I PRACTICAL HANDBOOK FOE THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE AND OP BIBLE LITERATURE I- u SI PRACTICAL HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE AND OF BIBLE LITERATURE INCLUDING BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY, ANTIQUITIES, INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD AND THE NEW TESTAMENT, AND HERMENEUTICS BY DR. MICHAEL SEISENBERGER ROYAL LYCEUM, FREISING TRANSLATED FROM THE SIXTH GERMAN EDITION BY A. M. BUCHANAN, M.A. (LONDON) AND EDITED BY THE REV. THOMAS J. GERRARD NEW YORK JOSEPH F. WAGNER litfjtl batat REMIGIUS LAFORT, S.T.L. Censor Librorum Bmjmmattir *JOHN M. FARLEY, D.D. Archbishop of Ne2 12. Contents of the New Testament Canon ................. 203 13. The New Testament Canon of the Earliest Churches ............ 205 14. Ecclesiastical Decisions ....................... 207 Appendix. Protestant Opinions Regarding the Canon ............ 207 15. Apocryphal Books ......................... 208 SeconU Part GENERAL INTRODUCTION. THE BIBLE AS A WHOLE 16. Transition ........................... 212 THE ORIGINAL TEXT OF HOLY SCRIPTURE 17. Biblical Languages in General ............. ....... 212 18. Hebrew ............................ 213 19. Chaldee .......................... . . 214 20. Greek ............................. 215 21. Original Form of the Hebrew and Chaldee Texts .............. 216 J-2. Later Forms of the Hebrew and Chaldee Texts ............. ,217 23. TheMasora ........................... 220 24. Hebrew Manuscripts and Printed Editions ................ 222 25. Value of the Masoretic Text ..................... 225 26. The Original Text of the Greek Books of the Bible ............. 226 27. The Greek Manuscripts ....................... 227 28. The Most Important Greek Manuscripts ................. 228 29. Greek Printed Editions .................... \ . . 231 TRANSLATIONS OF THE BIBLE 30. General Remarks ......................... 235 31. The Septuagint .......................... 235 32. Other Greek Translations ...................... 238 33. Later History of the Septuagint. Origen ................ 240 34. Chaldee Translations (Targumim) ................... 242 35. Samaritan Translation of the Pentateuch ................ 244 36. Syriac Translations" ........................ 244 37. Latin Translations. Itala and Vulgate ................. 247 38. Continuation. The Vulgate in the Middle Ages .............. 252 39. Continuation. The Council of Trent .................. 253 part SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. THE SACRED BOOKS CONSIDERED SINGLY The Books of the Old Testament 1. Survey and Classification ...................... 257 JFirst Section 2. The Pentateuch. History, Criticism, Objections, Defense .......... 258 JSeconto .Section From the Entrance of the Israelites into Chanaan to the Division of the Kingdom 3. Survey ............................. 275 4. Josue ............................. 275 5. Judges ............................ 277 6. Ruth ............................. 279 7. The Books of Samuel, or First and Second Books of Kings .......... 280 CONTENTS xi Page 8. Old Testament Poetry 282 9. The Psalter 284 10. Proverbs 291 11. Canticle of Canticles 294 12. Ecclesiastes 297 13. The Book of Job 298 StyirtJ Section From the Division of the Kingdoms until the End of the Captivity 14. Historical Survey 302 15. Prophecy in General 304 16. Jonas 307 17. Amos 309 18. Joel 310 19. Abdias 312 20. Osee 313 21. Micheas 314 22. Isaias 315 23. Nahum 318 24. Sophonias 319 25. Habakuk 320 26. Jeremias 322 27. The Book of Lamentations 325 28. Baruch 326 29. Ezechiel 328 30. Daniel 330 JFourtlj Section From the Captivity to the Close of the Old Testament Revelation 31. Historical Survey 333 32. Kings. (Third and Fourth Books of Kings) 334 33. Chronicles or Paralipomena 336 34. Esdras and Nehemias 338 35. Esther 340 36. Tobias 342 37. Judith 344 38. The Books of Macliabees 346 39. Aggeus 348 40. Zacharias 349 41. Malachias 350 42. Sirach or Ecclesiasticus 352 43. Wisdom 355 THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 1. Classification 358 JFirst Section 2. The Gospels in General 358 3-9. St. Matthew 365 10-15. St. Mark 374 16-20. St. Luke 383 21. The Synoptic Writers 390 22-26. St. John 391 27-31. The Acts of the Apostles 399 SeconD Section 32-36. St. Paul the Apostle 404 37. The Epistle to the Romans 412 xii CONTENTS Page 38-38. The Epistles to the Corinthians 415 40. The Epistle to the Galatians 418 41. The Epistle to the Epheslans 420 42. The Epistle to the PhUippians 43. The Epistle to the Colossians 423 44-45. The Epistles to the Thessalonians 46-47. The Epistles to Timothy 427 48. The Epistle to Titus 429 49. The Epistle to Philemon 431 50. The Epistle to the Hebrews 431 51. The Catholic Epistles 434 52. The Epistle of St. James 434 63. The Two Epistles of St. Peter 436 54. The Three Epistles of St. John 55. The Epistle of St. Jude the Apostle . . 442 Cfjiro .Section 56. The Apocalypse 444 JFourtfj part INTERPRETATION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE (HERMENEUTICS) 1. Introduction 449 jhrst .Section THE MEANING OF HOLT SCRIPTURE 2. The Meaning in General of Holy Scripture 450 3. The Application of the Literal and Mystical Meaning 453 4. Of Accommodation 457 Secant! Section OF DISCOVERING THE MEANING OF HOLY SCRIPTURE (HEURISTICS) 6. Principles laid down by the Church 459 6. Hermeneutical Rules Based on the Peculiar Character of the Bible 462 (Efyiro Section EXPLANATIONS OF THE TEXT 7. Paraphrases 466 8. Scholia 467 9. Glosses . . . 468 10. Commentaries 470 11. Study and Reading of the Bible 472 Eiegetical Bibliography 473 Works to which Reference has been Made 475 Conclusion 479 INDEX or SUBJECTS 483 MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS The Temple at the Time of Christ Frontispiece Chanaan as Divided among the Twelve Tribes opposite 20 Ancient Jerusalem , 22 Environs of Jerusalem Journeyings of the Children of Israel The Tabernacle Palestine in the Time of Christ , 370 The Journeys of St. Paul , 406 FIRST PART PRACTICAL HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE INTRODUCTION THE Christian religion, and with it the whole civilization of Christian nations, is based upon Israel. The modern world, which calls itself Christian, is inseparably connected with the people of Israel, and the new Covenant between God and man, instituted by Christ, is only the extension and development of the old Israelite Covenant. Out of Israel proceeded the Saviour and salvation for the whole world. " Salvation is of the Jews " are words used by Christ Himself in His conversation with the Samaritan woman (John iv. 22). Amidst the Israel- ites grew up the body of literature also, that both Jews and Christians venerate as " Holy Writ." What Greece and Rome received from the East they passed on with their own additions to the West, and thence the benefits of salvation have been spread abroad over the whole world. Not only believers, but also unbelievers, study Holy Scripture with peculiar interest. The former do so for their own edifi- cation, to strengthen their faith and to find means to defend the truth; the latter often show even greater zeal, if possible, in their efforts to undermine the foundations of faith. No one can attain to a full comprehension of the documentary evidence for our faith without taking into consideration the circumstances of the early history of the Jewish race and the course of events affecting this people. Therefore, before beginning to discuss Holy Scripture, we pro- pose to give some account of the Holy Land, including a sketch of the history and religious institutions of Israel. Then we can proceed to discuss the Bible and its interpretation. THE HOLY LAND GEOGRAPHY 1 1. SITUATION OF PALESTINE IF Israel was the nation chosen by God to preserve the true religion and to be instrumental in the salvation of mankind, and for the present we shall assume this to be the case, then it was but fitting that a suitable habitation should be assigned to this people, where it might live its own life and fulfill the task assigned to it. No country could be found better adapted to this purpose. (1) Palestine resembled a lofty for- tress, shut off and protected on all sides from hostile invasions. In the north Lebanon formed a strong boundary; on the west was the sea, the stormy breakers of which made approach on that side almost impossible; the south and the east were pro- tected by deserts. In this way the inhabitants of this country 1 Apart from the sacred writings themselves, we derive our knowl- edge of the geographical features of Palestine from the works of some Greek and Latin authors who mention the East, and especially the little Jewish nation. Chief among these are Strabo the geographer, and the Elder Pliny; but Herodotus, Diodorus of Sicily, Plutarch and Tacitus also supply information. Allusion must be made, moreover, to the Ono- masticon (Name book) of Holy