"THE HEART OF THE NATION" OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES WHAT WE OUGHT TO KNOW ABOUT AGRICULTURE -FISHERIES FORESTS- PANAMA CANAL- RAILROADS -MANUFACTURES AUTOMOBILES - INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS - THE NEW NAVY-THE ARMY-OUR MONEY-AERO- NAUTICS r MOTION PICTURES-THE WEATHER - ASTRONOMY - THE NATION'S CAPITAL-THE PRESIDENT- CONGRESS ALL ABOUT THE GOVERNMENT -^, \ V H ALBERT AHOPKINS^ Mtm\xt of the American Statistical Association Editor of the Scientific American Reference Book Scientific American Cyclopedia of Formulas, etc. With 800 Illustrations SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SERIES NEW YORK MUNN & CO., INC SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE 1917 Copyright 1916 by Munn & Co., Inc. This book is protected by ninety copyrights and all persons are warned against any use of text or illustrative material. The right of translation into all languages, including the Scandinavian, is reserved. Printed m the United States of America. Bancroft Ubrazy PREFACE 9 I V HE "Wave of Prosperity" which has raised our coun- -*- try to an unparalleled position need not ever recede if we take measure of our resources and their development at the present time and act wisely upon the information obtained. It is the object of this modest volume to present such facts as can be obtained from official sources, in a readable and withal likable form, so that we may have a I more wholesome respect for what Uncle Sam is doing for J us. The "Stars and Stripes" are protected by Acts of ih Congress and State laws; the American Eagle cannot be v kept in captivity (except in a zoological garden), but the power of the law has never been invoked to protect that t symbol of our Federal Government * 'Uncle Sam. ' ' This kindly old gentleman with his fuzzy beaver hat, his striped ~ trousers and his parti-colored coat of the period of 1830, *is used dozens of times daily in cartoons, but always in a respectful sense as we use it here as a symbol of national nJ esteem. lq There is no more fascinating story in the world than jJiow we are governed by means of often invisible threads .0 that seem to begin nowhere, but always end somewhere ^-to our profit and often pleasure. Who shall tell this wonderful story of achievement? How five blades of grass are made to grow where two should be found; how fish that have been left high and dry on land after a flood are put back in water to prevent "air drowning;" how forests are conserved^at a profit; how reclamation makes the desert smile; how national parks can be run for both ^profit and pleasure; how good roads decrease the cost of ^living; how the thr,ee great Government Surveys carry on (Mtheir ceaseless work to exploit our resources, or chart the ^fairways of commerce; how the Coast Guard is always on j-fhe lookout to protect life and property at sea; how the COPatent Office has succeeded in making us a nation of inventors and quadrupling our national wealth; how commercial and industrial preparedness have changed the gears on the car of industrial progress all these and many more remain to be told. Who shall tell the story? Why not "let Uncle Sam do it" ? He is patient, kind, amiable, and exceedingly accurate in his information. This is what has been done here. Uncle Sam tells his complex story in his own way with the pen of high Government officials cabinet officers, heads of the great governmental manufacturing plants and bureaus under Government auspices, down the list until all of the Government activities are accounted for. Unfortunately, the names cannot always be published, owing to depart- mental regulations, but enough names have been printed throughout the book to stamp this as a very authentic, and make it practically a semi-official guide to Govern- ment activities. In the section known as "Uncle Sam's Autobiography' ' every chapter has been submitted to either the Secretary of the Department, or to some responsible officer for revision. This has required an almost endless correspondence, but the Editor has the satisfaction of knowing that the information is as nearly right as it is possible to get it. Besides Government officials, named and unnamed, special thanks are due to Mr. C. F. Talman, Librarian of the U. S. Weather Bureau; Dr. F. L. Hoffman, Statis- tician of the Prudential Insurance Company; Dr. Richard Rathbun of the Smithsonian Institution; Mr. Louis Annin Ames, an authority on flags, and a number of others who have given their kind assistance. Adequate pictorial treatment heightens the interest of this fascinat- ing subject, and the whole country has been canvassed for interesting pictures; thus, for the chapter on Agriculture, over 35,000 photographs were examined to select the significant ones. It is hoped that this book will be a real contribution to literature on true preparedness preparedness for the arts of peace, as well as the arts of war. TABLE OF CONTENTS Part One UNCLE SAM'S ACTIVITIES AND INTERESTS CHAPTER I Geographical Discovery II. Population : : III. Agriculture : I IV. The Fish We Eat : V. Forests and Forestry VI. Reclamation Service VII. Our National Parks VIII. Good Roads and Bad IX. The Panama Canal X. The Three Great Government Surveys XI. Government Protection of Life and Property XII. Railroads of the United States XIII. The Postal Service : XIV. Our Natural Resources and How They are XV. The Mineral Industry of the United States XVI. The Patent Office and Inventions Since 184 XVII. Manufactures : : : : XVIII. The Automobile Industry : XIX. The Recent Development of American XX. Commercial and Industrial Preparedness XXI. Education : : : XXII. The New Navy : : XXIII. The Army : - : : ' XXIV. Uncle Sam's Money Part I. The Treasury Part II. Bureau of Engraving and Part III. The Assay Office Part IV. How Coins are Minted ^erty at Se a are AO Dev slopec CcS 184 Con nmerc e ndl \ 'rintin g w//y/tfW/%4Mfttf^^ CHAPTER PAGE XXV. How Uncle Sam Protects His Revenue : : : 321 XXVI. Uncle Sam's Non-Contiguous Possessions : : : 327 Part Two OF HUMAN INTEREST TO ALL UNCLE SAM'S PEOPLE I. The American Flag : : II. Aeronautics : : : : III. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony IV. Motion Pictures in the Making V. The Realm of the Air : : VI. The Heavens Above : : Part J^hree UNCLE SAM'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY I. Washington The Nation's City IL The Legislative Hal's III. The President The Executive IV. The Cabinet : : V. Department of State VI. Department of the Treasury VII. Department of War VIII. Department of Justice IX. Post Office Department X. Department of the Navy XI. Department of the Interior XII. Department of Agriculture XIIL Department of Commerce XIV. Department of Labor : XV. The Smithsonian Institution XVI. Miscellaneous Activities of the Goven ment XVII. Pan American Union WHAT UNCLE SAM'S "0, K," LOOKS LIKE. Copyright by United Newspapers, London; Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. ONE OF THE MEMBERS OF THE AMUNDSEN SOUTH POLE EXPEDITION STANDING AT THE POLE Taken by Captain Amundsen Himself Copyright by Underwood & Underwood CAPT. ROALD AMUNDSEN, WHO DIS- COVERED THE SOUTH POLE ON DECEMBER 14, 1911. Copyright by Underwood & Underwood CAPT. SCOTT, WHO ALSO FOUND THE SOUTH POLE AFTER AMUNDSEN, ON JANUARY 18, 1912, AND PERISHED. PART I. UNCLE SAM'S ACTIVITIES AND INTERESTS CHAPTER I. PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY By CiTRUS C. ADAMS THE greatest era of geograph ical discovery dawned when Christopher Columbus, with three small vessels, carrying 88 men, sailed into the Unknown from Palos, Spain, on August 3, 1492. The sig- nificance of this voyage was not only that it brought to light the Western World, but that it also dis- closed the sea as the great highway of men by which they soon learned to reach all the vast islands (con- tinents) and the lesser islands of the globe. Europe, for example, had a very misty idea of China and India till sea routes placed her in touch with them. Sea routes hugged the coasts of Europe and Africa for thousands of miles; but Columbus added cross sea sailing to the coast routes and thus brought in the day of worldwide exploration. The Vikings of Norway in the ninth-tenth centuries A. D. had dis- covered Iceland, Greenland and the northeast coast of North America; but these daring sea rovers were far from European centers; and as it was thought that Greenland was a part of Europe, their work was not at all appreciated, and, in fact, was very little known. Columbus's four voyages, 1492- 1503, brought to light the larger and many of the smaller islands of the West Indies. He saw South America from the island of Trinidad and noted the freshness of the Gulf of Paria's waters which come from the Orinoco. He skirted the eastern shores of Central America from Guana ja Island, around Cape Gra- cias a Dios, paused at Beln on the Isthmus of Panama, thence on to Puerto Bello, the most southern point he reached. His field of dis- covery embraced the area between about 9 to 24 degrees North Latitude and 60 to 87 degrees West Longitude. At St. Ann's Bay, on the north coast of Jamaica, he ended his great work about thirteen years after he began it. Immediate effects of his achieve- ment were apparent. Ten days less than a year after Columbus started on his third voyage to America, Vasco da Gama, after rounding the Cape of Good Hope, landed at Cali- cut, the first European navigator to reach India. This was the begin- ning of the great sea-trade between Europe and the East Indies. Thirteen years and 3 months after Columbus died, Magellan started on his journey around the world (1519- Copyright by Muna & Co., Inc. PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY 21), was the first to pass through the Straits of Magellan, gave to the Pacific the flattering name it bears and his expedition circumnavigated the world though its leader perished in the Philippines. Among the other most notable circumnavigations were those of Sir Francis Drake (1577- 80), during which he sailed along the Pacific coast of America from Magellan Straits nearly to Puget Sound, seeking in vain for a water- way into the Atlantic ; Admiral Spil- berg, who led a small Dutch fleet around the world (1614-17), inci- dentally defeating a Spanish fleet off Chile; and Captain James Cook, whose memorable voyages (1768-79) placed him first among British mari- time discoverers. It was early in the 16th century that Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian adventurer, claimed that he had made four voyages to America, though not as the commander of any expedition. The dates he gave were 1497, 1499, 1501 and 1503. From the time that his writings were criti- cally examined by Alexander von Humboldt, the prevalent opinion has been that he had no part whatever in the first discovery of continental America. Professor Martin Wald- seemiiller of Lorraine unfortunately gave full credence to Vespucci's claims, wrote a book in 1507 in which he said the newly discovered continent should be called America because "Americus discovered it," and published the first map on which the name America appeared. It was the blunder of a scholar that at- tached the name America instead of "Columbia" to the Western World. When John Cabot reached the northeastern coast of North America (1497) and landed on Cape Breton Island at the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, he believed he had reached the eastern shores of Asia. He returned home to announce the news and, the following year, went back to follow the whole coast and locate Japan in the south. This journey extended from Greenland nearly as far south as the latitude of Philadelphia, but as he found no signs of civilization and his supplies were running short, he returned to England. V. Y. Pinson, who was helpful to Columbus on his first voyage, dis- covered in 1500 the estuary of the Amazon, the largest river in the world. This was about 17 years after Diego Cam found the mouth of the Congo, the second greatest river. About this time the idea began to weaken that the shores which ex- plorers had been visiting were coasts of Asia. The population was too scanty and none of it was civilized ; but still, no explorer was instructed to find what these new lands were worth and how they might be util- ized. The main idea, for a long time, was to hunt for waterways through the new lands by which the spices of the East Indies and other coveted Asian commodities might be brought to the Atlantic countries of Europe without doubling the Cape of Good Hope. It was while hunting for such a passage, and by reason of stress of weather, that Pedro Alvarez Cabral. in 1500, sighted the coast of Brazil, and took possession of it in the name of Portugal. In a half cen- tury, the whole Brazilian coast was studded with Portuguese settle- ments. The policy of appropriation and development was under way. The avowed regime of the Portu- guese was to win new lands, if pos- sible, by preaching the Gospel to the natives; if this failed, to sub- jugate them by the sword. The romantic episode in coastal discovery was the voyage of Ponce de Lon, of Spain, in 1512, author- ized by his government to search for and settle the fabulous island of "Bimini," on which was reputed to be a wonderful fountain that re- newed the youth and strength of old men who bathed in it. He failed to find the fountain of youth, but his toil was not in vain, for he skirted a long coast covered with flowers OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES and he therefore called the land Florida and said he believed it was a great island. In 1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa heard from an Indian chief that, south of the Isthmus of Panama, was another great ocean. Climbing to the summit of the Isthmian range, Balboa saw the Pacific; and arriving at the shore on September 29, he proclaimed the "Great South Sea" to be a possession of the Span- ish king. He was planning to under- take the conquest of the Peruvians for the Spanish crown when the jealous governor of the Darien col- ony put him to death on a trumped up charge of disloyalty. The fate of Balboa, one of the ablest men in the Spanish service, was a pa- thetic incident in the early history of American discovery. These data briefly summarize the leading events in discovery and early exploration along the eastern coasts of the Americas. Then fol- lowed the era of the penetration of the lands (16th-19th centuries). In North America, the gigantic task of studying the vast interior to the north of the Rio Grande was the work mainly of English and French explorers and European immigrants who followed in their wake. But many Spanish enterprises took root in the present Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. The Spanish over-ran the whole of Central and South America, excepting Brazil, seeking gold rather than orderly ex- ploration and economic development, imposing upon the natives also the most cruel subjugation. But this eager quest for treasure so prodded exploratory zeal that South America was better known and mapped than North America towards the end of the 18th century. In 1516, De Solis discovered and ascended the River Plata and was killed by Indians at the delta of the Parana, near where Buenos Aires stands. In 1519-21, while Magellan was sailing around the world, Cor- tez, a military genius and a monster of cruelty, conquered Mexico and ex- plored the Peninsula of Lower Cal- ifornia. Among the great geograph- ical results of the advancing Spanish conquest was the descent of the Amazon River from the Andes to the Atlantic by Orellana. In one of his wars with Indians, women fought beside the men of their tribe, which originated the name Amazons applied to female warriors. While the main river has been known for 300 years from the Andes to the sea, much of its basin between the main tributaries of the trunk stream still awaits detailed study. The incentive to North American exploration was long the desire to find a northwest waterway leading to the Pacific. Jacques Cartier (1536) discovered the St. Lawrence River and ascended it to the site of Montreal. He saw the Ottawa from the top of Mount Royal, which gave Montreal its name. Cham- plain (1603-17), the greatest of Canadian explorers, founded the town of Quebec, traced the St. Lawrence to its source in Lake On- tario and reached Lake Huron. He was hoping all the time to find a waterway to China. Henry Hudson (1609) sailed into New York Bay and up the Hudson River to the site of Albany before he decided that the route would not lead to the Pacific. While on the same quest in Hudson Bay (1610), he and some of his men were set adrift by mut- inous comrades and were not heard of again. About 1660 the exploration of the continental interior without thought of reaching the Orient, became more prominent. It has often required a number of explorers to establish a geographical fact. Thus French ex- plerers, chiefly missionaries, as Joli- et and Marquette, revealed the Mis- sissippi between its affluents, the Wisconsin and the Arkansas, within 700 miles of the Gulf of Mexico (1660-73). Father Hennepin (1680) traced the upper Mississippi between the mouth of the Illinois River and PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY the site of Minneapolis. Its lower course had been followed by Ferdi- nand de Soto (1541). De Soto has often been called the discoverer of the Mississippi, but the river was first sighted by Alonzo de Pineda in 1519. Its extreme sources and upper course were discovered and studied by later explorers, chiefly School- craft (1832), Nicollet (1836), and Brower (1889). The exploration of the Great Lakes was distributed over many years. The pioneers who chopped their way through the forests from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, or opened farms in spite of Indian foes, in Kentucky, Tennessee and Ohio, the trappers and hunters spread over the western plains, the gold diggers who rushed to California, all added immensely to early knowledge of the United States. In regions that have had from early time, comparatively dense pop- ulation and rapid growth in civi- lization, we hear little of such re- search as that, for example, which has gridironed Africa with explor- ers' routes. Communities, such as Greece, Rome, China and Japan, as they grew in intellectual power, be- came intense students of their own habitat; and their armies, invading less fortunate lands, were the chief instrument of pioneer discovery. No large events in exploration have been possible in Europe within the Columbian era. Among the most important discoveries in Asia have been these: Deshnev rounded the East Cape (Cape Deshnev) in 1645, and thus made known the most east- ern extension of the continent. Rus- sia began the scientific exploration of Siberia in 1725 and, in the next twenty years, the northern coasts were fairly well determined and a foundation was laid for the detailed study of the land surface, fauna flora and inhabitants. Bering (1725- 41) showed the relation between the northeast coast of Asia and the northwest coast of America. In the past fifty years, the great plains and forests have been studied, the Lena, Yenesei and Ob, three of the largest rivers in the world, have been ex- plored and the Yenesei and Ob have irregular steamship connections with European ports. One result of the study of Siberia is that over 20,000,000 acres are now under the plow. Tibet, so long a terra incognita, has been largely revealed, chiefly since 1863, by many explorers. The Himalayas have long been in pro- cess of detailed study by the Indian Survey, and India has been min- utely mapped. Australia was probably first seen about 1540 by French sailors, but it was early in the next century that the Dutch brought the first authen- tic accounts of parts of the west coast. Capt. James Cook's voyage (1769-70), when he surveyed the whole east coast, made the first great contribution to knowledge of the continent. Inland exploration did not begin till the early part of the 19th century. Attempts to pene- trate the dry or desert regions of the interior with horses involved a number of tragedies, including the disappearance of the second Leich- ardt expedition (1847). Leichardt set out to cross the continent from east to west and was never heard from after he entered the desert. Not even in polar lands was explora- tion so hazardous as in Australia till the camel was introduced about 1865; then exploration advanced more rapidly and Australia is now known in all its chief configurations and conditions. The attempt to reveal the whole of Africa did not begin till Dr. David Livingstone (1841-73) completed his great work. The exploration of the continent was greatly retarded by the difficulties of getting into it, owing to the lack of indentations, the high coasts, rivers reaching the sea by cataracts and rapids, the un- favorable climate and a host of hos- tile native tribes. The modern era of African exploration began when OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ROCKY MT& I Mt. Logan. Bering I 19 ' 539 Greenwich Meridian^ - , _A^I "'"* ""'""" OCEAN N."X M E R I C A SJ..O SEA LEVEC SEA LEVEL 45 THE ANDES PACIFIC OCEAN L ATLANTIC OCEAN ANTARCTIC O C E A N Shetland* Greenwich Meridian^ Along Different Parallels of Latitude Round the Globe Vertical Scale Exaggerated 260 Times PROFILE OF LAND AND SEA PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCO VERY ^reenwich 0" Meridian Hardanger Bering - Field B0 iti S Ural Mts. Stanovoi Mts. . Sea . 605EA LEVEL 30SEA LEVEL Sowaira Rtd Jeb Hadhur Mt - c P r * . Philippine . ni.vvpia Philippine -ilOO W. Ghats Ba * of I China is Ladrone . FEE -15.000 Southern Alps-, 10. 000 FATHOMS. FEET 4. 000 FATHOMS 20.000 FEET O c SEA LEVEI 15 SEA LEVEL Greenwich Meridian Along Different Parallels of Latitude Round the Glbe Horizontal Scale 1:150,000,000 PROFILE OF LAND AND SEA 8 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Mungo Park made his journeys in the basin of the Niger River (1795- 1806). During the next forty years, a few explorers crossed the Sahara and studied the western and central Sudan; and finally Dr. Livingstone gave thirty years of his life to many journeys of exploration in south- central Africa. He did not live to see the great effect of his work ; but soon after his death (1873) the greatest exploratory movement ever seen began in Africa. Scores of ex- peditions carried on field studies that finally extended over nearly all of Africa south of the Sahara ; and sev- en European nations Great Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal were finally in possession of the whole of Africa excepting Abyssinia and Liberia. Intensive studies of the various col- onies began in the last years of the 19th century and continued till the war of 1914, when the entire work of development practically ceased. Africa, the last continent to be largely explored, has thus made far greater progress, in the short period of a generation, than any of its sis- ter continents when they were in the same low stage of development. Polar exploration began with the development of the whaling and fishing industries and the hunt for walrus, seal, etc., in the cold regions. Nearly 58,000 Greenland whales were killed in Spitzbergen waters in a little over a century, beginning in 1670. The search for the North- west Passage to Asia also led into the Arctic as, for example, Davis's voyage up Baffin Bay. Then the quest for the North Pole engaged expeditions for many years; and finally, not a few parties were specially equipped to seek for facts about polar phenomena. Thus many polar lands have been discovered, depths of the polar seas have been ascertained in wide areas, the Arctic natives have been studied and the art of living and traveling in the frigid zones has been far advanced. The investigation of the position of the north and south magnetic poles appears to show that they are not fixed points but move in areas of considerable extent. The attainment of the geographical North Pole was made by Peary on April 6, 1909; and of the South Pole by Amund- sen on December 14, 1911, and by Scott on January 18, 1912. The most notable discovery in many years is the fact that a high continent surrounds the South Pole. The area of the land surface is ap- proximately 5,460,000 square miles, or nearly one and a half times the Copyright by Harris & Ewing REAR ADMIRAL PEARY, DISCOVERER OF THE NORTH POLE size of Europe. It is computed that its mean height is 6,500 feet, or nearly seven times the mean eleva- tion of Europe. The great world sea has been so well explored that probably few isl- ands have escaped attention except, it may be, in the polar areas. PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY 11 THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY Date Explorer and Nationality. Discovery or Exploration B. C. 1400-1250 Egyptians Invasions of Habesh, Arabia, Phoenicia, Syria. ? 1350 1000 Greeks Phoenicians Argonautic expedition to Colchis. Voyages to Ophir, Gades, Britain. 750 700 600 Greeks Samians Phoenicians Extension of Colonies in the Mediterranean and Pontus Euxinus. Spain (Tartessus) discovered for the Greeks. Circumnavigation of Africa by order of Necho. 500 500 Himilco (Carthag.) .... Anaxiraander (of Mil- f etus) \ Atlantic coasts of Europe. Sargasso Sea. Said to have visited Britain. Makes the first maps. 500 470 330 330 339-323 290 Hecatseus (of Miletus) . . Hanno (Carthag.) Pytheas of Massilia. . . Nearchus (Macedon.) . Alexander the Great. . Egyptians. Writes the first geography. West Africa as far as Cape Palmas. ? Thule, North Sea, Scandinavia. Sails from the Indus to Red Sea. Expedition to Iran, Turan, and India. Navigate the East coast of Africa. 218 about 120 61-58 Carthaginian Eudoxus of Cyzicus .... Romans Hannibal crosses the Alps. Attempts circumnavigation of Africa. Julius Caesar in Gaul, Germany, and Britain. since 30 Romans Extension of geographical knowledge and com- 20 Strabo (Greek) merce as far as Central Asia. Describes Roman Empire and first mentioned 15 Romans Thule and Ireland. Tiberius discovers the Lake of Constance; A. D. Romans Drusus, the Brenner Pass. Agricola circumnavigates Britain. 84 150 Claudius Ptolemy I (Egypt.) f Constructs his Geography and Atlas. 518-21 671-95 861 865 876 985 ? 1000 1154 about 1200 Hoei-sing (Chinese) .... 1-tsing (Chinese) Norsemen Naddod (Norse) Gunnbjorn (Norse) .... Erik the Red (Norse) . . Lyef Erikson (son of \ Erik the Red) / Edrisi (Sicily) Arabs Visits Pamirs and Punjab. Visits Java, Sumatra, and India. Faroe Islands. North Cape of Europe rounded. Discovers Iceland. Visited by Irish monks about 795. Greenland coast. Rediscovered by Erik the Red (983). Colonizes Greenland. Discovers Newfoundland (Helluland), Nova Sco- tia (Markland), and coast of New England (Vinland) [?]. Geographer to King of Sicily, produces his geog- raphy. Trading merchants discover Siberia. 1253 R u y sbroek Reaches Karakorum, the ancient seat of the 1271-95 1290 Marco Polo (Venet.) . . . Genoese Mongol Empire. Travels in Central Asia, China, India, Persia. Canaries, Azores, etc. 1325-52 1327 1415-60 1419-20 1442 ? 1460 1474 Ibn Batuta (Arab.) .... Sir John Mandeville \ (Eng.) / Prince Henry (Port.).. . J. Gonzales and Mar- \ tin Vaz (Port.) / Nuno Tristao (Port.).. . Cintra and Costa (Port.) Toscanelli (Ital.) . Travels through the whole Mohammedan World, N. Africa, E. Africa, S. Russia, Arabia, India and China. ? Travels in India. Gives an impetus to Portuguese voyages of dis- covery. Porto Santo and Madeira discovered. Cape Verde, etc. Coast of Guinea reached. Sends Columbus his map showing the western 1485 1487 1492-98 1497-98 Diego Cam (Port.) Bartholomew Diaz \ (Port.) ] Columbus (Gen.) John Cabot (Anglo- \ Ven ) ) route to Cathay (China). Mouth of the Congo reached. Rounds Cape of Good Hope. America, West Indies, Trinidad, Cuba, etc. Sails along E. coast of America from Labrador as far as Florida. 