REESE LIBRARY
OF THK
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
, IQ
^Accession No. $2f)i)2'" Class No.
'km
THE CALORIFIC POWER
OF FUELS.
WITH
A COLLECTION OF AUXILIARY TABLES
AND TABLES SHOWING THE HEAT
OF COMBUSTION OF FUELS,
SOLID, LIQUID AND
GASEOUS.
TO WHICH IS APPENDED
THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON BOILER TESTS
OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS (DECEMBER, 1899.)
HERMAN POOLE, F.C.S.,
Member of the Society of Chemical Industry ; the American Chemical Society ,
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers; the American
Institute of Mining Engineers ; etc., etc.
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED.
1900.
tfO
Copyright, 1898, 1900,
BY
HERMAN POOLE.
TO MY WIFE
THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY
DEDICATED.
82992
PREFACE.
THE books on fuels hitherto published in English, contain
only a few scattered facts regarding their calorific powers, how
they are obtained, and the practical use made of them. Quite
frequently these books are consulted for these facts, and the
.information they do contain is utilized to its fullest extent.
It was thought that a book especially devoted to this subject
^containing all the reliable data might be of interest, and in
furtherance of that idea this book is published.
The work commenced as a translation of M. Scheurer-Kest-
ner's "Pouvoir Calorifique des Combustibles "/ but changes be-
came necessary to adapt it to American methods and data,
and it was deemed advisable to simply use the skeleton of the
work and fill it in, as considered best. Even this skeleton has
{hardly been preserved intact, as the arrangement of much of
the material has been changed, many portions omitted, many
new ones supplied, and in some of the original discussions the
argument has been so changed as to point nearly opposite to
that advocated by M. Scheurer-Kestner.
The work embraces only that portion of calorimetric de-
terminations having a bearing on fuel values. A concise
description is given of the leading calorimeters, those most
commonly used being described more fully than the others, and
ome examples of working and calculations are added.
Coal being the principal fuel naturally receives more space
than any of the others, and most of the examples and calcula-
tions are based on results from this fuel. The other fuels are
vi PREFA C.
discussed briefly, some space being given to the heats of for-
mation of the different kinds of gas, and the advantages gained
by their use. A short account of theoretical flame tempera-
tures is given, with the methods of calculating and applying
the same.
The Report of the Committee on Boiler Tests, submitted
to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, in Decem-
ber, 1897, is published in full, as are also several of the appen-
dices to the report. This report revises the old method of
1885, and gives the most recent methods of testing boilers
and reporting the same.
A set of tables of constants used in this and allied sub-
jects is given, and finally a collection of calorimetric and ana-
lytic data on all the kinds of fuel used. It is believed that these
tables are fuller and more complete than any previously pub-
lished in any language, and in collating them all available books
and periodicals have been freely used. In all instances where
the author was known, he has been credited with his results.
Of course in such a large amount some unreliable data may
have crept in, but all possible pains have been taken to exclude
any such. The list of periodicals, etc., consulted will be found
following the table of contents.
For help in the work, and especially the tabular matter, the
author is under obligations to many. Prominent among them
are Profs. R. C. Carpenter, E. E. Slosson, W. O. Atwater,
and D. S. Jacobus; and Messrs. William Kent, R. S. Hale,
F. L. Slocum, W. B. Day, and C. E. Emery. The Astor
Library and the Libraries of the American Society of Civil
Engineers and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
were freely used, and much help obtained from the librarians.
Most of the cuts are from Scheurer-Kestner's book; a few
were taken from Lunge and Hurter's Alkali-Maker's Hand-
book; some from Groves and Thorpe's work on Fuels; a
few from the Reports of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers; two from Dingler's Polytechnic Journal; one
PREFA CE. VI 1
from the Scientific American Supplement ; and one from
Engineering News.
The work has been unavoidably delayed waiting for de-
sired data, some of which came too late to be used.
The author knows well that the book is far from perfect
or complete, but it is as near so as could be made with the
diverse kinds of material obtainable. Some errors, especially
in the tables, may be found, which he hopes to correct in the
future.
That it may be found of service and aid to others in their
work on fuels is the sincere wish of the author.
HERMAN POOLE.
NEW YORK, Jan. i, 1898.
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
THE reception accorded the first edition has induced the
author to make many changes and improvements in the present
one.
Besides making the necessary typographical corrections,
much new matter has been added and the tables of fuel
determinations considerably enlarged, so that they now include
the fuels of the known world.
Among the changes made may be mentioned the new
chapter on Liquid Fuels, which has been entirely rewritten ; the
new pages on ice-calorimeters, Jones Sampler, Kent Draft
Gauge, new smoke tests, new table of specific heat of water,
including all the recent determinations, Prof. Jacobus' article
on moisture in steam, new calorimeter pages and examples,,
etc., etc.
In the fuel tables will be found valuable and extensive
additions to the fuels of the United States, Germany, Scotland,
India, Russia, Bulgaria, Africa, and other countries.
The entire Appendix is new and is in accord with the report
of the Boiler Test Committee of the A. S. M. E. for Dec.
1899. Many other changes will be noticed in most of the
chapters of the book.
The interest in the work manifested by the leading engi-
neers and chemists not only of the United States, but of Europe
also, is very gratifying, and it gives me pleasure to be able to
acknowledge cooperation from Hofrath Professor H. Bunte of
PREFA CE. IX
Carlsruhe ; Professor W. Louguinine of Moscow ; Professor
H. Hoefer of the Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fur Berg- und
Htittenwesen, Vienna ; Professor W. Carrick Anderson of Glas-
gow; Professor Aime" Witz of Lille; Dr. F. Liihn, chemist
of the Imperial Institute, London ; Professor R. C. Carpenter
of Ithaca, N. Y. ; W. B. Phillips of the Alabama Geological
Survey ; Prof. D. S. Jacobus of Hoboken, N. J. ; Chf. Eng.
D. P. Jones, U. S. N. of Pittsburg ; Dr. R L. Slocum of Pitts-
burg, and many others. Especial mention may be made of the
new and previously unpublished determinations of the Bul-
garian Coal, kindly sent by H. B. M. Consul F. G. Freeman,
Sofia, Bulgaria.
That this edition with its improvements may meet with as
good a reception as the first one is the sincere hope of the
author.
HERMAN POOLE.
NEW YORK, February i, 1900.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PREFACE . , v
CONTENTS xi
AUTHORITIES , xv
CHAPTER I.
FUELS i
Definitions. Fuels. Calorific Value. Heat of Combustion.
Thermometers. Metastatic Thermometers.
CHAPTER II.
METHOD OF DETERMINING HEAT OF COMBUSTION 7
Methods Depending on the Composition. On the Reducing
Power.
CHAPTER III.
CALORIMETERS 12
Installation. Evaluation in Water. Correction for Readings.
CHAPTER IV.
CALORIMETERS WITH CONSTANT PRESSURE 20
Calorimeters using Air or Oxygen. Favre and Silbermann's.
Alexejew's. Fischer's. Thomsen's. Carpenter's. Schwack-
hofer's. W. Thompson's. Barrus's. Hartley and Junker's.
CHAPTER V.
CALORIMETERS WITH CONSTANT VOLUME 45
Relation of Constant Volume and Constant Pressure. An-
drews'. Berthelot's. Description. Working. Calculation.
xi
xii CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VI.
PAGE
MAHLER'S BOMB 57
Description. Working. Calculation. Examples ; Colza Oil,
Coal, Gas, Coke. Atwater's. Kroeker's. Walther-Hempel.
Witz's. Ice Calorimeters.
CHAPTER VII.
SOLID FUELS 75
Coal. Lignite. Peat. Coke. Charcoal. Wood.
CHAPTER VIII.
LIQUID FUELS 88
Shale Oils. Petroleum. Gas Oil.
CHAPTER IX.
GASEOUS FUELS 92
Heat of Combustion from Analysis. Coal Gas. Gas of Gaso-
genes. Producer or Air Gas. Water and Mixed Gas. Natural
Gas.
CHAPTER X.
CALORIFIC POWER OF COAL BURNT UNDER A STEAM-BOILER 109
Distribution of Heat. Weight of Fuel. Sampling the Fuel.
Analysis of the Coal. Analysis of the Cinders. Duration of the
Test. The Water Evaporated. Temperature of the Steam.
Moisture of Steam. Corrections for Quality of Steam. Quality
of Superheated Steam. Determination of Moisture in Horizontal
Pipe. Combined Calorimeter and Separator.
CHAPTER XL
CALORIFIC POWER OF COAL BURNT UNDER A STEAM-BOILER CON-
TINUED. AIR SUPPLIED AND WASTE GASES 125
Volume of Air Necessary to Combustion. Volume of Waste
gases by Analysis. Gas Sampler. Analysis of Gases. Calcula-
tion of Volume from Analysis. Calculation of Volume of Air
Supplied. Calculation of Weight of Waste Gases from Analysis.
Volume of Waste Gases by the Anemometer. Fletcher's Ane-
mometer. Segur's Differential Gauge. Hirn's Method. Kent's
Gauge. Dasymeter. Econometer. Gas Composimeter. Tempera-
ture of Waste Gases. Pneumatic Pyrometer. Carbon in Smoke.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XII.
PAG&
CALORIFIC POWER OF COAL BURNT UNDER A STEAM-BOILER CON-
TINUED. CALCULATION OF THE HEAT UNITS ...................... 15^
Heat of Aqueous Vapor. Heat of Waste Gases. Heat of the
Temperature. Heat of the Hygroscopic and Combustion Water.
Calories of the Combustible Gases. Calories due to Soot. Dis-
tribution of Calories Loss.
FLAME AND FLAME TEMPERATURES .................................. 168
WEIGHT AND HEAT UNITS OF CARBON VAPOR ....................... 173,
EVAPORATIVE POWER OF FUEL ...................................... 174
APPENDIX.
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE REVISION OF THE SOCIETY CODE
OF 1885, RELATIVE TO A STANDARD METHOD OF CONDUCTING STEAM-
BOILER TRIALS .................................................. 1 75.
Report of Committee. Rules for Conducting Trial. Form for
Report.
TABLES ............................................................. ig%
FUEL TABLES ....................................................... 20^
INDEX ............................................................. 263
AUTHORITIES CONSULTED.
The following list contains the names of the different pub-
lications consulted to obtain data, especially for the tables.
Dates are not usually given, as in many cases the entire file
was used since 1868.
Alkali Reports, England.
American Engineer.
American Gas Light Journal.
American Manufacturer.
Annalen der Chemie und Physik.
Annales de Chimie et Physique.
Annales des Mines.
Australian Mining Standard.
Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbeblatter.
Bell, Sir I. L. , Chemical Phenomena of Iron-smelting.
Berichte der Deutscher Chemischer Gesellschaft.
Berthelot, Essai de Mecanique Chimique.
Berthier, Traite des Essais par la Voie seche.
Bulletin No. 21, U. S. Dept. Agriculture.
" University of Wyoming.
" de la Societe Industrielle de Mulhouse.
" de la Societe Chimique de Paris.
de 1'Association des Proprietaires d'Appareils a Vapeur du
Nord de la France.
Chemical News.
Colliery Guardian.
Comptes Rendus de 1'Academie des Sciences.
Crookes and Rohrig, Metallurgy.
Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal.
Dufrenoy, Traite de Mineralogie.
Electrical Engineering.
AUTHORITIES CONSULTED.
Engineer.
Engineering.
Engineering and Mining Journal.
Engineering Mechanics.
Engineering News.
Groves and Thorpe, Chemical Technology, Vol. I.
Gliickauf.
Ice and Refrigeration.
Iron Age.
Isherwood, B. M., Engineering Precedents.
" " Researches in Steam Engineering.
Jahrbuch der K. K. Berg-Akademie.
" fur Geologic.
Johnson, W. B., Report to Congress, U. S. A., 1844.
Journal American Chemical Society.
" Canadian Mining Institute.
" Chemical Society.
" Franklin Institute.
" Society of Chemical Industry.
*' Imperial Institute.
*' Iron and Steel Institute.
" . de 1'Eclairage au Gaz.
" des Usines a Gaz.
du Gaz et de 1'Electricite.
* 4 ftir Gasbeleuchtung.
" fiir Praktische Chemie.
fiir Angewandte Chemie.
" of Gas Lighting.
Kent, William, Pocket-book.
Le Genie Civil.
Memoires de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civiis.
Mineral Industry, Vol. I.
Mineral Resources, U. S. A., various volumes.
Mining Journal.
Morin and Tresca, Machines a Vapeur.
Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Hiittenwesen.
Peclet, Traite de la Chaleur.
Percy's Metallurgy, Fuels.
Philosophical Magazine.
Poly tech nisches Centralblatt.
Progressive Age.
Proceedings : Alabama Industrial and Scientific Society.
44 American Gaslight Association.
AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. xvii
Proceedings: American Institute Mining Engineers.
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Institute of Mechanical Engineers.
" Institution of Civil Engineers.
Reports : British Alkali Commission.
British Association of Gas Managers.
Bureau of Mines, Canada.
Department of Mines, New South Wales.
Geological Survey, Ohio.
Geological Survey, U. S.
South Lancashire and Cheshire Coal Association on Boilers
and Smoke Prevention, 1869.
Revista Minera.
Revue Scientifique et Industrielle.
" Universelle des Mines.
Sanitary Engineer.
Scheerer, Lehrbuch der Metallurgie.
Scheurer-Kestner, Pouvoir Calorifique des Combustibles.
Science.
Ser, Traite de Physique Industrielle.
Stahl und Eisen.
Stevens Indicator.
Thomsen, Thermo-chemie.
Transactions Newcastle Chemical Society.
Ure's Dictionary.
United States Census Bulletin, 1890.
Williams, C. W., Fuel, its Character and Economy.
Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry.
Witz, Traite theorique et pratique des moteurs a gaz.
Wurtz, Dictionnaire de Chimie.
Zeitschrift Physikalische Chemie.
" des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure.
Zeitung Berg- und Hiittenwesen.
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
FUELS.
FUELS are those substances containing carbon, or carbon
and hydrogen, which, are utilized for the heat they produce
upon union with oxygen. The products of this union, called
combustion, are carbonic acid or carbonic acid and water.
Many fuels, such as wood, peat, crude petroleum, etc., exist
naturally; others, such as coke, charcoal, coal-gas, etc., are
formed artificially.
The fuel par excellence to-day is coal. Improvements in
transportation allow deliveries at points more and more
remote from the mines, and the increasing demand, aided by
new and improved machinery, tends to lower the cost. New
locations are still being discovered, and the old ones are being
worked more thoroughly and completely. A large portion of
this book will be devoted to coal, other fuels being treated
incidentally; and such treatment is fitting, since it is the study
of coal to which the energies of physicists and engineers are
still principally devoted in their researches on the calorific
power of fuel.
For convenience of discussion the fuels will be divided
into three general heads: ,
Solid fuels coal, lignite, peat, coke, charcoal, and wood.
2 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
Liquid fuels petroleum, shale oils, vegetable and animal
oils.
Gaseous fuels coal gas, producer gas, water gas, mixed
gas, natural gas.
CALORIFIC POWER OR HEAT VALUE.
The quantity of heat generated by the combustion of
a definite quantity of fuel in oxygen is called the calorific
power, heat value, or heat of combustion.
The expression calorific power or heat value has a wider
signification than heat of combustion. In the popular sense
the former terms apply to the measure of an industrial yield as
well as to the heat given off by the fuel during its complete
combustion. The expression heat of combustion , more nearly
correct from a scientific point of view, is applied, on the con-
trary, only to that quantity of heat generated by the substance
when completely burnt; that is to say, when the carbon and
hydrogen are completely changed to carbonic acid and water.
The unit adopted for these quantities of heat is the Calorie
and the British Thermal Unit.
The Calorie is the quantity of heat absorbed by the unit of
weight of pure water when its temperature is increased one
degree Centigrade. This unit is usually one gram or one
kilogram. When it represents the atomic or molecular
weight, it is called the atomic or molecular calorie, the gram
being taken as the atomic unity.
The British Thermal Unit (B. T. U.) is the quantity of
heat absorbed by one unit (usually one pound) when its tem-
perature is increased one degree Fahrenheit. It is ^ of a
calorie.
A kilogram in burning generates n calories with a kilogram
as unit and the Centigrade scale; a pound generates n calories
with a pound as unit and the Centigrade scale (W. Kent's
pound-calorie); or, whatever the weight taken, there will be
generated the same number of calories, using the same unit of.
INTROD UCTOR Y. 3
weight and the Centigrade scale. Hence to pass from the
Centigrade scale to the Fahrenheit scale multiply by the
factor 1.8, that being the ratio of the two scales.
In this work calories referred to the kilogram (kilo-
calories) will be used, and the calorie will be the quantity of
heat necessary fro raise the temperature of that amount of pure
water one degree Centigrade. We will omit consideration of
the variations in specific heat of water; to consider these it
would be necessary to state that the initial temperature was
o C. But, as remarked by Berthelot, " the calorie varies
only to a very slight degree if we take the water at a slightly
increased temperature at 1 5 or 20, for example; so that we
are accustomed to regard as constant the specific heat absorbed
by the water for each degree comprised in this interval of
temperature, thus simplifying the calculations." We may
lessen this little error by referring the calorie to a litre of
water instead of a kilogram, that is, by measuring the water
instead of weighing it ; the weight of a litre of water diminish-
ing from its maximum density at 4 C., while its specific heat
gradually increases. The error of calculation is thus made
less than the error of experiment.
HEAT OF COMBUSTION.
When the fuel contains hydrogen, its heat of combustion
may be expressed in two ways. Hydrogen in burning pro-
duces water, and this water may be either condensed or in the
state of vapor. The same number does not apply to both
cases, since the vaporization of the water formed consumes
heat, which is not given up to the calorimetric bath. We
usually consider the heat of combustion, the result of the
experiment made under ordinary conditions, or when the
water is in the liquid state ; this is the general acceptance of
the term heat of combustion. Some authors, however, prefer
to consider the water as vapor.
It is easy, however, to change from one system to the
4 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
other. The heat of combustion of one kilogram of hydrogen
being 34500 calories,* and the water formed being liquid at
o C., a portion of the 34500 calories is used to vaporize the
water in the case where it is gaseous or considered as such.
Experiment has shown that the heat of vaporization of
water is expressed by the formula of Regnault,
606.5 + 0.305*, or
1091.7 -f- 0.305^ 32) for Fahrenheit degrees,
in which / represents the temperature of the water in the state
of vapor. Now one kilogram of hydrogen produces nine
kilograms of water. To keep these nine kilograms of water
in vapor, at 100 C. for example, there will be needed, by the
above formula, 637 calories per kilogram of water, or nine
times as much per kilogram of hydrogen, which is 5733
calories. These 5733 calories reduce to 5453 when the water
is considered as being at o C. instead of at 100 C. Deduct-
ing 5453 calories from 34500 calories representing the heat of
combustion of hydrogen, the water formed being condensed,
we obtain 29047, which number represents the heat of com-
bustion of hydrogen, the water being in the state of vapor
at o c . We will call it, in round numbers, 29ioof calories, as
is done by several writers.
THERMOMETERS.
Before taking up the study of calorimeters, we must con-
sider the calorimetric thermometer, which is a most important
part of the apparatus employed. The reading of the ther-
mometer and the corrections are quite delicate and also very
important, the calculation of the heat of combustion depend-
ing principally on their accuracy.
In this work calorimetric questions relating to fuel only
will be considered; hence a description of ordinary ther-
* 62100 B. T. U. f 52380 B. T. U.
IN 7 Yv' OD UCTOR Y. 5
mometers and their manufacture will not be needed. They
are usually bought all finished, and should be obtained only
from reliable dealers.
Favre and Silbermann employed a thermometer of their
own design, divided into T ^ degrees and graduated from 32
to o C. Each degree occupied about 0.3 inch. By means
of a cathetometer they read to y^ of a degree. Their calori-
metric bath of 2 litres capacity was subjected to at least 8
elevation in temperature, and the quantity of substance
necessary to use at times exceeded 2 i 2
grams. To lessen this amount of rise
in temperature and also the time of
combustion, they used longer thermo-
meters, with scales reading to ^1^ or '"
even to y^o - Scheurer-Kestner used
a thermometer divided to ^ with his
Favre and Silbermann calorimeter.
Since then they have been used gener-
ally. Such thermometers are difficult
to work with, and require care in ma-
nipulation, and often a series of ther- 1 1_] 2
mometers or at least two with scales
I i l o
in sequence are employed. If the
initial temperature of a calorimetric
bath is found a little above the highest
graduation on the first thermometer,
and if the rise in temperature of the FlG - I -"~ METASTATIC
THERMOMETER.
bath amounts to two degrees, we must
substitute the second one having for its lowest degree the
highest of the first. Besides the trouble of substitution, it
necessitates a correction for agreement of the degrees common
to the two instruments. To obviate this difficulty the
" metastatic " thermometer was invented by Walferdin and
described in the Comptes Rendus de r Academic des Sciences^
1840, p. 292, and 1842, p. 63.
O CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
As it is not advisable to have the increase of temperature
more than three or four degrees, and as this increase must be
measured very closely, thermometers are used in which the
stem is so drawn out and divided that small fractions of a
degree can be easily read. The divisions of the scale should
not be greater than J, and much finer is desirable.
Many physicists use special thermometers having the
reservoir and the tube near the zero point blown large enough
to hold all the mercury needed from o to 16 or to the be-
ginning of the divisions. The graduations, engraved on the
glass, should then begin and the tube be drawn out so that
they may be sufficiently fine. Too long a tube (over 18
inches) is liable to damage. If the mercury cylinder be
too large it does not respond quickly enough to minute
changes in temperature. Readings of the thermometer are
usually made with a cathetometer, and hence -g- 1 ^ is sufficiently
small. The length of a degree should be at least one inch.
With all thermometers it is essential that the glass of the
bulb should be rather thin, or the thermometer will be " too
slow." The slightest' difference in temperature must be
shown immediately by a movement of the mercurial column.
To test for sensibility, read the height of the column and' then
place the hand on the bulb. If sufficiently sensitive the mer-
cury will descend quickly from the expansion of the glass and
afterwards rise. In thermometers divided to y-J^ this move-
ment should be immediate, and over several hundredths.
In ordinary calorimetric experiments the correction due to
length of the mercury column flowing out of the bulb may
be neglected 'for several reasons; the experiments should be
made in a room where the temperature is nearly the same as
that of the calorimetric bath, such correction would be of
very little consequence for a slight change of temperature,
and the experimenter should plunge the thermometer into the
bath as deep as is necessary to take the reading at the level
of the eye.
CHAPTER II.
METHODS OF DETERMINING HEAT OF COMBUSTION.
THERE are two methods for determining tne heat of com-
bustion of substances one by calculation based on the
chemical composition, and the other by actual combustion in
a calorimeter. The first method may be considered under
two heads: that in which the units are calculated directly from
the composition, and that in which they are calculated from
the quantity of oxygen consumed during combustion in a
crucible.
CALCULATION FROM CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
Dulong stated that the heat generated by a fuel during
combustion was equal to the sum of the possible heats gener-
ated by its component elements,^ less that portion of the hy-
drogen which might form water with the oxygen of the fuel.
His formula was
* = 8o8oC + 34500 H - ,
or expressed in B. T. U.'s,
x = I45OOC + 62100 ^H J,
in which
x = the heat of combustion sought ;
8080 = the heat of combustion of carbon in calories ;
14500 = " " " " " " ." B. T. U. ;
34500 = " " " " " hydrogen in calories ;
62100= " " " " " " " B. T. U.;
7
8 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
H -- = the quantity of hydrogen less that supposed to form
water with the oxygen.
Other authors and experimenters have tried to interpret
their results by a general formula with varying success.
Many of them by working on a certain number of coals from
a certain location work out a formula which applies to that
set of coals, but not as well to another set. A few of them
will be given. They all resemble Dulong's and are usually
only modifications of his original one.
The Verein Deutscher Ingenieure adopted the following:
/ O\
x = SiooC + 29000 ( H j + 25008 6oo,
in which allowance is made for the heat of combustion of
sulphur and the heat of the hygroscopic water. All the
coefficients are round numbers and that for hydrogen, 29000,
is the one in which the water is supposed to be as aqueous
vapor, all the water being considered as passing off in that
state. None of the other formulae uses this coefficient.
It gives rather low results. The question as to the advis-
ability of reckoning the heat due to sulphur is a debatable
one. In no case does it amount to more than a verv small
per cent and can have but little effect on the total.
Balling gives as formula
x = 8o8oC + 34462 H - - 6$2( + 9 H)
to represent the actual occurrences in a steam-boiler fire work-
ing under a pressure of steam corresponding to 300 F.
Schwackhoefer made the following modification to allow
for the correction due to hygroscopic water:
x = 8o8oC + 34500 (H - J - 637^.
METHODS OF DETERMINING HEAT OF COMBUSTION. 9
Mahler formulated one based on the results of calorimetric
determination of the heat of combustion of 44 different kinds
of fuel. It is
81400 + 345QQH - 3000(0+ N)
100 ~ ;
or simplified,
x = ii I.4C + 375 H 3000;
or in B. T. U.'s,
x = 200. sC + 675 H 5400.
With the coals he examined he found a very close agree-
ment between the results calculated by this formula and
those observed. A similar but not equally close concordance
was found using the Dulong formula. With wood and lig.
nites the difference amounted to 2 per cent. His formula
applies also to other substances whose constituents are accu-
rately known. Cellulose, the heat of combustion of which
according to Berthelot is 4200 calories, by Mahler's formula
is 4264.
In summing up he says: " From a scientific point of
view, in the present state of our knowledge on the subject,
we cannot give a general formula depending strictly on the
chemical composition which will give the calorific power of
combustibles, substances so complex and varied."
Lord and Haas in a paper read before the American Insti-
tute of Mining Engineers, Feb. 1897, state that in a series of
forty Pennsylvania and Ohio coals they found differences
varying from -j- 2.0 to 1.8 per cent between the calculated
and the observed results, and an average difference of o. 12
per cent.
In 1896 Bunte published some analyses and calorimetric
tests of gas-cokes, showing a difference of from -j- 0.04 to
1.2 per cent.
IO CALORIfIC POWER OF FUELS.
Three elements enter into these cases, the analysis, ^he
calculation, and the combustion; all may be erroneous. As
the matter stands now the weight of error seems to be on the
side of the analysis, as our methods of analysis, especially in
water determinations, are not entirely satisfactory; yet it must
be confessed that some of the most recent analyses give a
basis from which very close agreement can be calculated.
With such fuels as coke, charcoal, or anthracite, having but
little volatile matter, the results agree quite well, but with the
bituminous coals, asphalts, mineral oils, etc., which are so
very complex, the differences are greater.* In these the
actual proximate chemical constitution seems to make a differ-
ence. It may be safely stated, however, that for ordinary
industrial uses, in absence of the possibility of a calorimetric
test, and with coals having under 20 per cent of volatile
matter, a fairly accurate approximation may be arrived at by
calculation.
The great inducement that formerly existed in favor of
calculated results exists no longer. I refer to the difficulty
of making a calorimetric test. These can be made now by
means of the modern apparatus, so simple and almost self-
regulating that the time consumed is but a small fraction of
that needed for an analysis, and the labor and care, hardly
anything in comparison.
If possible, by all means have a calorimetric test. If not
possible, use the best analysis available.
CALCULATION FROM QUANTITY OF OXYGEN USED.
This is the litharge reduction test. It depends on
Welter's formula, which is based on the hypothesis that the
"heat of combustion is proportional to the quantity of oxygen
consumed:
N = mP,
* Mahler's limit for Dulong's formula is O -f N > 15.
METHODS OF DETERMINING HEAT OF COMBUSTION. II
in which N is the heat of combustion sought, m is the coeffi-
cient previously determined, and P is the weight of oxygen
necessary for the combustion of one kilogram of the substance.
Giving P the value resulting from the use of the equiva-
lents 16 for oxygen to burn 6 of carbon, and 8 for oxygen
to burn I of hydrogen we have
and the general formula becomes
N = Sm (- + H) = 26880 (- + H).*
To use this method the combustible is mixed with an
excess of litharge and heated in a crucible. The button of
lead formed shows the amount of oxygen consumed, and from
this is deduced the heat by means of the formula. The heat
should be increased very slowly. Mitchell substituted white
lead for litharge and claimed to obtain uniform results.
This formula was recommended by Berthier, and has been
used since by a few others. It is faulty, as was shown by
some of Berthier's own determinations in which contradictory
results were obtained. Dr. Ure showed that no uniform re-
sults could be obtained using the same materials. Scheurer-
Kestner in 1892 showed that the formula not only gave erro-
neous results, but actually reversed the relation of combus-
tibles. In one case cited the heats actually obtained by a
calorimeter were 8813 and 8750, while by the litharge test
they were 7547 and 7977. The results were not only low,
but reversed the ratio.
This method is allowable only in cases where the crudest
approximations are desired and where no analyses or calori-
metric tests can possibly be made.
* Value given by M. Ser.
CHAPTER III.
CALORIMETRY.
CALORIMETERS for rapid combustion are invariably com-
posed of a combustion-chamber and a calorimetric bath,
usually a cylinder, surrounding it and containing a known
quantity of water, the elevation in temperature of which is
measured. The combustion is made in oxygen, pure or
diluted.
Combustion-chambers are either under a constant pressure,
as in the calorimeters of Rumford, Favre and Silbermann,
etc. ; or with a constant volume, as in the calorimeters of
Andrews, Berthelot, etc. With solids the difference of results
obtained under constant volume and constant pressure is so
small that we shall not consider it. With gases, however, it
is different, and we will state under which conditions the
results have been obtained.
The first calorimetric experiments date from Lavoisier and
Laplace. In 1814 Count Rumford replaced the ice calorim-
eter of Lavoisier by an apparatus in which the heat devel-
oped during the combustion was absorbed by water. It was
some time after, 1858, that Favre and Silbermann discovered
the causes of the great errors of their predecessors, and pub-
lished methods for correcting some while avoiding others.
We owe to them, above all, the observation that, even when
supplied with pure oxygen, combustion may be only partial,
on account of the formation of combustible gases. They
determined that this occurs generally, and gave a method of
estimating the unburnt gases, so as to make allowances in the
calculation.
12
CALORIMETRY. 13
Carbon, which, before their time, had given only 7624
-calories to Laplace, 7386 to Clement-Desormes, 7915 to Des-
pretz, 7295 to Dulong, and 7678 to Andrews, yielded to F.
& S. 8081 after correction for carbonic oxide in the waste
gases. This number has since been increased to 8140 by the
latest determinations of Berthelot. Berthelot and Vielle have
shown that by using oxygen under pressure complete com-
bustion can be attained.
INSTALLATION OF APPARATUS.
The apparatus should be placed in a room free from
sudden changes in temperature and consequently protected
from direct sunlight. If it is not entirely protected from
solar radiation, the apparatus may be set up on the north
side and shaded from the direct midday sun by a screen.
The calorimeter cylinder with its accessories, as well as the
distilled water used, should remain in the room long enough
to acquire its proper temperature. The cylinder should be
protected as much as possible from radiation by envelopes
which vary according to circumstances. Favre and Silber-
mann used a cylinder with a double wall. The external one
was filled with water, and between this one and the cylinder
proper swan's down was packed. The upper part of the
cylinder also had a layer of thick paper covered with down
on the under side.
Berthelot states that the down is more troublesome than
useful, and that it may be omitted with advantage. The space
between the cylinder and its envelope forms a layer of air
which is an excellent non-conductor. In modern instruments
the down is replaced by a thick layer of felt. Berthelot even
omits this covering, stating that the great cause of loss of
heat was not from radiation, but due to evaporation produced
by the agitation of the water in contact with the air. He
surrounds his cylinder with a layer of air inside of the
envelope of water, and outside of all a layer of felt O.8 inch
thick. By this means external influence is much reduced.
14 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
EVALUATION OF THE CALORIMETER IN WATER.
Before using a calorimeter its equivalent in water must be
determined; that is, we must calculate to what quantity of
water it corresponds in terms of specific heat. This is to>
be added to the weight of water employed and includes the
combustion-chamber, cylinder, and the immersed pieces,
thermometer, supports, etc.
Below is given an example showing the calculation of the
value in water of a Favre and Silbermann's calorimeter:
Copper, 1145.651 grams at 0.09516 specific heat = 109.008 grams.
Platinum, 22.810 " " 0.0324 " " = 0.706 "
Value in water of the chamber and accessories = 109.714
Thermometer, weight of glass immersed, 12 grams at o. 198 = 2.400
Mercury, 63 " "0.332= 2.070
Total equivalent of water = 114.184 "
which added to the 2 kilograms of water in the bath makes a
total of 2114.184 grams of water.
The calorimetric weight for the Berthelot bomb at the
College of France in 1888 was 398.7 grams for bomb and
accessories.
The water value of the calorimeter used by Lord and Haas
at the Ohio State University, Columbus, O., was determined
as 465 grams. Mahler's apparatus had a water equivalent
of 481 grams. Still, it is better to determine this equivalent
by actual experiment, as we are not sure of the specific heat
of the metal of the bomb, which might, however, be deter-
mined by a sample taken from the original block of which it
was made.
Several methods may be employed for this.
When we use the calorimetric bomb, we burn in the obus,
using 2000 grams of water, a known quantity of a substance
of fixed composition, and of which the heat of combustion
is known, as sugar, or naphthalin. We then use less water
and burn a smaller quantity of the substance. If I gram of
substance was taken the first time, we may take O.8 gram with
1800 grams of water the second time. We then have two
CA L ORIME 7 'A' Y. I
equations, trom which we eliminate the heat of combustion of
the substance and deduce thence the value in water of the
cylinder, etc.
This method, suggested by Berthelot, may be replaced by
the following, to which he gives the preference:
Pour into the calorimeter a certain quantity of warm
water, at 60 C. for instance. This water is previously con-
tained in a bottle, and the temperature is measured by a
thermometer placed inside. As control, operate first without
the bomb in the cylinder and afterwards with it in place.
One test of this kind gave Berthelot a value of 354 calories
for the bomb. The value deduced by calculation from specific
heat was 355.4. Below is the detailed calculation giving the
separate parts of the bomb.
Names of the Different Parts.
Soft Steel.
Platinum.
Brass.
Weight
in
Grams.
Value in
Water.
Weight
in
Grams.
Value in
Water.
Weight
in
Grams.
Value in
Water.
1709.7
221.2
II.7
187.61
24.28
1.28
728.8
528.8
23.63
I7-I5
2O. O
3-97
108.9
1.86
0.37
10.13
Cover
Cone-screw and socket
Movable accessoriesserv-
ing for suspension and
33-0
1.07
802.7
88.08
Movable foot of bomb. . .
Totals ....
2745-3
301.24
I2QO.6
41.85
132.9
12.36
RECAPITULATION.
Metals Used.
Weight in
Grams.
Calculated
Value in Water.
Steel ..
-2OI 2J.
Platinum . . . .
Af 8C
Brass (calorimeter
and agitator omitted)
TOO Q
\Veight of bomb.
4168 8
Value in water by
direct test
'4^4. 7
1 6 CA LOR 2 PIC POWER OF FUELS.
CORRECTIONS FOR THE READINGS.
The corrections to be applied to thermometric readings,
besides those due to the thermometer itself, are of various
kinds, and naturally vary with the kind of calorimeter used.
Some, however, are common to all.
The correction relative to heating and cooling concerns all
calorimeters. Favre and Silbermann made this correction with
a coefficient previously determined, once for all, by a series
of experiments. For example, the coefficient that they found
for their calorimeter (0.0020225) represents the influence
of the external temperature through the envelopes and pack-
ings for one minute and one degree.
Instead of a coefficient of correction thus determined,
use preferably a system of correction devised by Regnault and
Pfaundler. This system is superior to the preceding, as it
allows consideration of all external conditions at the time of
the experiment. It is evident, for example, that the evapora-
tion of a liquid may vary in such proportions that a fixed
coefficient will not always represent it.
The system of Regnault and Pfaundler does not need
previous experiments nor a determined coefficient. It rests
on observation of the thermometer immersed in the bath a
Tew minutes before and after the experiment, or at the times
when external influence is at its minimum or maximum.
Knowing the value of these two kinds of influence, it is
easy to calculate it for the whole duration of the test.
It is well to continue the observations before combustion
for some five minutes. These five minutes should be pre-
ceded by at least ten minutes' immersion of the combustion
chamber with agitator, so as to establish equilibrium of tem-
perature between the cylinder and the water.
Suppose the initial correction corresponding to the first
period to be zero which is rare, it is true, but simplifies the
RSITT I
CA L ORIME TRY. 1 7
demonstration and that the observations have given the fol-
lowing data:
Initial temperature of bath 18.460
After i minute 19.700
" 2 " 20.540
" 3 " 20.670
" 4 " 20.680
" 5 " 20.676
11 6 " 20.665
" 7 " 20.655
" 8 " 20.640
11 9 " 20.630
' 10 " 20.620
The combustion once commenced is continued till after
the fourth minute and ends between the fourth and fifth
minutes, but the equilibrium of temperature between the bath
and the combustion-chamber is not established until the
eighth minute, the time when the variation due to difference
between them has become regular (0.010 per minute).
A table of corrections is formed as follows:
18.460
1st minute. ... 19.700 Mean 19.080 Difference 0.620
2d " 20.540 20.120 i. 660
3d " ..., 20.670 20.605 2.145
4th " .... 20.680 20.675 2.215
5th " .... 20.676 20.678 2.218
6th " 20.665
7th " , ... 20.655
8th " .... 20.640
9th "' .... 20.630
joth " , 20.620
1 8 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
The total elevation of temperature is
20.676 18.460 = 2.216,
and the correction is
20.676 20.620 == 0.056 for five minutes,
or 0.011 for one minute.
Then
2.2l6 : O.OII = 0.620 : 0.0031
2.216 : o.on = i. 660 : 0.0083
2.216 : o.on = 2.145 : 0.0107
2.216 : o.on = 2.215 : o.ono
2.216 : o.on = 2.218 : o.ono
Total 0.0441
There is then 0.0441 to be added to the difference, 2.2 16,
increasing it to 2.260, which is the corrected difference of the
bath temperature, from which the heat of combustion of the
substance burnt in the calorimeter is calculated.
Regnault and Pfaundler's formula is
Atn Ato + K(tn to) ;
in which
*Atn = ascertained variation of temperature from the heat-
ing and cooling of the calorimeter for one
minute;
Ato = variation at the beginning;
t n _ to = loss or gain during the total time of the test;
n = number of minutes of test.
Using the above numbers,
O.OII
CA L ORIME TRY. 19
It will suffice, then, to find the total loss or gain to take
the sum of all the gains or losses calculated by means of the
coefficient K during the whole time of the experiment.
Thus,
0.620 X 0.00496 = 0.0031,
i. 660 X 0.00496 = 0.0083,
and so on.
For the full and exact method of correction devised by
Pfaundler, see vol. ix., p. 113 et seq. of the Annalen der Chemie
und Physik.
CHAPTER IV.
CALORIMETERS WITH CONSTANT PRESSURE.
THE first calorimeters were of constant pressure; that is,
the combustion was carried on at the atmospheric pressure or
very near it, and did not vary from the beginning to the end
of the experiment. Hence the modifications in the volume
of the gases before and after combustion exercised no influ-
ence on the observed results.
Rumford, in 1814, was the first who tried to correct
external influences. He employed a practical method which
has often been used since, and consists in giving the calo-
rimeter bath a temperature in the beginning of the test less
than that of the room, and allowing it at the close to attain
a temperature in the same proportion above that of the room.
His calorimetric apparatus was composed of a copper boiler
of several litres capacity, heated by an interior tube through
which passed the gaseous products of the combustion. The
combustible was burnt in a little burner placed under the
boiler, and the air used circulated around the heater before
passing to the burner, thus preventing any loss of caloric by
radiation.
Dulong in 1838 used oxygen, and obtained much superior
results. His calorimeter consisted of a rectangular copper
box, 25 centimetres (about 10 inches) deep, 7.5 centimetres
(2.9 inches) wide, and 10 centimetres (3.9 inches) long. It
was closed at the upper part by a cover with a mercury seal.
20
FAVRE AND SILBERMANN' S CALORIMETER. 21
The oxygen passed into the calorimeter by a copper tube
opening at one of the sides of the box near the bottom.
The gases of combustion were drawn into a gas-holder. The
apparatus was enclosed in another likewise rectangular, in
which was put 1 1 litres (Q quarts) of water. This was the
calorimetric cylinder. The water was kept in motion by an
agitator.
The unit chosen by Dulong was one gram of water whose
temperature was raised one degree. He corrected the tem-
perature observed, same as Rumford, but he also noticed
that this correction was correct only when the first period
was equal to the second. The results obtained by Dulong in
1838 were not published till after his death, in 1843. F r
hydrogen and carbonic oxide they are but slightly different
from the most modern determinations.
CALORIMETER OF FAVRE AND SILBERMANN.
In 1852 Favre and Silbermann published their first
researches on the quantities of heat generated by chemical
action and described their calorimeter.
All rapid-combustion calorimeters and all with constant
pressure intended for solid bodies are copied more or less after
that of Favre and Silbermann. The principle and mode of
execution in their general lines are the same; the form in some
details or the material employed for the combustion-chamber
has been modified more or less; but the general apparatus
and accessories, as well as the method, have remained as
F. & S. left them. We will describe, then, this calorimeter
in its details, and outline the modifications made by other
experimenters.
The calorimeter called Favre and Silbermann's is composed
of three concentric copper cylinders (Fig. 2, B, C, Z>).
Cylinder B is the calorimeter cylinder; it is silver-plated and
polished on the inner surface so as to lessen its emitting
power; its capacity is a little over 2 litres (3! pints), being 20
22
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
centimetres (about 8 inches) high and 12 centimetres (4J
inches) in diameter. In the middle is placed the combustion-
chamber A (Figs. 2 and 3).
FIG. 2. FIG. 3.
FAVRE AND SILBERMANN CALORIMETER.
The combustion-chamber is of burnished gilt copper, and
is shown in Fig. 3. It is a slightly conical vessel, the large
opening in which receives a stopper from which is suspended
the burner made of a material suitable to that of the sub-
stance operated on. The stopper itself carries two tubes, m
and n, the first being an observation tube for the combustion,
and is surmounted by a mirror M, which allows examination
during the burning. The mirror receives light by the tube
m, which is closed by an athermanous system of quartz,
alum, and glass. The other tube, , carries the jet for the
oxygen. Tube b is closed, or removed during the test with
coal, as it is of no use then. Tube c serves as the exit for the
waste gases of the combustion, which pass through the coil cc
(Fig. 2) before reaching the analytical apparatus. This coil
FAVRE AND SJLBERMANN'S CALORIMETER
is sufficient to cool the gas to the temperature of the bath.
Experimenters should solder the oxygen-jet to the stopper
so as to diminish the number of openings. It is also advan-
tageous to solder the coil to the cover.
Certain fuels with very smoky flames require the addition of
oxygen very near their surfaces. Scheurer-
Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus employed the
following arrangement (Fig. 4), a being the
platinum capsule; cc' , the platinum tube,
which at the part c fits tight in the mouth
of the oxygen-jet; b, b, b, platinum suspen-
sion-rods; d, fuel.
It is impossible to prevent the genera-
tion of more or less hydrocarbons and car-
bonic oxide. The weight of the hydrogen
and carbon is determined by causing the
gaseous products of combustion to pass
through an organic analysis tube, after re-
moving the water and carbonic acid. For
this purpose the exit-tube c (Fig. 3) is con-
nected by a caoutchouc tube with a Liebig apparatus, fol-
lowed by a U-tube of soda-lime.
The gas-current being rather rapid, an absorption appa-
ratus must be used, large and powerful enough to completely
free the gas from the carbonic acid and water before it reaches
the red-hot copper oxide. This is done by passing the gases
through another U-tube smaller than the preceding, and whose
weight should vary only a few milligrams. The gases thus
freed pass to the tube of hot copper oxide, where the com-
bustible gases are burnt to water and carbonic acid, which are
collected and weighed as usual.
Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus employed a plati-
num combustion-tube, and prefer soda-lime as absorbent for
the water after the conclusive experiments by Mulder.*
*Zeitschrift fiir analytische Chemie, I. 4.
24 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
The coal for the experiment must be in pieces; if in?
powder, the combustion is more difficult, unburnt gases
escaping in considerable quantities, so that it is rare to obtain
a complete combustion, and the cinders almost invariably
contain small quantities of coke. To determine these, the
capsule and tube are withdrawn from the combustion-cham-
ber, dried, and weighed. The coke and the little soot on the
sides of the capsule are burnt off by calcination in the air and
a new weighing made, giving the weight of the carbon and
cinder elements which must be considered in the corrections.
From half a gram to a gram of coal may be used.
When the combustion-chamber containing the weighed
substance is put into the calorimeter all the parts of the
apparatus are connected by caoutchouc joints and tested.
A slow current of oxygen* from a gas-holder is passed
through the apparatus. The combustible is ignited by a few
milligrams of burning charcoal, the joint in the tube being
broken for the moment, and immediately reconnected without
stopping the -flow of oxygen. The little glass M allows inspec-
tion of the combustion, the intensity of which can be regulated
by the flow of oxygen from the gas-holder. The temperature
shown by the thermometer is recorded each minute to obtain
the data necessary for the correction spoken of above (pages
1 6 et seq.).
