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THE 
 
 ART OF SAW-FILING, 
 
 SCIENTIFICALLY TREATED AND EXPLAINED 
 ON PHILOSOPHICAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 rULL AND EXPLICIT DIRECTlONg FOR PUTTING IN ORDEB 
 
 ALL KINDS OF SAWS, FROM A JEWELLER's 
 
 SAW TO A STEAM SAW-MILL. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY FORTY-FOUR ENGRAVINGa 
 
 H. -W, II011.il. Y, 
 
 AirxHOB OP "the caepentee's and joineb's hand-book." 
 
 THIRD EDITIO: 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 JOHN WILEY & SON- 
 IS ASTOR PLACE. 
 
 1871. 
 
 ^•<v.- OP rEr;^'^^ 
 
^i> 
 
 
 ^A 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S64, ay 
 JOHN WILEY, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for 
 the Southern District of New Yorli. 
 
 B. CRAIGHEAD, 
 Frinier, Siereotyper, Hiid Electrotyper, 
 
 Cavton ISuiltiing, 
 
 81, 83, o- rf i5 Cmire 3lre*L 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Origin and utility of the saw 7 
 
 First saw-mills erected 9 
 
 Principle of the construction of the saw 9 
 
 Principle of the cross-cut saw 12 
 
 Different bevels of teeth 13 
 
 Cross-cut saw for soft wood 15 
 
 Cross-cut saw for medium wood 17 
 
 Cross-cut saw for hard wood 18 
 
 Pitch of the teeth 18 
 
 Cross-cut timber-saw 24 
 
 Back-saws for soft wood 25 ' 
 
 Back-saws for hard wood 26 
 
 The fleam-tooth saw 26 
 
 Billet or buck-saws 27 
 
 Billet or buck-saws for hard wood 27 
 
 The too common saw 2S 
 
 Long cross-cut or log-saw 28 
 
 Patent hook-tooth saw 29 
 
 Cross-cut circular-saws 30 
 
 Cross-cut circular-saws for soft wood 32 
 
 Cross cut circular saws for hard wood 33 
 
 Pruning-saws 32 
 
IV CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOI 
 
 Scroll, web, and compass-saws 33 
 
 Butchers' saws 34 
 
 Surgeons' saws 35 
 
 Hack-saws, for sawing iron, brass, etc 36 
 
 Principle of the rip-saw 36 
 
 Hand rip-saws 37 
 
 Vertical mill-saws 40 
 
 Circular rip-saws 45 
 
 Difference of teeth for circular-saws 46 
 
 Explanation of the division of a circle into degrees 48 
 
 Saw-setting 60 
 
 The Aiken set 53 
 
 The crotch-punch set 55 
 
 Principle of the Aiken set 54 
 
 The old way of setting saws 56 
 
 Selection of saws and other tools 66 
 
-■J';.- • 
 
 f?'^ Of TBE '"4^ 
 
 OTXVBESITYl 
 
 THE 
 
 ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 ORIGIN a:n'd utility of the saw. 
 
 The Saw is an instrument of somewhat an- 
 cient origin. "We cannot ascertain precisely 
 wlien the first saw was made ; but it probably 
 followed the more common and primitive tools 
 — the hatchet, the knife, and the chisel. The 
 first saw was, no doubt, a very imperfect instru- 
 ment in comparison to those of the present day. 
 Still, it seems incredible that such elaborate 
 works of art as we read of among the ancients 
 should have been constructed without the use 
 of the saw. 
 
 The Greeks ascribed the invention of the 
 saw to Doedalus, or his pupil Talus ; but it is 
 certainly more ancient, for it is represented on 
 the obelisks of Egypt. It is a tradition that 
 
8 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 the prophet Isaiah suffered martyrdom by tha 
 saw. 
 
 There is an ancient book, called the " As- 
 cension of the Prophet Isaiah." It says : 
 " Then they seized and sawed Isaiah the son 
 of Amos with a wooden saw. And Manasseh 
 and Melakira the false prophets, the princes 
 and the people, stood looking on. But Isaiah 
 said to the prophets who were with him, ' go 
 ye to the cities of Tyre and Sydon, for the Lord 
 hath mixed this cup for me alone.' Neither 
 did he cry out or weep, but continued to call 
 on the holy ghost until he was sawn asunder." 
 
 It may be in reference to this circumstance 
 that St. Paul says of the early martyrs, " They 
 were sawn asunder." 
 
 The ark, the temple of Solomon, and the 
 ruins of buried cities lately exhumed, would 
 seem to have been impossible without the use 
 of the saw, although we know how much 
 may be accomplished with very rude tools 
 when time and patience are not spared. 
 
 We do not find the saw used by savage na- 
 tions, as, without the tools and skill to keep it 
 in order, it soon becomes useless. 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILINa. 9 
 
 The knife and the hatchet, more barbarous 
 weapons, can be sharpened on a smooth stone ; 
 but sharpening a saw is a very different affair. 
 