Scripture, compiled by Eusebius and translated into Latin by Saint Jerome (printed by Vallarsi among Saint Jerome's works; cf. Onomastica sacra, ed. de Lagarde, Gottingen, 1887). Descriptions written by travelers, and especially by pilgrims in biblical countries, are also important. The earliest pilgrim's book is the Itinerarium Burdigalense, the author of which was an unknown Chris- tian from Bordeaux, who visited the Holy Land about 333 A. D. ; but the Peregrinatio 8. Silvia? Aquitance (385-388), Rome, 1888, and the Pere- grinatio s. Paulce, by Saint Jerome, are almost equally old. The Hodce- poricon s. Willibaldi, Eichstadt, 1881, contains an account of a journey made by this saint in the years 723-727. Cf. Itinera hierosolymitana THE HOLY LAND 5 were cut off from intercourse with the world and its errors, and were able to live in peace and to serve the true God undisturbed. (2) Palestine lay in the center of the civilized world as known to the ancients. Its seclusion was not absolute, for it was sur- rounded by civilized countries, viz., Assyria and Babylonia, Phoe- nicia and Egypt, Greece and Italy. Jerusalem lay midway between Babylonia and Athens and between Ninive and the mouth of the Nile. The chief trading routes skirted the bound- aries of Palestine and the great trading cities of Tyre and Sidon, Damascus, Ninive and Babylon were all in its neigh- borhood. Thus it was possible for God's chosen people to enjoy all the benefits of civilization without being forced to share its disadvantages. (3) The position of Palestine was favorable to its future task. Its central situation between the three continents of the ancient world was carefully adapted by Providence for the speedy dissemination amongst all countries of the tidings of the Messianic kingdom, when the time for redemption should come. Such a position was of the utmost importance at a period when almost all journeys were made on foot, apart from scanty intercourse by means of caravans, and navigation, which was carried on with great difficulty. Nowadays it is scarcely possible to form any idea of the ob- stacles to travel and transport that existed in antiquity. scec. IV-VHI ex recensiotie Pauli Geyer (Corp. script, eccl. lat. Vindob., T. xxxviiii.), Leipz., 1898. Many pilgrims' books have come down to us from the Middle Ages, and of the more recent books of travels we may mention particularly the works of Niebuhr, Seetzen, Chateaubriand, Schubert, Geramb, Robinson, Tobler, Mislin, Sepp, Dixon, Schegg, Mess- mer, Socin, Keppler, Fahrngruber, Lie"vin, Badeker-Benzinger and Riick- ert; also Meistermann's Nouveau guide de Terre Sainte avec 23 cartes et 140 plans, Paris, 1906. Atlas Scriptures sacrce, auctore R. de Riess, ed. 2, Friburgi, Br., 1906. M. Hagen, S.J., Atlas BiUicus, Paris, 1907. Architectural remains and pieces of sculpture that have come down to us from early times are also interesting, but very few remains of this kind have been preserved in Palestine. Further information regarding the sources of our knowledge of biblical geography may be obtained by referring to the Catholic Encyclopedia; Roehricht, Bibliotheca geo- graphica Palcestince, Berlin, 1890; Cheyne and Black, Encyclopaedia biblica, London, 1901; Hastings, "A Dictionary of the Bible," Edin- burgh, 1898-1902; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, Paris. 6 HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE Ezechiel v. 5 : " Thus saith the Lord God : This is Jerusalem, I have set her in the midst of the nations, and the countries round about her." Ezechiel xx. 6: "I lifted up my hand for them (the Israelites) to bring them out of the land of Egypt, into a land which I had provided for them, flowing with milk and honey, which excelleth amongst all lands." Deuteronomy iv. 6: (The heathen are to say of the Israelites,) "Be- hold a wise and understanding people, a great nation." Cf. Gen. xii. 7; xiii. 14; xv. 7, 18; xvii. 8; xxvi. 4, etc.; Deut. xxxii. 8, etc.; xxxiii. 28, 29. 2. EXTENT In its configuration Palestine falls into two parts, being di- vided by the Jordan into a large region lying to the west of the river and a smaller one lying to the east. The country to the west of the Jordan is Chanaan, properly so called, stretching from Lebanon in the north to the Arabian desert in the south, and from the Jordan on the east to the sea on the west. The smaller district east of the Jordan was formerly called Galaad or G-ilead, 1 and, in the time of Christ, Perasa; it extends from the range of Hermon on the north to the Arnon on the south, which river flowing from the east falls into the Dead Sea. On its eastern side this district is gradually merged in the great plain of the Euphrates. Between these two regions lies the valley of the Jordan, now called El Ghor the depression. Palestine extends, therefore, from latitude 31 1ST. to beyond 33 N., and from longitude 52 E. to beyond 54E. Its length from north to south is approximately 150 English miles and its breadth from east to west 125 miles. Its total area is about the same as that of the kingdom of Belgium. 3. NAMES The oldest name for the chief part of the country was Chanaan. This name was borne by Cham's fourth son, the ancestor of the Chanaanites, who occupied all the land west of the Jordan. The name Chanaan therefore excludes the dis- 1 Tjn^ is interpreted as meaning " the rugged region," from y'w rough, rugged; but the traditional meaning is "hill of testimony" (see Gten. xxxi. 21, etc.). THE HOLY LAND 7 trict eastward of the Jordan, but includes Phoenicia, and when in course of time the Chanaanites were driven to the northwest as the Israelites settled in the country, only Phoenicia re- tained the old name of Chanaan. (" The woman of Chanaan," Matt. xv. 22. ) 1 Other names are: the Land of Israel, because it was inhabited by the descendants of Jacob or Israel; Land of the Hebrews, i. e. the descendants of Heber, or the people from beyond; 2 Land of Yahweh (God), because the country was always to be regarded as belonging to God in a peculiar degree, and He permitted the Israelites to dwell in it under definite conditions; Land of Juda, because from the time of David and Solomon onwards the tribe of Juda was pre-eminent, and because the exiles who returned from the Babylonian captivity belonged almost exclusively to this tribe, so that the people came to be known as Jews, and Greek and Roman writers speak of the whole country as Judaea. The Jews call Palestine the Holy Land because it belonged especially to God and was sanc- tified by God's presence in the Temple; and Christians give 1 It is possible to derive Chanaan from kana', to bend, to settle down, and thus Chanaan would mean the low-lying land, as opposed to 'aram, the high ground (Maurer, Leorikon). The early inhabitants might have been called Chanaanites, the low-landers, and in this case the name of the founder of the race would not have been Chanaan, but would simply be unknown. This interpretation is, however, inaccurate. Chanaan is a mountainous country and Aram is chiefly a plain watered by rivers; hence Aram cannot mean " high ground," and the origin of the word is doubtful. We may therefore assume that the name of the founder of the race was transferred to the country inhabited by the race. As the Phoenicians were traders, the Israelites often called all merchants " Chanaanites." 2 Ewald derives the name from Heber, but it seems better to connect it either with l abar, to pass over, or with 'eber, beyond. The name seems to have been originally given to the Israelites by the heathen inhabit- ants, because they came from beyond the Jordan. They generally spoke of themselves as the Children of Israel. " Israel " means " God fight- eth," a very suitable name for the community of believers, who were constantly assailed by enemies and seemed again and again to be on the verge of destruction, but nevertheless outlasted all their foes, because God fought for and with them. Thus the followers of God under the new dispensation are known as the " Church Militant." Cf. Wellhausen, Isr. u. jiid. Geschichte, 15. The struggle described in Gen. xxxii. 24, etc., when Jacob's name was changed to Israel, probably signifies that Jacob's descendants would be punished for their repeated resistance to God's commands, just as Jacob was lamed in wrestling. 8 HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE it the same name because it was the scene of our Lord's life and death. It is called the Land of Promise (Heb. xi. 9), or the Promised Land, because God promised it to the patriarchs as their dwelling place. Lastly, the name Palestine comes from peleschet or Philistine-land; this name was originally given only to the strip of coast on the southwest inhabited by the Philistines, but the Greeks and Romans, who visited the coast before they penetrated inland, applied the name to the whole country. 