents, lawyers, philosophical secretaries, &c. &c., whilst the practical opera- tion of our workshops suffer in the extreme. Every once in a while we have a steam-boiler explosion, killing off a great number of men, with great destruction of property ; we build vessels which will not float; are often disap- pointed in the performance of vessels and ma- chinery ; we waste great amounts of fuel, and we make extensive and costly experiments in steam-engineering without consulting the phy- sical laws involved in the operation. In iron foundries castings are often made with too little metal, and sometimes too much; the hydrostatic action of the fluid cast-iron in the mould is rarely understood ; the law of shrinkage, strain, direction of crystallization, and sinking, in castings of irregular form, is not generally comprehended ; and many other defects of experience exist which often cause the loss of valuable castings, for want of applied science. When the casting turns out a failure, it is generally said that the foundry superin- tendent is not skilful, or has not experience AND SHIPBUILDING. 89 enough, which often means that he has not made blunders enough to secure success. The general impression about the business of moulding and casting, as well as all other branches of mechanic arts, is, as has been re- peatedly told to the writer, namely, that " the profession cannot be brought within the scope of science, but must be learned by experience alone." On the other hand, scientific men without technical education, intrusted with practical problems, are generally not familiar with im- portant circumstances involved in the opera- tion, which accordingly results in blunders; they are then derided as "scientific men." Locomotive engineers still allow their thun- derbolt to blow out smoke and fire to suffocate passengers, and set fire to houses and forests, when this nuisance of smoke and sparks could be so beneficially utilized in the work for which that fuel is intended. The combustion of fuel and the utilization of heat, in our present locomotives, are a dis- graceful and barbarous abuse of physical laws. The firebox in a locomotive dissolves many times the amount of fuel realized in work, and the heat there generated is so great that it is difficult to find materials for the firebox that 40 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. are able to withstand it ; whilst on the other end of the locomotive, there is applied an ar- rangement to create a vacuum by the exhaust steam from the cylinders, which, in fact, is only^ a cooling operation which puts the fire out when it enters the tubes, and the unconsumed carbon, in the form of smoke, with sparks of fire, is blown out through the chimney. The area of the fire-tubes in a locomotive is many times greater than that of the firebox, whilst the evaporative power of the firebox is many times greater than that of the tubes. We are in possession of sciences, requisite for a more proper arrangement in a locomotive and in steam-boilers generally, by which not only all the carbon could be consumed, but also to utilize the heat in work, but we have not sufficient technical knowledge for their judicious application. The writer has now gone very far in criti- cizing our standing as engineers, but hopes to be understood that his motive in so doing is a solicitude for the general interest. There are too many among us to boast of and exaggerate our numerous and real advantages over other nations, but apparently none to point out to us our deficiences. JOHN W. NYSTROM, . Engineer. COMMUNICATION TO THE SEORETAEY OF THE KA.VY. NAVY DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, D. C., June 26, 1865. SIR : On the 14th of this month I made an application to the Navy Department for orders to prepare, for the Naval Engineer Cadets, a " course of shipbuilding" based on the " para- bolic principle," as explained in the printed papers accompanying the application. On the 15th I received your communication stating that the proposition was declined. This hasty refusal of the Department has en- couraged me with all deference to renew the application in a more specific form, under a conviction that I had probably failed to submit the subject in its true light ; inasmuch as upon any other hypothesis, its intrinsic importance could scarcely have failed to have insured for it a different disposition. Indeed, I would deem 4* 42 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION it a neglect of duty on my part to drop a sub- ject of such great moment, merely in conse- quence of a hasty and apparently inconsiderate reply of the Department, particularly as so many circumstances may have conspired, amidst a press of business, to prevent its receiving your Excellency's personal attention. When it is considered not only that ship- building has not yet been developed to the condition of a true science, but that the country contains no school where even the empirical system under which the construction of vessels is now carried on, can be learned, we cannot expect our present naval constructors to dip into and approve a science which they do not understand, but distrust and perhaps fear. By means of long practice and experience, builders generally attain great skill and taste in the construction of ships, but, at the same time, they are yet ignorant of the physical laws and scientific principles which govern their success. Their skill and valuable knowledge die with them, and their toiling successors must reiterate the same blunders, and gain ex- perience by the same renewed experiments and errors. Such will not be the case when shipbuilding becomes really a science, for then we will be AND SHIPBUILDING. 43 able to demonstrate, record, and perpetuate through the unerring aid of mathematical formulas, a knowledge of the physical laws which relate to the subject, the accomplishment of which is now impossible, and the art itself kept by shipbuilders in profound mystery. The indifference or hostility of shipbuilders to a scientific treatment of the subject, arises mainly from their conviction that it is impos- sible to bring their profession within the scope of science, and they persevere in regarding it as a mere craft. In verification of this, I can refer to numerous examples, of which the fol- lowing is one: Last summer I made efforts to bring the " parabolic construction of ships" under the appreciation of Mr. John Lenthal, the Chief of the Bureau of Construction, which failed not only to secure his approval, but absolutely met with his disparagement. Mr. Lenthal was ap- prised that the " parabolic system" embodied a very simple method of recording the peculiari- ties of vessels, which would be of great impor- tance; he refused, however, to credit the possi- bility of my plan, and gave me to understand (without looking at it) that he had all the re- cords which could be necessary already, and that nothing more was wanted. 44 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION Soon after, I was set to work by Mr. Isher- wood, the Chief of the Bureau of Steam-En- gineering, to calculate from a great number of ships' drawings these very data, which were not, but which ought to have been calculated and recorded in the Bureau of Construction, and which data are of great importance in questions of steamship performance. In fact the engineer cannot do well without them. This proves conclusively that the naval con- structor was in error regarding the perfection of his records. There is not to my knowledge an -engineer in the naval service who is competent to un- dertake such an investigation of the properties of ships as that made by me, although the sub- ject belongs directly to his profession. The Corps of Naval Engineers should take the lead in all those progressive changes which natu- rally attach to their important office, and par- ticularly in those changes which must eventu- ally take place, namely, to combine the con- struction of machinery and vessels under one head. Since the introduction into vessels of steam, and other mechanical contrivances which are daily increasing, the two branches have become so intimately connected, that it would be dim- AND SHIPBUILDING. . 45 I cult to trace a line of separation between them. The engineer cannot construct the machinery without a knowledge of the vessel which is to contain it, and the shipbuilder cannot properly construct the vessel without consulting the en- gineer respecting the machiney, and we may expect what happened when the war broke out, namely, to build vessels wholly of iron, for which our present naval constructors are in- competent. On account, therefore, of the profession of shipbuilding yet being in an empirical condi- tion, and considered separate and apart from that of steam-engineering, there exists much jealousy between the two interests, which re- sults in discord of action; neither of them taking that careful supervision over the whole arrangement which one controlling mind would do. In many instances where government's ves- sels have been built in private establishments, the quality of workmanship has suffered con- siderably for this very reason, of the superin- tending naval engineer not being familiar with the construction of ships. The failure of the light-draft monitors affords a still stronger proof of the necessity of in- structing engineers in shipbuilding. 46 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION f As matters now stand, ship constructors are generally so jealous of their profession, that the engineer can with difficulty obtain from them the necessary information to govern him in his own department; a jealousy which only indi- cates ignorance. For if their profession was brought to the rank of a true science, it could not be kept in a state of mystery, or as a mat- ter of individual knowledge. Now, believing that I have succeeded in de- veloping shipbuilding to the condition of a true science, I desire to throw it wide open for the benefit of all, like the books of Euclid. My system embodies the results of many years of labor, now in the form of raw materi- als, to be converted into tables and drawings for general use. The details of the undertaking are too great for a single individual; operating alone, it would cost me several years to complete them, whilst with assistance from the Navy Depart- ment, it might be accomplished in a few months. The great labor consists in calculating the tables, which will extend to some five thousand lines, the combination of which would compre- hend the construction of an endless number of vessels. The nature of the tables are very much like AND SHIPBUILDING. 47 logarithms ; they will equally suit any system of weights and measures, or any language and country, and will give the characteristic pecu- liarities of vessels at the first glance, such as the displacement; areas of water-lines and cross-sections; location of metacentre and cen- tre of gravity, &c. &c. ; and they will also give the most important item, so much sought for by scientific men and shipbuilders, namely, the mean angle of resistance of vessels. The displacement of a vessel, bounded within a given length, breadth, and depth, can vary twenty-five per cent., for the same resistance, in moving through water; a circumstance show- ing the immense importance of giving the ves- sel a proper shape. Shipbuilders generally, through long prac- tice, approach very near the proper shape or form of lines of vessels, but they also often transgress the sought-for limit, which cannot possibly be determined by mere conjecture. But, by the "parabolic method," the most ad- vantageous forms of lines are ascertained and calculated with the aid of tables, which can be used by constructors without a knowledge of mathematics. For the accomplishment of the object here proposed, I would respectfully request your 48 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION Excellency to select two or more young en- gineers, and place them at my disposition for the purpose of assisting in the calculation of the tables, and of acquiring a thorough know- ledge of the " parabolic construction of ships." This would be a very simple and easy course of introducing the science of shipbuilding into the Corps of Naval Engineers, and the Depart- ment will thus be placed in possession of scien- tific resources, which will forever place it out of reach of many errors, and of rash or igno- rant experiments which have heretofore wasted so much of its means and its hopes alike un- profitably. The mode of constructing ships, at the pre- sent day, is most generally accomplished by carving out a model from a piece of wood, by eyesight and conjecture an operation which is often repeated several times before it happens to attain the desiderated end. In more advanced stages of the art, as in the navy, and in some few private establishments, drawings are made, from which models are also executed; but even then the lines are laid down repeatedly from con- jecture, until sufficient approximation to the truth is believed to be attained. In both cases, the operation may be likened to the movements of a blind man walking by himself, whilst by AND SHIPBUILDING. 49 the "parabolic method," the construction is started right at the outset, and thus an intelli- gent perception of principles and results reaches its conclusion with mathematical accuracy. In the interest of science, as well as that of the Department over which your Excellency has so successfully presided, I earnestly request that my proposition may be considered with the attention which a subject of such importance deserves, and, in conclusion, would suggest, that whilst the government could lose nothing by granting my request, it would gain an ad- vantage which, once possessed, it would never afterwards relinquish. I have the honor to remain, Your Excellency's ob't serv't, JOHN W. NYSTROM, Act. Chief Engineer, U. S. Navy. Hon. GIDEON WELLES, Secretary of the Navy. MEMOKAKDUM. NAVY DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, D. C., July 8, 1865. To-DAT I called on Secretary Welles, about my application for assistance to calculate the tables for the " parabolic construction of ships," as expressed in the foregoing letter, when Mr. Welles said that he "could do nothing with it, as Mr. Isherwood does not approve your scheme, but says that there is no novelty in it." I then requested the Secretary to respond to my letter to that effect, which he ordered Assistant Secretary Fox to do, but no answer was re- ceived. Assistant Secretary Fox told me that "this democratic government does not take the lead in matters of this kind, as monarchical govern- ments do, but leaves them for the merchant or civil service." I offered to show Captain Fox some samples of tables for the "parabolic shipbuilding," but he said he " would have no time to attend to it." SHIPBUILDING. 51 It is true the Navy Department has not taken the lead in any matter of progress, but left that for the civil service, but it has taken the lead and made extensive and costly experiments in the anti-expansion question of steam ; in the building of vessels which will not float ; in ex- perimental researches in steam engineering, extensively expatiated upon in large volumes of books upon which I shall make no com- ments further than to state that the Navy De- partment has taken the lead in pointing out to the civil service where not to follow. When the war broke out, the naval construc- tors were not competent to fulfil the require- ments in the new era of naval architecture, and there was no naval engineer with requisite technical education to meet the emergency. The Chief of the Bureau of Construction, I un- derstand, declined having anything to do with iron or armored vessels, and the projects for ironclads were necessarily intrusted to officers of the line, the result of which is well known, and not necessary to mention here, for the ob- ject of this writing is not to find fault, or to censure those who may have been inadvertently at fault, but to point out the necessity of taking proper steps to prevent similar occurrences in 52 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. the future, and to prepare to follow up the progressive times. In regard to the Chief Engineer Isherwood's saying that " there is no novelty in the para- bolic system of shipbuilding," I am justified in taking prompt issue with him, for his scientific education does not extend so far as to enable him to judge whether it embraces novelty or not. I have, however, good reason to believe, from specific indications in discussion with him, that Mr. Isherwood, in his own mind, really thinks that there is novelty in the " parabolic method." What can then constitute the object of the Chief in thwarting the interests and progress of the Corps of Naval Engineers ? ON THE PARABOLIC CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS, AS SUBMITTED TO THE NAYY DEPARTMENT. THE Parabolic System of constructing ships was originated by the celebrated Swedish naval architect, Chapman, about a century ago, at which period it was well received among ship- builders, but on account of its then incomplete form (restrictingconductors to particular shapes), it was gradually abrogated, until no trace could be found of it, even in works on shipbuilding. Mr. Chapman hit upon the fortunate idea that the cross-sections of the displacement of a ves- sel ought to follow a certain progression, in order to present the least possible resistance when moving through the water. He collected a great many drawings of ships of known good and bad performances, and made the following investigation. On each drawing he transformed the cross-sections of the displacement into rectangles of the same breadth as the greatest 5* 54 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION beam of the load-water-line of the vessel ; placed their upper edges in the plan of the load-water-line, by which he found that the under edges of the rectangles formed a bottom, the curve of which were parabolas in ships of known good performances. Let the accompanying figure, 1, represent a ship with the load-water-line, w, dead flat cross- section a & b, formed into the rectangle abed, and i e i another cross-section formed into a rectangle efgh,so that the breadth ef is equal to a b ; then the line k I m, Fig. 1, forming the bottom of the rectangles, should be a parabola with the vertex at k, and k o the axis of the abscissa. Mr. Chapman found that the parabola so ob- tained did not terminate at the stem n, but fell a little short at m. The deviation m n was very small in vessels of his days, but in modern ves- sels it is more considerable, showing that there must be a point of inflection p in the curve. However erroneously we may set out in quest of an object, experience generally leads us to- wards correct scientific principles. In the case before us, experience has increased the deviation m n, and we know that inasmuch as nature ad- mits of no physical by-laws, the curve cannot be a plain parabola. It is this increasing de- AND SHIPBUILDING. Fig. 1. 55 viation m n which has led me to investigate the subject more carefully ; starting on the prinoi- 56 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION pie that the resistance to a body in motion in a fluid, is a function of the square of the sine of the angle of incidence to the motion. Let abed, Fig. 2. Fig. 2, be a body in motion in a fluid, in the direction a c ; then the resistance to that body is found by experiments to be nearly as the square of the sine of the angle v , omitting fric- tion. From this it appears that the proper progres- sion of the cross-sections should be as the square of the ordinates in a parabola. Let Fig. 3 represent a vessel with the dead- flat JS? and stem n. Draw the cross section a ST 6, and the rectangle a b c d, as before described; draw a parabola k I n of any desired order, ter- minating at the stem ; then the proper progres- sion of the cross-sections should be as the square of the ordinates /3. Let the depth a d= 1, then the ordinates j3 will be fractions of a d t and the square /3 2 multiplied by the area of the dead- flat cross-section JS", would give the proper AND SHIPBUILDING. Fig. 3. 57 area of the ordinate cross section 0, or 0=sr P 2 , Fig. 3. The line k m n should then indicate the 68 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION proper progression of the ordinate to cross- sections e. The areas efg h=i e t. The formula for a parabola in the conic sec- tion is Referring to the accompanying figure, o is the vertex of the parabola, JP = parameter, x = abscissa, and y = ordinate. Applying this for- Fig. 4. mula and figure to the form of a ship, we place the vertex of the parabola at the dead-flat sr, the axis of abscissa in the breadth b, and the largest ordinate y in the length, when the parabola o r s, Fig. 4, may represent a water- line in a vessel, as represented in Fig. 5. The circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola, in the conic sections are lines of the second or- der; but in the construction of ships we employ AND SHIPBUILDING. Fig. 5. 59 these lines of any order whatever, for which we will denote the index of the root in the parabolic formula by the letter n. The parameter p is the gauge for the para- bola, but is inconvenient for our purpose; it will be better, therefore, to make a gauge that will consist of the given quantities, by limiting the parabolas within the size of the vessel when the limit x = Z>, half the breadth, and the limit y = Z, half the length of the vessel. The parabolic formulas will then appear V = Of which y n - j _ - " 2 x x j"_ 26* ~F and- 60 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION In these formulas the parabola is gauged by the half-length Z, and half-breadth b. Let denote the distance from the centre-line of a vessel to the water-line, then = 6 a;, or x = b 0, which, inserted in the above formulas, will give x = -6 of which Let the depth a d, figs. 1 and 3, = 6, represent the area of the dead- flat cross-section 3S, then the ordinate cross-sections will be The formula 1 gives the plain parabolas k I m, fig. 1 ; or* k In, fig. 3 ; or o s, fig. 6 ; whilst the formula 2 gives the paracyma k m n, fig. 3, or offs, fig. 6. Formula 1 gives nearly the form of ships as constructed i n the days of Chapman, whilst formula 2 gives the form of modern ships, constructed for speed. AND SHIPBUILDING Fig. 6. 61 I have investigated the progression of the cross-sections in a great many vessels, from most parts of the world, as will hereafter be shown in a treatise on the parabolic construction of ships now in progress. Many American ves- sels agree perfectly with formula 2, of which the U. S. frigate Niagara, constructed by the late Mr. Steers, is one. The formula 1, which em- bodies Chapman's method, is therefore not ap- plicable in modern shipbuilding, which I think is the reason why the original parabolic system has not been more generally adopted. It is not always necessary to pay the greatest atten- tion to speed, as there are many other con- ditions of greater importance, namely, freight, shallow draught, location of metacentre, and centre of gravity of the vessel, for which it becomes necessary so to arrange the parabolic construction of ships, that it will accommodate itself to all the requirements, as well as to the 6 62 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION taste of the shipbuilder. This can be accom- plished by raising the ordinate /3 to any arbi- trary power, which we will designate with the letter <?, and call it the power of the exponent n, when the final formula will appear This is the general formula for the parabolic construction. Simple as it is, it gives any line or form of a ship that can reasonably be re- quired. It will form a square, rectangle, tri- angle, circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, cyma; all of any order or combination. Fig. 7. b = half the breadth, or area of dead -flat ST. I = length from js? to the stem or stern, or depth under water-line. For the frames, the depth d, from load water-line to the keel, takes the place of I. AND SHIPBUILDING. 