 The first saw-mill^ or saw driven bj power, 
 which we have any account of, was erected in 
 the Island of Madeira in 1420 ; the next at 
 Breslau, in Austria, in 1432. This was fol- 
 lowed bj many others all over Europe. 
 
 The saw is now an indispensable instrument, 
 and is in more general use by all classes of 
 mechanics than any other tool. 
 
 It is difficult to imagine how we could dis- 
 pense with it for a single day — from the burglar 
 who cuts off the bars of his cell with his watch- 
 spring saw, to the builders of navies and cities, 
 and the busy mills which quickly fashion the ' 
 huge monarchs of the forest into shapes for the 
 dwellings and conveniences of mankind. 
 
 THE PEmCIPLE OF CONSTEUCTIOK 
 
 The saw is a series of knives set on a line; 
 
 every tooth is a knife, and cuts a small portion 
 
 _ of the material. Each is kept from cutting 
 
 too deep by the tooth on either side ; each tooth 
 
 1* 
 
10 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 shoula cut its allotted chip or slice of the 
 material, carry it along, and drop it on the 
 outside. 
 
 The perfection of a saw is to cut the fastest 
 and smoothest, with the least expenditure of 
 power. To do this, it is evident that each and 
 every tooth should be so constructed as to do 
 its own proportion of work ; for if one tooth 
 only is out of shape or out of line with the 
 others, it is not only useless, but a hindrance 
 and disadvantage to the others. 
 
 Every one who has occasion to use a saw 
 knows that many times it would be very con- 
 venient if he knew how to put his own saw in 
 order. To be sure to excel in this, as in every- 
 thing else, requires practice, a correct eye, and^ 
 steady hand. But we contend that any person 
 of ordinary capacity can easily learn to file and 
 set his own saw. 
 
 There never has been any theory or prin- 
 ciple laid down by any good authority for this 
 particular science. Each person has had a 
 theory of his own, and followed that ; or, more 
 likely, has had no theory at all, and did it at 
 random, sometimes one way and sometimes 
 
THE AET OF SAW-FILI^^a 11 
 
 another, never twice alike, but generally very 
 unsatisfactorily to himself and all concerned. 
 
 Now there is always a right and a wrong 
 way to do anything ; and if we can establish 
 a theory in this little book, and demonstrate 
 its correctness from scientific principles, and a 
 trial shall corroborate the demonstrations, then 
 the object of the author will have been accom- 
 plished. 
 
 We find many very good mechanics that 
 have always used saws, who frankly acknow- 
 ledge that they never could file a saw satis- 
 factorily to themselves, at least. The rea- 
 son probably is, they never studied the prin- 
 ciple of the action or working of the in- 
 strument. There is no reason why any man. 
 who knows enough to use a saw, should not 
 be able to put it in complete order; although 
 it is more of a science than many imagine — the 
 putting in order of all kinds of saws, from the 
 delicate surgeon's saw with which he takes off, 
 your limb, to the monster six-footer, with teeth 
 like a dragon, that screams in the depths of the 
 forest, devouring trees and logs with insatiate 
 rapacity. 
 
12 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 "When "we consider that there are nearly one 
 hundred different kinds of saws of all sizes and 
 shapes, it will not appear strange that we claira 
 for saw-filing a place among the sciences. 
 
 It is astonishing what miserable saws are 
 sometimes used bj mechanics, or those claim- 
 ing to be such. The only way they can be 
 coaxed or driven through the wood is by hav- 
 ing an enormous set, a liberal use of oil, and 
 another lubricator called elbow-grease. The dif- 
 ference between the work of one of these saws 
 and one in proper order is about the same as 
 that between a hole bored by a sharp auger 
 and one gnawed by rats. 
 
 It brings to mind the remark of the wood- 
 sawyer, who, puffing and blowing from the 
 exertion of using a bad saw, said : " Of all the 
 saws I ever saw saw, I never saw a saw saw as 
 this saw saws." 
 
 Principle of the Action of the Oross-Cut Sato. 
 
 There are several different ways in which 
 saws act in relation to the material cut; the 
 first we shall consider is the cross-cut saw, by 
 which we mean all saws that cut across the 
 grain. This is illustrated by the figure. 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 13 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents a log of wood seen end- 
 wise, looking at the ends of the grain, which 
 consists of more or less minute fibres or threads 
 which constitute the tenacity of the wood. 
 
 Our object with the cross-cut saw is to sever 
 these fibres or threads ; and as the material is 
 non-elastic or unyielding, we must cut each 
 fibre in two twice, so as to leave a small groove 
 or Icerf as we proceed, so that the material will 
 not bind or pinch as the saw passes through 
 the stick, owing to any inequalities in the 
 blade of the saw. 
 
 Fig. 2 represents a section of several saw- 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 teeth of different bevels, showing the different 
 
14 THE AET OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 depth to which each tooth cuts. The next 
 tooth to each of these on the saw being bevel- 
 ed the other way, will cut to the same depth, 
 and form, a groove as deep as the teeth reach 
 into the wood, and so on in succession ; each 
 pair of teeth working independently, except as 
 they keep each other from taking too deep a 
 hold. 
 