4. CLIMATE Lying as it does in latitude 32, Palestine has a mild climate, and suffers neither from excessive heat nor from extreme cold. The seasons differ from one another less than they do with us, and in Holy Scripture as a rule only two seasons, winter and summer, are mentioned. Winter lasts from the beginning of November until March, but is not so cold as ours. It sets in with the early rains (jore or chariph), which soften the ground and facilitate the sowing of the winter crops (barley and wheat). Rain continues to fall intermittently during the fol- lowing months, and occasionally snow is seen, but seldom lies more than a few days ; the earth hardly ever freezes. February is the wettest month of the year. Corn reaches its full height in March, and after the late rains (malgosch) at the end of this month the summer crops are sown. 1 The corn grown in winter is harvested in April and May, and then the summer sets in, during which rain seldom falls; the earth soon loses its ver- dure and most of the brooks dry up. The heat increases rapidly and is very oppressive in August, when the ther- mometer often rises above 100 Fahrenheit. The nights, how- ever, are cool and there is abundant dew. The days vary in length from ten to fourteen hours. In December the sun rises a little before seven and sets about five; in June it rises a little before five and sets soon after seven. 1 The farmers anxiously await the rain, for it causes the floors to be filled with wheat and the presses to overflow with wine and oil (Joel ii. 24). Job boasts that men waited for him as for rain and they opened their mouth as for a latter shower (xxix. 23).. THE HOLY LAND 5. CONFIGURATION * Almost the whole country is hilly, as it is crossed by off- shoots of the Lebanon range. Lebanon itself (=the white mountain) lies to the north of Palestine and belongs not to it but to Syria; Little Lebanon (Antilibanus) to the east and Hermon, about 10,000 feet high, with its summit always covered with snow, likewise belong to Syria. Between these two ranges lies a broad, deep valley called Coelosyria (KoCkij ^vpia = hol- low Syria) which never formed part of Palestine. 1. Offshoots of Mount Lebanon form the hill country west- ward of the Jordan. The most conspicuous heights in the north are Thabor (1850 feet), and the promontory of Carmel (1800 feet above the Mediterranean). Farther south, in Samaria, are Garizim and Ebal, both about 2500 feet high, and still farther, near Jerusalem, the Mount of Olives reaches a height of about 2650 feet, while some points near Hebron, quite in the south, are 2800 feet above sea level. The whole range is intersected by numerous valleys, the broadest being the plain of Esdrelon, watered by the brook Kison. Towards the east the mountains terminate abruptly with the valley of the Jordan, but towards the west they sink in a succession of terraces down to the sea. Along the coast is a flat strip of fertile land, known as the Plain of Saron, where the Philistines dwelt. 2. The mountains east of the Jordan are a prolongation of the Little Lebanon range, and are from 1300 to 2200 feet above the sea. On the east they sink gradually down to the great plain of the Euphrates, but on the west the descent to the valley of the Jordan is steep and abrupt. The high ground is intersected by several deep valleys, along which rivers flow, the chief being the Jabbok and the Arnon. 3. The valley of the Jordan runs nearly due north and south between these ranges of hills and extends from the foot of Her- mon to the Dead Sea, and even beyond it, being shut in by steep hills on either side. Its length is about 125 English miles, 1 A fuller account of the configuration of Palestine will be found in J. Wimrner's Paldstinas Boden mit seiner Pflanzen- und Tierwvlt, Co- logne, 1902. 10 HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE and its breadth varies from 6 to 13 miles. Its climate is mild, and its soil more fertile than that of the hill country. The Jordan (Hajjarden, the descending) rises on Mount Hermon and is the chief river in the Holy Land; owing to the rapid slope of the land it flows very quickly, and contains about thirty waterfalls; it is not navigable. Quite in the north, not far from its source, it flows through the small, swampy Lake Merom, and ten miles further on it enters the beautiful Lake of Genesareth. The lake is over 600 feet below the sea level, is 14 miles long and 6 broad, and has sweet, clear water, abound- ing in fish. Its banks are picturesque, though now desolate. In our Saviour's time they were covered with prosperous villages, which He took pleasure in visiting. The Jordan leaves the lake by a cataract at its southern end, being by this time a stream about 40 feet broad and 7 feet deep. It does not flow in the middle of the valley, but keeps along the eastern side, until after a further course of nearly 80 miles it enters the Dead Sea. This lake, called by the Arabs Bohr Lut or Lot's Sea, .lies 1300 feet below sea level, and is 47 miles long and 10 miles across. It is shut in by high, barren walls of rock, and is justly called the Dead Sea, as no vegetation is visible anywhere near it and no fish can live in it. The water is of a grayish green tint, not quite transparent, and it contains 25 per cent of salt. It is therefore more brackish than sea water and of a greater specific gravity than the human body. The lake is divided into two very different parts by a promontory stretching out from the eastern shore. The northerly part is on an average 1100 to 1300 feet deep, while the southern part, which forms about a quarter of the whole lake, is only 13 to 16 feet in depth. This smaller part appears to be of later formation than the rest, and it seems probable that the soil, permeated as it is with resinous substances, was at some period set on fire, possibly by lightning, and it gradually burnt itself out. 1 1 The subject has been discussed in a periodical called Gaa (1897, nos. 7 and 8, pp. 402, etc. ) and the writers of the articles tend to ascribe the present state of the lake to the action of an earthquake. Cf., however, Natur und Offenbarung, 1900, no. 3, and also Elbert, Entstehung und Oeschichte des Toten Meeres. In any case we see the results of punitive THE HOLY LAND 11 This resulted in the formation of a depression over which the water of the northern part of the lake poured. It would seem that the water acquired its extreme saltness only after this occurrence, as it has since then been brought into contact with the bed of rock salt to the south of the lake. The biblical account of the catastrophe is given in Genesis xix. According to it four towns, Sodom, Gomorrha, Seboim and Adama, stood on a fertile plain to the south of the lake, and were destroyed in the time of Abraham, while Segor, a smaller city, was spared. 1 6. NATURAL PRODUCTS In consequence of Israel's want of faith and God's curse, Palestine is at the present time barren and unproductive. For- merly, however, it was a very fruitful country, capable of supporting four or five million inhabitants, whereas now it has scarcely 800,000. 2 The natural causes of the present desolation are : the destruc- tion of forests, which has caused the former abundant supply of water to diminish (Deut. viii. 7) ; 3 the numerous wars and action on God's part, as recorded in Holy Scripture. Nature is God's instrument. 1 Since 1900 a steamer, built in Hamburg and carrying thirty-four passengers besides cargo, has been plying regularly along the Dead Sea, which had been deserted for thousands of years. It has opened up trade between Jerusalem and Kerak, the old capital of the Moabites, which has a population of 1800 Christians and 6000 Mahometans, and is the only town of any commercial importance situated east of the Jordan. 2 According to Fr. Lie"vin, and also Badeker-Benzinger, Palastina, fifth ed., Leipzig, 1900, the population consists of about 440,000 Mahome- tans; 200,000 Jews, mostly immigrants in the last few years; 50,000 Christians, half of whom are Catholics and the other half Greeks not Uniates; and the remainder includes Armenians and Druses and a few Protestants. The population is only a quarter as dense as that of Germany. 3 " For the Lord thy God will bring thee into a good land, of brooks and of waters, and of fountains, in the plains of which and the hills deep rivers break out." Even in the time of Esdras and Nehemias the high ground must still have been covered with forests, for in Nehemias viii. 15, we read the command to " Go forth to the mount and fetch branches of olive, and branches of beautiful wood." When forests are cut down the springs and brooks dry up, the banks of which are mentioned in Leviticus xxiii. 40, as the places where the willows grow. 12 HANDBOOK FOE THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE devastations with which the country was harassed; and the Turkish supremacy, which has always proved hostile to progress. In spite of all this, however, Palestine still shows traces of great fertility. 