63 p = ordinate for the line, or ordinate cross- section. y = abscissa. n exponent. q => power of the exponent n. The variety of lines represented by fig. 7 are obtained by altering the power q, while n re- mains constant ; or any variety of lines can be obtained for each value of the exponent n. It is here found necessary to the development of the subject, to propose or establish new names to such lines as have not heretofore been defined or subjected to an algebraic formula. The degree of development of an art may be correctly measured by the perfection of its vocabulary. As the construction of ships has not heretofore been brought to a perfect system, we have not been .able to define the great variety of lines or forms of ships. We can say a vessel is very sharp, or very full, with more or less rise of floor ; but have no language by which to convey correctly, how sharp, how full, or with how much rise of floor. As an illus- tration it may be mentioned, that on one occa- sion I met some shipbuilders, and discussed with them the construction of ships, when one said, "I am constructing a ship that will be so sharp, that you cannot roll a barrel on the 64 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION lower deck, within fifteen feet of the bow," which made me but little wiser. Now, in the language of the parabolic construction, to con- vey the same idea with precision and accuracy, we have only to give the exponent and power, which not only impress the mind clearly with the correct degree of sharpness, but also with the complete form of the vessel. On anotheT' occasion I remarked to a ship- builder, in his yard, that " the lines of a certain vessel were too sharp, and if made fuller it would go much easier through water with con- siderably more displacement." The shipbuilder acknowledged that it appeared to him to be so, but remarked, with the usual practical sneer, that " it is very easy to see that after the ves- sel is finished." The great merit in- the para- bolic construction is, that we know the me- chanical and physical properties of the lines before they are laid down; we need not even look at them for such purpose. We have both in Europe and America many curiously constructed vessels, and some of them reported to perform wonderfully, but we have not been able to record their peculiarities ; for even the drawing of their lines would, fail to convey with correctness what constitutes their novelty or folly. AND SHIPBUILDING. 65 It is therefore proposed to establish the fol- lowing technical terms in naval architecture: Any line p I, in the accompanying figure 7, located between the parabola p and ellipse e, is to be called Paralipse. Any line p c, located under or within the parabola^?, to be called Paracyma. In archi- tecture, cymas are generally constructed of circle-arcs, but in this case cymas are derived from parabolas. Any line e ?, extending outside of the ellipse, to be called Evolipse. In modern constructed vessels, those lines are generally distributed as follows : All water-lines of the displacement are Para- cymas, with the highest power near the keel, approaching parabolas near the load water-line, which latter may also be a Paracyma. The frames are generally Paraltpses about the mid- dle of the vessel, and terminate in Parabolas and Paracymas, in the stern and bow. Above the water, the horizontal lines are generally Parabolas in the foreship; and in the aftership, Paraltpses^ Ellipses, and Evolipses. The power q defines the line as follow : 66 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION Parabola , p = I 1 1 ^ \ r> Ellipse e, p = b (l ^\ 7: ~' V Z7 Circle, JB = K /i Y =; \ R'7 / i; n \? !> 1 Paracyma p c, 7 /^ U \ ^ i. . \ Tn 1 T v 7/1 / n \ 7 between 1 and i Paralipse p ?, fl = o (1 \ \ Zv Evolipse e I, p = b (l ^Y ^ *' In my treatise on the parabolic construction of ships, now in progress, there will be calcu- lated 5i values of the power 17, each with 90 different exponents n, making 4860 different li.nes, which will cover the most general require- ments in practice. Samples are here given. AND SHIPBUILDING. 67 SAMPLE TABLE FROM FORMULA 1. ixp. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n.-S[v e' m' t' n. .1250 .2.500 .37511 5000 .625t 7500 .8750 .5000 .3333 .25 .1337 .3020 .4443 .5705 .7065 .8232 .9257 .5555 .3461 ..-> .1815 .3505 .5050 .6464 .7701 .8750;. 9558 .6000 .3571 1.75 .2084 .3955 ( .5607 .7027 .8203 .9116 .9737 1 .6363 .3666 2 .2344 .4375 .6094 .7500 .859-1 .9375 .9844' .6666 .3750 .3021 1.333 2.25 2505 .4765 .6527 .7898 .8890 9558 .9907 .6923 .3823 .32** 1.447 2.5 - 2*3* .5129 .6912 .8232 .9149 06S7 .9945 .7142 .3*** .3502 1.562 2.75 .3073' .5466 .7251 .8013 .0320 .9779 .9967 7333 .3948 .3688 1.682 [ .3390 .57815.7558.8750 9476 9844 .9988' .7500 .4000 .3857 1.800 !25 .3521 .6074 .7*20 .8949 .05*7 .9889 .9988 .7647 .4047 .4010 1.922 3.5 .37:!:; .6346 *"70 .olU'i 9677 .9922 .0003 .7777 .4091 .4144 2.040 3.75 3939 .6600^82.*! .025*; .9747 9945 .9996 .7894 .4130 .4263 2.160 4 ' .4138 .6836 .8474 9375 9802 .9961 .9998 .8000 .4166 4376 2.285 4.5 .4517 .72(10 ,*701 .055;. .8979 .9980 .9990 8181 ,4.'30 .4570 2.534 i .4871 .7627 .9046 .9687 .9926 .0:100 B999 .8333 .4286 .4731 2.775 6 5512 .8220, 9404 .9841 .9972 .9997 1.000 .8571 .4375 .5000 3.270 r 8665 .9627 .0022 .9989 .9999 1.000 .8750 .4444 .5202 3.770 8 .6564 8999 .97('.7 1 .9996 .9999 1.000 .8888 .4500 .5354 4.272 12 7986 9683 .9964 .0007 .9999 1.000 1.000 .9231 .4643 .5768 6.275 16 8819 .9900J.9994 .0008 9999 1.000 1.000 .9412 .4720 .6060 8.273 SAMPLE TABLE FROM FORMULA 2. n. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a.Uiu t' 1 : 13(33 :625t 1406 .2500 .390(1 .5625 .7656 .3333 .2500 1.2.5 :2363 :912: : . 1074 .3350 .4002 .6777 ."8569 .3968 .2691 1.5 :3295 .112." 2547 .1170 .5934 .7656 .0136 .4500 .2860 1.75 :4342 .15'!.- 31 11 . 1938 .6729 .8310 .9481 .4949 .3000 2 :5l'i.3 .101 i .3713 .5625 .7383 8789 ,9690 .5333 3125 .2273 1.21P 2 25 :673fi .'-271 .4280 .6237 .7020 .9136 .0*15 .5(1;; 4 .3189 .2541 1.273 2 5 - :*o.-,i; .263(1 .4777 .677.7 .837J .5052 27701.335 2.75 :'.i445 .SB8S 721* .6209 MM .2979 1.402 3 5713 .8980 .642S **.. 3164 1 472 3.25 .1210 .3088 .6130 8008 .6627 .3571 .3255 1.545 35 .13!'! .40J* .6512 8311 .9844 500 1.620 .1555 .43.V 8669 ooo2 .6900 1881 1.697 4 .1712 .4673 .7181 *7*0 .7111 .3750 .:;7li5 1 773 4.5 2045 .527o 9137 .7363 .3846 .4000 1 929 5 .M" ,3929 .410(1 9 .H72:i .*5t 9690 9999 .71.12 .4517 2.407 7 .75!'- 926 |*11 .997! 1 000 .4106 .4768 2 732 8 .051' 1022 .9991 i.ooo .8366 .4250 .4962 3 060 12 .002 1. 000 .S*(il 1464 .5463 16 .98 1 0(M 1.000 .9129 ..Hi2!i .OT68 68 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION The length I from the dead flat jg to stern or stern, also the draft of water from the load-line to the base-line, are each divided into eight parts, forming the ordinates, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, in the table, counted from the stem or stern of the centre .BT, or from base line to water-line, as represented in the accompanying plate. Either table, exponent, or power, can be employed for either frames, water-lines, or displacement. Area of any water-line a or a. s cross-section .& or e. \ = j $ jy t Cubic contents of displacement D. ) which integral coefficient is contained in the column a'-Sr'i/. The depth of the centre of gravity of any cross-section, or of the displacement, or the dis- tance from the dead-flat s?, to the centre of gravity of the area of any water-line, or of the fore or aft part of the displacement, will be C V J a, JST, or D' which integral coefficient is contained in the column t'. The height of the metacentre will be 2 AND -SHIPBUILDING. 69 which integral coefficient 2 nm r --. 3 is contained in the column ra'. When the power q and exponent n are given, we have Heiht of metacentre m Momentum of stability = Q sin. v ( - - + g Y Q = weight of the vessel, and g = vertical height between the two centres of gravity. The mean angle of resistance of the vessel through water is found by the following for- mula: C / it 1 \ 2 *~ 3 T/ 3 "" 3 tang. v=q*b n 2 J (1 fr ) ^ST^' The integral coefficient of this formula is contained in the last column i' in the table. It does not appear that Chapman attempted to form the water-lines and frames of a vessel by the parabolic method. He says the area of the cross sections can be approximated by a parabola, placing the vertex at the keel ; but this cannot give a proper shape to the frame. Inasmuch as the displacement of a vessel is the integral of the areas of the water-lines and 70 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION cross-sections, and as those areas are integrals of the ordinates in the frames and water-lines, they are all convertible into one another by a common formula, which is the formula 3, and which formula, simply by placing q = 1, em- bodies ChapmaVs system completely. But by so doing, the constructor is restricted to a stiff and obstinate guide, which will not yield 'to his taste, and we have the result before us; namely, the shipbuilder assumes his indepen- dence. It would be futile to attempt to intro- duce a system of constructing ships that would not accommodate itself to the taste of the con- structor. By Chapman's system, wnen the length, breadth, depth, and the displacement are given, then the sharpness of the vessel is obdurately fixed ; while by giving an arbitrary value (as here proposed) to q, the sharpness and ease of the lines can be made to vary con- siderably, and accommodate themselves to the taste of the architect. Suppose the area, length, and breadth of the load-water-line of a vessel are given, which is substantially the same as if the displacement, dead-flat, cross-section and length were given; then Chapman's method, formula 1, will pro- duce the fixed line, say omms, fig. 8, while the formula 2 will produce any variety of lines, as AND SHIPBUILDING. 71 o Q o s, or o e e s, or if we wish to go to the ex- treme the wrong way, we can produce the line onus; in fact, the formula 3 can manipulate the displacement the same as one can work a lump of soft clay in his hands. This is a pro- perty of my parabolic system which does not yet appear to have been appreciated, but whose utility, when once fairly understood, must be universally accepted. It is not to be supposed that this short out- line of the parabolic construction embodies the full capacity of that method, for which a much more complete work would be required. When constructors become accustomed to the tables, they can readily select the proper exponents, and reason intelligibly with each other on the forms of lines and vessels. 72 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION APPLICATION. Let it be required to construct a vessel of the following dimensions: Length in the load-line, L = 325 feet. Breadth of beam, B = 40 " Draft of water from base-line, d = 18 " Let the dead flat cross-section be selected from table 1, of the exponent n = 6; then the numbers in the line 6, multiplied by half the beam b = 20 feet, will give the corresponding ordinates in the dead flat frame; and the area will be N = B d j'=40 x 18 x 0.8571 = 617.112 square feet. Let the load-water-line be selected from table 2, of exponent n = 3 ; then the numbers in the line 3, multiplied by half the beam b = 20 feet, gives the corresponding ordinates in the water-line, and the area will be a = LBa' = 325 X 40 X 0.6428=8356.4 square feet. Let the displacement be selected from table 2, and of exponent w=3.25, then the numbers in the line 3.35, multiplied by the dead-flat cross- section 3 = 617.112 square feet, will give the AND SHIPBUILDING. 73 corresponding ordinate cross-sections of the dis- placement. The cubic contents of the displace- ment will be D= m LD'=617.112 X 325 x 0.6627 = 132912 cubic feet, or 3797.4 tons. The sample tables here given do not extend so far as to allow a correct calculation of the depth of the centre of gravity of the displacement, but suppose the areas of the water-lines to progress with the exponent w=5, table 1, then the depth of the centre of gravity of the displacement will be de'=18x4286=7.7148 feet. The height of metacentre above the centre of gravity of the displacement will be 325 x20 3 x 0.3164 ~1T~ = ~ ~T829l2~~ This metacentre is very low on account of having assumed a very sharp water-line. The tangent for the mean angle of resistance will be mt r 617.112xl.472 nQ1A ~~ tang, v = - = - ~-p - = 0.310o6 Ld x 325x18 = tang. 11 33'. The actual resistance by impact and friction, the wet area of the hull of the displacement, &c. &c., are calculated by simple formulas not given in this short outline of the parabolic construc- tion. 7 74 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION Recording Formula. The form of any vessel may be recorded by one general formula, as follows : \mnqj The first factor J ^ I I represents the properties of the after-body of the displacement. w n q represents the exponent n and power q of the load- water-line ; vnq the exponent n and power q of the displacement, and I the length from the stern-post to the dead-flat sr in a fraction of the whole length L of the vessel. The second factor ( \ represents the dead-flat, or L the whole length of the vessel, b the half dead-flat breadth in the load-water- line, and d the drift of water from the base-line to the load-water-line. ]&nq represents the exponent n and power q of the dead-flat ST. The third factor I j n %' represents the pro- perties of the fore-body of the displacement; I is the length from the dead- flat N to the stem of the vessel; n and q represent the exponents n and powers q for the load- water-line and the displacement respectively; I and I may be ex- pressed in real length, as feet. AND SHIPBUILDING. 75 A well-proportioned sailing yacht may be set up as follows, with numerical values in the general formula: w3x2) AOO-I /80x8x8\ nA1Q (2.75x2. D2x2 ^ l sr3x4 ' 619 2x2. These data will enable a shipbuilder to con- struct a sailing yacht of definite shape. When constructors become accustomed to the parabolic method, they can determine with great correctness the exponent n and power q of any line at first sight, and thus enable them to record by the above formula, the form of any vessel exposed to view, from which a simi- lar vessel can afterwards be constructed. Eecords of this kind have been frequently made in shipyards by the author, of which a case may be mentioned, namely, the "Dictator" (built by Hogan & Delamater, New York), of which the following formula was recorded: Formula for the Dictator. w 5.5 X 1-75 \ Qfi / 240 X 21 X 16 \ 144 f 2.75 X 1.5 D 4.75 x 3.25 i yb V - 2.75 xO.5 ) 1 * \ 3 x 2. From these data a vessel can, at any time, be constructed similar to the "Dictator," by any one familiar with the method. The draft 16 feet is from the base-line to the under side 76 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION of guards, but she draws some four feet more water. A skilful shipbuilder may, by his empirical mode of reasoning, be able to memorize, for a short time, the form of a ship, but most likely in a clouded condition, which will soon vanish away. Recording Tables. The properties of a vessel can be more minutely and fully recorded in a table of a general form, as follows. The vessel being divided from the dead-flat js. to the stern and to the stem, also from the base-line to the load- water-line, into eight equal parts, as shown on the accompanying plate: construct the follow- ing two tables, one for the after-ship and one for the fore-ship. The data given in these ta- bles are for a steamboat. The top line s con- tains the sheer of the vessel, or height from the load-water-line to the rail, at each division or ordinate. The line R contains the ordinates for the rail, and D that of the deck. In these tables, the dimensions do not correspond with those on the plate. The line D w means a line of a plane tangenting the deck at &r, and parallel to the load-water-line; the deck-line was not shown on the drawing from which this table is *j I <x s- s AXD SHIPBUILDING. 77 made. The line Ord. contains the number of each ordinate from stem or stern to the dead- flat BE. The line w contains the ordinates for the load-water-line, and the lines 7, 6, &c. &c., contain the ordinates for the corresponding water-lines. The line o contains the half-width of throat in the base-line. The line e contains the half- areas of the ordinate cross-sections of the dis- placement. The line n contains the exponent of the frames. The line q contains the powers of the frames. The line u contains the length of each frame from the base-line to the load- water-line. The column a contains the area of each water-line, n the exponent, and q the power for the corresponding water-line. Column o con- tains the half-width of throat on the stern-post or stem ; in this case it shows that the boat is a propeller, because the throat is widest at the ordinate 4, where the propeller shaft goes through the stern-post. Columns A or F con- tain the ordinates for the throat on stern-post or stem, measured from the perpendicular. Col- umn u contains the length of the corresponding water-line from stem or stern "to the dead-flat .gr. The corner e jg? contains the half area of the greatest immersed cross-section, which, in this 7* 78 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. case, is 133.4 square feet. Corner a contains the half-displacement of the vessel from sr to stem 10000, or stern 8528 cubic feet. The corners o n and q contain the exponent and power of the displacement longitudinally ; and the corners a n and a q contain the exponent and power of the displacement vertically. The corner q q contains the mean angle of resistance 13 54', or mean angle of delivery 14 49'. The corner u u contains the wet surface of half the displacement from T& to stern or stem. The constructing draft of water and length are contained in the corners o u and u o. This form of table will suit for any shape or size of vessel. It is like a tailor's measurement of a coat. When the shipbuilder becomes ac- customed to it, he can see, at the first glance, the properties of the vessel. When thus brought to a system, forms of tables could be printed and bound in a book, for the use of shipbuilders. The general formula for this steamboat is W 3.375X0.824) Ra fi /18S.6 X W .35 X 10\ 1(V , \ 4.5x125. D 3.375 X 1.375 J 8i '" ^ jg 6. 75X1.125 ) lw $3.625X1.375. When the shape of the vessel is thus ob- tained and recorded, divide the frames as re- quired in building the ship. The formula for the steam-propellor repre- sented on the plate is W2.SXU g,,;,, /150X15X15\ c.,.07, J 2X1.18. D 2X 2 \ 65-025 AND SHIPBUILDING. 79 CO CO S5SS^S o <* -< s o o r-i I^HOOOSOSOOOO osososososoooooooo 00 os a* O 00 o oo ^ ^^5^SSS >o o ! 1 W ^ iO iO C^l C^ t ifi C^ iO t- CO 1 1-H ?s ^ ^ . 1 iO iO t>- OO cc O o c^ t o o co oo coccoocococ^c^c^ CO rH t rH i i p-H 00 00 t- t- t> - 00 OS "S CO CO o iO kf( CO M 2? CO ?5 S C? S S iO O OS -* iO ISj iOiOiOiOiO-*COOOO CO "^ "~J CN1 _ ^1 CO O OOOOOiOC^OOiOO COCNIMC^i icOCCCOiO 10 cq O IM CO OS * iO SSSSSSS 000 CO 1-H CO rH CM CN CO ^ OS sssss^sss CO iO iO C^ t^ OS * as iOiOiOiO-^-*COCOO *" ^ s I 1 O iO C^ -* OS t- OOOiOOOCOOOOO OS 00 iO vo o oo OS CO *# ^-*-*-*^COlMt-0 IM rH rH rH Tf O M >0 IO O O OOCOl IOOO31OO 00 O <O CO OS CO Tf ^COCOCOCNrHOCOO . n . OS co oo i i OO.OS 1-H OOONOOOOOO o t- N O CO IM IM OS C<1 CO 2 S rt S * *~ "* OS 1-5 O rH MI CO CO <N coNcocoSSSroS t- iO iO <O t- t- o O C<l i I r i II I 1 00 t- CD TC <N co CO .^d5 O M iO OS C^ OS coc^cotorHiooseNio 10 o i i co (M rH 1 | O rH CO COO^COCOlMrHrHO CO ^OrH 000 CO O SSOOOOiOOOOO o i-i O I 1 ooooooooo o ' rH e O ^ 03 S CM ^ 1C CO pf o -u fl S o 80 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION * ooooooowocco >o 00 10 CO O INMC^COC^rHOOO <OOO5^OOOO CC _; rH I-H e* 1-1 h o iO.ioooioir>o C^t-C^OOi-ICOr-^ ^ >o CO II i (I iMCO^'OsDOSi 1 ki iO O O O ot-t-t OONO Moocoecir5O5Ot~ >A l~ co ^ >o 2 s irt iO iO m t~ o o t~ e^ OiftC^COOMOOrH o Tl e CO ^f-*^ccese<5e^e5 CO c! ooo-^toe^w" 51 ^ rHOOOOOOirt^i IMC^II i- o<3r~ o o o oS cq M OS -0 rt O O >O C^ * rl fe) u^-^Mocq^ooo ooffoeje<5wooo>o >* iO O O t- <M CO <3 * Ml ioirjo>o>o^coo6o co 5O "~! <M o o o CO ^ rH oooooc^oomo CONMC^r-(DOC<5iO C4 lO O - ri ^ * .0 >nmio>>OTj<ccooo co ^rlS rH i 1 CO t> o >o o t-^ONeoooosoo INC^C^l iOTlrHOO CO o o co -* -0 >o>oir5O^iiTj<coooo ?q iO i i i c rH rH e* t- o e* -ji -. OtOOOC^Mi IOOO C^r-"OO5Or^t >OO '-5 >o o o t- o * o -* >o mio>o^ji-*'*'e^t-o cq ^^ rH p ( O M ^ 00 OCO-^r-lr-JOlOOO lOWi IOOM1OO5CCO 10 co >o t~ CO rH -* * ^t-^fpiccc-aot-o M OJ ' ' > -^1 OO eo * t- ot-oM<>noooo i ioo>oo;D?irjaoio N 06 e<> 10 o t~ * c* o <* eo CC(NC^Cqr-IOOO-*0 a> w^co iO 00 *O r-i 5 CO OOCDC^OiWCOOO c-os-<rooo' it-cc"5 m >o o o t~ to "* r-c IM 1 ooosoooot->oooo S t *~ o r- O rH >* O-*NiOiOb-O>^ 00 "O >O O I-H o ed rH rH " O^S^-^CONMOO $ r-i O rH 00 >0 -* 000000000 o o 10 -o o >n >n 10 o 8 Cq I-H rH ooooooooo S ^^P i o ^t-ia-^ie^i-(O 03 8 *. 8 AND SHIPBUILDING. 81 The general shipbuilding tables from formula 3, have been calculated, corrected, and rear- ranged several times. The undertaking is simi- lar to that of calculating tables of logarithms, and although equally extensive, is much more complicated, and too great a task for a single individual. The immense amount of labor which has been spent on logarithms by different mathematicians, in different countries, is well known, as also that it required some two cen- turies before they were brought to a condition of thorough reliability. Baron Napier invented the foundation of logarithms printed in his Canon Mirdbilis Lo- gariihmorum, in the year 1614, but started on an inconvenient basis, which was improved by Professor Henry Briggs in 1615, who calcu- lated our present common logarithms for the natural numbers up to 30,000, and in 1628, the logarithms for all natural numbers were com- puted for the first time up to 100,000. Since then the logarithms have been calculated over and over again by different mathematicians, who have continually discovered errors in the same, until very recently the last edition of Vega's tables has been generally accepted as correct. 82 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION The shipbuilding tables may be considered in a similar situation. The difficulty is first to calculate a complete and well-arranged set of tables, then to have them perfectly corrected and purged from errors; all of which could have been accom- plished in the Bureau of Steam-Engineering, had I only succeeded in securing for them the appreciation of the Navy Department. The individual sacrifice of labor and time necessary to perfect these tables is altogether in- conceivable by the uninitiated, and would never be compensated by the immediate sales of such a publication. I, therefore, amidst my multi- farious and pressing engagements, leave to others both the profit and distinction that may accrue from their ultimate perfection, and will cheerfully contribute my quota as a purchaser, to their cost, rather than assume this herculean labor myself. AND SHIPBUILDING. 83 CONSTRUCTOR'S OFFICE, II. S. NAVY YARD, PHILADELPHIA, Sept. 14, 1865. SIR : I have examined your proposed method of constructing ships, called the parabolic con- struction, and am of the opinion it will be very useful for the shipbuilding profession, and think it embraces, in full, the merit therein described. I am, very respectfully, Your obedient servant, W. L. HANSCOM, Naval Constructor. J. W. NYSTROM, Civil Engineer, Philadelphia. 