 A saw should be filed so truly 
 that it will show an angular groove 
 along its whole length on the edge 
 like Fig. 3, so that a fine needle will 
 slide the whole length of the saw 
 without falling off. 
 Fig. 3. Althoufrh the form of the edf^e of 
 
 "If 
 
 m 
 
 Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 
 
 the saw is like Fig. 3, it must cut the groove 
 square like Fig. 4 and not like Fig. 5, the 
 shape of the saw's edge. 
 
 The cutting is all done with the outside 
 edge of the tooth, so the real operation of the 
 tooth is like Fig. 6 ; the wood crumbling out 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 15 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 from point to point of each tooth as the saw 
 moves. 
 
 Now the sharper each tooth is — that is, the 
 more bevel on the point, as shown at Fig. 2, 
 the deeper it will cut; but it must not cut 
 any deeper than will crumble out across to the 
 point of the other tooth. This is the difference 
 between saws for soft or hard wood ; if a saw 
 for hard wood is too much bevel on the point, . 
 it will score deeper into the wood than it can 
 carry out the chip, so that it will keep moving 
 up and down in the same scores, and not 
 accomplish anything. 
 
 It follows, then, that for soft wood we may 
 file the back edge or point of the tooth quite 
 beveling, while the harder or tougher the wood 
 the less bevel we must file the back of the 
 tooth ; for we shall see that the bevel of the 
 
16 
 
 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 back of the tooth governs the bevel of the 
 point. 
 
 Let it be understood that the bevel of the 
 cutting edge of the tooth is the same for all 
 cross-cut saws. The level of the i^oint is the 
 idea, and is governed by the angle at which 
 the file is held. This is illustrated by the fol- 
 lowing figures. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 % Fig. Y, shows the position of the file for a 
 -j^oss-eut saw for soft wood, such as pine, bass- 
 wood, cedar, etc. 
 
 h Shows the shape of the tooth, and c the 
 Devel of the point, consequent on the posi- 
 tion of the file and bevel of the back of the tooth. 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 17 
 
 There is no difference in th6 angle of a large 
 or small file ; all the difference is in the fine or 
 coarse cut of the file. We should prefer a 
 good sized file, not less than fourand a half or 
 five inches, if it was cut equally fine and sharp 
 on the corners. 
 
 In all the following diagrams of saw-teeth, 
 the point of the saw is supposed to be on the 
 left hand. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 a, Fig. 8, shows the position of the file for 
 Baws for medium wood, such as chestnut, bay- 
 wood, black walnut, cherry, etc. ; b shows the 
 shape of the tooth, and c the bevel of the 
 point. 
 
 a, Fig. 9, shows the position of the file for 
 
18 
 
 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 saws for hard wood, such as hickory, ash, oak, 
 maple, beech, etc. ; h shows the shape of the 
 tooth, and c the bevel of the point. 
 
 It will be seen that the bevel on the pitch or 
 cutting edge of the tooth is the same in all the 
 above examples ; but the bevel of the point 
 looking the length of saw is quite different. 
 
 The next thing to be considered is the angle 
 of the pitch or cutting edge of the tooth of a 
 cross-cut saw. 
 
 Let a. Fig. 10, represent a board, across 
 which we wish to make a deep mark or score 
 with the point of the knife. Suppose we hold 
 the edge of the knife perpendicular, as at 5, it 
 is evident that it will push harder, will njt cut 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILIXG. 
 
 19 
 
 VvV 
 
 50 deep or so smooth as if it was inclined for- 
 ward, as at a. 
 
 It follows tliat tlie cutting edge of a tooth 
 should incline forward, like that at c, rather 
 than stand perpendicular, as at d. 
 
 This is a common fault with cross-cut saws, 
 making the teeth too hooking, as it is called. 
 The idea is that the saw takes hold better. 
 This may be true, but it will be like the man's 
 razor that took hold first-rate, but didn't let go 
 worth a cent. 
 
 Having considered the bevel of the cutting 
 edge of the tooth, the bevel of the point in 
 
20 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 relation to the material to be cut, also the pitch 
 or inclination of the cutting edge — if we 
 combine all these we shall have a perfect 
 tooth. 
 
 It will be seen by Figs. 7, 8, and 9, that we 
 hold the point of the file towards the point of 
 the saw. Many will contend that a saw should 
 be filed towards the handle, giving as a reason 
 that it prevents the feather on the cutting edge 
 of the tooth. This feather edge is no objec- 
 tion, for every saw after filing should be laid 
 down flat and both sides jointed or planed 
 down, so that the cut of every tooth shall be 
 exactly on a line. 
 