1 Palestine is poor in minerals. There are some iron mines in the north, and rock salt is found in the south, near the Dead Sea, but these are almost all the mineral products. The vegetable kingdom is abundantly represented. At the time when the Scriptures were written the natural fertility of the soil was increased by the extraordinary care with which it was cultivated. Plots of ground were protected against wild animals by hedges and walls and against floods by being laid out in terraces. Artificial means of irrigation were everywhere employed (cisterns, channels and ponds) wher- ever the natural water supply was deficient. "Wheat and barley were grown in great quantities, rye and oats were unknown. The corn surplus was so large that much could be exported, and the Phoenicians especially imported from Palestine the large amount of grain that they required (cf. Acts xii. 20). Palestine was very rich also in vineyards, and even now the vines often grow to the height of trees and bear bunches of grapes weigh- ing several pounds. There was no dearth of lentils and beans, and flax was plentiful, though it is doubtful whether cotton was cultivated. Among the trees with foliage may be mentioned the fig, the olive, palms, pomegranate, apple (tappuach), oak, terebinth, acacia, tamarisk and sycamore; they furnished the ordinary wood used for building purposes; among conifers the cypress and the cedar, the wood of the latter being used for buildings of the highest class. Many shrubs abounded, such as the oleander, myrtle, mandragora and hyssop. According to Leviticus x. and xi., animals were divided into four classes, (1) the larger land animals, (2) water crea- tures, (3) birds, (4) other animals. (1) The first class is subdivided into cattle (betiema), i.e. 1 The sect of the German Templars have in modern times succeeded in raising very fine crops in various places; e.g., near Jaffa and Jerusa- lem. The same is true of recent Jewish settlers in both the east and the west of the country. THE HOLY LAND 13 tame domestic animals, and beasts of the field (chajjath liaarez), i. e. wild creatures. Of the domestic animals, oxen, sheep and goats were bred in great numbers, 1 so that every year many thousands of them could be sacrificed and killed for food. Cattle were used in agriculture, for plowing, for threshing out the corn, and for drawing wagons. Many asses were kept, intelligent animals, on which people generally rode, though they were also employed in drawing the plow and in working the larger mills. Camels, or rather dromedaries with one hump (animals with two humps occur only in the heart of Asia), served then, as now, to carry merchandise and travelers on long journeys. Horses were not much used until the time of David. Dogs were generally despised as savage and bloodthirsty and as re- sembling wolves (Ps. Iviii. 7) ; it is only in the book of Tobias and in the New Testament that there is any mention of dogs as domestic animals. Swine were not kept at all. Many wild animals were used for food, such as stags, ante- lopes or gazelles, and ibexes. The hare was regarded as unclean. Mention is made of the following savage beasts: the wild boar, the bear, the wolf, the lion, the panther, the hyena, the lynx and the jackal. (2) Only such fish were eaten as had fins and scales. The Lake of Genesareth abounded in fish and at the time of our Lord many of the people in that neighborhood lived by fishing. In this region fish served as the usual relish eaten with bread (cf. Matt. xiv. 17). (3) There were many pigeons, wood pigeons and turtledoves in Palestine (Ezech. vii. 16), and partridges, swallows and cranes were well known; hens are only mentioned in the New Testament. Birds of prey were numerous, and were all regarded as unclean. Birdcatching was common, but when a bird's nest was discovered it was forbidden to take with the young ones also 1 In spring the cattle were driven out to pasture and left out during the whole summer, until the approach of winter. At night they were collected into a fold, a space surrounded by a low wall, at the entrance to which one of the shepherds kept watch all night. Such folds were often very large, and afforded room for several flocks under different shepherds. Similes from pastoral life abound in Holy Scripture, and our Lord speaks of Himself as the Good Shepherd, John x. 14 HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE the mother bird (Deut. xxii. 6). In this way the various species were preserved. 1 (4) Other creatures are divided into four classes, according to Leviticus xi. 20, etc. : (a) animals that walk upon the earth, such as the weasel, the mouse and various kinds of lizards; (&) those that creep on their belly, such as worms and all kinds of snakes; (c) small creatures with wings, such as grasshoppers (four varieties of which are mentioned in Lev. xi. 22 as edible), flies, gnats, wasps and bees; the latter abounded, although no attention was paid to bee-keeping, and honey was frequently eaten; (d) small creatures with many feet, such as beetles, ants, spiders and scorpions. 7. PLAGUES OF COMMON OCCURRENCE Under this heading four things may be mentioned: 1. The Samum, a hot wind that prevails in the desert and is dangerous to life. It is injurious owing to its being very hot and dry, and it carries a quantity of fine dust with it. Men try to avoid it by throwing themselves flat on the ground, as it always blows a few feet above the earth. 2. The plague, which formerly visited Palestine very fre- quently and caused great loss of life. For the last few years the Holy Land has been spared this visitation. 3. Leprosy, 2 at one time very common throughout the East, but now of less frequent occurrence. 4. Locusts, a kind of grasshopper, capable of breeding in incredible numbers, so as often to overspread and devastate whole districts. Joel ii. 3, "The land is like a garden of pleasure before it, and behind it a desolate wilderness." 1 In Lev. xi. 13-16, and Deut. xiv. 12, etc., the following birds are men- tioned as unfit for food: the eagle, the griffin, the osprey, the kite, the vulture, the raven, the ostrich, the owl, the sea mew, the falcon, the screech owl, the cormorant, the ibis, the swan, the pelican, the purple water hen, the stork, the heron, the lapwing and the bat (among the ancients the bat was always reckoned as a bird). 2 For full information regarding this disease, that is still prevalent in Palestine and elsewhere, see Die Kath. Hissionen, 1902, 1903. THE HOLY LAND 15 8. DWELLINGS, FOOD AND CLOTHING 1. The Patriarchs lived as nomads in tents resembling those of Bedouin Arabs at the present time. Covers made of goats' hair or sometimes of linen were stretched over several uprights and fastened down to the earth by means of pegs at the sides. As a rule a curtain divided each tent into two apartments, one for the men and the other for the women and little children; occasionally there was a third apartment for the servants. Some- times the women occupied a separate tent. A cluster of tents round that of the chieftain, now called the Sheikh, formed a village. In mountainous parts of the country caves were often used as dwellings, or artificial caves were hollowed in the rocks. The Horites to the east of the Jordan were so called from their living in caves (c/ior = cave). An entrance was often built in front of the cave, so that the dwelling consisted of two parts. The house of the Holy Family in Nazareth seems to have been of this kind. Caves served also as places of burial, and were then closed with a stone; such was our Lord's grave. Cf. also Gen. xxiii. 9 ; Matt. viii. 28 ; John xi. 39. 2. The houses of the settled population were then as now built of clay bricks, which were seldom baked, but only dried in the sun; hence the buildings did not last long. The houses of wealthy persons were built of hewn stone. The beams were mostly of sycamore wood, i. e. the wood of the fig-mulberry tree, which often grows to an enormous size. The walls were lime-washed, and the floors were of clay, firmly stamped down. As a rule a house had but one story and a flat roof, on which the occupants could walk about and follow their employments, especially in the cool of the evening. In order to prevent them from falling down, it was often necessary to have a parapet or a trellis round the roof (Deut. xxii. 8). Often there was an upper room on the roof. A staircase led from the roof down into the house or else to the road outside. The door of the house was secured with a wooden bolt having openings in it, into which a large key fitted, with a movable iron 16 HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE tip, so that the bolt could be moved backwards and forwards. Above the door a text of Scripture was inscribed (Deut. vi. 9). The windows were not glazed, for glass was very costly, but they were latticed, and there were fewer of them than in our houses. One indispensable article in every house was a candle- stick, a wooden stand supporting a lamp. A hand mill was to be found in almost every house. 