1498 Vasco da Gaina. (Port,) Route to India by Cape of Good Hope. EGYPT AND BRITISH EAST AFRICA * MAURITIUS NEW ZEALAND INDIES FALKLAND IS. BAHAMAS HONG-KONG AND WEI HAI-WEI m BRITISH GUIANA CYPRUS TASMANIA. BRITISH HONDURAS JAMAICA - GAMBIA ASHANTI BRITISH FIJI ISLANDS SOLOMON BRITISH SIERRA LEONE GOLD NEW GUINEA ISLANDS NORTH BORNEO COAST till, Br HUN* I CO. INC. UNITED STATES Samoa la. West Indies ALASKA ' % PHILIPPINE IS. Hawaiian Is. DUTCH HOLLAND DUTCH GUIANA GERMAN EAST AFRICA Samoa Is. .P KIAO-CHAU PORTUGUESE PORTUGUESE PORTUGAL GUINEA TIM <>R Azores Madeira ANGOLA LAND GOA Cape Verde Is. PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA GERMAN POSSESSIONS Prior to the Great War GERMANY KAISER WILHELM \ NEW CALEDONIA Tahiti Reunion FR. INDO-CHINA FR. GUIANA MADAGASCAR Other Countries and their Possessions. 14 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY Continued Date Explorer and Nationality Discovery or Exploration 1499 Amerigo Vespucci (ItaU Claimed to have discovered Venezuela (which Columbus had already seen from the island of Trinidad). His testimony as to his three al- leged voyages is regarded as untrustworthy. 1499 Pinzon, V. Y. (Span.).. Discovered mouth of R. Amazon and Cape St. Roque. 1500 Gaspar Corte Real 1 Reaches entrance of Hudson Strait, called by him (Port.) / Strait of Anian. Rediscovered Greenland. 1500 Alvarez Cabral (Port.) . Brazil (named by him Ilha da Vera Cruz, being S. part of Bahia State). 1502 ColumbuS (Gen.) Central America on his fourth voyage. 1512 Ponce de Leon (Span.) . Florida. 1513 Portuguese Reach the Moluccas. 1513 Balboa (Span.) Crosses Isthmus of Panama and discovers Pacific Ocean. 1516 De Solis (Span.) Reaches La Plata. 1517 Sebastian Cabot (Eng.) Hudson Strait. 1519-21 Cortez (Span.) Conquest of Mexico. 1519-21 Magellan (Span.) First to circumnavigate the globe. Passes through the Strait of Magellan, crosses the Pacific, and discovers the Philippines. 1534 Pizarro (Span.) Completes the Conquest of Peru. 1535 1535-42 Diego d'Almagro(Span. Jacques Car tier (Fr.).. . Conquers Chili. Gulf of St. Lawrence. Ascends river to Hoche- . laga (Montreal). 1539 Francesco de Ulloa \ (Span.) / Explores Gulf of California. about 1540 French Continent of Australia seen by French sailors. 1541 Pizarro and Orellana \ (Span ) / Amazon River. 1542 Antonio de Mota First reaches Japan. 1542 Ruy Lopez de Villa- \ Discovers Pelew Islands, and takes possession of lobos (Span.) / Philippine Islands for Spain. 1542 Pinto (Port.) . . Visits Japan. 1553 SirH. Willoughby (Eng.) Novaya Zemlia. 1576 Frobisher (Eng ) Labrador and Baffin Land. 1577-80 Sir F. Drake (Eng.) Second circumnavigation of the globe, and first saw Cape Horn. Explored W. coast of N. America nearly as far as Vancouver Archi- pelago. 1587 1594-97 J. Davis (Eng.) Barents (Dut.) Davis Strait. Spitzbergen, Bear Islands, etc. 1595 1606 Mendana (Span.) Quiros (Span.) Discovers Marquesas Islands. Tahiti (Sagittaria) and other South Sea Islands. 1606 Torres (Span.) Torres Strait. Dutch reach Australia. 1608 Champlain (French) . . . Discovers Lake Ontario. 1610 H. Hudson (Eng.) Hudson Bay and discoveries in N. America. 1614-17 1616 Spilbergen (Dut.) W. Baffin (Eng.) Circumnavigation of the globe. Enters Baffin Bay. 1616 LeMaire and Schou- 1 ten (Dut.) / Round Cape Horn. 1616 Dirk Hartog (Dut.) West coast of Australia. 1618 G. Thompson (Eng. \ merchant.) / Sails up Gambia. 1642 Abel Tasman (Dut.) . . . Van Dieme'n's Land (Tasmania) and New Zealand. 1643 1645 Vries (Dut.) Deshnev (Cossack) .... Explores E. coast Japan, Saghalien, and Kurile Is. Rounds East Cape of Asia fi om the Kolyma to the Anadyr. 1660 French Lake region of the St. Lawrence discovered. 1673 Maiquette and Joliet \ (Fr.) / Exploration of the Mississippi from the north. 1725-43 Russians . Exploration of the coasts of Siberia. 1728 and '41 Bering (Dan.) and \ Tishirikov (Rus.).. / Bering Strait and the NW. coast of America. 1764-66 Bvron (EnK.) . . Circumnavigation of the zlobe. PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY 15 THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY Continued Date Explorer and Nationality Discovery or Exploration 1768-79 1770 1770 1785-88 1789 1792 1795-1806 1799-1858 Capt. Cook (Eng.) James Bruce (Scot.) . . . Liakhov (Russian) La Perouse (French) . . . A. Mackenzie (Scot.)- Vancouver (Eng.) Mungo Park (Scot.) . . . Alex, von Humboldt \ (Ger.) / Voyages round the world. Hydrographical sur- veys of the Society Islands, Sandwich Islands, E. coast of Australia, Cook Strait in New Zea- land, Antarctic Ocean, N.W. coast of America, etc. Sources of the Blue Nile. Discovers New Siberian Islands. North of Japan, Saghalien, etc. Exploration of the Mackenzie River. Vancouver Island circumnavigated. Discovered by Perez, 1774. Exploration of NW. coast of America. Journeys and explorations in the Niger district. Explorations in South America and publication of " Kosmos." 1801-1804 1803-6 1805 9 Flinders (Eng.) Krusenstern (Rus.) .... Salt (Eng ) Southern coasts of Australia. Surveys in Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsch, Saghalien, etc. Visit to Abyssinia 1807-8 1819 1819 1825 Klaproth (Ger.) Sir E. Parry (Eng.). . . . Sir J. Franklin ) Richardson and Back \ (Eng.) ] Exploration of the Caucasus. Parry Archipelago. Coppermine and JUIackenzie Rivers explored. 1819 1819 1819-20 1821 Long (U. S.) Wm. Smith (Eng.) Bellingshausen Capt. King Exploration of Rocky Mountains. South Orkney Islands and South Shetlands. Vis- ited by Weddell in 1822. Discovered new Antarctic Islands. Explorations in Western Australia. 1823 1823 1823 1825-26 1827-8 1829 1830-32 1830 1831 1832 Wrangel (Rus.) Denham and Clap- 1 perton (Eng.) / James Weddell (Brit.). A. G. Laing (Scot.) .... Ren6 Caillie (French) . . Sturt (Eng.) Biscoe (Eng.) Sir J.' C. Ross (Eng.)'. ! ! Laird and Oldfield \ (Scot ) / Discovers Wrangel Island. Lake Chad. Explored Weddell Sea. Reached Timbuktu from Tripoli. Journey from Kakundi to Timbuktu and Mo- rocco. Descends the Murrumbidgee and discovers the Murray River. Enderby Land and Graham Land. Royal Geographical Society founded in London. Magnetic North Pole. Exploration of the Niger and Benu6. 1833-35 1835 1837 Sir G. Back (Eng.) .... SirM.R.Schomburgk \ (Ger.) I Wood (Eng ) Great Fish River, Canada. Explorations in Guiana. Discovered a source of the Oxus. 1837-40 1839 1839-40 1 839-40 John d'Urville (French) J. Balleny (Eng.) Eyre (Eng.) Lieut. Charles Wilkes \ (US) / Adelie Land. Reached 66 30' S. lat. Balleny Islands, 66 44' S. lat. Discovers Lake Torrens, S. Australia, and in 1841 journeys from Adelaide to King George's Sound. Discovery of the Antarctic Continent. 1840 1841 1841-73 1844-48 1845 1848 1849-55 Triimmer Sir James C. Ross (Eng.) D. Livingstone (Scot.).. Leichhardt (Ger.) Sir John Franklin (Eng.) RebmannandKrapf(Ger ) Richardson and Earth 1 (Eng.-Ger.) 1 Remains of ancient Nineveh. Victoria- Land, with volcanoes Erebus and Terror. Thirty years' travel in Central South Africa. Crosses Australia, Moreton Bay to Port Essing- ton. Sails on his last voyage never to return. Mt. Kilima Njaro. Sighted Mt. Kenia. Western Sudan and Sahara. 1850 1852-4, 1861 1855-59 1863-65 1858 1858 Sir R. M'Clure (Irish).. Sir C. R. Markham \ (Eng.) ) {DU Chaillu (French) . . Sir R. Burton (Scot.).. . Speke and Grant (Brit.) Northwest Passage. Explorations in Peru. Basin of Ogow6 River, W. Africa. Lake Tanganyika. Victoria Nyanza. 16 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY Continued Date Explorer and Nationality Discovery or Exploration 1860 1861 1862 1862-63 1864 Sir S. Baker (Eng.) .... Burke and Wills M'Douall Stuart (Scot.) W. G. Palgrave (Eng.). A. E. Nordenskiold \ (Swedish) / Explores Upper Nile. Discovers Albert Nyanza, Crossed Australia. Crossed Australia. Journeys in Central and Eastern Arabia. Spitzbergen. 1864-66 1867-72 1868-71 1869 1870-1886 1872 1872-76 G. Rohlfs (Ger.) Richthofen (Ger.) G. Schweinfurth (Ger.). G. Nachtigal (Ger.) Prejevalsky (Rus.) Payer and Weyprecht \ (Austrian) / "Challenger" Expedi- 1 tion (Brit.) / Journeys in W. Sudan by Ghadames, Murzuk, and Wadai to R. Niger. Extensive travel and exploration in China. Exploration of the Jur, Niam-Niam, and Mon- buttu countries in Africa. Explorations in Lake Chad region and Central Sudan States. Journeys in Mongolia, Tibet, etc. Discovered Franz Josef Land. Explores the depths of the oceans. 1872-76 Ernest Giles Traverses Northwest Australia 1873 1874-75 1876 1876-90 1876 1877-78 1878-79 1878-89 Warburton (Irish) Lieut. Cameron (Eng.). De Breeze (French) .... H. M. Stanley (Eng.) . . Sir Geo. Nares and 1 A. H. Markham (Eng.) Doughty and Blunt (Brit.) Nordenskjold (Swed.).. Thomson (Scot.) Crosses Western Australia from East to West. Crosses Equatorial Africa. Explorations in the Ogowe and Gabun region. Congo Basin ; Mt. Ruwenzori ; Forests qn the Aru- wimi, etc. Grant Land. Penetrated as far N. as 83 20'. Explorations in Northern Arabia. Northeast passage. Journeys through Masai Land, British South 1878-85 1878-92 1879 Major Serpa Pinto \ (Port.) / Emin Pasha (Ger.) .... Moustier and Zweifel \ (Swiss) / Africa, Sokoto, Morocco, etc. Twice crosses Africa.. Travels and Surveys in Equatorial Africa. Dis- covery of Semliki River, etc. Sources of the Niger. 1879 1881-82 Lieut. Schwatka (U. S.) Leigh Smith Recovered Franklin relics. Explored S. coast of Franz Josef Land. 1881-85 Greely (U. S.) Grinnell Land and NW. coast of Greenland 1885 1885 1886-1909 1887 Wissmann (Ger.) Junker (Rus.-Ger.) .... Peary (U. S.) Capt. Younghusband \ (Eng.) / Across Africa from West coast, Congo Basin. Welle-Mobangi, etc. Six expeditions of exploration and North Pole at- tained on April 6, 1909. Travels from Pekin to Kashmir. 1887 1888-1900 1890-02 1892 1893-96 Hans Meyer (Ger.) .... F. Foureau (French) . . . Col. P. F. Monteil \ (French) / Baron Toll (Russ.) N ansen (Norw.) Exploration of Mount Kilimanjaro. Explorations in the Sahara. Researches in the Sudan and Sahara. Explorations in the Lena R. Hviotenland, etc.; reached his "Farthest North" 1897 1893-97 Jackson (Scot.) Sven Hedin (Swed ) . in lat. 86 13' 6" N. Surveys and explorations in Franz Josef Land. Explorations in North Central Asia 1895-96 1896-98 Pr. Henri d'Orleans Capt. Marchand Travels in Tonkin and China. Travels from Upper Mobangi to Fashoda 1897 1897 Andree (Swed.) D Carnegie Attempt to cross over the North Pole in a balloon, with fatal results. Crosses Western Australia from S to N 1898-99 1899-1900 1899-1903 De Gerlache (Belgian).. Donaldson Smith \ (U.S.) / Capt. Otto Sverdrup 1 (Swedish) / "Belgica,"' first ship to winter within Antarctic circle. Explorations in Abyssinia and Brit. E. Africa. Found new islands W. of Parry Islands. 1895-1900 Major Gibbons Explorations in Congo and Zambezi headwaters. PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL Dt&COVERY 17 THE PROGRESS OP DISCOVERY Continued Date Explorer and Nationality Discovery or Exploration 1900 1900 1900-02 Borchgrevink (Brit. Ex.) Duke of Abruzzi (Ital.) Sven Hedin (Swed ) Reached lat. 78 50' S. via Victoria Land. Reached lat. 86 33' N. via Franz Josef Land. Explorations in Tibet. 1902-04 Anglo-Fr. and Anglo- \ Ger. Comms / Surveys and discoveries in Bornu and Kamerun. 1901-04 1902-03 Com. R. F. Scott (Brit.) Prof. E. von Drygal- \ ski (Ger.) / Explorations in Ross Sea and interior of Antarctic Continent. Discovered Gaussberg on Antarctic Continent. 1903-04 1904 and 1908-10 1906 1906-08 1908-09 1910-11 1910-12 1911-12 1913 1906-07 1909-12 1912 1913 Dr. W. S. Bruce (Brit.). /Dr. J. B. Charcot \ \ (French) 1 Duke of the Abruzzi \ (Ital.) / Sven Hedin (Swedish).. Lieut. Shackleton (Brit.) Amundsen (Nor.) Capt. R. F. Scott(Brit.) Filchner (Ger.) Stefansson (Can.) Mylius Erichsen Einar Mikkelsen Knud Rasmussen J. P. Koch. . Discovery of Coats Land in Weddell Sea. Explorations along Graham Land Coast and W. of it. First ascent of Mt. Ruwenzori. Tibet. Discovered main source of Brahmaputra. Sledge journey towards the South Pole. Reached South Pole, Dec. 14, 1911. Reached South Pole, Jan. 18, 1912 and perished on return journey. Discovered Prince Regent Leopold Land, Jan., 1912, on Antarctic Continent, Weddell Sea. Discovered nev/ land N. W. of Prince Patrick Island, Parry Islands. Completed maps of Greenland Coasts. Explorations in Greenland Sea and East Green- land. Crossed North Greenland. Crossed Middle Greenland. 1913 1913-14 Capt. B. A. Vilkitski... Capt Vilkitski Discovered Nicholas II Land in the Arctic. Made the second Northeast Passage. 1915 Sir Ernest Shackleton . . Discovered Caird Coast of the Antarctic Con- tinent. Copyright United Newspapers; Underwood & Underwood, N. LOOKING DOWN ON THE ANTARCTIC PLATEAU Copyright Edwin Levick "IT SHINES FOR ALL" How the Statue of Liberty appears to the Alien. (This is not a photograph of the light itself, but a picture of the sun. taken at 6 P. M., from a steamship.) CHAPTER II. POPULATION THE Thirteenth Census of the United States was taken by the Bureau of the Census as of April 15, 1910. The total area of enumeration included the United States, the territories of Alaska and Hawaii and Porto Rico. The enu- meration also included persons sta- tioned abroad in the military and naval service of the Government. the outlying possessions of the Unit- ed States. Including the population of the Philippines and other posses- sions, the total population living under the American flag is approxi- mately as given below. It has been estimated by tt~ United States Census Bureau that the population of the United States and possessions on July 1, 1914, POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES Territory Enumerated: 1910 Gross area (land and water) in square miles Population United States (with outlying possessions) 3,627,557 93,402,151 United States, exclusive of outlying possessions 3 026 789 91,972,266 Outlying possessions 600 768 1 429 885 Alaska 590,884 64,356 Hawaii. ... 6 449 191,909 Porto Rico 3,435 1,118,012 Military and naval service abroad 55,608 ' The population returned for the total area of enumeration was 93,- 402,151, an increase, from 1900 to 1910, of 20.9 per cent for the total area of enumeration and 21 per cent for the United States, exclusive of outlying possessions. It should be noted that the area of enumeration does not cover all was 109,021,992, and that the popu- lation of the United States on July 1, 1915, was 100,399,318. At the close of the First Census, in 1790, the United States comprised substantially the territory between the Atlantic Ocean and the Missis- TOTAL POPULATION UNDER THE AMERICAN FLAG, Population of the United States and possessions Enumerated at the census of 1910 Philippine Islands, 1903 Guam, estimated Samoa, estimated Panama Canal Zone, estimated 101,100,100 93,402,151 7,635,426 9,000 6,100 50,000 Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 20 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES sippi River except Florida, repre- senting a gross area (land and wa- ter surface) of 892,135 square miles. The United States, with its outlying possessions, now comprises a gross area of 3,743,306 square miles, or more than four times the area in 1790. The successive accessions of territory were as given below. DENSITY OF POPULATION According to the census of 1910, there were in the United States, on the average, 30.9 inhabitants to each Alaska had an average density of only 0.1 per square mile; Hawaii, 29.8; and Porto Rico, 325.5, or greater than that of any State of the United States except Rhode Island, Massachusetts and New Jersey. CENTER OF POPULATION The center of population is often understood to be the point of inter- section of a north and south line which divides the population equal- ly, with an east and west line which Gross area Gross area Accession in square Accession in square miles miles United States 3 026 789 Outlying possessions 716 517 Area of U. S. in 1790*. . Louisiana Purchase, 1803 892,135 827,987 Alaska, 1867. . Hawaii, 1898 ' 590,884 6,449 Florida, 1819 Territory gained through treaty with Spain, 1819 58,666 13,435 Philippine Islands, 1899 Porto Rico 1899 Guam, 1899 115,026 8,435 210 Texas, 1845 389,166 Samoa, 1900 77 Oregon, 1846 286,541 Panama Canal Zone, 1904 436 Mexican Cession, 1848 529,189 Gadsden Purchase, 1853 29,670 *Includes the drainage basin of the Red River of the North, not a part of any acquisi- tion, but previously considered a part of the Louisiana Purchase. square mile of land area. The rela- tive density of population of each State of the United States in 1910 is best exhibited by the map on page 22. Aside from the District of Colum- bia there were ten States in which there was in 1910 a population per square mile of more than 100, as follows: Rhode Island, 508.5 inhabi- tants per square mile; Massachu- setts, 418.8; New Jersey, 337.7; Connecticut, 231.3; New York, 191.2; Pennsylvania, 171.0; Mary- land, 130.3; Ohio, 117.0; Delaware, 103.0; Illinois, 100.6. There were 16 States which had, on the average, less than 18 inhabitants to the square mile. Nevada, with 0.7 per- son per square mile, or 7 persons to 10 square miles, had the lowest density. Among the outlying possessions likewise divides it equally. This point of intersection is, in a certain sense, a center of population; it is, however, designated by the Bureau of the Census as the median point to distinguish it from the point tech- nically denned as the center. The character of these two points may be made clear through a physi- cal analogy. If the surface of the United States be considered as i rigid plane without weight capable of sustaining the population distri- buted thereon, individuals being as- sumed to be of equal weight, and each, therefore, to exert a pressure on any supporting pivotal point di- rectly proportional to his distance from the point, the pivotal point on which the plane balances would, of course, be its center of gravity ; and this is the point referred to by the term "center of population." In de- POPULATION 21 COMPARATIVE AREA OF THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES UNITED STATES, ORIGINAL AREA AND ACQUISITIONS OF TERRITORY, 1790 TO 1910 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES POPULATION PER SQUARE MILE, BY STATES termining the median point, distance is not taken into account, and the location of the units of population is considered only in relation to the intersecting median lines as being north or south of the median paral- lel and east and west of the median meridian. Extensive changes in the geographic distribution of the popu- lation may take place without affect- ing the median point, whereas the center of population responds to the slightest population change in any section of the country. CENTER OF POPULATION At the time of the First Census, the center of population was 23 miles east of Baltimore, Maryland, since which time it has moved stead- ily westward. In 1800 it was 18 miles west of Baltimore; in 1810, 40 miles northwest by west from Washington, D. C. ; in 1820, 16 miles north of Woodstock, Va. ; in 1830, 19 miles west-southwest of Moore- field, W. Va. ; in 1840, 16 miles south of Clarksburg, W. Va. ; in 1850, 23 miles southwest of Parkersburg, W. Va. ; in I860, 20 miles south of Chil- licothe, O.; in 1870, 48 miles east by north of Cincinnati, O. ; in 1880, 8 miles west by south of Cincinnati, O. ; in 1890, 20 miles east of Colum- bus, Ind. ; in 1900, 6 miles southeast of Columbus, Ind., and finally, in 1910, in the city of Bloomington, Ind. During the 120 years between the First and Thirteenth Census, the center of population has moved over 550 miles westward, or in other words, from west latitude 76 degrees 11 minutes 12 seconds to west lati- tude 86 degrees 32 minutes 20 sec- onds. MEDIAN POINT As in the case of the center of population, the median point has also oeen moving westward, but not quite so rapidly. The exact location of the median point in 1880 was 16 miles nearly due west of Spring- field, O. ; in 1890, 5 miles southwest of Greenville, O. ; in 1900, in Spar- tanburg, Ind., and finally, in 1910, 3 miles south of Winchester, Ind. URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION The Census Bureau classifies as urban population that residing in cities and other incorporated places of 2,500 inhabitants or more, includ- 24 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ing New England towns of that size. All other population is con- sidered as rural. In 1880, of a total population in the United States of 50,155,783, there were in municipalities 14,772,- 438, or 29.5 per cent of the popu- lation. In 1890, this element had grown to 22,720,223, or 36.1 per cent of the total population; in 1900, it was 30,797,185, or 40.5 per cent ; and in 1910, 42,623,383, or 46.3 per cent of the total population of the United States. From 1900 to 1910 the rate of in- crease for the population of urban areas was over three times that for the population living in rural ter- ritory, the rates of increase being 34.8 and 11.2 per cent respectively. There were 14 States in 1910 in which more than half the population was living in territory classed as urban. The greatest per cent urban in any State was Rhode Island, which had 96.7 per cent, while North Dakota, with 11 per cent, had the smallest proportion of its people in urban communities. There was in every State between 1900 and 1910 an increase in urban population, but in six States New Hampshire, Vermont, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa and Missouri there was a de- crease in rural population. In all but two States Montana and Wyo- ming the urban population in- creased faster than the rural popu- lation, and generally at a much more rapid rate. COLOR OR RACE, NATIVITY AND PARENTAGE Of the population of the United States in 1910, 81,731,957, or 88.9 per cent, were whites; 9,827,763, or 10.7 per cent, were negroes; and 412,546, or four-tenths of one per cent, were other colored races, in- cluding Indians, Chinese, Japanese. Hindus, Koreans, and others. Of the total population, 78,456,380, or 85.3 per cent, were native and 13,515,886, or 14.7 per cent, foreign born, the latter consisting chiefly of whites. The native white population num- bered 68,386,412, and constituted 83.7 per cent of the white popula- tion and 74.4 per cent of the total population of the country. The 13,- 345,545 foreign-born whites consti- NTJMBER OF FAMILIES PEE SQUARE MILE 26 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES tuted 16.3 per cent of the white population and 14.5 per cent of the total population. Native whites of native paren- tage in 1910 numbered 49,488,575, constituting 60.5 per cent of the white population and 53.8 per cent of the total population. Native whites of foreign parentage formed 15.8 per cent of the white popula- tion and those of mixed parentage 7.3 per cent, the corresponding per- centages based on the total popula- tion being 14 and 6.5, respectively. crease of the white population. The native white population increased 20!8 per cent and the foreign-born white 30.7 per cent. The increase of negroes and Indians, since their numbers is only slightly affected by immigration, or emigration, is essen- tially a natural increase. BLACK AND MULATTO POPULATION Of the 9,827,763 negroes enumer- ated in 1910, 7,777,077 were returned as black and 2,050,686 as mulatto, or 20.9 per cent. In 1850 the per- I 1 Less than I per cent. ES31to5percen. VTTft S to UJ per cent. ES3 12 J to 25 per cent. BBS 25 to 37} per cent. EH 37) to SO per cent. BO! SO per cent and over. The heavy lines ( ) show geographic divisions. PEE CENT OF NEGHOES IN TOTAL POPULATION, BY STATES Of the total increase of 15,977,691 in the population of the country be- tween 1900 and 1910, the whites con- tributed 14,922,761, the negroes 993,- 769, and other races 61,161. The increase in the native population was 12,803,081, and that in the for- eign-born, 3,174,610, or about one- fifth of the total increase. The percentage of increase for the whites, 22.3, was a little less than twice as high as that for the negroes, 11.2. This difference is partly due, however, to the direct or indirect effect of immigration upon the in- centage of mulattoes was 11.2. It had advanced but little in. 1870, be- ing only 12 per cent, but since 1870 the proportion of mulattoes in the total negro population appears to have increased materially, reaching 15.2 per cent in 1890, and, as given above, 20.9 per cent in 1910. INDIAN, CHINESE AND JAPANESE POPULATION Since 1890, the first census to in- clude an enumeration of Indians in Indian territory and on Indian reser- vations, the Indian population has 6 8 8- 28 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES f I'T.PM than 1,001 s r?T1 1,000 to 5,000 B%%! 5,000 to 10,000 ES3 40,000 to 15,000 ESS 15,000 to 20,000 E53 20,000 to 30,000 (JUT 30.000 and over. The heavy lines ( ) show DISTRIBUTION OF THE INDIAN POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, BY STATES increased slightly, being 248,253 in 1890 and 265,683 in 1910. During the same period the Chinese popu- lation decreased from 107,488 in 1890 to 71,531 in 1910, while the Japanese population increased from 2,039 in 1890 to 72,157 in 1910. There were also enumerated in 1910 other non-white races, consisting, for the greater part, of Hindus and Kore- ans, to the number of 3,175. PRINCIPAL CITIES It may be of interest to consider the population of principal cities with respect to color, nativity and parentage. In only fourteen of the fifty cities having a population of over 100,000 did native whites of native parentage constitute as much as one-half of the total population. The proportion exceeded three-fifths in only four cities, Indianapolis:, 64.5 per cent; Columbus, 64.4 per cent ; Dayton, 62 per cent, and Kan- sas City, 61.9 per cent. On the other hand, in twenty-two of the cities of this class, less than one-third of the population were native whites of native parentage, over two-thirds in all but one of these cities consisting of foreign-born whites and their children. In Fall River only 13.3 per cent of the population were native whites of native parentage. In 10 cities of 100,000 inhabitants, or over, the population was more than one-third foreign-born white, namely, Fall River, 42.6 per cent ; Lowell, 40.9 per cent; New York, 40.4 per cent; Paterson, 36.1 per cent; Boston, 35.9 per cent; Chi- cago, 35.7 per cent; Bridgeport, 35.5 per cent ; Cleveland, 34.9 per cent ; Providence, 34 per cent; and De- troit, 33.6 per cent. The proportion of foreign-born whites was low in all of the south- ern cities. Among the northern cities it was lowest in Indianapolis (8.5 per cent) and Columbus (9 per cent). In many of the fifty cities having a population of over 100,000 the proportion of native whites of foreign or mixed parentage was nearly the same as the proportion of foreign-born whites. The native whites of foreign or mixed parentage were relatively most numerous in Milwaukee (48.8 per cent) and Fall River (43.7 per cent). During the decade 1900-1910 the POPULATION POPULATION OF CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES Census of 1910 Cities of over 100,000 population Albany, N. Y Atlanta, Ga Baltimore, Md Birmingham, Ala... Boston, Mass Bridgeport, Conn Buffalo, N. Y Cambridge, Mass Chicago, 111 Cincinnati, Ohio Cleveland, Ohio Columbus, Ohio Dayton, Ohio Denver, Colo Detroit, Mich Fall River, Mass. . . . Grand Rapids, Mich 100,253 154,839 558,485 132,685 670,585 102,054 423,715 104,839 2,185,283 364,463 560,663 181,548 . 116,577 . 213,381 . 465,766 . 119,295 . 