To calculate the heat-units developed by the combustion
the following elements are needed :
1. Weight of the combustible used;
2. Weight of the carbon remaining in the cinders unburnt
or as black;
3. Weight of the cinders;
4. Weight of hydrogen escaped unburnt;
*To prepare the oxygen a copper flask of one litre capacity is used, in
which is placed some chlorate of potash, which is then heated by a gas
flame. The gaseous current is very regular, except towards the end, when
it may become tumultuous. The addition of a small percentage of black
oxide of manganese promotes the regularity of the gas generation.
FAVRE AND SILBERMANN'S CALORIMETER. 2$
5. Weight of carbon escaped unburnt in the gaseous
products;
6. Elevation of temperature of calorimeter bath;
7. Correction for heating and cooling caused by external
influences on the calorimeter cylinder. ;
The combustion of the coal by this means is rarely com-
plete; there remain variable quantities of coke mixed with
the cinders formed. An uncertainty attends the calorimetric
value according as the combustion was slow or rapid, since
this small quantity of coke contains more or less hydrocarbons.
These differences, however, apply within very close limits, so
that no fear need be entertained of large errors therefrom.
When a coal, in pieces, has been burnt, there remains in the
capsule only a few milligrams of coke or unburnt carbon.
From this we calculate the calorimetric value, using 8080 as
coefficient (heat of combustion of charcoal according to Favre
and Silbermann); and in using that coefficient the hydrogen
which may exist in the coke is naturally neglected, but this
cannot be prevented. The carbon and hydrogen of the com- 1
bustible gases which escaped combustion are transformed into
water and carbonic acid, and weighed as such. The hydrogen
is calculated as in the free state (coefficient 34500) and the
carbon as carbonic oxide (coefficient 2435).
It is evident that these are only approximations, since the
hydrogen is not disengaged in a free state, but as a hydro-
carbon; and its coefficient (34500) should be diminished by the
heat of formation of this compound, or, in other words, by the
heat of combustion of hydrogen and carbon. This correction,
however, is not possible; for neither the composition nor state
of molecular condensation of such hydrocarbon is known.
Similarly for the carbon, and its heat of combination in the
carbon compound. There are, then, some uncertainties,
but not of much importance, in the determination of the heat
of combustion of fuels uncertainties which the use of the
calorimetric bomb has entirely avoided.
26 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
A complete test will now be described, giving all the cor-
rections.
Suppose one gram of dried coal in fragments is used.
After combustion in the calorimeter, weigh the capsule con-
taining the cinders.
Cinders after combustion o. 1 10 gram.
" " calcination in the air o. 100 "
Unburnt carbon remaining in cinders. ... o.oio "
Then
Coal used, dried at 100 C 1 .000 gram.
Cinders. . . o. 100 "
Pure coal (cinders out) 0.900 "
Carbon not burnt during the experiment., o.oio "
There was collected from the combustion of the hydro-
carbons and the carbonic oxide o. 10 gram of carbonic acid,
corresponding to 0.006 of carbonic oxide (molecular ratio
ii 17); also o.oio gram of water, corresponding to o.oon
gram hydrogen (molecular ratio 9 : i).
Increase of temperature of the bath 3.702
Correction 0.020
Total increase 3. 722*
Calorimeter equiv. in water 2.114 kilos* and 3.722 X 2.114 =7.8683
Unburnt carbon o.oio X 8.080 cal. = 0.0808
Carbonic oxide 0.006 X 2.403 " =0.0144
Hydrogen o.oon X 34- 500 " = 0.0383
Total calories from 0.900 gram coal completely burnt 8.0018
I gram pure coal = 8.891 calories,
i kilogram pure coal = 8891 calories, or
i pound " " = 16003.8 B. T. U.
* 2000 grams of vrater + JI 4 grams for value in water of calorimeter and
accessories.
FAVRE AND SILBER MA NN ' S CALORIMETER. 2/
In this example the corrections are not very important,
since they do not exceed one-half per cent. These are the
ordinary conditions when the coal used is in pieces. With
pulverized coal, on the contrary, the quantity of unburnt
carbon and of combustible gases increases considerably and
renders results less certain. The oppor-
tunity we have to weigh the cinders of
each test obviates pulverization of the coal
to obtain an average sample of the cinders.
Favre and Silbermann's calorimeter has
been modified by Berthelot in several par-
ticulars.* He has happily modified the
agitator and given it a coiled form, as
shown in Fig. 5, a detailed description of
which is given in his Essai de Mecanique
Chimique, p. 145*
This agitator has the advantage over
the old one of more completely mixing
the water, with less force, and without
accelerating evaporation. Fig. 5 shows
it placed in the middle of the calorimeter. FlG ' 5 *
He has also replaced the gold-plated copper combustion-
chamber by the glass apparatus which Alexejew used for
combustibles.
*The F. & S. calorimeter with all accessories and an agitator (not me-
chanical) costs about 500 francs ($100.00); with mechanical agitator arranged
for a laboratory turbine or dynamo the cost is about 600 francs ($120.00).
Berthelot's calorimetric bomb of platinum, enamelled inside and not
double, costs no more, and is much preferable. A single operator can
handle it, while the F. & S. apparatus requires two.
Nevertheless, the manner of working the F. & S. calorimeter is de-
scribed in detail, because its use is surrounded by conditions easily realized
in all countries. The calorimetric bomb requires oxygen compressed to 25
atmospheres, which cannot be obtained everywhere.
28
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
ALEXEJEW'S CALORIMETER.
The apparatus used by Alexejew was composed of a glass
Combustion-chamber A (Fig. 6), in which he burnt the coal
previously reduced to fragments.
These fragments were placed on a
platinum grating in the centre of
the chamber. The fuel was kindled
by means of a platinum sponge
placed over it, on which impinged
a jet of hydrogen from the gas-
holder M, opening at c, correction
for which is of course made in the
calculation. The grating contain-
ing the fuel was suspended from
the glass rod a. As soon as the
combustion was started the current
of hydrogen was cut off by the cock
/, and the oxygen allowed to flow
in through b, the waste gases pass-
ing out through the coil. If the
combustion was interrupted, it was
rekindled by the hydrogen and
platinum sponge. The hydrogen used was calculated in grams
and Multiplied by 34500. The number of calories thus ob-
tained was deducted from that calculated from the rise in
temperature of the bath. According to Alexejew, the im-
portance of this correction never exceeded one-half per cent,
and he never had to rekindle the fuel.
Alexejew did not determine the unburnt gases, as experi-
ence showed they never exceeded 0.35 per cent. It is im-
possible, however, to determine the hydrogen of the hydro-
carbons if desired, as these would be mixed with the hydrogen
used for kindling, part of which may escape combustion.
The kindling with hydrogen might, however, be replaced by
that with carbon, as in the F. & S. apparatus.
FIG. 6. ALEXEJEW CALORIM-
ETER.
ALEXEJEWS CALORIMETER. .2,9
The calorimeter contained 2500 grams (5.511 Ibs. of
water, a quantity somewhat larger than that usually employed,
and which is based on the sensibility of the thermometer.
To attain the same degree of precision it was necessary to use
larger samples of fuel or else have more delicate thermometers.
The water was kept in motion by the coil-agitator.
The following determination of the calorific value of
capryl alcohol will show the use of this calorimeter.
Weigh the fuel container before and after the combustion
to determine the weight of substance used. If very volatile
a portion may be carried along by the gases and condense in
the accessory apparatus. ,
Data.
WEIGHT OF ABSORPTION APPARATUS.
Calcium chloride tube \ 43 *? 2 o 5
(43-8383
H,O , 0.0902
Geissler apparatus \ ' 3o7 2 7
(7L7558
CO, ...................... 1.8169
Soda-lime tube ................... 85.7280
7209
{ 85.
(85.
CO, 0.0071
Burner \ 2 ' 1
( L4378
Substance burnt , . 0.6773
Second calcium chloride tube J 9^3342
| 96-3272
H,O 0070
Second Soda-lime tube.. . { 9 I .9 2 5
91.0872
.0053
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
THERMOMETER READINGS.
Readings taken every minute.
17.500 18.400 20.360
.500 .800 .352
.498 I9.2OO .342
495 -500 .332
.494 20.000 .324
.492 .250 .314
.492 .320 .304
.490 .352 .294
.368
17.488 = T .380 .282
20.380 .272
Combustion begins Combustion ends. .262
17.690 20.380 = TI .250
.240
18.020 20.370 20.230
CALCULATION OF RESULTS.
Substance burnt; by weight 0.6773
" GO, 0.6758
Difference ooi 5
Correction for Cooling. A = o.iO4.
T, = 20.484
T = 17.488
T t T = 2.996
The water and metal parts have a value of 2167.679
grams.
CORRECTIONS.
By observation, the loss of heat from water absorbed in
the CaCl tubes (0.0454 g ram ) was 28- 1 calories.
The loss from hydrogen in the unburnt gases was 25.6
calories, and the loss from carbon in the same 7.9 calories.
FISCHER'S CALORIMETER.
Then
6556.0 calories obtained from 6758
grams of substance. The calorific value is then
- 9705.
6758
FISCHER'S CALORIMETER.
Fischer made a combustion-chamber of silver 0.940 fine,
so that it would be less easily attacked
by sulphur, from which the gaseous pro-
ducts of coal are rarely free. He drew
off the waste gases at the bottom of the
apparatus (Fig. 7), thus avoiding the in-
convenience of exit-tubes in the cover
of the combustion-chamber. The cool-
ling coil was replaced by a flattened
pipe of a certain size. A represents
the combustion-chamber. The oxygen,
purified by passing over potash and
then dried, arrived by the tube a fast-
ened in the tube of the cover by a
caoutchouc joint, and passed by means
of the platinum tube r into a crucible
2 of the same metal, containing one
gram of the fuel. The crucible was
covered by a grating, which became
red-hot towards the end of the opera-
,, . .,11 i i
tion. This was intended to burn the
waste gases, and the black deposited at the beginning. The
gases flowed out at z, and after having encircled the outside
FIG. 7. FISCHER'S CAL
ORIMETER.
3D,
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
of the crucible escaped at b. The thermometer / showed
whether the temperature of the gases was the same as that
of the bath.
The calorimetric bath contained 1500 grams (3.3 Ibs.) of
water, and was protected against external influences by a
Wood casing, while the space C was filled with glass wool;
but this is not necessary, n is a brass cover which may be;
dispensed with. The thermometer T is the calorimetric
thermometer; m is an agitator moved by the string o. The
value in water of the one used by Fischer was 113.5 calories.
The coal was dried in nitrogen. The carbonic acid and the
unburnt carbon were determined.
THOMSEN'S CALORIMETER.
This calorimeter was designed especially for tests of gases
and vapors. It is not adapted to tests of solid fuels. It
consisted (Fig. 8) of a calorimetric
bath of thin brass, with a capacity
of some 3 litres (195 cubic inches),
protected from radiation by a cylin-
drical ebonite envelope ; and a plati-
num balloon of half a litre (32.5
cubic inches) capacity, in which the
gases were burnt, being delivered
through the opening at the bottom.
The waste gases passed off
through a coil, and a mechanical
agitator kept the water in circula-
tion.
The dried gas was delivered
with perfect regularity from a mercury gas-holder, sufficient
ajr or oxygen being added to render it free-burning, and
enough oxygen was supplied to insure perfect combustion.
This he attained by always having 40 to 50 per cent in the
FIG. 8. THOMSEN CALO-
RIMETER.
CARPENTER'S CALORIMETER. 31
waste gases. The gases passed off through a carbonic acid
absorbing apparatus.
To reduce to the minimum, or entirely suppress, the cor-
rection for temperature he regulated his gas-flow so that the
temperature was as much higher than the air at the close of
the experiment as it was lower at the beginning. This he
easily did by means of his hydrogen supply. If a liquid was
tested, it was vaporized and burnt in a specially devised
burner which allowed complete combustion of almost all com-
pounds not having too high a boiling-point. If too high for
heat vaporization, they were carried along by a current of air,
oxygen, or hydrogen, as seemed best adapted.
The water of the calorimeter being weighed, the lower
portion was closed with a rubber stopper and by means of an
aspirator a pressure of 8 to 12 inches of water was put on the
apparatus to test the joints. When ready, the temperature
of the bath and the air was noted for some minutes, the gas-
holder reading taken, the burner placed in position, and the
test commenced. The depression produced by the aspirator
was about 0.4 inch during the whole test. The regularity of
the working was shown by a gauge registering the pressure.
When the temperature had reached the desired point the gas
and electric current were shut off, the burner removed, and
the opening closed again. The aspirator was used to draw
dry air, freed from CO, , through the apparatus to insure
removal of all waste gases. The apparatus was then allowed
to rest, taking the temperature at short intervals for fifteen
minutes. He then had all the data required.
CARPENTER'S CALORIMETER.
Prof. R. C. Carpenter devised a calorimeter especially for
coal determinations, which is a modification or extension of
Thomsen's. He has used it considerably in connection with
work he has been engaged on, and the results credited to him
in the tables at the end of the book were obtained with it.
32 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
Fig. 9 is a sectional view of his apparatus. It consists of
a combustion-cylinder, 15, with a removable bottom, ij r
FIG. 9. CARPENTER CALORIMETER.
through which passes the tube, 23, to supply oxygen, and also
the wires, 26 and 27, to furnish electricity for the igniter.
It also supports the asbestos combustion-dishes, 22, used for
CARPENTER'S CALORIMETER. 33
holding the fuel. At its top is a silver mirror, 38, to deflect
the heat. The plug is made of alternate layers of asbestos
and vulcanite. The products of combustion pass off through
the spiral tube, 28, 29, 30, 31, which is connected with the
small chamber, 39, attached to the outer case of the instru-
ment. This chamber has a pressure-gauge, 40, and a small
pinhole outlet, 41. Outside the chamber is the calorimetric
bath, I, which is connected with an open glass gauge, 9, 10.
Above the water is a diaphragm, 12, used to adjust the level.
The calorimeter h'as an outer nickel-plated case, polished
on the inside. The bath holds about 5 pounds of water, and
uses about 2 grams of coal at a time. It is thus considerably
larger than the bomb, and the charge being larger the time
consumed by the test is longer, being some ten minutes for
each gram burnt. The entire outside dimensions of the case
are 9^- inches high and 6 inches diameter.
In using the apparatus the coal is ground to a powder in a
mill or mortar. The asbestos cup is heated to burn off all
organic matter and weighed. The sample is then placed in
it, and the whole weighed again. This gives the weight of
the coal used. Place it in the combustion-chamber, raise the
platinum igniting wire above the coal, make the connections
with the battery, and as soon as the heat generated causes the
water to rise in the glass tube turn on the oxygen, and by
pulling down the wires kindle the coal. At this instant the
reading on the glass scale must be taken.
By means of the glasses 33, 34, and 36 watch the
progress of the combustion, and as soon as finished take the
scale-reading and the time. The difference between this
scale-reading and the one previously made is the " actual"
scale-reading.
To correct for radiation, allow the apparatus to stand with
the oxygen shut off for a length of time equal to that of the
combustion, and take the scale-reading and the time. The
UNIVERSITY
34 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
difference between this and the " actual" reading is to be
added to the " actual " for the " corrected " reading.
Now, by inspection of the calibration-curve previously
prepared, at the point corresponding to the corrected scale-
reading will be found the B. T. U.'s for the quantity burnt.
The ash is determined by weighing the asbestos cup after the
combustion.
The following shows all the calculation needed :
Weight of crucible (asbestos cup) 1.269 grams.
11 " and coal 3.017
" ash 1.567 "
" " combustibles I-45O "
" " ash 0.297 "
" " coal 1.747 "
1.747 grams X 0.002205 = 0.003852 pounds.
First scale-reading 3.90 inches; time 2 hrs. 55 m.
Second" " 14.70 " " 3 " 20 "
Third " " 14.30 " "3 " 45 "
"Actual" scale-reading. 14.70 3.90= 10.80 inches.
Radiation correction 14.70 14.30= .40 "
Corrected reading 11.20 ' *
On the calibration-sheet 11.2 corresponds to 46.25
B. T. U.'s, and 46.25 B. T. U. + 0.003852 = 12000 B. T. U.
per pound.
All air must be removed from the water in the bath,
the apparatus must work at a constant pressure, and the
pressure for which it is calibrated. A pressure of 10 inches
of water has been found satisfactory. Complete combustion
Is always attained in the asbestos cups.
It will be seen that the use of thermometers is obviated,
and also all corrections but one. The apparatus is intended
SCH WA CKHOFER *S CAL OKI ME TER.
35
for ordinary every-day work, and will give good comparative
results when used according to directions, which must be
implicitly followed. The amount of calculation is reduced to
a minimum, and there are no delicate parts requiring extra.
care and adjustment. For the purpose intended, it seems an
advance over the others previously used, which could never
give more faint approximations to correct results.
SCHWACKHOFER S CALORIMETER.
In 1884 Schwackhofer published calorimetric researches
on different kinds of coal, using a calorimeter in which he made
FIG. 10. SCHWACKHOFER CALORIMETER.
several modifications intended to render it specially applicable
to such fuel.
He considered it advisable to use as much as five or six
grams of coal, which is six times that generally used. He
burnt at the same time and under definite conditions, shown
36 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS,
in the sketch (Fig. 10), a certain quantity of sugar-charcoal,
the combustion of which was intended to accelerate and com-
plete that of the coal tested.
In the figure (Fig. 10) ab represents the combustion-cham-
ber, c the calorimetric bath. Minor details of accessories, en-
velopes, regulators, etc., are omitted. The burner proper is of
platinum and of two pieces, a and b, superimposed, the coal
being placed in the lower portion, the sugar-charcoal in the
upper one. All pieces of the burner may be removed for the
introduction of the coal and for cleaning. The two combus-
tibles rest on perforated plates of platinum, in which the per-
forations, made by a special machine, are so small that light
can hardly pass through, and from which the cinders can be
completely removed ; the holes in the upper one are slightly
larger than those of the lower. The oxygen enters through
three tubes, e, f, g. Tubes g and m pass outside the bath, and
carry mirrors to allow inspection during the burning. The
waste gases pass off at the bottom through a coil n, and are
collected in H. This vessel is simply to detect smoking, he
having found that it happened only when the pressure was di-
minished at the burner, and that it could be stopped by a rein-
statement of the normal pressure, p represents an aspirator, in
which are collected the waste gases. Another one, not shown
in the sketch, serves to contain the gas analyzed. Both are
filled with water covered with a film of oil. The oxygen
passes through a jar s filled with soda-lime, a bottle o fur-
nished with a thermometer, a cock / as regulator of the flow,
and one or more wash-bottles q containing sulphuric acid.
The calorimeter-chamber c contains 5200 cc. (4.6 qts.) of
water. 5 or 6 grams (77 to 92.5 grains) of coal were used, with
2 to 4 grams (3 1 to 62 grains) of sugar-carbon of a known
calorific value. The temperature of the bath rose about 10
C., and the experiment generally lasted an hour.
The sugar-carbon was first kindled in the upper part of the
burner, the under portion burning first. From this sparks
W. THOMPSON'S CALORIMETER. 37
ivere thrown to the coal, and it soon kindled. The oxygen
flowed in by g and e. When combustion was well under way
and had reached the lower portions of the coal, g was shut off
-and /opened.
Schwackhofer obtained complete combustion of the sugar-
carbon and coal, with no formation of black, and no residue of
coke.
The gaseous product of the combustion was generally of
the following composition :
Carbonic acid 50 to 60 percent;
Carbonic oxide 1.2 to 0.3 " "
Oxygen IO to 15 " "
Nitrogen... 30 to 40 " "
arising principally from the fact that to keep up the normal
pressure the combustion-chamber was in communication with
the open air. The cinders were weighed after each test.
This apparatus should give exact results, but its use is
complicated. The long duration of the test requires impor-
tant corrections for influence of external heat, and it needs
several thermometers.
w. THOMPSON'S CALORIMETER.
W. Thompson devised a calorimeter in which the com-
bustion is started by a jet of oxygen, but the waste gases in-
stead of passing through a coil bubble up through the water
of the calorimetric bath. In this apparatus the uncombined
gases are naturally neglected. (See Fig. II.) It is an appa-
ratus, as the inventor says, not intended for scientific re-
searches, but for handy use of mechanics or " for popular use."
a is a galvanized-iron gas-holder containing oxygen ; b, a
stop-cock regulating the flow of water to this holder ; d, stop-
cock for gas; e, rubber tube; f, level-gauge; g, pressure-
gauge; ^, bell-glass covering the platinum crucible k, in which
the coal is burnt ; / is a support of earthenware suspended
38 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
from the bell-glass by metal springs, and intended to insulate
the crucible and prevent too quick cooling; m is a glass jar
containing 2000 grams (4.4 Ibs.) of water, forming the calori-
metric bath. Water cannot enter the bell h while the cock j
FIG. ii. W. THOMPSON CALORIMETER.
is closed, and it is opened only when the pressure in the
gas-holder is sufficient ; n is a glass jar filled with water and
surrounding the calorimetric jar, and / is the agitator.
One gram of fuel is put into the crucible, and on this is
placed a small cotton wick impregnated with bichromate of
potash. This is lighted at the instant of putting into the jar;
and its combustion aided by the oxygen kindles the fuel.
This is an imperfect apparatus, and will give in most cases
only unsatisfactory results. Still it is in rather common use
in the shops of England, where it serves principally as a com-
parative measure, the errors being considered constant.
BARRUS'S CALORIMETER.
The Barrus calorimeter is a modification of the one just
mentioned. While it requires considerable care in using to
get correct results, yet it is one of the simplest and most in-
expensive.
BA RR US' S CA L OKI ME TER.
39
As described by Mr. Barrus, " it consists of a glass beaker
(Fig. 12) 5 inches in diameter and II inches high, which
can be obtained of most dealers in
chemical apparatus. The combus-
tion-chamber is of special form, and
consists of a glass bell having a
notched rib around the lower edge
and a head just above the top, with
a tube projecting a considerable dis-
tance above the upper end. The
bell is 2J- inches inside diameter, 5|-
inches high, and the tube above is f
inch inside diameter and extends
beyond the bell a distance of 9
inches. The base consists of a cir-
cular plate of brass 4 inches in diam-
eter, with three clips fastened on
the upper side for holding down
the combustion-chamber. The base
is perforated, and the' under side
has three pieces of cork attached,
which serve as feet. To the centre
of the upper side of the plate is attached a cup for holding
the platinum crucible in which the coal is burned. To the
upper end of the bell, beneath the head, a hood is attached
made of wire gauze, which serves to intercept the rising
bubbles of gas and retard their escape from the water. The
top of the tube is fitted with a cork, and through this is
inserted a small glass tube which carries the oxygen to the
lower part of the combustion-chamber. This tube is movable
up and down, and to some extent sideways, so as to direct
the current of oxygen to any part of the crucible and to
adjust it to a proper distance from the burning coal."
The method of working it can be easily seen from the
description and cut. In burning very smoky coals he mixes
FIG. 12. BARRUS CALORIM-
ETER.
40 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
them with a proportion of non-smoking coal of known calo-
rific value, and when anthracite or coke is burnt he mixes it
with a small portion of bituminous coal. In Mr. Barrus's
hands very satisfactory results have been obtained.
HARTLEY AND JUNKER'S CALORIMETER.
Hartley's calorimeter is an apparatus of constant pressure
and continued combustion. The gas measured by a meter is
burnt in a Bunsen burner surrounded by a cylindrical copper
FIG. 13. JUNKER CALORIMETER.
vessel filled with water, which is constantly renewed. The
flow of liquid is such as to avoid much heating and time suf-
ficient is used to increase the temperature so as to have a good
thermometric observation. The volume or weight of the water
is determined at such intervals and the thermometric readings
taken often enough to obtain an average.
JUNKER'S CALORIMETER 41
Hugo Junker's modification of the apparatus rendered it
more exact. It has been used for some time in Germany
and in the United States. It is composed (Fig. 13) of a
gas-meter a, preceded by a very sensitive regulator b. On
leaving the meter the gas passes to a Bunsen burner c. The
products of combustion give up their heat to a calorimetric
tube d, through which regularly flows a stream of water. The
temperature of the gases is regulated by means of a thermom-
eter e. In order to keep the flow of water as regular as pos-
sible, it flows from the supply-tube g into a small reservoir
kept at a constant level governed by the tube h. The water
passes through i to the calorimeter and escapes at k, run-
ning into the glass in which it is measured or weighed. The
graduated tube / is to catch the condensed water from the
interior of the calorimeter. The thermometer m shows the
heat of the escaping water, and n that of the water enter-
ing the calorimeter.
To calculate the calories generated during the combustion
proceed as follows:
Measure the quantity of water which runs through it in
one minute, take the temperature of the two thermometers,"^
and note the flow of gas. The heat of combustion per cubic
metre of burnt gas is obtained by multiplying the volume of
water flowing per minute by the difference of the two temper-
atures and dividing the product by the gas volume burnt per
minute.
Thus:
Volume of water flowing per minute 902.3 cc.
" " gas burnt per minute 2500.0 cc.
Temperature at inlet ... 13. i C.
" outlet 27.5 C.
-.A. .902. 3,X (,27.; - 13.0
Q = - - = 5196 calories.
42 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
The gas tested has a value of 5 196 calories per cubic metre.
Since the calorie is 3.968 times the B. T. U., and the
cubic metre is 35.316 times the 'cubic foot, multiplying
the calories per cubic metre by ~ ^0.11235 will give
B. T. U.'s per cubic foot.
Multiplying, then,
5 196 X 0. 1 1235 = 583.8 B. T. U.'s per cubic foot.
The above example considered the volume of the water.
It is sometimes advisable to consider the weight instead. The
following example illustrates this:
Weight of water used during the test 2000 grams.
Volume of gas burnt 7.23 litres.
Temperature at inlet 14-4 C.
" outlet 36.5 C.
Then
2000 X (36.5 - H.4)
Q = - - = 6102 calories per cubic metre,
and
6102 X 0.11235 = 685.6 B. T. U. per cubic foot.
Two causes of error may occur. It is not certain that the
combustion of the gas in the burner is regular; indications by
gas-meters are not always very sure, the start being capricious.
But these do not have much weight in its use for industrial
purposes, for which it is chiefly designed. The results are
very near those obtained by other methods. Stohmann, whose
competence in such matters is universally recognized, says
they give good results.
Bueb-Dessau, to prove the calorimeter, burnt hydrogen
prepared by electrical decomposition, and obtained after cor-
rections for thermometer and barometer 34150 calories per
LEWIS THOMPSON'S CALORIMETER.
43
kilogram a difference of 350 calories from the usual number,
34500, or only 9 thousandths.
Prof. Jacobus has determined that there is a constant error
due to neglect of latent heat of moisture in products of com-
bustion of 2 per cent in the determinations with this appa-
ratus; otherwise it is very satisfactory.
LEWIS THOMPSON S CALORIMETER.
Lewis Thompson's calorimeter has been used in England
for some time. It gives only approximate results, but as the
errors are of the same kind in each case, the results are com-
parable, and it has been found serviceable in industrial works
where quick and comparative observations are required.
The apparatus (Fig. 14) is composed of a glass calorimeter-
bath H containing water, a copper cylinder E in which the
FIG. 14. L. THOMPSON CALORIMETER.
FIG. 15. CALORIMETER
IN ACTION.
mixture of coal and potassa chlorate is placed, and surmounted
by the nitrate of lead fuse F. Enclosing this cylinder is a bell
D y having a tube 7 carrying a stop-cock. The cock is closed
before putting it in position in the water. K is a cleaner for
the tube C, and./ is a thermometer.
44 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
The fuze is lighted, and the whole quickly put in the jar of
water. The mixture of combustible and potassium chlorate
soon ignites and burns, all the gases generated being forced
out at the bottom of the bell through the perforations, arid
bubble up through the liquid. After the combustion is finished
the temperature is taken and the heat-units calculated.
From 8 to 10 parts of oxidizing mixture is recommended
for one of coal; but if the coal is very rich this must be
increased to 1 1 parts, calculated on the crude coal. With
pure coal, cinders out, the extreme limits are 11 and 14 parts.
It would probably increase the accuracy of the method, if
the same quantity of oxidizing mixture was employed, what-
ever the kind of coal used, and to mix with it inert substances,
as silica or ground porcelain, in quantity varying with the
richness of the coal.
Scheurer-Kestner tested this apparatus very carefully,
using a great variety of fuels whose heats had been previously
ascertained by means of Favre and Silbermann's calorimeter.
He found some 15 per cent deficit in the figures, and after
correcting by this amount the results varied only a few per
cent from those actually obtained. In thirty different kinds
of coal tested the average was 1.8 per cent too low.
The use of this calorimeter requires some skill. Its imper-
fect insulation requires prompt reading and rapid combustion.
Care must be taken to work at temperatures very close to
that of the room, as the calorimetric bath is not protected.
The proportions of the mixture used vary, not only with each
kind of coal, but for each sample, on account of the propor-
tions of cinders. Fat coals require more oxidizer than lean
coals, as it is evident an increase in quantity of cinders should
require a decrease in oxidizer. But in changing the propor-
tions of oxidizer a certain difference in elevation of tempera-
ture is necessarily produced by the heat of solution of the
salts left after the combustion. These various causes render
its working rather delicate, and always uncertain.
CHAPTER V.
CALORIMETERS WITH CONSTANT VOLUME.
THE results obtained with a calorimeter of constant volume
are not exactly the same as those obtained with one of con-
stant pressure; but for solid or liquid substances the difference
is too small to consider, since the volume, as well as that of
the water produced, is inconsiderable in relation to the volume
of gas employed. As regards the correction for contraction
and expansion of the gases, they also are inconsiderable.
In his Trait^ de Mtcanique Berthelot has shown that
the heat generated by a reaction between gases at constant
pressure is equal to the heat of combination at constant
volume at any temperature whatever, increased by the pre-
ceding product counting from absolute zero; and he gives the
following formula for passing from one system to the other :
QT P = QT V + 0.5424^- N'
QT P being the heat generated by the reaction at constant
pressure, and at the temperature T counting from ordinary
zero; QT V , the heat generated by the reaction at same tem-
perature and constant volume ; N, the number of units of
molecular volume occupied by the components, these being
taken according to usage equal to 22.32 litres under normal
pressure at o ; N' ', the corresponding number of units of
molecular volume occupied by the product of the reaction.
As example, take the combustion of carbonic oxide at 15.
Then we have
CO + O = CO 2 generates at constant volume 68 calories.*
* These numbers refer to molecular weights.
45
46 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
To pass from this to the heat given off under constant
pressure, observe that CO occupies a unit of volume and O a
half unit. Then
N = ij.
CO, occupies a unit of volume and
N' = i.
Hence N - N' = J.j
At o there would be, then, for the difference between the
heat of combustion at constant pressure and that at constant
volume,
+ 0.542 x J = + 0.271 calories.
At + 15 add to this -f- 0.015, which increases the cor-
rection then to 0.286. The heat of combustion of carbonic
oxide at constant pressure and 15 is then -|- 68.29 calories.
With a solid or liquid, this volume in relation to those
of the gases formed may be practically neglected, the same
as with the water; all reduce then to. the contraction and
expansion of the gases. Thus, for naphthalin, this correc-
tion does not exceed 8.8 in 9692 calories less than o. i per
cent.
In case of solids or liquids with unknown molecular
weight, as with fuels generally, this difference irtey still be
approximately calculated, as it is sufficient to know the volume
of oxygen used in the combustion and that of the gases pro-
duced.
The first calorimeter of .constant volume in date is that of
Thomas Andrews, who in 1848 published results obtained
with a closed calorimeter. The calorimeter was not applicable
to solids or liquids ; the combustion of the gases was con-
ducted as in a eudiometer, but he did not take all the
precautions necessary to be certain of complete combustion.
ANDREWS' CALORIMETER. 47
Nevertheless, the results obtained for certain gases are
remarkable, considering the elementary character of his
apparatus and working. The combustion of solids, on the
contrary, gave worthless results.
The calorimetric bomb of Berthelot and Vielle seems able
to replace advantageously all the other calorimeters as much
by its convenience as by its certainty of results.
Since Berthelot and Vielle's original form was published
many minor changes have been made in the bomb. All the
modern workers seem to prefer some modification of this form,
in preference to any of the other and older kinds. There are
so many points of superiority possessed by the bomb in ease
and rapidity of working, accuracy, convenience, etc., which
liave caused it to be universally used.
ANDREWS' CALORIMETER.
In 1848 Andrews published his labors on the heat of
combustion of bodies, and notably on that disengaged by
combustion of different gases. He used a cal-
orimeter of constant volume, in which the com-
bustion-chamber was a copper cylinder (Fig.
16) weighing 170 grams (6 ounces), of 380
cubic centimetres (about 23^ cubic inches) ca-
pacity, and capable of resisting the pressure
exerted by the combustion of the same vol- FIG. 16.
e i r //- TT \ -..I ANDREWS' CALO-
ume of olefiant gas (C,H 4 ) with oxygen. RIMETER.
At the upper part, the cylinder had a small conical tube
closed by means of a perfect-fitting stopper b. A silver wire
a was fixed in this stopper, and to this was soldered a very
fine platinum wire for igniting the gases by a galvanic
current. The mixture of gases was prepared as for eudio-
metric analysis.
The combustion-chamber was entirely submerged in a
glass cylinder filled with water, of which the temperature is
43 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
regulated so as to compensate approximately for the probable
use, and thus avoid corrections for influence of external air.
This cylinder was put into another, also of glass. A rotary
motion imparted to the cylinder aided circulation in the
liquid during combustion, which usually lasted thirty-five
seconds.
Andrews also applied his calorimeter to combustion of
solids, 'but judging from the low results he did not have per-
fect combustion. The results obtained with some of the
gases, on the contrary, are quite reliable, notwithstanding the
imperfections of the apparatus.
CALORIMETRIC BOMB OF BERTHELOT AND VIELLE.
Of all the calorimeters known to-day, the calorimetric
bomb of Berthelot is that which offers the most advantages,
as much from its ease of operation as from the precision of
its results. Only one operator is needed ; the combustion is
perfect ; the gaseous products need not be analyzed to deter-
mine the combustible substance ; no weight save that of the
substance used is needed ; and it is as applicable to solids and
liquids as to gases.
True, its use requires oxygen under high pressure ; but
this pressure (25 atmospheres) may be readily obtained with a
compression-pump, which is easily procured ; and at the
present time oxygen may be bought sufficiently compressed
for the purpose. Berthelot states that as much as 5 or even
10 per cent of nitrogen is allowable, but that the latter limit
must not be exceeded.
Mahler Osed compressed oxygen, and obtained good
results with that bought in the Paris market. This gas is
furnished in steel tubes and under 120 atmospheres pressure.
The cylinders contain sufficient gas to make a large number
of experiments before the pressure falls too low, i.e., below
25 atmospheres.
BER THEL OT'S CA LOR I ATE TER.
Fig. 17 shows the bomb adjusted ready to place in the
calorimeter. Full details of the construction
will be found in Berthelot and Vielle's treatise,
Sur la force des metiers explosives, vol. I , p.
245.
Fig. 2 1 shows the arrangement adopted
by Berthelot to burn solids. The cylinder
(Fig. 1 8) is lined with platinum, and con-
structed so as to resist a pressure of 200 to
300 atmospheres. It is furnished with a
tight-fitting head (Fig. 17) fastened ex-
teriorly by a piece of steel (Fig. 19), clamped
on the external face of the bomb by a screw-
clamp (Fig. 20), which does not form a part of the apparatus-,
as immersed.
The sealing of the bomb results from the adherence of
the margin of the head BB (Fig. 21), and the interior of
the cylinder, and also between the platinum of the head and!
the platinum of the cylinder. Berthelot makes the joint
FIG. 17..
FIG. 18.
FIG. 19.
FIG. 20.
tight with a smearing of vaseline around the opening, being
careful not to have a trace on the inside. If no bubbles
escape on putting it into the calorimetric bath, the joints are
tight.
The cover is pierced at the centre with a small hole, in,
which is fitted a tube formed of a hollow screw acting a.s a
cock, and itself provided at the upper end with a circular
head. The electric ignition is produced by a platinum wire
sna*
UNIVERSITY
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
fitting in an opening of the removable conical cover E. This
is prepared (Fig. 2 1) in advance, and is covered with a layer
of gum lac applied in a strong alcoholic solution. When the
first coat is dry, a second one is put on and
dried in a stove. Berthelot says that the
combination of these two coatings, one elas-
tic and soft, the other hard and brittle,
resists very well the enormous pressure on
the cone. This cone, lightly greased, is put
into the conical opening in the bomb cover,
and screwed up tight by means of a nut. It
is well to protect the base of the cone by a
film of mica.
An electric current passed through E
(Fig. 21) reddens the spiral of very thin
iron wire f placed between the platinum
wires and one of the supports ^S of the cap-
sule cc containing the substance m. This iron wire soon
burns and kindles the combustible.
Fig. 22 gives a general and complete internal view.
The iron spiral is formed of an iron wire -^ millimetre
(0.004 inch) thick, rolled up on a spindle. The wire may be
weighed, or by using the same length of wire always have the
same weight.
The spiral is attached on one side to the cone, and on the
other side by means of a platinum wire to the platinum sup-
porting the fuel, taking care that the iron has no straight por-
tions. The support of the capsule or platinum-foil is then
fixed in the cover, by aid of the screw, arranging it so that
the spiral is directly over the combustible used. The cover
is put on, turning it gently to make the contact more perfect.
The nut is tightened and the wire carefully screwed up,
always using wooden tongs to prevent injuring the bomb.
The form of the bomb is such as permits filling the calo-
rimeter with the smallest possible quantity of water a neces-
BERTHELOT'S CALORIMETER. 5 1
sary condition that the temperature, and consequently the
precision, attain a high degree. For solids and also for coal
Berthelot uses bombs containing 400 to 600 cubic centimetres
(24 to 37 cubic inches), placed in a calorimeter of 2000 grams
(4.4 Ibs.) of water.
To determine the heat of combustion of coal, for instance,
FIG. 22. BERTHELOT BOMB.
it must be previously reduced to powder in order to have a
sample whose cinder is known. As all kinds of coal do not
burn completely in this state, they are formed into pastilles,*
which are weighed and burnt. They are put on a platinum
grating or foil, placed on the support 55 (Fig. 21), over
*We obtain very resisting pastilles or briquettes from fat coals by
simple compression in a pastille or suppository mould such as used by
druggists. With lean coals, or anthracite, the pastilles are too friable and
burn incompletely. This is easily remedied by mixing with a small
quantity of silicate of soda solution. Several of them should be made at
a time, the cinders of some being determined to obtain a mean and the
others burnt in the bomb. They may contain about I gram of pure coal.
52 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
which and in contact with it is the iron spiral. At the
instant of lighting a slight noise is made, and soon the ther-
mometer begins to rise, showing that the combustion is pro-
ceeding.
Compressed oxygen may be introduced either by a pump
drawing the gas from a holder or by using a compressed-gas
cylinder. In both cases the gas is used without drying, if
the combustible contains hydrogen in quantity enough to
saturate the gases formed with water produced by its combus-
tion. But if, on the contrary, the combustible has little or
no hydrogen, like wood-charcoal for instance, it is not im-
material whether the oxygen be dry or not. In this case it
is well to use the oxygen moist, or to put a little water in the
bomb on the internal walls. By this means a correction for
heat of vaporization of water formed by the combustion is
obviated.
Oxygen compressed to 120 atmospheres is nearly dry.
Eerthelot observes: "The oxygen is, in short, actually or
nearly dry, and if it contains aqueous vapor the tension is
reduced to one fourth or one fifth on account of the change
in volume of the gas during its passage through the bomb. It
may be nearly nullified by the cold produced at the instant of
filling the bomb. This admitted, we shall have to account in
most combustions for the evaporation of the water produced
in the bomb; and this is from 2 to 3.5 calories in a bomb of
^ litre (about 0.6 pint), or 5 to 6 calories in a bomb of 600 to
700 cubic centimetres (37 to 43 cubic inches). These are
rather small quantities, it is true ; but while they can be
neglected in industrial tests, they cannot in rigorously
scientific investigations. This correction may, however, be
neutralized by putting into the bomb 4 or 5 cc. of water,
which should be considered in the calculations.
When oxygen not previously compressed is used and
forced in by a pump, Berthelot recommends passing the gas
through a large red-hot copper tube filled with oxide of the
BERTHELOT'S CALORIMETER. 53
same metal, so as to burn any oil which may have been taken
from the pump.
Operation. At the laboratory of the College of France
the successive operations are as follows :
1 . Light the fire to heat the oxygen red-hot ;
2. While the gas-holder is filling with oxygen, the fuel is
dried ;
3. Weigh the fuel;
4. Place the fuel in the bomb;
5. Grease the cover slightly; tighten with the screw;
6. Begin to compress the oxygen by forcing the air out
with a few strokes of the piston ; pump slowly to prevent
heating the pump ;
7. Close the stop-cock of the pump ; break the connection
with the bomb, extinguish the fire, and replace the bomb on
its support so as to carry it to the calorimeter room ;
8. Pour the water into the calorimetric bath.
The apparatus is allowed to come to equilibrium, and the
readings of the thermometer taken for five minutes. The
iron coil is then heated by the electric current from a small
bichromate battery. It takes fire and kindles the combustible,
which generally burns without smoke or producing any car-
bonic oxide, as Berthelot has shown.*
The water condensed from the combustion contains small
quantities of nitric acid, showing imperfectly purified gas. This
may be determined by titration, if accurate results are sought,
and calculated 0.227 calories per gram of HNO,. The cor-
rection will be very small. A correction for the iron used
may be made at the rate of 1.65 calories per gram, this being-
the heat of formation of the magnetic oxide.
* With very fat coals it sometimes happens after a combustion that the
platinum shows a black or brown mark, indicating a slight deposit of black
or tar which has escaped combustion. Occasionally, also, a trace of tar is
found at the bottom of the bomb. These may be prevented by using a
grating or perforated plate instead of the foil. This detail must be attended
to with a new coal.
54 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
With substances containing nitrogen and sulphur, such as
coal, the corrections are more complicated, as a larger quantity
of nitric acid is formed and the sulphur forms sulphuric acid.
If exactness is sought, it will not be sufficient to make a volu-
metric test : the sulphuric acid must be determined separately.
Generally, however, this estimation may be dispensed with, if
for technical purposes only. When, on the contrary, ab-
solutely correct figures are desired, both acids must be con-
sidered. In the calculation the nitric acid is reckoned as
0.227 calorie per gram and the sulphuric acid as 1.44 calories
per gram.
But these two corrections are really unimportant even
with coal, as it contains usually only about I per cent of
nitrogen or sulphur. One per cent of nitrogen represents 4^
per cent of HNO 3 , or 10 calories; one per cent of sulphur
represents 3 per cent of H 2 SO 4 , or 43 calories, both quite
small compared with 7000 to 8000 calories.
Below will be found the details of a complete combustion
taken from Berthelot's work.
HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF CARBON.
The wood charcoal, purified by chlorine at red heat to-
remove all traces of hydrogen (Favre and Silbermann's
method), is dried at 120 to 140 C. (248 to 284 F.), then
weighed in a closed tube after cooling in a sulphuric acid
desiccator.
0.437 gram carbon; cinders, 0.0028 gram (0.66 per cent);
real carbon, 0.4342 gram.
PRELIMINARY PERIOD.
o minute i7-36o c
1st " 17.360
2d " 17-360
3d minute 17.360
4th " 17.360
BERTHELOT'S CALORIMETER. 55
COMBUSTION.
5th minute 18.500'
6th " 18.782
7th minute 18.820'
8th " 18.818
SUBSEQUENT PERIOD.
9th minute 18.810
loth " 18.802
nth " 18.795
Initial cooling per minute,
I2th minute 18.785"
1 3th 18.775
1 4th " 18.768
= 0.00.
Final cooling per minute,
Atn + 0.008.
Correction for cooling,
At = -f 0.056.
Variation of temperature, uncorrected,
18.818- 17.360= 1.438.
Value of corrected temperature,
1.438 + 0.056= 1.484.
Value in water of the calorimeter (including oxygen),
m = 2398.4.
Weight of acid formed ;
HNO 3 = 5 cc. of ^V normal KHO = 0.0173 gram.
56 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
Total heat observed, q l 3.5562 calories.
Heat of iron coil, 22.
"O.I73HNO,, 3 .
Real heat due to the carbon, 3.5299 "
or for one gram, = 8. 1296 calories,
0.4342
or per kilogram, 8129.6 calories,
or 14871.0 B. T. U. per pound.
CHAPTER VI.
THE CALORIMETRIC BOMB ADAPTED TO
INDUSTRIAL USE BY MAHLER.
THE calorimetric bomb of Berthelot costs considerably
more than can be paid by an industrial laboratory, owing to
its large amount of platinum. Mahler replaced the interior
platinum of the bomb by an enamel deposited on the steel.