3. The food of the people consisted chiefly of grain. Wheat supplied the daily bread, and only the poor ate barley bread. Unripe grain was often cooked in oil, but as a rule it was ground to flour and baked into bread, which very frequently was un- leavened, such as is still common in the East. The loaves were round or long in shape, about the size of a plate, and of the thickness of a finger. They were not cut but broken at meals. Bread was the chief article of food, hence in the Lord's Prayer we ask for " our daily bread." As a relish the Israelites often ate fruit or fried fish, although there was no lack of meat. Only very poor people or strict penitents ate locusts (Lev. xi. 22 ; Matt. iii. 4). The ordinary beverage was water. The dearth of water in the East causes a draught of fresh water to be regarded as a great boon, hence a special reward is promised to the giver of it (Matt. x. 42; xxv. 42). As the water was seldom quite fresh, but drawn from cisterns, the common people in summer quenched their thirst (Num. vi. 3; Euth ii. 9) with a sour drink (chomez) made from dates, into which they dipped their bread. The upper classes drank wine (jajin], which was no doubt mixed with water. 1 They had also an artificial wine (schekar, o-itcepa, sicera) prepared by fermentation from grain, fruit or honey, with the addition of spices. 4. They usually took two meals daily, at noon and in the evening. The latter meal seems to have been the more impor- tant, as the solemn Paschal supper had to be celebrated at night (the meal at which the Holy Eucharist was instituted) ; also the wedding feasts were held in the evening (Matt. xxv. 1 The Greeks and Romans drank wine much diluted with water. Vi/num temperatum consisted of one part of wine to three parts of water. THE HOLY LAND 17 1-13). 1 Both before and after a meal it was customary to wash the hands. In early times people sat at table (Judges xix. 6: "They sat down together and ate and drank"), but after- wards it became the fashion to recline on cushions, 2 leaning on the left arm, and using the right to carry the food to the mouth. The feet, that were of course bare, were stretched out at the back. 5. The clothing worn by the Israelites was commonly a tunic (IcetTionetJi, ^m6z>, tunica) with a cloak or upper garment (beged) over it. The tunic was made of linen or woolen cloth and reached to the knees; it had very short sleeves or none at all. A coat that came down to the ankles and wrists was considered a festival garment (kethoneth passim , Gen. xxxvii. 3). The tunic was held in place by a girdle round the waist. Over it was worn the cloak, a square piece of cloth, which frequently served also as a bed covering. At its four corners were tassels fastened to a blue cord (arba kanphoth = fringes. Num. xv. 38). The feet were shod with sandals, and a band formed the headgear; women wore a veil. Isaias speaks of the vanity of women in dress (iii. 16-23). "The daughters of Sion are haughty, and have walked with stretched-out necks, and wanton glances of their eyes, and made a noise as they walked with their feet and moved in a set pace. . . . The Lord will take away the ornaments of shoes and little moons, and chains and necklaces, and bracelets, and bonnets, and bodkins, and ornaments of the legs and tablets, and sweet balls, and earrings, and rings, and jewels hanging on the forehead, and changes of apparel, and short cloaks, and fine linen and crisping pins, and looking- glasses, and lawns, and headbands, and fine veils." The present state of the native population is very depressing. Their dwellings are mostly mud huts with flat roofs, and it is only through the narrow doorway that light and air can penetrate into them. The fellah generally owns a small plot 1 The Greeks and Romans also took their chief meal (Selirvov, cena) in the evening. The midday repast was a lighter meal, more like our breakfast or luncheon, hence it was called prandium, i. e., early meal (irpav Trpunjv, early, connected with vpul). 2 Triclinia, so called because there was generally room for three per- sons. These couches had no backs. 18 HANDBOOK FOE THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE of land, on which he grows wheat, barley and a few vegetables. He may possess also some olive and fig trees, and perhaps some sheep, goats and fowls, an ass, a horse or a camel. The work of a fellahin family is divided between the husband, who looks after the land, and the wife, who does everything else. Thus the chief burden falls on the weaker sex. The woman has to provide the meals, which, simple as they are, involve fetching water, preparing fuel by mixing chaff with animals' dung, grinding the corn at the handmill, and making and baking the bread. She has moreover to make all the clothing, and carry a child on her back while she does her work. The meals are very simple; the chief article of food is bread, mostly unleavened and newly baked, and as a relish a few olives or onions, figs or grapes; sometimes rice with sour milk. Meat is seldom seen. The ordinary beverage is water, generally drawn from a cistern, and only on festive occasions is a cup of coffee produced. Amusements as we understand them do not exist, with the sole exception of tobacco smoking. No one can be called well to do, although so very little is re- quired to maintain a family. The chief reason for this deplor- able state of affairs is that the taxation is very heavy. The tenth part of all that the land produces is claimed by the govern- ment. For every sheep, goat and pig three piasters (about 12 cents) must be paid yearly, and in addition there is a land tax of four piasters (16 cents) on every piece of land worth 1000 piasters ($40.00). All non-Mahometans have to purchase exemp- tion from military service, and according to Lievin each man has to pay yearly 38 piasters ($1.50). Besides all this there are tolls on bridges and roads, customs duties, death duties, trade taxes, etc. Moreover the manner of collecting the taxes makes them more oppressive; all taxes, but especially the tax on land produce, are generally leased the man who ac- cepts the contract paying a fixed sum to the government and then collecting the tax for himself, in doing which he is often assisted by armed men, and tales of atrocities are by no means uncommon. The fellah is often obliged to borrow money from usurers, who charge from 100 to 200 per cent interest. Turkish officials seldom draw a fixed salary with any THE HOLY LAND 19 regularity, and each, tries to wring money out of his unhappy subordinates to make up for his own arrears of salary. In this way there is no end to the extortions. The European immigrants, who are now fairly numerous, are in a far better position, and are engaged in trade and in opening up means of communication. Their profits increase rapidly. The chief exports are oranges, oil and wine, while every kind of European produce is imported. It is hoped that considerable impulse to progress in Palestine and Syria will be caused by the Anatolian railway, which, when completed, will serve as a connection between the countries near the Euphrates and those of the West. 9. INHABITANTS BEFORE THE ISRAELITES Before God's chosen people settled in Palestine, the land had already had Semitic and afterwards Chamitic inhabitants. Tribes of Chanaanite origin had come into the country possibly from the northwest, but more probably from the east, and had mingled with the earlier Semitic population and had adopted its lan- guage and lost their own. Abraham and his descendants like- wise lost their Aramaic dialect and acquired that of the country, which on their account was designated Hebrew. To the old Semitic inhabitants of Palestine belonged the following tribes: (1) the Pherezites, mentioned in Gen. xiii. 7, as living near Bethel; (2) the Eaphaites (Rephaim = giants), in the district east of the Jordan (Gen. xiv. 5) ; (3) the Enakites (Anaqim = long-necked), who were also men of great stature, living near Hebron in the south. They were to a great extent exterminated by Josue (Num. xiii. 22, 28; Jos. xi. 21); (4) the Hevites or Awites ('Avvim, Deut. ii. 23), who came into conflict with the Philistines and were subdued by them. They seem not to have been akin to the Philistines, but to have been of the same race as the Hevites of Chanaan (see p. 21); (5) the Kenites (qenim, Gen. xv. 19), who lived in the southeast, but now and then were in alliance with the Amalakites, whose lands lay still farther south (I Kings, xv. 6). To the same race belonged the Eechabites, a small tribe who lived by breeding 20 HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE cattle (they are mentioned in Jeremias xxxv.), and also perhaps the Cenezites and the Cedmonites (Gen. xv. 19). Melchisedech, king of Salem, was