 This should be done with a long whetstone, 
 or fine-cut file with straight sides. This takes 
 off all the feather, makes a finer edge and 
 more cutting surface ; for if a saw is newly 
 set, and not jointed on the sides after filing as 
 above, all the cutting surface is the extreme 
 point of the tooth, which only scratches and 
 does not cut ; it is like marking across a board 
 with the point of a pin. 
 
 a, Fig. 11, shows the point of the tooth as 
 it is left after filing ; h is the same Doint after 
 
THE ABT OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 21 
 
 rig. 11. 
 jointing the sides, making a real knife-edge, 
 and not a mere scratching point. 
 
 And further, as regards filing towards the 
 point of the saw. We cannot any other way 
 get the bevel of the teeth, as shown at Figs. 
 7, 8, and 9, as will readily be seen ; and still 
 farther, every one knows how much stiller, 
 smoother, and with less vibration the file runs 
 when filed towards the point of the saw. 
 
 Tlie Cross-Cut Hand-Saw, 
 
 This saw is more common and in more 
 general use than any other saw. They are of 
 various lengths, from twelve to thirty-two 
 inches. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
22 THE AET OF SAW-FILINft. 
 
 This saw for soft wood should have about 
 six teeth to the inch, and be filed about the 
 bevel shown in Fig. 12. 
 
 Give the teeth a full set, and joint the sides 
 thoroughly. 
 
 We would say here that the first thing to 
 be done in filing these saws is to see that 
 they are perfectly straight on the edge, or, if 
 anything, a little the highest in the middle. 
 This is very important ; for if any tooth is 
 shorter than the rest, of course that tooth does 
 not cut at all, and is worse than useless, for it 
 gives the next tooth more than its share of the 
 work to do, and consequently it is imperfectly 
 done. 
 
 Place the saw in the clamp, and with a fine 
 single-cut file, not less than ten inches long, 
 file the teeth squarely down till every one is 
 touched. Next comes the setting ; the princi- 
 ple of setting and the best set will be consi- 
 dered hereafter. Vj\j^.t tUOtL P^qt ^o t^ 
 
 See that every tooth is bent to the full 
 capacity of the set, for some of the teeth that 
 are filed off a good deal in jointing, will want 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 23 
 
 a mucli harder blow than those that are only 
 just touched. 
 
 The saw should be placed in a strong light, 
 so that it will be easy to see when every tooth 
 is brought to a point. 
 
 Be careful and not give a single stroke of 
 the file after the tooth is brought to a point ; 
 that would be worse than useless. If you can- 
 not get the right shape of every tooth in an 
 old saw without filing too much, let it be till 
 next time. It is better to let the imperfect 
 tooth wait its time, than to spoil a perfect one 
 in trying to make it correspond with the im- 
 perfect one. 
 
 Cross- Cut Hand-Saw for Medium Wood, 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 This saw should have about eight teeth to 
 the inch, and the bevel shown in Fig. 13. 
 This is about the thing for miterinor soft wood 
 
24 
 
 THE AET OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 -a 
 
 that is, the bevel. The teeth may be as coarse 
 as Fig. 12. 
 
 It will pay to have a different saw for diffe- 
 rent kinds of work, both in wear and tear 
 of patience, and excellence of workmanship. 
 Those who attempt to do all kinds of work 
 with the same tool, will find most of the time 
 that they have not the right kind of tool for 
 any work. 
 
 Cross- Oat Hand-Saw for Hard Wood. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 This should have ten teeth to the inch, and 
 the back of the tooth filed square. It will 
 mitre soft or medium wood well. The bevel 
 on the pitch of all these saws, it will be seen, 
 is the same. The difference is in the sharpness 
 of the bevel on the points 
 
 Cross- Out Timher-Saw. 
 
 This should have four teeth to the inch, and 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 25 
 
 filed about like Fig. 13, and should have 
 plenty of set for wet pine or spruce timber. 
 \ Back-Saws. 
 
 A back-saw has no advantage over a hand- 
 saw, except in the thinness and lightness of 
 the plate ; the back keeping it from spring- 
 ing or bending. 
 
 They should be thinner on the back, so as 
 to need no setting. 
 
 rig. IB. 
 
 Fig. 15 shows the kind of back-saw for soft 
 wood, ten teeth to the inch, same bevel aa 
 Fig. 12. 
 
26 THE ART OF SAW-FILING 
 
 Fig. 16 is the back-saw for hard wood, 
 twelve toeth to the inch. Same bevel as Fig. 
 14. Eight for mitering soft or medium wood. 
 
 Sometimes a back-saw becomes crooked 
 because the back is loose ; if so, driving the 
 back on firmly will straighten it again. 
 
 The Fleam-Tooth Saw, 
 
 Fig. IT. 
 
 This saw is filed extremely beveling, so 
 much so, that the saw must be laid down flat 
 to be filed. ISTo set is needed, and the blade 
 must be thin and of the best quality and tem- 
 per of cast steel. 
 
 The best way to alter an old saw to one of 
 these, is to take off the old teeth clean, and 
 bef^in new. 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 27 
 
 Fig. 17 shows the form of tooth, fall size, 
 and the position of the file and saw. 
 