84 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION PHILADELPHIA, Sept. 14, 1865. SIR: Having been shown the system pro- posed by you for calculating the data necessary in the construction of the models of vessels, I am of the opinion that so certain and easy a mode of ascertaining the shape and dimensions hitherto assumed by individual judgment, would be immensely valuable to the profession. And with regard to the principle on which said system is based, I have no reason, from my present knowledge of it, to doubt that by its adoption, at least a great improvement in models over the average now made would result. Very respectfully, J. VAUGHAN MERRICK. J. W. NYSTROM, ESQ. RESIGNATION. NAVY DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, D. C., July 8, 1865. SIR : I respectfully beg leave to tender my resignation as Acting Chief Engineer in the U. S. Navy. At the time the Navy Department paid me the compliment of declining a previous resig- nation (tendered on the 3d of February last), I gave as a reason that "the pay was much less than I could obtain in private employment, whilst the living was much higher in Wash- ington." However true this may have been, the real reason for tendering my resignation, both then and now, as stated to Mr. Isherwood, the Chief of the Bureau of Steam-Engineering, was that I have failed in bringing my attainments and qualifications to the notice and due appreciation of the Department. My present duties are limited, I may say, to questions of simple arithmetic, which could be 86 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION, ETC. performed by a schoolboy, whilst my engineer- ing knowledge, which is actually needed, and could be advantageously employed for the benefit of the navy and the country, is thrown away. Under a conviction that my knowledge of naval engineering would render me eminently useful, and that from the present condition of the country the Department actually requires the utilization of every possible means which could be directed to the advancement of this paramount interest, I cannot conscientiously continue on the pay-rolls of the navy whilst the class of services I am required to render are at once so unworthy of myself, and so in- adequate a requital to the government for the emolument which it so generously confers upon me. I have the honor to remain, Your Excellency's ob't serv't, JOHN W. NYSTROM, Act. Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Hon. GIDEON WELLES, Secretary of the Navy. MEMOEANDUM. WASHINGTON, July 10, 1865. THE acceptance of my resignation, tendered on the 8th inst., was received this morning. I have thus resigned a position in the navy where my professional attainments are most needed, and where my engineering knowledge could not be utilized because there was no one in the Navy Department who could appreciate or employ them. There is work in the Bureau of Steam-Engineering for a dozen engineers of my qualifications, -and there are now many good mathematicians in that Bureau who would be very glad to undertake such work as is now needed in the organization and instruction of the Engineer Cadets, but there is>no one in the Department with adequate technical knowledge to take the lead in such an important enter- prise. The Navy Department is apparently unaware that our present scientific books are not only inadequate to meet the requirements of the 88 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION day, but much of the matter existing in them is very confused, without order or classification, and some of it is not correct. Besides, many of our scientific books contain an unnecessary burden for students. In the multifarious studies required in our days by Naval Engineers, it is of great im- portance to economize their time and labor. The science of dynamics is yet in a very complicated and confused condition, without a specific meaning being attached to the terms employed. Correspondents are constantly seeking information, through scientific jour- nals, on the subject of dynamics, and invariably receive confused answers, in verification of which a few examples may be given. The Scientific American, of November 26. 1864, informs its correspondents that "the size "and weight of a fly-wheel must be in proper "proportion to the machine which it is designed " to regulate, and this is determined by observa- tion and experience; it cannot be calculated "by any mathematical rule. Within the limit "usually adopted by mechanics, our preference "is for light wheels of large diameter, rather "than for heavier ones of smaller diameter. The "regulating power of fly-wheels is in proportion AND SHIPBUILDING. 89 " to their weight multiplied by the square of " their velocity." Here it is asserted that the weight of a fly- wheel must be in proper proportion to the machine! whilst we know that many machines run well without a fly-wheel ; its sole function and office is to approach uniformity of motion by regulating alternate irregular work. The Scientific American says that "the proper size of the fly-wheel cannot be calculated." The action of a fly-wheel, however, is calculated and de- termined as easily as a simple problem in ge- ometry; but we have yet no books where this is properly explained. An English scientific journal informs its cor- respondent that " the size and weight of fly- " wheels are usually determined from practical "experiment. There is given an elaborate "theory of the fly-wheel in Moseley's Mechanical "Principles of Architecture and Engineering, but " the formulas deduced are very intricate." The formulas here quoted are complicated, because the subject is not properly under- stood. The Scientific American also for Sept. 10, 1864, informs its correspondent that " when a body "is raised slowly, the power required to over- " come the inertia is inappreciable, and must be 90 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION " disregarded in reckoning the work done. But "when the velocity is appreciable, it must be " considered in computing the work. This part " of the work is in proportion to the square of -" the velocity." Now the work required to raise a body is equal to the weight of the body mul- tiplied by the height to which it is raised, inde- pendently of velocity. The work expended on the inertia in starting the body, is re-utilized when it is brought to rest. From the Scientific American, we may infer that work is required to overcome the inertia, while the body is raised with a uniform velocity. Another correspondent is informed that " the " vis- viva, or force of a moving body, is in pro- " portion to the square of the velocity, and the " power required to impart velocity is in the "same ratio. It therefore requires an expencli- "ture of four times the force to impart double " velocity either to a projectile or to a revolving " wheel." Here force, power, and work are, as usual, confounded with each other. A force of one pound can give as much velocity to a body free to move as a force of a hundred pounds, if time be disregarded. In equal times, the force is directly as the velocity. In equal space, the AND SHIPBUILDING. 91 force is as the square of the velocity, or in- versely as the square of the time. The science of dynamics is yet in the condi- tion which geometry would be without illus- trations. Dynamical quantities are physical operations, and cannot be recognized as mate- rial or geometrical objects, but must be con- ceived from algebraical formulas. But among the very best mathematicians, there are few who can conceive the true configuration of an ob- ject when it is simply expressed in a compli- cated formula. Dynamical quantities, such as force, velocity, and time, and their combinations, into power, space, and work, can be compared with and illustrated by geometrical objects, and thus made to present a clear conception to the mind, without which it is often difficult, if not impossible. At least, I have not myself been able to form a clear conception of dynamics without the aid of adequate illustrations. It yet remains to explain and illustrate how work is accumulated in, and distributed by a fly-wheel ; how the combination and distribution of work in machinery in general is performed such as the operation of the moving mass in our present propeller-engines, which constitutes a very important item in the success of the machinery; how the work required to transport 92 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION a given cargo a given distance, in different forms of ships with different speeds is achieved; all this, yet remains a mere conjecture, is spoken of as a craft to be acquired only by experience, and the rationale of the problem has never been given. I proposed to the Engineer-in-Chief of the Navy, Mr. Isherwood, to clear up this subject of dynamics for the Naval Engineer Cadets, but the proposition was in vain. "Whatever I proposed in that quarter, whether based upon true scientific principles which could not be disputed, or upon ideas which are avowedly in successful operation in different parts of the world, was obdurately declined and invariably overwhelmed with quack reason- ing, informing me that what they already did was perfection, and that every possible idea was exhausted for ages to come. The disposition to suppose that we have reached perfection actually bars the path of progress in the Navy Department, and that illustrious Chief, with all his talent, will never progress, until he finds out that he is behind the time. By reason of a want of a proper development of the science of dynamics, even Mr. Isherwood has committed serious blunders in his elaborate AND SHIPBUILDING. 93 works on steam-engineering; a reference to one instance of which will be sufficient to jus- tify this statement. In the Engineer's Precedent, vol. 2, page 26, Mr. Isherwood divides the equivalent of horse- power 33,000 foot-pounds by Joule's dynamic equivalent of heat 772 foot-pounds; and he calls the quotient 42.7461 pounds of water raised one degree Fab.., the thermal equivalent of an indicated horse-power ! This is non- sense. The equivalent of one horse-power is a force of 33,000 pounds, moving with a velocity of one foot per minute, or the product of force and velocity; whilst the dynamic equivalent of heat is a force of 772 pounds moved through a space of one foot. But space is the product of time and velocity, for which the dynamic equivalent of heat, will be the product of the three simple elements, force, velocity, and time, which is work. Therefore, if poiver is divided by work, the quotient will be the reciprocal of time, instead of the thermal equivalent of indicated horse- power, as erroneously asserted by Mr. Isher- wood. This error is carried through his two vol- umes of Experimental Reseaches in Steam- Engi- neering, and he has based thereon some very 94 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION important calculations and decisions, on the efficiency of different kinds of coal, on the evaporative efficiency of different kinds of boilers, and on the economy of the expansion of steam ! Other engineers have thus been led into the same errors, some of which have been repeated in scientific journals. We have yet no books for the schools or colleges, which explain the difference between foot-pounds of power, foot-pounds of work, and foot-pounds of momentum. In order to clear up the science of dynamics, it will be necessary to abolish a number of useless terms which now confuse the subject and to establish a specific meaning for the terms retained. To give authority to such a proposition, I submitted a paper on the subject to the National Academy of Sciences, at its meeting last January; but the Academy de- clined to act upon it, and informed me that the subject has been sufficiently discussed. The paper submitted is as follows: AND SHIPBUILDING. 95 NAVY DEPARTMENT, BUREAU OF STEAM-ENGINEERING, WASHINGTON, Dec. 14, 1865 To the Chairman of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C. SIR: I most respectfully request that you would invite the attention of your scientific association, at its next meeting, to the enclosed papers on the science of dynamics, and oblige, Yours, most respectfully, JOHN W. NYSTROM, Engineer U. S. N. COMMUNICATION TO THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ON DYNAMICS. The science of dynamics seems yet to be in an unsettled condition, since students from different colleges and even from the same col- lege, are found to differ as regards the true meaning of dynamical terms; and our school- books seem to be unnecessarily ambiguous on that subject. Independently of the numerous terms differ- ently applied, the substance of the subject is often misconceived, and not altogether rightly 96 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION represented. This want of order and perspi- cuity in the subject is not at all due to intrinsic causes, and it would seem that the science of dynamics can be represented in a very clear and simple form. An effort to this effect is contained in the accompanying papers. ON THE ELEMENTS OF DYNAMICS. FORCE is a mutual tendency of bodies to at- tract or repel each other. Its physical consti- tution is not yet known. We only know its action, which is recognized as pressure and measured by weight. The unit of weight being assumed from the attraction of the earth upon a determined volume of any specific substance; for example, the force of attraction between the earth and 27.7 cubic inches .of distilled water, at the temperature of 39.8 Fah., in an atmosphere balancing 30 inches of mercury, at the level of the sea is called one pound avoirdupois. Force is the first element of power and work, and may be likened to length, which is a pri- mary element in geometry. Force will here be denoted by the letter F } expressed in pounds. AND SHIPBUILDING. 97 VELOCITY is the second element of power and work, and may be likened to breadth in geometry. It is that continued change of po- sition recognized as motion, and is here denoted by the letter F, expressed in feet per second. Velocity is a simple element, although it ap- pears to be dependent on time and space, but the space is divided by the time, and therefore both eliminated from the velocity. TIME is the third element of work, and may be likened to thickness in geometry. It im- plies a continuous action recognized as dura- tion. Time is here denoted by the letter T, expressed in seconds. POWEE is a function of the first two elements force F, and velocity F, as area in geometry is a function of length and breadth. Power is here denoted by P=F F, which means that the power P is the product of the force F mul- tiplied by the velocity F. The power so ob- tained is expressed in foot-pounds, and called dynamic effect, of which there are 550 in a horse-power; or, if the velocity is measured in feet per minute, there will be 33,000 foot- pounds in a horse-power. Power is independ- ent of space and time, but it has often been confounded with work, which essentially de- pends on time and space. 9 98 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION SPACE is a function of the second and third elements velocity F, and time 2\ and may be likened to a cross-section of a solid, which is a function of breadth and thickness. Space is here denoted by S= V T, which means that the space S is the product of the velocity V and the time T, expressed in linear feet. WORK is a function of the three elements force F, velocity V, and time T. It may be likened to a solid in geometry which has the three dimensions, length, breadth, and thick- ness. Work is here denoted by K=F V T, which means that the work Kis the product obtained by multiplying together the three elements force F, velocity F, and time T. Work may be denoted by K = F S, or the product of the force F multiplied by the space S, where it appears as if the work was inde- pendent of time, but the time is included in the space S = F T. Work may also be denoted by K= P T, which means the power P multiplied by the time jP. Either of the three cases expresses the work in foot-pounds. Force, velocity, and time are simple physical elements. Power, space, and work are functions or products of those elements. AND SHIPBUILDING. 99 It appears that F V T is the mathematical definition of a trinity of physical elements which governs the -material universe. All acj|jon of whatever kind, whether mechanical, chemical, or derived from light, heat, electricity, or magnetism ; all that has been, and is to be done or undone, is comprehended by this triume function, F VT. It is omnipotent, ubiquitous, and eternal. I am, at present, stationed in the Bureau of Steam-Engineering of the U. S. Navy Depart- ment, where occasions have often arisen to discuss the subject of dynamics with naval en- gineers, some of whom have studied Moseley's, Bartletfs, or WeisebacKs Mechanics ; and yet most of them not only differ with me, but also disagree amongst themselves regarding the precise meaning of dynamical terms. They all seem to agree that time is included in power, but that time is not included in work. Their argument runs thus : " The unit of power is " 33,000 Ibs., lifted one foot per minute, whilst " the unit of work is one pound lifted one foot, " independent of time" Some of them do not recognize the term power, and say that power is work done in a certain time. My own argument is, that space is the pro- duct of time and velocity ; and when we say per minute or per any unit of time in the ex- 100 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION pression of horse-power, meaning a force of so many pounds raised so many feet in a given tirrie, we divide the space by the time, and the result is only force and velocity, the time beiiig eliminated, as appears in the formulas follow- ing. The popular expression of power is But when S=VT we have P - FVT = p y t or T disappearing, and power thus contains no time. Work is generally known to be the ope- ration of raising a given weight to a given height, as a force passing through a given space. But this height or space cannot be attained without time and velocity its consti- tuent elements as before stated. The popular conception of work is but when S we have K=F VT, or time is one element in work. I am the author of a pocket-book of mechanics and engineering, of which a copy accompanies AND SHIPBUILDING. 101 this paper. This book is now to be found in most parts of the civilized world. It was compiled when I was a boy, and as soon as time and means will allow, it is my intention to rearrange the whole book, adding much valuable matter which has not heretofore ap- peared in print, and putting the subject of dynamics into some kind of standard form. But before so doing, I wish to consult the National Academy of Sciences as to what dy- namical terms are to be accepted as proper. The first question stands thus Elements? Functions? Force = F? Power P=F V? Velocity - V? Space S VT? Time = T? Work K=F VT? Is it right to consider F, V, and T as ele- ments ? Is it right to denominate P, S, and K func- tions ? Are power P, space S, and work K, com- posed, as indicated by the above formulas ? In chemistry the combination of simple ele- ments is called "a compound." By what corre- sponding term can we denominate the combi- nation of physical elements ? In mathematics a function is called any 9* 102 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION quantity obtained by whatever process or ope- ration indicated by a formula. Accordingly a simple element might be called a function, although it is self-evident that a simple ele- ment by itself cannot be considered a function. or When V=jf,, can we not say that the function S is resolved into its elements? Let a constant force F, act on a body of weight TF, in the direction of the arrow. F and W being measured by the same unit of weight, and no other force acting on W; then we know that the acceleratrix of the force F will be - w when g = 32.166, the acceleratrix of the force of gravity at the surface of the earth. Let the force F act for any length of time T, then we know from the law of gravity, that the velocity attained will be V= GT. Let v denote the velocity at any time t, then the power in operation will be AND SHIPBUILDING. 103 and the differential work will be but v= Gt and dK=FGtdt, the work FGt 3 2 Let the work be integrated from t = o to have FGT* . K=- r > . . . 1 which are the three forms of work accom- plished by the force F acting on a body W. We know that F= - , which inserted 9 in the above formulas, will give the same work, expressed by the weight of the moving body. 9 WG-VT 104: TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION These formulas give the three forms of work concentrated in a moving body W. We have thus six different formulas expressing the same work K. Cannot this work be denomi- nated by one generic term ? The case is the same for all circular motion, where F=-4?r^ r= radius of gy ration oU n= revolutions per minute. Vis-viva, or living force, expressed by AT F 2 , seems to be the most unfortunate term in dynamics, as it has caused so much controversy and confusion. When H means the mass of a moving body, the term M V 2 represents double the work concentrated therein^ the true work being that represented by formula six. 17s- viva is, therefore, substantially the same as work. In fact, if vis-viva means living force, there is no more vis-viva in a moving mass than in one at rest, and therefore it does not express what it means. It requires F F^Tand nothing else to set a body in motion. It requires FVT and nothing else to bring a moving body to rest. It is F V T and nothing else that can change the motion of a body. F being an external force, equal to the force of inertia in the moving body. I would, therefore, pro- AND SHIPBUILDING. 105 pose to reject the term vis-viva in its present acceptation in dynamics. In the estimate of foot-pounds of power, I have made a deviation from Watt's rule. The unit 33,000 pounds raised one foot per minute I think is very unnatural. A velocity of only one foot per minute cannot be clearly con- ceived; it is only 0.2 or of an inch per second, the velocity of a snail; on the other hand the weight of 33,000 pounds, or about 15 tons, is too large, and very few can form a clear conception of its magnitude. A horse cannot lift directly a weight of 15 tons ; the ordinary pull of a horse is 200 to 300 pounds, and a horse cart-load is about one ton. Therefore it is my humble opinion that the foot-pounds of power ought to be brought nearer the ordi- nary performance of a horse, or one pound lifted one foot per second as a foot-pound, of which there will be 550 foot-pounds per horse power. A velocity of one foot per second is conceivable, and 550 pounds can be lifted by a horse. This kind of foot-pounds is used in most parts of Europe. The Swedish horse- power is 600, and the German 513 foot-pounds. Would it not, therefore, for the reason stated, be better to call a horse-power 550 foot-pounds, instead of 33,000? Would it not be well, also, 106 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION to establish an additional unit for work? One pound raised a space of one foot is called one unit of work, by which the labor a man is capa- ble of performing in a day, will be represented in millions. The power of an ordinary man is about fifty pounds raised with a velocity of one foot per second, which will amount to between one and two millions of foot-pounds of work in one day. Let us assume the work accomplished by one horse-power in a time of one hour to be a unit for physical work ; which will be the same as that of eleven men working one hour, or that of one man working one day of eleven hours. In order to clearly distinguish this unit from that of power, let it be called a workmanday, which means a man's day's work. A workmanday expressed in force and space will be 550x3600=1,980,000 foot-pounds. All kinds of work can be estimated in work- mandays, such as building a house, steamboat, or a bridge, digging a canal, ploughing the ground, steam-boiler and gunpowder explo- sions, the capacity of heavy ordnance, &c. &c. Would it be proper, then, to introduce such unit as this for work? The National Academy of Sciences declined to answer the foregoing questions at the time, AND SHIPBUILDING. 