112,571 Indianapolis, Ind Jersey City, N. J... Kansas City, Mo.... Los Angeles, Cal Louisville, Ky Lowell, Mass Memphis, Tenn Milwaukee, Wis Minneapolis, Minn. Nashville, Tenn.... Newark, N. J New Haven, Conn.. New Orleans, La... New York, N. Y... Oakland, Cal Omaha, Neb Paterson, N. J 233,650 267,779 248,381 319,198 223,928 106,294 131,105 373,857 301,408 110,364 347,469 133,605 339,075 4,766,883 150,174 124,096 125,600 Philadelphia, Pa... Pittsburgh, Pa Portland, Ore Providence, R. I... Richmond, Va Rochester, N. Y.... St. Louis, Mo St. Paul, Minn San Francisco, Cal. Scranton, Pa Seattle, Wash Spokane, Wash Syracuse, N. Y Toledo, Ohio Washington, D. C.. Worcester, Mass. . . .1,549,008 533,905 207,214 224,326 127,628 218,149 687,029 214,744 416,912 129,867 237,194 104,402 137,249 168,497 331,069 145,986 Cities of from 25,000 to 100,000 population Akron, Ohio Allentown, Pa 51,913 Altoona, Pa 52,127 Amsterdam, N. Y..... 31,267 Atlantic City, N. J... 46,150 Auburn, N. Y 34,668 Augusta, Ga 41,040 Aurora, 111 29,807 Austin, Tex 29,860 Battle Creek, Mich.... 25,267 Bay City, Mich 45,166 Bayonne, N. J 55,545 Berkeley, Cal 40,434 Binghamton, N. Y.... 48,443 Bloomington, 111 25,768 Brockton, Mass 56,878 Brookline, Mass 27,792 Butte, Mont 39,165 Camden, N. J 94,538 Canton, Ohio 50,217 Cedar Rapids, Iowa... 32,811 Charleston, S. C 58,833 Charlotte, N. C 34,014 Chattanooga, Tenn.... 44,604 Chelsea, Mass 32,452 Chester, Pa 38,537 Chicopee, Mass 25,401 Clinton, Iowa 25,577 Colorado Springs, Colo 29,078 Columbia, S. C 26,319 Council Bluffs, Iowa.. 29,292 Covington, Ky 53,270 Dallas, Tex 92,104 Danville, 111 27,871 Davenport, Iowa 43,028 Decatur, 111 Des Moines, Iowa Dubuque, Iowa Duluth, Minn Easton, Pa East Orange, N. J... East St. Louis, 111... El Paso, Tex Elgin, 111 Elizabeth, N. J Elmira, N. Y Erie, Pa Evansville, Ind Everett, Mass Fitchburg, Mass Flint, Mich Fort Wayne, Ind Fort Worth, Tex Galveston, Tex Green Bay, Wis Hamilton, Ohio Harrisburg, Pa Hartford, Conn Haverhill, Mass Hazleton, Pa Hoboken, N. J Holyoke, Mass Houston, Tex Huntington, W. Va. . Jackson, Mich Jacksonville, Fla Jamestown, N. Y Johnstown, Pa Joliet, 111 Joplin, Mo. Kalamazoo, Mich . 31,140 Kansas City, Kans.... 82,331 . 86,368 Kingston, N. Y 25,908 . 38,494 Knoxville, Tenn 36,346 . 78,466 La Crosse, Wis 30,417 . 28,523 Lancaster, Pa 47,227 . 34,371 Lansing, Mich 31,229 . 58,547 Lawrence, Mass 85,892 . 39,279 Lewiston, Me 26,247 . 25,976 Lexington, Ky 35,099 . 73,409 Lima, Ohio 30,508 . 37,176 Lincoln, Neb 43,973 . 66,525 Little Rock, Ark 45,941 . 69,647 Lorain, Ohio 28,883 . 38,484 Lynchburg, Va 29,494 . 37,826 Lynn, Mass 89,336 . 38,550 Macon, Ga 40,665 . 63,933 McKeesport, Pa 42,694 . 73,312 Madison, Wis 25,531 . 36,981 Maiden, Mass 44,404 . 25,236 Manchester, N. H 70,063 . 35,279 Meriden, Conn 27,265 . 64,186 Mobile, Ala 51,521 . 98,915 Montgomery, Ala 38,136 . 44,115 Mount Vernon, N. Y.. 30,919 . 25,452 Muskogee, Okla 25,278 . 70,324 Nashua, N. H 26,005 . 5 ,730 Newark, Ohio 25,404 . 7h,800 New Bedford, Mass... 96,652 . 31,161 New Britain, Conn.... 43,916 . 31,*33 Newburgh, N. Y 27,805 . 57,699 Newcastle, Pa 36,280 . 31,297 Newport, Ky 80,309 . 55.482 Newport, R. 1 27,149 . 34,670 New Rochelle, N. Y... 28,867 . 32,073 Newton, Mass 39,806 . 39,437 Niagara Falls, N. Y.. 30,445 30 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Norfolk, Va 67,452 Norristown, Pa 27,875 Ogden, Utah 25,580 Oklahoma City, Okla.. 64,205 Orange, N. J 29,630 Oshkosh, Wis 33,062 Pasadena, Cal 30,291 Passaic, N. J 54,773 Pawtucket, R. 1 51,622 Peoria, 111 66,950 Perth Amboy, N. J.... 32,121 Pittsfield, Mass 32,121 Portland, Me 58,571 Portsmouth, Va 33,190 Poughkeepsie, N. Y... 27,936 Pueblo, Colo 44,395 Quincy, 111 36,587 Quincy, Mass 32,642 Racine, Wis 38,002 Reading, Pa 96,071 Roanoke, Va 34,874 Rockford, 111 45,401 Sacramento, Cal 44,696 Saginaw, Mich 50,510 St. Joseph, Mo Salem, Mass Salt Lake City, Utah. San Antonio, Tex San Diego, Cai San Jose, Cal Savannah, Ga Schenectady, N. Y.... Sheboygan, Wis Shenandoph, Pa Shreveport, La Sioux City, Iowa Somerville, Mass South Bend, Ind South Omaha, Neb... Springfield, 111 Springfield, Mass Springfield, Mo Springfield, Ohio Stamford, Conn Superior, Wis Tacoma, Wash Tampa, Fla Taunton, Mass 77,403 43,697 92,777 96,614 39,578 28,946 65,064 72,826 26,398 25,774 28,015 47,828 77,236 53,684 . 26,259 . 51,678 . 88,926 . 35,201 . 46,921 . 25,138 . 40,384 . 83,743 . 37,782 . 34,259 Terre Haute, Ind Topeka, Kans Trenton, N. J Troy, N. Y Utica, N. Y Waco, Tex Waltham, Mass Warwick, R. I Waterbury, /Conn Waterloo, Iowa Watertown, N. Y West Hoboken, N. J. Wheeling, W. Va.... Wichita, Kans Wilkes-Barre, Pa Williamsport, Pa Wilmington, Del Wilmington, N. C.... Woonsocket, R. I Yonkers, N. Y York, Pa Youngstown, Ohio... Zanesville, Ohio 58,157 43,684 96,815 . 76,813 . 74,419 . 26,425 . 27,834 . 26,629 . 73,141 . 26,693 . 26,730 . 35,403 . 41,641 . 52,450 . 67,105 . 31,860 . 87,411 . 25,748 . 38,12o . 79,803 . 44,750 . 79,066 . 28,026 foreign-born white population in New York City advanced from 1,- 260,918 to 1,927,703, an increase of 666,785, while native whites of na- tive parentage increased only 183,- 841. In 1910 only 19.3 per cent of the city's population consisted of native whites of native parentage. Of the total population of the United States approximately one-twentieth is domiciled in New York City; of the native whites of native paren- tage, one-fiftieth; of the native whites of foreign or mixed paren- tage, one-tenth ; and of the foreign- born, one-seventh. Among the larger cities the pro- portion of negroes in 1910 was high- est in Memphis, 40 per cent, followed by Birmingham, with 39.4 per cent ; Richmond, 36.6 per cent; Atlanta, 33.5 per cent; Nashville, 33.1 per cent; Washington, 28.5 per cent; New Orleans, 26.3 per cent; Louis- ["~l r EM ALES MALES IX EXCESS. E23 Le-.s than 5 per cent. E2 5 to 10 per cent. B2 10 to 15 per Cent. IH 15 to 20 per cent. B 20 per cent and over. The heavy lines ( ) show geographic divisions. PROPORTION OF MALES 10 FEMALES IN THE TOTAL POPULATION, BY STATES 65 I I 5 32 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ville, 18.1 per cent; and Baltimore, 15.2 per cent. In no other city of over 100,000 inhabitants did the ne- gro element amount to one-tenth of the population. Classified according to numbers, the following cities re- turned more than 50,000 negroes in 1910: Washington, 94,446; New York, 91,709; New Orleans, 89,262; Baltimore, 84,749; Philadelphia, 84,- 459; Memphis, 52,441; Birmingham, 52,305; and Atlanta, 51,902. CLASSIFICATION OF POPULATION BY SEX There were in the United States in 1910, 47,332,277 males and 44,- 639,989 females, or 106 males to each 100 females. The excess of males in the United States is partly due to extensive im- migration, a much larger proportion of the immigrants being males than females. In the native white popu- lation of the United States, how- ever, there is also an excess of males over females, the ratio in 1910 being 102.7 males to each 100 females. POPULATION 21 YEARS OF AGE AND OVER Persons 21 years of age and over have certain special legal rights with reference to property, the elec- tive franchise, and other matters. This class of the population is fur- ther significant from the social and economic standpoint, in that it in- cludes the great majority of bread- winners and also the great majority of married men and women. From the political standpoint particular interest attaches to statistics regard- ing males 21 years of age and over, although in several States women of that age also now have the right to vote at all elections. For the United States, exclusive of Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico, and other outlying possessions, the total population 21 years of age and over in 1910 was 51,554,905, representing 56.1 per cent of the total popula- tion of all ages. Of this number, 26,999,151, or 29.4 per cent of the total population, were males, and 24,555,754 were females. MALES OF MILITIA AGE Men from 18 to 44 years of age, inclusive, are subject to militia duty under the laws of most States, and Courtesy Literary Digest WOMAN'S SUFFRAGE DISTRIBUTION OF VOTERS White indicates Suffrage; dotted, limited Suffrage, and black, male Suffrage only- POPULATION represent substantially the theoreti- cal fighting strength of the country in case of war. The total number of males from 18 to 44 years of age in 1910 was 20,473,684, representing 22.3 per cent of the total population of the Country and 43.3 per cent of the total male population. IMMIGRATION Immigration into the United States has experienced a marked reduction as a result of the Euro- pean war, dropping from a total of 1,218,480 for the year ended June 30, 1914, to 326,700, and 298,826 for the years ended June 30, 1915 and 1916, respectively. This falling off is not of a temporary nature, but is certain to continue for many years, even after the close of the war. Of the 298,826 immigrant aliens admitted during the year ended June 30, 1916, 9,795 had been en- gaged in the professions, 45,528 were skilled laborers, 138,737 had been engaged in miscellaneous occupa- tions, and 104,766 (including the women and children) reported no occupation. Of the 129,765 emigrant aliens departed, 2,097 had been engaged in the professions, 13,874 were skilled laborers, 96,405 had been engaged in miscellaneous occu- pations and 17,389 (including the women and children) reported no occupation. Eighteen thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven persons were de- barred during the year. Of this number, 10,383 were debarred as being likely to become public charges, 1,153 as having a loathsome or dangerous contagious disease, 1,657 as of mental defects (other than idiots, imbeciles and insane) and 2,080 as being contract laborers. There were 2,906 persons deported after landing, of which number 1,081 were deported because of the possi- bility of becoming public charges, 282 for insanity, 360 for having en- tered without inspection, 114 as criminals and 100 for loathsome or 34 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES OCCUPATIONS At the Thirteenth Census there were 38,756,223 persons ten years of age and over engaged in gainful occupations in the United States, in- total population and 53.3 per cent of the population ten years of age and over. In the male population the gainful workers numbered 30,- 091,564, which was 81.3 per cent of IMMIGRATION INTO THE UNITED STATES, 1910-1916 Races Years Ended June 30 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 African (black) 4,966 5,508 8,462 15,130 1,770 39,562 3,331 4,911 13,012 1,782 53,498 15,736 21,107 71,380 39,135 84,260 38,382 30,780 192,673 2,798 19 22,714 27,302 17,760 61 128,348 7,657 14,199 17,294 27,907 52,037 24,612 32,416 5,837 900 6,317 1,283 2,244 1,150 3,330 6,721 3,092 9,223 10,222 1,307 18,982 3,914 4,400 13,862 517 57,258 9,779 18,132 66,471 37,021 91,223 40,246 30,312 159,638 4,575 8 17,027 19,996 18,784 12 71,446 7,469 5,311 18,721 17,724 45,859 25,625 21,415 8,068 1,153 5,444 918 2,248 1,141 3,323 6,759 5,222 8,439 10,657 1,608 24,366 3,155 3,672 10,935 165 49,689 6,641 18,382 65,343 31,566 80,595 33,922 26,443 135,830 6,172 33 14,078 23,599 22,001 3 85,163 9,403 8,329 22,558 21,965 31,601 20,293 25,281 9,070 1,342 5,525 1,336 2,239 1,132 3,660 6,634 9,353 11,091 9,087 2,022 42,499 3,099 4,520 14,507 188 55,522 12,756 20,652 80,865 38,644 101,330 37,023 42,534 231,613 8,302 64 24,647 30,610 10,954 11 174,365 13,566 13,451 51,472 30,588 38,737 21,293 27,234 9,042 1,363 9,210 2,015 2,820 1,171 3,038 8,447 7,785 9,928 15,084 2,354 37,284 3,539 5,149 12,566 172 51,746 12,805 18,166 79,871 45,881 138,051 33,898 44,802 251,612 8,941 152 21. ,584 44,538 13,089 1 122,657 9,647 24,070 44,957 36,727 36,053 18,997 25,819 11,064 1,544 9,023 2,693 2,558 1,396 3,830 5,660 932 1,651 3,506 2,469 1,942 3,402 305 6,675 82 38,662 3,472 12,636 20,729 15,187 26,497 23,503 10,660 46,557 8,609 146 2,638 3,604 10,993 6 9,065 4,376 1,200 4,459 2,933 24,263 14,310 2,069 5,705 1,667 1,767 273 1,390 823 1,877 4,576 964 642 3,146 2,239 791 3,442 114 6,443 80 36,168 5,649 19,518 11,555 26,792 15,108 20,636 4,905 33,909 8,711 154 599 981 17,198 5 4,502 12,208 953 4,858 1,365 19,172 13,515 577 9,259 1,881 676 216 983 948 3,388 Armenian Bohemian and Moravian Bulgarian, Serbian, Montenegrin Chinese Croatian and Slovenian. Cuban Dalmatian, Bosnian, Herzegovinian Dutch and Flemish East Indian English Finnish French German Greek Hebrew. . Irish Italian (north) Italian (south) Japanese Korean Lithuanian ... Magyar Mexican Pacific Islander Polish Portuguese Roumanian Russian Ruthenian (Russniak) . . Scandinavian Scotch Slovak Spanish . . Spanish American Syrian Turkish . Welsh West Indian (except Cuban) Other peoples Total . . 1.041,570 878,587 838,172 1,197,892 1,218,480 326,700 298,826 eluding Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico, and the military and naval stations abroad. The gainful workers thus formed 41.5 per cent of the total population. In continental United States the gainful workers numbered 38,167,- which was 41.5 per cent of the the males ten years of age and over. In the female population the gainful workers numbered 8,075,772, which was 23.4 per cent of all females ten years of age and over. Thus, in the population ten years of age and over, more than one-half of all persons, over four-fifths of the males, but POPULATION 35 Photo by Irving Underbill ELLIS ISLAND, AMERICA'S GREATEST GATEWAY less than one-fourth of the females, were gainfully occupied. In the States the proportion of the population ten years of age and over engaged in gainful occupations in 1910 ranged from 46.9 per cent in Iowa to 68 per cent in Mississippi. The States having the smallest pro- portions were : Iowa, 46.9 per cent ; Kansas, 47 per cent ; Nebraska, 47.7 per cent ; Utah, 47.9 per cent ; and Indiana 48 per cent. The States having the largest proportion were North Carolina, 60 per cent; Geor- gia, 61.5 per cent; Wyoming, 62.6 per cent; Nevada, 64.3 per cent; Alabama, 64.7 per cent ; South Caro- lina, 67.6 per cent; and Mississippi, 68.7 per cent. Except in three States Arizona, Montana and North Da- kota there was an increase, from 1900 to 1910, in the proportion of the population ten years of age and over engaged in gainful occupations. The States showing the largest in- creases were Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Mississippi, Nevada, North Carolina, South Carolina and Texas. DEATHS IN REGISTRATION AREA The total number of deaths re- turned from the registration area of the United States for the year 1914 was 898,059. The estimated mid- NUMBER AND PROPORTION OF PERSONS IN GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS Occupation Total Per Cent of Gainful Workers All occupations 38 167 336 100 Agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry 12,619 203 33 2 Extraction of minerals (mining and quarrying) Manufacturing and mechanical industries Transportation 964,824 10,658,881 2 637 671 2.5 27.9 6 9 Trade 3 614 670 9 5 Public Service 459 291 1.2 Professional Service 1 663 569 4 4 Domestic and Personal Service Clerical Occupations 3,772,174 1,737,053 9.9 4.6 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES year population of this area was 65,989,295, or 66.8 per cent of the total population of the United States. The death rate for the year was 13.6 per one thousand popula- tion, the lowest on record since the establishment of the registration area in 1880, being 19.8 in 1880, 19.6 in 1890, 17.6 in 1900, 16.0 in 1905, 15.0 in 1910 and 14.1 in 1913. The deaths among the white pop- ulation numbered 824,319, or 917.9 for every thousand deaths. Of this number, 605,349 were native born; 327,696 had both parents native; 203,189 had one or both parents for- eign born; and 74,464 of unknown parentage. Other deaths among the white population were 207,272 for- eign born, and 11,698 unknown. The deaths among the colored population, numbering 73,740, or 82.1 for every thousand deaths, were divided as follows: Negro, 70,429; Chinese, 1,018; Japanese, 904; Indian, 1,369; and other colored, 20. Of the total number of deaths 491,416 were males, and 406,643 were females. The total number of deaths among children less than one year of age was 155,075 ; of those from one to five years of age, 58,045 ; from five to twenty-five, 86,355; from twenty-five to fifty, 196,087; from fifty to seventy-five, 217,207; over seventy-five, 123,963, of which 467 were one hundred years of age or over; and of ages unknown, 1,327. Out of every thousand deaths 172.7 occurred before the end of the first year of life ; 96.2 between the ages of five and twenty-five; 218.5 between the ages of twenty- five and fifty; 307.6 between the ages of fifty and seventy-five; and 138.0 over seventy-five years of age. The number of deaths in the regis- tration area during 1914 from vari- ous causes were as follows: Ty- phoid fever, 10,188; malaria, 1,477; smallpox, 212; measles, 4,461; scar- let fever, 4,340; whooping cough, 6,816; diphtheria and croup, 11,786; influenza, 6,014 ; other epidemic dis- eases, 6,125; tuberculosis, 96,903; cancer, 52,420; diabetes, 10,666; diseases of the nervous system and organs of special sense, 87,614; dis- eases of the circulatory system, 123,- 901 ; diseases of the respiratory sys- tem, 104,086; diseases of the diges- tive system, 99,673; non-venereal diseases of the genito-urinary sys- tem, 78,023; suicide, 10,933; homi- cide, 4,847 ; and other external causes, 51,770. The death rate per 100,000 of pop- ulation for the more important causes was as follows: Typhoid fever, 15.4; malaria, 2.2; measles, 6.8; scarlet fever, 6.6; whooping cough, 10.3; diphtheria and croup, 17.9; influenza, 9.1; tuberculosis, 146.8; cancer, 79.4; diabetes, 16.2; diseases of the nervous system andi organs of special sense, 132.8; dis- eases of the circulatory system, 187.8; diseases of the respiratory system, 157.7; diseases of the di- gestive system, 151.0; non-venereal diseases of the genito-urinary sys- tem, 118.2; suicide, 16.6; homicide, 7.3, and other external violence, 78.5. CHAPTER III. AGRICULTURE By C. H. CLAUDY THE unthinkable number is one which conveys no idea to the mind a number so large that one twice as large or half as large makes the same impression. Such a number measures the dol- lars which value the agricultural production of the United States in a year. To say that the total esti- mated value of all crops and animal products for the year ending June enough, working every minute of every day and every night, to make out deposit slips to put it in a bank in a year's time. It represents a hundred dollars for every man, woman and child in the country. If the cost of the Panama Canal is $500,000,000, one year's crops would build twenty such canals ! If it costs Europe $20,000,000 a day to have a war, then we could finance SCENE ALONG THE BRANDYWINE, SHOWING TYPICAL CHESTER COUNTY (PA.) TOPOGRAPHY 30, 1915, is $10,501,686,375 conveys small impression of its real worth. If a man could keep awake twenty-four hours in a day, and could live for a hundred years under such conditions, he would have to spend during every waking minute of his life something more than $199 to dispose of this sum in the hun- dred years. If the sum were handed him in $5,000 lots, he could not write fast it for them for seventeen months with the agricultural products of one year. AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION It is, of course, an impossibility to do more than indicate the extent of agriculture or its immense im- portance not only to the United States but to the world. Those who wish particular facts of any special subject can obtain Volume V. of the Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 38 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Census of 1910, which gives figures for 1909 in 927 closely printed pages, many tables and graphic drawings, or the Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, which has a number of "graphs" as well as 174 pages of finely printed statistics. Best of all, however, for the man interested in some one special phase of this question is the opportunity afforded him by correspondence with the De- partment of Agriculture. Inquiries on any subject connected with agri- culture receive prompt attention in Uncle Sam's greatest department and information to answer any in- quiry is either on hand or will be obtained for any inquirer. GENERAL STATISTICS The total area of the United States is 1,903,269,000 acres. Of this 46.2 per cent is productive land ; that is, land which is capable of being turned into farm, grazing or tillable area, exclusive of any possible fu- ture engineering developments in the reclamation field which may make vast areas, now arid, agricul- tural possibilities. Of this 46.2 per cent of productive land, 293,794,000 acres (1910 census figures, latest available), represent- ing 15.4 per cent of the total area, are under cultivation. Thirty-six of the principal agri- cultural countries of the world have 30.5 per cent of their total area possibly productive and but 8.7 of their total area under production. With a ratio of approximately one to four for the world, then, the United States has approximately one to three (one-third) of its agri- cultural possibilities developed. FUTURE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES The United States, in spite of its showing in area and its leadership of the world in the world's principal crops, can by no means be considered to have even begun to realize its agricultural possibilities. It can triple its area under cultivation with the same methods and the same productiveness and still fall far behind the averages of other countries which have been compelled to make intensive agriculture a INCREASE IN VALUE OF FARM PRODUCTS (BASED ON PRICES AT THE FARM) Year Total, gross Crops Animals and animal products Value Percent- age of total Value Percent- age of total 1879 (census) 1889 (census) 1897 $2,212,540,927 2,460,107,454 3,960,821,685 4,338,945,829 4,717,069,973 5,009,595,006 5,302,120,039 5,594,645,072 5,887,170,104 6,121,778,001 6,273,997,362 6,764,210,423 7,487,988,622 7,890,625,522 8,558,161,223 9,037,390,744 8,819,174,959 9,342,790,149 9,849,512,511 9,894,960,531 10,501,686,375 $2,519,082,592 2,759,569,547 2,998,704,412 3,191,941,763 3,385,179,114 3,578,416,465 3,771,653,816 3,981,675,866 4,012,652,758 4,263,134,353 4,761,111,839 5,098,292,549 5,487,161,223 5,486,373,550 5,562,058,150 5,842,220,449 6,132,758,962 6,111,684,020 6,652,288,634 63.6 63.6 63.6 63.7 63.8 64.0 64.1 65.0 64.0 63.0 63.6 64.6 64.1 60.7 63.1 62.5 2.3 ol.8 63.3 $1,441,739,093 1,579,376,282 1,718,365,561 1,817,653,243 1,916,940,925 2,016,228,607 2,115,516,288 2,140,102,135 2,261,344,604 2,501,076,070 2,726,876,783 2,792,332,973 3,071,000,000 3,551,017,194 3,257,116,809 3,500,569,700 3,716,753,549 3,783,276,511 3,849,397,741 36.4 36.4 36.4 36.3 36.2 36.0 35.9 35.0 36.0 37.0 36.4 35.4 35.9 39.3 36.9 37.5 37.7 38.2 36.7 1898 1899 (census) . ... 1900 . 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 (census) 1910...... 1911. . 1912 1913 1914 1915 estimate)... . 40 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES study, from the potato field to the orchard, the grazing field to the wheat field. The 1910 census gave 10,582,000 males as actively engaged in agri- culture in the United States, 35.2 per cent of males engaged in all occupations. Females engaged in agriculture to the number of 1,806,- 584, 22.4 per cent of all women en- gaged in all occupations. This makes a total of 12,388,623 people engaged in agriculture, or 32.5 per cent of the people engaged in all occupations. Compare with the fol- lowing countries (percentages from most recent figures obtainable) : Of the total population there are engaged in agriculture in Argentina 23.6 per cent, Australia 25.6 per cent, Austria-Hungary (pre-war) 63 per cent, British India 67.1 per cent, Canada 39.9 per cent, France (pre- war) 42.4 per cent, Germany (pre- war) 34.6 per cent, Italy (pre-war) 58.8 per cent, the Philippines 41.3 per cent, Spain 56.9 per cent, Sweden 52.8 per cent, Union of South Africa 65.1 per cent, United Kingdom 12.4 per cent. ARGENTINA AUSTRALIA AUSTRIA-HUNGARY (pre-war) BRITISH INDIES CANADA FRANCF(Pre-war) (Vith these figures in mind, and not forgetting the possibilities of intensive cultivation, which, as shown in the following statistics for several commodities, is practiced abroad so effectively as greatly to increase the yield per acre over United States figures, it is obvious that the limit of agricultural devel- opment in this country is so far distant that no man can foresee it. Eliminating all possibilities of in- crease of tillable area through irri- gation, and all possibilities of in- crease of yield through modern scientific development, not this nor many future generations will see the ability of this land to support its population from an agricultural standpoint reached or passed. GROWTH The more than double doubling of farm products within one generation is a sure indication of the wonderful growth of the United States. Pages might be written about it, but could do no more than show what the table on page 38 expresses so vividly. ITALV (Pre-war-) PHILIPPINES 5PAIN SWEDEN UNION.OFSAFRICA UNITED KINGDOM UNITED STATES PEE CENT OF POPULATION ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS 42 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES EFFECT OF THE WAR The war has had a tremendous effect upon production of United States staples and their export. The wheat production 1915 was the record for the United States, greater than any previous year by 128,000,- 000 bushels. Exports of wheat and wheat flour jumped from $142,000,- 000 in 1914 to $428,000,000 in 1915, a proportion which is considerably less than the jump in corn, which with corn meal was from $7,000,000 to over $39,000,000. Neither crop, however, compares in its export jump with oats. In 1914 the United States exported $1,000,000 worth and in 1915 $57,000,000 worth. It is hardly necessary to chronicle, be- cause every one knows that the im- mense increase in exports of food stuffs as well as manufactures changed the status of the balance of trade for this country. It is also well known how the export of cotton decreased, the figures being from $610,000,000 to $376,000,000 in a year. But in spite of the loss in cotton the war has had on the whole a very beneficial effect upon American agriculture. Exports of wheat and wheat flour represented over 37 per cent of the 1914 crop, while the usual exportation is less than 20 per cent. Farmers received an average of 79 cents per bushel for the 1913 wheat crop and $1.01 for the crop of 1914, an increase of 32 cents per bushel or an aggregate gain of approxi- mately $196,000,000. PRODUCTION OF SPECIAL CROPS Because of the vastness of the subject it is impossible to do more than indicate here the value and extent of a few of the principal crops of the United States. Unless otherwise stated, statistics given are for 1915 and prices are values at the farm. Because the United States pro- duces more wheat than any other country, and a great deal more than we use, many people think wheat is our principal crop. Such is not the case, corn being the principal crop of the United States. Corn One hundred and eight million three hundred and twenty-one thou- sand acres in the United States are under cultivation for the corn crop of 3,054,535,000 bushels. As the production for all of North America, including Canada, United States and Mexico; Argentina, Chile and Uru- guay in South America; Austria- Hungary, Bulgaria, France, Italy, Portugal and Roumania, Russia, Servia, Spain, India (both British and native states), Japan, the Philip- pine Islands, Algeria, Egypt and Union of South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, was but 3,864/ 279,000 bushels in 1914, it is easily understood why the United States is the greatest corn producing coun- try in the world. Argentina, ' with 10,386,000 acres under corn cultiva- tion, is next in productive -ability, but her total crop for 1915 was but 338,000,235 bushels. PRODUCTION OP CORN IN THE UNITED STATES 1849-1910 Year Acreage Average yield per acre Production Average farm price per bushel Farm Value 1849 . Acres Bush. Bushels 592 071 000 Cents Dollars 1859. . 838 793 000 1869 760 945 000 1879. . 62,369,000 28.1 1,754,592 000 1889. . 