The description given by him in his paper before the Socittt
d* Encouragement de Paris, in June, 1892, is as follows: ; .i
The apparatus is shown in Fig. 23. It consists essen-
tially of a steel shell, B, capable of resisting 50 atmospheres
FIG. 23. MAHLER CALORIMETER.
and 22 per cent elongation. This quality was carefully chosen,
not only on account of the pressure it must stand, but also ,as
it aids the enameling. The metal is very pure, containing but
57 ;
5 3 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
little phosphorus or sulphur. Tensile strength tests are the
best criterion of quality.
It has a capacity of 654 cc. (40 cubic inches) at 15 C. It
is gauged with a balance showing -g-^-J--^. The total weight
is about 4 kilograms (8.8 Ibs.) with the accessories.* The
metal of the walls is 8 millimetres (about 0.3 inch).
The capacity is greater than Berthelot's, and has the ad-
vantage of insuring perfect combustion of carbon in all cases,
due to a certain excess of oxygen, even when the purity of
this gas as bought is not quite satisfactory. Besides, it is
designed to study all industrial gases, even those containing
a large percentage of inert gas ; hence it must be able to use
a sufficiently large quantity to generate the required tempera-
ture. The contraction at the top aids in enameling.
The shell is nickeled on the outside, while internally it-
has a coating of white enamel, resisting corrosion and oxidiz-
ing action of the combustion. f It does not, however, offer
resistance to the heat, being very thin, and it weighs only
about 20 grams (308 grains).
It is closed by an iron stopper made tight by a lead washer
(P, Fig. 33) and clamped down. This carries a conical-seated
stop-cock, R, of fine nickel a metal almost unoxidizable.
An electrode well insulated and reaching the interior by a plat-
inum wire runs through the stopper.
Fig. 24 shows most of the details.
Another platinum wire, also fixed on the cover, supports
the platinum disk or foil on which the fuel is placed.
The calorimeter, the non-conducting material, the support
for the shell in the water, and the agitator differ in numerous
details from those of Berthelot, and are much cheaper.
* Slight modifications have been made in the dimensions of the metal of
the bombs made lately by Golaz.
f Prof. W. O. Atwater finds that the enamel chips off in time, and that
after about 300 combustions it requires re-enameling. Hempel for coal
determinations uses one without any inside enamel.
MAHLER'S CALORIMETER.
59
The calorimeter is of thin brass, and is quite large on ac-
count of the size of the combustion-chamber. It contains
2200 grams (4.85 Ibs.) of water, thus eliminating the causes of
error due to the loss of a few drops by evaporation.* The
agitator of Berthelot is supplanted by a very simple and gentle
cinematic combination called a drill
movement, and which can be worked
without fatigue. The source of elec-
tricity is a Trouve bichromate pile (P,
Fig. 23) of 10 volts and 2 amperes.
The oxygen used is that furnished by
the Compagnie Continental* d'Oxygene.
This company supplies oxygen free from
CO 2 , but containing from 5 to 10 per
cent of nitrogen. This means of supply
simplifies the manipulation ; it also ob-
viates the introduction of grease, as
happens with oxygen compressed by a
pump in the laboratory. f
The cylinders vary in size, and con-
tain gas at a pressure of 120 atmospheres.
The average content is about 1200 litres
(about 40 cubic feet) compressed. They
have a uniform top, and hence the copper pipe connecting the
bomb with the manometer and the cylinder, once adjusted,
will fit all of them.
The method of working is very simple.
Weigh i gram of the substance to be tested in the cap-
sule. Fasten a small weighed iron wire (English gauge 26 or
30) to the electrode and to the support of the capsule. Put
tiie end in the bomb and fasten in the cover, which should be
: id in a vise. Put the conical stop-cock in connection with
oxygen cylinder, and open it carefully so as to allow suffi-
FlG<
* The evaporation never exceeds a gram per hour.
f This gas is also compressed by pumps at the works.'
6o CALORIFIC POWER OF FVELS.
cient oxygen to pass in for the required pressure. Close trie
cock of the oxygen cylinder, carefully close the conical cock,
and break the connection between the bomb and the oxygen*
cylinder. The substance, especially if coal, must not be too.
fine, and the oxygen must flow in very slowly to avoid blow-
ing any of it from the capsule.
The bomb thus prepared is placed in the calorimeter, and:
the thermometer and agitator adjusted. Pour in the previously
weighed water, agitate a few minutes to restore equilibrium of
temperature, and commence the observations.
The experimenter notes the temperature minute by minute
for four or five minutes, and determines the rate of the ther-
mometer before the combustion. Then he joins the elec-
trodes, and the combustion begins immediately, almost instan-
taneously; but the transmission of heat to the calorimeter
takes some time.
The temperature is taken one-half minute after kindling,,
then at the end of the minute, then at each minute to the
time when the thermometer begins to lower regularly. This
is the maximum. The observations are continued for a few
minutes more to ascertain the rate of fall of temperature.
We now have all the elements needed for the calculation,,
and particularly for the single correction necessary to make
under the circumstances. This is the correction for loss of
heat before reaching the maximum temperature, which is
quite small considering the short time and the large mass in-
volved.
It is not necessary to use the corrections of Regnault and
Pfaundler with this apparatus. Newton's law of cooling gives
sufficiently accurate results, even in rigorous investigations.
Special experiments made to determine the rate of cooling of
the water in the calorimeter, when the apparatus was set up as
usual, showed that the correction may be regarded as follow-
ing a simple law, but between comparatively large limits,.
MAHLER'S CALORIMETER. 6t
even under a variation of several hundred grams in amount of
water used.
The law* is
1. The decrease in temperature observed after the maxi-
mum represents the loss of heat of the calorimeter before the
maximum and for a certain minute, with the'condition that
the mean temperature of this minute does not differ more than
one degree from the maximum.
2. If the temperature considered differs more than one
degree but less than two degrees from the maximum, the
number representing the rate of decrease dimminished by
0.005 w iM De the correction.
The two preceding remarks suffice in all cases with Mah-
ler's apparatus. The variation of heat in the first half-minute
after kindling may also be corrected by the same law.
The agitator must be worked continually during the ex-
periment, being careful of the thermometer.
When through, the conical valve is opened and then the
bomb. Wash the inside with a little distilled water to collect
the acids formed. The proportion of acids carried away by
the escaping oxygen at the opening may be neglected. De-
termine the acids volumetrically.
When experimenting with substances low in hydrogen and
incapable of furnishing sufficient water to form nitric acid, it
is advisable to put a little water in the bomb, or hyponitric
acid would be formed.
All the data being obtained, we proceed to the calculation
of the calorific power Q.
Let A be the observed difference of temperature ;
a, the correction for cooling ;
P, the weight of water in the calorimeter;
P, the equivalent in water of the bomb and acces-
sories;
* It is evident that the rule must be modified for apparatus notablydif-
ferent from that used bv Mahler.
62 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
p, the weight of the nitric acid, HNO 3 ;
p'y the weight of the iron ;
0.23 calorie, the heat of formation of I gram of nitric acid ;
and 1.6 calories, the heat of combustion of I gram of iron.
We then have
In testing coal in this manner the small amount of sul-
phuric acid formed will be reckoned as nitric acid without
serious error, as it will be very small. The heat of the reac-
tion is 1.44 calories per gram of H 2 SO 4 formed.
The above details apply to liquids as well as solids. Heavy
liquids, such as the heavy oils, tars, etc., are weighed directly
into the capsule ; but light, easily vaporized liquids must be
placed in pointed glass bulbs. These are put into the capsule,
and just before closing the bomb are broken to allow access
of the oxygen to the liquid. An almost perfect combustion
is obtained in operating with a great variety of materials,
nothing but cinders remaining.
To determine the calorific power of gases the exact con-
tent of the bomb must be known. Fill it first with gas.
Then work the air-pump to reduce the pressure to several
millimetres of mercury, and then fill the bomb again with gas,
under atmospheric pressure and at the laboratory temperature.
The bomb may then be considered full of pure gas.
The method of working with gases is the same as with
solids or liquids. The operator must not forget the need of
preventing too great dilution with oxygen, as then the mix-
ture will cease to be combustible. With illuminating gas 5
atmospheres of oxygen is sufficient, and with producer gas
only one-half atmosphere, as shown by the mercury gauge, is
needed.
The gases to be burnt are kept in gas-holders over water
saturated with gas, or over salt water, according to circum-
MAHLER'S CALORIMETER. t>3
stances, and are saturated with aqueous vapor when they enter
the bomb. From the calorific capacity of the different parts
we obtain that of the whole, the glass and enamel being
omitted.
Soft steel 3945 grams. 3945 X 0.1097 = 432.76
Brass 545 " 545XO.O93 = 50.68
Mercury, plati-
num, and lead 72 ' 72X0.03 = 2.16
Sum 485. 60 grams.
The coefficient 0.1097 is the one adopted by the College
of France, from Berthelot and Vielle's experiments, for a steel
of similar quality. We have given above (page 14) the
calculations relative to the valuation in water. By direct
method of mixing water of different temperatures Mahler
found the equivalent to be 470 and 484, and assumed the
mean 481.
By the method of burning a body of known composition
and heat of combustion he obtained with naphthalin 9688
calories within ^Vir f tnat gi yen by Berthelot (9692).
The equivalent in water may also be obtained by burning I
gram of known composition and heat of combustion naph-
thalin for instance.* We may also, after Berthelot, burn a sub-
stance of fixed composition at two trials with different weights
of water in the calorimeter. Two equations are thus formed,
from which the heat of combustion of the body used is elimi-
nated, and the heat sought obtained.
In using naphthalin care must be taken to weigh it only
after being gently fused in the capsule. It is so light that if
not agglomerated some would be blown away by the oxygen.
In practice the tests are made rapidly. The water equivalent
once determined may be verified by combustion of cane-
*This practical method has the advantage of automatically eliminating
causes of error.
64 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
sugar (CjjH,^,,), for which Berthelot and Vielle found 3961.7
calories. (Use 2 grams for a combustion.)
Examples of Calculations.
Mahler gives several types of calculations from his notes*
so as to show the different circumstances which may occur.
A. Colza Oil. Elementary analysis showed
Carbon 77. 1 82 per cent.
Hydrogen 11.711 " "
Oxygen and nitrogen 11.107 " "
100.000 " "
Weight taken, I gram. Calorimeter contained 2200 grams
water. Equivalent in water of bomb, etc., 481 grams.
Pressure of oxygen, 25 atmospheres.
The apparatus prepared as above was allowed to rest a
few minutes to gain equilibrium of temperature. Then com-
menced noting the temperatures.
PRELIMINARY PERIOD.
minute ............. 10.23'
1 " ............. 10.23
2 minutes ............ 10.24
Rate of variation,
3 minutes 10.24*
4 tf 10.25
5 IO - 2 S
10.25 10.23
-^ = 0.004.
The electrodes are connected and the combustion begins.
COMBUSTION PERIOD.
minutes 10.80 7 minutes.. 13.79
12.90
8 " .. 13. 84 maximum.*
* Prof. Jacobus recommends plotting the temperatures and using, not
the maximum, but the one at the instant the curve of cooling becomes a
straight line. The difference is slight, but important in some cases.
MAHLEX'S CALORIMETER.
PERIOD AFTER MAXIMUM.
9 minutes .......... 13.82
10
ii
13.80
12 minutes J 3-79 C
13 " 13-78
Rate of variation after maximum is
'3.84-13.78 = 0.012.
The thermometer observations now stopped.
The gross variation in temperature was
13.84- 10.25 = 3-59-
The corrections are as follows :
The system lost during the minutes (7, 8) and (6, 7) a
quantity of heat corresponding to 2a t .
2a t = 0.012 X 2 = 0.024.
In the half-minute (5^, 6) it lost
%(a t 0.005) = 0.0035.
But during the half-minute (5, 5^) it gained
0.004
= 0.002 .
Consequently, the loss for the minutes (5, 6) is
0.0035 0.002 = 0.0015.
-.V" OF THB
UNIVERSITY
66
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
So that the system had lost, before reaching the maximum
temperature,
0,024 -f- 0.0015 O O2 55
which must be added to the 3.59 already found, making the
variation in temperature 3.615, neglecting the 4th decimal.
The quantity of heat observed, then, is
Q = (2200 + 481)3.615 2681 X 3.615 = 9.6918 calories.
From this number must be subtracted
1. The heat of formation of the o. 13
gram of HNO 3 0.13 X 0.23 = 0.0299
2. The heat of combustion of 0.025
gram of iron wire 0.025X1.6 =0.04
Total subtraction 0.0699
The final result is, then,
9.6918 0.0699 9.6219 calories,
or for i kilogram 962 1. 9 calories, equivalent to 17319.4 B.T.U.
TECHNICAL EXAMINATION OF COAL.
The coal taken was a sample of Nixon's coal from South
Wales.
Preliminary Period.
Combustion.
After Combustion.
minutes, degrees.
15.20
I 15.20
2 15.20
3 15-20
#o = O
minutes. degrees.
34 16.60
4 17.92
5 18.32
6 18.34
maximum
oxygen pressure 25
atmospheres
minutes. degrees.
7 18 32
8 18.30
9 18.30
10 18.30
ii 18.26
18.3418.26
MAHLER'S CALORIMETER. 67
Difference of gross temperature 3. 140
Correction (4, 5) (5, 6) 0.016 X 2 0.032
(4, 3i) 0-005
(3, 3i :
Corrected difference of temperature 3. 177
or 3.18.
Calories.
Heat disengaged 3.18. 3.18 X 2.681 = 8.5256
Iron wire 0.025. 0.025X1.6 =0.04
Nitric acid 0.15. 0.15 X 0.23 =0.0345
0.0745
For one gram 8.45 1 1
or 8451.1 for i kilogram, equivalent to 15212 B. T. U.
EXAMINATION OF A GAS.
Illuminating gas was examined under the following con-
ditions:*
Barometric pressure 761 mm. (29.6 inches).
Tension of aqueous vapor 8 " (0.314 inch).
Temperature of laboratory 18.5 C. (65.3 F.).
Volume of bomb 654 fee. (39.9 cubic inches).
" " " dry at o and 760 mm.
606 cc. (37 cubic inches).
The capsule was left in its usual place in the bomb to pre-
vent specks of iron oxide from dropping on the enamel and
injuring it.
* See Kroeker's calorimeter on page 73.
f Exaciiy 653.9 cubic centimetres.
68
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
Preliminary
Period.
Combustion.
After Combustion.
Remarks.
minutes, degrees,
o 18.80
I 18.80
2 18.80
3 18.80
4 18.80
#o = O.OO
minutes, degrees.
4i 19-50
5 20.00
6 20.08
7 20.81
maximum
minutes. degrees.
8 20.07
9 20.06
10 20.06
II 20.055
12 20.05
20.08 20.05
Pressure of oxygen
5 atmospheres
grams.
Nitric acid 0.06
Iron wire 0.025
5
Gross difference of temperature, A 1.28
Correction as usual, a 0015
Difference, A -\- a 1-295
Calories. Calories.
Quantity of heat observed, 1.295 1.295X2.681= 3.47189
Heat of HNO 3 formation 0.06 X 0.23 =0.0138
Heat of iron-wire combustion 0.025 X 1.6 = 0.04
0.0538
Heat of combustion of 606 cc. at o and 760 mm 3.41809
or per cubic metre at 760 mm. 5640, or 633.6 B. T. U. per cubic foot.
COMBUSTION USING AN AUXILIARY SUBSTANCE.
Sometimes an unconsumed residue is left while determin-
ing the heat of combustion of some difficultly burning sub-
stances, diamond or graphite for instance. In this case a
combustible auxiliary is used to obtain complete burning of
the sample. The most convenient to use is naphthalin (C 10 H 8 ),
the heat of combustion of which is exactly known, 9692 cal-
ories.
Take petroleum coke, which is nearly allied to graphite.
It is mixed with a little naphthalin which has been previously
melted at a low heat and then cooled. After cooling the
weight of the naphthalin is taken.
The coke analyzed as follows:
Carbon 97-855 per cent.
Hydrogen 0.489 " "
Oxygen 1.196 "
Nitrogen 0.260 " "
Ash.. 0.200 " "
100.000
MAHLER'S CALORIMETER.
The data obtained are as follows:
Preliminary
Period.
Combust-ion.
After
Combustion.
Remarks.
minutes, degrees.
O 22 05
minutes, degrees.
el 22 60
minutes, degrees.
IO 25 12
Napthalin
grams,
o 034
I 22 05
6 24 20
14. 2*1 O"i
Iron wire .
O O25
522 OJ.
7 2 c i O2
o 080
+/") = 0.2 # + i. 6/. ,'. . . (3)
Now from the tests made we readily see that whatever
value a may take, it increases with the quantity of heat gen-
erated in the bomb; it is a little greater when the external air
is warmer than when it is cooler a fact which may be attrib-
uted to the influence of evaporation on the cooling of the
bath.*
On the other hand, the nitric acid appears to increase with
the quantity of heat generated, and tends to offset the cor-
rection from a. In short, /' is, within certain limits, at the
control of the observer, same as P' . We consider it then
possible to arrange once for all so as to have the expression.
(3) sufficiently close for industrial purposes.
This can be done with Mahler's apparatus. Thus for oil
of colza the multiplication A(P -\- P} gave 9625 calories,
which is within g^Vo of the final number obtained after all
corrections ; with the Nixon's coal we found t ;at A(P-\- P') =
8418 calories, which differed ^ from the Correct number;
with coal-gas the product 2681 X 1.28 = 3432 calories, while
the corrected result was 3418, or ^^ difference.
ATWATER'S CALORIMETER.
Prof. Atwater has considerably modified the bomb, so
that it seems to have some advantages for easy working.
Fig. 25 gives a sectional view of it in the calorimeter. The
steel used is the same as that used in the Hotchkiss guns,
* The rapidity of cooling in the apparatus employed by Mahler was,
according to experiments, between 15 and 20 C.
. ~.w 5V .i T o),
To being the temperature at which cooling ceases.
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
aikl having an unusually high tenacity, seems admirably fitted
for the purpose. A represents the bomb, C the screw-cap,
B the cover, which is placed on the bomb cylinder and held
down by the screw-cap. "The cover is provided with a neck
into which fits a cylindrical screw E, holding another screw H.
On the side of the neck is an aperture G, between the lower
end of D and the shoulder. In D is a washer of lead, on
which the lower edge of E fits. By opening or closing the
screw F the narrow passage from z is opened or closed. The
opening is used for admitting oxygen at a high pressure
through a narrow passage to charge the bomb. In B is an
.aperture through which passes the platinum wire If, which is
separated from the metal of the cover
by insulating material. Hard vulcan-
ized rubber serves very well for this
purpose. Fastened to the lower side
of the cover is another platinum rod, /,
between which and H an electrical con-
nection is made with a very fine iron
wire. A screw-ring holds the small
platinum capsule, in which the sub-
stance to be burned is placed. At KK
are ball-bearings of hard steel to avoid
friction in screwing the cap down."
" The large cylinders N and O are
made of indurated fibre, and covered
with plates of vulcanized rubber. A
stirrer serves for equalizing the temper-
ature of the different portions of water
PIG. 25. ATWATER BOMB. after the combustion is completed."*
The thermometer used is by Fuest
of Berlin, graduated to ^ degree, and can be read with a
magnify ing-glass to y^nnr degree.
*Prof. W. O. Atwater, in Bulletin No. 21, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,
1895, pages 124 and 126.
.
UNI VI
KROEKER 'S CAL ORIME TER.
73
The apparatus has been used with success in making the
very numerous determinations made by Atwater on the heats
of combustion of food-products and other allied organic sub-
stances. -{,'; ;
KROEKER'S CALORIMETER.
Kroeker has recently modified the bomb, making two in-
let channels instead of one. By this means he has a current,
of oxygen gas passing in at one opening and waste gases
passing out at the other. It can thus be used for the same
purpose that a Junker calorimeter is used, and it is claimed
with just as satisfactory results.
The cylinder (Fig. 26) is bored out of a piece of Martin
steel, and has a closely-fitting screw-plug for cover, the depth
of the screw joint being 2 5 mm. The walls
of the cylinder are 10 mm. thick; external
diameter, 72 mm. ; internal diameter, 52
mm. ; height, 120 mm. ; contents, 200 cc.
It has four small legs on the under side,
which support it and keep it entirely sur-
rounded by the water of the bath. The
entire inside surface is enameled, or prefer-
ably platinized. The fuel, in the form of
compressed cylinders weighing one gram,
is put into the carrier, ignited as usual,
and the combustion gases collected and
examined.
He also has a method of heating the
calorimeter bomb in an oil-bath so as to
expel all the water of combustion and hy- FlG 2 6. KROEKER
dration. He thus obtains data for cor- CALORIMETERS =
rections due to the usual method of determining the water,
i.e., considering the water as condensed. . /if, ;. f :.:
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
HEMPEL S CALORIMETER.
Hempel's calorimeter is used to a considerable extent in
Germany and introduces some new features.
It consists (Fig. 260) of an iron tube into which a bottom
about 15 mm. thick and a top about 30 mm. thick are screwed
and fastened with hard solder. The chamber capacity is 2 50 cc.
FIG. 26a. FIG. 263.
HEMPEL CALORIMETER.
and will resist a pressure of 25 atmospheres. It is closed by a
head-piece (Fig. 26b). This has a screw-valve a, an insulated
wire SA bulb, b, to which is attached an open bent
-tube, c. At the upper end of this tube is
attached a rim top of iron, d. The inner
y |_^ .JA tube from a to /* and .the containing bulb
from ft to A, are filled with air-free water.
The lower part of the apparatus is filled to
the iron rim with mercury containing no air.
The water in tube a is frozen and the whole
apparatus placed in a box of snow. A gradu-
/? ated glass tube s is passed through a cork into c.
To use this calorimeter, the substance to
be tested is heated and dropped into a, the
open end being immediately closed. The
FIG. 27
9300 to 9600
9.2 to 10
5. Lean coals or )
anthracite, )
82 to 90
18 to 10
f Slightly ]
J coked,
| oftener j
9200 to 9500
9.0 to 9.5
I powdery. J
* Annales des Mines, 1878, vol. iv.
78 CALORIflC POWER OP FUELS.
or coke formed, this increase is produced gradually by cutting:
off the lean coals and dividing the fat coals into three classes.
gas, forge, and coking.
Bearing on the advisability of having proximate analyses,
as well as ultimate analyses of coal, is the question recently
brought up by Mr. Kent, regarding the ratio of hydrogen and
carbon in coal. In discussing the results of Lord and Haas'
determinations of Ohio and Pennsylvania coals, he thought he
had discovered the ratio, that the fixed carbon is nearly equal
to the total carbon minus five times the available hydrogen in
bituminous coals, and minus three times the hydrogen in
semi-bituminous ones. He gave a table showing results
which support the hypothesis.
LIGNITE.
From an industrial standpoint lignite is of considerable
importance. It occurs in most countries, and is used in a
great many for domestic and manufacturing purposes.
As a fuel it is inferior to coal, being less distantly
removed from woody fibre, and hence contains more hydro-
gen and, usually, considerable water. Most of the latter,
however, dries out on exposure to the air. In some cases
as much as 40 or 50 per cent of water is found in the
freshly mined lignite, of which at times 20 per cent remains
when air-dried. This greatly affects its value as fuel ; still
it is used in many of the V/estern States, and also in
Europe. In some European localities, when thoroughly
dried and compressed into blocks, especially in Italy and
Austria, it is used as fuel for producing gas and for evapo-
rating, with good results. In Austria it is burnt without
any preparation, except drying in the air for heating salt-
pans. ^
The amount of ash varies exceedingly, being in some
cases as low as 0.9 per cent, and in others as high as 58 per
SOLID FUELS. 79
cent. It even varies in the same locality and in the same
bed. In burning lignite there is considerable loss in the waste
gases on account of the large quantity of air introduced, and
also from the moisture carried off from the fuel.
Brix published the following results with dried lignite :
Water Evap- Per cent
orated. Ash.
Lignite of Aussig, Bohemia 5.8 pounds 15.0
" " Perleberg, " 5.6 " 6.0
" " Goldfuchs n. Frankfort... 5.5 " 9.1
" Rauen 5.4 " 6.3
Bunte used two kinds of lignite in boiler-tests, and gives
the following results :
Neusattel. Chodan.
Calories in steam 42.8 49.2
" "gases 19.6 21. o
" " aqueous vapor 9.2 8.7
" "ash 9.0 6.1
" unaccounted for 19.4 15.0
The grate used was a step grate (Treppen-Rost).
The lignite used on the railways in Italy contained i']>
per cent of water, and gave a yield of heat equal to one half
its weight of coal.
Analogous to the lignites are certain shales or fossils
carrying bitumen. They are sometimes termed boghead
cannel, bituminous schist, etc. They are distilled in some
localities for oil, but are not much used as fuel.
Bunte determined the heat of combustion of a sample
from Australia, and analyzed one from Scotland.
Carbon. Hydrogen. O -j- N. Calories.
Boghead shale, Australia. 83.17 10.04 6. 79 9134
Scotch Boghead 81.54 11.62 6.84
"SO CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
Scotch Boghead generally contains 18 to 24 per cent of
ash. From its analysis as above, its heat of combustion
should be near that of the other one given.
PEAT.
Peat is formed by the agglomeration of vegetable debris,
and retains a large amount of water, which will not separate
without heat. Its composition varies but little from that of
wood, the principal difference being less oxygen and more
carbon.
The composition may be represented by
Carbon 60
Hydrogen 6
Oxygen and nitrogen 34
100
The heat of combustion is lower than that of coal or
lignite, as might be expected. The quantity of hydrogen
exceeds that necessary to form water with the oxygen.
It is usually dried before using, and when dry becomes
quite porous. It carries, however, in this state some 10 to
1 5 per cent of water, which can be expelled only by artificial
means. Large quantities of it are converted into charcoal in
special kilns, and, where the large amount of ash is no objec-
tion, it makes a good fuel. It cannot be used for metallurgical
purposes on account of its friability. From 30 to 40 per
cent of its weight is left in the charcoal as carbon, but at the
same time the ash increases to 15 to 25 per cent, and even
more. This consists principally of phosphates and sulphates,
with very little carbonates ; hence it is not as apt to clinker
as other fuel ashes.
Brix obtained with peat an evaporative power of 5.11
pounds of water. The peat used was from Flatow, and
contained 10.7 percent of ash. Another, from Buchfeld-Neu-
langen, contained 1.2 per cent of ash, and gave 5.12 pounds
SOLID FUELS. 8 1
evaporated. Noury, using a special grate, obtained from the
Alsace peats 4 to 5 pounds evaporation (ashes deducted).
Bunte analyzed the gases produced by the combustion of
peat on the hearth of a salt-pan, and found, carbonic acid 13,
oxygen 6.4, nitrogen 80.6.
Karsten says that 2\ pounds of peat are equal to one of
coal. In some experiments made at St. Petersburg a fire-
grate of 32 square feet and 696 square feet of boiler heating
surface was used. The peat was compact, hand-moulded into
4-inch balls, and dried till moisture did not exceed 14 per cent.
4.26 pounds of coal were evaporated for I of peat.
Crookes and Rohrig, in their " Metallurgy," say: "One
pound of dry turf will evaporate 6 pounds of water. Now in
I pound of turf, as usually found, there are pound of dry
turf and J pound of water. The J pound can evaporate 4^
pounds of water; but out of this it must first evaporate the J
pound of water contained in its mass, and hence the water
boiled away by such turf reduces to 4^ pounds. The yield
is here reduced 30 per cent, a proportion which makes all the
difference between a good fuel and one almost unfit for use.
When turf is dried in the air under cover it still retains -$ of
its weight of water, which reduces its calorific power 12 per
cent; I pound of such turf evaporates 5^ pounds of water."
COKE.
Coke usually met with is from three sources: from gas-
coal, and made in gas-retorts; from gas or ordinary bituminous
coal, and made in special ovens; from petroleum, and made
by carrying the distillation of the residuum to a red heat.
Coke from gas-works is usually softer and more porous
than the other kinds, burns more readily, but does not give
as intense a heat. It has been used considerably for domestic
heating, and in factories where a high heat is not needed
but where a smokeless fuel is desirable. The oven coke is
usually in large columnar masses of a close texture and quite
82
CALORIfIC POWER OF FUELS.
hard. It has a dead gray-black color and is not susceptible
of polish. It is principally used in furnaces requiring a
blast, although limited quantities of it have been used in
domestic heating, for which purpose it must be broken up
much finer than its usual size. Petroleum coke is generally
in large irregular lumps, perforated with cavities of greater or
less size, the interior of which is usually quite smooth and
shining. Its color is blacker than that of gas or oven coke,
and its hardness intermediate. It is used principally for mak-
ing electric carbons, although considerable quantities are used
for fuel.
With the exception of gas-coke very little use is made of
this fuel for steaming, the fire being too intense locally, and
hence very apt to burn out the boiler directly over it. In all
cases plenty of air is needed to keep up the combustion, which
is also a drawback for steaming purposes. For metallurgical
furnaces it is different. Here it is almost the ideal fuel, giv-
ing an intense reducing heat at just the part of the furnace
where most needed. It has been used in iron furnaces for
years, and is still the favorite fuel. It is superior to anthracite,
as it has no tendency to splinter and crack with the heat, and
bears its burden very well. Of course this does not apply to
ordinary gas-coke, which crushes easily.
Coke is essentially carbon, and the mineral portions of the
coal from which it is made. It contains small quantities of
hydrogen and nitrogen, as may be seen from the tables. The
percentage of these, however, is very low, so that the cal-
culated and observed heat-units are usually within the limits
of error, as is shown in the following table :
Name.
C.
H.
N.
Loss.
Calories
observed.
Calories
calculated.
Authority.
Saarbruck .
08.04.
O.7 1 }
1.2^
82OO
822Q
Bunte
Petroleum coke
Graphite
98-05
08.08
0.50
O.O2
0.25
1.20
8057
7QOI
8151
8054
Mahler
Berthelot
SOLID FUELS.
WOOD CHARCOAL.
Wood charcoal always contains quantities of hydrocarbons
which have resisted the action of heat. That called forest
charcoal, made by burning in heaps, is the most charged with
them ; that obtained from distillation of wood in retorts coi>
tains less.
The heat of combustion is very variable. According to
Berthier* commercial wood charcoal contains 10 per cent of
volatile matters and 2 per cent of ash (carbon 80 to 90, hy-
drogen 1.54).
Pure wood charcoal was first tested calorimetrically by
Favre and Silbermann, and since then by several experi-
menters. To obtain it pure it was calcined strongly and
treated with chlorine to remove all traces of hydrogen. In,
this state wood-charcoal produces under constant pressure
8080 calories, F. & S., or 8100 S.-K. & M.-D. ; with con-
stant volume Berthelot and Petit obtained 8137 calories.
Several years ago Berthier pointed out that half-burnt
charcoal, charbon ronx or Rothkohle, was superior in combus-
tible content to that perfectly burnt. Sauvage has confirmed
this, and gives the following results :
TOO Ibs. of wood (^
charred for )
3 hours.
4 hours.
5 hours.
5$ hours.
6$ hours.
Mound
Charcoal.
6s A Ibs.
53 o Ibs
47 o Ibs
41 5 Ibs
7Q T IKc
17 2 Ibs
loocu. ft. measured
86 cu. ft.
76 cu. ft.
58 cu. ft.
55 cu. ft.
52 cu. ft.
33 cu. ft.
and
cubic foot wood contained of combustible matter 908 parts.
* 4 "3 hours' heating "
883
"
( < A < ( ( < <
"
904
A*
<( ' ' C ' * ' ' * '
<
H33
it
H (Hli( < < < <
t <
1091
(1
" " 61 "
< <
1136
"
4< " charcoal "
i <
1069
*'
*Traite des essais par la voie seche. vol. i, p. 286.
84 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
So that the amount of combustible matter does not increase
after 5 hours' heating, and a continuance of the heat diminishes,
it.
The principal use of charcoal is in iron furnaces, where it
has been used for years, and produces the highest grades of
iron, being free from sulphur and phosphorus. A small
amount is used in private dwellings and hotels for heating
and cooking. For boiler heating it has been used only
experimentally.
Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus experimented with
it in boiler-heating and found very little combustible gas in
the products. Beech charcoal was used, and an evaporative
effect of 7.62 pounds of water was obtained. The waste
gases contained:
Carbonic acid 1 1 . 16 per cent.
Carbonic oxide o. 37 ' '
Oxygen 8.72
Nitrogen 79-75 "
100.00
Brix, using wood and peat charcoal, obtained the follow-
ing results :
Wood charcoal 7-55 pounds evaporated.
Peat charcoal 6.85
Schwackhofer burnt charcoal from hard and soft wood in
his calorimeter and obtained (constant volume) 7140 calories
for the soft charcoal and 7071 calories for the hard. The
charcoal in both cases was the ordinary unpurified charcoal as
sold.
WOOD.
Wood consists of a compact tissue more or less hard r
formed of cellulose and a so-called incrusting substance.
SOLID FUELS. 85
Wood contains, besides, small quantities of mineral matter and
hygroscopic water varying from 15 to 30 per cent, according
to dryness. Air-dried, it contains about 15 per cent of water,.
which it gives up easily on exposure to a heat of 100 C.
The composition of wood may be represented by the
following :
Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Ash. Water.
Wood dried at 100 49.5 6.0 43.5 i.o o.o
" in the air 29.6 4.8 34.8 0.8 29.0
Regarding wood from its ultimate composition, we may
consider it as a hydrate of carbon, that is, as carbon united to ,
water, the proportion of hydrogen and oxygen being nearly
the same as in water. But regarded from its proximate com-
position, it is entirely different. What has been said of soft
coal can be repeated for wood ; that, those having a similar
ultimate composition behave differently in distillation in a
closed retort and produce very different proportions of carbon
(as charcoal) ; hydrocarbons, liquid or gaseous ; acid products,
resin, and tar. It was supposed that the heat of combustion
differed also, and this has been verified by experiments.
Berthelot and Vielle determined the heat of combustion of
cellulose, and found 680 calories for the molecular weight of
wood, or about 4200 calories per kilogram.
Hard wood gives less heat than soft wood. According to
Gottlieb's experiments, pine-wood has a heat value of 5000
calories, while oak gave only 4620 calories. Mahler's exper-
iments confirm a difference in favor of pine, but in less pro-
portion.
Two determinations made by Mahler are (cinders and water
deducted) :
Fir. Oak.
Carbon 51.08 50.43
Hydrogen ....... 6.12 5.88
Oxygen with trace of nitrogen. . .. 42.90 43-69
100.00 100.00
Heat of combustion 4828 4689
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
Gottlieb obtained the following numbers, using a calo-
rimeter of constant pressure, in which he burnt 2 grams of
wood in the space of two or three minutes. The composition
of the gas produced was not determined ; he was satisfied
that he had perfect combustion, and his figures do not appear
very far from the truth. For cellulose he obtained 4155
calories.
Name.
C.
H.
N.
o.
Ash.
Calories.
B. T U.
Oak
CQ. 16
6. 02
O.OQ
A'l . -76
0. 17
4620
8116
Ash
4Q. 1 8
6.27
O.O7
41-QI
O. 57
471 1
8480
Elm
48.QQ
6. 20
O.O6
44- 2$
O. 5O
4728
8510
Beech
4Q.O6
6. n
O.OQ
44. 17
O. 57
4774
gCQT
Birch
48.88
6.06
o. 10
44.67
O.2Q
4771
8586
Fir . . .
CQ . ofi
e .02
o. 05
41 1Q
o 28
5O15
Pine
CQ. ar
6 . 20
O . O4
41. OS
O 17
5O85
V UU J
QI 51
. Gottlieb's results are 69 calories less than Mahler's for oak
and 207 more for fir.
. In burning wood for steaming the fire is easily controlled;
combustion is more complete; the products of combustion
contain only very small quantities of unburnt gases; and the
ashes are generally free from carbon. The countries using
wood for this purpose are growing less in number yearly, on
account of improvement in transportation and the discovery
of new coal seams ; petroleum oils for fuel have also become
more common, especially in Russia, the United States, and
Canada.
Morin and Tresca, in their tests, found that one pound
of wood was equivalent to 0.368 pound of coal. Scheurer-
Kestner's experiments in 1871 show results more favorable
for wood. The wood used was Vosges fir, which had been
piled under cover for half a year. A cubic foot weighed
19.76 Ibs. It was burnt in the same boiler used in his
previous experiments, with the result that I pound of wood
evaporated 4.4 pounds of water. The ratio was 0.490, or
nearly one half that of Ronchamp coal.
SOLID FUELS.
Brix made a number of experiments in using wood for
heating, and found that dry pine gave the best results 5
pounds per pound of fuel. Elm gave 4.6 pounds; birch,
4.6; oak, 4.56; ash, 4.63; and beech, 4.47.
Wood should be dry as possible, as otherwise it has to
furnish heat to vaporize, not only the water formed from its
hydrogen, but also that already existing as moisture. We
have seen that this loss with coal is considerable, it is still
greater with wood. Suppose the wood to be ordinary air-dried,
containing 20 per cent of water. If this wood, when per-
fectly dry, could evaporate 5 pounds of water, it now has
only of that power, or power to evaporate 4 pounds; but it
already carries of its weight of water, which must be vapor-
ized. Hence the available power is 4 pounds less \ pound
3| pounds, or 76 per cent of its dry value. Hence the
economy of using only dried, and even artificially dried, wood.
RELATIVE VALUE OF VARIOUS WOODS.
Wood.
>,
si
H
coefficient adopted.
The three samples of illuminating gas, analyzed and burnt
in the bomb by Mahler and given in the table below, call for
the following observations: Gas from Niddrie cannel coal, the
most calorific per cubic metre is the least calorific per kilo-
gram, because the density is greater than that of the other
two. The richest in hydrogen by volume (Lavillette) is the
poorest in calorific power per cubic metre, while the poorest
in hydrogen by weight is the richest in calories per cubic
metre. These are due to the low density of hydrogen, which
GASEOUS FUELS.
97.
is less calorific by volume than the other hydrocarbons occur-
ring in illuminating gas.
Name.
5
1
Analysis by Weight.
Heat of Combustion
Carbon in Hydro-
carbons.
Hydrogen.
Carbonic Oxide.
Carbonic Acid.
1 .
2 =
'If
g|
o rt
Per Cubic Metre at
o and 760 m.
Per Kilogram.
Niddrie cannel. .
Commentry coal.
Lavillette gas. . .
0.6367
o . 4046
0.4033
43-33
43-74
42.25
I3-50
21.46
21.34
16.84
24.96
21.23
9.26
7.08
6.83
14.96
5-75
8-33
6365
5804
5602
7735
1 1 TOO
10764
A cubic metre of hydrogen develops 3091 calories in
burning; a cubic metre of marsh gas develops 10038 calories;
a cubic metre of olefiant gas, 15250 calories.
GAS OF GASOGENES.
The gasogenes, instead of transforming the fuel into car-
bonic acid and water in a single combustion, produce this
change in two distinct burnings, the first being to make a
combustible gas and the second to burn this gas with air.
In the first furnace, the coal, for example, is burnt in such
a manner by feeding with an insufficient supply of air that a,
gaseous mixture is produced, containing principally carbonic
oxide, besides nitrogen from the air. -As the combustion has
been well or poorly managed, it contains a less or greater
quantity of carbonic acid, the production of which is avoided,
as much as possible. This is done by giving to the fuel only
just enough air to form carbonic oxide, and not enough to.
form carbonic acid, even partially, and by making the bed of
fuel quite deep.
The heat produced by this combustion is not used, and
consequently an important part of the calories of the coal is
lost. Gasogene gas is then lower in calories, and inferior tp.
coal gas, as commonly made by distillation.
98 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
One kilogram of carbon burnt to carbonic oxide disen-
gages 2489 calories, while I kilogram of carbon burnt to car-
bonic acid generates 8137 calories. There is lost, then, in
burning carbon to carbonic oxide in a gasogene about 30 per
cent of the available calories.
At first sight this method of working seems irrational, but
for obtaining high temperatures there are practical advantages,
whose importance far exceeds the loss of heat in the gaso-
gene. It permits much more elevated temperatures, and the
recovery of a large portion of the heat, which in direct sys-
tems of heating in high temperature furnaces passes to the
chimney as complete loss. There is actually an economy in
the ordinary metallurgical methods even with this loss.
By means of gasogenes, we produce three kinds of gaseous
fuel : the gas called producer or air gas, formed by the incom-
plete combustion of the fuel, with production of a mixed gas
containing carbonic oxide and hydrogen compounds ; the gas
called water gas, from the decomposition of water by carbon at a
high temperature, with production of carbonic oxide, hydrogen,
and hydrogen compounds; and the gas called mixed gas,
from the mixture of the two preceding ones by a process
which combines the production of the two gases in the same
furnace.
PRODUCER OR AIR GAS.
We have said that air gas results from incomplete com-
bustion, and that its formation causes a loss of one third of
the calories resulting from the complete combustion of the
fuel. These gases contain, naturally, the nitrogen of the air
used, to which must be added that of the air necessary to
change the carbonic oxide and the hydrogen to carbonic acid
and water.
The heat of combustion and the composition determined
by different experimenters varies considerably, showing that
they did not always work with average samples.
GASEOUS FUELS, 99
The proportion of nitrogen in these gases reaches 56 to
<6o per cent ; that of carbonic oxide, 21 to 32 per cent ; that of
of hydrogen, from traces to 17 per cent. The theoretical
calculation for the combustion of carbon in air to a gas con-
taining only carbonic oxide and nitrogen gives for the first
34.7 and for the second 65.3 per cent.
By adopting for the composition of air the round numbers
79 and 21, and for the weight of oxygen 1.430 grams per
litre, for carbon the atomic weight of 12, and for oxygen 16,
12 : 16 1000 grams : 1333 grams.
A kilogram of carbon needs, then, \\ kilograms of oxygen.
A litre of oxygen weighing 1.430 grams, 1333 grams would
occupy 932 litres. These 932 litres will give with carbon a
double volume, or 1864 litres carbonic oxide. Multiplying
932 litres by the coefficient 4.77 (see Table XIV), we obtain
the volume of the air corresponding, or 4445 litres. The
gases of combustion will be composed then of these 4445
litres of air and the 932 litres of increase in volume, or 5377
litres for I kilogram of carbon. The 4445 litres of air will
contain (at 79 per cent) 3513 litres of nitrogen, or 65.3 per
cent.*
The calculation is more complicated when we have fuel
containing hydrogen, as one portion of the oxygen disappears
by its combination with the hydrogen to form water. Take
for example, a coal containing 90 per cent of carbon, 5 per
cent of hydrogen, and 5 per cent of oxygen. Suppose I
kilogram of this coal, under theoretical conditions, burnt in a
gasogene, i.e., with perfect transformation of the carbon into
carbonic oxide and no residues. This coal contains 900
grams carbon, 50 grams hydrogen, 50 grams oxygen. 900
* One pound of carbon requires 1.333 Ibs. of oxygen; I cubic foot of
oxygen weighs 0.08926 Ib. ; 1.333 Ibs. measure 14.93 cu. ft. These would
give 29.86of CO. 14.93 X 4-77 = 71.216, and 71.216 -f 14.93 = 86.146, volume
of gases of combustion. These contain 56.26 cu. ft. of nitrogen.
100 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
grams carbon produce 2100 grams carbonic oxide, requiring
1 200 grams oxygen. 1200 grams oxygen occupy 839 litres.
50 grams hydrogen produce 450 grams water, and require
400 grams oxygen. These 400 grams oxygen occupy 2/9
litres. But the coal itself contains 50 grams oxygen, occupy-
ing 35 litres.
We have, then, 839 + 279 35 = 1083 litres of oxygen
required, and to calculate the amount of air needed multiply
by 4.77. This gives 5163 litres of air needed for the incom-
plete combustion of I kilogram of carbon. These 5163 litres
contain 4080 litres of nitrogen.
To obtain the total volume of gases produced by the
incomplete combustion, we may add to the volume of the air
introduced the volume due to the formation of carbonic oxide v
and this is equal to the volume of the oxygen used, or 839
litres. We have, then, 5163 + 839 = 6002 litres. But a
quantity of oxygen has disappeared corresponding to the
formation of the water, or 279 35 = 244 litres (35 litres
exists in the coal as above), and 6002 244 =5758 litres of
gas produced by the incomplete combustion of I kilogram of
coal.
Now, then, 5163 litres of air contain 4079 litres of nitro-
gen, which would form -, or 70.8 per cent of the total
gas. All these numbers are at o and 760 mm. pressure.*
Generally gasogenes contain less nitrogen, different causes
producing diminution, among which are the use of a lower
*One pound of coal would be 6300 grains carbon, 350 grains oxygen,
and 350 grains hydrogen; 0.90 Ib. carbon produces 2.1 Ibs. carbonic oxide,
and needs 1.2 Ibs. oxygen; 1.2 Ibs. oxygen occupies 13.44 cu. ft.; 0.050 Ib.
hydrogen produces 0.450 Ib. water, and needs 0.400 Ib. oxygen, or 4.48 cu.
ft. The 0.05 Ib. of oxygen in the coal occupies 0.56 cu. ft. Then 13.44 +
4.480.56 = 17.36 of oxygen required 17.36 X 4-77 = 82.81 cu. ft. of air,
containing 65.41 cu. ft. nitrogen. Total gases, 82.81 -f- 13.44 3-9 2 = 92.33
total volume of gas, and
1 = 70.8 per cent.