 This saw is only fit for soft and clear wood, 
 the edges being so thin that a knot, or hard 
 wood, spoils them. It is very nice for trim- 
 ming or clap-boarding, cutting very fast and 
 smooth, and both ways alike. 
 
 Billet Wood-cutters', or Buck-Saws. 
 
 Fig. la 
 
 Fig. 18 shows the buck-saw for soft or green 
 wood ; four teeth to the inch, strong set, well 
 jointed on the sides. 
 
 Buch-Saws for Hard Wood. 
 
 Pig, 19. 
 
28 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 Fig. 19 is tlie buck-saw for hard or dry 
 wood, five or six teeth to the inch ; teeth 
 square on the back. 
 
 Buck-saws should be well strained up, so as 
 to ring sharp and clear when struck. 
 
 The Too Common Saw. 
 
 Fig. «0. 
 
 Fig. 20 shows the kind of saw too common 
 to need a description. It is used in all parts 
 of the country. We cannot recommend its 
 adoption. 
 
 Long Gross- Cut or Log-Saw. 
 
 This saw is to cut equally both ways, con- 
 sequently the shape of the teeth must be dif- 
 ferent from anything we have seen. This saw 
 on the tooth edge is made the segment of a 
 large circle or ellipse, because the motion 
 easiest for two men in sawing, is a rocking or 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 29 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 swaying motion, bringing all the teeth suc- 
 cessively into action. 
 
 For hard and dry wood, file the teeth less 
 bevel ; see that every tooth is in line with the 
 others, whether the line is more or less curved. 
 
 The Patent Hook-Tooth Cross- Cut Saw.^ 
 3 a I 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 ♦ Manufactured by Wheeler, Madden and Clemson, Middle town, N.T: 
 
BO THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 This saw is constructed on common sense 
 principles. The two knives or fleams, a, to 
 score into the wood ; 5, the hook or little chisel,* 
 follows and takes out the chip or shaving, 
 carries it along, and drops it on the outside. 
 It acts precisely like a carpenter's " dado plane," 
 only it acts both ways. The action of the 
 centre-bit also illustrates the principle of this 
 saw. 
 
 It cuts very fast and easy, and is said to be 
 rapidly superseding the old kinds in the loca- 
 lities where it has been introduced. 
 
 The cutting teeth, a, are first filed up square, 
 and the hooks, 5, are left nearly a sixteenth 
 shorter. After the length of the cutters and 
 hooks is made just right, file the cutters ex- 
 tremely beveling, but bring them to an edge 
 only at the extreme point of the tooth, and 
 then not so as to leave a feather. 
 
 Cross- Cut Circular Saws. 
 
 The same rule holds good in regard to the 
 bevel and pitch of the tooth in the circular 
 saw as in the hand-saw. The fibre or grain of 
 the wood to be divided is always at right 
 angles to the face of the saw. 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 31 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 To get the proper pitch of the tooth of this 
 saw, describe a circle whose diameter is one 
 quarter the diameter of the saw ; a line from 
 the point of the tooth touching the outside of 
 this circle, as shown in Fig. 23, will give the 
 proper pitch of the tooth. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
82 THE ART OF SAW-FILIKG. 
 
 Fig. 24 shows the proper form of tooth for 
 a large circular saw, for large sticks of soft or 
 green wood. 
 
 Fig. 25, 
 
 Fig. 25 shows the form of teeth for hard 
 and dry wood. The points may be more bevel 
 than for hand-saws. The greater velocity of 
 the circular saw will throw out the chip. 
 
 Observe the same rules for small circular 
 saws for finer work as for hand-saws at Figs. 
 12, 13, and 14. 
 
 Pruning Saws. 
 
 These are required to cut very smooth and 
 keen, consequently the teeth must have a good 
 deal of bevel, but about the same pitch as an 
 ordinary cross-cut. Fig. 26 shows the best 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 33 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 form of a pruning saw, seven teeth to the 
 inch. 
 
 These saws are, or should be, made thin on 
 the back, so as to require no setting ; but must 
 be well rubbed or jointed on the sides to take 
 off the feather edge made in filing. 
 
 Scroll^ Wehj and Compass Saws. 
 
 These saws are for a mixed business. They 
 have in turn to cross-cut, mitre, and rip, and 
 the question is, what is the best average or 
 medium to accommodate all these require- 
 ments. 
 
 Experience shows that they should be nearer 
 the cross-cut than the rip, for a cross-cut will 
 rip, better than a rip will cross-cut. A rip-saw 
 makes terrible rough work cutting across the 
 grain, while a regular cross-cut will cut length- 
 wise of the grain smooth but slower. 
 2* 
 
34 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 ^i^N^N^N^N^i 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Fig. 27 shows the proper form of tooth for 
 these saws, though thej maj be finer or 
 coarser according to the material to be cut; 
 finer teeth for hard wood. 
 