107 and as I do not feel disposed to lay the subject aside, have now published the same in my Pocket-Book of Mechanics and Engineering, and hope the Academy of Sciences, at its conve- nience, will give me the benefit of its criticisms. The attention of our scientific men seems to be wholly absorbed in the polarized light, the compound microscope, and spectrum analysis; which indeed are very interesting subjects, and we hope may ultimately lead to the revelation of the physical constitution of light, heat, and force, and thereby relieve us from our present method of generating power by means of the cumbrous steam-boiler. But they have gone so far and deeply into the sciences that they have left us practical engineers far behind, toil- ing in the dark, and when we hail them we receive no answer. If we could only succeed in bringing steam- engineering under the compound microscope, or if it would produce a line in the spectrum, it might be profoundly analyzed by our scien- tific professors. But although our naval engi- neering was magnified some thirty millions ($ ?) in the case of the light draft monitors, a certain Fox was not detected in it, whilst in the spec- trum he could not possible have escaped making a line. 108 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION In a period when steam-engineering is not considered sufficiently important, or is not sufficiently advanced, for the Corps of Naval Engineers to be worthy to be represented in the National Academy of Sciences, we cannot expect the members of such an 'Academy to be familiar with, or to appreciate what is wanted in the practical operation of machinery, with which they have no connection. The science of dynamics is represented in its simple form in the tenth edition of Nystrom's Pocket Book, but the space is there so crowded that it does not admit of full explanation with illustrations. About a year ago, when I told Captain Fox that I had some valuable matter on hand which would be useful for the naval engineer cadets, he answered, "If you have anything " new, you just take out a patent for it ; we have " a patent office for that purpose." Captain Fox then also told me about what Democratic Governments do not do, and what Monarchical Governments do do, very much in the style of his previous observation. I wish Captain Fox to know that I believe myself to have a better opinion of a Democratic or Republican form of Government than lie has. My humble proposition had nothing whatever to do with the form of Government. Captain AND SHIPBUILDING. 109 Fox, however, left the impression on me that his ideas about Monarchical Governments are what he has learned in Shakspeare, and as it was in Europe a hundred years ago. The Navy Department is now attempting to reorganize the Corps of Naval Engineers. Captain Fox tries his best to subordinate the engineers to the Line Officers, and the engineers in the Department strain their efforts to secure rank and position, all with self-interest in view, but no proposition seems to be offered to pre- pare the new corps of engineers (by receiving the proper learning) to maintain with dignity whatever rank and position may be assigned to it. Give the corps a thorough technological education, and it will become able to take care of itself respecting rank and position ; for in the present feeble conception of the value and importance of mechanical skill and of the range of knowledge in steam-engineering pre- valent in the Navy Department, it is useless to argue about questions of rank, position, and responsibility of the corps of engineers. The Washington Navy Yard contains a very extensive mechanical establishment for -the building of marine engines and boilers, the superintendence of which is now intrusted to a mechanic brought up in that place, and with 10 110 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION no further scientific education. However ac- complished this mechanic might be in his limited profession, he cannot possibly fulfil the requirements of such an establishment in con- nection with the different mechanic arts and sciences which it involves; neither can he command the respect requisite in the proper execution of such a responsible office. These remarks were made in the Navy De- partment, and were answered thus: "All the drawings are made here in minute details, and there is no more knowledge necessary in the yard than to follow the drawings." Such expressions of disregard for the know- ledge required in the execution of work were frequently met with. The Navy Department, where the drawings are made, is some three miles from the yard where the work is executed. The chief draughtsman visits the works perhaps once a week, and remains there an hour or two, which is considered a sufficient connection between the drawing-room and the workshops. The absurdity of this arrangement can well be con- ceived, for we know by experience, in well- regulated establishments, that for the proper execution of the drawings, in regard to economy AND SHIPBUILDING. Ill and utility in the work, the draughtsman re- quires constant access to the patterns, pattern- shop, and to the different branches of the es- tablishment ; and that there is constant con- sultation going on between the draughtsmen and the foremen in these different branches. In Washington these parties are separated by a distance of several miles, in consequence of which the character of the design, the economy and the progress of the work, suffer consider- ably. However able or talented draughtsmen or engineers may be when entering the Navy Department, they will soon be spoiled, which is readily evinced in their fancy design of ma- chinery with mouldings and ornaments, not to be found nowadays outside the Bureau of Steam-Engineering. These draughtsmen, I believe, are all En- gineers in the Corps, and seem to display a goodly array of talent. Many of them have received collegiate educations, are accomplished mathematicians, and well versed in the physical sciences, but for want of a technological educa- tion, they are naturally deficient in the applica- tion of their scientific knowledge; and much of what they would be able to apply and cultivate, cannot be utilized when thus separated from 112 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION the field where the seed of their education ought to be planted. The Navy Department is now about to pump steam-engineering into Line Officers at the Na- val Academy, Annapolis, and to make engine- drivers (as they call it) out of ensigns, masters, and midshipmen, by sending them to sea, and having them stand watch in the engine-room ; by which means it is expected to make steam- engineers in the space of two years! How easy the Navy Department must think steam-en- gineering to be! This mode of making steam- engineers is surely the greatest invention of the age; and Captain Fox, the ostensible au- thor of it, had better take out a patent for that bubble before it bursts; "we have a patent office for that purpose." During the war Captain Fox kept in his room models of machinery and vessels sub- mitted by civilians to the Navy Department. He decided what was to be done and not to be done in questions of naval engineering. He undertook to superintend the construction of vessels in the Bureau of Construction. He selected models for the constructors to make drawings of. Now, for the sake of argument, let us sup- pose that Captain Fox is, by nature, gifted with AND SHIPBUILDING. 113 a peculiar faculty which enables him to guess which model of vessel is best for a desired purpose. A vessel is built from that model, and proves to be satisfactory or not. Neither Captain Fox nor the constructors in the navy are yet able to judge or record the peculiarities of that vessel, in form of scientific arguments, why it did or did not come up to what was anticipated. In case it proved to be a good vessel, there might still never be another one built like it, and Captain Fox's superintendence will thus only satisfy his own personal ambition, without leaving recorded and permanent results for the future benefit of the navy. Now if Captain Fox had allowed the intro- duction of the science of shipbuilding into the Department, the achievements of his own talent 'might have been recorded and perpetuated for the benefit of the country. In my humble judgment, I believe Mr. Len- thal has attained great perfection in the con- struction of ships, for which reason I was very anxious to give his lines a scientific investiga- tion, but he would not allow me to see his best drawings. The ship's drawings intrusted to me in the Department, through the request of Mr. Isherwood, for information required in the Bureau of Steam-Engineering, were of some 10* 1 14 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION twelve different vessels, of which only two were of Mr. Lenthal's construction. It appeared that Mr. Lenthal would not allow me to explore his late ships' drawings, even at the request of Mr. Isherwood. The engineers in the Depart- ment are not allowed to see the ship's draw- ings, except through the kindness of some clerks, who, in Mr. Lenthal's absence, ran the risk of letting some of them be seen. I did not avail myself of such an opportunity, for although I have the highest regard for Mr. Lenthal as a constructor and shipbuilder, his drawings would not warrant such a proceeding on my part. The engineers in the Department generally evince a strong appetite for learning, and when I received some few old ships' drawings from the Bureau of Construction, they generally surrounded them with a manifest anxiety to gather information, and remarked that "it " must have broken Mr. Lenthal's heart to have "given these drawings out of his office." In case it were the policy of the Government to keep their ships' drawings secret from a de- sire to promote the interest of the country, I would heartily acquiesce; but it is a question of considerable importance whether such a AND SHIPBUILDING. 115 policy would not act detrimentally rather than otherwise. If a knowledge of shipbuilding is to be re- stricted only to a chosen few constructors in the navy, it would be by a rare accident 'only that those of adequate capacity would be hit upon, while if thrown generally open, it would scarcely fail to reach many whose talent in that particular would be unquestionable. In reality, this attempt at secrecy is a folly, for in view of the conspicuous enterprise and fertility of the American mind, we need not fear to be behind the time by a liberal diffusion of useful knowledge, for unless we sow, there can be no harvest. The farther we look back on the art of ship- building, the more secret it appears to have been kept, until, at the present time, some of our first shipbuilders not only freely expose their draw- ings to observation, but even allow them to be published. The lines of the fastest and best of the Eu- ropean steamers, namely, the "Persia," and others, are published in McKensy's Shipbuild- ing, and those of the "Scotia" also are published in Scott Russel's work. The sloop of war of the Wampanoag class, intended for great speed, we have reason to 116 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION suppose, have the most perfect lines of the day, which, in connection with their intended great propelling power, afford a very interesting field for scientific investigation, the result of which might be of great value to the Corps of En- gineers, but will now probably be lost to them through a personal jealousy. This jealousy is by no means limited to the Navy Department, but is met with in all direc- tions, and frequently intercepts scientific in- quiry. It is an epidemic disease which can be cured only by technological education. * Once, in a scientific meeting, efforts to ex- plain the science of steamboiler explosions, and how to prevent the same, were silenced by the president of the meeting calling me to the chair and whispering, "Don't say anything about " boiler explosions." The discussion was ac- cordingly dropped and lost. An explanation of the cause of steamboiler explosions is a question demonstrably within the reach of science, as much so as a problem of geome*?ry. In many cases explosions are indicated a long time before they occur, and could be easily prevented. The terrible explosion on board the steamer Sultana, on the Mississippi, and a great many other similar disasters, were indi- AND SHIPBUILDING. 117 cated several hours before they occurred, all of which could have been prevented, and a great number of lives saved. ON STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS. It has hereinbefore been explained what is meant by work, namely, the product of the three simple physical elements force F, velocity V, and time T, or work K=FVT. . 1 The heat required to elevate the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fah. is as- sumed to be one unit of heat, and found to be equivalent to the dynamic effect of 772 foot- pounds ; or one unit of heat can raise 772 pounds one foot, or one pound to a height of 772 feet. The heat in the steam and water in a steam- boiler is equivalent to such a proportion of work, or the steam-boiler is a reservoir of work which is generally dealt out in homoeopathic doses to work a steam-engine. But when the entire stored work, K=FVT, is suddenly started, as in the case of the bursting of a boiler, the steam and water in the form of a foam, im- pelled by the heat, performs a proportionate 118 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION destruction in the explosion, the force of which will be From this formula we see that the less time occupied by the explosion the greater will the force be, or if the time is infinitely small, the force of the explosion will be infinitely great. It has been assumed that explosive gases are sometimes formed in steam-boilers, which cause explosions; but the concentrated work in the steam and water is amply sufficient to perform the destruction without the aid of any further explosive gas. DESTRUCTIVE WORK OF STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSION. When steam-boiler explosions take place, the inclosed water is resolved into one volume of boiling hot water, and one volume of steam, as follows : Notation of Letters Prior to Explosion. W' = total weight in pounds of the water in the boiler under full steam pressure. AND SHIPBUILDING. 119 w f = pounds of water evaporated in the ex- plosion. h = units of heat per pound in the water W. 11= units of heat per pound in the steam of pressure P. H' = units of heat per cubic foot in the steam P. P = pressure of steam in pounds per square inch. V = volume coefficient of steam. Then the water evaporated in the explosion will be 82.8 The destructive work K of the explosion will be in foot-pounds. -1.6848298) ... 4 By exemplifying this formula, it will be found what an enormous destructive energy there exists in steam-boilers. For values of the letters, and also examples, see Nystrom's Pocket-Book, tenth edition. When the steam pressure in any part of a boiler is suddenly removed, the entire work concentrated therein is started with a violence 120 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION proportioned to the removed pressure, and the steam and water, in the form of a foam, strike the sides of the boiler, by which the work is suddenly arrested. If the time of arresting the work is infinitely small, we see from the formula 2, that the force of the work will be infinitely great, and thus the boiler ex- plodes. The sudden removal of pressure, which in- variably leads to the explosion, is derived either from bursting or by collapse of some part of the steam-boiler; for instance: 1st. By long use boilers become corroded and give way in some unexpected place, which ought to have been detected by inspection, or in cleaning. 2d. The general construction with staying and bracing of steam-boilers is often very care- lessly executed and results in explosion. This kind of explosion is often indicated, long before the accident occurs, by leakage of the boiler ; when the engineer, not suspecting the approaching danger, limits his remedies gene- rally at efforts to stop the leak. The leakage from bad calking or packing is easily distin- guished from that of bad or insufficient bracing. In the latter case the fire ought to be hauled out, the steam blown off very slowly and carefully, AND SHIPBUILDING. 121 so as to make as little disturbance in the work as possible, or it would be safest to work off most of the steam by the engine; after which the boiler should be secured by proper bracing.* * TERRIBLE STEAMBOAT DISASTER. Memphis, March 5. The R. J. Loci-wood, bound from New Orleans to St. Louis> exploded, about seven o'clock last evening, while eighteen miles below this city, and afterwards burned until she sunk. She was inspected at New Orleans on last Wednes- day, and pronounced seaworthy. After running a day or two her boilers were discovered to be in a leaky condition. Captain Howard proposed to the engineer to stop at Helena and repair, but the engineer thought it unnecessary until the boat should arrive at Memphis. Thus the delay proved fatal. The explosion tore away the cabin as far back as the centre, killing twenty persons instantly, and scalding, wounding, or otherwise injuring about twenty- five others. Fortunately the At. S. Mepham was coming down at the time, and rendered most timely aid to the distressed passengers and officers of the boat. As the Lockwood caught fire immediately, the Mepham rounded to and landed her bow against the stern of the ill-fated steamer, thus saving every person not killed by the ex- plosion. A number of cabin passengers, crew, cooks, and negro firemen were lost ; but their names are not known. All the lady passengers, besides the two chambermaids, were saved. I think the number of killed amounts to forty or fifty, as survivors state there were a number of deck hands and deck passengers on the lower deck, who were killed by the explosion, and whose names are unknown. St. Louis Republican. 11 122 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 3d. Explosions are sometimes caused from low water in the boiler, but more rarely than generally supposed. When the fire-crown and tubes are subjected to a strong heat and not covered with water, the steam does not ab- sorb the heat fast enough to prevent the iron from becoming too hot so that it cannot with- stand the pressure, but softens and collapses. Sometimes, when the boiler bursts, the tubes and flues may also collapse by the force of ex- plosion, when it has been erroneously supposed that the explosion was caused from such col- lapse. 4th. Steam-boilers often burst by strain in uneven expansion or shrinkage, occasioned by the fire being too quickly lighted or extin- guished. Explosions of this kind frequently occur on Saturday nights or Monday morn- ings, or before or after a holiday. The reason for this is, that on Saturday nights the engi- neer generally puts out the fire too quickly in his haste to go home, by which the most heated part of the boiler is too suddenly Cases of this kind are occurring over and over again. It is perfectly clear that the engineer on the steamer Lock- wood did not understand the character of the leak, and he was most probably unfamiliar with the rudiments of the operating natural principles involved in the subject. AND SHIPBUILDING. 123 cooled, and may burst in too rapidly shrinking. On Monday mornings the engineer may be late, and in his hurry to get up steam in time, throws in dry shavings or wood which heats the flues or tubes in the boiler too rapidly whilst other parts remains cool, when the unequal expansion thus occasioned may strain some parts sufficiently to burst, and explosion follows. Throughout the week the fire is not hauled out but tossed against the bridge and fresh coal thrown on the top of it in the evenings, where it will remain and keep the boiler hot until started for work the next morning. 5th. It is a very bad practice to make boiler ends of cast iron, composed of a flat disk of from two to three inches thick, with a flange of from one to two inches thick with cast rivet- holes. The first shrinkage in the cooling of such a plate causes a great strain, which is in- creased by riveting the boiler to it. Any sud- den change of temperature, therefore, either in starting or putting out the fire, might crack the plate and thus occasion an explosion. Such accident may be avoided by making the cast- iron ends concave and of even thickness. 6th. In cold weather, when the boilers have been at rest for some time, they may be frozen 124 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION full of ice, then when the fire is made in them some parts are suddenly heated and expand, whilst other parts still remain cold, causing an undue strain, which may also burst the boilers. Such accident can be avoided by a slow and cautious firing. 7th. Sometimes a great many boilers are joined together by solid connections of cast-iron steam-pipes, which expand when heated, whilst the masonry inclosing the boilers contracts. Should such a steam-pipe burst from expansion or shrinkage, explosion will likely follow in all the connected boilers, of which numerous ex- amples have occurred. Such accident may be avoided by making the connections elastic, or free to expand or contract without straining the boilers. The fragments of one exploded boiler striking the next, also cause continued explo- sions of several boilers.* Steam-boiler explosions are thus not always caused by pressure of steam alone, but often by expansion and contraction of the materials of the boiler. A boiler which is perfectly safe with a working pressure of 200 pounds may explode with a pressure of only 20 pound's to the square inch. * Such a case occurred lately at Harrisburg, I'eun., where eight boilers exploded in one succession. AND SHIPBUILDING. 125 Four hundred and ninety lives were lost by boiler explosions in this country from the fifth of January to the ninth of February, 1866. If the president who stopped my discus- sion on steam-boiler explosion, were seated on the top of a boiler when it exploded, and were blown up a few hundred feet in the air, and came down corrifortably and unhurt, it would be interesting to ascertain whether he would stop a discussion on steamboiler explo- sion at the next meeting, or if he would not like to know how it happened ? It will perhaps be remarked that it is very improper to take so much upon myself, and speak so plainly about all these things, as has been done in this book, but I have been kept so long in silence, whilst the neglect and igno- rance which still control the subject have con- signed so many thousands of souls to heaven, and so many millions of dollars in the opposite direction, that these protestations cannot be suppressed. The appropriate remedy for the evil is THE ESTABLISHMENT OF TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITU- TIONS THROUGHOUT THE LAND. 11* A EEYIEW SUBJECT OF SCREW PROPELLERS. The screw propeller has at length become such a familiar instrument, that every engineer knows how to construct one. It is frequently declared to have reached perfection, and it h;is even been said that "sufficient has been written to put this subject in a true light;" nevertheless, the writer has no apology to offer for bringing forward the following views on this hackneyed theme. The common straight-bladed screw will Grst be considered ; afterwards the same with ex- panding pitch; and then the different forms of curve-bladed screws in like manner. It will not be necessary, in this article, to enter into minute details of the construction of the screw, as the same will be found in a practical treatise on the subject now in prepa- ratoin for the press. Plain Screw Propeller riate tt. SHIPBUILDING. 127 TO CONSTRUCT A PLAIN SCREW PROPELLER WITH A UNIFORM PITCH. (PLATE II.) Draw the line a b (Plate II.), and the lines c d and e c' at right angles thereto. Draw the circumference of the propeller, fig. 2, with the given diameter D ; divide the quadrant o' c' into any number (say eight) equal parts, and num- ber them as show a in the figure. Set off from o, fig. 1, one-quarter of the assumed pitch P, and divide it into an equal number of parts with that of the quadrant o' c'. Draw from each division point the rectangular ordinates 8', 7', 6', 5', 4', &c. &c., and the intersection of those by lines of equal numbers will constitute points in the helix of the screw. Repeat the same operation with the hub, and draw the two helixes 8' n o m, and r s o t, as shown in the figure. Set off the assumed length L, fig. 1, then project n o m, to n' o' ra', fig. 2 ; join n' and m' with the centre C, which thus forms one blade of the propeller. Com- plete the assumed number of blades (say four), then the curve or helix g' c' h f , fig. 2, projected on fig. 1, will appear as g c h, so that c g = c h = 8' 7' G'. Let v denote the projecting angle of each blade, then 128 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION P : L ~ 360 : F. Pitch P=?