72,088,000 29 4 2 122 328 000 1899 94,914,000 28.1 2,666,324 000 1909 1915 98,383,000 108,321,000 25.9 28.2 2,552,190,000 3,054,535,000 57,9 57.5 1,477,223,000 1,755,859,000 AGRICULTURE 43 Wheat World production of wheat is 4,216,806,000 bushels. Of this the United States produces 1,011,505,000 bushels, more than is grown even in Russia, the yield of which is esti- mated to be 833,965,000 bushels. In the United States 59,898,000 acres are under cultivation for wheat, an increase of over 9,000,000 acres in the past two years. A remarkable fact in connection with the world's wheat production is that Germany, which produces but 160,000,000 bush- els of wheat in a year, has, by an average of statistics for ten years, a yield of 30.7 bushels to the acre, whereas the average for the same period in the United States is but 14.8 bushels. Hungary has an aver- age of 18.1 bushels, France 20.1 and the United Kingdom 33.4 bushels. Either land abroad is more produc- tive or methods of farming are more intensive; nevertheless the United States easily leads the world in pro- ducing the raw material for the staff of life. On a basis of prices as on Decem- TAKING ON A CARGO OF WHEAT ber 1st, the value of this wheat crop is $930,302,000. Wheat is produced in every State in the Union, although Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Florida and Louisiana produce but little. North Dakota is the greatest wheat producing Sate, yielding 151,970,000 bushels, followed by Kansas with 106,538,000 bushels. It is interesting to note that the average yield per acre in bushels WORLD'S WHEAT PRODUCING AREAS 44 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Rice Growing Anas Oata, Large Production M Oats, Small Production I I" I I WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF RICE & OATS increased in 1915 to 16.9 bushels per acre, which is considerably greater than the smallest year (1911) yield average of 12% bush- els per acre. The 1915 yield per acre was almost 2 bushels an acre greater than the average for the 10 years from 1906 to 1916, which was exactly 15 bushels to the acre for the whole United States. It is also interesting and a little puzzling to learn that the greatest yield of wheat per acre comes from Vermont, not known as a wheat producing State, but the few wheat farms of which give an average of 30 bushels to the acre. The poorest wheat pro- ducing State in yield per acre is Tennessee with 10%, followed by South Carolina with 10.8 bushels per acre. Oats Forty million seven hundred and eighty thousand acres of farm land are under cultivation for oats, pro- ducing 1,540,362,000 bushels. The world's production is estimated to be in excess of 4,700,000,000 bushels. Russia produces the second largest amount with 1,006,983,000 bushels, followed by Germany with 650,000.- 000 bushels. The United States falls far below other countries in the average yield of oats per acre. The average yield in the United States from 1905 to 1914 was 29.5 bushels per acre. In the same period Ger- many produced 54, Hungary 31.5, France 31.1 and the United Kingdom 43.5 bushels of oats per acre. The total value of the oats produced in the United States in 1915 was $555,- 569,000. Barley Unspectacular, because compara- tively little known, is the barley crop, yet the United States has 7,395,000 acres devoted to its pro- duction, resulting in 237,009,000 bushels. Barley is much more largely grown and highly thought of abroad than here. World produc- tion is 1,542,972,000 bushels, of which Russia produces 475,109,000 bushels, almost double that of the United States. The value of the AGRICULTURE 45 United States barley crop is $122,- 499,000. Rye Forty-nine million one hundred and ninety thousand bushels of rye, valued at $41,295,000, grew on 2,856,000 acres, a small fraction of the world's production of 1,711,158,- 000 bushels. Any farm product in the United States worth less than $50,000,000 for the year is to be con- sidered among the comparatively unimportant products. Buckwheat Similarly buckwheat, of which 806,000 acres produce 15,769,000 bushels at a value of $12,408,000, comes among the unimportant crops, yet buckwheat, used as it is largely for a breakfast food, is increasing in popularity in the United States. The value of the product ten years ago was but $8,565,000; twenty years ago it was $6,936,000. Potatoes Although corn and wheat lead the agricultural products of the United States, potatoes are among the most commercially important. They af- ford one of the most nutritious and one of the cheapest foods for the table of rich and poor alike. A failure in the potato crop means dis- aster. Three million seven hundred and sixty-one thousand acres are devoted in the United States exclu- sively to the production of potatoes. The production is 359,103,000 bush- els, a large increase in the past ten years, the 1905 figures being 260,- 741,000 bushels. The average farm price per bushel is 61.6 cents, or a total value for the whole crop of $221,104,000. Potatoes are among the most universally grown crops in the United States, every State pro- ducing enough to make a variation in the statistics if omitted. Even little Rhode Island has over 5,000 acres devoted to the production of the popular "spud," growing 550,000 bushels. Maine and New York are the two largest producers of pota- toes, both accounting for 22,010,000 bushels. The value of the New York crop is about $3,000,000 greater than WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF MAIZE & BARLEV OUR COUNTRY A;\ T D ITS RESOURCES that of the Maine crop, although Maine produces its crop from 142,000 acres, whereas New York has 355,- 000 acres engaged in potato produc- tion. The production of potatoes abroad makes a curious comparison with that of the United States. The world production is 5,714,188,000 bushels (1913 figures). Of this enormous total Austria-Hungary alone pro- duced 627,728,000, one third more bushels than produced and used by the United States in 1915, Germany by it he sustains his working tools, the farm animals, and feeds the stock, which is in itself a crop. In the United States 50,872,000 acres produce hay with an average yield of 1.68 tons per acre. This makes the total production 85,225,000 tons, a weight as impossible to realize as it is to grasp the fact that it is valued at $912,320,000. The com- bined navies of the world have not a tonnage equal to the United States hay crop. A fleet of two thousand boats, each the size and dimensions Regions producing Potatoes in large quantity Regions producing Potatoes in small quantity - [] Sago Producing Ureas WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF POTATOES & SAGO produces 1,674,377,000 bushels of po- tatoes, whereas the total for Euro- pean Russia is 1,269,696,000 bush- els. It is amusing to note that of the 279,121,000 bushels produced by the United Kingdom in 1914, Scot- land grew 40,270,000, Wales 5,445,- 000, England 104,504,000 and Ire- land the balance of 128,642,000 bushels of Irish "praties." Hay To the farmer few crops are of more importance than hay, 'because of the ill-fated "Lusitania," would not weigh as much, nor are there wheeled vehicles enough in the United States, outside of railroad equipment, to load a year's crop upon it and haul it to market in one day's time. New York and Pennsyl- vania are the two leading States, the former growing 5,850,000 tons on 4,500,000 acres, valued at $91,- 845,000, and the latter growing 4,340,000 tons on 3,100,000 acres, valued at $67,704,000. Rhode Island produced the least amount of hay, AGRICULTURE 47 getting 71,000 tons from 57,000 acres. Cotton No crops are more important to manufacturing than cotton. Most agricultural products either feed the world or the animals which, work- ing for farmers, assist in feeding the world. Cotton and wool, however, are agricultural products which are used for clothing, and cotton, much more than wool, is of enormous im- portance in the arts. The war con- ditions hurt the cotton industry in this country to a very large extent, but a recovery is now under way, and even though the war continues it will in time grow nearly to nor- mal. Under usual conditions over 65 per cent of the cotton crop of the United States is exported, 53 per cent of our total agricultural ex- ports consisting of cotton. Conse- quently anything which hurts its ex- portation strikes a blow at the whole cotton industry of the United States, much as if over half of our wheat crop or half of our farm animals should suddenly be wiped out of existence. On the 1st of August, 1914, cotton sold at an average of 12.4 cents a pound. By November it had declined to 6.3 cents a pound, a reduction of nearly one half. The whole cotton crop of 1913 averaged to its pro- ducers 12 Ms cents per pound, where- as that of 1914 averaged but 7.3 cents, a decline of over 40 per cent. In other words, over $283,000,000, or one-third of the estimated value of the cotton crop, was lost on ac- count of the war, and this in spite of the fact that production in 1914 was almost 2,000,000 bales greater than in 1913. It is difficult for the uninitiated to appreciate the extent to which the South depends upon its cotton product. Cotton and cotton seed represent almost two thirds of the value of all crops produced in Georgia and Mississippi. Cotton represents 63 per cent of the value of ah crops produced in Texas, 60 per cent of those produced in Ala- bama and 53 per cent of those pro- duced in Arkansas. The industrial depression caused by the shrinkage in cotton values was severe, but by June, 1915, the total shipments for the year were within 8 per cent of the preceding year. Nevertheless the value has shrunk, in spite of crop recovery, over 38 per cent. As a result of this, plus the foreign demand for grain, the acreage under cultivation for wheat, barley, oats and other cereals needed abroad has greatly increased, while cotton planters now plant a much smaller acreage than in pre- war times. The estimate for the cotton crop for the fiscal year is MECHANICAL COTTON PICKER less than 11,000,000 bales, which, compared with the production of 16,134,000 bales in 1914 and with an average yearly production in the preceding five years of 13,033,000 bales, is rather small. The decrease results from a reduction of about 15 per cent in the acreage planted in cotton and a 20 per cent poorer yield. Few countries give official statis- tics for the production of cotton, so that to state any figure and call it the world's production of cotton is impossible with any degree of accu- racy. British India produced 9 8 Si U Q M O :*s wf 1 50 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 4,238,494 bales of cotton in 1914 against over 16,000,000 for the United States for the same year. The total for Russia in 1914 was 1,177,995 bales and Egypt is credited with 1,450,000 bales during the same period. Statistics of 1910 give the world's production of 22,433,269 bales of cotton, but are frankly in- accurate and are only for those com- paratively few countries from which figures are available. Normally the United States has under cultivation in the neighborhood of 36,000,000 acres of cotton and could normally expect this year to produce a much larger quantity than will be picked under the abnormal conditions. Texas is the largest producer of cotton among the States, accounting for 3,175,000 bales of 500 pounds each. Georgia is next with 1,900,- 000 bales, followed by South Caro- lina with 1,160,000 bales. Virginia has the smallest cotton crop, mar- keting but 16,000 bales. Tobacco In the year 1849 the United States produced 199,753,000 pounds of tobacco. In 1915 our production was 1,060,587,000 pounds, a crop valued at $96,041,000 at the farms of 1,368,- 400 acres which produced it. Ken- tucky is the leading tobacco State, with 356,400,000 pounds yearly, fol- lowed by North Carolina with 198,- 400,000 and Virgina with 144,375,- 000 pounds. Tobacco is one of the agricul- tural products which we both export and import, the imports, however, falling far short of the exports. In 1914 our exports were 348,346,091 pounds (more than 40 per cent of the crop) and our imports 45,764,- 728 pounds. The reason for any im- ports, of course, is the fact that there are so many varieties of tobacco, and not all kinds grow well, or in sufficient quantity, in the cli- mate of our Southern States. Both exports and imports given above are of the unmanufactured tobacco. World figures for tobacco production are not available with any degree of accuracy since 1911, when the total was 2,566,202,000 pounds, not quite three times the production of the United States alone in that year. Flax One million three hundred and sixty-seven thousand acres produce 13,845,000 bushels of flax and flax seed, of which the average farm price per bushel is $1.739. The total value is thus $24,080,000. North Dakota leads all flax producing States with an acreage of 660,000 and a production of 6,534,000 bush- els, and as the value of this North Dakota flax was over $11,000,000 this one State has nearly half the flax industry of the United States. Rice Rice is not one of the great crops of the United States and yet an acreage of 803,000 is devoted to its growing. Twenty-eight million nine hundred and forty-seven bushels of rice, with a value of $26,212,000, is the rice industry's contribution to our agricultural wealth. For com- parison with statistics of other coun- tries it is necessary to express pro- duction hi pounds. In 1914 we grew 656,917,000 pounds, while Italy pro- duced 741,263,000 pounds and British India 62,638,912,000 pounds. Japan grew 17,827,247,000 pounds and our own Philippine Islands 1,403,516,000 pounds. Just what a small propor- tion of the total rice crop of the world is ours is shown by the world's figures for 1913, 100,700,000,- 000 pounds of rice. Apples Apples are among the important fruit crops of the United States. Of three bushel barrels there were 76,670,000 grown, at an average price of 74.6 cents per bushel at the farm. The principal apple pro- ducing State is New York, with 8,528,000 barrels, followed by Mis- souri with 6,287,000 barrels and Pennsylvania with 5,085,000 barrels. There are more than 35 varieties of apples extensively grown in the United States, of which the most - . -V :/.;;-' wo Mfa 00 SO tz{h,i P ! I OTTR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF WINE popular is the Baldwin, with 13.4 per cent of the total crop; followed by Ben Davis, 13.3 per cent ; North- ern Spy, 6.1 per cent; Winesap, 5.1 per cent; Rhode Island Greening, 4.7 per cent, and Jonathan, with 3.6 per cent of the total crop. The total production of apples in the United States was considerably less in 1915 than in 1914, the difference being over 8,000,000 barrels, which is al- most exactly the difference between the production in 1914 and 1915 in New York State. Peaches United States orchards produce 64,218,000 bushels of peaches. The farm price per bushel averages 81.1 cents, making the total peach crop of the United States $52,080,798 in value. California leads in the peach production with 9,768,000 bushels, followed by Arkansas with 5,940,000 and Georgia with 5,330,000 bushels. Hops According to 1913 statistics the principal hop producing countries of the world grew 173,937,000 pounds of hops. Of this quantity the United States produced 62,898,000 pounds. The following year, 1914, the hop production in the United States dropped to 43,415,000 pounds. As might be expected, Germany, if not the leader, is very close to the front in the production of this herb, be- ing responsible (1914) for 55,227,- 000 pounds. The United Kingdom produced 1,500,000 pounds more than TOMATO PLANTS TRAINED ON TWINE TRELLISES 56 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Germany. No 1915 figures for hops are as yet available. Beans Beans, a universal food, are grown all over the world. The world's bean crop is enormous, but available statistics are too scattering, even in the largest bean producing countries, to have any great degree of accu- racy. The United States has no official figures for beans later than 1912, which were issued by the cen- sus office. In that year 11,145,000 bushels of beans were grown. Aus- tria-Hungary beats this production by almost 50 per cent, growing 20,- 445,000 bushels; France produces 9,354,000 bushels (1914), Italy 16,- 997,000 (1914) and European Rus- sia 12,717,000 (1913) bushels. The price of beans in the United States in 1915 fluctuated between $2.15 and $6.40 per bushel. Peas One million three hundred and two thousand acres in 1912 was the area devoted to the production of peas in the United States. There are no later official figures. The 1912 production was 7,110,000 bush- FIELD OF SUGAR BEETS els, comparing not at ajl with Euro- pean Russia, which in the same year produced 32,128,000 bushels, or even with Spain, which produced 9,885,- 000 bushels, although the Spanish figures for peas include chick peas, lentils and vetches. SOUTHDOWNS IN PASTURE 58 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Sugar Sugar beets and sugar cane form a very important industry in the United States, there being 67 fac- tories engaged in the production of beet sugar from beets. These fac- tories produce 862,800 short tons of sugar, chiefly refined. Six hundred and twenty-four thousand acres are devoted to the production of sugar beets, each acre yielding an aver- age of 10.4 short tons of beets, so sugar beets, whereas in all Europe the total devoted to beets was 5,502,200 acres (1913). It is, there- fore, not surprising to note that Europe's production of sugar from beets in 1913 was 61,774,400 tons against the five and one half million of the United States. Louisiana is the cane sugar center. In 1914, the last year for which statistics are available, 149 factories produced 242,700 short tons of sugar from SMUDGE POTS that 6.462,000 tons were utilized. Sugar beets average $5.54 per ton. The principal refineries are located in California (11), Colorado (14), Idaho (4). Michigan (15), Ohio (4) and Utah (8). The United States is by no means the world leader in beet sugar, Aus- tria-Hungary producing over 1,700,- 000 and Germany 2,755J50 short tons. In the United States, accord- ing to 1914 figures, a total of 483,- 400 acres were devoted to growing 3,199,000 short tons of sugar cane. The average yield of cane per acre in Louisiana was 15 tons, a loss of two tons from the unusually luxuri- ant production in 1913, 17 tons to the acre. The Hawaiian Islands have 46 factories, which average 183 days operation in the year. In 1914 the Hawaiian factories produced 612,OuO short tons of sugar from the harvest of 112,700 acres. The average yield per acre was 43 short tons, a total AGRICULTURE gj Region* when Cattle are raiieJ Black Area indicate, over 60 Cattle per Square Hile WORLD'S CATTLE RAISING REGIONS WORLD'S SHEEP RAISING REGIONS OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES CATTLE STATISTICS Jan. 1 Milch Cows Other Cattle Number Price per head Jan. 1 Farm value Jan. 1 Number Price per head Jan. 1 Farm value Jan. 1 1867 . . . 1876.. . 1886. . . 1896.. . 1906. . . 1916.. . 8,349,000 11,085,000 14,235,000 16,138.000 19,7941000 21,988,000 $28.74 25.61 27.40 22.55 29.44 53.90 $239,947,000 283,879,000 389,986,000 363,956,000 582,789,000 1,185,119,000 11,731.000 16,785,000 31,275,000 32,085,000 47,068,000 39,453,000 $15.79 17.00 21.17 15.86 15.85 33.49 $185,254,000 285,387,000 661,956,000 508,928,000 746,172.000 1,321,135,000 CHURNING BUTTER IN A CO-OPERATIVE CREAMERY INSERT SHOWS A MODERN MILK-MAID production of 4,900,000 short tons of cane. The Hawaiian cane is ex- tremely rich, requiring but a single short ton of cane to produce 250 pounds of sugar, an average yield of 10,861 pounds of sugar per acre of cane. LIVE STOCK Horses and Mules Increase in numbers of horses and mules on United States farms has fully kept pace with the increase in population. The census of 1870 showed 7,145,370 horses and 1,125,- a p W is wg 2 1 62 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 415 mules in the United States. The estimated number for 1916, based on the best available statistics, is 21,- 166,000 horses and 4,565,000 mules. The average value of a farm horse in 1870 was $67.43. To-day it is $101.60. The average price of a For instance, the average price per head for horses in the Chicago Horse Market in 1914 was $208 for a drafter, $483 for a carriage team, $169 for drivers, $160 for general horses, $184 for saddle horses, and so on. These figures represent a con- FARM PRODUCT CARRIED AS FREIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES, 1912-1914 Product Year ending June 30 1912 1913 1914 Animal matter: Animals, live Packing-house products Dressed meats Short tons 14,147,000 Short tons 15,042,000 Short tons 14,811,000 2,346,000 1,139,000 2,360,000 2,407,000 1,121,000 2,345,000 2,283,000 1,081,000 2,375,000 Hides (including leather) Other packing-house products Total packing-house products Poultry (including game and flsh) 5,845,000 5,873,000 5,739,000 768,000 407,000 3,807,000 847,000 398,000 4,286,000 915,000 409,000 5,264,000 Wool Other animal matter Total animal matter 24,974,000 26,446,000 27,138,000 Vegetable matter: Cotton 4,953,000 12,880,000 3,942.000 16,099,000 4,141,000 16,795,000 Fruits and vegetables Grain and grain products Grain 39,299,000 8,629,000 7,081,000 50,945,000 9,523,000 7,830,000 46,015,000 9,697,000 7,824,000 Grain products Flour Other grain products Total grain and grain products Hay 55,009,000 68,298,000 63,536,000 6,828,000 3,233,000 982,000 10,125,000 7,145,000 3,599,000 1,091,000 9,493,000 7,319,000 3,926,000 1,071,000 9,338,000 Sugar Tobacco Other vegetable matter Total egetable matter Total farm products 94,010,000 109,667,000 106,126,000 118,984,000 136,113,000 133,264,000 farm mule in 1870 was $90.42. To- 1 day it is $113.87. The total value of all horses in 1870 was $556,251,- 000. To-day it is $2.150,468,000. Mules were valued in 1870 at $106,- 654,000. To-day their value runs in excess of $519,820,000. The average price of any com- modity for the whole United States is seldom equal to the market price as paid in any of the great markets. siderable increase in recent years. Chicago prices for 1901 being $157 for drafters. $400 for carriage team, $137 for drivers, $102 for horses for general work and $147 for saddle horses. Iowa farms possess more horses than any other State, having 1,584,- 000. Illinois comes next with 1,452,- 000, then Texas with 1,180,000, with Kansas, Montana and Nebraska 64 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Regions producing Hides and Skins HB Regions exporting Hides and Skins I I Leather Industry Centers WORLD'S PRODUCTIONS OF HIDES AND SKINS WORLD'S DAIRY PRODUCTION T MUNN ( CO. I AGRICULTURE 65 next, all having more than 1,000,000. Texas easily leads in the possession of mules with 753,000. Montana fol- lows with 329,000 and Georgia has 309,000. Texas, of course, is the great cat- tle State. Nineteen sixteen figures give the Lone Star ranges 1,119,000 milch cows and 5,428,000 other cat- tle. Iowa follows with 1,391,000 milch cows and 2,737,000 other cat- tle. Illinois, Wisconsin and Minne- sota are all among the greatest cattle States, the stock on farms out- numbering even the great herds in more strictly cattle States, such as Oklahoma is popularly supposed to be with its 1,638,000 head. Sheep Sheep, like cattle, are valued not only for their meat but for wool and hide. United States sheep total 49,162,000. The average price per head is $5.17, making the total farm value $254,348,000 for all the sheep in the United States. Wyoming, the great sheep State, leads with a herd of 4,338,000, followed by Montana with 3,941,000, New Mexico with 3,440,000, Idaho with 3,102,000 and Ohio with 3,067,000. While this enormous herd roams the Western plains and Eastern farms 36,000,698 fleeces are marketed, . the average weight of which is 6.78 pounds, the total product in the raw state being 228,777,000 pounds of wool. Sivine Farms of the United States pos- sess a herd of 68,047,000 swine, the average price of which is $8.40 per head, or a total farm value of $571,- 890,000 for pork alone. Iowa is the great pork State of the Union, av- eraging in 1916, 9,069,000 hogs and pigs of all kinds, followed by Mis- souri, Illinois, Nebraska and Indiana, all over 4,000,000 each. The space at hand forbids an ex- tension of this brief survey of a part of the agricultural wealth of the United States. Perhaps no one set of figures can show in more suc- cinct manner the extent of the farm- ing activities of this country than the table on page 62 of our agricul- tural products carried on railroads and therefore marketed. CHAPTER IV. THE FISH WE EAT By RALSTON MOORE THE last report of the United States Census dealing with the fishing industries of the United States is that of 1908. The next report will be in 1918. The 1908 figures, given below, are therefore only authoritative in giving a com- parison between the various pisca- torial products of our waters and cannot be accepted too literally even there, as the past eight years have seen many changes in some of the industries. ture, but detailed figures of certain other fish industries are available through the work of the Bureau of Fisheries. The greatest fishing industry of the Atlantic Coast is conducted by the fleets centering at Boston and Gloucester. Three hundred and ninety-three vessels were in these fleets in 1914, including sail, gaso- line and steam vessels! There were 7,598 trips made by these vessels, landing at both ports FROZEN HALIBUT IN STORE AT SEATTLE CLEANING THE FISH ON A STEAM HALIBUT FISHERMAN The most important sea food in- dustry in the United States is un- questionably the oyster industry. No product of the water has a greater nutritive value and none is more readily caught and sold than this shell fish. No statistics, how- ever, later than those of the census of 1908 are available for oyster cul- 162,589,220 pounds of fish, valued at $4,395,030. This shows a decrease in the number of trips from the pre- vious year of 1,231, an increase in the catch of 372,434 pounds, but a decrease in the value of $587,987. HADDOCK In 1914, 57,754,128 pounds of had- Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 68 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES PRODUCTS OF THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES: 1908. Species. Pounds. Alewives 89,978,000 Black bass 3,313,000 Bluefish 7,647,000 Bream or Sunfish 4,738,000 Buffalo fish 16,729,000 Butterfish 6,855,000 Carp, German 42,763,000 Catfish 17,817,000 Cod 109,453,000 Croaker 8,143,000 Cusk 6,344,000 Drum, fresh-water 6,532,000 Drum, salt-water 4,576,000 Eels 3,358,000 Flounders 23,346,000 Haddock 59,987,000 Hake 34,340,000 Halibut 34,441,000 Herring 125,050,000 Herring (lake) 41,118,000 Mackerel 12,103,000 Menhaden 394,776,000 Mullet 33,703,000 Perch, white 2,412,000 Perch, yellow 7,898,000 Pike and Pickerel 2,959,000 Pike percb 15,247,000 Pollock. 29,462,000 Pomparc- 570,000 Rockfhii 2,454,000 Salmon 90,417,000 Scup 8,414,000 Sea bass 6,352,000 Shad 27,641,000 Smelt 4,340,000 Snapper, red 13,498,000 Spanish mackerel 3,806,000 Squeteague 49,869,000 Striped bass 3,657,000 Sturgeon 2,072,000 Suckers 8,555,000 Swordfish 2,714,000 Trout 12,024,000 Whitefish 7,722,000 Lobsters 15,279,000 Shrimp 14,374,000 Clams, hard 7,805,000 Clams, soft 8,654,000 Oysters 233,309,000 Mussel shells , 81,869,000 Pearls and slugs Terrapin 268,000 Turtles 1,088,000 Dollars. 