undoubtedly a Semite, but his lineage is unknown. The greater part of the country, however, before the coming of the Israelites, was occupied by the Chanaanites, descendants of the fourth son of Cham. Chanaan had eleven sons (Gen. x. 15-18), and the tribes descended from six of them settled along the seacoast in the northwest. The Greeks called them Phoenicians from the color of their skin (fyoiviices, from $oivi%, reddish purple). The tribes descended from the other five sons settled in Palestine itself. They were : 1. The Hethites, descended from Cheth, Chanaan's second son. They lived in the south of the country. It was from them that Abraham bought a plot of land as a burial place (Gen. xxiii.). Like the Amorites they spread over the Holy Land, and founded a great empire in the north, with two principal cities, Kades on the Orontes and Karkemisch on the Euphrates/ The Hethites are compared as warriors with the Egyptians in IV Kings, vii. 6, and in early Egyptian records there is mention of wars between the Egyptians and the Heta or Hethites. Barneses II (about 1350), called by Herodotus Sesostris, was forced to ratify peace with them by marrying a Hethite princess. The Hethites were a source of danger to the Assyrians also, until Sargon took Karkemisch in 717, and destroyed their power. That they were of Chanaanite origin is proved by their worshiping Baal and Astarte. 1 2. The Jebusites, descended from Jebus, Chanaan's third son. They lived in and round Jerusalem, which was at that time called Jebus. 3. The Amorites, descended from Amor, the fourth son, are mentioned as living in the south, near the Dead Sea, but they settled also far to the north, in the country east of the Jordan. 4. The Gergesites were descended from Girgas, the fifth son of Chanaan; their abode is unknown. 1 See Sayce, " Fresh Light from Ancient Monuments," pp. 96-99. It is possible that the Hethites ought to be identified with the Hyksos. Sayce, however, regards the Hyksos as Western Semites. CANAAN, AS DIVIDED AMONG t THE TWELVE TRIBES English Miles Zareplmt The Cities of Refuge are underlined tfi us Golan ^ E P,H R A I THE HOLY LAND 21 5. The Hevites, descended from Chev, the sixth son, lived in the north, near Lebanon. Besides the Semitic and Chanaanite tribes, the Philistines had settled in the south, before the time of Abraham ;* they were a Chamitic people (Gen. x. 14; xx. 2, etc.) that had migrated from Kaphtor. 2 Their chief towns were Gaza, Asdod (Azotus), Ascalon, Gath and Accaron. All these tribes were governed by rules of their own; almost every district had a king. 10. PALESTINE AS DIVIDED AMONG THE ISRAELITES When the Israelites entered the Promised Land under Josue, the previous inhabitants were either conquered or driven out, and some were exterminated by God's command as a punishment for their sins. Then the country was divided among the twelve tribes as their possession. The tribe of Levi, whose duty it was to attend to the worship of God, received no land, but the members of that tribe were distributed over the whole country and occupied forty-eight towns. The tribe of Joseph received two portions, as Ephraim and Manasses were adopted by Jacob (Gen. xlviii. 5). (I) The territory assigned to the tribe of Juda lay in the south. (2) "Westward of it was that belonging to Simeon, the weakest of the tribes. (3) To the north of Juda lay Benjamin. (4) the tribe of Dan, that was very numerous, lived at first between Juda and the Philistines, but as its terri- tory was too small, and constant fighting was required for its defense, part of the tribe migrated northwards and settled near the town of Lais, which was thenceforth called Dan. (5) Ephraim, a large tribe, occupied the center of the country. (6) To the north of Ephraim dwelt half the tribe of Manasses, 1 In the Septuagint the name Philistine is rendered 'A\\6(f>v\oi, strangers, so possibly it ought to be connected with the Ethiopian word falasa, to travel or wander. "Pheleschet" is therefore the strangers' land, and if this be correct the Philistines did not belong to the origi- nal Semitic or Chanaanite population. 2 Kaphtor was a strip of coast to the east of the delta of the Nile. It must not be identified with Crete, nor with Cappadocia, as is done in the Septuagint and the Vulgate versions of Amos ix. 7. The Philistines certainly came from Egypt. 22 HANDBOOK FOE THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE the other half having been left by Moses in the northern part of the country east of the Jordan. (7) The tribe of Issachar lived round the plain of Esdrelon. (8) The tribe of Zabulon settled to the west of the Lake of Genesareth. (9) The tribe of Aser lived near Mount Carmel. (10) Nephtali occupied the north- ernmost part of the country. (11) Euben dwelt in the south of the district east of the Jordan, and (12) Gad in the north. In the period following the captivity this division of the country fell into disuse, as the majority of those who returned belonged to the tribe of Juda, and thenceforth the whole nation became known as Jews. At the time of our Lord, under the Eoman government, the land west of the Jordan was divided into three parts; viz., Judaea, Samaria and Galilee. The country east of the Jordan was called Peraea. 11. DESCRIPTION OF PLACES I. Judcea 1. Jerusalem, 1 formerly called Salem, then Jebus, then 2Elia Capitolina (under the Eoman Emperor Hadrian) and now El Kuds, the holy (its Mahometan name), is situated on an uneven slope, divided from northwest to southeast by a depression, which Josephus calls the Tyropceon, and surrounded by valleys on the north, south and west. 2 1 DHEftV = either " vision of peace " or " foundation of peace," ac- cording to the derivation of jeru from a verb meaning " to see " or from one meaning " to found." In the hymn Ccelestis urbs Jerusalem, beata pacis visio the former derivation is accepted. The dual form seems to refer to the upper and lower cities. As early as 1400 B. c., in the cunei- form inscriptions of Tell el Amarna, the name of the town was Urusalem. The Assyrian form is Urusalimmu. 2 Upon two ridges of unequal height, That front each other, stands Jerusalem, Through which there runs a narrow vale, whose site Divides the town in two, and severs them. Three sides a steep ascent the town defends, But on the fourth you go, nor seem to rise, And this plain side, which toward the north extends, By loftiest ramparts more defended is. TOBQU. TASSO, Jerus. Delivered, III, 55, trans. K. James. THE HOLY LAND 23 The town originally did not extend beyond Mount Sion on the southwest, and consisted of the stronghold of Sion and the old city clustered about it. It was here that David dwelt. Solomon enlarged the town and built the Temple, which occupied a large area on the low hill called Moria, situated northeast of Sion and due north of Ophel. 1 After the captivity the second Temple was erected on the same site, and the restored city retained its former limits. Antiochus Epiphanes built a fortress to the north of the Temple, on the Hill of Akra (II Mach. iv. 12), in order to dominate the Temple. Eound this fortress a new quarter of the town gradually arose, and as it was on a lower level than Sion, it was known as the Lower City. 2 Herod I, who had a mania for building, effected great changes in the fortress of Sion, the Temple and Akra, which he called Antonia. It was here that our Saviour was brought before 1 Recent explorers have sought Mount Sion in the east of the city, though this is contrary to tradition, their reason being that we often read that the Lord dwelleth on Sion, and this must refer to the hill on which the Temple stood. The periodical entitled Das HI. Land (Cologne, Oct. 1, 1896, p. 77) contains, however, the following important informa- tion : " The most recent discovery in the topography of Jerusalem is that of the steps of the city of David. It is scarcely possible to doubt that these are the steps of the city mentioned in Nehemias iii. 15 and xii. 36. These newly discovered steps are on the southwest hill, not on the south- east, but where the former hill slopes down in an easterly direction towards the Tyropoeon, on the west side of the valley. They could only lead up to the southwest hill. Hitherto about fifteen steps have been found. . . . The problem of Mount Sion is therefore approaching its solu- tion, and in all probability the traditional Sion will win the day, and the theory of the southeast hill will be proved erroneous." If we occasion- ally read that God dwelleth in Sion, Sion stands for Jerusalem, just as the Vatican often means Rome, and the Seine Paris. The name is also used figuratively for the theocratic Jerusalem. (The steps mentioned in Neh. xii. 36, can hardly be the same as those referred to in iii. 15, but were steps in the city wall.) Gatt, a missionary in Gaza, who knows Jerusalem very thoroughly, in a work on the hills of Jerusalem defends the traditional position of Sion, and Riickert does the same. In a recent work Gatt aims at justifying the traditional view and at establishing it more firmly. 