92.33
GASEOUS FUELS. IOI
hydrogen coal than we have taken, and the decomposition of
the fuel in the body of the furnace with a certain quantity of
aqueous vapor formed during the combustion, or from the
moisture in the air supplied.
Mahler determined the heat of combustion of a sample of
gas from the Follembray glass-house, and found its composi
tion per volume, using coal from Be"thune, to be:
Marsh gas 2
Hydrogen 12
Carbonic oxide 21
Carbonic acid 5
N itrogen 60
100
The heat of combustion calculated from its composition is:
Marsh gas 0.02 X 10038 = 200.8
Hydrogen 0.12 x 3091= 370.9
CO 0.2 1 X 3043 = 639.0
1210.7
With the bomb he found 1212 calories.
WATER GAS AND MIXED GAS.
Water gas is produced when water is decomposed at high
temperatures by fuels containing but little hydrogen, such
as anthracite, charcoal, or coke. Mixed with hydrocarbon
vapors, added to enrich it, or which may have been decom-
posed with the aqueous vapor, it serves for the illumination
of a great number of cities, principally in America. But this
is not its only use, as it is used for heating, and also for gas-
engines. Mixed with producer gas, it has become a powerful
means of heating, especially where high temperatures are
wanted.
Water gas contains but little nitrogen: this is its main
distinction from producer gas, and that which-- gives it a
special value from an economical heating point of view.
102 CALORIFIC POWER Of FUELS.
We have previously stated (page 97) that during the
combustion of carbon in a gasogene, there occurs a genera-
tion of nearly one third of the total heat were the fuel com-
pletely burnt. Besides this, the combustion produces a gas
containing about one third its weight of combustible gas and
two thirds inert gas (nitrogen), which is mixed with it.
These are important causes of two sources of loss in
calories. In an air-gasogene one third of the calories is lost,
since the gaseous products give up most of their sensible heat
before being used. The 66 per cent of inert gas carries off
an enormous quantity of heat to the chimney, and thence to
the open air. It was with the idea of regaining or stopping
these losses, or at least a large portion of them, that water
gas originated.
Aqueous vapor and carbon, when submitted to a high
temperature, produce carbonic oxide and hydrogen. Theo-
retically these are free from nitrogen ; but there is always
present a small percentage for various causes. In the air
gasogene 12 kilograms of carbon and 16 kilograms of oxy-
gen (atomic weights) unite to form 28 kilograms of carbonic
oxide. On the other hand, 12 kilograms of carbon and 18
kilograms of water form 28 kilograms of carbonic oxide and
2 kilograms of hydrogen. Then I kilogram of carbon fur-
nishes 2.5 kilograms of gas composed of carbonic oxide and
hydrogen.
One kilogram of hydrogen has a caloric energy of 29042
calories.* These calories represent also the quantity of heat
necessary to decompose the water; in the case of the water
gas gasogene they are formed by the carbon burnt. The 12
kilograms of carbon will have to furnish, then, the calories
necessary to decompose 18 kilograms of water; that is,
2 X 29042 = 58084 calories.
* Water being considered as vapor.
GASEOUS FUELS.
But 12 kilograms of carbon, in burning, generate only
12 X 2473 29676 calories.
To decompose the water, then, there is a shortage of
force of
58084 29676 = 28408 calories
for 2 kilograms of hydrogen, or 14204 calories for I kilo-
gram. The heat must be furnished by an external source.
In other terms, to gasify I kilogram of carbon there must be
supplied
14204 -r- 6 = 2367 calories.
As may be easily seen, this operation absorbs much heat,
and the combustion of the water gas can give only the calo-
ries used at first in forming it. The heat necessary for the
decomposition of the water is actually taken from that of the
preparatory period of the air gasogene, which makes a loss of
one third of the total calories. In burning the water gas
made under these conditions we utilize a part of the heat
which would have been lost by the air gasogene only.
The decomposition of water by carbon is not as simple as
would appear from the equation
H a O + C = CO + H,.
The lower portion of the fuel of the gasogene undergoes
ordinary combustion on account of air being present ; while
in the upper portion the reaction takes place between the
gaseous products formed in the lower portion and the heated
carbon. The carbonic acid is then in contact with the heated
carbon and is reduced to carbonic oxide :
C + CO, = 2CO.
IO4 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
Thus, the reaction with the water would be
5H,0 + 3 C = 2C0 3 + CO + loH ;
carbonic acid being reduced to carbonic oxide in the final
reaction, as in the case with the air gasogene.
Nine kilograms of aqueous vapor and 6 kilograms of
carbon produce I kilogram of hydrogen and 14 kilograms of
carbonic oxide, that is, a mixed gas is produced containing
about one half its volume of each gas.
One cubic metre of hydrogen weighs 85.5 grams; one of
carbonic oxide, 1194 grams. Then the volumes occupied by
each gas would be 11.69 f r hydrogen and 11.13 f r car ~
bonic oxide, or 51.23 per cent of hydrogen and 48.77 per
cent of carbonic oxide.
From the foregoing account, it will be seen that the inter-
mittent flow is a cause of great loss of caloric in the working
of the water gasogene ; but when a gas is wanted solely for
heating at high temperatures, it may be obtained by a mixed
system working continuously. The gasogene is filled with
a mixture of air and steam, the air being employed in
the proper proportion to keep up the heat necessary, or, in
other words, to furnish by the combustion of part of the
carbon, the number of calories necessary to the gasifica-
tion of the other part.
We have seen (page 103) that to gasify I kilogram of
carbon 2367 calories were needed. To maintain the heat
this quantity must be produced by the action of the air.
Mixed gases are poorer than water gas, as they contain more
nitrogen and carbonic oxide and less hydrogen. Theo-
retically, we should attain the result of furnishing the heat to
the gasogene necessary to maintain the temperature by sup-
plying the steam sufficiently superheated ; a gas very poor in
nitrogen would then be made. But the superheating of
steam causes new losses of heat.
GASEOUS FUELS.
105
NATURAL GAS.
Natural gas has been known for thousands of years in
Asia, on the Caspian Sea, where it has long been a feature in
religious services, but it is only recently that it has become
of any use to man and played any part in the fuel world.
The natural gas output in the United States has attracted
considerable attention since 1875, and especially since 1880.
This gas always accompanies petroleum, although petroleum
does not always accompany the gas. The wells are situated
in various portions of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio,
Indiana, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Colorado, Cal-
ifornia, and on the Canadian side also in numerous locations.
Natural gas is not of a constant or uniform composition,
varying very much according to the locality from which it is
taken. The individual constituent gases vary between wide
limits, hydrogen at some places being almost wanting, while
at others it is as high as 35 or 40 per cent. Marsh gas is in
every case the principal constituent, but this runs down as
low as 40 per cent in some analyses. Nitrogen is some-
times absent, and when present in large amounts, it is suppos-
able that the gas analyzed was contaminated with atmospheric
air.
The Ohio and Indiana fields yield gas of nearer a uniform
composition than any of the others. The following table is
typical :
Ohio.
Indiana.
Fostoria.
Findlay.
St.Mary's
Muncie.
Anderson
Kokomo.
H ydrogen
I 89
I 64
I Q/l
2 ^S
1.86
1.42
Q2 84
Q<1 -1C
cn 8s
Q2 6?
0-1.07
Q4.l6
o 20
O2C
O 47
O ^O
O ^1
<-. J3
O ^Q
o.'ie.
o. *}S
O.42
0.30
o. tie.
O 4.1
0.4.4
0.45
0.73
O.55
o 20
Ooe
OO-J
O 2S
O.26
O.2Q
Nitrogen
o 2
31 T
2 98
-5 eq
3 Q2
2.8O
Hydrogen sulphide
0.15
0.2O
O.2I
0.15
0.15
0.18
io6
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
In addition to difference in composition in different local-
ities, the composition of the gas varies cons'derably from
time to time in each well. This is shown by the following
analyses made at different times within a period of three
months from a well at Pittsburgh, Pa. :
1
2
3
4
5
6
IA AZ
26 16
C7 %e.
7e j6
72 18
5c 2^
^sy.Uj
60 7O
35-Q2
AQ ^8
Olefiant ja.s .
o 80
o 80
OnS
e 20
4. 80
360
SCO
7 02
2 IO
I 2O
I IO
o 80
078
OSo
I OO
O-5Q
I OO
o 80
O ^8
Carbonic acid
O OO
o 30
o 80
o 60
Nitrogen
2-J /IT
2 89
O OO
O OO
The quantity of gas used daily in the town of Findlay,
Ohio, in 1 890, was estimated by Professor Orton to be, for
Glass-furnaces 10000000 cubic feet.
Iron mills 10000000 " "
Other factories 6000000 " "
Domestic use 4000000 " "
Total per day 30000000 " "
In Indiana, large wells have been opened and used as in?
Ohio. In Pennsylvania, several of the large rolling-mills and
glass-houses near Pittsburg were formerly supplied with mill-
ions of feet per day ; but the supply, used so lavishly, became
exhausted. In Canada, at Fort Erie and Windsor are wells,
the gas from which is piped across the river to Buffalo and
Detroit respectively. All through the oil regions gas wells
are to be found more or less, accompanying every well sunk.
From the composition of the gas, it will readily be seen
that it is a valuable source of heat, the calorific power reach-
ing 10000 calories or 1 100 B. T. U. per cubic foot. It is used
for domestic purposes, steam, glass making, iron mills, brick
burning, and numerous other ways, and until recently used
wastefully in all.
GASEOUS FUELS. 1 07
As compared with coal, 57.25 pounds of coal or 63 pounds
of coke are about equal to 1000 cubic feet of the gas. The
actual equivalent in steaming or furnace work varies with the
furnace, and probably with the people using it. Equivalent
values of 14000 to 25000 cubic feet per ton of coal are
reported, and hardly any two users will give the same yield.
It seems to be especially adapted to glass making, giving a
long, clean, ashless, smokeless flame, and hundreds of glass-
pots were set up in the neighborhood of the wells, especially
in Ohio. Each pot consumes from 58000 to 61000 cubic feet
per 24 hours in window-glass works and from 31000 to 49000
cubic feet in flint-glass works, the difference being of
course due to difference in burners and men, the gas being
the same.
In all cases where this gas is used the chief claim made, in
addition to those of gases generally, has been cheapness, and
it has been sold without any regard to its actual value. A
comparison of its value with that of other gases is given by
McMillin in the Report of the Ohio Geological Survey, vol.
VI, page 544, as follows :
1000 feet natural gas will evaporate. . . . 893 pounds of water.
" " coal " " " ____ 591 " "
" " water " " " ____ 262 " "
" " producer gas " " ____ 115
" "
OIL GAS.
There are several processes for producing gas from oil,
usually petroleum or its derivatives. Some of them decom-
pose the oil by means of heat alone, while others use steam,
or steam and air together. The most successful pure oil
process is the Pintsch ; this is used extensively in the large
cities of Europe and America to obtain a gas for illuminating
cars on railways. The gas is made by allowing the oil to fall
drop by drop on a strongly heated surface. Complete decom-
I08 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
position occurs, and a gas of high candle-power is formed.
This is collected, and after compression supplied to the con-
sumers. It loses some 20 per cent of the illuminating power
during compression. As a source of heat, its use is, so far,
very limited. An analysis and heat test will be found in the
tables.
The Archer gas process is somewhat similar to the Pintsch,
but the products of decomposition are generated at a com-
paratively low temperature, and then superheated subse-
quently so as to make the gas permanent. This gas is used
for metallurgical purposes, but its use for heating boilers is
very limited.
The other gases made with steam or steam and air have
been advertised or pushed as fuel gases for several years.
Many plants have been established and failed. A few of the
most prominent are mentioned in the tables.
OTHER GASES.
Gas has been obtained from destructive distillation of
wood, rosin, fats, and other materials. They were used prin-
cipally for illumination, and seldom if ever for heat. They
are now made only in very exceptional cases.
CHAPTER X.
CALORIFIC POWER OF COAL BURNT UNDER
A STEAM-BOILER.
FUEL USED AND WATER EVAPORATED.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE HEAT PRODUCED. ,
EXPERIMENTS in heating steam-boilers have to deter-
mine :
1. How much water is vaporized by a given quantity oif
coal, so as to compare it with other coals or fuels;
2. The evaporative power of the steam-boiler used;
3. A comparison of the various styles of grates or meth-
ods of heating applied to steam-boilers.
In this book we will consider only the first case, th'e
others being outside of its scope.
The knowledge of the heat of combustion of coal and
other fuels is closely connected with experiments in heating
steam-boilers. It is not enough to know the proportion of
water which the apparatus or the fuel tested will vaporize :
we must also determine the number of calories lost. We
must know, besides, the composition of the coal and its heat
of combustion, to determine the proportion of calories used to
that possible with perfect combustion.
The- first work in this direction worth mentioning was
probably that done by Peclet in 1833, but his results were
very crude, and are of no account now. The next were those
made by Prof. Johnson, in 1842 and 1843, for the U. S.
Navy Department, to determine the steaming powers of the
109
110 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
coals then in use. He analyzed and tested some thirty-five
different coals, domestic and foreign. The tests were made
with a specially built boiler, and careful and copious notes
were taken all through. The chimney gases were analyzed,
and an attempt made to determine their quantity. In 1891
Mr. W. Kent* reviewed his work, and found that, with correc-
tions for the constants employed by Johnson, the tests were
comparable with those made at the present time. The
figures given in the tables as Johnson's are with Kent's
corrections.
The first experiments based on the knowledge of the
composition and heat of combustion of coal were published
in 1868 and 1869 in the Bulletin de la Socie'tt Industrielle
de Mulhouse. Scheurer-Kestner remarks in the first part of
this work, which he prosecuted later on with assistance of
Meunier-Dollfus (loc. cit. p. i):
"It is necessary to analyze the great difference found
between the theoretical heat of combustion (at that time
no actual determinations had been made) and the practical
yield.
" Several elements of the calculation aid in making this
shortage. The principal ones are :
" The heat of combustion of the coal;
" The composition of the coal;
" The composition of the cinders as drawn from the
ash-pit ;
"The quantity of water vaporized and the temperature
of the steam produced ;
" The volume of gases introduced under the grate, and
their temperature when they leave the -boiler to pass into the
chimney ;
"The composition of the gaseous products of combus-
tion ;
* Engineering and Mining Journal, Oct. 1891.
WEIGHT OF FUEL. 1 1 I
"The temperature of the cinders at the time of dumping;
11 The loss of caloric by radiation from the setting of the
boiler."
We must refer to mineral and organic as well as gas
analysis to obtain the necessary elements for the distribution
of the caloric produced by the combustion of the coal on a
steam-boiler grate.
To avoid referring to them, we will consider the composi-
tion and heat of combustion of coal as known. (See tables.)
WEIGHT OF FUEL.
The coal used in the test should be kept under cover
away from moisture and heat, so that the hygroscopic water
it contains shall vary as little as possible from the time of
taking the sample. Weigh the coal in the gross, and then
weigh portions of about 100 kilograms (220 Ibs.) on a scale
sensible to T ^.
Where practicable, a box open at the top and holding
500 pounds of coal should be provided for each 25 square
feet grate area, and in proportion for larger grates. It
should be placed on the scales, and conveniently located for
shoveling into the fire.
The exact time of weighing should be noted and the
exact weight set down. The weight should be taken at the
instant of closing the fire-door. The box should be com-
pletely emptied each time. The difference of weight at each
firing will give the several quantities fired ; the differences of
time will give the intervals between firing; and the differ-
ence of time between successive charges will serve as a check
on the record of the test. A chart or diagram should be
made showing the regularity of the working, and it is well to
keep the records in tabular form ; weights in one column, time
in another.
112 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
SAMPLING THE COAL.
In all experiments for determining heat of combustion of
fuels, the sampling must be done with the utmost care, espe-
cially if the laboratory and working test are to be made at
the same time. Samples accurately representing the coal of
the working test must be kept in the laboratory, and when
coal is tested which contains foreign matter and considerable
moisture, too much care cannot be taken to prevent errors.
The official method of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers is given in the Appendix, and answers the purpose
very well. If very large quantities are to be sampled, remove
a portion from each cart-load and then re-sample these as per
directions above mentioned.
It is not always necessary to resort to these methods.
When the coal comes from the same pit and level, experience
has shown that a piece which seems to agree with the general
character is usually sufficient. Care must be taken to avoid
samples having too much hanging-wall or bed-rock. For
twenty years the pure coal of Ronchamp taken from the
same pit has given the same calorimetric test, when it con-
tained from 10 to 20 per cent of ash. Lord and Haas*
showed that the same was true of many American mines,
especially in Ohio and Pennsylvania. This being true, we
could consider that in sampling we did not sample the coal,
but the impurities ; and that a sample showing the average
impurities would give all that was needed, as we would know
what the coal was.
Care must be taken with regard to the moisture, and any
coal showing much external moisture must be examined as
near as possible to the original condition. For example, a
coal containing 10 per cent of moisture in the pile may, after
sampling, crushing, and resampling, lose all but 4 or 5 per
cent. If the moisture was determined in this coal while in as
* Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Feb. 1897.
ANALYSIS OF COAL. 1 13
large pieces as possible, this moisture would all be accounted
for.
In spite of all precautions, samples do not always agree in
mineral content with the mass. The difference seems to be due
not only to the unequal distribution of the foreign mineral
matter throughout the coal, but principally to the difference
in specific gravity between the coal and this mineral, so that
the purer the coal the more satisfactory the sampling.
Sometimes a coal is rich in foreign matter, and is contained
in a tube open at one end. From this samples may be drawn
showing differences of several per cents; as for example, 12.49
and 16.74 per cent obtained in two successive cases. The
following experiment shows how this happens and how to
prevent it: 30 grams of coal, finely pulverized, and contain-
ing 20 per cent of mineral, was put into a glass tube, which
was closed with a cork and placed vertically, giving it slight
taps to settle it down. In a short time most of the foreign
material was at the bottom of the tube, the upper portion
being nearly free. To avoid such an error the sample must
be drawn only after thorough mixing, and without any shaking
or jarring of the tube. It is well to use pastilles made up
immediately after thorough mixing. A sample containing
only 13 to 14 per cent of foreign matter has given from a
tube, 12.20, 12. 81, 13.12, 13.50, 14.42 per cent.
ANALYSIS OF THE COAL.
No attempt will be made to treat the methods of ana-
lyzing coal ; still, as this usually accompanies a calorimetric
determination, some hints may be useful. Scheurer-Kestner
usually burns the coal in tubes of white glass placed on an
iron gutter. The same tube may thus serve several times if
asbestos cloth be placed between the tube and the iron and
the cooling be properly regulated. His tubes are 70 to 75
centimetres (27 to 29 inches) long and 15 to 20 millimetres
114 CALORiriC POWER OF FUELS.
(0.6 to O.8 inch) inside diameter. They are filled with copper
oxide in small pieces, except at the front end, which has a
small piece of metallic copper, and at the back, where the
platinum boat containing the coal is placed. Usually half a
gram is used for a test, the coal having been previously dried
at 100 to 105 C. (212 to 221 F.).
Before putting in the sample the tube is heated to redness
and thoroughly dried by means of a current of dry oxygen.
The combustion is carried on so as to allow time enough for
all the gas to be absorbed by the potash, during the first half
of the time the bubbles passing through very slowly. There
is no risk then of unburnt gases passing off. An iron or a
platinum tube may be used in place of the glass one, but glass
allows inspection at all times.
An analysis should show the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur, ash, and moisture, and they should be so
given that the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
and ash should equal 100 per cent, the moisture being
determined separately, or if preferred all but ash and moisture
may foot up 100, and those two be given separately. This
latter method is the one which is followed by many of the
European engineers, and will be found so in the tables given
at the end of this book. If possible the approximate analysis
should also be given.
In determining the moisture too much care cannot be
taken to expel all of it. With many coals, and especially our
Western ones, the ordinary heating to 110 C. is not suffi-
cient. Kent, Carpenter, Hale, and others have investigated
this question, and find that a much higher temperature is
needed, and must be employed. In some cases as high as
140 to 150 C. may be used with safety, and such tempera-
tures are recommended by Carpenter, no appreciable amount
of volatile matter being driven off.
DURATION OF THE TEST.
ANALYSIS OF THE CINDERS.
The cinders and ashes produced by the combustion of the
coal are collected so as to weigh and sample them. After
drying and determining the water the sample is put into a
glass tube as with coal. As the quantity of hydrogen is
usually very small, it need not be determined, and the
calcination for the carbon can be performed in the open air.
The following table contains the results of the tests made
by Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus on steam-boiler
cinders :
.1
2
3
4
Carbon
Q 2O
12 65
6 7-*
8 92
Hydrogen ....
O "37
O 2Q
O 21
O 27
Ash
80 Q^
86 50
Q2 6d
QI 42
99-52
99-44
99-58
99.61
The proportion of carbon in cinders may be as low as 7
per cent, but is usually higher, and 10 to 12 per cent may be
called good practice.
DURATION OF THE TEST.
A test should continue at least a whole day on account of
certain irregularities and causes of error which are constant.
The level of the water should be the same at the end of the
test as at the beginning, since a slight difference in level
means considerable water.
The condition of the combustion at the time of stopping
cannot always be ascertained, and this produces a cause of
uncertainty. Another cause is from the temperature of the
water in the boiler, and especially in the economizer. On
short runs these sources of error cause very faulty results.
Il6 CALORIFIC POWER OF
THE WATER EVAPORATED.
The feed-water is preferably held in a gauged reservoir, or
else weighed, meters not being certain unless checked fre-
quently. Use only cold water or water whose temperature
will vary but little during the test, so as to avoid corrections
of temperature and expansion. The temperature usually
varies so little that no account of this variation need be taken.
Pump to the boiler with as much regularity as possible, and
keep accurate record.
To have the same level at the end as at the beginning,
keep up the initial pressure and feed very carefully. The
mean temperature of the feed-water is referred to o C., con-
sidering that the specific heat is constant. Otherwise we may
use Regnault's formula,
Q = t 0.00002^ -j- o.oooooo3/ s .
But when the temperature of the water varies no more than
10 degrees, no appreciable error will be made by calling f
equal to the temperature.
TEMPERATURE OF THE STEAM.
We may measure the temperature of the steam directly by
a thermometer in the boiler, or indirectly by observing the
pressure. Both methods should be used.
To take the temperature directly, the thermometer is
placed in an iron tube closed at one end and reaching to the
middle of the boiler. The tube should be filled with paraffin
or some analogous substance. The temperature of the
steam or the water may be taken as desired by changing the
position of the thermometer in the tube. See Figure 39.
Vertical maximum and minimum thermometers are very use-
ful, preventing too hasty observations.
MOISTURE JN THE STEAM. I I/
To measure the temperature by pressure an air-thermom-
eter is used. A registering manometer aids the work consid-
erably, as observations should be taken regularly at frequent
and equal intervals. The temperature is calculated by means
of tables of vapor-tension.*
MOISTURE IN THE STEAM.
The percentage of moisture should be ascertained by
means of a throttling or a separating calorimeter, directions
for the use of which will be furnished by the makers. They
should easily and completely separate the water in a manner
convenient for measuring, or better, for weighing. It is ad-
visable to use two or three at the same time, thus serving as
checks for each other.
"The throttling steam-calorimeter was first described by
Professor Peabody in the Transactions^ vol. X. page 327,
and its modifications by Mr. Barrus, vol. XI. page 790; vol.
XVII. page 617; and by Professor Carpenter, vol. xil. page
840 ; also the separating-calorimeter designed by Professor
Carpenter, vol. XVII, page 608. These instruments are used
to determine the moisture existing in a small sample of steam
taken from the steam-pipe, and give results, when properly
handled, which may be accepted as accurate within 0.5 per
cent (this percentage being computed on the total quantity of
the steam) for the sample taken. The possible error of 0.5
per cent is the aggregate of the probable error of careful ob-
servation, and of the errors due to inaccuracy of the pressure-
gauges and thermometers; to radiation; and, in the case of
the throttling-calorimeter, to the possible inaccuracy of the
figure 0.48 for the specific heat of superheated steam, which
* For full details regarding setting up an open-air manometer, see paper
by Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus in the Bulletin de la Societe" in-
dustrielle de Mulhouse, 1869, page 241; also Trans. A. S. M. ., vol. vi.
pages 281 and 282.
f Transactions A. S. M. E.
U CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
is used in computing the results. It is, however, by no means
certain that the sample represents the average quality of the
steam in the pipe from which the sample is taken. The prac-
tical impossibility of obtaining an accurate sample, especially
when the percentage of moisture exceeds two or three per
cent, is shown in the two papers by Professor Jacobus in
Transactions,* vol. XVI. pages 448, 1017.
" In trials of the ordinary forms of horizontal shell and of
water-tube boilers, in which there is a large disengaging sur-
face, when the water-level is carried at least 10 inches below
the level of the steam outlet, and when the water is not of a
character to cause foaming, and when in the case of water-
tube boilers the steam outlet is placed in the rear of the mid-
dle of the length of the water-drum, the maximum quantity
of moisture in the steam rarely, if ever, exceeds two per cent ;
and in such cases a sample taken with the precautions speci-
fied in article XIII. of the Code may be considered to be an
accurate average sample of the steam furnished by the boiler,
and its percentage of moisture as determined by the throttling
or separating calorimeter may be considered as accurate within
one half of one per cent. For scientific research, and in all
cases in which there is reason to suspect that the moisture
may exceed two per cent, a steam-separator should be placed
in the steam-pipe, as near to the steam outlet of the boiler as
convenient, well covered with felting, all the steam made by
the boiler passing through it, and all the moisture caught by
it carefully weighed after being cooled. A convenient method
of obtaining the weight of the drip from the separator is to
discharge it through a trap into a barrel of cold water stand-
ing on a platform scale. A throttling or a separating calo-
rimeter should be placed in the steam-pipe, just beyond the
steam-separator, for the purpose of determining, by the
sampling method, the small percentage of moisture which
may still be in the steam after passing through the separator.
* Transactions A. S. M. E.
QUALITY OF STEAM. 119
" The formula for calculating the percentage of moisture
when the throttling-calorimeter is used is the following:
H- h- k(T-t\
w =ioox- -- -,
in which w percentage of moisture in the steam, H = total
heat and L latent heat per pound of steam at the pressure in
the steam-pipe, h = total heat per pound of steam at the pres-
sure in the discharge side of the calorimeter, k = specific heat
of superheated steam, T= temperature of the throttled and
superheated steam in the calorimeter, and t = temperature
due to the pressure in the discharge side of the calorimeter, =
212 Fahr. at atmospheric pressure. Taking = 0.48 and
t 212, the formula reduces to
H ' 1146.6 0.48(7 212)*
CORRECTIONS FOR QUALITY OF STEAM. f
Given the percentage of moisture or number of degrees of
superheating, it is desirable to develop formulae showing what
we have termed ' ' the factor of correction for quality of steam, "
or the factor by which the * ' apparent evaporation," determined
by a boiler-test, is to be multiplied to obtain the ''evaporation
corrected for quality of steam." It has been customary to call
the proportional weight of steam in a mixture of steam and
water "the quality of the steam," and it is not desirable to
change this designation. The same term applies when the
steam is superheated by employing the "equivalent evapora-
tion," or that obtained by adding to the actual evaporation the
* William Kent in the Report of the Committee on Boiler-tests, A. S.
M. E. , 1897.
f C. E. Emery in the Report of Committee on Boiler-tests, A. S. M. E.,
1897.
120 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
proportional weight of water which the thermal value of the
superheating would evaporate into dry steam from and at the
temperature due to the pressure. "The factor of correction
for quality of steam " in a boiler-test differs from the ' * quality "
itself, from the fact that the temperature of the feed-water
is lower than that of the steam.
Let
Q = quality of moist steam as described above ;
Q i =1 the quality of superheated steam as described above ;
P the proportion of moisture in the steam ;
k = the number of degrees of superheating;
F = the factor of correction for the quality of the steam
when the steam is moist
FI = the factor of correction for the quality of the steam
when the steam is superheated ;
H = the total heat of the steam due to the steam-pressure;
L = the latent heat of the steam due to the steam-pressure ;
T = the temperature of the steam due to the steam-pressure ;
7", = the total heat in the water at the temperature due to
the steam-pressure;*
J = the temperature of the feed water;
J l the total heat in the feed-water due to the temperature.*
Therefore, for moist steam,
Q = i - P, ...... (i)
P=i- Q, . . , . ... (2)
Q+P= i. . . . . 'r . (3)
See also equation (6).
* Most tables of the properties of steam and of water are based on the
total heat of steam and water above 32 degrees Fahr. For such tables the
total heat in the water at a given temperature is equal approximately to
the corresponding temperature minus 32 degrees. Exact values should,
however, be taken from the tables.
QUALITY OF STEAM. 121
With both the condensing and throttling calorimeters the
water and steam are withdrawn from the boiler at the temper-
ature of the steam, and with a separator the water can only be
accurately measured when underpressure, so that the difference
between the steam and the moisture in the steam, as they leave
the boiler, is simply that the former has received the latent
heat due to the pressure, and the latter has not. There is,
however, imparted to the water in the boiler not only the
latent heat in the portion evaporated, but the sensible heat
due to raising the temperature of all the water from that of
the feed -water to that of the steam due to the pressure.
In equation (3) the proportional part Q receives from the
boiler both the sensible and the latent heat, or the total heat
above the temperature of the feed = Q(H /,) thermal units,
and the part Pthc difference in sensible heat between the tem-
peratures of the steam and of the feed-water P(T l J^}
thermal units. If all the water were evaporated, each pound
would receive the total heat in the steam above the tempera-
ture of the feed, or H /,. " The factor of correction for
the quality of the steam," when there is no superheating, is
therefore
The superheating of the steam requires 0.48 of a thermal
unit for each degree the temperature of the steam is raised,
so for k degrees of superheating there will be 0.48^ thermal
-anits per pound weight of steam, and the " factor of correc-
tion for the quality of the steam " with superheating.
Q.481
See also equation (7).
122 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
With the throttling-calorimeter the percentage of moisture
P, or number of degrees of superheating, are determined as
explained before.
Since the invention of the throttling-calorimeter the use
of the original condensing, or so-ealled barrel, calorimeter is
no longer warranted. Accurate results should, however, be
obtained by condensing all the steam generated in the boiler,
and this plan has been followed in certain cases. It has,
therefore, been thought desirable to add other formulae ap-
plicable to condensing-calorimeters. The following additional
notation is required:
W= the original weight of the water in calorimeter, or
weight of circulating water for a surface condenser.
w = the weight of water added to the calorimeter by blow-
ing steam into the water, or of " water of condensation " with
a surface condenser.
t = total heat of water corresponding to initial tempera-
ture of water in calorimeter.
/, = total heat of water corresponding to final temperature
in calorimeter.
Evidently, then :
W(t l /) = the total thermal units withdrawn from the
boiler and imparted to the water in calorimeter.
W
(t> f] = the thermal units per pound of water with-
w ^
drawn from the boiler and imparted to the water in calorim-
eter, from which should be deducted 7", /, to obtain the
number of thermal units per pound of water withdrawn from
the boiler at the pressure due to the temperature T.
Since only the latent heat L is imparted to the portion of
the water evaporated, the quality <2, or proportional quantity
evaporated, may be obtained by dividing the total thermal
units per pound of water abstracted at the pressure due to the
temperature T by the latent heat L. Hence, as given in
QUALITY OF SUPERHEATED STEAM. 123
Appendix XVII., 1885 Code, with some differences in nota-
tion,
<2and<2, = -^-/)- (7; -/,) (6)
The value Q applies when the second term is less than
unity. P may be derived therefrom by substitution in equa-
tion (2) and F from equation (4).
<2 4 applies when the second term of the above equation is
greater than unity, which shows that the steam is superheated,
and, as in this case, the heating value of the superheat has
already been measured by heating the water of the calorim-
eter; the proportional thermal value of the same, in terms
of the latent heat Z, is represented directly by Q l I, and
we have as the factor of correction for the quality of the steam
with superheating,
ll _
'" H-J, H-J, ' '
See also equation (5).
When the quality is greater than I, or equals Q l , the num-
ber of degrees of superheating,
- . (8)
THE QUALITY OF SUPERHEATED STEAM.*
The quality of the superheated steam is determined from
the number of degrees of superheating by using the following
formula :
_ + 0.48(7--*)
* G. H. Barrus in Report of Committee on Boiler-tests, A. S. M. E.,
1897.
124 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
iii which L is the latent heat in British thermal units in one
pound of steam of the observed pressure ; T the observed
temperature, and / the normal temperature due to the pres-
sure. This normal temperature should be determined by ob-
taining a reading of the thermometer when the fires are in a
dead condition and the superheat has disappeared. This tem-
perature being observed when the pressure as shown by the
gauge is the average of the readings taken during the trial,
observations being made by the same instrument, errors of
gauge or thermometer are practically eliminated.
DETERMINATION OF THE MOISTURE IN STEAM FLOWING
THROUGH A HORIZONTAL PIPE.*
In some cases it is impossible to place the sampling
nozzle in a vertical steam-pipe rising from the boiler as
recommended in Article XIV. of the Rules for Steam-
boiler Trials, f When this is the case and it is possible
to connect to a horizontal steam-pipe the arrangement of
throttling calorimeters shown in Fig. 2jg gives satisfactory
results.
The calorimeter A is attached to the separator G, which
is in turn attached to the under side of the steam-pipe by the
nipple D. The nipple D is made flush with the bottom of the
pipe. The calorimeter B is attached to a nozzle having no
side holes, which passes through the stuffing-box E. This
nozzle is adjustable so that the steam can be drawn from any
height in the pipe. When in its lowest position it is flush
with the bottom of the pipe. The calorimeter C is attached
to the perforated nipple F. The calorimeters are placed at
some distance from an elbow or bend, so that if there is
moisture in the steam it tends to run along the bottom of the
* By Prof. D. S. Jacobus. f See page 186.
DETERMINATION OF THE MOISTURE IN STEAM.
pipe. This moisture will flow into the nipple D and collect
in the separator G. Nearly all the moisture may sometimes
be drawn out in this way, and if the calorimeters B and C in-
dicate dry steam, the weight of moisture collected in G rep-
resents the entire moisture in the steam. The three calorim-
eters are all covered in the same way to diminish radiation,
and the normal reading of the thermometers / and J used in
the calorimeters B and C can ordinarily be obtained by plac-
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
ing them in the calorimeter A. The perforated nipple F
serves to show that there is no moisture distributed through
the steam, and in the case of a sudden belch of moisture it
will indicate the same. Barrus calorimeters were used in our
tests, and the calorimeter A, combined with the separator G y
forms in reality a Barrus Universal Calorimeter. With a
properly constructed separator, the steam passing through the
calorimeter A will be practically dry with as high as sixty
pounds of moisture drawn from the separator per hour, and,
until this limit is exceeded, the normal readings of the ther-
mometers used in the calorimeters B and C may be obtained
by placing them in the calorimeter A, as has already been
stated.
In some cases the calorimeter C is omitted and the
amount of moisture is determined by means of the separator,
with the adjustable nozzle at E and the separator and calo-
rimeter A.
The percentage of priming P for the steam passing through
the calorimeters B and C is given by the formula
where P = the percentage of priming ;
N = the normal reading, in degrees Fahrenheit, ob-
tained placing the thermometers in A ;
T = the reading when placed in either B or C\
L = the latent heat at the pressure of the steam in
the steam main in British thermal units per
pound.
It is best to employ the normal reading in calcula-
ting the moisture corresponding to the readings of a throt-
DETERMINATION OF THE MOISTURE IN STEAM. 12^C
tling calorimeter. The radiation of the calorimeter must
also be determined by a separate experiment, and allowed
for. When the normal reading is taken all errors of
radiation and corrections for the thermometers are elimi-
nated, y
The normal reading should be obtained either by connect-
ing the calorimeter to a vertical nipple, with no side holes,
which projects upward in a horizontal steam-pipe, in which
the steam is in a quiescent state, or it should be obtained by
connecting the calorimeter to a separator, which is known
to remove all the moisture. The normal reading should
not be determined when the calorimeter is attached to a
horizontal nipple with side holes, placed in a vertical
pipe, because should this be done the readings may be low
on account of moisture, which may fall through the steam
and cling to the nozzle, and, finally, be drawn into the
calorimeter.
The results given by a throttling calorimeter cannot be
relied on within one-fifth of one per cent, because experi-
ments have shown that the quality of the "dead steam"
used in obtaining the normal readings may vary by this
amount.* As the quality of the "dead steam" may not
be that of the steam used by Regnault in his experiments,
there may be a still greater error. When the formula
given on page 119 is used the probable error is not eli-
minated, for a study of Regnault's experiments shows
that the value used in the formula for the specific heat
of superheated steam may be slightly in error for the con-
ditions involved in a throttling calorimeter. Experiments
have shown that the two methods of computing the
moisture agree within one-fifth of one per cent when the
proper corrections are made for radiation, and when the
* Transactions American Society of Mechanical Engineers, vol. xvi. p.
466.
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
temperatures are reduced to the equivalents by an air
thermometer.* These experiments were made at the
single pressure of 80 Ibs. per square inch above the atmos-
phere, and it has not been shown that the two methods
agree within this amount at all pressures, but as there should
be no discrepancy provided the specific heat factor remains
constant for the conditions involved, it is probable that the
two methods agree very nearly with each other at all
pressures, f
What is needed are tests to compare the quality of
"dead steam "with the quality of the steam used in
Regnault's experiments, and until this is done throttling-
calorimeter results cannot be relied upon within one-fifth
of one per cent, and may be in greater error than this
amount.
COMBINED CALORIMETER AND SEPARATOR.^
The form of steam-calorimeter termed the " 1895 pat-
tern " or universal steam-calorimeter is a modification of
the one described in the Transactions Am. Soc. Mech.
Eng., vol. XL page 790. It is illustrated in the accompany-
ing cut, which is reprinted from vol. XVII. page 618, of the
same Transactions. It consists of a throttling calorimeter
and separator combined, the latter being attached to the
outlet where the steam of atmospheric pressure is escap-
ing. If the moisture is too great to be determined by the
* Transactions American Society of Mechanical Engineers, vol. xvi. p.
460.
fit must not be inferred from this that the specific heat of steam is the
same at all pressures. On the contrary, Jacobus's experiments show that
this is not the case.
\ By George H. Barrus.
COMBINED CALORIMETER AND SEPARATOR.
readings of the two thermometers, the separator catches
the balance, and the total quantity of moisture is made
FIG. 27-%. COMBINED CALORIMETER AND SEPARATOR.
up in part of that shown by the thermometers, and in part
of that collected from the separator. The percentage of
moisture shown by the thermometers is obtained by refer-
ring the indication of the lower thermometer to the normal
reading of that thermometer with dry steam, and dividing
the fall of temperature by the constant of the instrument
for one per cent of moisture. The normal reading is
determined by observing the indications when steam in the
main pipe is in a quiescent state, and the constant is a
quantity varying from 21 degrees at 80 pounds pressure to
2O degrees at 200 pounds pressure. The percentage of
I24/ CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
moisture, if any, discharged from the separator, is found by
dividing its quantity corrected for radiation by the total
quantity of steam and water passing through the instru-
ment in the same time, as ascertained by experiment, and
multiplying the result by 100.
CHAPTER XI.
AIR SUPPLIED AND GASEOUS PRODUCTS OF COM-
BUSTION.
VOLUME OF AIR NECESSARY TO COMBUSTION.
Four elements are to be considered in calculating the
theoretical volume of air for combustion: carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, sulphur. The last is sometimes wanting in coal, but
not usually.
Carbon, The atomic weights of carbon and oxygen are
-as 12 and 16, and 2 atoms of oxygen are needed to form car-
bonic acid with I atom of carbon. Then
12 : 32 = i : 2.666.
I kilogram of oxygen occupies 0.699 cubic metre (Table IV);
i kilogram of carbon needs
0.699 X 2.666 = 1.863 cubic metres of oxygen.
Hydrogen. The atomic weights of hydrogen and oxygen
being respectively i and 1 6, and water being formed of 2
atoms of hydrogen and i of oxygen, we have
2 : 16 = i : 8;
and as I kilogram of oxygen occupies 0.699 cubic metre, I
kilogram of hydrogen requires
8 X 0.699 = 5-59 2 cubic metres of oxygen.
125
126 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
Sulphur. The atomic weights of sulphur and oxygen
being as 32 to 16, and sulphurous acid containing i atom of
sulphur and 2 atoms of oxygen, we have
32 : 32 = i : i.
i kilogram of oxygen occupies 0.699 cubic metre; I kilo-
gram of sulphur needs, then, to form sulphurous acid
i X 0.699 0-699 cubic metre of oxygen.
As most fuels have some oxygen in their composition, we
must deduct this at the rate of 0.699 cubic metre per kilo-
gram.
Then multiplying these results by 4.77 (Table XIV) we
obtain the number of cubic metres of air required.
A similar method of calculation will give
For one pound of carbon 29.86 cubic feet of oxygen.
" " " " hydrogen 89.60 " " " "
" " " " sulphur ii. 20 " " " "
As an example, take a coal containing 90$ C, 50 H, 3.50
O, o. 10 N, and O.50 S.
C 0.900 X 1.863 = 1.677 cubic metres.
H 0.040X5.592=0.224
S 0.005 X 0.699 0.003
Total oxygen i .904
O . . .0.035 X 0.699 = 0.024
1.880
i. 880 X 4-77 = 8.967 cubic metres of air per kilogram of
coal; or 143.98 cubic feet of air to the pound of coal.
This result of course is only approximate, as complete
combustion is not attained with coal and solid fuels. With
liquid fuels, and especially gases, however, the combustion is
usually complete.
VOLUME OF WASTE GASES BY ANALYSIS. I2/
Tables V and VI gives the coefficients to be employed in
the calculations.
Table XIII gives the theoretical quantity of air required
for the combustion of various fuels; the actual quantity
used depends on the conditions of firing, fuel, etc, and is
seldom less than twice the amount shown in the table, except
perhaps with gases.
VOLUME OF WASTE GASES BY ANALYSIS.
For a long time efforts have been made to determine the
quantity of air used by comparison of the analyses of the
waste gases with those of the fuel used. Many analyses
have been published, but the results showed so little regu-
larity, and were so contradictory even, that it was impossible
to form any conclusion further than that waste gases from
coal may contain at the same time both combustible gas and
an excess of air.
Peclet, in 1827, published the first analyses, made with
samples collected from a boiler-stack by means of an inverted
flask containing water. Ebelmen, in 1844, published a
memoir on the composition of gases from industrial furnaces.
He analyzed the gases from a metallurgical furnace, the gas
being collected by an aspirator. In 1847 Combes made a
report on methods of burning or preventing smoke, giving
analyses by Debette. In these the first attempts were made
to obtain average samples, they being drawn at certain deter-
mined stages of the heat and the fuel.
In 1862 Commines de Marcilly published analyses of
gases from locomotives, as well as from stationary boilers,
but the author said the time of collection lasted only a few
seconds. In 1866 Cailletet showed that, to obtain correct
results, the gas should not be collected till somewhat cooled ;
otherwise, on account of dissociation, a larger proportion of
combustible gas is found than when cooler.
But, on account of the defective methods of sampling
128 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
used, no conclusion other than that stated above can be
drawn from these analyses, and no possible idea can be
deduced as to the actual composition of the gases as a whole.
When we try to use laboratory methods of control in practi-
cal workings, the first necessity is to obtain correct samples
for analysis, that is, average samples. In this respect all the
above -quoted authors are deficient. The tests made by
Scheurer-Kestner, published in 1868, were the first to con-
form to this requirement. His samples were drawn by a
system analogous in principle to that described for sampling
coal.
It is not always necessary to resort to such a complicated
operation in case of a permanent gas ; samples taken from
the general current by means of an ordinary aspirator or an
oil-aspirator (page 132) will usually do if drawn at a sufficient
distance from the fire. If the gases have passed through a
long flue, especially one with several bends, they are suffi-
ciently mixed, and may be considered as a homogeneous gas.
We must remember, however, that as we recede from the
fire the infiltration of air, if not prevented, becomes greater.
In careful experiments, the method to be described of frac-
tionating a large volume is preferable.
GAS SAMPLER.
In principle the apparatus consists of a falling-water
aspirator, and a second mercury aspirator drawing a small
fraction of the gases from the current of the first in a con-
stant regular manner and keeping it in a mercury gas-holder,
A (Fig. 28), which is a strong glass flask of 3 litres capacity,
holding about 40 kilograms (88 Ibs.) of mercury. The
gas-holder is connected by the tube a with the tube c for
sampling the gas, the flask A and its accessories acting as
a Mariotte flask. It is closed at the top by a stopper
hollowed out conically below and having holes for two
tubes, a and b. This hollowing is to permit filling without
GAS SAMPLER.
I2 9
any air-bubbles. The tubes a and b have glass stop-cocks,
but the one in a may be omitted. The manometric tube c
shows the pressure. Tube d, like c, passes through a rubber
stopper, closing the horizontal tubulature of the gas-holder.
FIG. 28. GAS SAMPLER.
FIG. 29. SAMPLER TUBE.