^, . . . 1 The angle of the blades with the axis of the propeller, at the periphery, will be and Pitch P= " . . . tang. W TO CONSTRUCT A PROPELLER WITH A COMPOUND EXPANDING PITCH. (PLATE III.) The pitch of a propeller may expand in the direction of the axis as well as in the direction of the radius or generatrix. Let the generatrix have a uniform motion around the axis, and an accelerated motion in the direction of the axis; then the pitch will expand in the direction of the axis. When the generatrix has a quicker motion in the direction of the axis at the peri- phery than at the axis, then the pitch will be expanding in the direction of the radius or gen- eratrix, and when the pitch is composed of the two expansions, it may be denominated a com- pound expanding pitch. Propeller with tlxpanditig Pilch, PIM. \ AND SHIPBUILDING. 129 The propelling energy of the blades near the hub of the propeller is very inconsiderable, and acts mainly to agitate the water, for which reason it has been proposed to construct pro- pellers, so that the pitch at the periphery is to the pitch at the hub, as the velocity of the pitch of the periphery is to the velocity of the ship : so that the water will pass through at the hub without being further disturbed. Having given, say the diameter, D = 12 ft. ; length, L = 3 ft. ; mean pitch, P = 18 ft. ; it is proposed to con- struct a propeller with a compound expanding pitch. (Plate III.) Draw the centre lines a Z>, c d, and c' d r . Cal- culate from formula 2, the angle tang.TF= 8 - 14 * 12 = 2.0933 = tang. 69 30', lo the angle required. Draw the arc W, fig. 1, and set off' the angle 17= 64 30' = n o o r \ draw the dotted line n o m. Set off the length L = 3 feet. Draw from n and w, the lines n p and m q, parallel to a b. Assume the pitch to expand from 16 feet at w, to 20 feet at n, then calculate the angles w and w' from formula 2. tang.z0' = 8 ' 14 * = 2.356 = tang. 67 130 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION tang.w - 8 ' 14 * 12 = 1.884 = tang.62 Set off the angles w and w r , as shown in fig. 1 ; draw the dotted lines t r and r t'. Draw a curved line n e m, which will tangent t r at ?i, and t' r at m, then n e m forms the outer edge of the propeller, bladed with the required ex- panding pitch. Draw the circumference of the propeller fig. 2, project n to n' and m to m'. Draw the curved generatrix about as o r h C. Draw from n' and m' the genatrixes h' and h" of the same curve as h so that they meet on the other side of G somewhere at i; then the helicoidal surface G h' n' o f m' h" forms the blade of the required compound expanding pitch. A propeller of this construction will not be a true screw, on account of the generatrixes k' and h" not meeting in the centre G. The error is greatest in the centre or near the hub. But when the blades are fashioned off', as shown on the plate, the error is inappreciable in practice. This kind of propeller is now made to the ex- tent of hundreds or perhaps thousands, by one of the most experienced firms in this country, namely Neafie & Levy, of Philadelphia. Although the construction is not conducted strictly as here described, their propellers are AND SHIPBUILDING. 131 substantially the same, for on account of their great experience the patterns are got up entirely by "rule of thumb," and generally produce good propellers, which have the additional ad- vantage (so much sought for) of having " no science in them." They have on hand a great number of patterns of different diameters. When, therefore, a screw is ordered, they select the pattern of nearest diameter, and the difference, if any, is cut out or filled in, in the mould. They rarely ever make a drawing of a screw; but when an order is given for one, the draughts- man gets the required angle W of the blade at the periphery from a diagram constructed for that purpose. The draughtsman writes down the diameter of the propeller, the angle of the blade, the diameter and bore of the hub, on a printed form of card, which is given to the moulder, who then, as before stated, selects the nearest pattern. The blades on the patterns are generally made loose so that they can be set at the desired angle, which is done by an instrument com- posed of a spirit-level and a graduated circle arc. The angle and pitch are thus adjusted with greater precision in the foundry, than by 132 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION the draughtsman from the diagram. The angle of the blades at the hub, in such a method, is not considered of any importance, in relation to that at the periphery. THE U. S. NAVY PROPELLER AS CONSTRUCTED BY CHIEF ENGINEER B. F. ISHERWOOD. Plate IV. represents the propeller constructed in the U. S. navy department for a great many years past. The generatrix for the screw is a circle arc with the centre c, fig. 1 ; but the generatrix at right angle to the axis is a curved line a m b. Either of those generatrixes will generate the same helicoidal surface, or if the propeller was made straight like a m bfn d, fig. 1, the blade would appear a m bf n d, fig. 2, that is to say, that ithe part a m b c is taken off and put on the blade at d ef n, the same propeller would appear as the dotted lines, whilst the direction of the helicoidal surface, and the propelling efficiency of the propeller, would in both cases be the same, because the outer configuration of the blades (as stated by Mr. Isherwood) does not affect the propelling efficiency. Mr. Isherwood says in his Engineer Prece- Cent. Prop.KxpJ^itcli U SK TIM AND SHIPBUILDING. 133 dents, vol. i. page 96 r "The only improve- ment possible on the true screw of uniform length from hub to periphery, is that due to the use of an expanding pitch or curved directrix." I ftave examined Mr. Isherwood's propeller, which, *as it has found a place in the Navy, appears worthy of a few remarks. The peculiarity of Mr. Isherwood's screw con- sists in the formation of the helicoidal surface by a curved generatrix, instead of a straight gene- ratrix, as usually employed. It may be necessary to define what is meant by a generatrix. Let any right line whatever be taken and called the axis of the helicoid or screw, and let any other line curved or straight of definite length be taken, lying at any incli- nation to the axis, and with one extremity touching the axis; this line is the generatrix of the helicoid when it is moved simultaneously with a rotary speed around the axis, and a rectilineal speed along the axis. As previously remarked, Mr. Isherwood uses a curved line for the generatrix, instead of a straight line, as usually used; and the object .of using the curved generatrix is (appa- 12 134: TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION rently) to prevent the alleged loss of effect, caused by the centrifugal force imparted by the rotary motion of the helicoidal surface to the particles of water' with which it is in con- tact. Before proceeding to cure an alleged evil, it may be advisable to ascertain if it exist, and to what extent. If the helicoid had no slip, and moved through water a distance equal to its pitch per revolution, there evidently could be no cen- trifugal force communicated to the water in contact with it, for as the helicoid continuously advanced, it would no sooner press any mole- cule of water than the pressure on that mole- cule would be removed by the advance of the helicoid. The helicoid in this case would be in contact with the molecule but an infinitely short time, and of course could endow it with no centrifugal motion. But if the helicoid have slip, the effect of that slip is to keep the molecule of water in contact with the helicoid for a time proportionate to the slip, and conse- quently to endow it with a proportional cen- trifugal force. If the slip be considerable, the throwing off of the water at the periphery of the helicoid may become sensible, in conse- quence of that force and the property of water to escape by the easiest road. This effect AND SHIPBUILDING. 135 was observed in the experiments of Taurines, which were performed on fixed screws, not ad- vancing rectiliueally, but having only a rotary motion on the axis; by which arrangement the slip amounted to unity. The amount of centrifugal force imparted to the particles of water by the rotating helicoidal surface in con- tact with them was, however, very trifling, even under the most favorable condition of maximum slip ; for the very effect of that slip was to dis- charge the water from the helicoid, the vacuity being filled by fresh water flowing in. Having thus determined the existence of a small amount of this centrifugal force, and the condition of slip modifying it; let us inquire whether, even in the event of the amount of this force becom- ing considerable, there would result any loss of effect. And, first, what would be the nature of that loss of effect, if any exists? It would be shown in the increased slip of the screw, for the follow- ing reason. The water being thrown off radi- ally in all directions from the axis by the centrifugal force communicated to it by the re- volving screw, there would be a vacuum about the axis, provided the centrifugal force forming the vacuum exceeded the force with which the surrounding water would flow in to fill it, and 136 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION the resistance to the screw would be decreased in proportion to the extent of their vacuum ; that is, the slip of the screw would be increased. The loss of effect, therefore, due to this centrifugal force would be measured by the increased slip of the screw. But if the water flowed into the vacuum as fast as it was formed, the resistance to the screw would evidently remain the same as though there were no centrifugal force in action; and this is what actually occurs in practice. Let it then be considered the depth to which the axis of a thirteen feet diameter screw (mean size) is immersed, and the consequent pressure of water about it, and then the slip found in practice ranging from fifteen to thirty per cent, for maximum, and it will be seen how enormously the effect of any centrifugal force must be exaggerated to make it productive of a vacuum at the axis of the screw. Supposing now a centrifugal force to be given to the molecules of water in contact with the helicoidal rotating surface of any amount less than requisite to produce a vacuum at the axis; would it be attended with loss of effect by the screw? Evidently not, for the following rea- son : With a straight generatrix touching the axis, AND SHIPBUILDING. % 137 the lateral component of the oblique surface of the screw if tangential to a cylinder, by which the screw may be supposed to be enveloped ; or is at right angles to the radii of that cylinder. With a straight generatrix touching an inner cylinder, having a common axis with the screw, the lateral composition is no longer at right angles to the radii of the enveloping cylinder, but either converges to, or diverges from, the axis, as either the acute or obtuse angle is used for propulsion. In both cases the com- ponent in the direction of the axis continues the same ; that is, parallel to the axis. Now it is the component in the direction of the axis that alone propels; hence the slip of screws of the same diameter, pitch, and length, but the one having a straight generatrix touching the axis, and the other a straight generatrix touch- ing tangentially a cylinder having the same axis as the screw, should be the same. The only effect, then, of converging the lateral com- ponent to, or diverging it from the axis, is to cause a flowing of water to or from the axis, proportioned to the obliquity of the lateral component to the axis, and as this component does not affect the propulsion, it is obviously of no importance what may be its direction. There can be no loss of labor attending it, for all 12* 133 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION angles are in function of form equally efficient for propulsion, consequently their components are equally so. The same slip, or, in other words, the same resistance, as obtained from the water, with screws of equal diameter,* pitch, and length, whether they have straight, inclined, or curved generatrices ; for the curved generatrix is ob- viously but a modification of the inclined gen- eratrix ; that is, it is an inclined generatrix, whose inclination momentarily changes. It is therefore governed by the same principles. There is, however, a practical disadvantage and loss of labor attending ihe use of a curved generatrix, though non-theoretically ; that is, in function of form; for the friction of the he- licoidal surface on the water, which, in differ- ently proportioned screws, varies from 10 to 20 per cent, of the power applied ; being as the surfaces with equal speeds, and the surface of a screw of a given diameter, pitch, and length, or fraction of one convolution. of the thread, is greater with the curved than with the straight generatrix, because the arc of a circle is greater than its chord ; it follows then, that in other- wise similar screws, the greater the curvature of the generatrix, the greater the loss by fric- tion. The Only real loss of power attending AND SHIPBUILDING. 139 the imparting of a centrifugal force to the molecules of water is that due to their mo- mentum, that is, will be expressed .by multi- plying the weight of water, to which centrifu- gal force is imparted by the square of the speed, with which if flies off radially from the centre. In the most favorable case of maxi- mum slip, that is, a slip of unity, this product would be an .almost insensible proportion of the total power applied. From the foregoing, then, it will be perceived that a curved generatrix, so far from being advantageous, is positively a disadvantage ; nor is it necessary to depend entirely on induction for this opinion ; for it has been fully confirmed by experiments. About the year 1847 (I give the date from memory) a series of most complete experiments were made by Bourgois, by order of the French government, on a vast number of screws of different proportions and shape, among them the form of screw (i. e., with a curved genera- trix) afterwards introduced into the U.S. Navy by Isherwood. These experiments were made with great sagacity of method, and determined most satisfactorily the total uselessness of a curved generatrix. I give the condensed -re- 140 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION suits of the experiments, which will be the first time they have appeared in an English work. It was perfectly comprehended by Bourgois, that in order to make the influence of a curved generatrix sensible, it would be necessary that the screw have a very considerable slip; its surface, during the experiments, was therefore sufficiently reduced to satisfy this condition. To fully test this influence, the screw was first tried propelling with the convex face, then tried propelling with the concave face, and lastly tried after the flexure had been taken out of the generatrix ; that is, after the genera- trix had been made straight. The results are as follows : AND SHIPBUILDING. 141 Time. Conditions. Slip of Screw. f Strong breeze, river rough, March 4 J P r P e ] lin S ^ the con - vex face of the screw. |_ Mean of six experiments, a d f P r P e Ui n g with the concave .. , \ face of the screw. Mean Same time | of six experiments. per cent. 50.2 49.3 With curved generatrix. {Calm. Propelling with the convex face of the screw. Mean of six experiments. . ("Propelling with concave a \ face of the screw. Mean feame time | Qf g - x eiperimentg . 44.4 47.6 f Calm. Propelling with con- M T, >A vex ^ ace f tne -screw. Mean of four experi- [ ments. Samp dav f Pr P ellin g with the concave 3 ?. ay 1 face of the screw. Mean Same time | O f four experiments. 45.4 48.8 / Same day Same time { The same screw having the generatrix made straight. Mean of eight experi- ments, four being made on each face. 51.2 2 * Allowing for unfavorable errors of observa- tion, dimensions, &c., in experiments of this nature, it will be observed that sensibly the same result was obtained, propelling with either face of the curved generatrix, and the straight generatrix, showing that the employment of a curved generatrix was at least useless, even 142 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION with the exaggerated slip of 50 per cent. ; 30 per cent, being the maximum in practice. After reviewing some experiments carefully made on other screws, for the purpose of deter- mining the effect of a curved generatrix, Bourgois remarks, which I translate, as fol- lows: In the second place, if we observe helicoid at surfaces with curved generatrices, or what amounts to the same thing, generated by a straight line inclined on the axis, we perceive the liquid thread does not rest on the same heli- coidal thread.* As the periphery of the screw is approached, the helicoidal thread inclines itself slightly to the centre ; there, on the con- trary, and for the same reason, the liquid threads tend to remove themselves from the axis, but being endowed with less momentum than the first, there results a flowing of water towards the centre of the screw, with so much the more abundance as the curvature of the generatrix is greater. This is the only notable effect resulting from the employment of a curved generatrix ; and there is nothing to prove that effect favorable. * The curvature of the generatrix was not proportioned to the centrifugal force or to the slip. N. AND SHIPBUILDING. 143 In the experiments made on screws, B 7 and B 8* show, on the contrary, an increase of slip of 04.7, proving that the employment of curved generatrices directs the water towards the axis in consequence of their obliquity. The experiments on screws (j> 3 and <t> 4 under similar conditions, gave sensibly the same result, either the water was pushed towards the axis or it was deflected out towards the peri- phery.f Finally, in passing from screw & to Q u the slip increased 07.5 per cent4 The experiments of Sabloukoff on a screw turned in air, and having the phenomena made * Which were precisely alike, and formed with the generatrix tangent to an inner cylinder, which is virtually a curved generatrix. B 7 propelled with the obtuse or convex face, and gave a slip of 26.1 per cent. * B 8 propelled with an acute or concave face, and gave a slip of 30.8 per cent., or 4.7 per cent. more. B. F. I. f Screws <f> 3 and <f> 4 were precisely alike, and formed with the generatrix tangent to an inner cylinder. Screw <f> 3 propelled with the obtuse or convex face, and gave a slip of 32.8 per cent. Screw <f> 4 propelled with the acute or concave face, and gave a slip of 33 per cent. B. F. I. J Both screws being precisely alike, except that screw n had a straight generatrix, and gave a slip of 34.5 per cent., while screw &, had a curved generatrix, and gave a slip of 42 per cent. B. F. I. 144 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION" .visible by smoke, also corroborates the above. It was found that after a high rotary speed had been given to the screw, the smoke being then let on at its anterior extremity at any point near its periphery, was drawn towards the screw, and carried towards the other- extremity. When let on at its anterior extremity near the axis, the smoke coursed along parallel to the axis, without any appearance of having any circular movement, and which was the same in the first case; spreading out from the axis, which should have been the case had the rota- tion of the screw been able to give a sensible centrifugal force to the smoke. But even supposing (which we have seen is far from being the case), that the centrifugal force communicated to the particles of water in contact with the propelling surface by its rotary movement, were great enough to produce so sensible a result as a vacuum at the axis of the screw equal to a diameter one-fourth the dia- meter of the screw, and supposing the use of a curved generatrix to wholly obviate this, or restore solid water in the place of the vacuum; even then the employment of a curved genera- trix would be useless as far as its reduction of the slip of the screw is concerned, and this fact also depends on the carefully conducted ex- AND SHIPBUILDING. 145 periments of Bourgois. In those experiments there were tried two screws, exactly alike, ex- cepting that the one had a projected area at right angle to the axis of 187.86, while the other had a similar area of 182.59, the reduction being made by cutting out the surface imme- diately around the axis. The diameter of the screw was 15.752, and the diameter of the cut out part of the last screw was 3.938. The slip of the first was 35.2 per cent., of the last 32.6 per cent. Similar experiments on two other screwsj differing from the above in pitch only, gave with the full screw a slip of 26.9 per cent., with the cut out screw 24.4 per cent. On these experi- ments Bourgois remarks, which I translate as follows : "The difference (between the slip) being little enough to be attributed to irregularities of construction or slight errors in the observa- tions, nothing could be concluded from it, ex- cept that a hollowing out, of which the diameter is equal to the fourth part of the exterior dia- meter of the screw, has no influence on the slip. "Believing that sufficient has been written to put this subject in a true light, there only remains to notice that, when the date of Bourgois' ex- 13 146 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION periments are considered so far antecedent to Isherwood's screw, it is really amazing that our Navy Department should have adopted a pro- peller without novelty ; but as I apprehend no one will ever use it outside of the navy, the mischief will do no further harm. In order to prove beyond a shadow of doubt that the substance of the above argument is based upon a solid foundation, I beg to refer to the highest authority of the land ; namely, Mr. Isherwood's Contribution to Journal of the Franklin Institute for July, 1851, page 42, &c. A PROPELLER AS CONSTRUCTED FROM MR. ISHER- WOOD'S DRAWINGS. (PLATE V.) . Having commented upon the propeller, as constructed in the Bureau of Steam-Engineer- ing, and represented by Plate IV., it is now proposed to describe how propellers have been constructed for the navy by contractors in pri- vate establishments. The specifications of the construction of pro- pellers made in the Bureau of Steam-Engineer- ing, although perfectly correct, were not suffi- ciently clear to enable the contractors to follow the drawings; for which reason, a great many Screw Propeller ff. S. Wavr Pl.V * ^- T> \ / sy ""-, -J ^ rX _.-^ ^^-" AND SHIPBUILDING. 147 propellers have been constructed as represented by Plate V., which appear to have a curved generatrix in both figs. 1 and 2, but in reality the generatrix is a straight line at right angles with the axis, as represented by the dotted lines.* Take off the part a be, and put it on at d e /, without changing the direction of the helicoidal surface, the propeller will be the same as represented by Plate II., or a common propeller with straight generatrix. The pro- pelling efficiency of both the propellers on Plates II. and V. will be alike. Yiewing the propeller at fig. 2, Plate V., it appears as if the blades would assist the centrifugal force in throwing the water out, which is not the case. The only advantage of this propeller is, that it will not shake the vessel so much as those represented in Plates II., III., and IY., but its propelling efficiency is some ten per cent, less thanthat of Plate IY. A great many propellers of Plate Y. were made for naval vessels, and on one occasion the writer remarked in a private establishment that the propeller then moulding was not rightly constructed, or was not according to the draw- ing furnished by the Navy Department, when * A large brass propeller of this construction is now lying in tlie Washington Navy Yard, probably condemned. March 1, 1866. 