 Rather a short bevel on the pitch, which 
 should be a little less than a right angle. All 
 web saws should be ground thin on the back, 
 so as to require no setting. 
 
 Butcher Saws. 
 
 These are for sawing bones, and generally 
 very hard and dense ones. Cutting these is 
 out of the question, so that this saw should 
 partake more of the nature of the file. The 
 form shown in Fig. 28 is the best for this saw. 
 
 The pitch should be not less than an angle 
 of forty-five degrees, and the back the same, 
 or nearly so. 
 
 File the teeth perfectly square across on the 
 pitch and on the back. 
 
 Be yerj particular about jointing the edge, 
 
THE AET OF SAW-FILING. 85 
 
 AAA^AA^^A^vA^^^vvV^^^^ 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 SO tliat every tooth shall do its work. It need 
 not be jointed on the sides. 
 
 Surgeons' Saws. 
 
 These must be filed somewhat different from 
 the Butchers' saw, though some people clasa 
 surgeons and butchers in the same category. 
 
 The human bone in a living body is some- 
 what porous and soft, consequently the pitch 
 of the tooth may be somewhat sharp. Make 
 
 AA^^^^^^\^ 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
S6 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 the teeth about the same shape as Fig. 28, hu\ 
 about the bevel in Fig. 29, the back being 
 square. 
 
 Joint these on the side, as it is important to 
 have the bone left perfectly smooth and clean. 
 
 ffuch-jSaws, for sawing Irorij Brass^ etc. 
 
 , Fig. 80. 
 
 These should be the same as Fig. 28, as 
 regards shape of tooth, pitch, and bevel, but 
 the teeth should be as fine as possible ; for, as 
 was. said of Fig. 28, they must partake more 
 of the nature of the file ; in fact, they are no 
 more or less than a thin file, cut on the edge 
 but not on the side. These need not be joint- 
 ed on the sides. 
 
 The Rip or Slitting-Saw. 
 
 Having considered the principle of the 
 cross-cut saw, we learn that its action in rela 
 tion to the material cut is the same in all cases, 
 that is, the grain of the wood is always at 
 right angles to the face of the saw 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 37 
 
 In the action of the rip-saw it is quite dif- 
 ferent. There are three kinds — the hand-saw, 
 the vertical or mill-saw, and the circular-saw 
 These all act differently in relation to the ma- 
 terial cut, that is, cut their way into the wood 
 on a different angle from the direction of the 
 fibre or grain of the wood. 
 
 The Hand-Saiu, 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 a, Fig. 31, shows the correct form of tooth 
 
38 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 for a rip-saw for straight-grained stuff. It will 
 be seen that each tooth is a small chisel, paring 
 a regular shaving, and leaving a groove behind 
 it the width of the chisel or tooth, h shows 
 the actual form and direction of the point and 
 shaving. It is easy to imagine the ease with 
 which such a saw would pass through a board 
 lengthwise. The whole being a succession of 
 sharp chisels, would cut through a board with 
 astonishing rapidity. The chips of this saw 
 will not be dust, but short shavings. 
 
 rig. 82. 
 
 a, Fig. 32, shows the next best form of tooth 
 or a hand rip-saw. l shows the true and 
 
THE AKT OF SAW-FIIJNG. 89 
 
 actual angle of the point of the chisel that 
 does the cutting. The pitch of the tooth and 
 the line of the points give the true angle of the 
 cut, and not the pitch and the hach of the 
 tooth, as would seem to be the case at first 
 sight. 
 
 We see a great difierence between the cut- 
 ting angle of this tooth, shown at 5, and that 
 at Fig. 31. 
 
 This saw will work very well. The trouble 
 is, the teeth are too slender at the points, and 
 are apt to tremble or chatter, especially if the 
 saw is crowded too hard. 
 
 For straight-grained stuff this saw may be 
 filed square across, but as we are sure to come 
 more or less in contact with cross-grain or 
 knots, it is best to file the pitch of the tooth a 
 little beveling. For soft wood, after the saw 
 is set, hold the file at right angles to the saw, 
 and it will give a slight bevel to the points of 
 the teeth. 
 
 For hard wood they should have a little 
 more bevel stilL 
 
40 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 fly Fig. 33, shows the most common, ana yet 
 the worst form of tooth for a rip-saw. h shows 
 the real cutting of the tooth, and the absurdi- 
 ty of this shape. There is really no cutting 
 about it. The wood is merely jammed or 
 scraped out with a very unnecessary expendi- 
 ture of power. 
 
 It seems strange that workmen will persist 
 in using this kind of saw, and yet, probably 
 nine- tenths of the saws used are of this fash- 
 ioned tooth. 
 
 The Vertical Mill-Saw. 
 
 There are three different forms of tooth used 
 for the vertical mill-saw. This saw must 
 necessarily run perpendicularly, and therefore 
 
THE AET OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 41 
 
 the action in contact with the grain of the 
 wood is different from the hand-saw. 
 