589.000 255,000 506,000 120,000 498,000 237,000 1,135,000 785,000 2,903,COO 226,000 105,000 154,000 164,000 203,000 588,000 1,308,000 464,000 1,562,000 796,000 989,000 848,000 893,000 908,000 137,000 258,000 174,000 580,000 402,000 71,000 66,000 3,347,000 290,000 284,000 2,113,000 174,000 636,000 194,000 1,776,000 314,000 157,000 215,000 198,000 800,000 524,000 1,931,000 390,000 1,317,000 553,000 15,713,000 392,000 300,000 80,000 40,000 Spot Allia lligator hides Mink skins Muskrat skins Otter skins Whalebone Scallops Oil, sperm Oil, whale Irish moss 622,000 372,000 22,000 149,000 7,600 63,000 2,414,000 3,391,000 573,000 772,000 545,000 61,000 89,000- 136,000 30,000 215,000 317,000 252,000 30,000 26.000 The total quantity and value of the products of the fisheries of the United States including the items mentioned above and all other fish products was 1,893,454,000 pounds, valued at $54,031,000. No later figures are available at time of publication. In many cases there was an increase, in other cases a decrease. FISH EGG CAB OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES INTERIOR OF FISH COMMISSION CAR, WITH BERTH LET DOWN 70 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES dock were landed, valued at $1,381,- 156. This was an increase in the number of pounds landed during the previous year by over four million, but a decrease of $100,000 in value. POLLOCK Pollock fish, which are caught with purse seines, yielded a less number of pounds and value in 1914 than 1913, the 1914 catch being 12,- 454,723 pounds, valued at $199,736. SWORDFISH Swordfish were less plentiful in 1914 than several years previously. American fishing vessels landed at Boston and Gloucester in 1914 1,499,844 pounds of fresh swordfish, valued at $177,669. COD Cod is among the most important fish ; it is marketed both fresh and salt, and as cod and scrod, the latter being from one to two and one half pounds in weight. The total catch of all kinds landed at Boston and Gloucester was, in 1914, fresh cod, 36,079,873 pounds, valued at $917,- 908; salted cod, 11,449,757 pounds, valued at $411,508. HERRING Newfoundland herring landed at Boston, Gloucester and other New England ports during the season of 3914 and the first part of 1915 amounted approximately to 2,570,- 352 pounds of fresh frozen fish, and 49,166 barrels, amounting to 11,071,- 584 pounds, of salted herring. HALIBUT Halibut valued at $246,000 for 3,063,000 pounds, and salted halibut to the amount of 316,000 pounds, valued at $30,000, was packed dur- ing the year. CUSK Cusk yielded 5,747,053 pounds A ROUGH MORNING ON THE HALIBUT BANKS. LANDING A SMALL CATCH THE FISH WE EAT 71 fresh, valued at $99,000, and salted, 111,937 pounds, valued at $3,200. HAKE Hake was caught to the amount of 7,404,335 pounds, valued at $146,- 030, and salted to the amount of 222,033 pounds, valued at $4,218. LOBSTERS Lobsters are caught from Lewes, Del., to the tip of Maine, and pro- vide 12,267,017 pounds of sea food annually (1913), valued at $2,394,- 822 for 8,832,281 lobsters. The in- dustry shows the peculiar and anomalous condition of a steadily decreasing output and a steadily in- creasing profit to those engaged. In twenty-four years' time the yearly catch has decreased by more than 18,000,000 pounds, or 60 per cent, while the fisherman's receipts have increased by a million and a half dollars, or 178 per cent. In 1880 the lobster brought an average of .024 cents a pound. In 1913 lobsters averaged .191 cents per pound, nearly ten times as much as in 1880 and two and a half times as much as in 1900. ALASKAN The 1914 season saw the Alaska fishing industry at its height of value. It afforded employment to 21,200 persons and included the in- vestment of $37,000,000. The total value of the products of the Alaskan fishers is estimated at $21,2*3,OuO, an advance of over $5,500,OoO over 1913, due largely to an unusual abundance of red salmon and the higher prices commanded by canned salmon. SEAL The fur seal service reports from the Pribilof Islands a satisfactory FISH CULTURAL STATION, BOZEMAN, MONTANA 72 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES condition of the seal herd. A com- plete census of the seals shows 294,- 687, an increase of nearly 27,000 animals over the year 1913. The 1915 census has not yet been com- pleted but indicates an increase of 60,000 animals over 1914. MUSSEL The Bureau of Fisheries has been conducting a general canvass of fre?h-water mussel fishing, which hao been in progress for several with supervision of propagation and distribution of food and game fishes and scientific investigations into all matters pertaining to fish. In 1914 the enormous quantity of 4,288,757,- 800 fish and ova were distributed. The greater proportion of this, of course, was egg and not fish, but fingerling, yearling and adult fish numbered over 58,000,000, an in- crease of 150 per cent over 1914. Of this number, salmon, trout and bass contributed the larger part. SPAWNING TROUT AT NEOSHO, MO., HATCHERY FISH CULTURAL STATION, VILLE, VA. WYTHE- years on the streams inland. The canvass covered in 1914 included tributaries to the Great Lakes and the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Three thousand nine hundred and fifty-two persons were engaged in taking mussels in the streams under consideration and in preparing them for the market. The mussel fisher- ies had an output of 23,317 tons of shells, valued at $382,210, and yield- ed pearls worth $164,261. The shells are used in the manufacture of pearl buttons. BUREAU OF FISHERIES The Bureau of Fisheries of the Department of Commerce is charged Perhaps nothing in the work of the bureau is more spectacular than its development of a new fish indus- try the catching and marketing of tile fish. This edible and nutritive fish was practically unknown in the market prior to October of 1915. Beginning with November, 1915, and up to August, 1916, 6,938,000 pounds of tile fish have been taken and mar- keted for $255,000. So rapidly did the fish impress consumers with its value that the July, 1916, catch was over 1400 per cent greater than that of the previous November. Fish cultural work was conducted in thirty-two States and the terri- tory of Alaska. Distributions oc- THE FISH WE EAT 73 curred in every State and Territory of the Union. The greater part of the output is planted in public waters, either on the initiative of the Fish Commission or on the recommendation of State authority, although fishes adapted for ponds, small lakes and minor interior waters are usually consigned on in- dividual application. Fish cultural operations were con- ducted during the year at fifty permanent hatcheries and seventy- six sub-hatcheries, auxiliaries and egg-collecting stations. These va- rious stations and sub-stations are located along the Atlantic rivers for salmons, trout, white perch and yellow perch; the Pacific rivers for salmons and steelhead trout ; on the Great Lakes for whitefish, cisco. lake trout and pike perch ; on various interior waters for bass, sunfish, carpies, trout, and on the Atlantic Coast for cod, haddock, pol- lock, flounder and lobster. An important branch of the Bu- reau of Fisheries operations is in the rescue of young food fishes from lakes and bayous formed by the overflow of the Mississippi and Illi- nois Rivers and their tributaries. During 1915 operations of this char- acter yielded 8,357,000 fish, which is approximately 90 per cent of the food fishes which would otherwise have perished through drought or "air drowning" when the overflow dried up, or from cold later in the year if not rescued. The Bureau of Fisheries has six railroad cars especially arranged for the transportation of live fish. During the year ending June 30, 1915, the distribution of fish, eggs, etc., by the bureau amounted to 536,260,143 eggs, 3,694,281,699 fry and 58,215,692 fingerlings, yearlings and adults. These went to Fish Commissions in twenty-eight differ ent States, to waters needing stock, from the controllers of which re- quests had been made to the bureau, and to private persons asking for fish for streams, lakes or ponds. While in special instances some fish or eggs are sent by special messen- ger, by far the greater part was sent out by means of the bureau's special fish and egg transportation cars. The Bureau of Fisheries has been investigating and encouraging wher- ever possible the establishment of the home fish ponds and in every way possible places its accumulated experience at the disposal of per- sons interested in the establishment THESE MEN WITH MILK CANS ACT SUSPICIOUSLY, BUT THEY ARE ONLY DEPOSITING FISH IN A STREAM of fish ponds for the purpose of supplying fish for the table. It is impossible, adequately, to convey an idea of the scope of operations of the Bureau of Fisheries in the short space available here Those inter- ested should communicate with the Commissioner of Fisheries, Bureau of Fisheries, Department of Com- merce, Washington, D. C A FOREST RANGER AT HIS FIRE LOOKOUT STATION IN THE TOP OF A YELLOW PINE. MT. SHASTA IN THE BACKGROUND. A TELEPHONE AT THE FOOT OF THE TREE CONNECTS WITH THE SUPERVISOR'S OFFICE CHAPTER V. FORESTS AND FORESTRY TIMBER SUPPLY By RICHARDSON DAVENPORT TIMBER standing in the United States amounts to nearly 2,900,000,000,000 board feet, of which three fourths (about 2,200,- 000,000,000 board feet) is privately owned and 21 per cent (600,000,- 000,000) is conserved in national forests. The remaining 4 per cent is otherwise publicly owned by States or municipalities. Fire accounts for the annual de- struction of 12,000,000.000 board the original stand of timber in tb> United States is calculated to have been 5.200,000,000,000 feet, covering 800,000,000 acres. Nearly half the country's timber is in the Pacific Northwest, a fourth of it is in the Southern Pine region, and the bal- ance in the Lake region and scat- tered in the Eastern States. Most of the national forests are in the mountains of the West fol- lowing in general the Rockv Mou"- Sowing Tree Seeds The Trees of Future Forests THE GOVERNMENT HAS 34,000,000 LITTLE TREES WHICH WILL BE USED TO PLANT DENUDED AREAS ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS feet, and waste as much more. Many saws waste as much as they cut, and stumps, slashing and slabs account for a tremendous loss. It is probable, although not computable accurately, that fires and waste use more lumber than is cut yearly, a statement borne out by the fact that tains and Pacific Coast ranges from Washington, Idaho and Montana to southern California. Arizona and New Mexico. A few are in Arkan- sas, Florida. Nebraska, Michigan. Minnesota, Alaska and Porto Rico. States which have set aside forest reserves of their own are California, Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 76 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Connecticut, Indiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minne- sota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, South Da- kota, Vermont and Wisconsin. SHIFT IN LUMBER PRODUCTION A careful comparison of computed production for 1915 as against re- ported production for 1914 reveals changes which lumber cutting is 1915 LUMBER CUT BY SPECIES, WITH VALUE KIND OF WOOD Probable Total Board Feet Value, por M Board Feet Yellow Pine Douglas fir. . 14,700,000,000 4,431,249,000 $12.50 10.50 Oak White pine 2,970,000,000 2 700 000 000 19.00 18 00 Hemlock Spruce 2,275,000,000 1 400 000 000 13 . 00 16 50 Western yellow pine Qy press 1,293,985,000 1 100,000 000 14.50 20 00 Maple Red gum Chestnut 900,000,000 655,000,000 490,000,000 15.00 12.50 16.00 Yellow poplar 464,000,000 22 50 Redwood 420,294,000 13.50 Cedar 420,000,000 15 50 Birch 415,000,000 16.50 Larch 375,000,000 11 00 Beech 360 000 000 14 00 Basswood 260,000,000 19.00 Elm 210 000 000 17 00 Ash 190,000,000 22.50 Cottonwood . ". . . 180,000,000 17 50 Tupelo 170 000 000 12 00 White flr 125,048,000 11 00 Sugar pine 117,701,000 17.50 to Balsam fir Hickory 100,000,000 100,000,000 18 . 50 14.00 23.50 Walnut 90,000,000 Lodgepole pine 26,486,000 13.00 Sycamore 25 000 000 14 00 All other kinds 49,531,000 Total 37,013,294,000 ANNUAL CUT Reliable but not absolutely accu- rate figures of lumber production are furnished by the Forest Service of the United States government. Based on the reports from 16,428 lumber mills, the 1915 cut is esti- mated to have been 37,013,294,000 board feet, with a possible maximum of 38,000,000,000 board feet. A "board foot" is 12 by 12 by 1 inch. Forty per cent of the cut was South- ern yellow pine, three times the amount of Douglas fir, second in quantity cut. But three other woods, oak, white pine and fir, were cut in excess of 2,000,000,000 feet. ON THE FIRING LINE, FIGHTING A GROUND FIRE FORESTS AND FORESTRY 77 1915 AND 1914 PRODUCTION OF LUMBER BY STATES REPORTED BY MILLS CUTTING 50,000 AND OVER STATES Increase or Decrease Per Cent 1915 Computed Total Production M ft. 1914 Reported Production* M ft. Washington Louisiana + .1 - 1.4 + .8 - 6.2 + .2 +12.6 - 7.0 + .4 + -8 -13.0 -14.3 + 3.4 - 9.4 -16.2 - 1.7 + .7 - 2.6 + 9.9 + 14.0 - 9.6 + 1.8 - 6.1 + 3.6 - 2.3 +39.8 - 5.6 +17.2 + 3.2 + 4.2 +74.7 +14.7 + 1.9 +66.1 + 9.9 -22.1 - 3.5 +15.1 -17.9 +205 . 9 - 2.0 +27.0 +46.8 - 5.7 +25.5 3,950,000 3,900,000 2,300,000 2,090,000 ,800,000 ,750,000 ,690,000 ,500,000 ,500,000 ,210,000 ,130,000 ,110,000 1,100,000 1,100,000 1,100,000 1.000,000 1,000,000 950,000 800,000 800,000 777,000 560,000 500,000 475,000 400,000 350,000 350,000 328,000 260,000 250,000 230,000 165,000 110,000 90,000 79,500 75,915 65,787 40,000 35,000 25,000 23,000 17,400 15,000 10,892 ** 3,946,189 3,966,434 2,280,966 2,227,854 1,796,780 1,554,005 1,817,875 1,494,732 1,488,070 1,391,001 1,318,065 1,073,821 1,214,435 1,312,230 1,118,480 992,594 1,026,191 864,710 701,540 885,035 763,508 596,392 482,744 486,195 286,063 370,571 298,571 317,842 249,608 143,094 200,594 162,097 66,227 81,883 102,117 78,667 57,167 48,748 11,443 25,517 18,744 11,852 15,902 8,680 790 Mississippi. . . . North Carolina. Arkansas Texas . . Oregon Alabama Virginia Wisconsin California (incl. Florida Michigan Nev.) Minnesota West Virginia. . Maine Georgia Pennsylvania. . South Carolina Tennessee Idaho Kentucky New Hampshire New York Ohio Missouri Indiana Montana Vermont Massachusetts. . Oklahoma Maryland Illinois Connecticut. . . Colorado Arizona New Mexico New Jersey Iowa Delaware South Dakota. . Wyoming Rhode Island . . . Utah Kansas and Neb Totals raska .9 37,013,294 37,346,023 * Quinquennial census of manufacturers custom mills excluded ** Mills reporting cut less than 50,000 each producing in the location of prin- cipal supplies. During the year Washington rose from second place to first in lumber production, Louisi- ana dropped from first to second place, Oregon fell from fifth place to seventh, Florida climbed from fifteenth place to twelfth and Minne- sota dropped from eleventh place to fourteenth. LOCALITIES OF VARIOUS SPECIES The principal varieties of lumber and the States in which they grow are listed on page 80, the order of the names of States being according to their rank in growing the particular variety of lumber under which they are classified. LATHS AND SHINGLES From the reports of mills and the FORESTS AND FORESTRY 79 total number of mills and their capacity, a comparatively accurate figure of total cut can be obtained. But it is not possible accurately to estimate what proportion of the out- put of unreporting mills may be in lath and shingles. Hence the fol- lowing figures are confined strictly to reports and are not estimates. As the lath cut increased slightly and the shingle cut decreased de- cidedly since 1912, the last previous year for which lath and shingle figures are available, they are given for comparison. In 1915 mills reporting showed a lath cut of 2,794,301,000 as against 2,719,163,000 in 1912. In 1915 mills reporting showed a shingle cut of 8,483,579,000 against 12,037,685,000 in 1912. Louisiana produced most laths in 1915, with 433,176,000, forging ahead of Washington, leader in 1912. Washington produced most shingles 1915 TIMBER CUT BY SPECIES BILLIONS BOARD VELLOW PINE DOUCLA5 FIR OAK. cy CRN YPRESS RED GUM CHESTNUT REGULATED VS. UNREGULATED CUTTING The private lands are stripped, while the adjoining government forests are conserve^ 80 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES in 1915, with a cut of 6,313,335,000, more than fifteen times as many as any other State, but dropping by a billion and a half under its figures for 1912. BOX MANUFACTURE The largest users of lumber in the United States, excluding builders and millwrights utilizing lumber for products used in construction work, are the box manufacturers. Statis- tics for 1912 are the most recent ones available. According to these, 4,547,973,180 board feet are used annually In the production of boxes, and machines, growers of fruit, ber- ries and vegetables. Crates are used in large quantities by shippers of furniture, hardware, machinery and stone; also for fruit. CROSSTIES Railroads made a tremendous de- mand on the lumber market for orossties and poles. No more recent statistics than those of 1910 are available as to crossties, but in that year nearly 149,000,000 ties were used. Because a tie must be selected for durability, spike-holding power, resistance to mechanical wear and LOCALITIES OF VARIOUS SPECIES SPECIES States Listed in Order of Rank Yellow pine Douglas fir White pine Oak Hemlock Western pine Spruce Cypress Maple Redwood Red gum Larch and tamarack Yellow poplar Cedar. . Birch Sugar pine Basswood Beech Elm Cotton wood Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, North Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Virginia, Georgia, South Carolina, Oklahoma Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Montana Minnesota, Idaho, Maine, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, Mass- achusetts, Michigan West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Missouri, Mississippi, Indiana, Lotiisiana Wisconsin, Michigan, Washington, Pennsylvania, West Vir- ginia, New York, Maine, Oregon California, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Montana, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada Maine, Washington, New Hampshire, West Virginia, Vermont, Oregon, New York, Minnesota, Massachusetts Louisiana, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Arkansas, Mis- sissippi, Missouri Michigan, Wisconsin California Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, Missouri, Tennessee, North Carolina, Kentucky Montana, Idaho, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Wash- ington, Oregon West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina, Ohio Washington, Idaho, California. Oregon Wisconsin, Michigan California Wisconsin, Michigan Michigan, Indiana Wisconsin, Michigan \rkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana crates and other containers. Sixty- nine per cent of this amount is soft wood and 31 hardwood. The total amount in 1912 was 1% per cent of the total cut. Leading box consumers are manu- facturers of oil, packing-house prod- ucts, canned goods, groceries and tobacco, clothing and dry goods, the manufacturers of hardware, tinware reasonableness of price, there are but few woods which are chosen by railroads. The principal ones and their popularity by both steam and electric roads are shown in the table on page 82. POLES Railroads, trolley* lines, telephone and telegraph companies consume large quantities of lumber yearly in FORESTS AND FORESTRY 81 NATURAL FOEEST REGION b Oi NORTH AMERICA 82 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES CROSSTIES PURCHASED, BY CLASSES OF RAILROADS PURCHASING, AND KINDS OF WOOD 1910 WOOD Total Purchased by steam railroads Purchased by electric railroads All kinds . . 148,231,000 139,596,000 8,635,000 Oak 68,382,000 65,095,000 3,287,000 Southern pine Douglas fir Chestnut 26,264,000 11,629,000 7 760 000 25,096,000 10,919,000 6 219 000 1,168,000 710,000 1 541 000 Cedar Cypress 7,305,000 5 396,000 6,637,000 5,187,000 668,000 209 000 Tamarack. Western pine 5,163,000 4,612,000 4,960,000 4,527,000 203,000 85,000 Hemlock Redwood Gum 3,468,000 2,165,000 1 621 000 3,442,000 1,501,000 1 621,000 26,000 664,000 All other 4,466,000 4,392,000 74,000 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 KINDS OF WOODS USED FOR RAILROAD CROSSTIES purchase and use of poles. In 1911, the most recent year for which pole statistics have been gathered, 3,418,- 020 poles were bought by companies needing them for immediate use. Of this quantity cedar poles were the most popular accounting for over two million, with chestnut, oak, pine and cypress following in the order named. Poles under twenty feet long were bought to the number of 404,728 (largely for rural telegraph and telephone lines) ; poles between twenty and thirty feet, the most popular size, accounted for 1,861,816 of the total ; between thirty and forty feet, 862,219; between forty and fifty feet, 217,000, and over fifty feet, 72,257. WOOD PRESERVATION The art of preserving wood has advanced rapidly in recent years and the long threatened wood famine FORESTS AND FORESTRY 83 and the consequent higher prices have led many large users of wood exposed to weather and decay, not- ably railroads and telegraph and telephone companies, to experiment seriously with processes which would cut down expense by preven- tion of decay. According to statis- tics of the American Wood Pre- servers' Association, gathered in co- operation with the Forest Service, in 1915, 102 wood preserving plants treated 141,858,963 cubic feet of ma- terial. The 1914 statistics on wood preservation were based on reports from ninety-four plants and showed a total of 159,582,639 cubic feet treated. Although the figures for 1915 are based on the output of eight more plants than are those for 1914, the amount of wood treated in 1915 was less by 17,723,676 cubic feet, or 10 per cent. A notable increase, amounting to 1.986,286 cubic feet, was recorded in the amount of construction timber treated during the year. The num- ber of crossties subjected to treat- ment in 1915 was 37,085,585, a re- duction from 1914 figures of 6,761,- 402, while the quantity of paving material was increased by over 300,- 000 square yards, or 11 per cent. Less than half as many cross-arms were treated in 1915 as in the pre- vious year, and the quantity of piling and miscellaneous timbers treated fell below that reported in 1914 by 1,766,618 and 200,825 cubic feet, re- spectively, a decrease of 21 per cent and 14 per cent. For the treatment of the 141,858,- 963 cubic feet of material reported in 1915 33,269,604 pounds of zinc chloride and 80,859,442 gallons of creosote were required. In addition 3,205,563 gallons of paving oil and 1,693,544 gallons of miscellaneous liquid preservatives were consumed. In 1914 paving oil was reported separately for the first time and amounted to 9,429,444 gallons. In 1915 the treating plants reported only 3,205,563 gallons of this heavier A Forest Hanger it LOCATING THE FIRE ng his compass and map to find nit where the fire is OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES oil/ or considerably less than half the 1914 consumption. NATIONAL FORESTS The United States holds as na- tional forests 155 separate areas in the United States, aggregating 184,- 505,602 acres of land, which includes, preservation of the forests. Wood is cut and sold, mines are worked, water power is developed, sheep and cattle are grazed on these lands as on any others, the difference being that in the national forests all ac- tivities are under permits and the forests therefore under protection. JiStMil^ RANGER ON FIRE PATROL DUTY ON THE HIGHEST RIDGE OF THE CABINET NATIONAL FOREST, MONTANA however, 21,732,332 acres of pri- vately owned land within national forest borders. The net amount owned by the United States govern- ment is thus 162,773,280 acres of land. Contrary to the general impres- sion, this acreage is not a "reserve" indeed, the name "forest reserve" gave way to "national forest" to correct that impression. The na- tional forests are protected from fire, from over-cutting, from exploitation indeed, but they are made to serve as large a population as possible by permitting their use in every possible way consistent with the ENGINES- UUMBEI?< J.35% CAUSES OF FOREST FIRES FORESTS AND FORESTRY 85 The most recent report of the for- ester shows that the regular appro- priation for 1914 for the Forest Service of $5,662,094.13 was not suf- ficient, and an emergency appropria- tion had to be made largely on ac- count of a very dry year and the increased necessity for fire protec- tion and fire fighting. The national forests, however, returned to the United States Treasury during the fiscal year the sum of $2,481,469.35. foregone to sell certain lumber at cost; certain free grazing privileges were worth in excess of $120,000, and other privileges are believed to have a market value of $100,000 a year. During the year 1,093,589,000 board feet of timber was sold. Forty thousand and fifteen free-use timber- cut permits were issued and 30,610 permits given for stock grazing. One million six hundred and twenty- WATER POWER ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS, JUNE 30, 1915 PERMITS Transmis- sion lines only Power Projects, reservoirs, conduits, and power houses Estimated average output of stream at minimum discharge Permits in force on June 30, 1915: Rental permits Preliminary ... . ... 19 462,039 Final 92 90 728 893 Free permits . 16 73 70,628 Total Constructed or operating on June 30, 1915: Rental permits Free permits. . . 108 84 13 182 GO 48 1,261,560 335,435 5,841 Total 97 108 341,276 Under construction June 30, 1915: Rental permits 1 15 94,313 Free permits 11 1,326 Total.' Construction not started on June 30, 1915: Rental permits Free permits. 1 7 3 26 34 14 95,639 761,184 63,461 Total. . 10 48 824,645 Applications received July 1, 1914, to June 30, 1915: Rental permits Preliminary Final is 21 13 Free permits 2 13 . Total 20 47 These receipts came from timber, $1,175,133.95 ; grazing, $1,130,495, and special uses, $175,840.40. A much larger showing could be made were it not for the generous policy of the Government which per- mits certain privileges free of charge. During the year over $200,- 000 worth of timber was given away free to settlers ; $33,000 of profit was seven thousand three hundred and twenty-one cattle, 96,933 horses, 2,792 hogs, 7,232,276 sheep and 51,- 409 goats were fed in national for- ests during the year. Predatory animals, including bears, coyotes, mountain lions, lynxes, wildcats, wolves and wolf pups were destroyed to the number of 3,843, the number indicating only the kill by forest OT'R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES officers in connection with their work. Water power permits are shown in the table on page 85. FIRES Fires in national forests are guarded against with every possible care, but during the year 6,605 fires occurred. Of these, 3,253 burned less than a quarter of an acre be- fore being extinguished, 1,807 burned less than ten acres, 988 burned less than $100 worth though more than ten acres in extent, 458 fires did damage from $100 to $1,000 and 99 did damage in excess of ten acres and $1,000. A strict census of fire causes shows 16.8 per cent caused by rail- roads, 30.77 per cent by lightning, 7.12 per cent by incendiarism, 9.02 per cent by badly controlled brush- burning, 17.05 per cent by careless campers, 1.35 per cent by stationary steam engines sawmills, donkey en- gines, etc. and the balance of 17.89 per cent miscellaneous and unknown causes. The fires burned in 1914 225,979 timber acres. The open area affect- ed was 153,686 acres, accounting for a loss of timber burned or damaged of 339,430,000 board feet. The loss of money is estimated to be $307,303 for the destroyed timber; reproduc- tion destroyed, $192,408, and forage loss, $2,803. The service expended in fire fighting, outside of salaries of regular officers, $685,790. NOTE. It is impossible to give here minute details of all the activi- ties of the Forest Service. Seekers for more detailed information can readily obtain it by writing to the Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, CHAPTER VI. RECLAMATION SERVICE By CLAUDE WASHINGTON IT is not generally understood that the Reclamation Service of the United States is primarily a ''home making" service, nor that it does not compete with private enter- prise. Such, nevertheless, are the facts. Early irrigation in this coun- try was entirely a matter of co- operative effort or the result of in- vestment by private or corporate capital, and early laws to encourage irrigation of arid lands all contem- plated construction financed by other than governmental money. The increasing difficulty of carry- ing out large projects led to the passage of the reclamation act, which enlists national funds for the development of projects not feasible by private or State enterprise. The projects undertaken involved expensive storage works, high diver- sion dams, difficult tunnels, or long, expensive canal work upon side hills, where large investment was neces sary before any water was brought to the land. Many projects dis- cussed in the early days of reclama- tion work were rejected by the Reclamation Service because deemed within the reach of private invest- ment. Some of those same projects were later taken up by the Govern- ment after years of unsuccessful effort to enlist private capital in their construction. Practically all of the projects undertaken by the Reclamation Service had been aban- doned after unsuccessful attempts to finance them as private projects, or else were new projects too difficult to attract the attention of promoters. Remarkable progress, since its be- ginning in 1902, has been made by the service, and at the present time about 1,500,000 acres are under ditches and crops are being produced yearly on more than a million acres. Same Spot 1914 UMATILLA IRRIGATION PROJECT. OREGON Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 88 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The average gross return per acre from these lands annually is about $25. More than 30,000 families have been established in homes of their own. Cities, towns and villages have sprung up in these agricul- tural communities. Railroads have extended their branches, and a vast region which a few years ago was uninhabited and a desert has been transformed into a prosperous farm- ing country. The table below shows the extent of the work and the rate of progress during a recent year. 82 miles of railroad, 2,554 miles of telephone lines, 429 miles of power transmission lines, and 1,068 build- ings, such as power houses, pumping stations, offices, residences, barns and storehouses. The excavations of rock and earth in all the work amount to 130,149,368 cubic yards. The projects now under way or completed embrace approximately 3,000,000 acres of irrigable land, divided into 60,000 farms of from 10 to 160 acres each. During the year 1915 water was available from Government ditches for 1,450,407 ITEMS To June 30, 1915 To June 30, 1914 Increase Acres Farms Acres Farms Acres Farms Estimated area 29 projects on com- pletion . . . 