This tube can be rotated in the stopper to the position shown,
or to one 180 from such position. The flask is graduated on
the side into millimetres. Tube a fits the hole of the stopper
tightly, and can be moved up or down as desired to suit the
quantity of gas in the flask. All joints are covered with
paraffin, tube a being greased to facilitate movement.
Fig. 29 shows the gas sampling tube. It consists of a
platinum cylinder, rs, 10 millimetres (0.4 inch) diameter and
700 millimetres (27.5 inches) long, having a longitudinal slot
of several centimetres length. The end r is closed with a
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
platinum cap; the end s is soldered to a copper tube, sy, pass-
ing into a Liebig condenser having two tubes, 00', for the
water. In most cases the platinum tube may be replaced
without trouble by one of copper, or even iron, the platinum
being necessary only when the gases are drawn at a tempera-
perature high enough to cause oxidation of the other metals.
With iron or copper a portion of the oxygen is removed in
the passage through the tube.
The tube ry is open atjy, and has a side tube //. Aspira-
tion is carried on through the opening in the platinum tube.
A movable rod, ik, carrying a platinum scraper is attached
to one end of the tube, and moves in the slot to clean it, as
occasion requires, from soot, etc. The disk/) serves to hold the
cement used in fastening it to the stack or chimney, and pre-
vents ingress of external air. The rod mn passes through a
caoutchouc bearing fastened between the disks / and q.
Fig. 28 represents a front view of the apparatus. Fig. 30
represents a side view in elevation. The tube ry is intro-
duced through an opening made for the purpose in the
masonry, the pait rs being exposed inside. The end y, is
connected with a lead pipe, v t by a rubber tube ; this pipe is
soldered to another one, yz. On opening the cock y t water
flows from a reservoir and empties at z. Suction in yrs
should amount to several millimetres of mercury, and is regu-
lated by the cocks y and x controlling the water-flow, and also
by the length of yz. The gas drawn in by yvx may be meas-
ured by collecting it at z, and should amount to 4 or 5 litres
(25 to 30 cubic inches) per minute.
The gas-holder is supported by a piece of sheet iron with
upturned edges forming a shelf. Any mercury spattered
over or spilled is thus easily collected. The mercury tank is
supported from the wall of the chimney in such position as to
facilitate refilling the flask through a siphon. The tubes dd'
serve to feed the condenser.
While the current is passing through yr a small quantity
GAS SAMPLER.
is drawn out by the tube h, and this should be so regulated
by the cock d that only from ^-5-0 to 3"uir ' 1S collected.
Whenever the level of the mercury lowers, it shows a
FIG. 30. GAS SAMPLER.
clogging in the slot, and it should be cleaned by moving the
rod. This always indicates when cleaning is necessary, and
it sometimes keeps clean for hours.
When a sufficient sample has been obtained turn up the
tube d, and then the gas-holder can be carried away.
The method recommended by the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers is to have a "box or block of gal-
vanized sheet iron equal in thickness to one course of brick,"
and secure in it a series of J-inch gas-pipes, all alike at the
ends and of equal lengths, in such manner that the open ends
may be evenly distributed over the area of the flue A (Fig.
32), and their other open ends enclosed in the receiver B.
132
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
A simpler arrangement than Scheurer-Kestner's is the
one recommended by Col. David P. Jones in his paper
before the American Society of Naval Engineers, vol. X.
page 135.
The sampler is a large, wide-necked glass bottle (Fig. 30^7),
closed with a cork having two glass tubes,
one just entering the bottle, the other
reaching nearly to the bottom. One of
these tubes is connected with an iron pipe
leading to the flue and extending well into
it. The other tube is connected with any
kind of an aspirator which works steadily.
A water-jet exhaust, an engine-driven ex-
haust, or any similar kind will do. If not
convenient to use an exhaust, the bottle
may be filled with mercury and by mak-
ing a siphon with the rubber tube attached
to the long glass tube, the bottle can be
gradually emptied of mercury and the
gases to be sampled drawn in. If mer-
cury cannot be had, water will do, but
the result will not be as reliable since the
water may dissolve some of the constitu-
ents of the gas.
The size of the bottle may be
adapted to the quantity of gas aspirated, and by means
of proper stop- or pinch-cocks adjusted to work slow
or fast.
Used in conjunction with the arrangement figured on page
134 this apparatus forms a very simple and satisfactory
sampler. One great advantage in favor of this arrangement
is the fact that it is easily made, all the portions of it being:
found in nearly every shop.
FIG. soa. JONES GAS
SAMPLER.
GAS SAMPLED.
13$
B
FIG. 31. OIL ASPIRATOR.
If the flue-gases be drawn off from the receiver B by
four tubes, CC, into a mixing-box,
D, beneath, a good mixture can be
obtained. Two such samplers, one
above the other, a foot apart, in the
same flue will furnish samples of
gases which show the same compo-
sition by analysis.
The oil gas holder (Fig. 31) con-
sists of a bottle tubulated at the
bottom and connected with the sup-
ply of gas at the upper opening. It
may contain some 10 litres (600
cubic inches), and is filled with
water having on it a layer of 10
centimetres (4 inches) of oil. The
water running out from the tubu-
lature at the bottom draws the gas
in at the top. The stopper at the top has two openings,
through one of which passes a funnel-tube, through which
water may be poured to expel the gas when portions of it
are needed. The gas then passes out by the same tube
through which it was drawn into the bottle.
With all kinds of aspirators or gas holders especial care
must be taken to prevent entrance of air into the flue after
leaving the fire, since the correct analysis will show not only
the quantity of unburnt gases, but also the excess of air, and
any mixture of outside air will vitiate the result and cause-
faulty deductions as to the working of the fire ; and conse-
quently the waste calories.
To prevent this, all joints in the masonry must be exam-
ined and repaired if necessary. In case of dampers, which
must be used, the bearings can be made in stuffing-boxes, as
recommended by Burnet. Generally, the gas can be sampled
before it arrives at a damper, as the course of the boiler-flue
'34
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
is usually sufficient to cause a thorough mixing of the gases.
In case there are several dampers, the first one may be dis-
pensed with for the time being.
When the gases are taken quite near the fire, they must be
drawn very slowly in order to gradually cool them down and
FIG. 32.
avoid dissociation. In this case a stoneware tube may be
used for suction. If this precaution is neglected the gases
collected may be entirely different from those passing off at
the chimney. Metal tubes are inadmissible, since they
abstract oxygen, and hence cause a change in composition.
ANALYSIS OF THE GASES.
The collected gases contain nitrogen, oxygen, carbonic
acid, carbonic oxide, hydrocarbons, and occasionally free
hydrogen. To determine all these a eudiometric method
GAS SAMPLER.
35
must be used ; but usually only the oxygen, carbonic oxide,
and carbonic acid are required. In normal combustion with
sufficient air the quantity of hydrocarbons is very trifling, and
need not be considered. This occurs usually with a supply
of 1 5 cubic metres of air per kilogram (240 cubic feet per
pound) of coal, and should produce a waste gas containing 10
to 14 per cent of carbonic acid, in which case the unburnt
hydrocarbons amount to less than I per cent.
The Orsat apparatus or its modifications may be used to
determine the oxygen, carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide. By
using Winckler's modification the hydrocarbons may be deter-
mined. For exact analyses of the gases the Hempel apparatus
may be used. For general work, however, the Orsat appa-
ratus or the Orsat-Muencke is the best and most easily
transported and handled. Directions for using this apparatus
need not be given here, as they can be found in all works on
gas analysis, or can be had of the dealers.
The following table gives analyses made by Scheurer-
Kestner of waste gases from Ronchamp coal. The gases for
examination were collected by means of the apparatus described
above (pp. 128 et seq.) and shows the average for a whole
day's run.
Percentage Composition of the Gases.
QJ O
o
bo
a
8
"H
u
Hydrocarbons.
a o
Hr*
ja
JG
U
V
o
<;
6
HM
M
i
M
W
c
u
.a
c
c
u
c
d
c
V
M
"Si
_.
c
V
c
1
1
^
|
|
2
-do
.c rt
5^3
3 ba
*
rt
U
U
rt
U
ffi
U
"
Lbs.
Lbs.
6.60
80.38
14.87
I.4I
0.84
1. 15
1.35
8.19
15-4
5'
10.47
80.60
14.16
2.18
0.97
0.98
I. II
9.625
30.8
8'
I3-32
80.66
14.63
2.80
0.86
0.49
0.56
15-4
4'
17.61
81.52
13.34
3-77
0.86
0.46
0.91
8.19
15-4
3'
20.94
80.23
13.43
4.42
0.24
0.32
1.41
8.19
30.8
10'
26.18
80.34
12.89
5-53
0.24
0.28
0.96
4.71
15.4
8'
42.84
79.76
10.87
8.99
0.24
0.19
0.19
18.94
15.4
2'
53-78
79-86
8.23
11-35
0.24
0.04
0.52
3-41
13.2
10'
136
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
The following table gives some analyses by Bunte of gas
samples from coal burnt in his experimental apparatus at
Munich:
Mm. and
Max.
of Air.
CO,
CO
^
Coal from the Ruhr
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do. (grate more open).
Do. Do.
Coal from Saarbruck: Kcenig..
" " Tremosna: Bohemia
'* " Hausham: Bavaria.
-? " Miesbach: Bavaria.
i
n \ Min.
Bohemla 1 Max,
the Ruhr : General j Min.
Erbstolln 1 Max.
the Ruhr : Gelsen- j Min.
kirchen ( Max,
Saarbruck : Saint- j Min.
Ingbert ] Max,
Saarbruck : Mittel- ( Min.
bexbach ( Max.
Saarbruck : Heinitz j
Saarbruck: mixed . .
Min.
Max.
Bavaria : Peissen- j Min.
berg | Max,
Lignite from Bohemia -|
Coke from Saarbruck
10.26
16.45
13.40
n-45
8.15
6.12
15-12
7.07
13.78
7-94
10.48
5.7i
11.46
5 42
17.48
12. 2O
16.45
3 95
10.46
5-44
10.73
7.48
13-30
8-44
14.62
6.49
IO.22
8.21
15.50
8.48
9.61
7.00
13.80
7.60
11.4
8.07
13.96
7.85
14.91
6.36
14.87
8.01
o.53
1.94
0.48
1.22
0.10
0.89
1.09
0.18
4.69
0.03
0.07
0.14
0.07
0.03
I. 21
?
1.94
0.06
O. II
O.I 2
0.15
0.07
0.61
0.19
2 07
0.07
O.22
O.O4
0.74
0.08
0.16
O.I I
0-33
0.16
o 15
O.IO
1.46
0.07
1.04
0.16
0.13
0.03
O.OI
1.45
0.30
0.78
O.OI
O.IO
1. 02
o.oo
o. 16
0.09
0.19
0.08
0.07
O.O2
0.06
0.30
1.45
o.oo
O. II
O.IO
0.30
O.IO
0.33
0.16
I.OO
0.06
0.07
0.02
0.33
0.07
0.08
0.05
0.30
0.09
0.04
0.09
0.79
0.13
0.60
0.23
0.09
o.oo
10.00
1.52
6.52
7.27
II. 60
14.21
2.64
12.57
I.IO
11.03
9.28
14.86
8.66
15.00
3-13
7.87
1.52
16.41
8.58
14-15
7.36
11.91
4.13
10.58
2.07
12.70
8-57
10.64
1.67
9.69
9-47
12.70
4-36
11-53
7-45
10.73
2-93
10.57
2.92
I3-I5
4.16
10.87
79.20
78.64
79-30
79.28
80.14
78.68
80.13
80.25
80.27
80.91
79-9S
79.21
79-74
79-53
78.12
>
78^64
79.58
80.74
80.19
81.46
80.44
81.63
80.63
80.24
80.68
80.92
81.09
81.66
81.68
80.68
80.14
81.21
80.62
81.22
81.01
80.86
81.38
80.53
80.10
80.75
81.09
The data in the above table show that when air to the
amount of 15 cubic metres and over per kilogram (200 cubic
CALCULATION OF THE VOLUME FROM ANALYSIS. I3/
feet per pound) is used, corresponding to a maximum of 14
per cent of carbonic acid in the waste gases, the loss in hydro-
gen is very small. With 12 per cent of carbonic acid the
hydrogen loss amounts to only a few thousandths.
CALCULATION OF THE VOLUME FROM ANALYSIS.
To calculate this volume, determine the weight of carbon
in a unit of volume, and knowing the weight of carbon fur-
nished by the coal, determine the volume corresponding to
the unit of weight. The unit of volume for the gas is the
cubic metre, and the unit of weight, the kilogram.
Carbon exists in the waste gases as carbonic acid, carbonic
oxide, and hydrocarbons; when we do not know the compo-
sition of the hydrocarbons, we consider the carbon and hydro-
gen as free, and that the carbon is in the state of vapor.
To determine the weight of carbon contained in these
different gases, reduce their volumes to kilograms, and by
means of their molecular (or equivalent) weights and that of
carbon make the calculation.
i litre of CO 2 at o and 760 mm. weighs 1.966 grams,
i " " CO " " " " " " 1.251 "
I i( " C vapor " " (< 1.072 "
Molecular weight of carbon , 12
" CO, 44
" CO 28
The weight of a volume v of carbonic acid is v X 1.966,
and as 44 of carbonic acid contain 12 of carbon, then the
weight of carbon would be as 44 : 12 or as 11:3. Then
v X 1.966 X 3
- = 0.5362;.
138 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
The weight of carbonic oxide of volume v is 1.25 IT/, and
as 28 of carbonic oxide contains 12 of carbon, the ratio be-
comes 28: 12 = 7:3. We then have
v 1 X 1.251 X 3
7
== 0.5362;'.
The weight of a volume of carbon vapor is v" X 1.072.
To calculate the weight of carbon in a cubic metre of gas r
multiply the added volumes of CO a and CO by the coefficient
0.536. Multiply the volume of carbon vapor by 1.072, and
add this product to that obtained above. The sum is the
weight of carbon per cubic metre,
C = o.536(z/ -j- v') -\- I.OJ2V".
If the gas contains, per cubic metre, 60 litres of carbonic
acid, 10 of carbonic oxide, and I of carbon vapor, we will
have
c 0.536(60 -f- 10) -f- 1.072 X i 38.592 grams carbon.
From the ratio of carbon of the coal consumed and that in
the gas the volume of combustion gases is deduced.
To calculate this, subtract the carbon of the cinders from
that of the original coal. If the coal contains 81 per cent
carbon and leaves 6 percent of cinders containing 10 percent
of carbon, then the amount of carbon burnt will be
8 1 (o. 10 X 6.0) = 8 1 0.6 = 80.4.
We then have
38.592 : 1000 = 804: 20.830 litres.
A kilogram of coal produces, then, 20.83 cubic metres of gas
at o and 760 mm.
The general formula is
rs C-c
\.OJ2v" '
CALCULATION OF THE VOLUME FROM ANALYSTS. 139
in which
V = volume of waste gases at o and 760 mm. in cubic metres;
v = " " CO 2 in litres per cubic metre of gases;
.' __ n ''CO'' '' * * '' ' ' " ' '
2;"= " " carbon vapor per cubic metre of gases;
C = weight of carbon in grams, contained in I kilogram of
coal;
c = weight of carbon in grams, contained in cinders from I
kilogram of coal.
NOTE. The above calculation in English units would be as follows:
Weight of i cubic foot of carbonic acid o. 12274 lb.
" " i " " " " oxide 0.07811 "
" i " " " carbon vapor 0.06693 "
v X 0.12274 X 3
- = 0.0335*.
n
v' X 0.07811 X 3
= 0.0335Z/ .
7
0.06693^'" weight of carbon in vapor.
C = o.0335(z/ 4- v') 4- 0.066937;".
looo cubic feet of gases having 60 cubic feet of CO a , 10 cubic feet of CO
and i cubic foot of C vapor would give
C = 0.0335(60 4- 10) 4- 0.06693 X i = 2.412 Ibs. carbon,
i pound of coal has 80.4 per cent carbon; then
2.412 : 1000 = 0.804 : 333^ cubic feet of gases produced from i Ib. of coal.
The general formula is
0*0335(0 4- v') 4- 0.06693^"'
in which
V volume in cubic feet of gases produced;
v = of CO 2 in cubic feet per 1000 cubic feet;
v' = " " CO " " " "
v" = " carbon vapor in cubic feet per 1000 cubic feet;
C = weight of carbon in coal in thousandths of a pound;
f = " " " " cinders per pound of coal in thousandths.
340 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
CALCULATION OF VOLUME OF AIR SUPPLIED.
The volume of combustion-gases just determined is less
than that of the air supplied. Oxygen in forming carbonic
acid produces a volume equal to itself; hence there is no
change.
C + O, - CO,
2 Vols. 2 VOls.
Oxygen in forming carbonic oxide produces twice the
volume.
C + O = CO
I VOl. 2 VOls.
Hence there is an increase in volume.
Carbon vapor and hydrogen as free gases or as hydro-
carbons increase the volume but slightly. In forming sul-
phurous acid with sulphur there is no change of volume.
s + o, = so,
2 VOls. 2 VOls.
Another slight cause of increase is setting free the nitrogen
of the coal ; but this is inappreciable. I per cent of nitrogen
forms only o. I per cent of the entire volume of gases formed.
It might be said that, excepting the oxygen changing to
water and disappearing by condensation, all the modifications
of gaseous volume may be neglected, the increase being more
than compensated by the loss due to oxygen. This elimina-
tion of oxygen must be allowed for, however.
A coal containing 4 per cent of hydrogen requires eight
times such weight to form water, or 40 grams of hydrogen
need 320 grams of oxygen. I litre of oxygen weighs 1.430
grams, then 320 grams measure ^f^ = 223.7 litres (7.9 cubic
feet). (Or I Ib. of such coal would need 3.6 cubic feet of
oxygen.)
These 223 litres must be added to the volume of the
waste gases produced by the coal to obtain the original
CALCULATION OF VOLUME OF AIR SUPPLIED. 141
volume of air introduced. A coal containing 5 per cent of
hydrogen would use 279 litres.
The volume of oxygen needed for various percentages of
hydrogen is as follows:
Per kilo of coal. Per Ib. of coal.
\% hydrogen uses of oxygen 55.9 litres, 0.9 cubic feet.
2 " " " 112 " 1.8 " "
3 " " " 168 " 2.7 " "
4 " " " 223 " 3.6 " "
5 " " " 279 " 4. 5 (i "
Calling H the per cent of hydrogen, the formula given
above becomes
f _ _ C-c f , _
V/ "0 + ^)0.563+ / + 55 * 9 H '
or
0.0335(2; +z/ r ) + 0.06693^" ~
To make this applicable to normal air saturated with
moisture at o C. and 760 mm. (32 F. and 29.922 inches)
containing 0.4 per cent of CO,, we must divide by 99.12,
the composition of air being:
Nitrogen , 78.35
Oxygen 20. 77
Water 0.84)
r u - -A T ' 88
Carbonic acid , 0.04 )
100.00
And 100 0.88 = 99.12. The formula then becomes
_ C-c'
( v + 00.567 + 1.0806?" " 55 ' 9 H '
or
C- c'
V " =
0.06752
14- CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
CALCULATION OF WEIGHT OF WASTE GASES FROM
ANALYSIS.*
Two methods of calculating from the analysis by volume
of the dry chimney gases the number of pounds of dry chim-
ney gases per pound of carbon, or the weight of air supplied
per pound of carbon, have been given by different writers.
These may be expressed in the shape of formulae as follows:
(A) Pounds dry gas per pound C =
+ CO)
(B) Pounds air per pound C = 5 .
Formula A may be derived from the method of computa-
tion given in Mr. R. S. Hale's paper on " Flue Gas Anal-
yses," Transactions A. S. M. ., vol. xvm. p. 901, and
formula B from the method given in Peabody and Miller's
Treatise on Steam-boilers. Both are based on the principle
that the density, relatively to hydrogen, of an elementary gas
(O and N) is proportional to its atomic weight, and that of a
compound gas (CO and CO 2 ) to one half its molecular weight.
Both formulae are very nearly accurate when pure carbon is
the fuel burned ; but formula B is inaccurate when the fuel
contains hydrogen, for the reason that that portion of the
oxygen of the air-supply which is required to burn the
hydrogen is contained in the chimney gas as H 2 O, and does
not appear in the analysis of the dry gas.
The following calculations of a supposed case of combus-
tion of hydrogenous fuel illustrates the accuracy of formula A
and the inaccuracy of formula B : Assume that the coal has
the following analysis : C, 66.50; H, 4.55; O, 8.40; N, i.oo;
water, 10.00; ash and sulphur, 9.55; total, 100. Assume
* William Kent in Report of Committee on Boiler-tests, A. S. M. E.,
1897.
CALCULATION OF WEIGHT OF WASTE GASES. 143
also that one tenth of the C is burned to CO, and nine tenths
to CO a ; that the air supply is 20 per cent in excess of that
required for this combustion ; that the air contains one per
cent by weight of moisture ; and that the S in the coal may
be considered as part of the ash. We then have the follow-
ing synthesis of results of the combustion of 100 pounds of
coal:
O from N = Total rr . rr . TT r>.
Air. O X H Air. ~ H '
59.85 Ibs. C to CO 2 X 2f 159.60 534.31 693.91 219.45
6.65 " C to CO X ii 8.87 29.70 38.57 15.52
3.50 " H to H 2 O X 8 28.00 93.74 121.74 31.50
196.47 657.75 854.22
1.05 " H to H 2 O )
8.40 " H toH 2 0)
jo.oo " Water 10.00
i. oo " N i. oo
9.55 " Ash and S
100.00
Excess of air 20 per cent. 39-29 131.55 170.84
1025.06
Moisture in air i per cent 10.25
Total wt. of gases, 1125.67 = 39.29 790.30 219.45 15.52 61.20
Total dry gases, 1064.56
O N C0 a CO
Total dry gases, by weight, % 3.69 74.24 20.61 1.546
Total dry gases, by volume, % 3.508 80.656 14.252 1.584....*
Total gases 1125.76 -|- ash and S 9.55 = 1135.31 total products.
Total air 1025.06 + moisture in air 10.25 + coal 100 = 1135.31.
Dry gas per pound coal 10.6456; per pound carbon = 10.6456 -^ 665 = 16.008.
Dry air per pound coal 10.2506; per pound carbon = 10.2506 -f- 665 = 15.414.
Computation of the weight of dry gas and of air per pound C:
Formula A :
Dry gas per pound C = ^252X11 + 3.508X8 + 82.240X7
3(14.252 + 1.584)
Formula B :
Air per pound C = 5-8 '('4-25*+ 3-5O8) + 1.584 = ds
I4.252+I.584
The error in the last result is 15.414 13.589 = 1.825 pounds.
144 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
Prof. Jacobus recommends the use of the formula
;N
Pounds of air per pound C = / CQ i CO) "*" ' 77 '
and in the case given above, where the actual quantity used
was 15.414 per cent, his calculated one is 15.434 per cent,
practically the same, and as near as errors of analysis would
allow a calculated result.
VOLUME OF WASTE GASES.
The fan-wheel anemometer is an instrument to measure
the force or rapidity of a current of gas. It consists of a
fan-wheel rotated by the moving gas, and which transmits
such motion to an index showing the number of revolutions.
Burnat used this apparatus to measure the quantity of air
passing in under the grate of steam-boilers.
The coefficient to be used in calculating the flow is differ-
ent for each machine, and must be determined by actual
experiment. Burnat's formula,
v = 0.120 + 0.130/2,
means that the velocity is found by multiplying the number
of revolutions per second by 0.130 and adding 0.120 to the
product.
To obtain satisfactory results with the anemometer, it
must be placed in the axis of a perfect cylinder at the depth
of a metre, as the indications vary with the position in the
flue. The formula needs correction for temperature, but the
correction of the apparatus much exceeds this. Burnat com-
pared his results with those obtained from a formula depend-
ing on the depression if under the grate (see page 147), and
found differences of not more than 5 per cent.
FLETCHER'S ANEMOMETER.
FLETCHER'S ANEMOMETER.
Fletcher's anemometer (Fig. 35) is used in England to
ascertain the speed of flow in chimneys and flues. In its
simplified form it is quite serviceable. It is based on the
movement of a column of ether in a U-tube.
The ends of the glass tubes a, b are placed in the flue a
little less than one sixth of its diameter. The straight end a
FIG. 33. FLETCHER'S ANEMOMETER.
should be parallel to the direction of the current, the end b
being at right angles to this. Hunter proposed bending
both ends in opposite directions, to obviate the error caused
if the tubes were not so placed. These tubes communicate
with the ether tube cd. The draught across the tubes causes
the ether to rise in a by aspiration and to fall in b by pres-
sure. The difference of level is read, and then the tubes are
turned around 180, so as to reverse their positions, and the
difference of level read again. The sum of the two differ-
ences is called the anemometer reading, and by means of
tables the velocity of the current is ascertained.
The same trouble is common to all anemometer methods.
The flue feeding the fire receives only the air passing in
146"
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
under the
FIG. 34.
SEGUR GAUGE.
grate. Whatever passes in by the doors or
through cracks escapes accounting. On account
of this it is certain that the calculations based on
anemometer readings are lower than the actual
air supply.
SEGUR'S DIFFERENTIAL GAUGE.
This gauge (Fig. 34) consists of a U-tubeof
J-inch glass, surmounted by two chambers of 2\
inches diameter. Two non-miscible liquids of
different colors, usually alcohol and paraffin oil,
are put into the two arms, one occupying the
portion AB y the other the portion BCD. The
movement of the line of demarcation is pro-
portional to the difference in area of the chambers
and the tube adjoining. A movement of 2
inches in the column represents J-inch difference
pressure or draft.
HIRN'S METHOD.
The apparatus used by Burnat as a check on his own
calculations was devised by Hirn, and is based on the formula
of the rate of flow of compressed gases from a reservoir,
friction being neglected. The coefficient of reduction used
is 0.9, the one given by Dubuisson in his treatise on hydraulics.
The main difficulty consists in measuring the difference of
pressure of the atmosphere in the ash pit and that outside,
for the depression in the flues in some cases does not exceed
a few millimetres of water. Hirn's apparatus removes this
difficulty.
Burnat describes it as follows :
When making a test the doors of the ash pit are removed
and replaced by a piece of sheet iron, A (Fig. 37), which com-
pletely shuts out all access of air except through the opening
in the middle, to which is fitted the pipe CD, 13.8 inches
HIR.V ' S ME THO D .
diameter and 59 inches long. A tube leads from the front
to the apparatus E, devised by Hirn, placed on a table or
against the boiler-wall. This apparatus consists of a little
gas holder whose upper surface is just one decimeter (3.9
FIG. 35.
inches) on a side. Inside this and above the water level the
tube A opens. The bell d'ips into a vessel of water and is
suspended from a balance arm.
The balance being in equilibrium when the atmospheric
pressure acts on both sides of the bell, if the interior is con-
nected with the ash-pit the weight needed to restore equili-
brium will give a measure of the difference in pressure. The
weight of half a gram (7.7 grains) represents one-twentieth
millimetre (0.002 inch) of water.
The formula adopted by Hirn is
= 5X0
9 \/ :
0.0013.5
in which
V = volume of air introduced under the grate in cubic
metres ;
5 = section in square metre of pipe-opening leading air to
the ash-pit ;
0.9 = coefficient of reduction;
147*
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
h = difference of pressure expressed in height of water;
B = barometric pressure in the room ;
/ = temperature of the room ;
g == acceleration of gravity = 9.8088 metres.
KENT'S GAUGE.
The accompanying sketch represents a very sensitive and
accurate draft-gauge recently constructed by Mr. William
Kent. A light cylindrical tin can A, 5 inches diameter and 6
FIG. 350. KENT'S GAUGE.
inches high, is inverted and suspended inside of a can B, 6
inches diameter, 6 inches high, by means of a long helical
spring. A J-inch tube is placed inside of the larger can, with
KENT'S GAUGE.
one end just below the level of the upper edge, while the
other end passes through a hole cut in the side of the can,
close to the bottom. The can is filled with water to within
about half an inch of the top, and the inner can is suspended
by the spring so that its lower edge dips into the water.
The small tube being open at both ends, the air enclosed
in the can A is at atmospheric pressure, and the spring is ex-
tended by the weight of the can. The end of the tube which
projects from the bottom of the can being now connected by
means of a rubber tube with a tube leading into the flue, or
other chamber, whose draft or suction is to be measured,,
air is drawn out of the can A until the pressure of the remain-
ing air is the same as that of the flue. The external atmos-
phere pressing on the top of the can A causes it to sink deeper
in the water, extending the spring until its increased tension
just balances the difference of the opposing vertical pressures
of the air inside and outside of the can. The product of this
difference in pressure, expressed as a decimal fraction of a
pound per square inch, multiplied by the internal area of the
can in square inches, equals the tension of the spring (above
that due to the weight of the can) in pounds or fraction of a
pound. The extension of a helical spring being proportional
to the force applied, the distance travelled downward by the
can A measures the force of suction, that is, the draft. The
movement of the can may conveniently be measured by hav-
ing a celluloid scale graduated to fiftieths of an iech fastened
to the side of the can A, the can carrying an index.
To reduce the readings of the scale to their equivalents in
inches of water column, as read on the ordinary U-tube
gauge, we have the following formulae :
Let
P force in pounds required to stretch the string I inch ;
R = elongation of the spring in inches;
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
A = area of the inner can in square inches ;
d=> difference in pressure or force of the draft in pounds
per square inch ;
D = difference in pressure in inches of water = 27.71^.
EP=Ad =
D =
0.0361/4/7
= F;
The last equation shows that for a constant force of draft
the elongation of the spring of the movement of the can may
be increased by increasing the area of the can or by decreas-
ing the strength of the spring.
Applying the above formulae, the movement of the can
corresponding to a draft of I inch of water column, the
can A having a diameter of 5 inches = 19.63 inches area,
and the spring of such a strength that o. I pound elongates
It I inch. Here P = o. I ; A - 19.63; D = I.
0.0361 X 19-63
E = = 7-OQ inches.
o. i
That is, the instrument multiplies the readings of the U
tube 7.09 times. The precision of the instrument is, how-
ever, far greater than this figure would indicate ; for in the
U tube it is exceedingly difficult to read with precision the
difference in height of the two menisci, while with this ap-
paratus readings in the scale may easily be made to $ inch,
DASYMETER.
which, with the multiplication of 7, is equivalent to ^j- of an
inch of water column. The instrument may also be cali-
brated by directly comparing its readings with those of an
ordinary U-tube gauge.
VOLUME BY AUTOMATIC APPARATUS.
DASYMETER.
Siegert and Durr * devised an apparatus called the
Dasymeter, which has been introduced in several large works
in Europe, where it gives satisfaction.
It consists of a balance enclosed in a cast-iron box with
a glass side (Fig. 36). At one end of the beam is a very
FIG. 36. DASYMETER.
light glass balloon holding 2 to 3 litres, sealed by fusion.
The other end carries a weight balancing the balloon. This
weight is formed of a U-tube, //, containing mercury, and is
open at one end ; the other end is expanded into a bulb con-
taining air, which is submitted to the variations of pressure
and temperature through the mercury. If the pressure of
the air increases or diminishes, the mercury rises or falls, and
increases or diminishes the weight on the lever. Suppose an
* Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fur B.- und H.-Wesen, xvi. p. 291.
148 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
increase of pressure and a lowering of temperature which
would diminish the density of the air one half. A corres-
ponding quantity of mercury passes into the arm of the tube,
and the original compensating weight is diminished by that
amount. A graduated index shows the variations of weight,
and hence the variations of density in the gases. An inge-
nious arrangement allows regulation by rotating the U-tube
on the axis pn. The tube is turned slowly around till
adjusted, thus changing the length of the lever-arm.
A difference of I per cent of carbonic acid causes a differ-
ence in weight of 20 milligrams. One litre of air at o and
760 millimetres weighs 1294 milligrams; I litre of carbonic
acid weighs 1967 milligrams; the difference is 673 milligrams.
If the gas contains I per cent of CO a , each litre increases 6.73
milligrams in weight ; and as the balloon contains 3 litres, it
supports an external pressure of more than 3 X 6.73 20.19
milligrams (0.311 grains).
To prevent action of sulphurous acid the bearings are
made of sapphire, onyx, bloodstone, etc., and metallic parts of
phosphor-bronze.
To set up the dasymeter, connect pipe c with the boiler-
flue before the damper; the tube pleads to the chimney. By
this means a current of gas passes through the box, and shows
at any time the percentage of carbonic acid. Siegert gives
the following results obtained with it, and the corresponding
results by analysis :
j Dasymeter, 13.0, 13.0, 12.0, 6.25, 2.2, 16.3, 7.5, 12.5
3 ( Analysis, 13.0, 12.7, 12.2, 6.00, 2.0, 16.0, 8.0, 13.0
ECONOMETER.
H. Arndt has invented what he calls the " Econometer "
(Fig. 37), which is on a similar principle.* It consists of a
tight cast-iron shell, NN, containing a gas-balance. A pipe,
* Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, xxxvu. p. 801.
ECONOMETER.
149
?/, 0.4 inch in diameter leads to the inside of the flue before the
damper; a second pipe, v" , communicates with the interior of
the same flue beyond the damper. In the interior, the tube i'
is connected to the upright pipe/, which leads the gas to bell
e' , and the tube i" to the tubulure g. i' and i" are of rubber.
FIG. 37. ECONOMETER.
The balance is very sensitive, the beam carrying at one
end the gas-holder e' , open below and containing about 30
cubic inches, and at the other end a second holder of similar
size and weight as the first. Attached to the bottom of this
one is a pan to hold the balancing weights.
The tube /conducts the gas to the balloon /, which, open
below, is freely movable in the cylinder g, by which it pro-
duces suction in the tube i" .
Carbonic acid being heavier than common air (1.96 U>
1.29) as well as the other associated gases, it follows that the
density of the gases passing through the tubes depends on the
carbonic acid content. The scale is divided so that each
division shows one per cent of CO 3 in the gases.
150
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
GAS-COMPOSIMETER.
The gas-composimeter of Uehling is an apparatus for
automatically and continuously determining the quantity of
carbonic acid contained in waste gases.
It is based on the laws governing the flow of gas through
small apertures.
FIG. 38.
If two such apertures, A and B (Fig. 38), form respectively
the inlet and outlet openings of chamber C, and a uniform
suction is maintained in the chamber C f by the aspirator D r
the action will be as follows :
Gas will be drawn through the aperture B into the cham-
ber C f , creating suction in chamber C, which in turn causes
gas to flow through the aperture A. The velocity with
which the gas enters through A depends on the suction in the
chamber C, and the velocity at which it flows out through B
depends upon the excess of the suction in chamber C' over
that existing in chamber C, that is, the effective suction in C'.
As the suction in C increases, the effective suction must
decrease, and hence the velocity of the gas entering at A
increases, while the velocity of the gas passing out through B
decreases, until the same quantity of gas enters at A as passes
TEMPERATURE OF THE WASTE GASES. !$!
out at B* As soon as this occurs no further change of suc-
tion takes place in the chamber C, providing the gas entering
at A and passing out at B be maintained at the same tem-
perature.
If from the constant stream of gas, while flowing through
chamber C, one of its constituents is continuously removed by
absorption, a reduction of volume will take place in chamber
C and cause an increase in suction, and consequently a de-
crease in the effective suction in C' . Hence the velocity of
the gas through A will increase, and the velocity through B
will decrease, until the same quantity of gas enters at A as
is absorbed by the reagent, plus that which passes out at
aperture B.
Thus every change in the volume of the constituents we
are absorbing from trfe gas causes a corresponding change of
suction in the chamber C.
The apparatus is connected with a regulator, a manom-
eter, and automatic recording register.
TEMPERATURE OF THE WASTE GASES.
As in analyzing coal, cinders, and gases we must have
average samples, so in treating of waste gases we need average
temperatures. It is not enough to take the temperature
occasionally with the thermometer; it varies too much from
time to time, even if the readings are taken frequently. We
must have some method of obtaining the average temperature
of the gas current, and this can be accomplished by means of
a heat reservoir introduced into the flue.
For this purpose one was devised by Scheurer-Kestner of
a type which has been repeatedly copied and modified. It
consists of an iron tube, bb (Fig. 39), placed in the flue so
that the upper end, covered with an insulating material, is let
into the wall to about one half its thickness, the remainder
hanging free in the flue. This tube is filled with paraffin,
152
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
and in this is inserted the thermometer. The large mass of
the paraffin is acted on by the mean temperature, but is unin-
fluenced by any slight momentary changes which may occur.
A self-registering thermometer, is very advantageous, but
readings at intervals of half an hour are sufficient ordinarily.
Of course the opening around the tube should be packed so
as to prevent all possible ingress of cold external air.
FIG. 39. FLUE THERMOMETER.
Occasionally mercury is used instead of paraffin. This
Tenders the average of the heat more exactly, perhaps, but
has the disadvantage of being much heavier and much more
-expensive. There are also many difficulties in handling it
which do not obtain with paraffin. The paraffin should be
well refined, and have a high melting-point.
THE PNEUMATIC PYROMETER.
Uehling's pneumatic pyrometer is based on a principle
analogous to that of the gas-composimeter, and is now in use
in many places, automatically measuring the temperatures of
chimneys and furnaces for all temperatures up to 3000 F.,
and registering the same on cards. The apparatus has been
tested at the Stevens Institute of Technology, and the
indications pronounced reliable. It cannot be safely used
THE PNEUMATIC PYROMETER. 153
continuously for temperatures above 2500, but at that tem-
perature and lower it works well and satisfactorily for months
without requiring any readjustment. The automatic register
is very sensitive, and can be easily adjusted for a new range of
temperatures at any time.
An explanation of the principle of its working is given in
the inventor's own words:
* ' The Pneumatic Pyrometer is based on the laws govern-
ing the flow of air through small apertures.
" If two such apertures A and B (Fig. 38) respectively
form the inlet and outlet openings of a chamber C, and a uni-
form suction is created in the chamber C' by the aspirator D t
the action will be as follows :
"Air will be drawn through the aperture B into the
chamber C f , creating suction in chamber C, which in turn
-causes air from the atmosphere to flow in through the aper-
ture A. The velocity with which the air enters through A
-depends on the suction in the chamber C, and the velocity
at which it flows out through B depends upon the excess of
suction in C' over that existing in the chamber C, that is, the
effective suction in C' . As the suction in C increases, the
effective suction must decrease, and hence the velocity at
which air flows in through the aperture A increases, and the
velocity at which air flows out through the aperture B de-
creases, until the same quantity of air enters at A as passes
out at B. As soon as this occurs no further change of suc-
tion can take place in the chamber C.
"Air is very materially expanded by heat. Therefore
the higher the temperature of the air the greater the volume,
.and the smaller will be the quantity of air drawn through a
given aperture by the same suction. Now if the air as it
passes through the aperture A is heated, but again cooled to
.a lower fixed temperature before it passes through the aper-
ture j5, less air will enter through the aperture A than is
6r 8
6 *
In the waste gases
6-5
14.0
13.8
13.3
13.6
18.0
16.2
22.5
18.0
9.4
In the combustible gases..
o.o
2.4
0.8
o.o
1.2
1.2
0.0
1.6
12.7
Not accounted for
15.0
5-8
9-3
14.0
11.9
IO-9
9.6
II.
14.4
13.9
The calories in the steam varied from 63.8 to 78.5 per cent.
" '* waste gases " " 6.5 to 22.5 " "
" " combustible gases " " o.o to 12.7 " "
" not accounted for " " 5.8 to 15.0 " "
For the method of properly tabulating the heat balance,
see section XXI of the Steam Boiler Code on page 193.
l68 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
FLAME AND FLAME TEMPERATURES.
Whenever the temperature is sufficiently high to raise a,
portion of the carbon, hydrogen, or other gaseous com-
bustible to incandescence, flame is produced. The tempera-
ture at which this phenomenon occurs varies with the sub-
stance burnt. Usually it requires a red heat or higher, but
in some cases a much lower temperature suffices : bor-methyl
B(CH 3 ), is an example, the flame temperature of which is not
high enough to scorch the finger placed in it. It is not neces-
sary that the flame should have solid particles in it, as flame
is produced by hydrogen burning under pressure in oxygen ;
neither is incandescence alone sufficient, as the fire of pure
carbon, magnesium, or iron glows but does not flame.
Flame is hollow, the combustion occurring on the surface,
and this may be easily demonstrated, by drawing off some of
the interior unconsumed gases with a tube and burning them.
Bunsen's researches led to the conclusion that the tem-
perature of burning carbonic oxide rapidly rose to 3000 C.,
and remained stationary till one third of it was consumed ;
the temperature then fell to 2500 C., at which more burnt;
and finally fell to about 1200 C., which temperature was
maintained till all the remainder was consumed. Actually
the last temperature is soon reached in practice. Berthelot
confirms this, but is in doubt whether the loss of temperature
is due to dissociation or to change in specific heat. Some
hold that part of this loss of heat is caused by its absorption,
due to the production of incandescence and its accompanying
flame phenomena. A gas raised to incandescence gradually
manifests each increment of heat till that point is reached,
and beyond this no increase is noticed, all such further
increase being consumed by the flame production.
The rate of propagation of flame varies with the pressure
and with the material burning. The most rapid rate with
coal gas is when it is mixed with 5 parts of air; with marsh
FLAME TEMPERATURES. 169
gas, 8J parts of air. It will be noticed that the proportion of
oxygen is sensibly less than that required for perfect conv
bustion.
The luminosity depends on the compression of the gases
or the air. Hydrogen burning in oxygen at ordinary pressure
gives a flame hardly visible at all; with a pressure of 20 atmos-
pheres it becomes quite luminous. Arsenic in burning pro-
duces quite a luminous flame at ordinary air pressure; but
hardly any in rarefied air. The same is true of carbonic
oxide and other gases. The luminosity seems to be in direct
proportion to the pressure.
Luminosity seems to be greater with those substances
which on burning produce dense vapors. Hydrogen and
chlorine produce a vapor twice as heavy as water and the
luminosity is much stronger than with the oxygen-hydrogen
flame. Carbon and sulphur also produce heavy vapors and
much light. Phosphorus burning in oxygen produces the
dense heavy phosphoric anhydride and this is accompanied
with an almost blinding light.
The length of the flame ordinarily depends on the quantity
of hydrogen, and consequently the hydrocarbons contained
in, or generated from, the body consumed. With fuels con-
taining high hydrocarbon percentages, flame of almost any
desired length can be produced. This is especially the case
with gases.
The theoretical temperature of combustion, and hence of
the flame, may be calculated by dividing the heat units pro-
duced by the specific heats of the products formed. Of course,
these theoretical temperatures are never reached in practice,
but they serve as aids in determining the value of fuels for
certain purposes.
A few typical examples of these calculations will be given.
I. Hydrogen. Hydrogen burnt in oxygen produces
29000 heat units (water considered as vapor); the specific
heat of the aqueous vapor produced is 0.475. The hydrogen
1 70 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
uses 8 times its weight of oxygen and generates 9 times the
quantity of water.
Then
2 9 00 = 6727 C.
9 X 0.479
Bunsen and Sainte-Claire Deville showed that the highest
temperature actually obtained is 2500 C., which may be in-
creased to 2850 C. by a pressure of 10 atmospheres.
The presence of nitrogen modifies the result materially.
The quantity of oxygen required, obtained from air, would
introduce 26.78 parts of nitrogen, the specific heat of which
is 0.244. The equation would then be
29000 6 C
9 X 0.479 + 26.78 X 0.244 "
Bunsen's maximum temperature actually reached was
1800 C.
2. Carbon. Carbon burnt to carbonic oxide consumes
1.33 parts of oxygen, forms 2.33 parts of carbonic oxide, and
if burnt in air, introduces 4.46 parts of nitrogen. The specific
heat of carbonic oxide is 0.245 an d of nitrogen 0.244, as
before. The heat units generated are 2435.
For combustion in oxygen the equation would be
2.33 X 0.245
In air it would be
2435
= 1462 C.
2.33 X 0.245 +4-46 X 0.244
The latter temperature is about the same as that actually
observed, and shows that but little dissociation occurs.
Owing to the non-volatility of carbon no flame is produced,
only an incandescence. The flame we ordinarily see on in-
candescent carbon is from the burning of carbonic oxide.
Carbon burnt to carbon dioxide can be treated similarly; also
carbonic oxide burnt to carbon dioxide.
FLAME TEMPERATURES. 171
3. Marsh Gas. This gas requires 4 times its weight of
oxygen, and produces 2.25 parts of aqueous vapor and 2.75
parts of carbonic acid. If air is used, 13.39 parts of nitrogen
are introduced. The heat of combustion is 13343 calories.
The equations are, then,
13343
2.25 X 0.479 + 2.75 X 0.217 "
for oxygen and
13343
= 22 4 5C.,
2.25 X 0.479 + 2-75 X 0.217 + 13.39 X 0.244
for combustion in air.
Olefiant gas, acetylene, etc., can be calculated similarly.
With a mixed gas, i.e., one containing several gases, account
must be taken of each one separately. Producer gas will be
given as an example.
4. Producer Gas. The producer gas taken will be assumed
to have the following composition by volume :
Carbonic oxide ... 21.0 per cent.