 It is the same as the chisel in cutting down 
 the head of a mortise. 
 
 Fig. 84 
 
 a, Fig. 84, shows the correct form of tooth 
 
42 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 for a vertical mill-saw ; h is the shape of the 
 point of the tooth set with the crotch-punch 
 described hereafter ; c shows the actual shape 
 or action of the cut of the tooth. 
 
 It is not enough that a saw cuts its chip or 
 shaving. There must be space enough between 
 the teeth to hold the shaving without crowd- 
 ing till it can be carried outside the stick and 
 dropped. 
 
 This reason alone sometimes causes a saw to 
 run very badly, consequently large saws have 
 after a while to be gummed, or more space 
 made between the teeth. 
 
 The saw-dust from this saw will be in square 
 blocks, like the chips from a mortising ma- 
 china 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 43 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 a, Fig. 35, shows the next best form of 
 tooth for a vertical mill-saw ; h shows the 
 teeth upset on one side, with the crotch-punch 
 without bending the tooth. 
 
 This saw is the connecting link between the 
 old and new, the good and the bad, both in 
 setting and in the shape of the tooth, c shows 
 the angle at which the^Qhjp^ is cut from the 
 
 /f\> OF THT? ^>^ 
 
 -*\Vj;i 
 
44 
 
 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 end of tlie wood. It is plain that this shape 
 of tooth requires more power to cut its way- 
 through the log than that shown at Fig. 34. 
 
 H 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 cr, Fig. 36, shows the old, and still the most 
 common shaped tooth for mill-saws ; b is f 
 style of setting or bending the teeth ; c shows 
 the cutting angle of the tooth. The sharp 
 comer soon wears off, and all the sawing ia 
 
THE ART OF AW-FILING. 
 
 45 
 
 done bj scraping and jamming witk a great 
 waste of power. 
 
 Circular JRip-Saios. 
 
 The circular rip-saw lias a still different 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 action in regard to the contact of the teeth 
 with the grain of the wood. 
 
 It will be seen by the figure that each tooth 
 has a different bearing on the grain of the 
 wood as the saw revolves, a shows the log 
 and the direction of the grain or fibre of the 
 wood. It will be seen that the teeth at h are 
 cutting almost directly on a line with the grain, 
 while those at c are cutting almost at right 
 angles, like the vertical mill-saw. 
 
 It requires much more power to cut with 
 
46 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 these lower teeth than with the top ones. Thig 
 is readily proved by sawing a plank with a 
 large saw. Baise the saw-table till the saw 
 just cuts through the top of the plank, and 
 perhaps the saw will run through it very 
 easily ; while if you lower the table so that 
 the plank will run as close to the centre of the 
 saw as possible, it might be very likely to stop 
 the saw, while it cut it at the top with ease. 
 
 Almost every one who uses a slitting-saw 
 knows this fact, though perhaps not aware of 
 the philosophy of the difference. It is merely 
 the difference of cutting on a line with the 
 grain or across it, of whittling a stick to a long 
 point or cutting it square in two. 
 
 We find three kinds of teeth in circular rip- 
 saws, as well as the other kinds previously de- 
 scribed. We should style them as good, me- 
 dium, and bad. 
 
THE AKT OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 47 
 f 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 Fig. 38 is the correct and proper form. Fig. 
 39 will do, but is too light on the points, caus« 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 ing the teeth to tremble or chatter ; while Fig, 
 
48 THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 7 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 40 is the old scraper of wliicTi we "have heard 
 enough already. 
 
 Almost any form of tooth can be driven 
 through the wood by sheer force, but if power 
 is of any consequence, we shall study to adopt 
 that kind which uses the least ; a circular-saw 
 will last twice as long if made in the new way 
 instead of the old, because it will not get hot 
 and thus warped and sprung out of true so 
 often. It is thought by good judges that the 
 pitch of the tooth of a slitting-saw should not 
 be less than an angle of sixty degrees. 
 
 Perhaps it will be well to explain here what 
 is meant by an angle of sixty degrees. 
 
 Every circle, large or small, is divided into 
 three hundred and sixty degrees ; a degree be- 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 4S 
 
 ing the acuteness of the angles of 360 lines, 
 radiating from the centre like the spokes of 
 a wheel, so that an angle of sixty degrees is 
 the same on a small circle as a large one. The 
 actual measurement of a degree on the outside 
 of a circle is a different affair. A degree on 
 the earth's surface is sixty-nine and a half 
 miles. 
 
 If a circle is 360, a half circle is 180, and a 
 quarter circle 90 degrees. All we want for 
 our purpose is a quarter circle. 
 
 90 8 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Fig. 41 shows a half circle divided into 
 angles of ten degrees each. Counting from 
 the horizontal, ninety degrees is perpendicular, 
 or a right angle. If we want to ascertain the 
 
50 THE AET OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 angle of any object from a certain line we call 
 that line one, and ninety degrees from that is a 
 right angle. 
 