148 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION a discussion arose, which resulted in stopping the moulding of the propeller, and the making of a new pattern according to the drawing. Perhaps some of these errors, the extent and character of which can only be detected and calculated by the application of scientific prin- ciples, may serve to explain why it is that the speed of vessels in the navy is so unsatisfac- tory. TO CONSTRUCT A CENTRIPETAL PROPELLER OF A UNIFORM PITCH. (PLATE VI.) Let us now forget all that has been said about the propellers of curved generatrix, and start on an entirely new basis. The water acted upon by a straight-bladed propeller, is thrown out radially towards the periphery by the action of the centrifugal force; in which case dynamic effect is evidently ex- pended in giving this motion to the water, and as the direction of the motion is at right angles with that of the Vessel, the effect expended upon it is thrown away. It is, therefore, now proposed to construct the helicoidal surface of the propeller blades, so as to utilize this lost effect and prevent the water from being thrown out by the centrifugal force. Cmlripital Propeller Pl.YT AND SHIPBUILDING. 149 Let TF, fig. 2, Plate VI., represent a drop of water acted upon by a force whose magnitude and direction are represented by the arrow J5, at right angles with the radius r. If acted upon by no other force, the drop W would move in the direction of B towards s, but as it is desired to move the water in the direction of the circle nm, or more correctly, in the direction of the helix of the screw, it will be necessary to apply a centripetal force, whose magnitude and direc- tion may be represented by the arrow C, in the direction of the radius r. If the centripetal force C be equal to the centrifugal force of the water, then the combined action of the two forces B and Oj would move the drop W in the direc- tion of the circle n m. The resultant of B and C may be represented by the magnitude and direction of the arrow F, which is the diagonal of the rectangle of B and C. If the direction of the generatrix of the propeller blade was at right angles with F, it would drive the drop W in the direction of the circle n m, as desired. The Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces can be represented by the formula C=^. 4 gr 13* 150 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION in which letters denote W weight of the drop of water, fig. 2. v = velocity in feet per second of W. r = radii in feet of the circle n m. g = 32.166, the acceleratrix of gravity. = centripetal force, expressed in the same units of weight as W. n number of revolutions per minute of the propeller. 60 Insert formula 5 for v in formula 4, we have C= Let the propelling force B represent the magnitude and direction of the water W. Then W : 0=1: tang. x. or 0= Wtang. x. ... 7 but This formula 8 gives the angle of the gene- ratrix to the radii r. of which 4 ft 2 rn 2 AND SHIPBUILDING. 151 Let X be the angle of the generatrix at the extremity of the blades, we have -P- 2 ft D ri 2 D n n tanq.X = = . . .9 60 2 # 5870 The centripetal generatrix will be an arith- metic spiral of the angle X at the periphery. r\ tang. X- 180 when w is the angles in degrees, in which the spiral is constructed, as shown in fig. 2. ~"" D n 2 tc o_180Dn_ Dn* 5870 102.4 ' This formula 10, will give the proper angle w if the slip of the propeller is unity, but the number of revolutions n must be multi- plied by the slip S expressed in a fraction of unity, or m^* 102.4 ' From this formula 11, calculate the centripetal angle w fig. 2, Plate VI. Divide the arc and the radius into any number of (say eight) equal parts and construct the arithmetic spiral as shown by the fig. 2. This spiral will then be 152 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION centripetal under the condition of formula 11, that is to say, the water will not be thrown out by the centrifugal force. A curved generatrix at right angles with the axis will form the same helicoidal surface as a straight generatrix inclined to the axis, as before stated. From the point c?, where the dotted line i d intersects the generatrix a d c, draw the line d d r parallel to the axis of the propeller fig. 1; join i' d', continued to p, then i' p is the inclined generatrix which will generate the same heli- coidal surface as the curved one a d c. The inclination of the generatrix will be tana, y = -. . . 12 180 D But w *= -I 1 , and tang. y= 102.4 102.4 x 180 D 13 18482 ' in which P must be expressed in feet. Draw u b and tf parallel with i' p, project a and e, as shown in the figures. Draw from the corners of the blades, fig. 2, the dotted lines to the centre; the dotted lines will represent a propeller with apparently straight blades in fig. 2, and with an inclined generatrix in fig. 1. Centrip Prop.ExpdJidmg Pitch /'/ I7/ AND SHIPBUILDING. 153 Both these propellers will produce the same pro- pulsive effect, but that with curved blades indi- cated by the dark lines in the drawing will not shake the vessel so much as the other shown by the dotted lines. Captain John Ericsson makes his propellers as shown by the dotted lines, which in reality is a centripetal propeller with a curved genera- trix at right angles to the axis. TO CONSTRUCT A CENTRIPETAL PROPELLER WITH A COMPOUND EXPANDING PITCH. (PLATE VII.) Having given the diameter Z>, pitch P, and length L, of the propeller, calculate the angles W, w 1 and w z by formula 2. Construct the outer edge of the blade as described for the propeller on Plate III. Calculate the cen- tripetal angle w from formula 11, for the mean pitch of the propeller. The projecting angle of the blades will be - 360 v =-p , ... 14 Make the centripetal angle of the leading generatrix m' m" C, o v S w = w . 154 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION Make the centripetal angle of the delivery generatrix n' n" G, Construct the two generatrices forming the sides of the blades, which will then constitute a centripetal propeller with a compound ex- panding pitch. In making the pattern, or in the moulding of this propeller, it is best to construct several (say five) generatrices, as shown in one blade, which is accomplished by dividing the dotted arcs u u and z z, each into four equal parts, which form the required generatrices.' This is the propeller which the writer would recommend as the best. Let the helicoidal surface of the propeller be projected backwards at the hub, as shown by the dotted lines, fig. 1, so that the part ef g h be removed to a b c d i, then the propeller blades would appear straight in fig. 2, though the helicoidal surface and propelling efficiency would be the same in tooth cases. The propeller represented by the dotted lines is nearly the same as that on Plate IV., as constructed by Mr. Isherwood. The propeller on Plate VII. is constructed on true scientific principles, which is not the case with the one on Plate IV. AND SHIPBUILDING. 155 It may be well to explain to the readers who are not familiar with the subject, that the remarks on Mr. Isherwood's curve-bladed pro- peller (Plate IY.) commencing at page 133, are his own, as applied to the author's propeller (Plate VII.), and a transposition of names is therefore necessary to make the sense intelli- gible. See Journal of the Franklin Institute, July, 1851. It indicates what pains the chief took in condemning the curve-bladed propeller, "be- lieving," as he said, "that sufficient has been written to put this subject in a true light." I was very much obliged to the chief for the clearness of his true light, and sincerely hoped its brilliancy would not serve merely to make darkness visible, but the hope has not been realized. Soon after, Mr. Isherwood constructed the San Jacinto propeller, which turned out a fail- ure, and disgrace to the nation, at her arrival in Constantinople, as the indignant correspond- ence of Americans from that place abundantly testified. On the return of this frigate, Mr. Isherwood's propeller was condemned, and a better one from a private establishment was substituted. When Mr. Isherwood became more enlight- ened on the subject, he found that the curve- 156 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION bladed propeller was all right, and quietly adopted it in the navy. His empiricism thus triumphed not only over me, but over the navy and the nation, and the country has been most severely injured by it too. True scientific principles applied by a civilian, have been attacked and vanquished by quackery from the navy. Neglecting all science and theory, experience alone has led to the adoption of curve-bladed propellers. I have made experiments with a great many different kinds of screws, in which the powers expended and delivered were cor- rectly measured by a delicate dynamometer, and which indicated a decided advantage on the side of the curve-blades. In 1846 I proposed a curve-bladed propeller to Captain Carlsund, at Motala, Sweden, who rejected it for the reason that it would not back so well as the straight-bladed one. Captain Carlsund, however, has since adopted the curve-screw exclusively. The French experiments quoted by Mr. Tsh- erwood, I am inclined to believe, are not reli- able, inasmuch as they are at variance with subsequent experience, and declare a preference for convex over concave surfaces in propelling. There is a propeller introduced in this AND SHIPBUILDING. 157 country, called the " buffalo wheel," in which the curve is turned the wrong way, or in other words, propels with a convex surface. I have been on board of several steamers with this screw, and the engineers have invariably told me that it works better in backing than ahead, which confirms the principles herein given, and conflicts with the results of the French experiments. Some years ago there was a steamer built in Chicago, 111., with two propellers. It was de- cided to put a common straight-bladed propel- ler on one side, and a curve-bladed on the other. After she had been running for some time, I received an order for another curve- bladed propeller to take the place of the straight-bladed one, in consequence of the su- periority of the former. In a great many steamers in the navy there is not room enough between the stern and rudder posts to admit the drawn propeller represented on Plate IV., but there is room for the "dotted one, which is equally efficient in propelling, and, still better, the drawn pro- peller represented on Plate VII. But in so doing, Mr. Isherwood's empiricism might be exposed in regard to curve bladed propellers, although it would not be necessary to infringe 14 158 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION upon the centripetal propeller and make the generatrix a true arithmetic spiral which it ought to be; and in order to avoid the risk of science he can easily make a quack spiral, which would still make a good propeller. Mr. Isherwood hastily and erroneously com- mitted himself in the propeller question, pre- cisely as in the anti-expansion question, so that now he cannot act "according to his own convictions, but constrains the navy to suffer the consequences. In all this, Mr. Isherwood is not so much to be blamed as the custom by which the profession has so long been guided, and from which it has suffered such serious evils. It is lamenta- ble for the country to ruin such extraordinary talent as that with which Mr. Isherwood is naturally gifted. Under the present organization, experience has demonstrated that it matters little who is the engineer-in-chief, for he is so overruled by politics that he cannot, even with all his good- will, act altogether advantageously for his office. The Bureau of Steam-Engineering has been required by Congress to adopt machinery so perfectly absurd, that not a shadow of success for it could have been anticipated. After im- AND SHIPBUILDING, 159 mense sums of money have been expended, and the failure proclaimed, then the engineer- in-chief, as well as the navy department, have been attacked and shamefully abused for what they have not been at fault ; as has also been the case in the notorious trials of the steamers Algonquin and Winooski. The people know only what has been pub- lished in the newspapers, where it is impossible to separate the chaff from the grain, and the true state of the case has not yet been revealed. In the course of this protracted controversy, however, our engineering standing has been impaired, and great loss of money has ensued ; not from any want of talent in the Bureau of Steam-Engineering, but simply because it does not control the confidence, and command the respect and- dignity due to its important office. Take the office of the Coast Survey as an ex- ample. The chief there not only understands his business, but he is master of his situation. Congress will not impose upon him the adop- tion of some gimcrack instrument in his sur- veying. "We never hear complaints of the maps and reports of that department, which command respect throughout the world, and are second to none of their kind. On the one 160 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION side there is dignity and learning, and on the other, pedantry and dogmatism. The engineer-in-chief of the U. S. navy ought to be endowed with the highest rank of that department. He ought to be brought up from some properly established technological academy, through all the different branches of naval engineering, including experience in the workshops and yards, and even in the coast- survey, lighthouse board and observatory de- partments, all of which are proper appurtenants of the navy. When an engineer has thus reached the im- portant and responsible station of engineer-in- chief, he would be able to command all the respect and confidence due to so distinguished an office, and in intellectual rank would be equivalent to a Grand Admiral. He should be the engineer-in-chief not only for "engine cfriving," l?ut for the yards and docks, con- structions and works of every kind. He would himself be far above the drudgery and detail of mere construction, but would intrust that to the commodore-engineer in each yard where the work is to be executed, thus giving a chance of development and display to whatever talent the corps of engineers might possess, and create AND SHIPBUILDING. 161 an emulation which would elevate the navy to a condition of the highest perfection. The Grand Admiral Engineer would know how to select and surround himself with the highest ability, and how to detail appropriate persons to their respective stations. He would certainly build no light draft monitors which would not float. He would make no anti- expansion experiments and researches in steam- engineering without consulting the physical laws involved in the operation. He would not build any gimcrack-hair-cut-off-antifriction-double- double-crank-macliinery. There would be no pamphlets or newspapers abusing the engineer- in-chief and the navy department in general. The seed of technological education would be realized in a valuable harvest, and give no occasion for attacks upon high officials " who have not the savoirfaire to chop up an opponent without hurting his feelings." As it now stands, the chief takes upon him- self to restrict all construction to his individual notions (except so far as he is himself controlled by the politicians), and from a censurable ambi- tion, is afraid to endow with discretion any of his subordinates whom he suspects of talent which may surpass his own. Constructions ought never to be made in the 162 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION navy department, for engineers, not being im- mediately connected with the workshops, can- not keep pace with the practical progress which is going on there. When Mr. Isherwood entered the U. S. navy, his natural talent for engineering made him at once his own master. There was none above him whose distinction he feared, none having sufficient technological education to control or analyze his reasonings, and restrain the amaz- ing impetuosity which characterized all his movements. Now, in a properly educated and well organ- ized corps of engineers, Mr. Isherwood would have been subjected to such a wholesome super- vision that his great talent would have been usefully developed and utilized, and most of his well-meant errors would not have occurred to the detriment of his own rising reputation, and to the damage of that esprit de corps which we all are so desirous to encourage. The technological academy, as above hinted, should also embrace ordnance, coast survey, and lighthouse engineering, all of which natu- rally belong to the navy, and ought to be superintended by naval engineers. Lighthouse engineering presents a wide field, but is yet very little studied. The construction of light- AND SHIPBUILDING. 163 houses and lightships with their appurtenances, as lamps, lenses, reflectors, electric lights, and the different kinds of machinery connected therewith, requires great mechanical skill, and ought to be the work of naval engineers. The navy yards, which are now under the charge of line-officers, ought to be intrusted to engineers of the same rank. In private life, we never find a shipyard or machine shop in charge of a sea-captain. A carpenter cannot super- intend the work of a blacksmith. The magnificent combination of a properly organized corps of naval engineers would at once elevate the country as well as economize its means, and utilize its resources. The money lost or squandered during the rebellion for want of such a corps may be esti- mated at a hundred million a/dollars, the interest of which, through all future time, would be more than sufficient to build and support a technological academy of the highest order, and pay the salary of the whole corps of engineers. Who can predict the coming destiny of the country ? Who can tell how soon we may have another protracted war ? Are we prepared to meet it without extravagant sacrifices? There is no doubt of our capability to defeat any enemy that would dare to meet us, but the 164 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION, ETC. question is, not to waste. our means and ammu- nition at random, or to give him the satisfaction of knowing that we have overstrained ourselves in the conflict, but to convince him on the con- trary that our power is a manifestation of skill, and is not measured by numbers of guns and dollars. Great discoveries are frequently made of the highest national importance, and we are unable to grasp hold of them for want of a competent bureau of technical knowledge. Take, for example, the Bessemer process of refining iron, which, although announced in England some ten years ago, aDd although every nation in Europe took hold of it at once, there is yet but one establishment of the kind, and that only recently erected, in the United States. Had we been less dilatory, and secured the immense resources its introduction would have given us, it would have saved us many thousands of lives, and many millions of dollars, during our late naval and military operations. CATALOGUE OP PRACTICAL AND PUBLISHED HENRY CAREY BAIRD, Industrial Jjublisfttr, NO. 4O6 WALNUT STRKET, *S- Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail, free of postage, at the publication price *3~ A Descriptive Catalogue, 96 pages, 8vo., will be sent, free of postage, to any one who will furnish the publisher with his address. ARLOT. A Complete Guide for Coach Painters. Translated from the French of M. ARLOT, Coach Painter ; for eleven years Foreman of Painting to M. Eherler, Coach Maker, Paris. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. To which is added an Ap- pendix, containing Information respecting the Materials and the Practice of Coach and Car Painting and Varnishing in the United States and Great Britain. 12mo $1.25 ARMENGATJD, AMOROTJX, and JOHNSON. The Practical Draughtsman's Book of Industrial De- sign, and Machinist's and Engineer's Drawing Companion : Forming a Complete Course of Mechanical Engineering and Archi- tectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud the elder, Prof, of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and M M. Armengaud the younger, and Amoroux, Civil Engineers. Rewritten and arranged with additional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the most useful and generally employed mechanism of the day. By WILLIAM JOHNSON, Assoc. f nst. C. E., Editor of " The Practical Mechanic's Journal." Illustrated by 50 folio steel plates, and 50 wood-cuts. A new edition, 4to. .... $10.00 2 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. ARRO WSMITH. Paper-Hanger's Companion : A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are Sys- tematically laid down : with Copious Directions Preparatory to Paper- ing ; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on W alls ; the Various Cements and Pastes Adapted to the Several Purposes of the Trade ; Observations and Directions for the Panelling and Ornamenting of Rooms, etc. By JAMES ARROWSMITH, Author of "Analysis of Dra- pery," etc. 12mo., cloth ^!..~> ASHTON. The Theory and Practice of the Art of De- signing Fancy Cotton and Woollen Cloths from Sample : Giving full Instructions for Reducing Drafts, as well as the Methods of Spooling and Making out Harness for Cross Drafts, and Finding any Required Reed, with Calculations and Tables of Yarn. By FREDERICK T. ASHTON, Designer, West Pittsfield, Mass. With 52 Illustrations. One volume, 4to $10.00 BAIRD. Letters on the Crisis, the Currency and the Credit System. By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. Pamphlet 05 BATED. Protection of Home Labor and Home Pro- ductions necessary to the Prosperity of the Ameri- can Farmer. By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 8vo., paper 10 BAIRD. Some of the Fallacies of British Free- Trade Revenue Reform. Two Letters to Arthur Latham Perry, Professor of History and Politi- cal Economy in Williams College. By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. Pamphlet 05 BAIRD. The Rights of American Producers, and the Wrongs of British Free-Trade Revenue Reform. By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. Pamphlet 05 BAIRD. Standard Wages Computing Tables : An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so arranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a specified rad |..-i day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By T. SPANGl.ERB.\n:i>. Oblong folio $5.00 BAIRD. The American Cotton Spinner, and Mana- ger's and Carder's Guide : A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinnini,'; .giving the Dimensions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calculations, etc. ; with notices of recent Improvements : toyetlier with liulcs and Examples for making changes in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn. Compiled from the papers of the late ROBERT H. BAIRD. 12mo. $1.50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 3 BAKER. Long-Span Railway Bridges : Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and Prac- tical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type Systems of Construction ; with numerous Formulae and Tames. By B. BAKER. 12rno $2.00 BAUERMAN. A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron : Containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analysis of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, etc., etc. By H. BAUERMAN, F. G. S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines. First American Edition, Revised and En- larged. With an Appendix on the Martin Process for Making Steel, from the Report of ABRAM S. HEWITT, U. S. Commissioner to the Universal Exposition at Paris, 1867. Illustrated. 12mo. . $2.00 BEANS. A Treatise on Railway Curves and the Loca- tion of Railways. By E. W. BEANS, C. E. Illustrated. 12mo. Tucks. . . $1.50 BELL. Carpentry Made Easy : Or, The Science and Art of Framing on a New and Improved System. With Specific Instructions for Building Balloon Frames, Barn Frames, Mill Frames, Warehouses, Church Spires, etc. Comprising also a System of Bridge Building, with Bills, Estimates of Cost, and valuable Tables. Illustrated by 38 plates, comprising nearly 200 figures. By WILLIAM E. BELL, Architect and Practical Builder. 