Hydrogen 11.5 " "
Marsh gas 2.0 " "
Carbonic acid , .. 6.0 " "
Nitrogen 59.5 " "
100.0 " "
First obtain the weight of the constituents. (See the tables.)
0.21 X 1.2515 0.2628
o. 1 1 5 X 0.0896 = 0.0103
0.02 X 0.7155 = 0.0143
0.06 X 1.9666 =0.1360
0.595 X 1.2561 =0.7474
C0 2 H 2 N
CO 0.2628 produces. ... 0.413 ____ 0.502
H 0.0103 " ........ 0.093 0.276
CH 4 0.0143 " :' 0.039 0.032 0.192
CO, 0.1360 " ---- 0.1^6 ____
N 0.7474 " ............. 0.747
0.588 0.125
17 2 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
Then as the heat of combustion is 747.66 by volume oi
874.6 by weight, we have for combustion in oxygen,
874.6 _
0.125 X 0.479 + 0.588 X 0.217+0.747 X 0.244" *'
and for combustion in air,
874.6 _
0.125 X 0.479 + 0.588 X 0.217+ 1.717 X 0.244"
5. Petroleum Oil. The oil may be assumed to contain
Carbon 85 per cent.
Hydrogen 15 " "
100
C 0.85 produces 3-H7 CO, and 7.588 N
Ho.i5 " 1.35 H a O .... " " 4.017"
1.35 H 2 O 1.117 CO 2 11.605 N
The heat of combustion may be assumed at 10000 calories.
Then for combustion in oxygen,
1-35 X 0.479+ 3-H7 X 0.217
and for combustion in air,
i oooo
1.35 X 0.479+3.117 X 0.217+ 11.605 X 0.244
= 2400 C.
Other oils or solid fuels may be calculated according to
this model.
At the end of the volume are given a few of those fuels
most commonly used with the theoretical oxygen and air
flame temperatures.
CARBON VAPOR.
WEIGHT AND HEAT UNITS OF CARBON VAPOR.
Two volumes of carbonic oxide are produced from I volume
-of oxygen, and hence from I volume of carbon. I cubic
metre of carbonic oxide weighs 1251 grams. I cubic metre
of oxygen weighs 1430 grams. I cubic metre of carbonic
oxide contains, then, one-half a cubic metre of oxygen weigh-
m g 7*5 grams, and one-half a cubic metre of carbon vapor
weighing 536 grams. Hence I cubic metre of carbon vapor
weighs 2 X 536 = 1072 grams, and I kilogram measures
I : 1072 = 0.9328 cubic metre.
Or
i cubic foot of carbonic oxide weighs 546.78 grains.
I " " " oxygen weighs ....... 624.85 "
One cubic foot CO then contains % cubic foot of O and
cubic foot of C.
546.78 - 312.425 = 234.355,
and
2 X 234.355 = 468.71 grains,
weight of i cubic foot of carbon vapor.
One pound of carbon vapor measures 14.93 cubic feet.
If we wish the heat-units of carbon in vapor without the
heat of vaporization, multiply the weight of a cubic metre by
the heat of combustion of solid carbon. If from wood charcoal,
8137 X 1.072 = 8722(15699.6 B. T. U.).
Jf from diamond,
7859 X 1.072 = 8424(14963.2 B.T. U.).
If carbon vapor with its heat of vaporization be wanted,
take the heat of combustion of carbonic oxide which contains
carbon as vapor and compare it with the heat of combustion of
carbon, uniting with the same quantity of oxygen to form
OK THS
UNIVERSITY
174 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
carbonic oxide. In doing so it is supposed that carbon in
combining with two atoms of oxygen generates the same
quantity of heat with one as with the other, only in the first
case part of the heat is used in vaporizing the carbon. This
heat is found by subtracting the heat of combustion of the
solid carbon from that of the carbon supposed gaseous in
carbonic oxide.
One kilogram of carbon unites with 1.333 kilograms of
oxygen to form 2.333 kilograms of carbonic oxide. With
diamond there is generated 2405 calories. The 2.333 kilograms
of carbonic oxide in becoming carbonic acid generates 2.333 X
2435 = 568 calories. Then I kilogram of carbon in passing
from carbonic oxide to carbonic acid generates 5680 calories.
We have seen, on the other hand, that I kilogram of diamond
carbon generates 2405 calories in becoming carbonic oxide.
The difference, then, 5680 2405 = 3275(5895 B. T. U.) cal-
ories, represents the heat of vaporization of diamond carbon.
With wood charcoal it becomes 5680 2489 3191(5743.8
B. T. U.).
The heat of combustion will be then 7859 -(- 3275 = 1 1 134
calories (20041 B. T. U.) for diamond, and 8137 -f- 3191 =
11328 calories (20390 B. T. U.) for wood charcoal.
EVAPORATIVE POWER OF FUEL.
The evaporative power of a fuel represents the number of
pounds of water at 212 F. that can be evaporated or con-
verted into steam by one pound of the fuel. Water at that
temperature is sufficiently heated to vaporize, but needs an
addition of force equivalent to that required for the vaporiza-
tion. This quantity varies for the pressure of the barometer
and the temperature of the water, but for the purposes of cal-
culation is considered to be taken at 30 inches of mercury and
212 F. Experiment has shown the equivalent to be 965.7
heatunits (B. T. U.).
EVAPORATIVE POWER.
To find the theoretical evaporating power of a fuel, then,
divide the number of thermal units it generates on combus-
tion by 965.7. For instance, the heat of combustion of a
sample of Illinois coal was determined by Prof. Carpenter to
be 13200. Its evaporative power would be
13200
== 13-67 pounds.
This means that under the proper conditions one pound
of the coal in question would evaporate 13.67 pounds already
heated to 212 F.
But this amount of duty is rarely realized. The boiler
may not be well built, the setting may be faulty, and there
are numerous other chemical or mechanical conditions which
modify the yield. With these no rule can be established ;
each individual case must be allowed for specially. With
ashes and moisture, chemical constituents of the coal, the
case is different. A percentage allowance for these will usually
suffice.
For instance, in the above coal there was 5.12 per cent of
water and 15.2 per cent of ash. Then
100 (15.2 -f- 5.12) X 13.67 = 12.23 pounds.
If deemed necessary, a further correction can be made for
the water of the coal, which would reduce the evaporation by
its own amount. This correction would become
12.23 ~~ -5 12. 18 pounds
as the quantity which should be evaporated with the coal as
analyzed.
The quantity of ash produces an effect on the evaporative
power aside from its proportional reduction in combustible.
This is due to the fact that where a large percentage of ash
occurs, the particles of carbon of the fuel are not burnt com-
CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS.
pletely, owing to being enclosed in the ash and consequently
shut off from access of air. This is especially the case with
those ashes which are easily fuzed by the heat of the fire.
Ashes containing carbonates are much more easily fuzed than
those containing phosphates or sulphates. On this account a
chemical analysis of the ash is at times quite desirable.
Some difference in evaporation is noticed in using the dif-
ferent sizes of coal, more particularly with the fine sizes.
With the proper arrangements for burning fires a good yield
is obtained, but with the ordinary grates the yield is much
lower.
APPENDIX.
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE REVISION OF THE
SOCIETY CODE OF 1885, RELATIVE TO A STANDARD
METHOD OF CONDUCTING STEAM-BOILER TRIALS.
Presented to the New York meeting of the American Society of Mechani
cal Engineers, December 1899, and forming a part of the Transac-
tions, Volume XXL
To THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
Gentlemen : The undersigned Committee, to which was
submitted the revision of the Society Code of 1885, relative
to a standard method of conducting steam-boiler trials, re-
ports as follows :
The Committee of 1885 presented a full statement of the
principles which governed it in the preparation of the Code of
Rules at that time recommended. These principles covered
the ground in an admirable manner, so far as the practice of
boiler testing had been perfected, and we are in unanimous
accord with the sentiments which the report of that Com-
mittee expressed. During the interval of thirteen years
which has passed, methods and instruments have in some
measure changed. Improvements have been made in the in-
struments for determining the moisture in steam. The
throttling and separating forms of calorimeters have displaced
the barrel and other types of steam calorimeters referred to in
the previous report. Attention has been devoted to the de-
termination of the calorific value of coal, and a number of
coal calorimeters have been brought out and successfully
used for this purpose. It has come to be a practice with
many experts to include in the table of results of boiler
tests the percentage of " efficiency," or proportion of the
177
178 APPENDIX.
calorific value of the coal which is utilized by the boiler.
Specifications and contracts are in some cases drawn up, provid-
ing for certain percentages of efficiency instead of a specified
evaporation. The analysis of flue gases is receiving more at-
tention than formerly, not only in our educational institutions,
but also in the regular practice of engineers who make a spe-
cialty of boiler testing.
Tour Committee submits a revised Code, termed the Code
of 1899. The changes are mainly in the line of amendments
such as the experience of the last thirteen years has shown to
be desirable. The amendments relate to the use of improved
steam calorimeters, to sampling coal and determining its moist-
ure, to calorific tests and analysis of coal, to analysis of flue
gases, to smoke observations, to determinations of efficiency,
and to methods of working out the "heat balance."
The tabular form of presenting the results of the test is some-
what changed and enlarged, and alterations in the text of the
Code are made wherever needed. At the same time a second or
" short form " of report is added, for use in commercial tests or
in cases where it is necessary to give only the principal data
and results.
It is beyond the province of the Committee to recommend in-
struments of particular makers for obtaining the quality of the
steam, the calorific value of the fuel, or any other data relating
to the trial ; but following the practice of the former Commit-
tee, individual members have submitted their views (with the
approval of the full membership) in an " Appendix to the 1899
Code," signed by their initials. In this appendix are included
some of the articles from the appendix to the former Code,
which are thought to be of especial value.
In the matter of instruments for determining the calorific
value of fuel, it seems desirable that the Committee should
make a recommendation which is as specific as present knowl-
edge and circumstances will warrant. It is agreed that some
form of calorimeter in which the coal is burned in an atmo-
sphere of oxygen gas is to be preferred, and it is generally held
that the most perfect apparatus thus far brought out is the
Bomb Calorimeter, originally designed by Berthelot and modi-
fied by Mahler and Hempel. Several of these instruments are
in use in this country, principally in the laboratories of engineer-
ing schools ; but the apparatus is complicated and expensive,
APPENDIX. 179
and it is not probable that many engineers will have the instru-
ment as a part of their equipment for testing boilers. It is
recom mended, therefore, that samples of the coal used in test-
ing boilers be sent for determinations of their heating value to
a testing laboratory provided with one of these instruments,
or with some instrument which shall be proven to be equally
good. . (Article XYIL, Code.)
The Committee approves the conclusions of the 1885 Code to
the effect that the standard u unit of evaporation" should be
one pound of water at 212 degrees Fahr. evaporated into dry
steam of the same temperature. This unit is equivalent to 965.7
British thermal units.
The Committee recommends that, as far as possible, the
capacity of a boiler be expressed in terms of the "number of
pounds of water evaporated per hour from and at 212 degrees.'*
It does not seem expedient, however, to abandon the widely
recognized measure of capacity of stationary or land boilers
expressed in terms of "boiler horse-power."
The unit of commercial boiler horse-power adopted by the
Committee of 1885 was the same as that used in the reports of
the boiler tests made at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876. The
Committee of 1885 reported in favor of this standard in lan-
guage of which the following is an extract :
" Your Committee, after due consideration, has determined to
accept the Centennial standard, and to recommend that in all
standard trials the commercial horse-power be taken as an evapo-
ration of 30 pounds of water per hour from a feed-water tem-
perature of 100 degrees Fahr. into steam at 70 pounds gauge
pressure, which shall be considered to be equal to 34J units of
evaporation ; that is, to 34 pounds of water evaporated from a
feed- water temperature of 212 degrees Fahr. into steam at the
same temperature. This standard is equal to 33,305 thermal
units per hour."
The present Committee accepts the same standard, but re-
verses the order of two clauses in the statement, and slightly
modifies them to read as follows :
The unit of commercial horse-power developed by a boiler
shall be taken as 34J units of evaporation per hour ; that is, 34J
pounds of water evaporated per hour from a feed-water tem-
perature of 212 degrees Fahr. into dry steam of the same tem-
perature. This standard is equivalent to 33,317 British thermal
ISO APPENDIX.
units per hour. It is also practically equivalent to an evapora-
tion of 30 pounds of water from a feed-water temperature of 100
degrees Fahr. into steam at 70 pounds gauge pressure.*
The Committee also indorses the statement of the Committee
of 1885 concerning the commercial rating of boilers, changing
somewhat its wording, so as to read as follows :
A boiler rated at any stated capacity should develop that
capacity when using the best coal ordinarily sold in the market
where the boiler is located, when fired by an ordinary fireman,
without forcing the fires, while exhibiting good economy ; and,
further, the boiler should develop at least one-third more than
the stated capacity when using the same fuel and operated by
the same fireman, the full draft being employed and the fires
being crowded ; the available draft at the damper, unless other-
wise understood, being not less than \ inch water column.
Respectfully submitted,
CHAS. E. EMERY, f
WM. KENT,
GEO. H. BARRUS,
CHAS. T. POUTER,
ROBERT H. THURSTON, '
ROBERT W. HUNT,
F. W. DEAN,
J. S. COON,
WM. B. POTTER, j
* According to the tables in Porter's Treatise on the Richards Steam Engine-
Indicator, an evaporation of 30 pounds of water from 100 degrees Fahr. into
steam at 70 pounds pressure is equal to an evaporation of 34.488 pounds from
and at 212 degrees ; and an evaporation of 34 pounds from and at 212 degree*
Fahr. is equal to 30.010 pounds from 100 degrees Fahr. into steam at 70 pounds-
pressure.
The " unit of evaporation" being equivalent to 965.7 thermal units, the com-
mercial horse-power = 34.5 x 965.7 = 33,317 thermal units.
f The motion for the appointment of this Committee was made by Mr.
Barrus in connection with the discussion of Mr. Dean's paper, No. DCL., OB
" The Efficiency of Boilers," etc. The President of the Society designated Mr.
Kent, the chairman of the Committee of 1884, to call the first meeting of the new
Committee. At that meeting, on motion of Mr. Kent, Dr. Emery was selected
as chairman, and he conducted the preliminary correspondence. The draft of
report in the form originally printed and presented for criticism at the Annual
Meeting in December, 1897, was prepared by a sub-committee consisting of
Messrs. Emery, Porter, Barrus, and Kent. Much of the work of revision of this
preliminary draft was done by Dr. Emery a few weeks before his death in June,
1898, and the final revision, bringing the report to its present form, was done by
Messrs. Barrus and Kent.
APPENDIX. II
EULES FOK CONDUCTING BOILER TEIALS.
CODE OF 1899.
I. Determine at the outset the specific object of the proposed
trial, whether it be to ascertain the capacity of the boiler, its-
efficiency as a steam generator, its efficiency and its defects under
usual working conditions, the economy of some particular kind
of fuel, or the effect of changes of design, proportion, or opera-
tion ; and prepare for the trial accordingly.
II. Examine the boiler, both outside and inside ; ascertain the
dimensions of grates, heating surfaces, and all important parts - y
and make a full record, describing the same, and illustrating
special features by sketches. The area of heating surface is to
be computed from the surfaces of shells, tubes, furnaces, and fire-
boxes in contact with the fire or hot gases. The outside diam-
eter of water-tubes and the inside diameter of fire-tubes are
to be used in the computation. All surfaces below the mean
water level which have water on one side and products of com-
bustion on the other are to be considered as water-heating
surface, and all surfaces above the mean water level which
have steam on one side and products of combustion on the
other are to be considered as superheating surface.
III. Notice the general condition of the boiler and its equipment,
and record such facts in relation thereto as bear upon the objects
in view.
If the object of the trial is to ascertain the maximum economy
or capacity of the boiler as a steam generator, the boiler and all
its appurtenances should be put in first-class condition. Clean
the heating surface inside and outside, remove clinkers from
the grates and from the sides of the furnace. Remove all dust,
soot, and ashes from the chambers, smoke connections, and
flues. Close air leaks in the masonry and poorly fitted clean-
ing doors. See that the damper will open wide and close tight.
Test for air leaks by firing a few shovels of smoky fuel and im-
mediately closing the damper, observing the escape of smoke
through the crevices, or by passing the flame of a candle over
cracks in the brickwork.
IY. Determine the character of the coal to be used. For tests
of the efficiency or capacity of the boiler for comparison with
other boilers the coal should, if possible, be of some kind which
is commercially regarded as a standard. For New England
182 APPENDIX.
and that portion of the country east of the Allegheny Moun-
tains, good anthracite egg coal, containing not over 10 per cent,
of ash, and semi-bituminous Clearfield (Pa.), Cumberland (Md.),
and Pocahontas (Va.) coals are thus regarded. West of the
Allegheny Mountains, Pocahontas (Ya.) and New Eiver (W. Va.)
semi-bituminous, and Youghiogheny or Pittsburg bituminous
coals are recognized as standards.* There is no special grade
of coal mined in the Western States which is widely recognized
as of superior quality or considered as a standard coal for
boiler testing. Big Muddy lump, an Illinois coal mined in
Jackson County, 111., is suggested as being of sufficiently high
grade to answer these requirements in districts where it is more
conveniently obtainable than the other coals mentioned above.
For tests made to determine the performance of a boiler with
a particular kind of coal, such as may be specified in a contract
for the sale of a boiler, the coal used should not be higher in
ash and in moisture than that specified, since increase in ash
and moisture above a stated amount is apt to cause a falling off
of both capacity and economy in greater proportion than the
proportion of such increase.
V. Establish the correctness of all apparatus used in the test for
weighing and measuring. These are :
1. Scales for weighing coal, ashes, and water.
2. Tanks, or water meters for measuring water. Water me-
ters, as a rule, should only be used as a check on other measure-
ments. For accurate work, the water should be weighed or
measured in a tank.
3. Thermometers and pyrometers for taking temperatures of
air, steam, feed-water, waste gases, etc.
4. Pressure gauges, draught gauges, etc.
The kind and location of the various pieces of testing appara-
tus must be left to the judgment of the person conducting the
test ; always keeping in mind the main object, i.e., to obtain
authentic data.
VI. See that the boiler is thoroughly heated before the trial to
its usual working temperature. If the boiler is new and of a
form provided with a brick setting, it should be in regular use
* These coals are selected because they are about the only coals which r>ossess
the essentials of excellence of quality, adaptability to various kinds of furnaces,
grates, boilers, and methods of firing, and wide distribution and general accessi-
bility in the markets.
APPENDIX. 183
:at least a week before the trial, so as to dry and heat the walls.
If it has been laid off and become cold, it should be worked
before the trial until the walls are well heated.
VII. The boiler and connections should be proved to be free from
leaks before beginning a test, and all water connections, includ-
ing blow and extra feed pipes, should be disconnected, stopped
with blank flanges, or bled through special openings beyond the
valves, except the particular pipe through which water is to be
fed to the boiler during the trial. During the test the blow-off
and feed pipes should remain exposed to view.
If an injector is used, it should receive steam directly through
a felted pipe from the boiler being tested.*
If the water is metered after it passes the injector, its tem-
perature should be taken at the point where it leaves the injector.
If the quantity is determined before it goes to the injector the
temperature should be determined on the suction side of the
injector, and if no change of temperature occurs other than that
due to the injector, the temperature thus determined is properly
that of the feed- water. When the temperature changes between
the injector and the boiler, as by the use of a heater or by radi-
ation, the temperature at which the water enters and leaves the
injector and that at which it enters the boiler should all be
taken. In that case the weight to be used is that of the water
leaving the injector, computed from the heat units if not
directly measured, and the temperature, that of the water
entering the boiler.
Let w = weight of water entering the injector.
x = " " steam "
Aj = heat units per pound of water entering injector.
A 2 = " " " " " steam " "
h, = " " " " " water leaving
Then, w + x = weight of water leaving injector.
x = w
- h.
* In feeding a boiler undergoing test with an injector taking steam from another
boiler, or from the main steam pipe from several boilers, the evaporative results
may be modified by a difference in the quality of the steam from such source
compared with that supplied by the boiler being tested, and in some cases the
connection to the injector may act as a drip for the main steam pipe. If it is
known that the steam from the main pipe is of the same pressure and quality as
that furnished by the boiler undergoing the test, the steam may be taken from,
such main pipe.
1 84 APPENDIX.
See that the steam main is so arranged that water of con-
densation cannot run back into the boiler.
VIII. Duration of the Test. For tests made to ascertain either
the maximum economy or the maximum capacity of a boiler, irre-
spective of the particular class of service for which it is regularly
used, the duration should be at least 10 hours of continuous run-
ning. If the rate of combustion exceeds 25 pounds of coal per
squar,e foot of grate surface per hour, it may be stopped when a to-
tal of 250 pounds of coal has been burned per square foot of grate.
In cases where the service requires continuous running for
the whole 24 hours of the day, with shifts of firemen a number
of times during that period, it is well to continue the test for at
least 24 hours.
When it is desired to ascertain the performance under the
working conditions of practical running, whether the boiler be
regularly in use 24 hours a day or only a certain number of
hours out of each 24, the fires being banked the balance of the
time, the duration should not be less than 24 hours.
IX. Starting and Stopping a Test. The conditions of the boiler
and furnace in all respects should be, as nearly as possible, the
same at the end as at the beginning of the test. The steam
pressure should be the same ; the water level the same ; the fire
upon the grates should be the same in quantity and condition ;
and the walls, flues, etc., should be of the same temperature.
Two methods of obtaining the desired equality of conditions of
the fire may be used, viz. : those which were called in the Code
of 1885 " the standard method " and " the alternate method,"
the latter being employed where it is inconvenient to make
use of the standard method.*
X. Standard Method of Starting and Stopping a Test. Steam
being raised to the working pressure, remove rapidly all
the fire from the grate, close the damper, clean the ash pifc r
and as quickly as possible start a new fire with weighed
wood and coal, noting the time and the water level f while
* The Committee concludes that it is best to retain the designations "stand-
ard" and " alternate," since they have become widely known and established in
the minds of engineers and in the reprints of the Code of 1885. Many engineers
prefer the "alternate" to the "standard" method on account of its being less
liable to error due to cooling of the boiler at the beginning and end of a test.
f The gauge-glass should not be blown out within an hour before the water
level is taken at the beginning and end of a test, otherwise an error in the read-
ing of the water level may be caused by a change in the temperature and density
of the water in the pipe leading from the bottom of the glass into the boiler.
APPENDIX.
the water is in a quiescent state, just before lighting the
fire.
At the end of the test remove the whole fire, which has
"been burned low, clean the grates and ash pit, and note the
water level when the water is in a quiescent state, and
record the time of hauling the fire. The water level should
be as nearly as possible the same as at the beginning of the
test. If it is not the same, a correction should be made by
computation, and not by operating the pump after the test is
completed.
XI. Alternate Method of Starting and Stopping a Test. The
boiler being thoroughly heated by a preliminary run, the fires
are to be burned low and well cleaned. Note the amount of
coal left on the grate as nearly as it can be estimated ; note the
pressure of steam and the water level. Note the time, and
record it as the starting time. Fresh coal which has been
weighed should now be fired. The ash pits should be thor-
oughly cleaned at once after starting. Before the end of the
test the fires should be burned low, just as before the start, and
the fires cleaned in such a manner as to leave a bed of coal on
the grates of the same depth, and in the same condition, as at
the start. When this stage is reached, note the time and record
it as the stopping time. The water level and steam pressures
should previously be brought as nearly as possible to the same
point as at the start. If the water level is not the same as at
the start, a correction should be made by computation, and not
by operating the pump after the test is completed.
XII. Uniformity of Conditions. In all trials made to ascertain
maximum economy or capacity, the conditions should be main-
tained uniformly constant. Arrangements should be made to
dispose of the steam so that the rate of evaporation may be
kept the same from beginning to end. This may be accom-
plished in a single boiler by carrying the steam through a
waste steam pipe, the discharge from which can be regulated as
desired. In a battery of boilers, in which only one is tested,
the draft may be regulated on the remaining boilers, leaving the
test boiler to work under a constant rate of production.
Uniformity of conditions should prevail as to the pressure of
steam, the height of water, the rate of evaporation, the thickness
of fire, the times of firing and quantity of coal fired at one time,
and as to the intervals between the times of cleaning the fires.
1 86 APPENDIX.
The method of firing to be carried on in such tests should be
dictated by the expert or person in responsible charge of the
test, and the method adopted should be adhered to by the fire-
man throughout the test.
XIII. Keeping the Records. Take note of every event con-
nected with the progress of the trial, however unimportant it
may appear. Record the time of every occurrence and the
time of taking every weight and every observation.
The coal should be weighed and delivered to the fireman in
equal proportions, each sufficient for not more than one hour's
run, and a fresh portion should not be delivered until the pre-
vious one has all been fired. The time required to consume
each portion should be noted, the time being recorded at the
instant of firing the last of each portion. It is desirable that at
the same time the amount of water fed into the boiler should be
accurately noted and recorded, including the height of the
water in the boiler, and the average pressure of steam and tem-
perature of feed during the time. By thus recording the
amount of water evaporated by successive portions of coal, the
test may be divided into several periods if desired, and the de-
gree of uniformity of combustion, evaporation, and economy
analyzed for each period. In addition to these records of the
coal and the feed water, half hourly observations should be made
of the temperature of the feed water, of the flue gases, of the
external air in the boiler-room, of the temperature of the fur-
nace when a furnace pyrometer is used, also of the pressure of
steam, and of the readings of the instruments for determining
the moisture in the steam. A log should be kept on properly
prepared blanks containing columns for record of the various
observations.
When the " standard method " of starting and stopping the
test is used, the hourly rate of combustion and of evaporation
and the horse-power should be computed from the records taken
during the time when the fires are in active condition. This
time is somewhat less than the actual time which elapses be-
tween the beginning and end of the run. The loss of time due
to kindling the fire at the beginning and burning it out at the
end makes this course necessary.
XIV. Quality of Steam. The percentage of moisture in the
steam should be determined by the use of either a throttling or
APPENDIX. I/
a separating steam calorimeter. The sampling nozzle should
be placed in the vertical steam pipe rising from the boiler. It
should be made of J-inch pipe, and should extend across the
diameter of the steam pipe to within half an inch of the oppo-
site side, being closed at the end and perforated with not less
than twenty J-inch holes equally distributed along and around
its cylindrical surface, but none of these holes should be nearer
than J inch to the inner side of the steam pipe. The calorim-
eter and the pipe leading to it should be well covered with
felting. Whenever the indications of the throttling or separat-
ing calorimeter show that the percentage of moisture is irregu-
lar, or occasionally in excess of three per cent., the results should
be checked by a steam separator placed in the steam pipe as
close to the boiler as convenient, with a calorimeter in the steam
pipe just beyond the outlet from the separator. The drip from
the separator should be caught and weighed, and the percent-
age of moisture computed therefrom added to that shown by
the calorimeter.
Superheating should be determined by means of a thermome-
ter placed in a mercury well inserted in the steam pipe. The
degree of superheating should be taken as the difference be-
tween the reading of the thermometer for superheated steam
and the readings of the same thermometer for saturated steam
at the same pressure as determined by a special experiment,
and not by reference to steam tables.
For calculations relating to quality of steam and corrections
for quality of steam, see pages 119 and 123.
XV. Sampling the Coal and Determining its Moisture. As
each barrow load or fresh portion of coal is taken from the coal
pile, a representative shovelful is selected from it and placed in
a barrel or box in a cool place and kept until the end of the
trial. The samples are then mixed and broken into pieces not
exceeding one inch in diameter, and reduced by the process of
repeated quartering and crushing until a final sample weighing
about five pounds is obtained, and the size of the larger pieces,
are such that they will pass through a sieve with J-inch meshes.
From this sample two one-quart, air-tight glass preserving jars,
or other air-tight vessels which will prevent the escape of moist-
ure from the sample, are to be promptly filled, and these sam-
ples are to be kept for subsequent determinations of moisture
and of heating value and for chemical analyses. During the
1 88 APPENDIX.
process of quartering, when the sample has been reduced to
about 100 pounds, a quarter to a half of it may be taken for an
approximate determination of moisture. This may be made by
placing it in a shallow iron pan, not over three inches deep,
carefully weighing it, and setting the pan in the hottest place
that can be found on the brickwork of the boiler setting or flues,
keeping it there for at least 12 hours, and then weighing it.
The determination of moisture thus made is believed to be ap-
proximately accurate for anthracite and semi-bituminous coals,
and also for Pittsburg or Youghiogheny coal ; but it cannot be
relied upon for coals mined west of Pittsburg, or for other coals
containing inherent moisture. For these latter coals it is impor-
tant that a more accurate method be adopted. The method
recommended by the Committee for all accurate tests, whatever
the character of the coal, is described as follows :
Take one of the samples contained in the glass jars, and
subject it to a thorough air-drying, by spreading it in a thin layer
and exposing it for several hours to the atmosphere of a warm
loom, weighing it before and after, thereby determining the quan-
tity of surface moisture it contains. Then crush the whole of it by
Tunning it through an ordinary coffee mill adjusted so as to pro-
duce somewhat coarse grains (less than T Vinch), thoroughly mix
the crushed sample, select from it a portion of from 10 to 50
grams, weigh it in a balance which will easily show a variation
as small as 1 part in 1,000, and dry it in an air or sand bath at
a temperature between 240 and 280 degrees ahr. for one hour.
Weigh it and record the loss, then heat and weigh it again
repeatedly, at intervals of an hour or less, until the minimum
"weight has been reached and the weight begins to increase by
oxidation of a portion of the coal. The difference between the
original and the minimum weight is taken as the moisture in the
air-dried coal. This moisture test should preferably be made
on duplicate samples, and the results should agree within 0.3
to 0.4 of one per cent., the mean of the two determinations being
taken as the correct result. The sum of the percentage of
moisture thus found and the percentage of surface moisture
previously determined is the total moisture.
XYI. Treatment of Ashes and Refuse. The ashes and refuse
are to be weighed in a dry state. If it is found desirable to
show the principal characteristics of the ash, a sample should
be subjected to a proximate analysis and the actual amount
APPENDIX. 189
of incombustible material determined. For elaborate trials a
-complete analysis of the ash and refuse should be made.
XVII. Calorific Tests and Analysis of Coal. The quality of the
fuel should be determined either by heat test or by analysis, or
by both.
The rational method of determining the total heat of combus-
tion is to burn the sample of coal in an atmosphere of oxygen
gas, the coal to be sampled as directed in Article XV. of this
-code.
The chemical analysis of the coal should be made only by an
expert chemist. The total heat of combustion computed from
the results of the ultimate analysis may be obtained by the
use of Dulong's formula (with constants modified by recent
determinations), viz.: 14,600 C + 62,000 (n~\ + 4,000 8,
\ o/
in which (7, II, 0, and 8 refer to the proportions of carbon, hy-
drogen, oxygen, and sulphur respectively, as determined by the
ultimate analysis.*
It is desirable that a proximate analysis should be made,
thereby determining the relative proportions of volatile matter
.and fixed carbon. These proportions furnish an indication of
the leading characteristics of the fuel, and serve to fix the
cLiss to which it belongs. As an additional indication of the
^characteristics of the fuel, the specific gravity should be deter-
mined.
XVIII. Analysis of Flue Gase-. The analysis of the flue gases
is an especially valuable method of determining the relative
value of different methods of firing, or of different kinds of fur-
naces. In making these analyses great care should be taken to
procure average samples since the composition is apt to vary
at different points of the flue (pp. 128 and 129). The com-
position is also apt to vary from minute to minute, and for this
reason the drawings of gas should last a considerable period of
time. Where complete determinations are desired, the analyses
should be intrusted to an expert chemist. For approximate
determinations the Orsat t or the Hempel J apparatus may be
used by the engineer.
*Favre and Silberraan give 14,544 B.T.U. per pound carbon ; Berthelot 14,647
B.T.TJ. Favre and Silberman give 62,032 B.T.U. per pound hydrogen ; Thomsen.
1,816 B.T.U.
f See R S. Hale's paper on "Flue Gas Analysis," Trans. A. S. M. K, vol.
xviii., p. 901.
JSee Hempel's "Methods of Gas Analysis" (Dennis' Translation).
APPENDIX.
For the continuous indication of the amount of carbonic acid
present in the flue gases, an instrument may be employed which
shows the weight of the sample of gas passing through it.
XIX. Smoke Observations. It is desirable to have a uni-
form system of determining and recording the quantity of smoke
produced where bituminous coal is used. The system com-
monly employed is to express the degree of smokiness by means
of percentages dependent upon the judgment of the observer.
The Committee does not place much value upon a percentage
method, because it depends so largely upon the personal ele-
ment, but if this method is used, it is desirable that, so far as
possible, a definition be given in explicit terms as to the basis
and method employed in arriving at the percentage. The actual
measurement of a sample of soot and smoke by some form of
meter is to be preferred.
XX. Miscellaneous. In tests for purposes of scientific re-
search, in which the determination of all the variables entering
into the test is desired, certain observations should be made
which are in general unnecessary for ordinary tests. These are
the measurement of the air supply, the determination of its
contained moisture, the determination of the amount of heat
lost by radiation, of the amount of infiltration of air through
the setting, and (by condensation of all the steam made by the
boiler) of the total heat imparted to the water.
As these determinations are rarely undertaken, it is not
deemed advisable to give directions for making them.
XXI. Calculations of Efficiency. Two methods of defining and
calculating the efficiency of a boiler are recommended. They are :
n* J?J.T r. -i Heat absorbed per Ib. combustible
1. Efficiency of the boiler = ^ . ^ . * .,
Calorific value of 1 Ib. combustible
r -n/*? J.T T- -i j Heat absorbed per Ib. coal
2. Efficiency of the boiler and grate = /ri ^r * ^r-rr-
Calorific value of 1 Ib. coal
The first of these is sometimes called the efficiency based on
combustible, and the second the efficiency based on coal. The
first is recommended as a standard of comparison for all tests,
and this is the one which is understood to be referred to when
the word "efficiency" alone is used without qualification. The
second, however, should be included in a report of a test, to-
gether with the first, whenever the object of the test is to deter-
mine the efficiency of the boiler and furnace together with the
APPENDIX.
grate (or mechanical stoker), or to compare different furnaces,,
grates, fuels, or methods of firing.
The heat absorbed per pound of combustible (or per pound
coal) is to be calculated by multiplying the equivalent evapora-
tion from and at 212 degrees per pound combustible (or coal) by
965.7.
XXII. The Heat Balance. An approximate " heat balance," or
statement of the distribution of the heating value of the coal
among the several items of heat utilized and heat lost may be
included in the report of a test when analyses of the fuel and of
the chimney gases have been made. It should be reported in
the following form :
HEAT BALANCE, OR DISTRIBUTION OP THE HEATING VALUE OF THE COMBUSTIBLE.
Total Heat Value of 1 Ib. of Combustible. . . .B. T. U.
1.
Heat absorbed by the boiler evaporation from and at 212
degrees per pound of combustible x 965.7.
Loss due to moisture in coal = percent, of moisture referred
to combustible -*- 100 x [(212 - ) + 966 + 0.48 (T
212)] (t '=- temperature of air in the boiler-room, T =
that of the flue gases).
Loss due to moisture formed by the burning of hydrogen
= per cent, of hydrogen to combustible -5-100 x 9 x
[ (312 - 4- 966 + 0.48 (T - 212)].
4.* Loss due to heat carried away in the dry chimney gases
weight of gasper pound of combustible x 0.24 x (T t).
CO
5.f Loss due to incomplete combustion of carbon =
2.
3.
per cent. C in combustible
100
C0 2 + CO
10,150.
6.
Lose due to unconsumed hydrogen and hydrocarbons, to
heating the moisture in the air, to radiation, and unac-
counted for. (Some of these losses may be separately
itemized if data are obtaiued from which they may be
calculated.)
Totals . .
B. T. U. Per Cent.
100.00
* The weight of gas per pound of carbon burned maybe calculated from the gas analyses as
follows :
Dry gas per pound carbon = 11 C 2 + 8O + 7 (CO + ^, in which CO 2 , CO, O, and N are the
3 (C0 2 + CO)
percentages by volume of the several gases. As the sampling and analyses of the gases in the
present state of the art are liable to considerable errors, the result of this calculation is usually
only an approximate one. The heat balance itself is also only approximate for this reason, as well,
as for the fact that it is not possible to determine accurately the percentage of unburned hydrogen
or hydrocarbons in the flue gases.
The weight of dry gas per pound of combustible is found by multiplying the dry gas per pound
of carbon by the percentage of carbon in the combustible, and dividing by 100.
tCO 2 and CO are respectively the percentage by volume of carbonic acid and carbonic oxide in
the flue gases. The quantity 10,150 = No. heat units generated by burning to carbonic acid one-
pound of carbon contained in carbonic oxide.
XXIII. Report of the Trial. The data and results should be
reported in the manner given in either one of the two following
19 2 APPENDIX.
tables, omitting lines where the tests have not been made as
elaborately as provided for in such tables. Additional lines may-
be added for data relating to the specific object of the test. The
extra lines should be classified under the headings provided in
the tables, and numbered as per preceding line, with sub letters
a, 6, etc. The Short Form of Report, Table No. 2, is recom-
mended for commercial tests and as a convenient form of
abridging the longer form for publication when saving of space
is desirable. For elaborate trials, it is recommended that the
full log of the trial be shown graphically, by means of a chart.
TABLE NO. 1.
DATA AND RESULTS OF EVAPORATIVE TEST,
Arranged in accordance with the Complete Form advised by the Boiler Test
. Committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Code of 1899.
Made by of boiler at to
determine
Principal conditions governing the trial
Kind of fuel*
Kind of furnace ....
State of the weather.
Method of starting and stopping the test (" standard" or " alternate," Art. X
and XL, Code)
1. Date of trial
2. Duration of trial hours.
Dimensions and Proportions.
(A complete description of the boiler, and drawings of the same if of unusual
type, should be given on an annexed sheet. (See Appendix X.)
3. Grate surface width length area sq. ft.
4. Height of furnace ins.
5. Approximate width of air spaces in grate in.
6. Proportion of air space to whole grate surface per cent.
7. Water-heating surface sq. ft.
8. Superheating surface
9. Ratio of water-heating surface to grate surface. to 1.
10. Ratio of minimum draft area to grate surface 1 to
* The items printed in italics correspond to the items in the " Short Form of Code,"
APPENDIX. 193
Average, Pressures.
11. Steam pressure by gauge Ibs. persq.in.
12. Force of draft between damper and boiler ins. of water.
18. Force of draft in furnace " "
14. Force of draft or blast in ashpit " "
Average Temperatures.
15. Of external air deg.
16. Of fireroom
17. Of steam
18. Of feed water entering heater , "
19. Of feed water entering economizer "
20. Of feed water entering boiler "
21. Of escaping gases from boiler "
22. Of escaping gases from economizer "
Fuel.
23. Size and condition
24. Weight of wood used in lighting fire Ibs.
25. Weight of coal as fired* ....
26. Percentage of moisture in coal \ per cent.
27. Total weight of dry coal consumed Ibs.
28. Total ash and refuse
29. Quality of ash and refuse
30. Total combustible consumed Ibs.
31. Percentage of ash and refuse in dry coal per cent.
Proximate Analysis of Coal.
Of Coal. Of Combustible.
32. Fixed carbon per cent. per cent.
33. Volatile matter
34. Moisture
35. Ash . , "
100 per cent. 100 per cent.
36. Sulphur, separately determined " "
* Including equivalent of wood used in lighting the fire, not including unburnt coal withdrawn
from furnace at times of cleaning and at end of test. One pound of wood is taken to be equal to
0.4 pound of coal, or, in ca*e greater accuracy is desired, as having a heat value equivalent to the
evaporation of 6 pounds of water from and at 212 degrees per pound. (6 x 965.7 = 5,794 B. T. U.)
The term "as fired " means in its actual condition, including moisture.
t This is the total moisture in the coal as found by drying it artificially, as described in Art.
XV. of Code.
2
104 APPENDIX.
Ultimate Analysis of Dry Coal.
(Art. XVII., Code.)
Of Coal. Of Combustible.
37. Carbon (C) per cent. per cent.
38. Hydrogen (B)
39. Oxygen (0)
40. Nitrogen (JT)
41. Sulphur (8)
42. Ash
100 per cent. 100 per cent.
43. Moisture in sample of coal as received
Analysis of Ash and Refuse.
44. Carbon per cent,
45. Earthy matter
Fuel per Hour.
46. Dry coal consumed per hour Ibs.
47. Combustible consumed per hour "
48. Dry coal per square foot of grate surface per hour
49. Combustible per square foot of water-heating surface per hour. "
Calorific Value of Fuel.
(Art. XVII., Code.)
50. Calorific value by oxygen calorimeter, per Ib. of dry coal B. T. U.
61. Calorific value by oxygen calorimeter, per Ib. of combustible
52. Calorific value by analysis, per Ib. of dry coal *
53. Calorific value by analysis, per Ib. of combustible
Quality of Steam.
54. Percentage of moisture in steam per cent.
55. Number of degrees of superheating deg.
56. Quality of steam (dry steam = unity). (For exact determina-
tion of the factor of correction for quality of steam see Ap-
pendix XVIII.)
Water.
57. Total weight of water fed to boiler ^ Ibs.
58. Equivalent water fed to boiler from and at 212 degrees
59. Water actually evaporated, corrected for quality of steam. .......
* See formula for calorific value under Article XVTI. of Code, also page 7.
t Corrected for inequality of water level and of steam pressure at beginning and end of test.
APPENDIX. 195
60. Factor of evaporation * . Ibs.
61. Equivalent water evaporated into dry steam from and at 212
degrees, f (Item 59 x Item 60.) "
Water per Hour.
63. Water evaporated per hour, corrected for quality of steam "
63. Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 degrees^ "
64. Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 degrees per
square foot of water-heating surface \ "
Horse-Power.
65. Horse-power developed. (34 Ibs. of water evaporated per hour
into dry steam from and at 213 degrees, equals one horse-
power) \ H. P.
66. Builders' rated horse-power . "
67. Percentage of builders' rated horse-power developed per cent.
Economic Results.
68. Water apparently evaporated under actual conditions per pound
of coal as fired. (Item 58 -*- Item 25. ) Ibs.
69. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of
coal as fired, f (Item 61 -f- Item 25.) . . "
70. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of dry
coal.\ (Item 61 -f- Item 27.) "
71. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of
combustible, f (Item 61 -r- Item 30.) "
(If the equivalent evaporation, Items 69, 70, and 71, is not cor-
rected for the quality of steam, the fact should be stated).
Efficiency.
(Art. XXI., Code.)
72. Efficiency of the boiler ; heat absorbed by the boiler per Ib. of com-
bustible divided by the heat value of one Ib. of combustible % ____ per cent,
73. Efficiency of boiler, including the grate; heat absorbed by the
boiler, per Ib. of dry coal, divided by the heat value of one Ib. of
dry coal ................................................
* Factor of evaporation =
in which H and h are respectively the total heat in steam of
the average observed pressure, and in water of the average observed temperature of the feed.
t The symbol " U. E." meaning " Units of Evaporation," may be conveniently substituted for
the expression "Equivalent water evaporated into dry steam from arid at 212 degrees," its defini-
tion being given in a foot-note.
$ Held to be the equivalent of 30 Ibs. of water per hour evaporated from 100 degrees Fahr. into
dry steam at 70 Ibs. g-auge pressure. (See Introduction to Code.)
In all cases where the word combustible is used, it means the coal without moisture and ash,
but including all other constituents. It is the same as what is called in Europe " coal dry and free
from ash."
196 APPENDIX.
Cost of Evaporation.
74. Cost of coal per ton of Ibs. delivered in boiler room $
75. Cost of fuel for evaporating 1,000 Ibs. of water under observed
conditions $
76. Cost of fuel used for evaporating 1,000 Ibs. of water from and at
212 degrees , $
Smoke Observations.
77. Percentage of smoke as observed per cent,
78. Weight of soot per hour obtained from smoke meter ounces
79. Volume of soot per hour obtained from smoke meter cub. in..
Methods of Firing.
80. Kind of firing (spreading, alternate, or coking)
81. Average thickness of fire
82. Average intervals between firings for each furnace during time
when fires are in normal condition
83. Average interval between times of levelling or breaking up. ...
Analyses of the Dry Gases.
84. Carbon dioxide ((70 2 ) : per cent.
85. Oxygen (0)
86. Carbon monoxide (CO]
87. Hydrogen and hydrocarbons "
88. Nitrogen (by difference) (N)
100 per cent.
TABLE NO. 2.
DATA AND RESULTS OF EVAPORATIVE TEST,
Arranged in accordance with the Short Form advised by the Boiler Test Com-
mittee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Code of 1899.
Made by on boiler, at to
determine '. . .
Kind of fuel
Kind of furnace
Method of starting and stopping the test ("standard" or " alternate," Art. X_
and XL , Code)
Grate surface sq. ft.
Water-heating surface "
Superheating surface "
Total Quantities.
1. Date of trial
2. Du ration of trial hours.
3. Weight of coal as fired * Ibs.
4. Percentage of moisture in coal * per cent.
5. Total weight of dry coal consumed Ibs.
6. Total ash and refuse . "
7. Percentage of ash and refuse in dry coal per cent.
* See foot-notes of Complete Form.