3,118,011 1,450,407 461,632 626,371 60,603 29,017 10,122 13,008 2,921,165 1,343,193 416,644 566,843 58,323 27,115 8,559 12,416 196,846 107,214 44,988 59,528 2,280 1,902 1,563 592 Estimated area to which service was prepared to supply water Under contract Water rights . . Rental contracts etc Total 1,088,003 23,130 983,487 20,975 104,516 2,155 Reservoir capacity available, acre- feet 6,500,360 5 460 510 1 039 850 A summation of the work to the beginning of the present fiscal year shows that the service has dug 9,592 miles of canals and ditches, and ex- cavated 89 tunnels with an aggre- gate length of more than 25 miles. Masonry, earth, crib and rock-filled dams have been erected with a total volume of 12,200,000 cubic yards, including the two highest dams in the world. The available reservoir capacity resulting is approximately 6,500,000 acre feet, or sufficient water to cover the States of New Jersey and Delaware to a depth of 12 inches. The service has built 4,622 bridges with a total length of 19 miles. Its culverts number 5,714 and are 36 miles in length. There are now in operation 298 miles of pipe line and 85 miles of flumes. The service has built 784 miles of wagon road, much of it in what was before inaccessible mountain regions ; acres on 29,017 farms, and the Gov- ernment was under contract to sup- ply water to 1,088,003 acres. RESULTS OF RECLAMATION The object of reclamation is home making on arid lands the conver- INTERSTATE CANAL, NORTH PLATTE PROJECT, 150 MILES LONG RECLAMATION SERVICE "FAT HEN" IS AN APACHE AND HARD WORKMAN neering problems involved are those of settlement and successful utiliza- tion of the irrigation system and water supply by the farmers. With- out successful agricultural develop- ment a project may be a failure, regardless of the perfection of the engineering work. The sufficiency of the water supply and successful operation of the irrigation system are only incidental to the ultimate object sought by the Government as well as the irrigator and the success of the undertaking is inseparably connected with that of the water user. IRRIGATION AND CROP RESULTS ON GOVERNMENT RECLAMATION PROJECTS, 1914* Value of Crops PROJECT acreage Irrigated acreage Cropped acreage Total Per acre cropped Salt River 187,112 173 030 169 719 $4 039 079 $23 80 Yuma Orland ... ... 60,000 14,300 25,207 7 354 22,568 6 540 709,409 176 331 31.43 26 99 Uncompahgre Valley Boise 52,338 207,000 33,873 33,091 870,381 26.30 Farms reported 64 767 58 064 1 033 447 17 80 Farms not reported 18 823 16 868 300 140 17 80 Minidoka 117,090 Gravity unit 45 730 39 138 661 796 16 91 South side pumping unit 35 788 33 512 558 059 16 65 Huntley Milk River 28,808 13,440 17,068 2,201 17,068 2,163 454,583 34 618 26.63 16 00 Sun River Lower Yellowstone 16,346 36 250 6,613 5 743 6,561 5 621 106,594 96 707 16.25 17 20 North Platte Truckee-Carson 91,504 52 039 60,532 39 516 59,536 39 285 890,202 441 018 14.95 11 23 Carlsbad 20 261 12 690 10 731 237 663 22 15 Hondo 1 9?4 1 224 1 172 21 458 18 31 Rio Grande 40,000 28,442 27 302 1,160 720 42 51 North Dakota pumping .... Umatilla. . 12,239 17 000 1,056 5 102 1,045 3 013 36,440 88 614 34.87 29 41 Klamath Belle Fourche 38,000 68 852 24,440 37 454 24,440 36 709 347,344 461 188 14.22 12 56 Okanogan Yakima: 10,099 7,740 3,180 104,575 32.88 58 02 Sunnyside unit Tieton unit Shoshone 81,807 34,000 41 166 64,052 20,600 22 226 49,273 15,920 20 905 2,858,845 472,480 313 826 29.60 15.01 Total . . . 1 240 875 761 271 703 424 16 475 517 23 50 * Exclusive of projects constructed for the Indian Service. sion of desert tracts into self-sup- porting agricultural communities. This object is not obtained by the construction of irrigation works alone, however elaborate or efficient these may be in design and opera- tion. More difficult than the engi- To show progress in reclamation work it is necessary to show the re suits obtained by the farmer as well as those of the engineer. Reclama- tion is measured not in engineering units, but in homes and agricultural values. 90 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES NUMBER AND SIZE OF FARMS AVAILABLE FOR ENTRY, AUGUST I, 1910 STATE . Project No. of farms Size of farms Water right Idaho Montana Montana Minidoka Huntley Sun River 26 29 26 40 40 to 80 acres 40 acres 40 acres 40 to 80 acres $30 per acre $45 per acre* $60 per acre* $36 per acre Nebraska- Wyoming . South Dakota Wyoming Nevada North Platte Belle Fourche Shoshone Truckee-Carson 19 59 56 112 40 to 80 acres 40 to 80 acres 40 to 80 acres 40 to 80 acres $55 per acre $40 per acr^ /$50, $51 and \$52 per Ecre $60 per cere * For lands under the Huntley project there is an additional charge of $4.00 i er acre for the land, of which $1.00 is payable at the time of entry and the remainder in four equal annual instalments. For information concerning these projects and method of obtaining land under them, or any additional statistics not covered in this brief chapter, write to Statistician, Reclamation Service, Interior Department, Washington, D. C. The table on page 89, therefore, is even more illuminative of the suc- cess of the work than any engineer- ing statistics alone can possibly be. By no means all available lands embraced in the various projects is taken up, and every effort is being made by the service to see that they are properly and successfully set- tled. The table above shows tho number of farms available for entry, August 1, 1916, ,the size of the farm units and the cost of water right FARM HOUSES ON THE SALT RIVER PROJECT, SHOWING IRRIGATING DITCH FLOODING ALFALFA RECLAMATION SERVICE 91 POWER DEVELOPMENT In connection with the construc- tion of irrigation work, particularly of dams on the larger rivers, it has been necessary to develop power. Power plants are operated princi- pally for pumping water for irriga- tion ; incidentally for other purposes, the excess power being sold for do- mestic or industrial uses, such as lighting, heating, cooking and opera- tion of machinery. Pumping forms the principal use of the electric power development, and there were installed 10,432 horse-power in per- hours is 66,199,624, and the cost per kilowatt hour ranges from 3.82 cents at the North Dakota Williston plant down to 0.111 cent at the Minidoka plant. The developed power not needed for irrigation pumping is sold to customers for construction, for camp lights and for drainage work and results in a gross income of $249,174 from power sales, which is almost 10 per cent on cost of installation. But all these figures fade into in- significance when consideration is had of the accompanying table show- _. UNDEVELOPED HORSE-POWER PROJECT Name of plant Head, Feet Horse power Arizona-California, Yuma Arizona-California, Yuma California Drop, California Canal A ray- 9 25 27 1,000 7,700 483 Colorado, Grand Valley Main Canal 44 3 600 Colorado, Uncompahgre Idaho, Boise . . Arrowrock Dam 63-180 10,000 17 000 Idaho, Boise Idaho-Minidoka Drops in canals Minidoka Dam 20-90 46 4,800 10 000 Montana, Flathead (Indian) Montana, Flathead (Indian) Montana, Huntley Montana-North Dakota, Lower Yel- lowstone Flathead River Revais Creek Main Canal Drop Lateral KK drop 60 1,000 34 360,000 26,000 314 290 Nevada, Truckee-Carson Nevada, Truckee-Carson New Mexico-Texas, Rio Grande. . . . Oregon-California, Klamath Oregon, Umatilla Utah, Strawberry Valley Washington, Okanogan Washington, Yakima, Sunnyside Unit Lahontan 26-foot drop Elephant Butte Dam Various sites Drainage outfall Spanish Fork Salmon Creek Drops in canal 120 26 60-190 22-88 28 125 441 20-88 5,000 2,000 12,000 9,700 145 1,900 2,800 1,800 Washington, Yakima, Tieton Unit. . 3,250 Washington, Wapato 9,000 Total 488,782 maneiit pumping plants used in 1914, in addition to numerous small drainage installations semi-portable and intermittently used. The cost of raising 1 acre-foot 1 foot ranges from 0.368 cent to 2.10 cents. The capacity of all the power plants operated by the service was, in 1914, 27,134 kilowatts from 37 units. The water head ranges from 226 feet at the Roosevelt plant to 21 feet at the Arizona Falls plant. The total cost of all the plants was $2,542,159. The output in kilowatt ing available horse-power subject to development but not yet developed. FINANCES At the beginning of a recent fiscal year the service had $1,401,714.67 cash on hand. . During the year this amount was augmented by receipts from various sources to a grand total of $16,- 446,794.66. Of the twenty millions authorized by the act of June 25, 1910, eight and one half millions were trans- ferred to the reclamation fund. 92 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES BOISE IRRIGATION PROJECT, IDAHO. HIGHEST DAM IN THE WORLD, 351 FEET FROM BED ROCK TO PARAPET, 1,060 FEET LONG ON TOP Cash expenditures during the fiscal year were $14,213,172.90. Town-site receipts transferred to the credit of projects were $18,- 436.28. The balance on hand at the close of the fiscal year amounted to $2,215,185.48. By the processes of the General Land Office and the Treasury De- partment the receipts from sales of public lands are held in the Treas- ury from six to nine months before they are placed to the credit of the reclamation fund. Estimated re- ceipts from the sale of public lands ESTIMATED COST OP CONTEMPLATED WORK ON ALL PROJECTS DURING FISCAL YEAR, 1916 Examination and surveys Storage systems Pumping for irrigation Canal systems , Lateral systems Drainage systems Flood protection Power systems Farm units Permanent improvements und lands Telephone systems Operation and maintenance: $151,680.45 1,695,052.95 7,500 . 00 2,548,004.33 1,900,991.73 938,624.50 286,175.00 77,072.15 59,046.10 155,683.40 29,137.00 During construction . . . Under public notice . SI, 053, 973 838,405 1,892,378.41 692,100.00 680,456.65 Total $11,113,902.67 Stores and other operations Unallotted to features RECLAMATION SERVICE 93 in the hands of the Treasury Depart- ment on June 30, 1915, which had not been credited to the reclamation fund amounted to approximately $1,670,000. The reclamation fund, which com- prises the moneys received from the sale of public lands, has now reached the total of $85,914,493.36, and from the sale of town-sites, $280,723.94. Transfer vouchers, adjusting ac- counts between the projects for the transfer of the value of services and equipment, amounted to $615,- 657.58 during the fiscal year 1915. Since the beginning of the service the value of the transfers of sup- plies, materials, equipment and services between projects has amounted to $5,006,759.37. This system of transfers between projects enables the service to utilize equip- ment, materials, supplies, etc., to their fullest extent where needed and to charge the cost where the benefit accrues. ESTIMATED COST OF CONTEMPLATED WORK It is estimated that during 1916 the sum of $11,113,902.67 will be ex- pended. The table on page 92 gives the tentative distribution of this amount to the various functional features of all projects, including the Blackfeet, Flathead and Fort Peck Indian projects. ROOSEVELT DAM, ARIZONA Fountain Geyser Haynes Photo Old Faithful Upper Geyser Basin CHAPTER VII. OUR NATIONAL PARKS HOW many Americans can say offhand how many national parks we have? How many can name the national monuments, or explain the difference between a national park and a national monu- ment? Very few! And such almost wholesale ignorance is one of many reasons why a Bureau of National Parks, as a part of the Interior De- partment, has for many years been a vital necessity and why every loyal American, whether he ever sees a national park or not, should re- joice that Congress has finally pass- ed the National Parks Service Bill. This bill, far reaching in import, reads in part as follows : "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Con- gress assembled, That there is here- by created in the Department of the Interior a service to be called the National Park Service, which shall be under the charge of a director, who shall be appointed by the Sec- retary. . . . The service thus es- tablished shall promote and regu- late the use of the Federal areas known as national parks, monuments and reservations, which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the nat- ural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the en- joyment of future generations." As yet the service is but a name, for the Sixty-fourth Congress has not yet provided an appropriation to form the service. But everything is ready and as soon as the money is available our numerous parks and monuments will have the service of their own they have so long needed. There are sixteen national parks at present in existence, the first of Photo by Lindley Eddy SEQUOIA "GENERAL SHERMAN' Oldest Tree in the World Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 96 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES NATIONAL PARKS IN ORDER OF CREATION Location Area in square miles Distinctive Characteristics Hot Springs, 1832 Middle Arkansas ~ 1H 46 hot springs possessing curative prftp- erties. Many hotels and boarding houses. 20 bath houses under public control. Yellowstone, 1872 North- 3,348 More geysers than rest of the world. western Boiling springs. Mud volcanoes. Wyoming Petrified forests. Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, remarkable for gor- geous coloring. Large lakes. Many large streams and waterfalls. Vast wilderness inhabited by deer, elk, bison, moose, antelope, bear, moun- tain sheep, beaver, etc., constituting greatest wild bird and animal pre- serve in world. Altitude 6,000 to 11,000 feet. Exceptional trout fish- ing. Yosemite, 1890. Middle- 1,125 Valley of world-famed Beauty. Lofty eastern cliffs. Waterfalls of extraordinary California height. 3 groves of big trees. High Sierra. Large areas of snowy peaks. Waterwheel falls. Good trout flsn- ing. Sequoia, 1890 Middle- 237 The Big Tree national park. 12,000 eastern sequoia trees over 10 feet in diameter, California some 25 to 36 feet in diameter. Tow- ering mountain ranges. Startling precipices. Fine trout fishing. General Grant, 1890. . . . Middle- 4 Created to preserve the celebrated eastern General Grant tree, 35 feet in diam- California eter. 6 miles from Sequoia National Park and under same management. Casa Grande Ruin, 1892. Arizona y* Prehistoric Indian ruin. Mount Rainier, 1899 West- 324 Largest accessible single peak glacier central system. 28 glaciers, some of large Washington size, fifty to five hundred feet thick. Wonderful sub-alpine wild flower fields. Crater Lake 1902 South- 77 Lake of extraordinary blue in crater of western extinct volcano, no inlet, no outlet. Oregon Sides 1,000 feet high. Interesting lava formations. Fine trout fishing. Wind Cave, 1903 South 16M Large natural cavern. Dakota Sullys Hill, 1904 North 6J4 Wooded hilly tract on Devil's Lake. Dakota Mesa Verde, 1906 South- 77 Most notable and best preserved pre- western historic cliff dwellings in United Colorado States, if not in the world. Platt, 1906 Southern 1 1 A Many sulphur and other springs pos- Oklahoma sessing medicinal value, under Gov- ernment regulation. Glacier, 1910 North- 1,534 Rugged mountain region of Alpine western character. 250 glacier-fed lakes. 60 Montana small glaciers. Peaks of unusual shape. Precipices thousands of feet deep. Scenery of marked individ- uality. Fine trout fishing. Rocky Mountain, 1915. . North 358 Heart of the Rockies. Snowy range, middle- peaks 11.000 to 14,250 feet altitude. Colorado Remarkable records of glacial period. Hawaiian, 1916 Hawaiian 56 Three volcanoes. Lake of blazing lava. Islands Tropical forests. Lassen, 1916 California 106 Volcano only one in United States potentially active. NATIONAL PARKS 97 which was Hot Springs, in Arkansas, created in 1832; the most recent, Hawaii National Park and Lassen National Park, being creations of the Sixty-fourth Congress, the bills for the two parks being approved August 1 and 9, 1916, respectively. The first purposes of the parks are the preservation of scenic beauty and natural wonders for educational and recreation purposes. They make wonders of certain regions free to all the country; indeed, to all the world. Though Hot Springs was the first of all the parks, it was the creation of the Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, Montana and Idaho, by the act of March 1, 1872, which really marked the beginning of a policy on the part of Congress of setting aside tracts of land as recre- ation grounds for all the people. More and more are we coming to know what we possess in these parks and the war abroad taught us afresh that Europe has nothing in scenery more worth seeing than what we have at home. In the Yellowstone National Park there were 20,250 vis- itors in 1914, and in 1915 two and one-half times as many, 51,895., Yosemite National Park in Cali- fornia had 33,452 visitors during the 1915 season, whereas in 1914 only 15,145 persons visited the park. Again, in Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, there has been an increase in the number of visitors of over 100 per cent 35,166 in 1915 as against 15,038 in 1914. But it has been discovered that national parks have a distinct com- mercial value, as well as an educa- tional and recreative one. The parks produce an ever increasing revenue from tourist traffic, one of the most satisfactory means of revenue a na- tion can have. The tourist leaves large sums of money but takes away nothing which makes the nation poorer. He goes away with im- proved health, with a recollection of enjoyment of unequaled wonders of mountain, forest, stream and sky, of vitalizing ozone and stimulating companionship with nature; but of the natural wealth he takes nothing. The commercial potentialities of tourist traffic are startling. It is estimated that in time of peace Switzerland's annual revenue from tourists is $150,000,000,- that of France $600,000,000; little Italy's, $100,000,000. It is claimed that Amer- icans have spent $500,000,000 a year in travel abroad. The pine woods of Maine are estimated to bring a rev- enue of $40,000,000 each year on ac- count of the visitors they attract, and the orange blossoms of Florida are worth more to her than the products of her soil. Every dollar, therefore, which is spent by the na- tion on national parks may be con- sidered an investment which is like- ly to bring in a very satisfactory re- turn upon the money invested. VISITORS TO NATIONAL PARKS, 1908 TO 1915 NAME OF PARK 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 Yellowstone National 19 542 32 545 19 575 23,054 22,970 24,929 20,250 51,895 Yosemite National 8,850 13,182 13,619 12,530 10,884 13,735 15,145 33,452 Sequoia National General Grant National Mount Rainier National Mesa Verde National 1,251 1,773 3,511 80 854 798 5,968 165 2,407 1,178 8,000 250 3,114 2,160 10,306 206 2,923 2,240 8,946 230 3,823 2,756 13,501 280 4,667 3,735 15,038 502 7,647 10,523 35,166 663 Crater Lake National : Wind Cave National 5,275 3 171 4,171 3 216 5.000 3 387 4,500 3 887 5,235 3 199 6,253 3,988 7,096 3,592 11,371 2,817 Platt National Sullys Hill National 26,000 250 25,000 190 25,000 190 30,000 200 31,000 200 35,000 300 30,000 500 20,000 1,000 Hot Springs Reservation Glacier National 120,000 130,000 4,000 135,000 6,257 135,000 12,138 125,000 14,168 115,000 14,265 Rooky Mountain National 31.000 NATIONAL PARKS THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF TOURIST TRAVEL TO NATIONAL PARKS PARK Number of visitors (seasons) Estimated gross receipts by concession- aires (seasons) Federal appropriations (fiscal years) Revenues (fiscal years) Yellowstone: 1912 1913 1914 22,970 24,929 20 250 $1,067,161.34 1,186,811.36 848,688 44 $8,500 . 00 8,500 . 00 8 500 00 $16, 476.38 21,980.10 15 439 23 1915 51,895 2,003,072.35 8,500.00 20,307 40 Yosemlte: 1912 , 10,884 311,444.32 50,000 . 00 23,855.77 1913 1914 13,735 15 145 359,481.45 334 914 32 80,000 . 00 125 000 00 19,495.83 23 406 14 1915 Mount Rainier: 1912 1913 33,452 8,946 13 501 629,929.31 56,735.92 66 942 76 100,000.00 5,400.00 20,000 00 37,019.20 5,370.36 7,301 62 1914 1915 15,038 35 166 61,078.08 138,120 23 23,400.00 51,000.00 9,040.10 12,893.29 Glacier. 1912 6 257 69,200 . 00 1,490.94 1913 1914 1915 12,138 14,168 14,265 161,510.87 155,716.14 276,611.54 75,000 . 00 100,000 . 00 75,000 . 00 4,652.14 4,010.71 4,218.51 That this is not a mere specula- tion is shown in the table above, totaling the economic value of tour- ist travel to Yellowstone, Yosemite, Glacier and Mount Rainier national parks during the past four years, together with the revenues. The national parks cover an area of more than 4,700,000 acres. If all were put together it would mean an area of more than 7,300 square miles, practically as large as New Jersey. The Yellowstone National Park, con- taining more than 3,300 square miles, is as big as many of the independent European principalities that warred with each other for centuries before the genius of Bismarck united them into a great empire. Such a group of scenic areas, de- veloped and handled after the fash- ion of Switzerland, would constitute a national economic asset of incal- culable value. It is not for their educational, re- creative, or economic value alone, however, that the national parks must be regarded. The conservation of wild life is a feature not to be despised. Free as most of the parks are from public lumbering and pri- vate grazing enterprises, and pro- tected from hunting of any kind, they have the conditions essential for the protection and propagation of wild animal life. Eventually they will become great public nature schools to which teachers and stu- dents of animal life will repair yearly for investigation and study. The enormous increase of wild animals in the Yellowstone since it became a national park in 1872 points the way. Deer, elk, moose, bison and antelope here abound in greater numbers, no doubt, than be- fore the days of the white man ; and many of them have become al- most as fearless of man as animals in captivity. From here many State, county and city parks have been supplied, under proper restrictions, with surplus animals for propaga- tion purposes. When interfering private holdings are extinguished in other national parks, and United States laws made to supersede State laws (a condition the newly author- ized Park Service will strive to bring about), these, too, will become cen- ters of animal preservation as effec- tive as the Yellowstone. By an act approved June 8, 1906, entitled "An act for the preserva- tion of American antiquities," the President of the United States is TOO OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES VALLEY OF ENCHANTMENT, NEAR THE CREST OF THE SIERRA NEVADAS, YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK NATIONAL PARKS 101 authorized, "in his discretion, to de- clare by public proclamation historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of his- toric or scientific interest, that are situated upon the lands owned or controlled by the Government of the United States, to be national monu- ments." There are now thirty such national monuments, two which did exist hav- ing been eliminated with the crea- tion of Lassen National Park. NATIONAL MONUMENTS ADMINISTERED BY INTERIOR DEPARTMENT NAME State Date Area Devil's Tower "Wyoming Sept 24 1906 Acres 1 152 Montezuma Castle Arizona Dec. 8, 1906 160 ElMorro Chaco Canyon Muir Woods New Mexico New Mexico California Dec. 8, 1906 Mar. 11, 1907 Jan 9 1908 160 20,629 295 Pinnacles Tumacacori Mukuntuweap Shoshone Cavern Natural Bridges Gran Quivira Sitka California Arizona Utah Wyoming Utah New Mexico Alaska Jan. 16, 1908 Sept. 15, 1908 July 31. 1909 Sept. 21, 1909 Sept. 25, 1909 Nov. 1,1909 Mar. 23, 1910 2,0*0 10 15,840 210 2,740 160 57 Rainbow Bridge Lewis and Clark Cavern Colorado Utah Montana Colorado May 30, 1910 May 16, 1911 May 24 1911 160 160 13 883 Petrified Forest Navajo Arizona Arizona July 31, 1911 Mar. 14, 1912 25,625 360 Papago Saguaro Dinosaur Arizona Utah Jan. 31, 1914 Oct. 4, 1915 2,050 80 Sieur de Monts Maine July 8, 1916 5,000 ADMINISTERED BY AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT NAME State Date Area Cila Cliff Dwellings New Mexico Nov. 16, 1907 Acres 160 Tonto Arizona Dec. 19, 1907 640 Grand Canyon Jewel Caves Arizona South Dakota Jan. 11, 1908 Feb. 7, 1 908 806,400 1,280 Wheeler Oregon Caves Devil Postpile Mount Olympus Colorado Oregon California Washington Dec. 7, 1908 July 12, 1909 July 6, 1911 April 17, 1912 300 480 800 299,370 ADMINISTERED BY WAR DEPARTMENT NAVE State Date Area Big Hole Ba Cabrillo ttle Field Montana California June 23, 1910 Oct. 14, 1913 Acres 5 1 , m Golden Gate Eagle Rest Rock SOME OF THE SPLENDORS OF OUB, NATION AL PARKS Great Falls of the Yellowstone Cleopatra Terrace CHAPTER V11I. GOOD ROADS AND BAD THERE are 2,273,131 miles of public roads in the United States. Of these, 10.9 per cent (a total of 247,490 miles) are sur- faced roads roads other and pre- next with 51.7, followed by Indiana 42.3, Ohio 33.S, New Jersey 30.3 and New York 27.9 per cent. Nebraska is at the foot of the list with a percentage of 0.3, rep- THE SLOUGH OF DESPOND LIFE AND PLEASURE IN GOOD ROADS snmably better than mere cuttings in the dirt. Rhode Island leads all the Union in good roads, with a percentage of 58.8 per cent. Massachusetts comes resenting 250 miles of surfaced roads out of a total of 80,338. Other back- ward States are Nevada, 0.5 per cent, Montana 0.4 per cent, and Kansas 1 per cent. THE BURDEN OF BAD ROADS EASY HAULAGE Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 104 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES POOR ROADS FARM TO RAILROAD GOOD ROADS FARM TO RAILROAD- COSTLY WAY CHEAP WAY Ohio has the greatest good road mileage, with 28,312, Nevada the least, with 65 miles. Texas has the greatest total mileage with 128,971, Rhode Island the least with 2,121. During the past twenty years State governments have been active in a constantly increasing measure in behalf of road improvement. To January 1, 1915, expenditures aggre- gating $211,S9,163 had been made from the appropriations by the legis- latures of 39 States. With these funds improved roads to the extent of 35,477 miles have been construct- ed during this period of twenty years at an average expenditure of $5,970 per mile. Yet we have not good roads and we are paying the price. We pay in money, in lives, in ignorance, in labor, in taxes, and in high cost of living. Considering only a few phases of the subject, the investigator is struck with the universal effect of good roads. Data obtained from the Twelfth Census, compared with the road statistics, show clearly the relation- ship between illiteracy and bad roads. Many factors contribute to produce illiteracy, but it is signifi- cant that where one is found, there is usually the other. In Arkansas, Missouri, Mississippi and North Carolina, where less than 2 per cent of the roads are improved, there were 374,788 native born white il- literates in 1900, out of a total pop- ulation of 7,800,000, whereas in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey and Rhode Island, where 30 per cent of the roads are improved, there were only 20,500 native born A ROAD BEFORE IMPROVEMENT THE SAME ROAD AFTER IMPROVE- MENTCLAY AND GRAVEL CONSTRUCTION GOOD ROADS AND BAD 105 LIMIT OF TWO-HORSE TEAM OVER TWELVE BALES OF COTTON ON A BAD ROAD TWO BALES OF COTTON MACADAM ROAD ESTIMATED 1915 COST OF MARKETING SIX OF THE MORE IMPORTANT CROPS Pro- U.S. Wt. por- Tonnage Aver- Cost Total Crop Production 1915 per unit Production tion over over Roads age haul Ton Mileage T P M. Hauling Cost roads Bus. Lbs. Tons Tons Miles Ton Miles Corn. . . 