8vo. . $5.00 BELL. Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelting : An Experimental and Practical Examination of the Circumstances which determine the Capacity of the Blast Furnace, the Temperature of the Air, and the proper Condition of the Materials to be operated upon. By I. LOWTHIAN BELL. Illustrated. 8vo. . . $6.00 BEMROSE. Manual of Wood Carving : With Practical Illustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and Selected Designs. By WILLIAM BEMROSE, Jr. With an Introduction by LLEWELLYN JEWITT, F. S. A., etc. With 128 Illustrations. 4to., cloth ( $3.00 BICKNELL. Village Builder, and Supplement : Elevations and Plans for Cottages, Villas, Suburban Residences, Farm Houses, Stables and Carriage Houses. Store Fronts, School Houses, Churches, Court Houses, and a model Jail ; also, Exterior and Interior details for Public and Private Buildings, with approved Forms of Contracts and Specifications, including Prices of Building Materials and Labor at Boston, Mass., and St. Louis, Mo. Containing 7"i plates drawn to scale; showing the style and cost of building in different sections of the country, l>cm<_c an original work comprising the designs of twenty leading architects, representing the New Eng- land, Middle, Western, and Southwestern States. 4to. . $12.00 4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. BLENKARN. Practical Specifications of Works exe- cuted in Architecture, Civil and Mechanical Engi- neering, and in Road Making and Sewering : To which are added a series of practically useful Agreements and Re- ports. By JOHN BLENKARN. Illustrated by 15 large folding plates. 8vo. $9.00 BLINN. A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet-Iron, and Copperplate Workers : Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns used by Tin, Sheet-Iron, and Copper-plate Workers ; Practical Geometry ; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the Weights of Metals, Lead Pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Circumferences of Circles ; Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc., etc. By LEROY J. BI.INN, Master Mechanic. With over 100 Illustrations. 12mo $2.50 BOOTH. Marble Worker's Manual: Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, their Cutting, Working, and Polishing; Veneering of Marble; Mosaics; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from the French by M. L. BOOTH. With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. 12mo. > cloth. $1.50 BOOTH AND MORFIT. The Encyclopedia of Che- mistry, Practical and Theoretical : Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Ge- ology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By JAMES C. BOOTH, Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by CAMPBELL MORFIT, author of " Chemical Manipulations," etc. Seventh edition. Royal 8vo., 978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. . $5.00 BOX. A Practical Treatise on Heat : As applied to the Useful Arts ; for the Use of Engineers, Architects, etc. By THOMAS Box, author of " Practical Hydraulics." Illustrated by 14 plates containing 114 figures.. 12mo $4.25 BOX. Practical Hydraulics : A Series, of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc. By THOMAS Box. 12mo $2.50 BROWN. Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements : Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics. Hydrau- lics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam Engines, Mill and otner Gear- ing, Presses, Horology, and Miscellaneous Machinery ; and including many movements never before published, and several of which have only recently come into use. Bv HKXKY T. BROWN, Editor of the " American Artisan." In one volume,. 12mou .. . . $1.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 5 BUCKMASTER. The Elements of Mechanical Phy- sics : By J. C. BUCKMASTER, late Student in the Government School of Mines ; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of Science and Art ; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the Royal College of Preceptors ; and late Lecturer in Chemistry and Physics of the Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated with numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo . . $1.50 BULLOCK. The American Cottage Builder: A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to $20,000, for Homes for the People; together with Warming, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Gardening. By JOHN BULLOCK, Architect, Civil Engineer, Mechanician, and Editor of " The Rudi- ments of Architecture and Building," etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 en- gravings. In one volume, 8vo $3.50 BULLOCK. The Rudiments of Architecture and Building : For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, Engi- neers, and Mechanics. Edited by JOHN BULLOCK, author of " The American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 250 engravings. In one volume, 8vo $3.50 BURGH. Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine Engines : Showing in detail the Modern Improvements of High and Low Pres- sure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, together with Land and Marine Boilers. By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. Illustrated by 20 plates, double elephant folio, with text . . . . $21.00 BURGH. Practical Rules for the Proportions of Mo- dern Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes. By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. 12mo $1.50 BURGH. The Slide-Valve Practically Considered. By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. Completely illustrated. 12mo. $2.00 BYLES. Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Politi- cal Economy Examined. By a BARRISTER (Sir JOHN BARNARD BYLES, Judge of Common Pleas). First American from the Ninth English Edition, as published by the Manchester Reciprocity Association. In one volume, 12mo. Paper, 75 cts. Cloth $1.25 PYRN. The Complete Practical Brewer : Or Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making Bavarian Beer, all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Ginger-pop, Sarsaparilla- beer, Mead, Spruce Beer, etc., etc. Adapted to the use of Public Brewers and Private Families. By M. LA FAYETTK BYRN, M. D. With illustrations. 12mo $1.25 6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. BYRN. The Complete Practical Distiller : Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Practical De- scription of the Art ot Distillation and Rectification ; including all of the most recent improvements in distilling apparatus; instructions for preparing spirits from the numerous vegetables, fruits, etc. ; direc- tions for the distillation and preparation ot all kinds of brandies ami other spirits, spirituous and other compounds, etc., etc. By M. I. A FAYETTE BYRN, M. D. Eighth Edition. To which are added Prac- tical Directions for Distilling, from the French of Th. Fling, Brewer and Distiller. 12mo $1.50 BYRNE. Handbook for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engineer : Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Yariii-liin<,' and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding ami Polishing, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by 185 wood en- gravings. In one volume, 8vo $5.00 BYRNE. Pocket Book for Railroad and Civil Engi- neers : Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out Rail- road Curves, Switches, Frog Angles, and Crossings; the Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; Earth-work, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE. 18mo., full bound, pocket- book form >l.7.~> BYRNE. The Practical Model Calculator : For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By OLIVER BYRNE. 1 volume, 8vo., nearly 600 pages $4.50 BYRNE. The Practical Metal- Worker's Assistant: Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry ; the Arts of Working all Metals and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering; Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding; Works in Sheet Metal ; The Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Suldcrinv ; and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed 1>\ Metal- workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metulluii:} to Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from the Works of Holtzapflfel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn, and others. By OLIVER Bvr.Ni.. A new, revised, ami improved edition, to which is added An Appendix, con- taining THE MANUFACTURE OF RUSSIAN SHEET-IRON. By JOHN PERCY, M. D., F.R.S. THE MANUFACTURE OF MALLEABLE Ii:ox CASTINGS, and IMPROVEMENTS IN BESSEMEK STI:I:I.. i:\ A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. With over (i(K) Engravings, illus- trating every Branch of the Subject. 8vo $7.00 Cabinet Maker's Album of Furniture : Comprising a Collection of Designs for Furniture. Illustrated by 48 Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one vol., oblong $5.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 7 CALLINGHAM. Sign Writing and Glass Emboss- ing: A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By JAMES CALLINGHAM. In one volume, 12mo $1.50 CAMPIN. A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engi- neering : Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding^ Casting, Forging, Tools, Work- shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation. Manufacture of Steam- engines, etc., etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By FRANCIS C AMPIN, C. E. To which are added, Obser- vations on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel- cutting Machine. By J. LA NiCCA. Management of Steel, Includ- ing Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and Ex- pansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. EDE. 8vo. Illus- trated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings . . . $6.00 CAMPIN. The Practice of Hand-Turning in Wood, Ivory, Shell, etc. : With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be re- quired in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also, au Appen- dix on Ornamental Turning. By FRANCIS CAMPIN; with Numerous Illustrations. 12mo., cloth $3.00 CAREY. The Works of Henry C. Carey : FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper . 25 HARMONY OF INTERESTS: Agricultural, Manufacturing, and Commercial. 8vo., cloth $1.50 MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's " Prin- ciples of Social Science." By KATE McKEAN. 1 vol. 12mo. $2.25 MISCELLANEOUS WORKS : comprising " Harmony of Interests," " Money," " Letters to the President," Financial Crises," " The Way to Outdo England Without Fighting Her," " Resources of the Union," "The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion?" " Review of the Decade 1857-'67," " Reconstruction," etc.. etc. Two vols., 8vo., cloth $10.00 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo $2.50 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 vols., 8vo., cloth $10.00 THE SLAVE-TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN ; Why it Ex- ists, and How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo., cloth . $2.00 LETTERS ON INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT (1867) . 50 THE UNITY OF LAW : As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, Social, Mental, and Moral Science (1872). In one volume, 8vo., pp. xxiii., 433. Cloth $3.50 CHAPMAN. A Treatise on Ropemaking : As Practised in private and public Rope yards, with a Description of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the Trades, .Shipping, Mining, Railways, Builders, etc. By ROBERT CHAPMAN, 24mo $1.50 8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. COLBURN. The Locomotive Engine : Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its Capa- bilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Manage- ment. By ZERAH COLBUKN. Illustrated. A new edition. 12mo. $1.25 CBAIK. The Practical American Millwright and Miller. By DAVID CRAIK. Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en- gravings, and two folding plates. 8vo $5.00 DE GRAFF. The Geometrical Stair Builders' Guide : Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel Engrav- ings ; together with the use of the most approved principles of Prac- tical Geometry. By SIMON DE GRAFF, Architect. 4to. . $5.00 DE KONINCK. DIETZ. A Practical Manual of Che- mical Analysis and Assaying : As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. DE KON- INCK, Dr. Sc., and E. DIETZ, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by ROBERT MALLET, F.R.S., F.S.G., M.I.C.E., etc. American Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A. FESQCET, Chemist and Engineer. One volume, 12mo. $2.50 DUNCAN. Practical Surveyor's Guide: Containing the necessary information to make any person, of common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aii of a teacher. By ANDREW DUNCAN. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth. . . . $1.25 DTJPLAIS. A Treatise on the Manufacture and Dis- tillation of Alcoholic Liquors : Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Asphodel, Fruits, etc. ; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy, Whis- key, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aromatic Wa- ters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromptic Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines. Effervescing Wines, etc., the Aging of Brandy ana the Improvement of Spirits, with Copious Directio> s and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors, etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. DUPLAIS, Ain6 et Jeune. By M. McKENNIE, M.D. To which are added the United States Internal Revenue Regulations for the Assessment and Collection of Taxes on Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 pp., 8vo $10.00 DUSSATTCE. A General Treatise on the Manufacture of Every Description of Soap : Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, with Remarks on Alkalies, Sa- poninable Fatty Bodies, the apparatus necessary in a Soap Factory, Practical Instructions in the manufacture of the various kinds of Snap, the assay of Soaps, etc., etc. Edited from Notes of Larmo, Fontent-llc, Malapayre, Dufonr, and others, with large and important additions by Prof. H. DUSSAUCE, Chemist. Illustrated. In one vol., 8vo. . $10.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 9 DUSSAUCE. A General Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar : Theoretical and Practical. Comprising the various Methods, by the Slow and the Quick Processes, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain. Malt Cider Molasses, and Beets ; as well as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar etc.' etc. By Prof. H. DUSSAUCE. In one volume, 8vo. . . $5.00 DUSSATJCE. A New and Complete Treatise on the Arts of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing : Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in France Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from Notes and Docu- ments of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval, Dessables, Labarraque Payen, Rene, De Fontenelle, Malapeyre, etc., etc. By Prof. H. Dus- SAUCE, Chemist. Illustrated by 212 wood engravings. 8vo. $25.00 DUSSATJCE. A Practical Guide for the Perfumer : Being a New Treatise on Perfumery, the most favorable to the Beauty without being injurious to the Health, comprising a Description of the substances used in Perfumery, the Formulae of more than 1000 Prepa- rations, such as Cosmetics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, Extracts, Tinctures, Infusions, Spirits, Vinaigres, Essential Oils, Pas- tels, Creams, Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described. Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, LB- nel, etc. With additions by Prof. H. DUSSAUCE, Chemist. 12mo. $3.00 DUSSAUCE. Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Matches, Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powders. By Prof. H. DUSSAUCE. 12mo $3.00 Dyer and Color-maker's Companion: Containing upwards of 200 Receipts for making Colors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now in exist- ence ; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. In one vol., 12mo. . $1.25 EASTOW. A Practical Treatise on Street or Horse- power Railways. By ALEXANDER EASTON, C. E. Illustrated by 23 plates. 8vo., cloth $2.00 ELDER. Questions of the Day: Economic and Social. By Dr. WILLIAM ELDER. 8vo. . $3.00 FAIRBAIRN. The Principles of Mechanism and Ma- chinery of Transmission : Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By Sir WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume, 12mo $2.50 FORSYTH. Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and other Monuments : Containing 78 Designs. By JAMES FORSYTH. With an Introduction by CHARLES BOUTELL, M. A. 4to., cloth $5.00 10 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. GIBSON. The American Dyer: A Practical Treatise on the Coloring of Wool, Cotton, Yarn and Cloth, in three parts. Part First gives a descriptive account of th" Dye Stuffs; if of vegetable .origin, where produced, how cultivated, ami how prepared for use; if chemical, their composition, specific gravities, and general adaptability, how adulterated, and how to de- tect the adulterations, etc. Part Second is devoted to the Coloring of Wool, giving recipes for one hundred and twenty-nine different colors or shades, and is supplied with sixty colored samples of Wool. l':;rt Third is devoted to the Coloring of Raw Cotton or Cotton Wn<te. tin- mixing with Wool Colors in the Manufacture of all kinds of Fabrics, gives recipes for thirty-eight different colors or shades, and is supplied with twenty-four colored samples of Cotton Waste. Also, recipes tin- Coloring Beavers, Doeskins, and Flannels, with remarks upon Ani- lines, giving recipes for fifteen different colors or shades, and nine samples of Aniline Colors that will stand both the Fulling and Scour- ing process. Also, recipes for Aniline Colors on Cotton Thread, and recipes for Common Colors on Cotton Yarns. Embracing in all over two hundred recipes for Colors and Shades, and ninety-four samples of Colored Wool and Cotton Waste, etc. By RICHARD H. GIIISON, Practical Dyer and Chemist. In one volume, 8vo. . . $12.50 GILBART. History and Principles of Banking : A Practical Treatise. By JAMES W. GILBART, late Manager of the London and Westminster Bank. With additions. In one volume, 8vo., 600 pages, sheep $5.00 Gothic Album for Cabinet Makers : Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Illustrated by 23 large and beautifully engraved plates. Oblong . . is'i.uii GRANT. Beet-root Sugar and Cultivation of the Beet. By E. B. GRANT. 12mo $1.25 GREGORY. Mathematics for Practical Men : Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and Civil Engineers. By OLINTHUS GREGORY. 8vo., plates, doth $3.00 GRISWOLD. Railroad Engineer's Pocket Compan- ion for the Field : Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Andes, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for Engi- neers ; also the art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the < '011- struction of Railroads, intended Kxpressly for the Yonnu' Knirinecr, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By \\~. GRISWOLD. 12mo., tucks $1.75 GRUNER. Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena. By M. L. GRUNER, President of the General Council of >iines of France, and latelv Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines. Translated, with the Author's sanction, with an Appendix, byL. D. B. Gordon, F, R, S, E.. F. G. 8. Illustrated. 8vo. . . . $2.50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 11 GUETTIER. Metallic Alloys: Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Properties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated from the French of A. GUETTIER, Engineer and Director of Foundries, author of" La Fouderie en France," etc., ete. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo $3.00 HARRIS. Gas Superintendent's Pocket Companion. By HAREIS & BROTHER, Gas Meter Manufacturers, 1115 and 1117 Cnerry Street, Philadelphia. Full bound in pocket-book form $2.00 Hats and Felting: A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . . $1.25 HOFMANN. A Practical Treatise on the Manufac- ture of Paper in all its Branches. By CARL HOFMANN. Late Superintendent of paper mills in Ger- many and the United States ; recently manager of the Public Ledger Paper Mills, near Elkton, Md. Illustrated by 110 wood engravings, and five large folding plates. In one volume, 4to., cloth; 398 pages $15.00 HUGHES. American Miller and Millwright's Assist- ant. By WM. CARTER HUGHES. A new edition. In one vol., 12mo. $1.50 HURST. A Hand-Book for Architectural Surveyors and others engaged in Building: Containing Formulae useful in Designing Builder's work, Table of Wrights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda connected with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of Builders' Measure- ment, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Property, Summary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc., etc. By J. F. HURST, C. E. Second edition, pocket-book form, full bound $2.50 JERVIS. Railway Property : A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways ; de- signed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the holders of this class of property; as well as Railway Managers, Officers, and Agents. By JOHN B. JERVIS, late Chief Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. In one vol., 12mo., cloth $2.00 JOHNSTON. Instructions for the Analysis of Soils, Limestones, and Manures. By J. F. W. JOHNSTON. 12mo 38 12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. KEENE. A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging : For the Use of Beginners, to which is added, A Chapter on Distilla- tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom House for ascertaining the strength of wines. By JAMES B. KEENE, of H. M. Customs. 8vo. $1.25 KELLEY. Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on In- dustrial and Financial Questions. By Hon. WILLIAM D. KELLEY, M. C. In one volume, 544 pages, 8vo $3.00 KENTISH. A Treatise on a Box of Instruments, And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Loga- rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim- ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By THOMAS KENTISH. In one volume. 12mo $1.25 KOBELL.ERNI. Mineralogy Simplified : A short Method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by means of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way. Translated from the last German Edition of F. VON KOBELL, with an Introduction to Blow-pipe Analysis and other additions. By HENRI ERNI, M. D., late Chief Chemist, Department of Agriculture, author of " Coal Oil and Petroleum." In one volume, 12mo. .... $2.50 LANDRIN. A Treatise on Steel: Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, and Use. By M. H. C. LANDRIN, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated from the French, with Notes, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engi- neer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Processes for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt, United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. In one volume, 12mo. $3.00 LARKIN. The Practical Brass and Iron Pounder's Guide : A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and their Alloys, etc. : to which are added Recent Improvements in the Manu- facture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By J A. Mies LARKIN, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in Ri-any, Neafie & Co's. Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, with Extensive additions. In one volume, 12mo. . . $2.25 LEA VITT. Pacts about Peat as an Article of Fuel : With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities in which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manufacture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable ; together with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Interest. To which is added a chap- ter on the Utilization of Coal Dust with Peat for the Production of an Excellent Fuel at Moderate Cost, specially adapted for Steam Service. By T. H. LEA VITT. Third edition. 