APPENDIX.
197
8. Total weight of water fed to tue boiler * Ibs.
9. Water actually evaporated, corrected for moisture or super-
heat in steam "
10. Equivalent water evaporated into dry steam from and at 212
degrees * * 4
Hourly Quantities.
11. Dry coal consumed per hour Ibsi
12. Dry coal per square foot of grate surface per hour **
13. Water evaporated per hour corrected for quality of steam. ... "
14. Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 degrees *. . . "
15. Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 degrees per
square foot of water-heating surface * "
Average Pressures, Temperatures, etc.
16. Steam pressure by gauge Ibs. per sq. in.
17. Temperature of feed water entering boiler deg.
18. Temperature of escaping gases from boiler "
19. Force of draft between damper and boiler ins. of water..
20. Percentage of moisture in steam, or number of degrees of
superheating per cent, ordeg.
Horse-Power.
21. Horse-power developed (Item 14 -5- 34$) * H. P.
22. Builders' rated horse-power "
23. Percentage of builders' rated horse-power developed per cent.
Economic Results.
24. Water apparently evaporated under actual conditions per
pound of coal as fired. (Item 8 -4- Item 3) Ibs.
25. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of
coal as fired.* (Item 9 -=- Item 3) "
26. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of "
dry coal.* (Item 9 -j- Item 5)
27. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of
combustible.* [Item 9 -r- (Item 5 Item 6)]
(If Items 25, 26, and 27 are not corrected for quality of steam,
the fact should be stated.)
Efficiency.
28. Calorific value of the dry coal per pound B. T. U.
29. Calorific value of the combustible per pound " " "
30. Efficiency of boiler (based on combustible) * per cent.
31. Efficiency of boiler, including grate (based on dry coal)
Cost of Evaporation.
32. Cost of coal per ton of Ibs. delivered in boiler-room $
33. Cost of coal required for evaporating 1,000 pounds of water
from and at 212 degrees $
* See foot-notes of Complete Form.
198
7 'ABLE I.
TABLE L HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF SUBSTANCES.
Calories.
B. T. U.
Crystallized carbon to CO a . .
7859
14146
Berthelot
to CO...
2405
4329
"
Amorphous carbon to CO 3 ..
8137
14647
it
" to CO...
2489
4480
M
Graphite to CO a
7901
14222
"
Petroleum coke to CO a
8017
14503
Mahler
8047
14485
F. & S.
Carbon vapor to CO a
11328
20390 j
Calculated.
Page 174.
7800 to 9000
14040 to 16200
Various
S- Lignite (pure and dry)
6000 to 7000
10800 to 12600
"
7140
12852
Schwackhofer
Soft charcoal
7071
12723
"
4200
7560
Berthelot
5050
9090
Gottlieb
" 'Hard wood,
4750
8550
"
k-peat
5940
10692
Bainbridge
Cane sugar
3961
7130
Berthelot
Asphalt
9532
17159
Slosson & Colburn
Pitch
8400
15120
Anon.
9690
16842
Berthelot
Paraffin
IIOOO
19800
Mahler
Tallow
9500
17100
Stohmann
Sulphur
2500
4500
Berthelot
t ~ Petroleum
9600 to 1 1000
17280 to 19800
Various
Schist-oil
9000 to i oooo
1620010 18000
"
8900
16020
Ste-Claire Deville
Cotton oil.
9500
17100
Anon.
Rape oil
9489
17080
Stohmann
Olive oil
9473
17051
M
Sperm oil
1 0000
18000
Gibson
/ Hydrogen
34500
62100
Berthelot
Carbonic oxide
2435
4383
*<
Marsh gas
13343
24017
'
Olefiant gas
12182
21898
"
-) -Acetylene
12142
21856
"
Carbon vapor (diamond). . .
"134
20041
"
Coal gas
4440 to 7370
799010 12266
Various
10800
19440
Anon.
Air producer gas
773 to 1370
1391 to 2466
Various
2350 to 3032
423010 5458
"
Mixed gas
1015 to 1548
1827 to 2786
"
TABLE II.
199
TABLE II. THERMOMETER REDUCTION TABLES.
A. CENTIGRADE TO FAHRENHEIT.
c.
F.
C.
F.
C.
F.
C.
F.
I
1.8
IO
18
100
1 80
1000
1800
2
3-6
20
36
200
360
2OOO
3600
3
5-4
30
54
300
54P
3000
5400
4
7-2
40
72
4OO
720
4000
7200
5
9.0
50
90
500
900
5COO
9000
6
10.8
60
108
600
1080
6OOO
10800
t
12.6
70
126
700
1260
7OOO
12600
8
14.4
80
144
800
1440
8000
14400
9
16.2
90
162
9 00
1620
9000
16200
B. FAHRENHEIT TO CENTIGRADE.
C.
551
i66f
222f
F.
C.
F.
C.
F.
i
1
10
5l
100
2
4
20
zz|
200
3
i
30
i6f
300
4
a$
40
22|
400
5
2 1
50
27*
500
6
3|
60
33|
600
7
3t
70
38|
700
8
4|
80
44|
800
9
5
90
50
900
333^
444f
500
F.
1OOO
2OOO
3000
4OOO
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
C.
555f
1 666 1
2222|
27771
3333t
3 888f
4444.1
5000
Having 1 given Centigrade degrees, obtain from Table A the
.corresponding equivalents, and to their sum add 32.
Example: Find Fahrenheit degrees corresponding to
416 C.
720+ 18 + 10.8 +32 780.8.
Having given Fahrenheit degrees, subtract 32 and find the
value in Table B corresponding to the remainder.
Example : Find Centigrade degrees corresponding to
-16 - 32 = -48, -48 F. = -
= -26$.
200
TABLES III,
TABLE III. THEORETICAL FLAME TEMPERATURES.
In Oxygen.
In Air.
Centigrade.
Fahrenheit.
Centigrade.
Fahrenheit-
C to CO
4265
1 0000
7010
6727
7971
9659
11300
9350
2500
5400
7558
9444
5800
3000
3800
2300
7677
ISOOO
12618
I2I08
14348
17286
20340
16830
4500
9720
13604
17000
10440
5400
6840
4140
1462
2718
3000
2674
2245
3000
3400
2790
1200
27OO
2400
2730
2280
1200
1500
IO6O
2639
4892
5400
4813
4036
5400
6l2O
5022
2l6o
4860
4320
4914
4104
2l6o
2700
1908
C to CO 2
CO to CO a
Olefiant gas C 3 H 4
Wood
Sulphur to H 2 SO 4
TABLE IV. WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF GASES.
Name.
Weight.
Volume.
Per Cubic
Metre in
Kilograms.
Per Cubic
Foot in
Pounds.
Per Kilogram'
in Cubic
Metres.
Per Pound
in
Cubic Feet.
Air
.29318
.25616
.4298
.08961
.9666
.2515
.0727
0.8047
2 . 8605
I.25I9
0.7155
I.igOO
3-3333
I.34I5
0.08073
0.07845
0.08926
0.00559
0.12344
0.07817
0.06696
0.05022
0.1787
0.07814
0.04466
0.07428
0.208
0.08565
0.773
0.796
0.699
11.160
0.508
0.8oo
0.932
1.242
0-349
0.799
1-397
0.840
0.303
0.746
12.385
12.763
I I . 203
178.83
8.147
I 2 . 8OO-
14.930
19.912
5.59&
12.797
22.391
13-456
4.808
11.950
Ethylene, C a H 4
Methane CH 4 . ...
Acetylene, C 2 H a
TABLE V.
2O I
VH
O
A
U
u
sionpojj
! ! ! 1 ! |
w
0.
BQ
1 1 1 1 1 I
X
O
'|
to
oo M vo ro M
H
00 ON ro 'S) S ro
6 >A N N
04
fa
i>i
tt
a
J3
-mo:
aiqiisnq
) snoasBf)
ro ro ON I s * ON ON
6 6 M
&
V)
C/3
bt,
,0
S i
sionpojj
*OO O O eO'O e '
> U U U B uB uB
^ CM' \o to io oo in
fc
W
O
EU
- -C
3
BQ
,v
!?*??! ?
X
fa
1
i
sjonpojj
NO" fo P. 8 8 *
^ ro N w ON io 4-
o
fa"
s
iz>
1
o
. tx ro M o O oo
O NO ro t^ Q N
~ NO ro io o O *
Vj f/* M O OO + ro
>J
o
Q
X.
^
tM
siDnpojj
II II II II II II II II
cj ^ u B* UB* OB"
<
H
ffi
O
Molecular W
ua3jlxo
00 N
M ON
*0 NO NO |j 1|
2 9
insnqraoa
s -s
TABLE V.
J3
1
DJ ^
1 i" i"
- -o^^
J3 O > w -S
o u u B S W
202
TABLE VI.
* 3
W -o
O
X
o
o
W
s
J
o
Volume in Cubic Feet at 32, per Pound
of Combustible.
Combustible.
,
PQ
jonpojj
m u-> Tt- M M c
_ ^ TfvO w O O . en
"3 i* <> T}- r^. c> rA. r^.
rjfr, cnoo en t-i tn o
M IT. CM M
MjV
m N rj- Tf- o en
.z^^fr^r^M m u->
"s,v & & 6 6 A -j-
rjfc cno en en M oo
M Tj- 6-. eJ oo rA M
jj fc M O M r^ \O vr>
uaSXxQ
Hwvoenoi^- w r^
us^ooo^enTj-oo en
rjfc, C>^-OC> "f 00
w N HI oo rf en
saiqnsnq
-0103 snoasBQ
en en o> rt M O
y.JO^O'r^o T*- i^
SwTf4-c^od cJ w
^fcU r, M W I^ W H,
Composition by
Volume.
jonpojd
o' dod^d^c^
> uuuEu^uE
WMMMMTj-MW
uaSXxo
"o e M M i-i rf cn
aiqi}snqtno3
^ U R ffi t 1
> H M w N U U
o
3 4>
1
^
|S
1
Combustion.
<
>
P3
sionpojd
Ti- 1^. rt -i- cn
O G^oo oo s O
ja "~> r^ Tf i- en O^
1-3 N O cn r> oo XT)
M cn M M
j|v
"I- r^ -rf Tf a cn
yj QN QN OO CO Q^ O
X3 "^ r^ ^ t^ cn o^
> - 2 M XT) pj TJ- 1^. Tf
M cn M M
c
M
X
K
X
cc
sionpojj
t->i cn M o O oo
a- \O en r^ O O N
ja O cn xn o O ri-
, "^ cn CM M o\ u-> TJ-
uaSAxQ
r~ en M O O oo
cn O en r^ O O M
ja O cn vo O O T
^ cJ M c5 oo TJ- cn
Molecular
Weights.
sjonpojj
TJ-QO rj-oo rfo oo O
rj- CM T M ^ cnco en
C,Q Q Q ^
u u u n: o ; ^ 5
UaSAXQ
OO CJ
W O^
M M
W O O O II II
cn H
00 W
aiqpsnqujo^
a w co N -o oo
M M CM >-( CM
|
2
1 1 |;
o : ffi K
. c u u ^
j D nT aT
g r i
^X5^^ >,
rt IS rt ^ -S
UUUK S W
TABLE VII.
203
o
O rt
2; fa
3
W
\
tt
W
ffl
n <* <^ c<->o to
C> M \O O rj- tn
N O vn m rx O
o COCOM e>i
coioco -S
TJ- co
N O N \r> Tj-co
ao - to co co N
O O O O O O
> > > > > >
204
TABLE VIII.
V)
* 6 6 6 6
en
6
N
O
6
o
en
O
1
6
m
00
en
6
s,- a "
< * . * S 8
m
in
1
^
co
Jt
CO
3 1
O
o
M
N
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r- ^ r>. in
^6666
CO
6
en
m
6
o
M
en
0)
6
6
Tf
6
p
CO Tf CO
M r^ N
II II II
*8"8
CO
II
ffi
u
II
ffi
U
w
II
en
II
6
CO
II
o
co
II
q
|s
Vi
rt^ U
en <* o
co in co
II II il
II
II
CO
II
in
||
CO
II
in
CO
II
2 rt
8 8 8 8
8
8
8
8
8
8
il
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2 88
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DC
U
ac
o
q
ffi
.
.
0)
T3
"o X
J O
C o o
HI
3
bo
C
rt
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c
bo
o
1
"S
O
VH
3
O,
ueous vapor .
-- rt rt
< Z U U
O
x
5
cr
X s OF THE
UNIVERSITY
TABLES IX, X, XI. 2O5
TABLE IX. TABLE OF SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASEOUS PROD-
UCTS OF COMBUSTION REFERRED TO THE PROPORTION
OF CARBONIC ACID.
Proportion of
Specific
Proportion of
Specific
Carbonic Acid.
Heat.
Carbonic Acid.
Heat.
5 per cent
0.312
1 1 per cent
0.319
6 " "
0.314
12 " "
0.320
J it < t
0.315
13 " "
0.321
8 " "
0.316
14 " ^
O.322
9 " "
0.317
15 4< "
0.323
10 " "
0.318
TABLE X. HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF WATER AT o TO
230 C.
Temperature. Heat of
Centigrade. Fahrenheit. Vaporization.
o 32 606.5
100 212 537-0
230 456 676.6
JLatent heat of vaporization, 966 (Regnault).
TABLE XL SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER (REGNAULT).
Temperature. Specific Heat. Temperature. Specific Heat.
o i. oooo 110 1.0153
IO I.OOO5 I2O I.OI77
20 I.OOI2 130 1.0204
30 I.OO2O 140 I.O232
40 1.0030 150 1.0262
50 1.0042 160 1.0294
60 1.0056 170 1.0328
70. I.OO72 1 80 1.0364
8O.. 1.0098 190 I.040I
90 1.0109 2O 1.0440
100 1.0130
206
TABLES XII, XIII.
TABLE XII. VOLUME OF OXYGEN TO FORM WATER WITH THE
HYDROGEN OF COAL.
Per Cent of Hydrogen.
Oxygen in Litres per
Kilogram of Coal.
2
112
'i .
168
4- .
. 223
t.
2 7Q
6
335
7..
391
8
. 446
Q..
, 502
Oxygen in Cubic Feet
per Pound of Coal.
.896
1.792
2.699
3.585
4.481
5-397
6.283
/.I/O
8.096
TABLE XIII. QUANTITY OF AIR REQUIRED FOR PERFECT
COMBUSTION OF FUELS.
Fuel.
Composition.
Air per
Carbon.
Hydrogen.
Oxygen.
Nitrogen.
Kilogram.
Pound.
Coke
98.0
95-4
87.0
85.0
84.0
77.0
90.0
71.0
58.0
50.0
85.0
68.7
58.0
34-0
I.O
0.5
2.2
5-0
5-0
6.0
5-o
2.0
5-0
6.0
6.0
14.0
22.5
23.7
5-9
5-0
cu. metres
10.09
9.01
8-93
8.68
8.79
7.67
8.53
7.02
5-75
4-57
10. 76
14.20
14-51
3.16
.72
cu. feet
162.06
144.60
143.40
I39.4I
141.07
123.15
133.90
112.43
92.36
73- 3&
172.86
227.93
233.06
50.70
11.56
Coal, anthracite
bituminous . .
1.8
4.0
6.0
8.0
15.0
0-5
cannel
smithy , . . .
Charcoal
19.0
30.0
42.0
I.O
I.O
1.4
43.0
21.0
Peat dry . . . .
Wood dry
I.O
6.2
3.8
3-4
69.0
Coal gas .
W^ater gas
Producer gas
TABLES XIV, XV. 2O/
TABLE XIV. RELATION BY WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF THE
COMPONENTS OF AIR.
Air contains by volume :
Nitrogen 78.35
Oxygen 20.77
Aqueous vapor o. 84
Carbonic acid 0.04
100.00
Deducting the carbonic acid and aqueous vapor, we have :
Nitrogen. . ..By volume : 79.04 By weight : 76.83
Oxygen " " 20.96 " " 23.17
100.00 100.00
Ratio of nitrogen to oxygen :
N N
By volume, - = 3.771. By weight, = 3.32.
Ratio of air to oxygen :
Air . . Air
By volume, - = 4.771. By weight, = 4.315.
Ratio of air to nitrogen :
Air , . , , Air
By volume, = 1.265. By weight, = 1.302.
TABLE XV. IGNITION POINT OF GASES (Mayer and Miinch).*
Marsh gas, CH 667 C.
Ethane, C a H 8 . 616
Propane, C 3 H ( 547
Acetylene, C a H, 580
Propylene, C S H 8 504
* Berichte der deutschen Chemische Gesellschaft xxvi, 2421.
208 TABLE XVI.
TABLE XVI. SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER.
Degrees
Centi-
grade.
Regnault. 1
Rowland. 2
Rowland
(corrected)
Fernet. 3
Bartoli
and
Stracciati. 4
Ludin. 8
Griffiths.*
I.OOOOO
I.OOSo
1.0075
I
I.OOOO4
1.0072
.0068
2
.00008
.0065
.0061
3
.00013
.0059
.0054
4
.00017
.0052
.0048
5
.00022
.0056
1.0054
.0046
.0042
6
.00027
.0049
.0047
.0040
.0036
7
.00032
.0044
.0040
.0034
.0031
8
.00038
.0037
.0033
.0028
.0026
9
.00043
.0033
.0026
.0023
.0021
10
.OOO49
.OO26
.0019
.0018
.0017
.OO2O7O
ii
.00055
.OO2I
.0014
.0013
1.0013
.001636
12
.00061
.0016
.OOI2
.0009
1.0009
.001242
13
.00067
.0012
1.0009
.0005
1.0006
.000828
*4
.00074
.0007
1.0005
.0002
1.0003
.000414
15
.00080
1. 0000
I. 0000
.0000
1. 0000
1. 000000
16
.00087
0.9995
0.9995
0.9998
0.9998
0.999716
17
.00094
0.9991
0.9993
0.9997
0.9996
0.999432
18
.OOIOI
0.9986
0.9988
0.9996
0.9994
0.999248
19
.00109
0.9981
0.9984
0.9995
0.9992
0.998864
20
.00116
0.9977
0.9979
0.9994
0.9991
0.998880
21
.00123
0.9972
0.9977
0.9993
0.9991
22
.00132
0.9970
09974
0.9993
0.9990
23
.00140
0.9967
0.9974
0.9994
0.9990
24
.00148
0.9965
0.9972
0.9995
0.9989
25
.00156
0.9963
0.9972
0.9997
0.9989
26
.00165
0.9960
0.9969
0.9998
0.9989
27
.00174
0.9958
0.9967
.OOOO
0.9989
28
.00183
0.9958
0.9967
.OOO2
0.9990
29
.00192
0.9956
0.9967
.OOO5
0.9990
30
.00201
0.9958
0.9969
.0008
0.9990
31
.00210
0.9958
0.9972
.0011
0.9991
32
.00220
0.9958
0.9974
.0014
0.9992
33
.00230
0.9960
0.9977
.0017
0.9993
34
.00240
0.9960
0.9979
0.9995
35
.00250
0.9963
0.9981
0.9997
36
.OO26l
0.9963
0.9981
0.9999
1 C = i -{- 0.00004* -|- o.ooooogfl.
8 American Journal of Science and Arts, 1879.
3 Ueber die Aenderung der specifischen Wartne des Wassers mit Aenderung der Tempera-
tur. Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschergesellschaft in Zlirich, Jahrg. XLI (1896).
4 Sulla Variabilita del Galore Specifico dell' Acqua. Estratto dal Nuovo Cimento, Ser. 3
Vol. XXII.
5 Inaugural-Dissertation, Zurich, 1895.
* Philosophical Magazine, Nov. 1895.
FUEL TABLES.
These tables contain all the available information covering
the data required which have been published to date. They
contain analyses of the fuels, and the heat units as determined
by the authors, whose names are given. In some cases it has
been necessary to recalculate the results as published by the
experimenters to conform with the standard adopted. This
applies especially to the coals and solid fuels, the data for
which are given based on pure dry coal, i.e., on the combus-
tible present. If the actual test of the sample as given is
desired, it will be easy to make the necessary deductions.
Some of the cokes and some of the natural gases have been
calculated, the calculated results being within the limits of
experimental error in these cases.
209
210
FUEL TABLES.
>.
o
J3
CM co rf O m TJ- CM mo M o
'5 M
^ja
ss
la
1
"rt
U
r^ co 1-4 w \o N M coo i^ o
1-4 O t^ O O^co O* O r^ in ^-
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>}T?AV
d l n S
'ScSSvgSS^'&a 5;
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O O^ CM rj- in CM O^OO CO O CO
OOMMOOMMMM M
xo ^
LxQ
^ Oco Oco Oin N I-
P^H
*c3
COO-iO4-4COCOC>CON CO
?1 > R^^ V R V R1C V R1C < R ^
Carbon.
Volatile
T3
V
X
I OJ
::::.:.:: :^
- . . ...... in
n y ->., ,sr "
Name or Location
fl .2 ' * . . W * *
'c "" '. '. ' ,55 1 ! * ^4 '
^ '^ y^~X * * * t/1 * ^T* Q
rn C3 "t* ' fa 0^ C ' C3 .oo r^ r>oo
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^
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m M
o
H
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M OMOt^OOOO
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1
to M o w M co
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Name or Location.
y ' ^ fl
OH O "
-^ ID
> *S X >> X
C fl S C C
C-HC-j G-- C --G-j
d'Sc:^ 8S ^ "5^*5
S-u fe-s S-- u = S-u &
slsl sl s .2
oo O O
r^NO
cnmcn-^m coc^ cocococ^comcn^i-cococow cocoes
coO-u^co
s r"** r> M M o ^o w u^ o w* co *-*
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xo COM xnco
o
woo
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r^o^o
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incocotniriM
s
.
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- S^S^ b SjH-3 3-5J ^5
co T TO O O O co f CNOO O oo coco
qsy
O
W I T
T T co M co
w O HH o ""> w \n TO coco N O^O coTO>TOoo Tcor co
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~*
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o
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uaSojpAfj
Carbon.
is
H
Volatile
CO
r \f~> ^
N CO N O O
O "- Too co O T w d ui TO M O >-i TO TO TO oo O u">
COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO
o
6
M
C4
T M N T
to t^* 10 u"> T O^ O^ C/l d */> T N O O O W to N T CO M s I N
00 T T
TOTO i OO ortocoo Oco Too TN \ocot TOO
Name or Location.
''.'.'. '. '. '. '. '. '. I ' ^ ' ' ' S "h
.1.. . I..*' fco 'SS 175
: :
: : :^ .g ^ B S'S
}.j
iJ||.| c ; a . 2 Iillii^^lr
slsslllllil^lll Is
COAL.
r
Heat Units o
Combustible.
o Ooo in o O O O r^
M N O^M i-i N r^^m
m^to O -^-r^or^rt
Mwcn q
rnc^ooo M eno^-ten
M vn d M cncd en TJ- M GNO
enMoo O
co M
N enen
in enco r ci r^- ^ O O en --06
M n-N enen
enencnenenenenenM w cnenen
O M o r^
en N
O^f^f^oo NO mo^enoo O^N M ^r^.QO O^oomoo O O M o
enenin^fco M o^c\inincico enoo O\M rj-incnod ci oi ino'
^
il
>
u uQQc5 ffio^'x'
214
TABLES.
Authority.
hjn r
U
T
li
! - -
M C/2 >
3 >\f\
| 3!
' VI
'3 be
1 ^
*
'
o^ R
MJO H
M
IO > t^. CO CO
CO tO Hi I^CO
CO Tt- CO CO "3-
oo o^o o r-^o co o* o
oocooior^wioi-i o
Mp0 r^ o xo
Tj- CO Tf CO w "~
'c 5 PQ
-g 2
15 1
1"
HI M COO CO
S O* 2"co"R V co io 5 8
Miroiocor^r^co \n
Oco O m f^ M "?
oo io N r^ co rn a
K ^
o i^-o r^o o o o r^
00
Oco O oo in
O O co rf O
O mo O O O C* O *1-
vo xn r^
IN M r^ xn ON Tt -*
CO CO C^*) s *
a
rt
>
CO Pt CO M Q>
0) HI M
OoociWMincoi-i rt
223^
a
00
M vQ CO O^ CO
O O* COCO N CO T}- -f CO
Oxnot^O^r^xnco M
co oo o M co r^ -
rt
>
TO*
00
HI C* O xnco
M ^ NNMNN ^
00^0 COOO CO
?
CO
N O CO t^
O rfco m
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g
'35
M
O I"* xn M
?<
coMcoOO^toO Q
co xn T^-
8
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^
M
Tf M f O
to o i-i m O
00 h4 1-3 hH hH H
^ - 2
to
S
u
u
c
<
s
^0
^J N o m o^
N co N
Tf 't CO CO
S
1"
i
o
CO
O^ M co O m
^f M O^ Tj- Tf
coco O w co co w r-* co
co O^ f^ m co co to
*
O
in
4" f^ O* O co
TJ- ^- CO ^- Tj-
r-O O^o m o^o *n w
mo Tf m xn TJ- in xn O
co co CJ rr
I '. ' '. '.
'. u
' <
COAL.
215
>
w
u
H
^
UJ
X
3
Carpenter
ii
f f 3
*p a
1
1"
^^ - ^U
orf tj
"2 *"
88
in rt
in HH o** O rxvo O
O co in N co co M
M \O CO M M ^" in
CO
rx
*f N co o "it o>co rx
M co rx m 'i- ^-vo O
"'.Q UJ
rt S 'C
wo o
SO g
to O
OO OO
co rx M m o M
O O N CO O < ^ >
1
CO
oo tx
vO m
rx m
CO CO
00 O * co
tH M MM
CO
CO
M
rf
^t" O^co vO co t^ O M
COCOCOWdCJMCO
u
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32 ^ oj
o
s
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qsy
M
,-M
6
,n qdlns
uaSoaii^j;
uaSAxQ
jnqding
'uaSAxQ
naSojpAjj
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1
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3 1
CO
T3
V
M
3
Name or Location.
tn
bo
to
cS
a
co M en r^ O en
r^oo oo oo
eno o s mcncc>"->r^r^Oooco en
rs
I
PQU
COAL.
sis s s
C g U) g * ^Ncooor^o
q ^o TI-MO_TI- Tj-o q
\n \O *O *n N O
O N
t^ N-f^t- ^ N'T}- OOM OOMOM1OM
co oco co co oo oo i-^oo oo oco oo r^ oco co
218
TABLES.
> >
.
S 1
g -
*= - -
1; sis
*4- w O^Oooo Oco r^
r^co coOOOO^O-^O^NO^
O > O s cOOcoi-Oc r
O^M >- O o^oooooo r^o O
rj-tN r^coo tot^-cno^tNoo ONt-^vo TJ-C>COO
w o r^r>.\nvO r^c^.co ^r^covQ IO-^-M coo
CntNMCNO'-"M mco C^COMdMtNt-icnO
CXDCOOO r>.cococooooocococoooo oooooco r^oocooococc r^oo co
qsy
O
tr>
r^-OO co co o O CN o co co
M CO OO CO
r^O O OcooOco oo
OO OO^n
IT) IT) IT) O
M co
O O W co M
M M CO CN M
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co coo O
o
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i S'S ^ T3
s<'"o^
1 -!!!! It
U PQUUUUUW
: o 1 1
: : : g "5
= ?;! 1
lls M
|^|, 3| s
^ ^ J^ S o
w w^^ ^ ft
220
FUEL TABLES.
>,
o
ffi
1
i
a
5
<
i I s
= ]
JD
"o o> ^
co co co O O xn
l-i CM O CO O r-
xn in xn in T^- rf
tr- in co M co O
^ o Oco CM rj-
^- 5i_i CM M CO CM
o 1-1 xn in xn xn xn
O ** O CM xncM f^mrj-o O
COCMCOCOMCMr^MMMCO
toco M CM CM o i^> r^ r^o O
CON Tj-COCOCM CM COCM CO^t
tt M
?
si 1
W xn r^ w OO
co ^t f- xn xn co
, SP xno ^ co I"
1 oo CM O CO M O
xnrtxnM a Oco ocot-i co
O M O m rj-co O HI o O CM
ffiu "rt
co co co co co r^
-co O ^ ^ co M M cowr^
unqdtns
r^ co w O
xno O O
M O O co O
CO ^ M M CO
xno^i-i O coxniH o
O f^ 1 O O OO ** CM t^ ^
0000
OCOMOOMMOO
u3So.ni^
in xn
00 CO
d d
M M
6
uaSAxQ
O CO
CM CO
O -^f
COO
O xn
s
o
jnqd[ns
'uaSojji^
'ua3Axo
uaSoapAH
I I
^co
o o^
5
O
* Tt
3-0
I^O coo xnxnxnxnxnxneo
^ coo O O co cc O d o t^
H
xn in
CO CO
CO CO
cSpco oo t^oo co oo co co co co
c 2
00 2
r^ xn O m rf
O co O t^ xn
oo xnoo xnr^mxnxnxnO to
coxntoCMOWooOxnMrt-
6 I
CO 1^* CO CO
O O xn Tf xn
co to co co co
^ co O m O OO ^* r^ W xn
tocococococotoeotococo
i
CM CO xn CM
M ^f- r^ xn
xn xn O xn ^
xn in xn xnoo O O O O xn O
t^ t^ CM t^ oo O co r^ xn to
xn rf in T
m o r^ O O
xn m xn xn in
co M Tf-oo M CM xn r^. Tf cooo
G
O
. a
rt
8
1 ;|; !
iJ
5
s
: 1 1 2 1
fCjl'l :??| jo-
55
&
e v
1
II"
f. ^5*3Ji, &S-^
| 5 | ^^S^ 2- S 3 fe
COAL.
221
Heat Units o
Combustible.
O O N co 1000 'to
to -}-o to M Tf- co
HI oj MO tno r^ co
COTj-N M C4 T:}-N CO
O O co O O co a t^co r^co TJ- O O
coo M r. t^ w T^- to o co ^J- M r^o
coo to M COM O co o co MO M\O
vnrt-M TfCO
to to r-^oo M
co G^co T C^ M o ^ r~^ Ooo c^co GO M o o co 't-co to N o^co to
o o o co r^ r^* o o J^* ^^" t"* t^ i^ 1 t^ t^ i^> o
o^ O **
^co GO M
qsy
MMOOO
M o66o'
tocototo
coO totooo tocoto
OTtcOM t^ooo rJ-
r-.d O^COM b M T^-uS
co O O O Ocnco toQcovO
^O^M totoOMO O tnco
o
o>
oo r^cococo
O cototoO
O^O CON O
totocotoco O O M w>O O vocooo too COM
O^MCOOI OtoOtot^to
Mtr>o O M NOcoo
O O O
coO O
toO O OtoOtotoOO to
t^O^cotoo ^MOO TJ-M
w
222
TABLES.
U
Authority.
1
1
Q~
o g
CO O*
So |
m O
mo
qsy
t^O
in T^-
moo
-M
jnqdjns
O M
M in
o 6
uaSo.niM
usSXxQ
uaSojp^H
1
I 1
?
rj-
1
COO
Name or Location.
IL'
Cj V.
1
> ^
2
di (O
pq pq
Tt O oo
VO "> O M
oo M o vO O ^t i~ O N co c
in co in O O in r^ co CT> M M
NMO^O"">OC v JinOON>-iOCO'3-
rf in Tj- TJ- N m CO CO N CS CO N CON
1-1 m O TJ-
Tfco oo eo
co m in i_,
r^ moo O
t^ -3- r^.
in co t>. en
M O O O N
r}- T^- C< CO H-i
O COU">M M COCOCO
*-" CO Tt O COO O
m HI M O
O O ci ei
m o* o t^ w N
d d d d d d
8\n o ffi
o co ^7
cooo coMOOr>i u ^ T i"C
TJ-TJ-^-Ti-inri-co^J--4- 1 ^-coco^ i 4
O Oco oo
MOO f^*
CM
O t^
O ^
CT>
\O
O coco <* rf W M \rt\n
moo o M o^ M cooo oo
M c< co ci cJ c5 oo c*o' O oo r^ o* O
ooooaooo t^oo t^r^r^vo mxnmo
8
Unknown (anthracite)
Latrobe Valley, Victo
Newport, "
b
COAL.
22$
^
23
qsy
8
Tt Tf CO
O n O m
w ocor^
vn O C^oo O
CO ^T ^ ^ CO en CO
moo O covnN o
*^f C^ CO t s> * ^*O -t^* W f")
ino H. TtM
2"3 - M f ' 10M S OMCi
rfOco
enow
CO rf CO 00 CO O *>
O* N oo m rf- N ^ >
bbddcJddddd
mOm
O O O QmOm
OOOOcONM
CO t-l M r^M O >-lvO M
O
>o
O m O O
O O
224
TABLES.
CO ^t CO PQ CO CO CO
CO ^ to N XO .ONCOM coONt-.MON^r-.
^TfTfco-^-^f rj- O'TJ-CO COO ' o 1-1 o ** OON^CNiMr^ ONMCor^CMt^io
ON w T^ ^ m ^* ci w ^" O co r^ co ^t*o O *"* w M r^
CO ONCO CO ONCO O^ ONCO O^CO CO s CO CO ON O^CO CO CO
O O CO CO O O "* f^ to O ON to ON to M ON O O
r}-vOt~--M co r^eicodcor^ inON^cocoo'i-<
M 1H M l-i
CNlONMMCO 1 ^- O>t^WOON Tj-CO
Ttor^CNi d rfcNiocNj-^-tn ONO o' co co too'
CO CO t-CO I> COCOCOCOCOCO O'
M ' ' . 8 * :::::' * *
^ - 2 %:::%
CO CXI ^OrjII^J
JJas^ I ||| ^
qsy
jnqdjns
COAL.
22$
cri
in xn vo
TfOOONOOOO^OOO-fOOO
co -3- M O ro co M co ^- r^ TJ-
QO CO CO CO
op tn O
O w>co
* r^co co
cococo
qsy
O O M O
r>. vr> ^}- coo co
O co M O ^O COM l^ W C>ir>O MO O
O'-'T}-MCrtO co
co co t^ CTOOOOCOCOQOCOCOCO CO
o oo r^ O coco o u"> o O co N
O nO O CO ^ CO t-^ OOO N O
cddo'-^-oci r^wxAo'd *}
aoNOTt- t^ rf ^-co M co
rt-^-Mcor^m u>r--Tj-nco oo
O cK ^00 06 -^ pJ^MMcd co
cocorfr^ t^t^r^r^r- r^
nyiHinu
: : : : - : : : : : :^
:?i.s5.S I : : : i:|
iiiitf ii
..... *
^ x -S, , ,
8 N N :sn :::
^S-"-C v> ^3^
3 g" 42 2 o
O U M HP*
OS
226
FUEL TABLES.
GERMANY.
Published in this form by
Name.
Composition of Air-dry Coal.
Combustible.
Carbon.
Hydrogen.
o .
c c
Ss
tuC-3
1*
u
I
3
(/)
Water.
4
<
A. Ruhrcoal.
76.30
79.60
84.16
81.82
83-24
85.18
83-55
79-27
80.59
89.27
81.96
79-os
4.65
4- 2 3
5-03
4-85
4-05
4-38
4-54
5'i3
4-94
4.41
4.81
4-93
ts
7.78
6.12
3-13
4-39
4-93
10.36
6.85
2-74
6.62
10.52
* Y
9 *
S-oo
4.11
' r
t 9<
6.22
7-43
1.0 7
I.7I
0.86
0.96
1.26
i. 06
1.02
0.63
1. 12
1-25
i-57
1.62
'
>3
1. 01
1.49
/
I
1 .02
1. 70
1-75
1.09
1.32
1.14
1.06
1.84
0.80
2.18
1.54
0.70
1.42
0.59
2.08
0.99
0.80
1.70
1.49
2.50
9.71
6.60
0.85
5-n
7.26
3-'5
5-i6
2.43
4.96
1.63
3-62
3-2Q
3-34
4.86
9.84
3.10
4.09
17.87
2 ?8
88.54
92.31
97-83
93-75
91.68
95-01
94.04
95-39
93-5
97.67
94.96
96. 12
94.58
94.15
8 9 .36-
95-20
94.42
79- 6 3
95 70
94.08
91.69
91.97
94-72
94. oo
95-74
91.27
90. 9 &
93-42
87.32
94.26
92.91
94-59
9" -57
91-52
85.33
91.79
91-23
92.04
90.30
94.10
87.46
93-95
84.84
90.33
95-44
94-77
3. Concordia
4. Consolidation
5 Dahlhausen-Tief bau
6. Dannenbaum
8 Ewald
9 Friedrich Ernestine
12 Graf Beust . ...
83.37
80.08
80.67
82.63
66.20
f&
5-42
4.55
4-30
15 Horde
18 Mont-Cenis
81.22
81.65
82.36
83.56
80.48
80.72
79.76
81.36
79.82
71-15
80.35
78.26
77-77
76.20
77.29
69.07
79-'5
72.96
76.69
73.48
80.43
7-33
79.67
68.67
72.98
81.49
81.26
5-"
4-49
4-79
4-77
5.22
4.80
4-77
4.76
5-'7
4-65
5-21
5- 11
5.18
4.98
4-97
4.21
4.72
5-35
5.20
5-03
5.24
4.67
5-21
4-57
5-o6
4-99
5-3
6.32
4.02
3.63
5-"
V ,
8.
8.66
5-44
J-33
8..
9. 6 3
7.84
8.57
10.74
9.28
8-54
10.93
6.52
11.51
8.05
10.86
7-94
"39
8-37
10.80
11.30
1.43
i-53
?
'%*
1.30
1-53
_,__-
3
1.29
0.86
0.97
0.86
i .11
0.72
1. 12
I. 4
1.41
2.10
0-93
0.49
1.05
0.70
0.80
0.99
0.65
0-95
::a
I . IO
1.05
1.88
0.98
0.92
1. 18
1.83
2.99
1.22
1.32
2.30
2.03
2.00
3.90
1.92
3.68
I. 21
4-5
1-45
4-82
i. 60
3-93
3-45
'-73
1.24
4.48
7-03
6-93
4-23
4.12
3.28
7 .8l
7 .8 4
4-73
9.69
4-52
5-77
6.40
6.48
10.77
6.29
5.09
6-75
5-65
4-45
7-74
4-45
11.23
6.22
2.8 3
3 '99
23 Shamrock
24 Unser Fritz
28 Wilhelmine Viktoria
B. Saar Coal.
\. Camphausen Level III
4 Friedrichsthal
Dulong formula for calculating heat-units (Verbandsformel) :
COAL.
22 7
Continued.
request of Professor H. BUNTE.
Composition of Pure Coal.
1
Fixed Carbon.
u
41
ta
i
JJ
J$
"o
>
Calories of
Fuel.
Calories of I
Combustible. 1
1
3
Hydrogen.
o .
C C
es v
u
$
o
U
3
g
"3
in
bib
C
^o
~3
Q
Calorimeter.
bin
&
Calorimeter.
86.19
86.23
86.03
87.27
90.79
80.65
88.85
83.10
86.19
91.40
86.31
82.24
84.08
88.55
89.62
84.81
87.52
83.14
84.60
86.33
89-05
89-55
88.22
85.62
84.31
87.39
89.43
85.44
82.17
85.24
84.23
82.25
83.21
84.45
80.95
86.23
79-97
83-32
f >3 2
85.46
80.43
84.80
80.94
80.79
85-38
85.75
5-24
4-59
5-U
5-17
!:S
4.83
5-38
5.28
4.51
5-7
5.13
5.53
5.07
4.12
l:ll
5-40
5-28
5-43
4.90
5-21
5-04
5-55
5 -oi
5-23
J5_2 3
5
5-32
5-52
5-5
5.48
5-45
5-43
4-93 ,
5-14
&
K3
5.34
5-54
5-39
5-60
5-23
5-59
7-37
7-33
7-95
6-53
3-f
4.62
5-24
10.86
7-33
2.81
6.97
*o 95
IO
5.31
4-59
9
6.58
9-33
9.70
6.72
4.38
3-95
^_5-39
8.
9-5
5-96
3-66
, '
53
11.03
8-33
9.22
it .36
10.13
9-33
12. 8l
7.10
12.62
8.75
12.03
8.46
i3.<>3
8.92
"73
12.51
8.71
7.66
1.20
1.8 5
0.88
1.03
1.38
i . ii
i. 08
0.66
i .20
1.28
1.65
1.68
39
1.07
1.67^
64
i. 08
2.13
0.42
;:f 7
1.29
I -35
83
1.63
1.42
1.68
9-3
1.48
0.91
1.05
0.91
I. 21
0-79
*.3
J-53
L55
2.28
1.03
0.52
1.20
0.74
0-94
I . TO
0.68
1. 00
73io
7467
8008
7828
7829
8026
7926
7549
773 1
8438
7824
7488
7650
7973
7435
7820
7804
6368
7688
7859
7800
7953
7992
7780
7620
7^74
7881
7700
6825
7749
75 2 7
7420
7296
7397
6424
7567
70S 1
7473
7016
775
6635
7678
6492
6974
7752
7872
7334
7537
8078
7827
7816
8080
7522
7736
8441
7840
7486
8271
8097
8194
8371
8546
8459
8434
7928
8278
8644
8248
7794
8101
8298
8172
8265
8370
D 53 I
8516
7899
8283
8646
8265
7792
82.27
75-67
16.64
75- I 5
84.78
77.12
70.04
77-52
73-97
23.71
14.16
21 .04
70.08
85-18
70-54
74-43
68.30
78.82
86.16
65.70
76.28
71-83
65.12
83.55
66.92
71.14
64.96
73-96
76.32
61.36
72.19
53-96
28.38
14.12
28.04
24.98
29.62
20. 19
13.04
32.65
22.23
25.67
7900
7482
8475
8326
8225
8275
8016
8043
8363
85 -..3
8655
8444
8288
7965
&43
8670
8254
7837
8224
8110
8286
7862
8095
7556
8256
7753
8127
7796
8245
7619
8183
7680
7744
8i33
8314
8398
8379
83^3
8086
8016
8376
8560
8682
8468
7983
8420
8699
7922
7983
8122
7957
8032
7619
8260
7718
8233
7766
8109
7652
8273
7729
7740
8181
8287
7840
6424
7662
7871
7842
7978
8015
71-38
78.73
78.46
78.36
65.90
73-74
77-56
80.27
67.40
66.90
71.70
71-53
74-13
61.78
70.46
69-75
72-43
62.67
2 7 .l8
19.99
70.44
20.59
32.22
25.28
21.52
18.55
30.75
7637
7679
797
"6899"
75i8
7538
7509
7343
"6478"
757i
7019
757i
6989
7622
6663
7763
6533
6971
7798
7847
65.49
62.70
60.83
66.40
61.70
74.40
59-37
61.07
60.21
59-72
59-55
54-43
59.9 2
50-93
68.11
54.28
54.32
54-56
33.19
35-00
37-14
31.60
34-40
23.68
36-95
37-72
35-74
64-95
62.30
68.46
68.50
53-72
56.08
65-63
64.51
30.12
34-25
29.81
30.26
SiooC
- + 25008 - 6ooW
228
FUEL TABLES.
GERMANY
Name.
Composition of Air-dry Coal.
Combustible.
Carbon.
Hydrogen.
Oxygen
and
Nitrogen.
Sulphur.
Water.
JC
<
C. Upper Silesia Coal.
j Grube Deutschland
71.90
81.12
77-79
70.60
78.31
73-96
70.17
71-45
74-63
75-95
58.01
51.92
47-78
41.41
35-93
44-47
37-i6
43-37
4-56
4.24
4-85
4-30
4.70
4.40
5-i7
4.76
4-97
5-35
4.42
3-75
3-83
3-29
If,
3-39
3.25
2.79
3-73
3-66
4.48
54
.70
05
1 5
45
.10
4.66
4.07
4.24
4-32
4.20
4-58
4.20
0.70
0.81
0.90
1.07
1. 00
0.78
o-54
17-37
4-93
10.07
8.77
9-87
15-16
9-39
10.06
9.60
11.17
12. 02
'3-44
10.92
9.84
13.20
14.69
9.62
J 7-54
9.42
10.72
21.27
24.07
9-55
29.18
3.13
3-M
4.82
3-6o
15.21
19.14
18.57
16.37
15.84
15-59
15-25
4.04
4.80
3'74
3.61
2.60
2.85
2.01
i.'S
1.23
0.57
*-57
0-75
\\ll
1.30
1.80
0.63
4.87
5-3 1
5-24
2.12
0.99
1.72
1.66
1 -93
3.87
3-59
0.26
o-39
2.87
0.61
1.26
0.88
1.19
1.36
2.28
0.78
1. 00
1-50
2.98
2.58
2.52
0.87
0.88
1.17
1.02
1-43
0.81
0.96
1-58
1.65
1.67
2.28
2.05
1-95
8.14
8.91
3-50
3.68
7-37
17.12
10. 18
36.26
45-33
27-13
38.68
22.85
47-45
29.27
29.14
16.47
40.35
14.06
i. 06
1.77
1.76
2.10
15-77
14-77
l8. 9S
19.40
IO.26
13.65
io-S7
1.79
1.71
2-33
J-53
1.79
0.96
3-73
3-44
6.83
5 '5
12.48
4.32
!:S
3-52
5-50
3.22
13-31
8. 4 6
22.05
7.08
1.99
8.32
9-49
ii. 06
5-35
7.29
6.91
5-28
15.89
5-52
7.26
8.10
6-93
6.15
7-73
5.33
5-5
6.68
18.52
9-94
10.49
7.42
6.50
11.18
10.74
10.27
6.52
6.41
94.98
91-52
93.28-
85-24
93-63
94-93
85-99
87-57
91.00
93.10
79-32
74.42
67.77
56.66
52.68
64-55
S:S
47-20
63-4*
63-95
78.25
43-76
80.42
91.68
90.13
9i-3*
91-75
76.50
79-90
75-55
73.92
71.22
76.41
72.94
90.79
91.79
86.49
87.73
87.94
92.52
89.86
2. Gottesberger Viktoria, (run of mine)
3 Guidogrube
7 Schacht Vereinigt Feld . .
D. Saxon Coal.
i. Kaisergrube Gersdorf b. Oelsnitz
3. Zwickau-Oberhchndorf Wilhelmschacht.. .
E. Upper Bavaria Molasses Coal,
i Haushamer Large Coal ....