3,054,535,000 70 106,908,690 .144 15,394,851 7.4 113,921,897 .19 $21,645,159 Wheat.... 1,011,505,000 60 30,345,150 1.00 30,345,150 9.4 285,244,410 .19 54,196,438 Oats 1,540,362,000 35 26,956,335 .28 7.547,774 7.3 55,098,749 .19 10,468,762 Potatoes.. . 433,398,000 60 13,001,940 .75 9,751,455 8.2 79,961,931 .22 17,591,625 Cotton 11,161,000 1,500 8,370,750 1.00 8,370,750 11.1 92,915,325 .28 26,016,291 Hay 85,225,000 2,000 85,225,000 .17 14,488,250 8.3 120,252,475 .19 22,847,969 Totals... 270,807,865 85,898,230 747,394,787 $152,766,244 white illiterates in 1900, out of a total population of 6,025,000. The cost of poor roads is a ter- rific item in high cost of living. It costs more to ship a ton of cotton from farm to railroad than from New York to London, as is plainly shown for six great shippings in the table above. Of the 3,114,300 autos in the world this country possesses 2,400,000 more than one for every mile of road. In 1916, 1,200,000 more will be manufactured. Imagine the cost SMALL ROAD TAX NO SAVING FAIR ROAD TAX-NO LOSSES > II j ^ jg| ( y j jJlliiyi % sis > GOOD ROADS AND BAD 107 POOR ROAD TIME IS MONEY A DELAY GOOD ROAD-TIME IS MONEY-THEY GOT THERE in depreciation of these cars due to poor roads. If the cars average $500 each in value, and bad roads cost 10 per cent depreciation, these scrapped cars, due to poor roads, cost the United States $120,000,000 per year, more than half what has been spent on good roads in twenty years ! Now the Federal Government has taken hold of the problem and the sum of $85,000,000 of Federal funds was made available for constructing rural roads by the Federal Aid Road Bill, which became a law July 11, 1916. For the construction of rural post roads under co-operative ar- rangements with the highway departments of the various States, $75,000,000 is to be spent, the re- maining $10,000,000 being for roads and trails within National forests. The Federal Government's share in co-operation with the States is to be 50 per cent of the cost. Five million dollars is available for expenditure before June 30, 1917 Appropriations increase at the rate of five millions a year until 1921. when twenty-five millions is provid- ed, making a total of seventy-five millions. One million 'dollars a year for ten years is for the development of roads and trails within National forests. The class of roads to be built and the method of construction are to be mutually agreed upon by the Secretary of Agriculture and the State highway departments. The Act provides that the Secre- tary of Agriculture shall apportion the appropriation in the following manner : One-third in the ratio the area of each State bears to the total area of all the States ; SCHOOL CHILDREN ON BAD ROAD THE KIND OF SCHOOL AND ROAD EVERY BOY AND GIRL IS ENTITLED TO 108 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES One-third in the ratio the popula- tion of each State bears to the total population of all the States; One-third in the ratio the mileage of rural delivery routes and star routes in each State bears to the total mileage of rural delivery routes and star routes in all the States. States securing Federal aid must make needed repairs and maintain a reasonably smooth surface, but are not obliged to make extraordinary repairs or undertake reconstruction. A TRACTOR ROAD GRADER The Secretary of Agriculture, July 21, 1916, certified to the Sec- retary of the Treasury and the gov- ernors and State highway depart- ments of the several States the ap- portionment of the first $5,000,000. In accordance with the Act, 3 per cent, or $150,000, needed for ad- ministration was deducted. The several States are eligible for the following amounts : Alabama Ar izona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts. . . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire . New Jersey New Mexico .... New York North Carolina. . North Dakota.. . Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania. . . . Rhode Island .... South Carolina . . South Dakota. . . Tennessee Texas Utah ! Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia . . . Wisconsin Wyoming $104,148.90 68,513.52 82,689.10 151,063.92 83,690.14 31,090.44 8,184.37 55,976.27 134,329.48 60,463 . 50 220,926 . 23 135,747.62 146,175.60 143,207.40 97,471.91 67,474 . 66 48,451.50 44,047 . 22 73,850.95 145,783 . 72 142,394.06 88,905.84 169,720.41 98,287.19 106,770.81 64,398.30 20,996 . 62 59,212.68 78,737.81 250,720.27 114,381.92 76,143.06 186,905.42 115,139.00 78,687.37 230,644.17 11,665.71 71,807.64 80,946.02 114,153.48 291,927.81 56,950.15 22,844.47 99,660.78 71,884.25 53,270.41 128,361.82 61,196.07 Total $4,850,000 . 00 HAULING 22y 8 YARDS OF CRUSHED ROCK GHAPTEK IX. THE PANAMA CANAL ON May 4, 1904, the United States took possession of a narrow strip of land ten miles wide, crossing the Isthmus of Pan- ama, called the Canal Zone. On August 15, 1914, the Panama Canal was opened to commerce. Between these two dates lie all the wonder of the construction of the greatest engineering feat of all time. But that story has been told and retold. What concerns us now is what the canal accomplishes, how it does its work, what it costs what it is worth. DISTANCES The distance by water around South America is 10,500 nautical miles from Colon (Atlantic) to Bal- boa (Pacific). By canal the dis- tance between the same two points is 44 miles. The difference in length of these routes, 10,456 miles, represents the maximum distance that can be saved to a vessel by use of the canal. So far in the use of the canal, over 40 per cent of the vessels which have passed through it have been engaged in the coastwise trade of the United States each of them sav- ing about 7,800 miles on each trip. If their average speed be taken at ten knots, they have averaged a saving of over a month at sea on each voyage from coast to coast. Where formerly the round trip of a ten-knot vessel required about fifty-five days' actual steam- ing, the time at sea for the same trip for the same vessel is now reduced to about twenty-two days. SPEED The transit of the canal requires about 10 hours, of which approxi- mately 3 hours are spent in the locks. In the sea-level channels and Gaillard (formerly "Culebra") Cut, speed is limited to 6 knots; through Gatun Lake they may make 10, 12, Photo Underwood & Underwood STEAMSHIP "ALLIANCE," FIRST OCEAN- GOING VESSEL TO PASS THROUGH THE PANAMA CANAL, JUNE 8, 1914 Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 110 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES and 15 knots, according to the width of the channel. Handling a vessel through the canal is essentially the same as in any charted channel. The canal channel is accurately charted, fully equipped with aids to navigation, and governed by rules which the pilot, one of whom must be on any vessel going through, enforces. LOCKING THROUGH As a vessel approaches the locks, the operator at the control house indicates by an electrically operated signal if the vessel shall enter the locks, on which side, or if it shall keep back, or moor alongside the ap- proach wall. If everything is ready for the transit of the locks, the vessel approaches the center ap- proach wall, a pier extending a thousand feet, and connections are made with the electric towing loco- motive. The vessel then moves forward slowly until it is in the entrance chamber, when lines are thrown out on the other side and connections' are made with towing locomotives on the side wall, six for the larger vessels, three on each wall of the lock chamber. Two keep forward of the vessel, holding her head to the center of the chamber; two aft, holding the vessel in check ; and two slightly forward of amidships, which do most of the towing. The loco- motives are secured against slip- STEAM SHOVELS AT WORK ON THE PANAMA CANAL CUXEBRA CUT MAY 20, 1913 Photo Underwood & Underwood BLOWING UP A DIKE ON THE PANAMA CANAL ping by cogs in a rack. They are equipped with a towing windlass, which allows the prompt paying out and taking in of hawser. The water within the lock cham- ber proper, beyond the entrance chamber, is brought to the level of that in the approach, the gates to- ward the vessel are opened, a fender chain is lowered, and the locomo- tives maneuver the vessel into the chamber. The gates are closed, the water raised or lowered to the level of the next chamber, the gates at the other end are opened, and the ves- sel moved forward. Three such steps are made at Gatun, two at Miraflores, and one at Pedro Miguel. TRAFFIC Ocean-going vessels to the number of 787 passed through the canal from July 1, 1915, to June 30. 1916. Their aggregate net tonnage was 2,479,761. Cargo carried through the canal on these ships amounted to 3,140,046 tons, and the ships paid in tolls $2,399,830.42. The canal was closed in Septem- ber, 1915, and remained closed, ex- cept for the transit of small ves- sels which had waited at the en- trances for passage, until the mid- OPERATION OF MIRAFLORES LOCKS "PRESIDENTE SARMIENTO" ENTERING UPPER- EAST CHAMBER, JULY 14, 1915 S.S. "CRISTOBAL" IN PEDRO MIGUEL LOCKS ON RETURN TRIP THROUGH CANAL, AUGUST 4, 1914 112 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES die of April. The operations were thus normal for slightly less than half the year. The number of ships which passed through the canal during the pre- ceding fiscal year was 1,088, aggre- gate net tonnage 3,843,035, cargo carried through 4,969,792 tons. Their tolls amounted to $4,343,383.69, after all refunds had been made. Traffic in two years is shown be- low : TOLLS Canal tolls are as follows : Merchant vessels, passengers or cargo, per net ton (each 100 cubic feet) of actual earning capacity, $1.20. Vessels in ballast, no passengers or cargo, per ton 75 cents. Naval vessels, other than trans- ports, colliers, hospital ships, and supply ships, per displacement ton, 50 cents. ITEM Fiscal year 1915 Fiscal year 1916 Per cent 1916 of 1915 No of vessels 1,088 787 72.3 Net tonnage Tons of cargo Tolls 3,843,035 4,969,792 $4,343,383.69 2,479,761 3,140,046 $2,399,830.42 64.5 63.4 55.3 On June 30, 1916, the total re- ceipts of tolls from vessels passing through the canal were $2,399,830.42. The total amount expended on ac- count of the operation and mainte- nance of the canal was $6,999,750.15, leaving a deficit to the amount of $4,599,919.73. For every dollar the Government spent for operation and maintenance it received back in tolls 34.28 cents. It spent practically three times as much to maintain and operate the canal as it received in tolls. During the preceding fiscal year the tolls had exceeded the expenses by $276,656.38, which represented a profit of 0.67 per cent on the ex- penditure for operation and main- tenance alone, not counting anything for interest on the money invested or for depreciation of plant. COASTWISE TRADE Tolls on vessels in the United States coastwise trade amounted to 18.36 per cent of all tolls collected in 1916. During the preceding fis- cal year, coastwise traffic yielded over 36 per cent of the total, or practically double the proportion which existed during the fiscal year 1916. Army and Navy transports, col- liers, hospital ships, and supply ships, measured as merchant vessels, per net ton, $1.20. To the uninitiated, to whom these charges may seem heavy, the follow- ing example is given to show their justice and the saving effected by the canal. The American Hawaiian Company A CANAL LOCK AT NIGHT has a liner called the "Arizonan." On a basis of a speed of 12 knots, the canal saves the "Arizonan" about 26.8 days at sea on each voy- age from coast to coast. The "Ari- zonan" is a relatively large vessel, 470 feet long by 57.2 feet in the OPEBATXO* or LOCKS IN DISTANCE, AUGUST 28. 114 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES COLLECTION BY MONTHS AND DIRECTIONS MONTH Vessels entering from Pacific Vessels entering from Atlantic Total 1915 July August September $308,264.32 268,397.23 168,450.30 $265,101.35 228,394 . 80 181,048.00 $573,365 . 67 496,792.03 349,498 . 30 October November December 1916 January 93.60 18.00 10,732.40 636 . 39 10,826.00 654 . 39 February March 832 . 80 268 80 1.20 150 00 834.00 418 80 April... May 97,779.29 197,000.83 137,839.15 171,022.96 235,618.44 368 023 79 June 213,103.11 150,695.89 363,799.00 Total $1 254,208 28 $1 145,622 14 $2 399,830 42 beam, and has carried as much as 11,780 tons of cargo through the canal on one of her voyages. The canal tolls levied on each passage are $7,891.20. The cost of operating the "Arizonan" at sea may be taken at $450 a day. For 26 days this means $11,700, from which the sub- traction of the tolls leaves a net saving of approximately $3,808 per voyage. Partly because of the many slides and the cost of their removal, part- ly because of the fact that they closed the canal for six months in a year and partly because of the war, the tolls do not by any means pay expenses. * IOO.OGO meoo.ooo 300.000 &4OO 300 500.000 OO.O 1 i l Kmnnmi^^si mmamamm ^mnmnnni iiiiiii 'i LEG B TRAFFIC OTHER HDJCOASTWIse-ATL gCOASTWISE-PAC END rHAN COASTWISE ANTIC-TO-PACIFIC IFIC-TO-ATLANTIC i PANAMA CANAL TRAFFIC S,S. "CRISTOBAL" IN CULEBRA CUT AT PARAISO ON RETURN TRIP THROUGH CANAL LOOKING NORTH FROM TOP OF CERRO LUISA, AUGUST 4, 1914 U.S.S. "OHIO" PASSING CUCARACHA SLIDE-LOOKING NORTH, JULY 16, 1915 116 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES CHANGE IN TOLLS CHARGES During the first months tolls were levied on the basis of the net ton- nage of ships determined by special- ly formulated rules for measurement for the Panama Canal, in which the net tonnage was the space available for carrying cargo, reckoned in tons of 100 cubic feet. Following an in- terpretation of the Panama Canal Act by the Attorney General, the amount of tolls collectable has been governed also by the net tonnage as determined by. the rules for registry in the United States, it having been decided that the tolls should not ex- ceed $1.25 per net ton on this basis. The result of this system has been a loss in revenue. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, the tolls collected amounted to $2,395,928.77. If the original Panama Canal rules had been adhered to, collections would have amounted to $2,786,- 642.82, a difference of $390,714.05, 14.05 per cent of the hypothetical earnings under the original system, and 16.3 per cent of the amount act- ually collected. CHARACTER OF FREIGHT. Twenty principal commodities to- gether made up 67 per cent of all cargo carried through the canal, be- ing 2,009,897 tons out of a grand total of 3,140,046 tons. The miscel- laneous articles other than the twelve principal commodities aggre- gated 1,130,149 tons. Nitrates amounted to 894,139 tons ; refined petroleum to 271,041; coal, 243,216; sugar, 128,544; lumber, 96,685; manufactured goods of iron and steel, 87,375; crude oil, 69,812; railroad material, 57,829; iron ore, 52,250 ; canned goods, 41,300 ; barley, 38,006; and copper, 36,700 tons. CANAL FORCE Many people have an idea that be- cause the canal is finished and open for business therefore the Isthmus is depopulated. How far wrong this 300 75 C200 O <0 13 O ! / ^ / \ / \ / / \ / \ / \^ i > / \ / \ / r~~ \ \ / \ f 3 i~ t \ s \ / / \ // \ \ ^ / x /' / \ \ ^ '/ \ A i / 2 ' // \ / ^^ ^ x \ / . ^ / / \ ./ \ / V N\ / / NJ X, \ / / ' - " X V / / V . ^~\~ // I //, / ^X^j // //> Canal Tonsi At , Qntjc toRacmc Cargo TonsJ Canal Tons! f^;^ At|Qntic Cargo Tons) /// 550 ^ 13 C (fi D C" 3OO / / / / / / / / / / / c o> c __J 250 (f) 0> i 20O / / f / f / / ^-- s^ ,/ ^ / / / I89O '695 1900 1905 i9to " 1915 RAILWAY MILEAGE OF THE UNITED STATES The apparent decrease in 1915 is due to the use of figures from private sources, official figures not being available. See page 147 RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 147 The most recent official figures are those of the Interstate Commerce Commission for 1914, which gives for the whole country a total of all tracks of 387,208 miles. This in- cludes yard tracks, sidings, fourth, third, second and single track as well as main line mileage. The 1915 statistics, gathered by private sources make the total for the coun- try 379,344 miles, including the same tracks as are given in the In- terstate Commerce Commission fig- ures. tives there are 301 electric locomo- tives operating upon steam roads in the United States. These are of all sizes, but it is of interest to note that the world's largest and must powerful freight locomotive is driven by electricity. It is used to haul trains over the Rockies from Mon- tana into Idano and the electricity used is generated by water power. The length of the locomotive is 1121/2 feet and it weighs 284 tons. Compare this to the average weight in tons of the steam locomotives of THE SAFETY FIRST TRAIN OF THE B. & 0. Shows the possibility of the railroad for exhibition purposes. LOCOMOTIVES Upon these miles of tracks there are running to-day upward of 65,000 locomotives. These engines possess tractive power of 2,004,321,000 pounds, a weight so inconceivable that only a comparison can make it evident. If it were possible to hang at the end of a long rope, passing over a pulley, as many huge ships as would balance the pull in pounds of these locomotives it icould require more than twenty-one vessels each the size and displacement of the ill- fated "Lusltania" to equal the com- bined effort of the locomotives of the United States! In addition to the steam locomo- the United States, which in 1915 was 84.2 tons. CARS The locomotives of the United States haul 54,378 passenger cars and 2,362,914 freight cars. These have a capacity of 94,995,821 tons, an average of 40.2 tons per car. It is interesting to look back to the census of 1902 and find that in that year the average ton capacity of a car was but 28. Of the passenger cars 10,841 are all steel construc- tion, 4,334 steel underframe, and 39,- 203 cars are yet of wood construc- tion. The total seating capacity of all passenger cars is 2,277,438, an average of 56 passengers per car. 148 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES While the value of equipment, of course, varies widely with tne roads buying it and the service for which it is adapted, it may be interesting to note the prices paid for equip- ment. A locomotive, in 1913, of average size and hauling capacity cost $23,135, a chair car $11,580, a parlor car $17^019, a dining car $20,227, a coach $12,369, a baggage car $11,185, a mail car $16,901, and a cafe car, $18,381. This would make the total price of a train so into box cars, flat cars, stock cars, coal cars, tank cars, refrigerator cars and others. Of tne freight cars in use in 1914 by Class I. and Class II. roads more than one million were box cars, 146,000 were flat cars, 82,- 900 were stock cars, 9uO,000 were coal cars, 8,500 were tank cars, 48,- 800 were refrigerating cars, and mis- cellaneous cars made up the balance of 97,000. Just how important freight cars are to this country is more easily A SPLENDID EXAMPLE OF ELECTRIFICATION ON A TRUNK LINE, C., M. & ST. P. made up $130,797, although, of course, few, if any, trains have so many varieties of rolling stock be- tween engine and rear. To the average traveler the pas- senger car and baggage equipment is the important thing. To the country as a whole, however, the freight cars are the vital element in railroad operation. To the public all freight cars are freight cars pure and simple, but to the railroad man they are divided illustrated by a comparison of the cars abroad than in any other man- ner. In twenty-four countries of Eu- rope there are 369,911 passenger cars against 54,378 in this country. In the same twenty-four countries there are 3,443,532 freight cars against 2,362,914 freight cars in the United States. Passenger traffic is appar- ently much more important in Eu- rope than it is here, or perhaps it would be more truthful to say that our huge territory and vast expanse RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 149 makes transportation of goods by train a more vital necessity here than anywhere else in the world. FINANCIAL The money invested in railroads, the dividends paid, the gross and net income, the wages and salaries disbursed, form such incredible sums that only a real appreciation of the vastness of this country can make their comprehension possible. Perhaps the most amazing facts are found in a comparison of Ameri- can financial statistics with those of Europe. Travelers have so dinned it into the ears of Americans that as a nation we are spendthrifts and extravagant that it comes with the force of a decided shock to learn how far we have beaten the older countries in railroading. MILE COST According to 1914 statistics, America had 244,253 miles of rail- roads as against Europe's 198,554. The capital cost of European lines was $25,059,644,889, while America paid but $15,917,192,925. These fig- ures reduce to $126,211 as the cost per mile of line for Europe, which includes not only the low cost of railroads of Norway and Sweden, but the exceptionally high costing and magnificent road beds of Eng- land. The United States figures re- duce to $65,166 per mile of line. In other words, we have some thirty per cent greater mileage at some forty per cent less cost than Europe, and these are facts in face of a scale of wages double that of the European standard, and higher rates for borrowed money. CAPITALIZATION According to the "Bureau of Rail- way News and Statistics," 448 oper- ating companies, covering 247,312 miles of line, of which 188,247 were owned and 59,065 miles were leased, reported a capitalization as given at the bottom of the page. NEW CAPITAL In 1914 over $300,000,000 of new capital was invested in extensions, improvements and new construction. But 1915, a year of great uncertain- ty due to conditions abroad, saw less than $100,000,000 similarly em- ployed. What 1916 will show is as yet unknown, but with the tremen- dous increase in the business of this country and the almost unprece- dented call for transportation facil- ities, it is scarcely to be doubted that much new financing will be ar- ranged. VALUATION OF RAILROADS When Congress appropriated $50,000,000 to conduct an inquiry into and to establish the actual phys- ical valuation of American railroads, many uninformed people dubbed the national legislature wildly extrava- gant. But four years have passed, the end of the work is nowhere in sight, and it may well not arrive CAPITALIZATION OF 448 COMPANIES OPERATING 247,312 MILES OF LINE IN 1915 Capital stock. . $7,277,410,880 Funded debt 10,466,465,240 Receivers' certificates 52,362,863 Total 188,247 miles owned $17,796,238,983 Rental 59,065 miles, $116,852,303^ at 4^ 2,596,717,844 Total 247,312 miles operated $20,392,956,827 Deduction Railway stock owned $2,716,852,149 Funded debt owned 1,970,496,754 Miscellaneous securities owned 2,525,950 4,689,874,853 Net capitalization, 1915 Net capitalization per mile operated Net capitalization per mile of track (379,344) $15,703,081,974 63,495 41,393 150 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES until an additional appropriation is made. While no very exact figures are ob- tainable, it is doubtful if the present actual value of American railways can be much less than the unthink- able sum of $22,000,000,000, which would certainly not bear out any charges of over-capitalization. More- over, official figures of valuation of railroads within certain areas, con- ducted by several States, go far to prove that roads are anything but over-capitalized. For instance, State valuations made in Washington (1905) gave the cost of reproduction as 194 millions, capitalization 161 millions. South Dakota (1908) cost of reproduction 106 millions, capital- ization 109 millions. Minnesota (1907) cost of reproduction 360 mil- lions, capitalization 300 millions. Wisconsin (1909) cost of reproduc- tion 296 millions, capitalization 225 millions. Nebraska (1911) cost of reproduction 327 millions, capitali- zation 263 millions. New Jersey (1911) cost of reproduction 374 mil-' lions, capitalization 333 millions. WHO OWNS THE RAILROADS Railroads are owned in two ways by those who purchase or other- wise become possessed of stock, and those who lend money to buy, build, or extend railways, by the purchase of bonds. In the final analysis, a railway is owned by its stock hold- ers, who owe the money represented by the outstanding bonds to the bond holders, but for ordinary pur- poses of comparison a bond holder is a part owner of a railroad, since his interest charges have a claim on earnings prior to the stock dividend claim. An exact census of stock holders is not a possibility, for many reasons, one of them being the fre- quent (hourly) changes in owner- ship. But according to the best re- ports obtainable, there are some 623,000 stock holders for American railroads, a figure almost double that of the Interstate Commerce Commission for 1182 roads in 1904. It would be wearisome to report stock holders and increase for ever.y road in the United States, but those for twenty of the great roads, show- STOCK HOLDERS IN TWENTY PRINCIPAL AMERICAN RAILWAYS, 1904 TO 1915 SHARE HOLDERS NAME OF COMPANY 1904 1915 Pennsylvania R R ....... 44,175 93,332 Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe 17,823 42,738 New York Central and Hudson River 11,781 25,446 New York New Haven & Hartford 10 842 26,589 Union Pacific . 14,256 30,970 Great Northern 383 22,103 Southern Pacific 2,424 32,143 Northern Pacific 368 20,413 Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul 5,832 19,230 Baltimore & Ohio " 7,132 36,568 Illinois Central 9,123 10,963 Erie 4,309 5,868 Chicago & North- Western 4,109 10,394 Boston & Maine 7,402 8,076 Norfolk & Western . . . 2,911 8,815 Delaware & Hudson 3,819 7,137 Denver & Rio Grande 2,910 4,618 Missouri Pacific 1,861 6,972 Chesapeake & Ohio 1,478 6,604 Louisville & Nashville 1,672 4,703 Total 154,610 423,682 Increase since 1904. per cent. . . 174.0% RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 151 A POWDERED COAL BURNING LOCOMOTIVE ing the increase from 1904 to 1915, are given on page 150. Figures for railway bond holders are not obtainable, although the Comptroller of the Currency report- ed in 1913 that more than eleven hundred millions of stocks and bonds together were held by savings banks, State banks, private banks and loan and trust companies as assets. INCOME AND EXPENDITURE Railroad bookkeeping is so intri- cate a subject and railroad financing is so involved a matter, requiring experts who spend years in the work for its thorough comprehension, that only general figures can be gone into here. The Bureau of Railway Econ- omics summarizes the income ac- count as on page 152, including only Class I. roads. MISCELLANEOUS FINANCIAL The railroads of the United States pay a generous proportion of the na- tion's taxes. The official figures for 1914 show that the huge sum of $1*0,531,575 was turned into the various treasuries from all the rail- roads, a percentage of 4.61 of the earnings. The taxes amount to $572 per mile of road, more than double the tax of 1900 and almost three times the tax of 1890 when $199 was the tax per mile. The relative proportion of tax to earn- ing capacity, however, has not risen so fast. In 1890 2.96 per cent of earnings were paid in taxes, while in 1914 the amount had only increased to 4.61 per cent as above. In New Jersey railroads pay $3,068 per mile of line, in South Dakota but $255. It is interesting to compare the relative prices paid for fuel and the amount expended during the last fif- teen years, for the measure of fuel used is a measure of the power ex- pended. Unofficial figures for 1915 place the cost of locomotive fuel at HELL GATE BRIDGE, OVER THE EAST RIVER, LONGEST ARCH BRIDGE YET BUILT 152 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES $215,359,532, which is considerably less than the official figures for 1914, which are $242,800,799. Fifteen years ago but $90,593,965 was paid for fuel, although the cost of coal per ton at the mine was $1.04 in 1900 and but $1.18 in 1914. The 1915 cost was less, compared with operating expenses, than at any time for fifteen years, which may indi- cate that the new campaign for econ- omy of operation and coal saving has had a visible effect. THE RAILROAD'S MONEY Every one hundred dollars a rail- road receives comes from the sources shown on page 153. PUBLIC SERVICE Passengers There are upwards of 3,000,000 square miles of territory in the United States and more tha n 100,000,000 people. If every man, woman and child in the United States had taken a journey in 1915, according to unofficial figures, that journey would have been one of slightly more than 33.6 miles. Ac- cording to the Interstate Commerce Commission figures for 1914, the RAILWAY INCOME, FISCAL YEAR, 1915 : Railway operating revenues $2,870,913,815 Railway operating expenses 2,020,823,953 Net operating revenue 850,089,862 Railway tax accruals 133,219,085 Uncollectable railway revenues 649,921 Railway operating income. . . . 