2 According to Mommert (Topographic des alien Jerusalems, Leipz., 1903), an upper and a lower city existed as early as the time of Josue. Mommert does not locate David's stronghold in the upper city of Sion, but on the Hill of Akra, which he thinks was included with the upper city at a very early period under the general name of Sion. 24 HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE Pilate, and from this place of His condemnation He carried the cross to the place of His execution outside the city. 1 To the north of this fortress, on the hill Bezetha and also to the west of it, a new quarter has gradually sprung up, called the suburb or new town. Jerusalem as it now is, situated in a barren, rocky region, has a deso- late and lifeless appearance, and makes a gloomy impression upon those who behold it. The words of Jeremias' lamentation are even more ap- plicable now than they were after the Babylonian devastation: "How doth the city sit solitary that was full of people! " (Lam. i. 1.) The population has, however, increased rapidly in the last few years, and has risen from 20,000 to 66,000 (1905). Of these 45,000 are Jews, 8000 Mahometans, 6000 Greeks (Orthodox Church), 2500 Latins, 950 Arme- nians, 800 Protestants, 250 Uniate Greeks, 150 Copts, 100 Abyssinians, 100 Jacobite Syrians, 50 Uniate Syrians and a few Maronites. During the nineteenth century twelve Catholic churches and several chapels were built in Jerusalem, but of the thirty existing Catholic places of worship only three are of ancient origin; viz., the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, St. Anne's, and the Grotto of the Agony; the rest have all been built since 1840. (The schismatic Greeks possess thirty- four churches and chapels, the Russians five, all newly built, and the Protestants four. Cf. Das HI. Land, 1897, p. 37.) Since 1892 there has been a railway con- necting Jerusalem with Jaffa. At the present time the still existing " Pools of Solomon," which he made to the south of Bethlehem, are being reconstructed so as to supply again the capital with water. The water- courses will follow the same lines as they did three thousand years ago. The following places in and near Jerusalem are familiar to us, as their names occur in Holy Scripture : (a) Golgotha, i. e. place of a skull (golgoiha = golgoltlia,, the Aramaic form of the Hebrew word gulgoletli. The Evangelists translate the name as icpaviov TOTTO? = calvarice locus) . The name is certainly not derived from skulls of executed male- factors. They would not have been allowed to lie about, as contact with a corpse or any part of one caused legal uncleanness. 1 On this subject Father Barnabas Meistermann wrote a well-grounded argument in favor of the Catholic tradition regarding the holy places in Jerusalem. The same religious has written very careful monographs on the grave of Our Lady, on Thabor, Emmaus, Arimathea, and the home of John the Baptist (Atw = Karim St. John in the mountains). Several writers have attempted to prove that by Pilate's Pretorium is meant, not the fortress Antonia, but Herod's palace on Sion. If this were cor- rect, would not the tradition regarding the Way of the Cross have to be abandoned 1 THE HOLY LAND 25 The spot must have borne some resemblance to a skull, and have been bare and somewhat raised. It was here that our Saviour redeemed us by His death on the Cross. At that time the place was outside the city, and, according to an unbroken tradition, lay to the northwest of it. After our Lord's death Jerusalem was extended in this direction and so Golgotha came to be included within the city wall. Hence the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which contains the place of the Crucifixion, is now within Jerusalem. 1 From the point of view of accuracy the question may be asked whether, as our Lord was crucified "without the gate" (Heb. xiii. 12; cf. Matt, xxvii. 33, John xix. 15), the city wall at that time included or excluded the site of the present church of the Holy Sepulcher. Three walls may be considered: ( 1 ) David's wall, which only surrounded Sion, and this, according to tradition, was the western hill. (2) The wall of Ezechias and Manasses, restored by Nehemias after the Captivity, and still forming the city wall in our Lord's time. It branched off from the earlier wall and surrounded the city on the west, north and east, terminating at the Temple. ( 3 ) Herod Agrippa's wall, begun about 43 A. D. The second wall is the one that we have to consider. Those who defend the literal accuracy of the text maintain that it was possible and even probable for the place of crucifixion to have been outside this wall. Their opponents hold that the second wall must have enclosed the site of the church of the Holy Sepulcher, as Jerusalem was then very populous. The difficulty has now been solved, and the question decided in favor of the text. In 1883 re- mains of the second wall were discovered, showing quite plainly that it did not include the site of the church. (Keppler, Wanderungen, etc., im Oriente, 208.) (&) On the southern plateau of Mount Sion, outside the present Sion Gate and not far from the Christian cemeteries, is a huge building containing a mosque, in which, according to Mahometan tradition, King David is buried. There is proba- bly no truth in this tradition. Christians, on the other hand, assert that the room where the Last Supper was eaten used to be here, and tradition iden- tifies the place further with the room where our risen Saviour 1 Mommert has proved beyond all question that Constantino's basil- ica contained our Lord's sepulcher, Golgotha with a church called the Martyrion on it, the chapel of Saint Helena and the Finding of the Cross. 26 HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE appeared to His Apostles in Jerusalem, and where the Holy Ghost came down upon them. Finally we are told that it was in this neighborhood that Mary, the mother of our Lord, lived and died, for which reason the space to the north of the above- mentioned building has been called the Dormitio &. M. V. It was acquired in the autumn of 1898 by the German Emperor William II, who presented it to the German Catholics, and a church and a Benedictine Monastery have been erected on this site. 1 It is certain that from the very earliest times of Christianity until 1551 there was a church here, Sancta Sion, the original parent church of the world. 2 (c) The Mount of Olives (har Jiassethim), so called from the numerous olive trees with which it was formerly covered; now only a few remain. It lies to the east of the town, about a quarter of an hour's walk from it. (d) Between the town and the Mount of Olives lies the Valley of Josaphat with the brook Cedron (Kidrori). ^The name Josaphat (i. e. the Lord judgeth) seems to be very ancient, although its use cannot be actually traced farther back than to the time of Eusebius and Saint Jerome. The Cedron (i. e. the dark or cloudy) receives water only from rains; its source has 1 The monastery was given over to the German Benedictines on March 21, 1906; the church was opened in April, 1910. 2 Of sources of information regarding the history of this site we men- tion as very important the following: Diekamp, Hippolytos v. Theben, Miinster, 1898, p. 96, etc.; Zahn, Dormitio s. virginis u. das Haus des Joh. Marcus (Neue kirchl. Ztschr., X, 5) ; Lagrange, La dormition de la s. vierge et la maison de Jean-Marc, in the Revue biblique, 1899, IV, 589. It may be assumed that the house of John Mark's mother, where Peter took refuge (Acts xii. 12), is identical with the room of the Last Sup- per, the room where our Lord appeared to the Apostles, and the room where the Holy Ghost descended upon them; it is possible that Our Lady too sought shelter there. Nirschl opposes the theory, based on K. Emmerich's visions, that Mary died and was buried in Ephesus. We may, however, very well believe that she joined Saint John there and re- mained there for some time, as is related in the visions of K. Emmerich. J. Niessen, in a work entitled Panagia Kapuli (Dtilmen, 1906), upholds the unsatisfactory theory that Mary died at Ephesus. (Panagia Kapuli = the Gate of the B. Virgin, is a little house situated to the south of the ruins of Ephesus.) Bardenhewer and Liibeck do not agree with Niessen on this point. ENYIRONS OF JERUSALEM V^f j ikab * <&%%:- / \ *\ m '- * !*<.'