F. Saxon Brown Coal.
2. " Bach " near Ziebingen . .
3 Meuselwitzer Revier " Fortschritt "
45.40
38.76
49-3 1
28.80
45-93
83.24
81.96
80.85
82.69
54-35
55-91
51-74
51-73
48.20
53.66
50.97
85-18
85-30
80.68
82.03
82.91
88.08
86.35
G. Peat and Lignite.
2. Compressed Peat, " Hofmark-Steinfels M ..
3. Lignite, Josefszeche in Schwanenkirchen. .
H. Coal Briquettes,
i Dahlhausen Tiefbau ....
2 Haniel & Co
4 Stachelhaus & Buchloh
J. Brown-coal Briquettes.
2! Wiirlel-Brikett C* Use, Bergb.-Act.-Ges. in
3. Wurfel-Brikett S* Rechenberg & Cie.,
5! Gewerkschaft " Schwarzenfeid "
7 Zeche " Waldau "
K. Gas-coke.
i ** Consolidation " (Ruhr)
2. ' Rhein, Elbe und Alma " (Ruhr)
a * Ewald " (Ruhr)
4 ' Bonifacius " (Ruhr)
6 ' Heinitz" (Saar)
7. * Konigin Louise " (Upper Silesia)
1 Dulong formula for calculating heat-units (Verbandsformel):
COAL.
22 9
Continued.
Calories of
Calories of
Composition of Pure Coal.
a
w
Fuel.
Combustible.
c
a
tf
1
c -
C &
u
3
u
JS
bi
c
a
tic
c
a
5
-a
^a
8
4)
"S
rt
fc
j>
U
E
<3 5
C/5
U
Q
U
Z3
Q
w '*
75-7
4 .8o
18.29
I. 21
65-73
62.29
32.69
6536
6881
6891
7254:
88.64
O- ~
4-63
5-39
1.34
o 61
81.46
74-63
16.89
7643
7346
7646
8362
7895
8363;
708 V
63.29
82.83
5.20
5-4
10.29
1.84
71.18
58.70
26.54
6671
74 2 9
6662
7847
/y3
7837
83.64
5-02
10.54
0.80
67.82
63.50
30.13
7355
74M
7868
793'
77.91
4-64
15-97
1.48
64.19
61.07
33-86
6739
6804
7112
7180
81.60
6.01
10.92
1.47
60.50
54-63
31-36
6825
6801
7994
7966
81.59
5-44
11.49
1.48
59-75
56.23
31-34
6782
6750
7805
7769
7162
7 1 60
7893
79OI
R R
5-4
10.55
i .99
0.68
7292
y^^y
7856
7H64
73-14
69.77
5-74
5-57
5-4
i8'.o6
56.50
45-35
43-19
36-89
36.13
37-53
5623
4836
7299
5623
4851
7'44
6512
/ CMJ 4
7M4
6532
70.50
5-65
16.12
7-73
55.13
33.08
34-69
4655
4710
6959
7040
73.08
5-8i
I 737
3-74
30.35
23.27
33-39
3787
3741
7068
6987
68.20
4 i86
25.06
1.88
26.44
24-45
28.23
2927
2913
6072
6046
68.89
71.70
5.69
6.54
22.76
18.56
2.66
3.20
35-59
28.30
27.27
18. 81
37-28
33.02
4014
3454
4059
3426
6471
7112
6541
7058
65.62
4.92
26.54
2.92
38-51
27.45
38.64
3722
3870
5854
6063
65-93
5-9 1
19.96
8.20
24.98
19.63
27-57
2800
2818
6536
6574
5-88
16.89
5-66
34-90
27.61
35.83
4285
4319
7032
7085
60. 61
5-72
33-26
0.41
29.60
22.69
41.26
3261
3283
5383
5407
63.02
5-73
30.76
0-49
i 1 .25
2 5-97
52.28
433 1
4364
5661
5704
65.81
.1.82
6.56
34.00
i8.ii
25-65
2552
6385
6421
57-"
5^84
36.29
0.76
27.64
52.78
3956
3993
5024
5070
90.79
4.42
3.41
1-38
84.78
77.52
14.16
7829
7816
8546
8532
90.94
4.60
3-48
0.98
85.60
77-50
12.63
7734
7804
8593
8671
88.55
4.87
5.28
1.30
76.35
69.42
21.89
7685
7616
8429
8353
90.13
4-47
3-92
1.48
83.92
77-77
13.98
7778
7822
8491
8;39
7 I -5
6.09
19.88
2.g8
39-87
32-14
44-36
5'6 5
5098
6876
6787
70.00
5-og
23'95
0.98
40.17
34-84
45-o6
4947
4899
6303
6243
68.49
5-6i
24.58
1.32
38.92
33-42
42.13
4659
4583
6318
6217
69 98
r 84
22 .15
477O
4788
6610
6634
67.68
O 4
5-90
22.24
J:3
49.40
30.88
40.34
4523
6491
6438
70.23
69.88
5:3
20.40
20.91
3-38
3-45
40.78
40.09
30.84
29.60
45-57
43-34
5092
4756
5188
4725
6784
6659
6910
6616
93.82
0.77
4-45
0.96
98.00
90.58
0.21
6967
7057
7686
7785
92-93
0.88
5-23
0.96
96-25
89.75
2.04
6982
7071
7617
7716
93.28
1.04
4-3*
1.36
95.16
93.98
2. 5 I
6675
6716
7734
778i
93-5
1 .22
4.12
1. 16
95-30
84-56
3-17
6841
6851
7808
7819
94.28
1.14
2.96
1.62
95-41
85.14
2.80
6935
6936
7899
7900
95.20
0.84
3-o8
0.88
98.30
91.78
o-74
7271
7268
7865
7862
96.09
0.60
2.23
i. 08
94-34
87.93
7080
7111
7903
7938
JiooC-f
-v)+2 5 ooS-6ooW.
230
FUEL TABLES.
3 s :
PQ crt
1
"
o
crt.0
So
coco co co N o oo ^J-co O ^~
Nino r^o O M
O^NM O^COON
COCON COTj-cO
qsy
t^ co TJ- i/>
O M O t-x
w co co r^.
coco
M 10
rt
U
o
o
g COO
O>co M xncortNco irxn ir>co r>> r^
Moddddo'ddddddd
xnco M coo N Q
vno O
NNdddddddddddd
t^ o o oo o too r^ N o o
co r^> r~- ir> TJ- r>. >no' o Tt w
CO Tf CO O
i^ o^ o
l^. \n\o
\r>ir>w vncoO coocoO
cSco co
CO CO CO
ill
: 3
g
Sc
l
Guid
< ' Pla
Hausham, Bavar
Penzberg, Bavari
Miesbach, Bavaria
COAL.
231
: .
>.
M
1
^
Q Q
1" 1 |
3
<
a
1
(72
M c/5 PQ c/i c/2 c/5 w
*O 4) ^
CO
cooomcoTj-ooo O O OOO I-HQO u->o rf co O^ eo u-> o w co *3-
I^s r^ u"i OO M u"> CO M O ^ CM s O^ -O CO O CO CO O^ M O t*^ *H *O CX OO
535 PQ
M
si i
o
to
to
M
co o^ to o oo OOOOOOOO ^h *o O co I**** vo ^~ r^ 10 t^* o r^* O
vO O^ r^ *^* O **"> w CN O ""^ O CM oj to M co u*> H^ co Tt* ^^ i"** r^* O^ *o oo
oooo t^r-oococo r^cocooooooococooo r^co r^r^t^cocooo r^oo
- w
,-M
T
c?S^c?^2 &ZS S"^-o S"
1
Jnqdtns
O
OOOOOMNOMMOOM
R
co
O co ^oo to o to coco *H o O O O N co O toco co d O
U3SoJlIJtJ
O
d^od d^ ^ M ^06 *} M pJ N coo dddddodd^-"
r^>
1
r-
O
M Q\ to OCO tOOO MO M
i ^-
COOi-tMOiHCOrJ-cO
^
M J
M M M M IH M M
s
00
CO
^O d oo to M co ^" O co to co t^ O^O O O co O O to oo t^ oo oo O
to to to co M t^ O coo t"^ O^ O^O t^* O M to O r** ^t~ O t t M M cooo
u
"*
M
OO ^ M o or^cow TIOO i^w r^-O^Oco coeoo M OO O co
OOtOMlOHr-
O
H
c
^f't'iod codo" O COCOCOMCO M COCOH-I COM o>-i O'4'^-cor>.
oo co co oo oo oo r^oo oo oo oo oo r^oo oo oo oo oo oo r~-oo co co co co oo
1 ^
O^tC^S o"
c3 *o
U >
odddoo'do o*
MM M IH M M M
i
tOMCOMCOOTl- CO*
'
IH o" ci coo M 06 co
OtooOOOto co
c
rt
'in
.9.
1
i 1! Iri : -1
j
g * 2 < * < (jj < y2
Name or
Louisengluck,
Ij it .-i iffi AV \ s \
232
FUEL TABLES.
M
1-^OMinMOoocoOOOcor^ -TO m O O^ m co coco
o.; P ^ rtf- r "3- N N Oco m O O O co coco r^ N O i^ r^ rf ooo m M o co coo T
jj~ ,j coMTj-c<' a
*9 8
ig .Jj 3-MCOrj-oOMOcom't rj-co O m m M xn N Oco t>. M
^f , ^ co^OO^O^NNOOMC^NOcoommmcOTl-t^v
>JU V ^ rt cococor^cococococor^cooocor^cocor^r^i^r^r^t^
CON cor^comN ^f r-co OMt^oor^coONNco t~^o cO'^-t^Mco c N u^
&
M NO mOM ^- o vnoo r-^H-ioo Oco o Tt M o comcocoi rt
,1 -
coQt>Q^T}-WNO'1' w
mOcodocx5r^r^dc>OOcdMt^dMN^c6ododddo6odd bJO
i
MmTtr^NMcoOOt^r^omcOMTj-mNooocor^coooOcoNTj-oo^t S
Tf^o^^mrfrfTfmrf^mTfin4-^^^^^^4- 1 i-'T'f'^-'i-'J- 1 ^- Q
a>
o
!
H s
M xnN t^mo Mrx5O ^O OmO coco^O M COM N OM CONO mr-co
^rt '* * " * X X
rj > MNNCONCONNCOCOCONCOCONCOCOCOCONNNNCOCONNNNN
_-. co O O N oo mo O *t N rl-Qcooor^M coco -*O OcomOcOMOO^-O
qj t^ O co m o O co f*^ ^ O m O N O ^~ O m t^ d r^ O ^" co oo co O co N t^ m
. \ncr^ r~cd d m r>-o co o* i~~. ^-co r^ co M d
pi, t-t^O inOOO mmininininOO minmmminmminmmoooo
ed I* '**'*.*' .;...'
^ s :
d
.9
J
s i=
OCQ ^ .
ll " V M
CO CX ^ CO ^t CO
1- M rj- -tvC CX
M
O
U31B M .od pf
u 9 S OJ pX H ?
cooo ONcocor^i-i co
O HH CO t^- M O* ON
*
cori-rt-ininTfTi-Tt.
CO
co
rt ON
oo r^ oo O c$ co en t^*
2 ON COO ^"O CO ON
H
M O^Ot^N cooo O
IN ei ONCO -^- ino"
I ! %
t"^- f^ O O O O N co
O O O O O O r^co
"^ ON CO O ON- CO M
M CM m M o O co
rt "3 ;
u > N
en ^t rf CO W t-i
m w co o ex moo
co CNJ co eo ex ex
"S oo
0c^2c?8"o 5
ex mooooo "^O
l ss CO ^t" O d !** O M
o
ex r^o cor^co n- r^
oo in m in mo oo co
r** r^>o m o t^ m T^
coco mo mmoo
:::::*
c
o
CO ex CO ...
: : : : : :
Name or Locat
Bickershaw
Bwlf
Crombourke
Derbyshire (average c
Lancashire (average c
Newcastle (average o
Wales (average of 37
Nixon Navigation . . .
<
: l$$
Z frg
uj |
2 lll|l||
&&&$$
JJ*
s
00 M
m o
cooo
ex m
CO Tf
in M
oo r^
O oo
CO M
*i
fl
234
FUEL 7'ABLES.
Authority.
.rt C Q
*!.!.
c o Si
rt w
"SjTSeg
S'Saj'S
H-* r^
f "*
w3 ~!
m O <* O O
coo O co xn
co Oco co co
N 01 CO N O
Mxn 1-101 OcOTf- COMCO mo ^ ^
oico cxco mMi~>. mcococomooM
O^ ooo OOM-^- mr^i^co^-Ttm
MW >-< >-l OOO OOOMOI^M
-a *
nz^-J ^
_ o
co m 04 co co
xn o O 04 c*
oo 04 r^ M o
coo r^O COMO cowoxnoooi
Ol CO O O Ol 04 CO O vO ** C^J C^ CO O
OO in 't OOO oo O ^ co O co ^f
O O O O O xn O xn in inO O O O
qsy
M O ^O m
O O t* O co
M CO rj- 04 04
xno xn m xn mo r> co m m TJ- *^-o
Mxn ooo COMO OxnoiO' r i - O 1 '^
xn O co rf M M 1-1 rj-co Ooo O cooo
W
, n , dl n S
t~> r^co co in
O co O O ^3"
M"^- coco cot^o ^MOf^oir^M
co t-> mo xn -*t O O oo ^co oo O
M Tj- CO CO CO
TfrO OO MMW OOOOOOO
uaSo-ni^i
uaSAxQ
,, 30JP , H
V
.M
O O co in xn
co m 04 r^ r^
Tt M 4- N CO
xn xn in xn xn
coo coo O 1- i~- OMinOMoom
r^o coco ^r^o ooooocoxnoi
rh M xno Tj-OO O"-ii-(Tj--rt-cOTf
in xn O O xno ^ O t^* t^ t^^O t^^ t"
1 1|
U >^
xn O M in in
^- xn t^. N N
r^co f~O Ooco OoomOcoMxn
Ol O O r^ O O! O O M O O M ^" t**
xnoo xn t^O
TT -} Tt Tft
xnoo "^-co xnoo Ococoo xno xn
<1- < ^- -t co Tj-cooi ^OIOIOJCOWN
Eb
oo *^~ ^~ O O
01 co xn r^ ^ >
co r- o o M
co O co m xn o M co O O xnco ^ O
xnm rfco OxnO OTTCOOcomo
OM MM MOO mcOMxnrfO^>
Tt-^ xnxn Ti-rj-xn ^xnrj-m mo xn
Name or Location.
' "c ' ' ' 'c
: : : :* :::<*:::::::
'"'"
* '. ' "^ ^ ' ' '- : '
S ; :
" .^ ju'
PH bfi*'*
6 g| a
v* ! < fcyO'c rC ''
S >> g 'a S u : : :
S .S 1 2 ^^ : :
5 S M 43 U . W*^ '
o : f :V Jii c ^'^j '
1 1 gi|lfl| : fll"
*4 W CQ U^C^ DQ OH^
COAL.
235
236
TABLES.
8
"I
oo O m M
t-i TJ- o r~>
o *- ooo
cnr^Tj-i-ii- m o^ *n CM M o
O CT* CM rj-co r~- co m eno en O O
in M o * ^fO O m en m ^ TJ- en
en en
M CM
?to
O O O enoo M OOOOOCMOO
M o o o^ moo co TJ- o M en en r^
qsy
O
n
CM CO
en O O '-' O w M co o * N in M
M o M en en M en M en en M
W
jnqdjng
S3
Ooo
(N N
O O O M ^rf f^
CO 00 W ^ N O
M
M a en ^- N M
,^, !N
uaSXxQ
usSoapAH
TJ-CO
r^ m
M CO
Tfco Tf CM M in TJ- M o eno O^ m
5S
N
inO
vnt^^J-vnOm ^-xnommmin
l
N ^
l^* M
co r^O t^co m CMNONOooc<
inM'mi^oo T}- moo eno *^f O ^
1 ||
t^. in
en -t
en t^
* en
coOOOenO^ OO^G^O^enCC^
^CMtnTj-en-<3- in^fen'^-'^-^l-'^-
d
M \n
O en
xnco
mo
M'^-Tj-O^'^ MC^ONCOOCO
en co ^i~ en m t^* o i^- m c^i CM m co
X
N m
en -<1-
TJ- in
co w O^ r^ o^co i^^ M M o ^ ^~ m
enMenciMcn >3-Tj-cMcnS
II!.!. ....
^J
|
O
v - - -
1
(4
i I : o ^ o
Name or Loc,
CENTRAL PROVIN
Gada\vria:
No. 2 seam . . .
No. 4 seam . . .
NIZAM'S DOM
Hyderabad
' <
5 II-.* K J3 . . .^3
s s r." H . N g--
B ^ rt ^430000^
C/3 rt > It O C j ^
*j*j' G cbfi 5 i 3 * 2
OO ^aJ'C 'O'o-'o- o 2
OF THE
2 3 8
FUEL TABLES.
I . *
T3
C
8
3 o
M -
g]
3
1 I
O
1 ||
rt c5 -3
M UMU
" C4
K^
o 3
2-2 .
O O O co o cs co O r^ co CM
CO t^ t^ M CO O O t^- O 01 M
cooor^-co Quid
moo M O O^ O C O
< ^-
vr>
O
^t
'5 to m
al -1
HO
KU g
"I- O> * CO CM M O tM O M CO
M C* O CO O^ 1^ CM O lO CO N
O^U">^COGO ^^.QT,
M M CO O CO (> 000
r->o o r^o co o co
T
CO
c^^cV^o'^ co^c?^^
8O r- o > ^
cor-o t^ 8^00 M
M
vn
qsy
M ^-coxno co^C>C>OOv
M u> M r^ N
M
~*A
O T M OO Tj-OO M u-> M O N
8
COM COCOM M M COM t^OO
^t-
Mnqdjns
NCOOO N 'I'COM O>COCO
O Q^Ooo I^w>*l-c< r>rf
M
CO
Mcoco^-OOOOOO
<
U33ojj!>i
RSfR^^a-gR
z s
S 2
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M
MO O OOcQxnOco O
J W
c>
uaSXxQ
3 s
. U3SojpXH
^ OO *-H O^ >^> i*** CO OO vO CO
w ^
z
"rt
M 10100000 cou->o\cot/">
cor^O comTj-r^o coo
ei
o>
H
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c .2
rtc7 o^oc^^o ^-^
J?885>8 ? ^
r>
3 s
\n 10 r> \n co "T r^ M co u"> c^
o o o o ft
O
s
_x
co ^- Q^oo O co O ""> O u^co
""> O co O w> M O
r^ M CM vn w
l/"i CO
CM M Tf O OO .Q .0
oo o t^ oo r^
:::::::
S
x ^
Name or Locatic
| < | , | '
is*
^11
rl i hi
Sudbury (Anthraxolit<
COAL.
239
Authority.
Q
6 , 1
J- - - ;
. s. 4>
^ '?- - > - ~ ^
^ ^-^^^^^
13 4>
s <
s r-
*f TJ-CO O M \o -4- M
CO O O IN
t TJ-
m co O r^
co r>-o mTsC i-^r^vN I-ICTJ
O'O ONO O>M MCO mr>.r^.
M r>>tNO ^f^-M cort-rw
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m r^ N O
wr^inmONCOM COCN| o>c<
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TfinM o o'ooo OnH.o6
jnqdjns
;
co t^co co
d d d d
O Tf "^O O O co m
OMnO 1^1
QS Q W l^"-
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O^ CO O O O<00 O
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O M M O O O O
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M M in rj-O M in ON
cO'rfOOOcoMCO
in ^co M O m co vN O O^O
M M t^co T^-CO co m M
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uaSoa A
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m O r^oo
co m O CT*
M COO ^J- M M O* f ^O CO
in ^ o ^~ ^ ^ **> ** ^ ^^ co
2
^^.00 coco c^^
O m r^ co
rj-0 rt
H
COCOCOWCOOOvN
t^ r^ r^-co co o>o o
O M (N CO
M m o>O M mco r^ c< O co
1 1
O m M
co m r^ m
M in M co
3 1
M 0> ON
M
^" *^ IN
1
COO
ON 1^ CO
*n ON ON ON in O CO
^- M CO
ONCO O
M ^- M ON O CO *f
to ^t 't M in M NO
...-..-
|'
?
J 11
t/3 _,* ^*N
J i: 1 L^ ;
Name or I
1| 1 g| IJo-
Groucheski ....
Miouki
Galoubosski
Rutschenkvo. . .
v .^ ^.^^^SoSc
2>, M _d ^ O^r^-^'^ rt
240
FUEL TABLES.
'El
anqdjns
U3.3o.nix
CMcoin-^-'^-inTj-i-iin O^M^-cMcoMO^r^cococsi- s t^ r*- M M o t^* T^~ M T}~ co^o
M
co mininininocoo
O 5 ^ oco^^-c^^o 5 "^^C^co'^^^C^cor^co"
co -^- M rf M co co r^-co* H
" - O
U
TJ- m c^ O^O "^ O r** r^ *~* **"* *^ o^co M CM o co O O coo o O**
\,Q ON xn t^ co co *-* o *o ^O *^> O co M coco M M co
O cou-)TfCM comininco M M r^. co co
TfcoMco CM in^j-incM f^co o CM co r>-
r>- coco coo coco CM mo co O O "~> r^>
CM COCOCOCOCOCM COCOCOCOCM ^tCOCO
W O ^ co m CM co rfo r-^M CM TfO coi-ir^o
"o" ...
:::::!:: : : : : : : : : :^
o^ |O D ^1" iT^~~ st rc ~ " ~ ~ ?
I - 5 *> jf *j U So ? Q >
^3 ^ o5 ^ T3 , bJD^
JF ! I s II s5 I s I
K^O Oc/2WOOOO ^1" O 0* O^ in in
xr> o O s s ! xo oo co co t co oo M ID covO O r^ M
M M O
00 XO M
usv
W M M O^OO ^ i-* CO OO M VO OO M Q v^J) CO ^ O O
W Tt O
^xn^^^cOrtTTf-vn^^^- O0000^l-d
W CO XT)
M3}13A\
anqdjns
uaSojji^j
uaSXxQ
uaSojpA'H
1
1 !
QN M OO "" -* ^*
c^ co o s to coco O 1 ^ r^oo M co d o oo u"i oo o vO
0^ 1-1 In
rt "3
t^ r^od O c4 \o r^o cJcJodcoi-i OVCMWIOM
Oco O
>
M
u
OO^^M^^MMO^00 ^^^-^^^
xn o co
/S^^^^/S? 01 ^?^^!!^ 1 ^^ cococdcoTtcd
oo oo oo r^ r^* oo oo co r-* r>> co co I*-* r^ r-^. r>* ID t^- co
O t-i o
i [I H ' : : :
c
o
:::::: : \ : : : : : 2 : : *
:.*::: o- 4 * '*
vO . I
'
5
1 C 1 -a c
C ^ ^ B v
v* ^ ^ Cu
& c
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(U fc
u
1
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1 _; 3 B *a et B .2 >
'rt e *nl (UpN ^ 'O ^ C O >
rSflirrt ^'SJajC O * -^oj^cS^oj
C^^C'Sg.2o ctf a3 c oS '-'crtlCflJS
HJC^O-^^eji-J^SaSc^ c^O^feC
l|.5llllalllll
Villaverde (av
Transpena. . .
Valdelora, Ca
242
TABLES.
Authority.
3
*.. . ^j
,
"C
1
1
Is
M
d
<
ctf ^aj
5J
S C^
o
'Zu P
2 H
O oo O^ N w invO O vnw OO tn^j-QvM N OOvO
r^o r^moo M O mO M o^"~>OvC r^u->o O^^TJ-
oo M fir^-^-fOcnO MO M N >-t coo woo OIDOO
cococomcn-^-Tt-coM M N N u-)tr)^-coe r >'^t-N O^
O ""> ui W
w M r-oo
t^ w O oo
w w u-> w
c to M
ID 3
SI 8
81
EU -1
o
OCO^fl-'iDCOCOO"^'-'NO^iOvOuie > >l-IOOOO
u->co'^ - ir>'rfir)^mM tor^o w co uivo O M t^. r>
O cOTj-r^ioo^Q^N r^rt-t^-co TJ-ITIM cor^eoo^rt
t~^t^r^oo r-^r>rr^vO'OOvOoooooo i^r^ooo *t~>
RO m i~-
oo t^ vn
Rt-^ co M
O 00 f>. '
ijsy
WOOcowaoOOeocONOOO'tOw OO O
Ooowi-iWMWTt-wr^NOWMMcoi-iNON
SrJ- M O\
O oo
CO CO t-> W
J3JE^
xnoOOCOwO^f'-i'-'OO^co t^O O Ooo oo
O t-s M O O Ooo d rj-o MO O>coOi-iu->Mi-(xr>
l-l OO M M
O >-> O
N M OrJ-W cnOOmCT>MOO M -^-COCOM N WO
MMMW MMH.MWW
00 Tj-00 O
jnqding
uaSojiif^
uaSAxQ
uaSojp^H
"rt
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^NWMr^Tft^owm'a-o^-O *to oo co t^ e<->
O ^ O^O M c^o>-' cowr^m ^O M oo o O M T}-
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o o oo
a i
w u">o M r>rfoooo r^co^ OO woo u->o co
cococow cocnw cocow cocow w cncncncoTfco
00 W O t^
CO -^ W CO
s
OOOMMWi-(O>HMcnOr^oOir>OWOOcO
W CT>r > -'-< O OO COM Tfoo O coco r>. \r>\o oo u-> tn
M IT) O M
H- M W
.a
h
coOt^-OO t^-O inrj-oooo W O OioO Woo W
m^Txnu-iinio^-^j-coco coo O in ir> u-> \r> Th rj-
O O O O
xn too ui
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10 10 fxoo ro o~vo vo fooo ro M ro rx ro ft^S- ICvo
VO O OVO tx Tf N vo N irtoo lOWvO O^J-C^-^-O
J?3 W
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vO 10 tx,vo VO 10 10 ^- txvo vo 10 *ovo
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qsy
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iovo O lovo vo M ro 10 ro IH ro
N J^VO ^ O
WM
oo T- fxvo t~ tx, r^oo M vo ro o
O O 1O N IO
jnqdjns
go. 20-jvgo
VO
OOMQOOOOOOOO
M
ua^oj^i^
^zzsz^zzv
$8
^ft M O 00
10 N rv * ooo o fx O vo o oo
vo ro M M rooo vo t-^ OO MVO
W 'SfT^ looro
p t M ro N
uaSAxQ
vo roo.N M ro-S-tx^-N NVO
OJ^ro^
jnqd[n
H-N
'uaSAxQ
c*> r\d m N in 10 N moo o
ii H M ci M M ct A
Si ? ro'ro r^ 5- ? 2 S ro'co
-
o
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Sv ro
M
fa
^S^!J? < ror7; N r oo ht io^ro
1-1 ro
: g : : :
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Name or Location.
WuiE; 5?ij j
iirf* v ^ y
;u o r ^ :oga
ofg s = : i: g| o6|.|
2l>; rf 5^ucc3e
ssH-flii
aTo 2 2 o-g .-=-
'CJ! o SoJrt'-'JS
WCQU O OJSSM
PEAT.
245
Authority.
w
"S
Bainbridge
Mahler
Berthelot and Petit.
'
s
rri/a
en ^o
in co
I**, in en O^ O m
O W O^ O co CM
rj- O r>. in co o
ci m vn o
O co O O
1
.
O CO
CO Tj-
m r^ "^t* co o^ co
M rf t^ co QO O
M eo r^. CM ^- CT>
^- in co in in in
O vn en O
in TJ- in in
!
33103
8 g.
00 1H
N CO
n- o ^ ^ t~*
tA CO M
CM en en
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CM
rf t CM
O CO M
MOO
CM N
W
5
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g
O CM en
CM t^. o
N O
ON O
d 4
jnqdjns
PUB U3JSAXQ
s s
oi 6
CM CO
Tf Tj- CO CM CO CO
N CO CM CO CO CO
en O
CM 5
CO CO
uaSoJpA"H
CO CO
CO CO
eo in
t C* en ^f <* O
xn co rf N in O^
^- in T}- vd in vn
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if) \o
uoqjB3
O CO
CM M
& CO
CO t~ CM Tf OO M
O N CO M M CM
r^ r^ c O^ c^ I s **
1 9
en d^
en vo
Location.
1
1
u
J3 -
3
&
i (
Rosenheim, "
" " (pure)
Zengermoos, "
" (pure)
Bohemia (locality not given)
" (pure)
ij i
8. S. | nf
T3 -55 g g
(I 'I 1 s
'o
246
FUEL TABLES.
-
8 sj s , s S
! v . s . . I . | j = , 5
o > J, c -iO ^co 1-1 c< cncnoo o **
ooooooco Oco o^ooco OO ^O I-H OO c
M MM MM
M TJ-MCO too toco OtoQvO O Oco O O
M r^r^cs tncsco MCO cnooco r^o^-c^to
t en O O O
0*0" d o o* d
nsv otociiociencncnt>. -
OOOOOOOOO -. x,
M
d d d d d d d d
OOOo'toOo'toto to
COOOO OOO M t^O
ooqaBO J o S S d d d "
s
c 1 : " *S
O
8
OVEN COKES.
247
1
SI
M r^M O O^O OOO xncnw ^-r^^m
M M r^.'3-o >-> **f a COHHOO MVO T}-\OCO
coOoo
^^-o
COO
6 o"
jnqdjng
^OO O t^M O^M r^covriM
^ O O^CO t~"O oOOMTt-M
M M o
O Tt
O" o^
O^M .^
o" 6 ' o
^^ ^U
iii ri'
248
FUEL TABLES.
Heat Un
Combus
qsy
u -3
jl
=
in O r^Moo M r^oo O co
-t M MO t^ M m M O N
O^
O
vnnixnOoo
^t" O^co O
>O O^co w> co
> \r> e4 M 60"
w tn M r^\o co N M TJ- o
do M d666 66
Oco O^
O vO "O
CO CO fr IH < ^-
O O "$ N co
66666
t~* *$
M co
uivO W t^O O O^ ^t" O O
cor^- *^> wor^^o > o
MO 6 MOOOO 66
moo co co co N vnco
w> co*O "^ rf co >n in
l^ ii
SSa 5u
l-s
c c
<
H
su
S-2
II
OVEK COKES.
249
in
8
O
Authority.
.
M
1
M M O Ct
M M Ct Q
co O O O
r^ co co co
8
CO
CO
qsy
vn co
en c5
CO
en
M
vd
m en O"> vO
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en
vn
en
M
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CO
d
g
d
d o" d d
*
6
d
jnqd[ns
in M
vO CO
d d
en
CO
B
CO OO W
d d M
M
d
CO
u
1
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uaSXxQ
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CO
CO
X
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ta
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en
%
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en rf
CO
CO
en d ** M
CO
1 I
3 f
a
d
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CO
CO
Ig
B
B
I
Name or Location.
Best, Durham
Average, Durham
Lj
t
1
|
PQ
%
Brockwell, Durham. . . .
Consett
Whiteworth
South Braucepeth
250
FUEL TABLES.
C/3
C/3
o
tj,
s
ll
ii i
>-i O Ooo OONM^ooir-N
i-coco-f-Tj-TTt-Tf-Tfrj-Tt
2) N
SB -n
g
o : p.wj' 8| 1^1
o 1 cT
oo oo
vO ^ ^ u^ HI r^. c^ to o t^* ^
^M ^ M 2 2 ^ ^^
O^oo oo oo M O 1 ^J" oo OJ O^ t^
OOOOMWMOwOco
unqdins
c^c^^^SS^S^g^
M N M M CO
>*
%oT o'a? 5 c^ S J?
2
<
Moo t^co^o^i^
O
U-> IH
rt "3
>
MCvo OO
IT) M
O oo
oo co Oco oo oo co oco O s oo O^
00 00
G
O
. a '
: :1 'S :.2
: : K
1 :1 Ss K
;
Name or Lo
: : | J^ ^
ijli ii i-K
111,
||lS2|l|'2l:|>|
3 3^S' l5'SS:i
C/3CL,UP!HWWUE^fi^C/3
Petroleumcoke . .
Bohemian coke ... .
OILS
251
XJ
^j
Q
553
g |
sj |
t/3 O
3
|,_J;^. fe|
^
1 f W < !<
cj
H
N O CO Hi
Illlllllillllllpflllpli
K
1
O co co N
t-i N OO
5
c
o
1
2
r> M
6 ^
Oxygen.
TfrCO W CO O W ^-
MO CO N M M
rX U
1
NO N Tt
1^0* COCOM t^
C/J ><
H^ 5
11 w
COM COM
N M rt CO N
c
"o
COMOO tx
Mi-MNMor-o ooc>^^^^^ooH.a
o
CO Tl- ^t- CO
coTfco^tocococo ^acococoMcoMr^co
ffi
B
v> co O 0>
o* ^Ovxno OC^co OONCO^MOOWCO
s
CO Tj- C^ Tj-
oo oo oo oo
23SS&S3Z 3%X225>2&3S
1^ Tfr W CO
CO 00 CO CO
10
N O
r^ vocoo i'dO r^ooco
co oo c< O^ | co m t^O co co
oo ooo^CT> QJr^ cocoooo^ oo
C/5
o o o o
6 666 ,0* 6666 6
o
;S |
C
^1"
jl !5;i ^i?drd ^ -3^'
Name or Loca
Heavy petroleum, V
Light petroleum,
Pe
Heavy petroleum,
8 Ja " -, ^.^J* ISII^ 1 rt^'^c^.? 1 "^
1 f;f1 lpferf%!:irii
5 l---r^l^1lllilllltti]
" 1 K~ l^38l33Sloll*35l
252
TABLES.
\uthority.
-^ it:
I 2 " 5 S & 1- - = =
~-~....v.v..->...~c: ;5 H
V .a o.3 _
w' S < " ^'
&
H
O vnvo MOOr^OOOcoOOOr^O^oOoooOOcOM
M t^ COCO IHMMQVNVOOO'T CTO CO rf M W Tf O O O
o ^ o r~*o -^-vniDOvO cnr^^-rj-d cow coo ^M w MO
oo t^cooooooo o^co o*-t c>O^C^O^r^oocooo M c*o O^MOO
09
8
o
O oo O oo vr> M coco OOOOOi-icocn NOOOOOO
w O MmO co-^-c^r-^OOO O co C^oo r^ vn o O O O ^ >
wr^O ^fO NOO coo t^r->. *^-co oomM MOcoNr^r^cn
O O^ OOOOOOwMO^OO ^ O OC^O^OHHO
c3
r^-. fN~ o--
M
1
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C/3
1
g
vr>
W
1
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X
eor> o^iDMMam
MTt OOOMM^I
2
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CX3 T>r^M IDMNl/IMMQN ^-QO
H. O^>W CT>OMHO-O
_c
"&fi
g
^oo o to M o O^O mr^OOcoOOW^ Oco t^ ^
o
COMOCON(NaMNi-iC^COC<O M o O -i coo M rt
a
^O ^^ O N to t^ Tt* i^> 1^- o O O r^ co to r*^ o O r^ ^
CX30OOOCOOOQOOOCOCOOOCOOOOOOOCOOOCO COCO CO CO
u
O N W M N in -TOO -^-O CO r> rtCO OO OO CO
co M o>O r^co CON com' 2
O
tj
h
||lg|H||||||
RO O co O
O r^ r^oo
PQ
Calories.
O O M ^ COO N O COCO M COCO
Tj-mco inw COM MO 'tf'oo COM
co w O a- O
r^ -^-00 M o
rj- -^ TJ-O O
M
v^
3
Q.
to
6
Nitrogen.
s.
Continue
Oxygen.
1
)l
l
f
O
ci o ^ ^ M r^ ,
co co 4 664
M
O
c
-a
DC
n co co O I s * in n
M M r^4
Carbon.
co r* r^. o co o
O & co oJ n rj- eo
co rco co co co co
O
in
M
. . .
c
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rt
"S "T ' * '. J ^ & v *
lf :
Name or Lo
l| J . : s : |l| fl
1 11
llillsUlilii
?&
! |l =
V ^ ~
8J3-S
- &ll g
ex cXv 5
(S
1
H
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M
2
\n
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co r^o
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M CO
1
1 ^1
g
53 03 Q^NJ
J
^ */^ ^ ^
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J dT^ ffi ^
I
llSal
flf'
254
FUEL TABLES.
H
jooj
d co d M co r^ s O c*i M d r^ ^t* d s O* t^* d o* O M O O vO > < co
^* in in Tfoo s *-i CM ^t" ^t" m O O O in co O^O co ^**O m oo oo m r > >
O^O^O*O>oO O^O>O O^C>O^Oco O^inO>O^i~^oocooooo O'O^O^oo
xncoO"^ OO 1 '*'-'
MMWW WMMW
6666 6666
SOWCOTt MMMMO d M t^O^ COCO d
co ^ m co covO ^00 O>cO'^' covO O^Mf^M
CO d CO CO 4 4 CO CO CO d t^* CO t"^* OO OO d CO OO
d MM
dOmu-> OcO'^O'min oo O vOdOO
TfCOinCO qdCOCOCOCO CO M WMdCOOO
6666 dddddd d d dddd^i
co xn O m O O M in ^ ^ O O d D O
t^invO'* m in-^-mTj-o o ddO 0"?
6666 6 ddddS M 66 2 MCO
o t >> * O "^ O w ^ *n O co ^t" oo ^~ O in oo OJ o O co O ^t~
ddddvO MddddcodO \OcoinO ooovn O^O -^f
O O< co *f> nOOdO OdO^t^O u"<
dddd dddodvd din4o*d 4
r^vO rt^mO M O inTfvnrf-f^^-inM moo corfoo corfOd O^
co4cod r^-vd d d cod comdo r-d O>m4cd d r>-d d ind
co^-dcoco MvOooO^Min vomooOmino cr
4 O O O
C/2
_]o;>Pn fec^wuu wffii-io gpHpnu<:wo
NATURAL GAS (FIRE DAMP).
o
p
Authority.
~ **
... G^w.^ r cG>.v. 1 J3
. * g - - - .H 3 - ~ .iJ
H OP4H P$
^2^1^
W A^
O N O m moo O- O
Ooo O O> O coco l^ in in O
Tf N O
^t o o
N
M r-i
J "Kfe
M r>. co M coo M co
O^ t^ o^ O^ oco co co
10 O ^" O O fr"^ O w O O co oo
COO OM xr/cOMO O O t^-O
O*oo co 0*00 i i co o **"> w> 10
^S?
O ^o
8 OOO xoOOO"^
OO*o coOOOf"
O> co
M oco O co COO N co
M Tj- N M CO CO
O O O O O O
M C"> r^ ^ o N
OO OOONOOOco
Oco Ou^^ncoOOOO
OOO
co in co
MOOO M l^
M MM W Tt M
M ^ CO
00
O O> Tt
do 6
8 - 8
CO M
co m
M >n
o o o o o o
CO CO t^ OO M
R o 8
O O
m co
M OM M
M Tf
80 o o o o o o
in co co i^ m m M
i-R88885>^8 881:
ssa
O 1^ O s OOO CO CO
0^c?o c^cSo S, S 1 "^
^zz
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8
JO 'dS
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Joo
CO
M O M N CO CO Tt"O
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i * ' * o : : :
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C g
:::.::::: :.s :
: :
Name or Loc
JS 5 S 8 '^ :
? " " | | =
ffiiyii 1 !
^ o
cr~ ^
2 5 6
FUEL TABLES.
O o
T &
< I y
< 5
8"
looj -no
ppv
co H-c CO
t^ in M r-~. C oo
O vr> t^O r^O
CO -<4-O O co ir>
CO COO W v^ ON
N NO CO XT) CO
O uivO OOO
O m r^ M
I-H mo O M
O co TJ- ci in
co M TJ- m
d M d d
CO M
^ Tf ^" VO *O ^O
CM dodo
co r^
C4 N
66
co I~>O coo O
W
PU
O O N CO
r/. o co
co O ">
.?q
M CO CO O M
O xno co M
4 co 4 co 4 TJ-
M o O O r^
t^co vn o co >H co co coo
co ci vd O co' o* TJ-
m r^.
M CO CO CO CO CO CO
ON
* ON M O IN M
O d co o r~- co d
O M 1^ ON
NCO O *n N
O ^> ON i-l -j- HH
Tt TJ- co m rr m
bo
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COAL GAS.
257
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INDEX.
AGITATOR, BERTHELOT'S, 27
Aguitton's exp'ments on coal gas, 95
Air, analysis (table), 207
necessary for combustion, 125;
(table 206),
necessary for combustion
(table), 201, 202
used in combustion, 140
Alexejew's calorimeter, 28
Example, 29
American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, boiler-test re-
port, 177
Analysis, Cinders, 115
, Coal, 113
, should show what, 114
, Coke, 82
, Gases, 134
, Lignite, 78
, Manchester gas, 93
, Peat, 80
, Proximate, 77
, Waste gases (table), 135, 136
, Wood, 84
Andrews' calorimeter, 47
Anemometer, Fan-wheel, 144
, Fletcher's, 145
Apparatus for steam-boiler testing
should be correct, 182
, Installation of, 13
, Hirn's, 146
, Orsat-Muencke, 135
Aqueous vapor, Heat of, 159
Ash, Analysis of, 115
, Lignite, 78
, Peat, 80
, Treatment of, 188
Aspirator, Oil, 133
Atomic calorie, 2
Atwater's calorimeter, 71
BARRUS'S CALORIMETER, 38
Berthelot's agitator, 27
bomb, 48
Bituminous schist, 79
Boghead coal, 79
Boiler-testing. See Steam-boiler
Testing.
Bomb. See Calorimeter.
Briquettes, how made, 51
British thermal units, 2
" to change to
calories, 3
Brix's experiments with charcoal, 84
Bueb-Dessau's experiments on coal
gas, 95
Bunsen's researches on flame, 168
Bunte's experiments on coal, 76
gas-coke determinations, 9
experiments on waste gases, 136
Burnat's smoke tests, 155
CALCULATION
Air necessary for combustion, 125
Air supplied, 140
Calories of the boiler test, 159
Calories of carbon, 54
Carpenter's calorimeter, 34
Carbon, 54
Coal, 66
Coke, 68
Colza oil, 64
Favre and Silbermann's calorim-
eter, 26
Flame temperature, 169
Gases, 67, 94
Heat units of boiler trial, 159
Heat units by lead test, 10
Heat units from chemical com-
position, 7
Junker's calorimeter, 41
Mahler's calorimeter, 61
" ; abridged, 70
Regnault and Pfaundler's, 18
Vapor of carbon, 173
Volume of waste gases, 144
Water value of calorimeters, 14,
63
263
264
INDEX.
Calculation; Weight of waste gases,
142
Calories, atomic or molecular, 2
Kilo-, 3
Pound-, 2
To change to B. T. U., 3. See
Heat Units
Calorific power, 2
Ratio of, to fixed carbon, 78
Calorimeter, Alexejew, 28
Analytical, 74^
Andrews, 47
Atwater, 71
Barrus, 38
Berthelot, 48
corrections, 53
examples, 54
operation, 53
Bunsen's, 74^
Carpenter's, 31
calculation, 34
Constant pressure, 20
Constant volume, 45
Constant pressure and volume,
ratio of, 45
Correction for F. and S., 16
Berthelot, 53
cooling, 18, 60
Junker's, 42
Regnault and Pfaundler's, 18
Cost of, 27
Dieterici's, 74^
Dulong, 20
Evaluation in water. See Calo-
rimeter, Water value
Favre and Silbermann, 21
Calculation, 26
in complete combustion with,
23, 25
Fischer, 29^
Hartley, 40
Hempel, 74
Herrmann, 74^
Herschel's, 74^
Ice, 74 x
Junker, 40
calculation, 41 .
errors, 42
Kroeker, 73
Mahler, 57
and Berthelot compared, 70
calculation, 61
, abridged, 70
enamel chips off, 58 (foot-note)
examples, 64
for gases, 62
operation, 59
Calorimeter, Protection for, 13
Rumford, 20
Schwackhofer, 35
waste gases, 37
Schulla and Wurtha, 74
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