12mo. . . . $1.75 HENRY CAEEY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 13 LEROUX, C. A Practical Treatise on the Manufac- ture of Worsteds and Carded Yarns : Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied to Spinning ; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools ; the English and French methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of CHARLES LEROUX, Mechanical Engineer, and Superintendent of a Spinning Mill, by HORATIO PAINE, M. D., and A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by 12 large Plates. To which is added an Appendix, containing extracts from the Reports of the Inter- national Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woollen and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Universal Exposi- tion, 1867. 8vo., cloth $5.00 LESLIE (Miss). Complete Cookery: Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss LESLIE. 60th thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New Re- ceipts. In one volume, 12mo., cloth. . . . . $1.50 LESLIE (Miss). Ladies' House Book : A Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo., cloth. LESLIE (Miss). Two Hundred Receipts in Trench Cookery. Cloth, 12mo. LIEBER. Assayer's Guide : Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By OSCAR M. LIEBER. 12mo., cloth. . . $1.25 LOTH. The Practical Stair Builder: A Complete Treatise on the Art of Building Stairs and Hand-Rails. Designed for Carpenters, Builders, and Stair-Builders. Illustrated with Thirty Original Plates. By C. EDWARD LOTH, Professional Stair-Builder. One large 4to. volume. .... $10.00 LOVE. The Art of Dyeing, Cleaning, Scouring, and Finishing, on the Most Approved English and French Methods: Being Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons, Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc. Scouring and Cleaning Bed and Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc. French and English Cleaning, any Color or Fabric of Silk, Satin, or Damask. By THOMAS LOVE, a Working Dyer and Scourer. Second American Edition, to which are added General Instructions for the Use of Aniline Colors. In one volume, 8vo., 343 pages. $5.00 14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. MAIN and BROWN. Questions on Subjects Con- nected with the Marine Steam-Engine : And Examination Papers : with Hints for their Solution. By THOMAS J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, and THOMAS BROWN, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12mo", cloth. . . . $1.50 MAIN and BROWN. The Indicator and Dynamo- meter : With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS J. MAIN, M. A.F. R., Assistant Professor Royal Naval College, Ports- mouth, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer, R. N., attached to the Royal Naval College. Illustrated. From the Fourth London Edition. 8vo. $1.50 MAIN and BROWN. The Marine Steam-Engine. By THOMAS J. MAIN, F. R. ; Assistant S. Mathematical Professor at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval Col- lege. Authors of " Questions connected with the Marine Steam-En- gine," and the " Indicator and Dynamometer." With numerous Illus- trations. In one volume, 8vo. $5.00 MARTIN. Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Me- chanical Engineers : Showfng the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads of Screws of any required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Uni- versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. MARTIN, Engineer. 8vo 50 Mechanics' (Amateur) Workshop: A treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipula- tion of Wood and Metals, including Casting, Forging, Braxinir, Sol- dering, and Carpentry. By the author of the " Lathe and its I Third edition. Illustrated. 8vo ."..00 MOLESWORTH. Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engi- neers. By GIJILFORD L. MOLESWORTH, Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Second American, from the Tenth London Edition. In one volume, full bound in pocket-book form Si'.no NAPIER. A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing. By JAMES NAPIER, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised K<li- tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, inclu- ding the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Fi-xjri.r, < hem 1st and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and ( 'alico 1'rintinir, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illustrated. In one Volume, 8vo., 41'2 pages $5.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 15 NAPIER. Manual of Electro-Metallurgy : Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. By JAMES NAPIER. Fourth American, from the Fourth London edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In one vol., 8vo. $2.00 NASON. Table of Reactions for Qualitative Chemical Analysis. By HENRY B. NASON, Professor of Chemistry in the Rensselaer Poly- technic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated by Colors. . 63 NEWBERY. Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every style : Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of one hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. By ROBERT NEWBERY. 4to $15.00 NICHOLSON. A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding : Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and Paper. By JAMES B. NICHOLSON. Illustrated, l.'mo., cloth. $2.25 NICHOLSON. The Carpenter's New Guide: A Complete Book of Lines for Carpenters and Joiners. By PETER NICHOLSON. The whole carefully and thoroughly revised by H. K. DAVIS, and containing numerous new and improved and original De- signs for Roofs, Domes, etc. By SAMUEL SLOAN, Architect. Illus- trated by 80 plates. 4to. $4.50 NORRIS. A Hand-book for Locomotive Engineers and Machinists: Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco- motives ; Manner of Setting Valves ; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas, etc., etc. By SEPTIMUS NORRIS, Civil and Mechanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth $2.00 NYSTROM. On Technological Education, and the Construction of Ships and Screw Propellers : For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W. NYSTROM, late Act- ing Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second'edition, revised with additional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo. . . $1.50 O'NEILL. A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Print- ing: Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES O'NEILL, Ana- Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. With an Ap- pendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. In one volume, 8vo., 491 pages. . $6.00 16 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. ORTON. Underground Treasures : How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By JAMES ORTON, A. M. Illustrated, 12mo. $1.50 OSBORN. American Mines and Mining: Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Prof. H. S. OSBOKN. Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo. (In preparation.) OSBORN. The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel : Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches ; with special reference to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. OSBORN, LL. D., Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania, Illustrated by numerous large folding plates ana wood-engravings. 8vo. $15.00 OVERMAN. The Manufacture of Steel : Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By FRED- ERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manufacture of Iron," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer $1.50 OVERMAN. The Moulder and Founder's Pocket Guide : A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam, and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow- ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues ; Description of Moulds for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals ; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, Wax, and other articles commonly used in Casting ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and Founding of Metals ; the Com- position of Alloys and their Nature. With an Appendix containing Receipts for Alloys, Bronze, Varnishes and Colors for Castings ; also, Tables on the Strength and other qualities of Cast Metals. By FRED- ERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer, Author of "The Manufacture of Iron." With 42 Illustrations. 12mo $1.50 Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher's Companion : Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Grainini:, Marbling, Sign- Writing, Gilding on Glass, and Coach Painting and Varnishing; Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in Oils, Colors, etc. ; and a Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, with the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition, fit-vised, with an Appendix. Containing Colors and Coloring Theoretical and Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, and Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with Chevreul's Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. 12mo., cloth. $1.50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 17 PALLETT. The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide. By HENRY PALLETT. Illustrated. In one volume, 12mo. $3.00 PERCY. The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. By JOHN PERCY, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Royal School of Mines, and to The Advanced Class of Artillery Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich ; Author of " Metallurgy." With Illustrations. 8vo., paper 50 cts. PERKINS. Gas and Ventilation. Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams. By E. E. PERKINS. 12mo., cloth $1.25 PERKINS and STOWE. A New Guide to the Sheet- iron and Boiler Plate Roller : Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles to produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness of the Bar Gauge in decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch ; the Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 Ibs. per bundle; and the conversion of Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. Estimated and col- lected by G. H. PERKINS and J. G. STOWE $2.50 PHILLIPS and DARLINGTON. Records of Mining and Metallurgy ; Or Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and Smelter. By J. ARTHUR PHILLIPS, Mining Engineer, Graduate of the Imperial School of Mines, France, etc., and JOHN DARLINGTON. Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo. . . $2.00 PRO TEATJX. Practical Guide for the Manufacture of Paper and Boards. By A. PROTEAUX, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School of Arts and Manufactures, and Director of Thiers' Paper Mill, Puy-de-D6me. With additions, by L. S. LE NORMAND. Translated from the French, with Notes, by HORATIO PAINE, A. B., M. D. To which is added a Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from Wood in the United States, by HENRY T. BROWN, of the " American Artisan." Illus- trated by six plates, containing Drawings of Raw Materials, Machi- nery, Plans of Paper-Mills, etc., etc. 8vo $10.00 RE GNAULT. Elements of Chemistry. By M. V. REGNAULT. Translated from the French by T. FORREST BETTOX, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by JAMES C. BOOTH, Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and WM. L. FABER, Metallurgist and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. Comprising nearly 1500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth. . . . $7.50 18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. REID. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Portland Cement : By HENRY REID, C. E. To which is added a Translation of M. A. Lipowitz's Work, describing a New Method adopted in Germany lor Manufacturing that Cement, by W. F. REID. Illustrated l>y plates and wood engravings. 8vo $6.00 RIPPAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Var- nishes. By M M. RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOIJSSAINT. Revised and Edited by M. F. MALEPEYRE and Dr. EMIL WINCKLER. Illustrated. In one volume, 8vo. (In preparation.) RIPPAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting: Containing the best Formulae and the Processes the Newest and in most General Use. By M M. RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and Tut SSA INT. Revised and Edited by M. F. MALEPEYRE and Dr. EMIL WINCKLKI:. Translated from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Knd- neer. Illustrated by Engravings. In one volume, 650 pages, 8vo. $7.50 ROBINSON. Explosions of Steam Boilers: How they are Caused, and how they may be Prevented. By J. R. ROBINSON, Steam Engineer. 12mo $1.25 ROPER. A Catechism of High Pressure or Non- Condensing Steam-Engines : Including the Modelling, Constructing, Running, and Management of Steam Engines and Steam Boilers. With Illustrations. By STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Full bound tucks . . . $2.00 ROSELEUR. Galvanoplastic Manipulations : A Practical Guide for the Gold and Silver Electro-plater and the Galvanoplastic Operator. Translated from the French of Ai.i KKI> ROSELEUR, Chemist, Professor of the Galvanoplastic Art, Manufactu- rer of Chemicals, Gold and Silver Electro-plater. Hy A. A. l-'r.si.n IT, Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by over 127 Engravings on wood. 8vo., 495 pages *'i.<>< %^-This Treatise is the fullest and by far the best on this subject ever published in the United States. SCHINZ. Researches on the Action of the Blast Furnace. By CHARLES SCHINZ. Translated from the German with the special permission of the Author by WILLIAM II. MAW ami MOIIIT/ M i i - LER. With an Appendix written by the Author expressly fur this edition. Illustrated by seven plates, containing 28 figures. In one volume, 12mo. $4.25 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 19 SHAW. Civil Architecture : By THOMAS W. SILLOWAY and GEORGE M. HARDING, Architects. The whole illustrated by One Hundred and Two quarto plates finely engraved on copper. Eleventh Edition. 4to., cloth. . $10.00 SHUNK. A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Location, for Young Engineers. By WILLIAM F. SHUNK, Civil Engineer. 12mo. . . $2.00 SLOAN. American Houses : A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 26 colored Engravings, with Descriptive References. By SAMUEL SLOAN, Architect, author of the " Model Architect," etc., etc. 8vo. $2.50 SMEATON. Builder's Pocket Companion: Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. By A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, etc. In one volume, 12mo. $1.50 SMITH. A Manual of Political Economy. By E. PESHINE SMITH. A new Edition, to which is added a full Index. 12mo., cloth $1.25 SMITH. Parks and Pleasure Grounds: Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and (lardens. By CHARLES H. J. SMITH, Landscape Gardener and Garden Architect, etc., etc. 12mo. $2.25 SMITH. The Dyer's Instructor: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton, Wool, and Worsted, and Woollen Goods: containing nearly 800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. My DAVID SMITH, Pattern Dyer. 12mo., cloth. . . . $3.00 SMITH. The Practical Dyer's Guide: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Dyeing of Shot Cobourgs, Silk Striped Orleans, Colored Orleans from Black Warps, Ditto from White Warps, Colored Cobourgs from White Warps, Merinos, Yarns, Woollen Cloths, etc. Containing nearly 300 Receipts, to most of which a Dyed Pattern is annexed. Also, A Treatise on the Art of Padding. By DAVID SMITH. In one volume, 8vo. Price. . . $25.00 STEWART. The American System. Speeches on the Tariff Question, and on Internal Improvements, princi- pally delivered in the House of Representatives of the I nitcd States. By ANDREW STEWAKT, late M. C. from Pennsylvania. With a Portrait, and a Biographical Sketch. In one volume, 8vo., 407 pages. $3.00 20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. STOKES. Cabinet-maker's and Upholsterer's Com- panion : Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making and Up- holstery, with Familiar Instructions, illustrated by Examples lor attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabi- net-work ; the Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-work ; the Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, Bone, Tortoise Shell, etc. Direc- tions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish ; to prepare the Best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a number of Receipts particularly useful for workmen generally. By J. STOKES. In one volume, 12mo. With Illustrations. . $1.25 Strength and other Properties of Metals: Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for testing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers of the Ord- nance Department U. S. Army. By authority of the Secretary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. In one volume, 4to. . $10.00 SULLIVAN. Protection to Native Industry. By Sir EDWABD SULLIVAN, Baronet, author of " Ten Chapters on Social Reforms." In one volume, 8vo $1.50 Tables Showing the Weight of Round, Square, and Flat Bar Iron, Steel, etc., By Measurement. Cloth 63 TAYLOR. Statistics of Coal : Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and Manufactures ; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu- facture. By R. C. TAYLOR. Second edition, revised by S. S. II A L- DEMAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo., cloth $10.00 TEMPLETON. The Practical Examinator on Steam and the Steam-Engine : With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of Engineers, Students, and others. By WM. TEMPLETON, Engineer. 12mo $1.25 THOMAS. The Modern Practice of Photography. By R. W. THOMAS, F. C. S. 8vo., cloth 75 THOMSON. Freight Charges Calculator. By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent. 24mo. . . . $1.25 TURNING: Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the Hand or Foot Lathe: With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs. 4to $3.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 21 Turner's (The) Companion: Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn- ing: also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments ; and Di- rections for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest ; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. A new edition in one volume, 12mo. $1.50 URBIN. BRULL. A Practical Guide for Puddling Iron and Steel. By ED. URBIN, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Essay read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1 865-6. To which is added A COMPARISON OF THE RESISTING PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL. By A. BRULL. Translated from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Che- mist and Engineer. In one volume, 8vo $1.00 VAILE. Galvanized Iron Cornice- Worker's Manual: Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and Ma- king Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other Mattel- calculated to Benefit the Trade. By CHARLES A. VAILE, Superin- tendent " Richmond Cornice Works," Richmond, Indiana. Illustra- ted by 21 Plates. In one volume, 4to $5.00 VILLE. The School of Chemical Manures : Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From the French of M. GEORGE VlLLE, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engi- neer. With Illustrations. In one volume, 12 mo. . . $1.25 VOGDES. The Architect's and Builder's Pocket Com- panion and Price Book: Consisting of a Short but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo- decimals, Geometry and Mensuration ; with Tables of U. S. Measures, Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone, and various other Materials, Quantities of Materials in Given Sizes, and Dimen- sions of Wood, Brick, and Stone; and a full and complete Bill of Prices for Carpenter's Work ; also, Rules for Computing and Valuing Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Painting, Plastering^ etc. By FRANK W. VOGDES, Architect. Illustrated. Full bound in pocket- book form $2.00 Bound in cloth. 1.50 WARN. The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain- ing a selection of Geometrical Problems; also, Practical and Simple Rules for describing the various Patterns required in the different branches of the above Trades. By REUBEN H. WARN, Practical Tin- plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing Instruc- tions for Boiler Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by 32 Plates and 37 Wood Engravings. 8vo. $3.00 22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. WARNER. New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams for the Computation of Earth- Work : Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates, of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-pnilt-,- sional Computers. In Two Parts, with an Appendix. Part I. A Practical Treatise ; Part II. A Theoretical Treatise; and the Appen- dix. Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I. ; Expla- nations 'of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level 1 1 eights. The whole illustrated by numerous original Engravings, comprising Explanatory Cuts for Definitions and Problems, Stereometric > and Diagrams, and a Series of Lithographic Drawings from Models, showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad Excavations and Embankments. By JOHN WARNER, A. M., Mining and Mechanical Engineer. 8vo $T>.OU WATSON. A Manual of the Hand-Lathe: Comprising Concise Directions for working Metals of all kinds, Ivory, Bone and Precious Woods; Dyeing, Coloring, and French Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to prodtiee Klabo- rate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By EGBERT P. WATSON, late of "The Scientific American," Author of " The Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 7S Engravings WATSON. The Modern Practice of American Ma- chinists and Engineers: Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe Together with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steum- Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By EGBERT P. WATSON, late of the " Scientific American." Illustrated by 86 Enirravings. In one volume, 12mo WATSON. The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving by Hand and Power : With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with the Trade. By JOHN WATSOX, Manufacturer and Practical Machine Maker. Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms. 8vo $10.00 WEATHERLY. Treatise on the Art of Boiling Su- gar, Crystallizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods. 12mo $2.00 WEDDING. The Metallurgy of Iron ; Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Dr. If KKM ANN Wi.n- DING, Professor of the Metallurgy of Iron at the Roval Mining Academy, Berlin. Translated by JULIUS Du MONT, Bethlehem, I'a. Illustrated by 207 Engravings on Wood, and three Plates. In one volume, 8vo. (In press.) HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 23 WILL. Tables for Qualitative Chemical Analysis. By Professor HEINRICH WILL, of Giessen, Germany. Seventh edi- tion. Translated by CHARLES F. HIMES, Ph. D., Professor of Natu- ral Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. . . . $1.50 WILLIAMS. On Heat and Steam: Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explosions. By CHARLES WYE WILLIAMS, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $3.50 WOHLER. A Hand-Book of Mineral Analysis. By F. WOHLER, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottin- gen. Edited by HENRY B. NASON, Professor of Chemistry in the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated. In one volume, 12mo $3 00 WOBSSAM. On Mechanical Saws: From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. W. WORSSAM, Jr. Illustrated by 18 large plates. 8vo. . . $5.00 tngmeeri QOO 220 561 5 VM 141 AUX1URW STACK SEP '73