 When the sun is half way up to the meri- 
 dian, we say it is forty-five degrees high ; when 
 a quarter up, we say it is twenty-two and a 
 half degrees high, from the horizon. 
 
 To return to the saw, we want the pitch of 
 the tooth an angle of sixty degrees from the 
 horizontal. This angle will form an equilate- 
 ral triangle, as will be seen by the figure. 
 
 The same angle is formed by describing a 
 circle whose diameter is one half the diameter 
 of the saw, and drawing a line from the point 
 of the tooth, across the outside of the circle as 
 at g. Fig. 42. , 
 
 Saw-Settmg. ^ f^^^ f 22-^5 
 
 This is an important p^^of the work of 
 keeping a saw in order ; for a saw may be filed 
 very scientifically, and if badly set it will do its 
 work very poorly or not at all. 
 
 The object of setting is not to increase its 
 cutting power, for a saw will cut faster if not 
 set, provided it will pass through the wood 
 without pinching or binding. 
 
 I 
 
THE ART OF SAW FILING. 
 
 61 
 
 \^o/\ 
 
 U.. 
 
 FiR.43. 
 
62 THE AET OF SAW-FILIXG. 
 
 Many saws are being made latterly, ground 
 thinner at the back, and we hope this practice 
 will prevail ; for if a saw is ground thin at the 
 back, and ground even and regular, and filed 
 scientifically, it will need no setting. Many a 
 saw binds, not because it is not set enough, but 
 because it is filed so badly that it cuts ragged 
 and uneven, leaving the groove filled up with 
 the half-severed fibres of the wood, like sawing 
 through a bale of cotton. 
 
 The first consideration in setting is perfect 
 uniformity. This is indispensable. The next 
 13 the proper form of bending or opening the 
 teeth. 
 
 There are a great variety of saw-sets invented, 
 manufactured, sold, and used ; some are good ; 
 a great proportion are good for nothing. The 
 old wa}^ of setting with a punch on a block of 
 wood, is very far from the right way. It is 
 impossible to strike every blow alike, and the 
 wood being the fulcrum over which the tooth 
 is bent, yields, and the tooth is bent clear to its 
 base, which is very likely to kink the saw. 
 One-third of a tooth is all that should be set or 
 turned out of line of the blade. 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 53 
 
 A correct saw-set should be so constructed 
 that the tooth must be bent just far enough, 
 and at the same time cannot be bent too far, even 
 by repeated blows. On a good piece of steel 
 sometimes one blow will have no effect, the 
 tooth springing back again ; two or three blows 
 being necessary to make it stay where it 
 should be. 
 
 On this account we think those sets that act 
 like a pair of plyers, bending the teeth with 
 the hand, quite objectionable, not being able 
 to make the tooth stay set. 
 
 If one or two teeth in a saw are bent too far, 
 they only scratch and make the work rough 
 and waste power ; while if not bent far enough 
 they do nothing, and are drones in the hive. 
 
 We believe the best saw-set to be found for 
 ordinary sized teeth is that known as the 
 *' Aiken set," represented by Fig. 43, 
 
54 
 
 THE AET OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 Althougli this set was invented manj years 
 ago, it has never been superseded. 
 
 Many spurious imitations of this set have 
 been manufactured of poor material ; so it be- 
 comes the buyer to be careful and get the genu- 
 ine ; for if the material is not perfect, they are 
 worse than none at all. 
 
 We believe the principle of this set to be the 
 correct one ; it is impossible to set the tooth too 
 far. The steel is condensed, and the tooth is 
 drawn out, rather assisting the file than other- 
 wise. ____... - .-^^"-^^., 
 
 Setting mill and other large saws, as at Figs. 
 84 and 35. — Large and heavy saws are set now 
 
THE ART OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 55 
 
 with the crotch-punch, which is represented at 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 /\ /X 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 This punch is made of steel, and very hard 
 in the fork, where it comes in contact with the 
 point of the tooth. The teeth are not bent but 
 spread out or upset, as shown at Fig. 33. 
 
 This is no doubt the best way to set large 
 and heavy saws, it being very dif&cult to bend 
 the teeth of a thick saw regularly. Great care 
 must be taken with this set to have the teeth 
 
66 THE AKT OF SAW-FILING. 
 
 spread even and regularly ; and they should 
 be jointed on both sides and tried with a 
 straight edge, and also on the points, so that 
 every tooth shall be exactly in line with the 
 others. If only one tooth stands out more than 
 the others, it causes a waste of power and makes 
 rough work besides. 
 
 The old way of setting mill-saws, with an 
 axe and hammer, is very bad. True, a saw 
 "will saw set in this way by sheer force ; but 
 if set the right way, one-third less power ^vill 
 do the work, and consequently one- third more 
 speed may be obtained. 
 
 In conclusion, we would say in selecting 
 saws, as in all other tools, always get the best, 
 even at higher prices ; a good tool will always 
 give satisfaction to the buyer, while a poor one 
 is dear at any price. 
 
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