. fu- !,** % iahiVl Deir Sheikh ^:>,., I 1? y >erophah? ^- ' UiutubehT^ ft J x ^S&<:^ \\ I ) ;^DeirAhmfel < S y Khi THE HOLY LAND 27 long been dry. Its course begins near Jerusalem and its mouth is in the Dead Sea, but usually the river bed is quite dry. (e) Gethsemane (the oil-press) was a lonely farm on the western foot of the Mount of Olives, beyond the brook Cedron. Beside it was a garden, whither Jesus withdrew before His Passion. (/) The Valley of Hinnom is to the south of Jerusalem. The depression begins in the west and continues round Sion, terminating in the southeast at the village and spring of Siloa, and joining the Cedron Valley. It was here that the idolatrous Israelites once offered their children to Moloch. From the name gehinnom the word gehenna, hell, has been formed, and in later times the Jews, mindful of the fires of Moloch and the shrieks of the victims, applied the name of this abhorred spot to the place of suffering of the damned. 1 (g) On the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives lay the little villages of Bethphage (house of figs) and Bethany (beth anija = place of low ground), both familiar to us in the life of Christ. 2. Bethlehem. 2 This little town, the birthplace of David and of Christ, lies two hours' journey to the south of Jerusalem, and is situated on the northern slope of a hill running east and west. The Grotto of the Nativity lies to the east, at a little distance from the town. Above it a church has been built, and there is a monastery near it. The latter is divided into three parts, one of which belongs to the Latins, one to the schismatic Greeks and the third to the Armenians. The Catholics have a little church of their own near their monastery, it is dedicated to Saint Catherine and serves as a parish church. 8 1 Hinnom seems to have been the name of some man, perhaps a Jebu- site, as the designation ge lene Hinnom also .occurs. Cf. Vigouroux, Diet. 2 i. e. house of bread, probably because much grain was grown in the neighborhood. 3 This church was rebuilt in 1880, by the assistance of the Emperor of Austria, and it was consecrated on Aug. 18, 1882. In Bethlehem there are still some descendants of the Crusaders, who call themselves Vene- tians, and speak chiefly Italian. The Catholic community numbers 4000 souls. The rest of the 8000 inhabitants of Bethlehem are Greeks, and a few Armenians and Mahometans. A very small part of the population 28 HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE The Grotto of the Nativity and the large church dedicated to our Lady once belonged to the Catholics, but were seized by the Greeks, the church in 1758 and tlje Grotto in 1847. 1 3. Hebron (= fellowship) lies in a beautiful mountainous region, six hours' journey south of Bethlehem. The town is well known from the history of Abraham and David. At the present time it has 10,000 inhabitants, who are almost all Ma- hometans. There is a mosque on the east of the town, contain- ing the graves of the patriarchs. An hour's journey north of Hebron is the Valley Mambre, where Abraham dwelt for some time. 4. On the southern boundary of Chanaan was the town of Beersabe (= seven springs), which is often mentioned in Holy Scripture. 5. Jericho, 2 a very ancient city of the kings of Chanaan. It lay seven hours' journey to the east of Jerusalem, at some distance from the Jordan. Now it is deserted, and only ruins mark the site of the former city, and a tiny village called Riha reminds us of its name. 6. Anathoth, the birthplace of the prophet Jeremias, was a priestly city, one and one-half hours' journey north of Jerusalem. 7. Rama, now Ram, lay three hours' journey north of Jeru- salem. 8. Bethel, now Beitun, the place where Jacob saw the ladder from heaven, is four and a half hours' journey north of Jeru- salem. After the separation of the two realms it belonged to Samaria, and became one of the chief seats of idolatrous worship (cf. Amos vii.). 9. Silo, a little north of Bethel, now a place of ruins called is Protestant; this denomination has a church and a school of its own. There are no Jews in Bethlehem. 1 The well-justified claims of Latin Christians upon the holy places are almost all jeopardized by attacks made by schismatics. On Nov. 4, 1901, several Franciscans were severely injured in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, as also happened on Jan. 22, 1907, in Saint Mary's at Bethlehem. 2 i.e. the fragrant (from HVl), not the moon-city (from rnj). The neighborhood of this town formerly abounded in fragrant plants', such as balsams and rose trees. THE HOLY LAND 29 Seilun, was the resting place of the Tabernacle at the time of the Judges. 10. Emmaus (see Luke xxiv. 13). It is now a village called Kubeibeh, and is situated 60 furlongs (three hours' journey) to the northwest of Jerusalem. 1 11. Lydda, now Ludd, is mentioned in Acts ix. 33. It is believed to have been the birthplace of Saint Georgius, and lies ten hours' journey westward of Jerusalem. Near it is Ramie, which tradition identifies with Arimathea, although many people believe Rama near Jerusalem to be Arimathea. 2 12. Joppe or Jaffa, a town on the Mediterranean; the place where Jonas took ship in order to flee to Tharsis. The town has 45,000 inhabitants, and is still, as it was in the Middle Ages, the usual landing place for pilgrims, although the stormy sea and the sunken rocks make the harbor -unsafe. 1 The name = chammath, to be hot, is equivalent to Thermae. The district was formerly rich in springs. The Franciscans now have a church and a friary, and the German Holy Land Society has acquired some property there. Kubeibeh or Kubebe is, according to Haneberg's Archdologie, to be identified with Gabeon, frequently mentioned in the Old Testament, but its position is disputed. The above statement is based upon a tradition that goes back to the time of the Crusades. The Franciscans believe Kubeibeh to be the Emmaus mentioned by Saint Luke, and so do various other writers ; but there are several other opin- ions on the subject. Some identify Emmaus with the present Amwas on the plain to the east of Jaffa. Eusebius and Saint Jerome both say that this place, which is also called Nicopolis, was the Emmaus of the Bible. It is, however, too far from Jerusalem, being at a distance of 176 fur- longs, or nearly nine hours* journey, and so it cannot be reconciled with Saint Luke's account. Sepp thinks that the present Kulonieh (Colonia), about 30 furlongs from Jerusalem on the way to Jaffa, may have been Emmaus, but there is no tradition supporting this theory, and Kulonieh is too near. The Greeks believe Abu-Gosch, the ancient Kariathiarim, 60 furlongs from Jerusalem, to be Emmaus, but this view also is unsup- ported by tradition. The Codex Sin. reads in Luke xxiv. 16, 160 furlongs, and not 60. Tischendorf and others regard this as an intentional alteration. After careful observations and personal investigations in Palestine, Belser has pronounced himself opposed to the Nicopolis theory, and in favor of Kubeibeh, chiefly on account of its distance from Jerusalem. The reason why Eusebius and Saint Jerome preferred Nicopolis is probably that in their time Emmaus-Kubeibeh was destroyed, devastated and forgotten. Cf., however, Knabenbauer, Comm. in Luc., p. 632. 2 Ever since 1296 the Franciscans have had a mission at Ramie; in 1902 their chapel was transformed into a beautiful church. 30 HANDBOOK FOE THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE II. Samaria The central portion of Palestine derives its name from the town that was once the capital of the northern kingdom. 1. Samaria (Hebr. schomron, Gk. ^afJLapeia and afterwards 2e/3a0T77, which name is still retained, though the natives pro- nounce it Usbuste). The town was built by Omri, king of the northern State, about the year 930 B. c. It was situated on a hill which the king had bought from a certain Schemer, called in the Septuagint Se^p, and in the Vulgate Somer (III Kings xvi. 24). It remained the capital for two hundred years, but was destroyed in 722, though subsequently rebuilt. Herod I enlarged it, and gave it the name of Sebaste in honor of the Emperor Augustus. 1 At the present time it is only a village with 500 inhabitants. Among the ruins of the old town those of the Church of St. John the Baptist are conspicuous. According to tradition his body was buried here. Thirza (i.e. grace), which served for a short time as a royal residence, may have been in the neigh- borhood ; perhaps it should be identified with the modern Tejazir, thirteen miles northeast of Sichem. 2. Sichem (Hebr. schelcem = ridge or stretch of land) was the central point of the Holy Land, and lay fourteen hours' journey north of Jerusalem, between the hills Garizim and Ebal, the former being to the south, the latter to the north of the town. Sichem is mentioned as early as the time of Abraham and Jacob. After the division of the kingdoms, Sichem was the residence of the kings of the northern State. In Apostolic times it was generally called Neapolis, the new city, probably because it had been almost completely rebuilt under Vespasian. The modern name Nablus comes from Neapolis. The town now contains 25,000 Mahometan inhabitants. A small body of Samaritans, about 200 in number, still live at the foot of Garizim. 3. Ccesarea, situated on the west coast, and therefore known 1