716,220,856 Miscellaneous operating income 1,874,357 Total operating income 718,095,213 Non-operating income 237,368,878 Gross income 955,464,091 Deductions from gross income: Interest on funded debt 386,483,143 Interest on unfunded debt 28,401,357 All other deductions 227,589,566 Total deductions 642,474,066 Net income 312,990,025 Disposition of net income: Dividend appropriations 169,563,440 Imcome appropriated for investment in physical property 20,807,042 Other income appropriations 12,890,736 Total appropriations of income 203,261,218 Balance to credit of profit and loss 109,728,807 The source of revenue and the disposition is shown in the following table : RAILWAY OPERATING REVENUES, FISCAL YEAR, 1915: Freight $1,977,402,839 Passenger service train revenue 783,401,352 Passenger 629,155,489 Mail ' 56,949,414 Express 68,942,809 All other rail-line transportation 36,718,310 Total rail-line transportation 2,797,522,501 Water line transportation 13,034,648 Incidental operating revenue 58,089,968 Joint facility credit balance 2,266,698 Total operating revenues $2,870,913,815 RAILWAY OPERATING EXPENSES, FISCAL YEAR, 1915: Maintenance of way and structures $363,902,819 Maintenance of equipment 496,666,194 Traffic . 59,394,183 Transportation rail-line 1,002,619,070 Transportation water-line 8,173,995 Miscellaneous operations 22,869,188 General expenses 74,143,669 Transportation for investment Cr 6,945,165 Total operating expenses $2,020,823,953 KAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 153 average journey per person was 33.61 miles for Class I. and II. roads only. The 32,327,466,000 theoretical pas- sengers who were carried one mile in 1915 each paid 2,023 cents for the privilege, and the 277,232,653,000 tons of freight, also carried one mile, cost 7.38 mills per mile for the hauling ! The table on page 154, aranged by the Bureau of Railway News and Statistics, gives the official figures for 1914 and the unofficial figures for 1915 of both freight and passenger service. In 1915, 961,000,000 passengers were carried. Passenger trains rolled up the enormous mileage of 607,000,000 a distance which would carry a passenger three and one- quarter round trips to the sun and back again ! There were an average of 53 passengers to every passenger train, and the nine million and some passengers paid enough to make a passenger revenue of $654,000,000, more than double the revenue of fifteen years ago and at only a min- ute increased cost per mile, the 1900 figures being $0.0203 per mile. Where it comes from: THE RAILROAD DOLLAR Passengers Products of Mines Manufactures Products of Agriculture. Products of Forests. . . . Products of Animals . . . Merchandise Miscellaneous freight... Mail Express Miscellaneous 22.20 23.86 15.10 11.72 7.00 4.15 4.32 3.32 .1.97 2.37 3.99 Every one hundred dollars a railroad disburses is spent for these pur- poses in these amounts : Labor Fuel and locomotive supplies Material Loss and damages Taxes Dividends and surplus Betterments Rent of leased roads Interest $43.20 8.12 16.90 2.22 4.72 5.00 1.08 3.97 14.79 154 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES FEEIGHT In 1914, Class I. and II. roads moved 85,555,053 tons of the prod- ucts of agriculture, 23,763,262 tons of animals, 539,255,980 tons of min- ing products, 108,506,272 tons of for- est products, 135,175,536 tons of manufactured products, 36,519,321 tons of merchandise and 38,447,567 tons of miscellaneous freight. These statistics show the some- what curious result that over 55 per cent of freight moved in this coun- try is from mines and that both for- est products and manufacturing products form a greater percentage of the weight moved than do ag- ricultural products. Reducing to a unit basis official figures show that in 1914, there were 288,319,890,210 tons of freight carried one mile, equivalent to the transportation of a fleet of Lusitanias numbering 6,864,759; in other words, an un- thinkable number. MAIL AND EXPRESS In addition to the public service of moving passengers and freight, the railways haul the mail and the express, two activities which are at the very bed rock of modern busi- ness. The nation pays to the rail- CLASS OF FREIGHT MOVED, 1914 roads the sum of $57,973^106 yearly (1915 figures, Bureau of Railway News and Statistics) for carrying the mail, and the express companies $69,784,468 for carrying express, a figure by the way, which is declining COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF PASSENGER AND FREIGHT SERVICE FOR THE YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1915 AND 1914 1915 Bureau Figures 1914f* Official Figures Miles Represented 247 312 245 624 PASSENGER SERVICE Passengers carried 961 351 000 1 053,139 000 Passengers carried 1 mile 32,327,466,000 35,258,498,000 Passengers carried 1 mile per mile of line Mileage of revenue passenger trains 130,715 572,103,000 144,278 602,388,000 Average number of passengers in train Average journey per passenger miles 56.5 33 6 56 33 61 Passenger car miles 3,203,881,000 3,393,283,000 Average passengers per car . . 10.09 10.39 FREIGHT SERVICE Number of tons reported carried 1,779,512,000 1,976,138,000 Tons carried 1 mile 277 232 653,000 288,319,890,000 Tons carried 1 mile per mile of line Mileage of revenue freight trains 1,120,983 548,363,000 1,176,923 605,923,000 Average number of tons in trains 505 452 Typical haul of average railway, miles Mileage of revenue mixed trains 156 35,022,000 146 32,565.000 Total revenue train mileage 1,155,489,000 1,242,080,000 Total mileage freight cars 19,935,455,000 20,796,895,000 Average tons per car (loaded and empty) 13.55 13.86 Total locomotive miles 1,562,839,000 1,689,748,000 t Exclude returns from switching and terminal companies, included in 1915, 1914 * Class I. and II. only RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 155 TRIPLEX COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE ARTICULATED MALLET TYPE ERIE EAILROAD (Built by Baldwin Locomotive Works) yearly, due to the expansion of par- cel post. HUMAN RELATIONS If we consider the average family as consisting of three people, then there are 33,333,333 adult males in the United States. One man in every nineteen is a railroad employee. EMPLOYEES According to the official figures for 1914, there are 1,695,483 persons employed by the railroads, or 685 employees for every mile of line. These include for each mile of line 6 general and other officers, 35 clerks, 15 station agents, 66 station men, 25 engineers, 26 firemen, 19 conductors, 55 other trainmen, 23 machinists, 29 carpenters, 103 shop- men, 18 section foremen, 135 track- men, 15 switch tenders, crossing tenders and watchmen, 16 telegraph operators and dispatchers and 99 other employees. COMPENSATION The railroads disbursed in 1914 $1,373,422,472 to all employees. Of the employees receiving this huge sum about what it cost to run the United States Government, including the army and navy the general and other officers, of course, received the largest average daily compensation, of $8.40. Next highly paid are the engi- neers, with an average daily wage of $5.24, followed by conductors, aver- age daily wage $4.47; machinists, average daily wage $3.27; firemen, average daily wage, $3.22 ; trainmen, average daily wage, $3.09, down to trackmen with an average daily wage of $1.59. It is a peculiar com- mentary on the disproportionate re- lation between responsibility and pay, to learn that the average daily wage of carpenters in railroad work is $2.66 and that of telegraph ope- EEPLICA OF THE "DE WITT CLINTON," POSED BEFORE THE MOVING PICTURE CAMERA, THE ORIGINAL WAS THE THIRD LOCOMOTIVE IN AMERICA 156 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES A TRAVELING CHAPEL ON WHEELS. CHAPEL CAR "ST. PETER" rators and dispatchers but $2.56. According to well digested statis- tics, in 20 years the pay of engineers has increased 45 per cent, firemen 58 per cent, conductors 47 per cent, other trainmen 63 per cent. The average pay per year of railroad em- ployees of all classes is $825, with a road passenger engineer averaging over $2,000, a road passenger fire- man averaging over $1,200, and a road passenger conductor averaging over $1,700 per annum. Altogether twenty-two classes of employees re- ceive over $1,000 a year. FOREIGN PAY The question is of intense interest to the general public, because of the effect upon the public of railroad la- bor dissatisfaction, and the economic effect of strikes. Without going into any controversy between employees and roads or in any way taking sides, it is nevertheless interesting to compare conditions here with those abroad. In this country, let it be noted, the ratio of compensation paid employees to gross earnings is 43 per cent. The ratio of compen- sation of employees to the operating expenses is 61 per cent and the total ratio of all expenses and taxes to gross earnings is 75 per cent. Now compare with the table on page 158. ACCIDENTS The American people have become so accustomed to frightful railroad accidents that they have accepted largely without question the state- ments too often made that no rail- roads are so unsafe as those of the United States. In the year 1915, 325 railroad companies operated 161,948 miles of line, according to the Bureau of Railway News and Statistics, with absolutely no fatal- ities to passengers in train accidents. This mileage is very nearly that of Europe excluding England. To car- ry 18,083,050,000 passengers a mile and kill none of them is a real record. In 1891 the United States had 161,275 miles of road, carried 531,- 183,998 passengers and killed 110 of them. In 1915, roads operating a greater mileage, with 40 per cent ROMAN CATHOLIC CHAPEL CAR RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 157 more traffic and double the freight traffic, killed none. Three com- panies have a flawless record for twelve years, 23 for eleven years, 39 for ten years, 48 for nine years, 63 for eight years, 77 for seven years, 87 for six years, 107 for five years, 136 for four years, 178 for three years, 232 for two years, and 11 companies in 1915, 23 in 1914, and 15 in 1913 killed only one passenger each. On all roads and in all ways, there were 196 passengers killed and 10,279 injured in 1915. Employees on duty were killed to the number of 1,594 and 38,060 were injured. Two hundred and fifteen employees not on duty were killed and 840 in- jured, and trespassers, persons not trespassers but not connected with or traveling upon railways and rail- road industrial jaccidents not in- volving train operation made up the balance of the grand total of 8,621 persons killed and 162,040 injured. If you want to know exactly what PERCENTAGE OF EMPLOYEES PER MILE OF LINE your chances are of being killed in a railroad accident, supposing fu- ture conditions are similar to those A NEWSPAPER PLANT INSTALLED IN A BAGGAGE CAR A complete photo-engraving plant, composing and pressroom was provided. This was the publicity car for an automobile tour 158 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES SUMMARY SHOWING NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES COMPENSATION AND AVERAGE YEARLY PAY OP THE PRINCIPAL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND OF JAPAN COUNTKY Miles of Railway Employees, Number Compensation per year Average per year Ratio to Revenues *United Kingdom (1913) . . . German Empire (1913) .... Austria (1912) 23,691 37,894 14,185 1:643,135 786,466 280 220 $170,028,613 321.639,536 92 439 338 $279 409 330 27.2 38.0 40 1 Hungary (1912) Russia (1910) France (1908) Italy (State, 1912) Switzerland (All, 1913) . . . t Denmark (State, 1914). . . Sweden (1912) 13,303 41,622 24,915 8,387 3,148 2,333 8 659 147.194 771 938 442 709 148,569 45,386 13,198 48 330 44 218.935 163,149009 115.125,400 52.657,655 16.697,901 4,644,727 18 578 561 300 211 260 354 368 352 384 38.3 32.7 34.4 45.2 33.5 30.7 42 8 Roumania (1914) 2,200 34 422 8 523 168 248 38 4 Belgium (State, 1911) Japan (1914) 2,926 5 348 70,364 112 087 17,991,907 12 655 621 256 113 29.7 22 3 * Of British railway employees, 49,584 are classed as boys, and the compensation does not include administrative staff, t Excludes laborers. { Census 1913, latest reported. of 1915, the method is simple enough. As there were 389,487,542 passengers carried a mile in safety for every one killed in 1915, merely divide that number by the miles of your journey to find your proportionate chance. Thus,, if you happen to be going a distance of 389 miles, your chances are just one in a million of being killed. Ask any accident in- surance company what the hazards are in walking a city's streets and see how safe American railroads really are! STREET RAILWAYS The term is inclusive of what is commonly known as trolley line de- 8 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 6 I- 1890 J895 1900 IQO5 I9IO DEATH PER BILLION PASSENGER MILES THE FALLING RATE OF FATALITY JN AMERICAN RY. TRAVEL 1915 RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 159 THE HAZARDOUS LIFE OF A RAILROAD LINEMAN velopment and the statistics given include not only city and suburban but interurban electric roads. The authority is the United States Cen- sus for 1912, which provides the most recent facts obtainable for the industry. Nine hundred and seventy-five op- erating companies control 41,064 miles of track. Of this mileage 38,- 958 miles are for overhead trolley, the balance being conduit and all other forms of electrical propulsion including storage battery and third rail. City and suburban lines utilize 24,- 699 miles of track and interurban roads 16,365 miles. In 1912 these roads carried 12,- 135,341,716 passengers. Not all these produced revenue, 2,423,918,- 024 riding on transfers and 165,869,- 025 being carried free. The street railways possess 94,- 016 cars, of which 76,162 are pas- senger cars, 7,794 are express, freight, mail and baggage cars, and 10,060 work cars, snow plows, sweepers, etc. Two hundred and eighty-two thou- four hundred and sixty-one em- ployees of all sorts have a pay en- velope holding $200,890,939 per year, and it is worthy of note as showing the tremendous demand for this variety of transportation that the number of people so employed was 100 per cent greater in 1912 than in the previous census of 1902. The gross income of the 975 com- panies in 1912 was $585,930,517, of which $51,650,117 was paid out in dividends. It is interesting to note, in view of the agitation for muni- cipal ownership and the cry contin- ually going up that street railways make huge sums of money by crowd- ing cars, that the average passenger revenue is 5.27 cents, of which 3.49 cents must go for operating ex- penses. The greatest street railway mileage is in New York State, which posses- ses 4,605 miles against 4,117 in Penn- sylvania and 4,069 miles in Ohio. The least mileage is in New Mexico, which possessed 10.6 miles in 1912, followed by Nevada with 11.27. Copyright Underwood & Underwood PAINTING THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE STEEL MAIL CAR READY TO PICK UP A SACK EN ROUTE INTERIOR OF MAIL CAR CHAPTER XIII. THE POSTAL SERVICE NO part of the United States Government comes into such close and intimate touch with its people as the Pest Office Depart- ment. No function of our govern- ment is more important ; indeed, our whole commercial life is bound up with the Post Office, and a failure of the mail service would mean a domestic tragedy compared to which a state of war would be trivial. York. Boats, stage-coaches, pony express the means of transporta- tion available meant delays, uncer- tainty and expense. To-day two cents will carry an ounce of letter to the Philippines, to Alaska, to Porto Rico, to Canada, to Mexico, to Great Britain and some countries of Central and South America, and five cents will take half an ounce anywhere in the civilized world. THE MOTORCYCLE COLLECTOR CAN COVER GREAT DISTANCES THE AUTO IS A SPEEDY COLLECTOR These facts, generally recognized by common consent, have been enacted into laws governing the mail service which make "U. S. Mail" sacred property, and the integrity of the service a national pride. This is not the place for a histori- cal resum6 of the service since its formation by the Continental Con- - gress, but a word or two of the de- velopment of the system may not be out of place. In 1792 it cost seventeen cents to send a letter the distance between Boston and New Beginning with a pony express for letters only, the Post Office Depart- ment has extended its activities to meet the needs of advancing civili- zation until its ramifications and activities, while clearly defined, have broadened far beyond the mere car- rying of letters. First of these broadening horizons was the registry system by which loss of valuables is practically neg- ligible. City Delivery in all large cities has saved literally billions of dollars worth of time. "Special De- Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 162 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES livery" has saved special time when special time is of great value and at a minimum cost. This was in- troduced in 1885 the faint forerun- ner of another system of delivery which has had most tremendous and far-reaching effects. This, of course, is Rural Free Delivery the familiar "R. F. D." which has so altered country living conditions as to make them unrecognizable to those who sidered to have been spent for two cent stamps, then there was pur- chased and presumably used in 1915 the unthinkable total of 12,801,850,- 426 two cent stamps, enough for every man, woman and child in the United States to use on 128 letters each during the year! Of course the $256,037,008.51 re- ceived for stamps and stamped pa- per, which was 92 per cent of the NUMBER OF POST OFFICES BY CLASSES, JULY 1, 1911 TO 1915 YEAR First class Second class Presidential Third class Total Fourth class Total 1911. . 1912 444 457 1,907 1 940 5,643 5 830 7,994 8 227 51,287 50 502 59,281 58 729 1913 1914 485 521 1,979 2 081 5,942 6 044 8.406 8 646 49,614 48 164 58,020 56 810 1915 533 2,138 6,249 8,920 47,460 56,380 knew them best. Next came the Postal Savings system, and finally Parcel Post, so that our Post Office Department is now a banking insti- tution, an express company, a special carrier, an insurance office, a dis- seminator of knowledge (second class mail privilege), and an en- courager of thrift and business as well as a mere carriage institution for folded pieces of paper. POST OFFICES The numerical facts about our postal system are fairly staggering in their size. We have (Report for year ending June 30, 1915) 56,380 post offices, exclusive of 589 in the Philippines, under War Department jurisdiction, and 14 on the Canal Zone. Post offices are slowly de- creasing in number, due to the ex- tension of the R. F. D. service, as shown in the table above. STAMPS There are no statistics available for the number of letters transported or delivered, for obvious reasons. But if the total money expended for stamps and stanmed paper be con- postal revenue, was not all for two cent stamps, but the comparison stands. SECOND CLASS MAIL Second class mail, consisting of newspapers and periodicals mailed by the publishers at the uniform rate of a cent a pound for all distances except within the county of publi- cation, where the postage is free, amounted to 1,109,285,785 pounds. Ten Lusitanias would not weigh so much, nor would five thousand loco- motives, all over the average size used to pull trains ! What this service means to us, as an educa- tional matter, is beyond computa- tion. PARCEL POST It is impossible to say of any one work of the Post Office Department, "This is the most important." Whether parcel post or second class mail privilege, postal savings or first class mail, foreign mail or R. F. D. is most vital is hardly im- portant here. But certainly the es- tablishment and successful working of the parcel post system is not least important among those great 164 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES improvements the Postal Service has made within recent years. Exact statistics of parcels carried are not obtainable. To enable the department to ascertain the growth of the service as well as its revenues and costs, periodical counts have been made and detailed information obtained at all first and second class offices and at a number of rep- resentative third and fourth class offices of the number of parcels handled, the amount of postage thereon, and the costs of the service. Statistics in the minutest detail are compiled from these data for the 50 largest offices, which represent ap- proximately one-half of the entire postal business. The latest count, from October 1 to 15, 1915, shows that 30,939,730 parcels were mailed at these offices, on which the postage amounted to $1,856,602.82, and the total weight aggregated 41,815,452 pounds. These statistics indicate that the Postal Service is now handling 1,000,000,000 parcels annually. Dur- ing the fiscal year 18,000,000 parcels were insured, an increase of 34.78 per cent over the preceding year. The number of parcels sent C. O. D. during the year was over 4,000,000, an increase of 57.66 per cent over the number handled the previous year. Number of Routes in Thousands Appropriation in Millions of Dollars R. F. D. ROUTES AND APPROPRIATION RURAL FREE DELIVERY Since its establishment in 1897 the R. F. D. business has grown by FISCAL YEAR Routes Increase in routes Appropriation 1897 82 $40 000 1898 1899 1900 153 412 1,259 71 259 847 50,250 150,032 450,000 1901 1902 3,761 8 298 2,502 4 537 1,750,796 4 089 075 1903 1904 15,119 24 566 6,821 9 447 8,580,364 12 926 905 1905 1906 32,110 35 766 7,544 3 656 21,116,600 25,828,300 1907 37,728 1,962 28,200,000 1908 39 277 1,549 34,900,000 1909 40 628 1 351 35 673 000 1910. . 41,079 451 37,260,000 1911 41 656 577 38,860,000 1912 1913 42,199 42 805 543 606 42,790,000 47,000,000 1914 43,652 847 47,500,000 1915 43,877 225 53,000,000 THE POSTAL SERVICE 165 Photo International News Service CONVEYING MAIL IN A GREAT RAIL- WAY TERMINAL leaps and bounds. Begun with eighty-two tentative and experimen- tal routes, it now has close to fifty thousand. Its initial appropriation was $40,000, the present appropria- tion is $53,000,000, most of which, of course, goes to pay the 43,718 car- riers, the average pay of whom is not quite $1,100 annually. The table on page 164 gives in short form the increase in routes. POSTAL SAVINGS In January, 1911, the United States made its Post Office Depart- ment a great bank, by beginning the Postal Savings System. By it peo- ple of small means are encouraged to save, are provided with a quick and easy means of banking, without Rny red tape, are assured the safety of their money with all the resources and credit of the United States, and are given the privilege of converting savings into United States bonds without trouble, risk or the payment of premiums. o -i co ^ H ti .2 CQ CO' 05 I'll : 1 i '2 s 00 IF : ;? 12 OB s X <# i 111 8 g a o OJ -J ^3 O ^H r>. O t*" CO 1 j[! el - 5 ^ o OS -r i CO" 10 | 1 5 s OQ 13 & ,2 O5 O ^ oo j , o g JJ"4} ft - -T * ' P| co" 1 2 5 i | s 3 s S 1 o" ~ ci" i-s li u i.S-U j^a-s i 1 ss i; S3 s s J4J oo s i S 3 ^ eo CO S J^ 01 10 . ^ : ^ CO 10 J 21 1 3 sf iO tNOO-H OC<3 CNOO C0"5 ICU5 iH rH 3 ) C5 1C ^ CO rH O5 r- ) Tf< rH t>-t>.CO C5O OOCOCO ^CCO5 OOOCN OCO -O h- M OOOTfl TjHrHCO tNCOO CNCOkO Tt*M t^iMrt* CO -OcO O5 -OCN rH . 00 O rH .f~?0 OOCO O5-* COtt^ iOO5 Tf CO CO rH a> (Ncot^ O-^M rH-^ T) * CDOO5 CNOtO CDrHTf OOO CNOX COOC3 t^.rHlO COrHCD CN CO rHt>.t> Ot^-'lO OlO'TjT rHlCCN UJrH 00"cO*rH CN ON CN Tf ^ T^ M rH O rH ^ rH 00 [2 r^OO t^t^-t IOO5CO CO QrHrH O I> ^ O5 (N -rH OX 1 * OCN rHlOCO " (NOiO COMt>-l> l/5Ot^ OOCDCO OSrHCO rH CO O>OlO IOCO>O TjH-tOi t^-OOrH t^lO IOOOO 00 CD * < COMiH DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 237 00 CO I"* CO O ICOCO COCt^ ^,-icO OCO >COlO 0500CO CNCOlO 5t- OlC IOO5! sO co iQ coos; Ssi 111 t^ OO*# CO 500 ooooi .-l 00 *~< t^ CD CO CO CO MOO rH O O 00 O5 CO 00 O I s * t^" cqoo^ osco" %Z > * O CO 00 i""< I> Oi Z$ OOCOOCO W (N'I-H" 1-^ t^r^' if, iOi-i< ICO COt^l oo co ^ "jgw r;raw l "-t>ceo^ OOOf s^ So oA ,2^ P S 238 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES much importance can hardly be at- tached. If the war had ended in six months it is probable that many dealers in South America, for in- stance, would have returned to their old European connections, and while some may eventually return, no mat- ter how long the war lasts, others have indicated that they are satis- fied with their new American con- nections and will make no further changes. Some of our best lines of goods have now been on trial for some two years where previously they were practically unknown and they have established themselves permanently. The best American methods have also come to be under- stood where previously they were misunderstood. There are, unfor- tunately, a few American firms who have not realized their responsi- bility and have rushed in to take undue advantage of the necessities of foreign concerns. The trade done by such firms will not be retained when the war is over, but the bulk of our new business is not so done and can be retained if the proper enterprise is shown. The surplus capital that has re- sulted from the sudden increase in our foreign business will, or should, prove the most effective factor in making the new business perma- nent. Formerly it was rare to have gold flow steadily to this side of the Atlantic, but recently it has not only flowed consistently in this di- rection, but in quantities tha.t were never approached before in other countries. Wisely, much of this new capital has been invested in the newer and more undeveloped coun- tries of the world. This will insure our having a hand in building rail- roads, establishing industries, con- structing lighting and power plants, and so forth, and this in turn will make it certain that our manufac- turers will share in the business of furnishing equipment for such un- dertakings. This is a new departure for American capital. It is a step that has long been recognized as necessary if we are to find good for- eign markets for our most impor- tant products. Coming at the time when our exports to such countries are growing so rapidly, it can be taken as an indication that a large share of our new business is to be permanent. A table is given here to show as simply as possible how our trade to the various corners of the earth has increased recently. It will be seen at once how important a share of our exports go to regions far removed from the war zone. The growth of our trade with South America has appealed to the popular imagination more than that with any other district outside of Europe, and the assurance that a much larger business can be built TOTAL VALUES OF EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD DURING THE FISCAL YEARS ENDED JUNE 30, 1914, 1915, AND 1916 Country 1914 1915 1916 Relative per cent of 1916 to 1914 Belligerent Europe. . . Other Europe Canada Other North America. South America Asia . . $1,299,808,448 186,690,281 344,716,981 183,927,981 124,539,909 113,425,616 $1,565,980,315 405,454,372 300,686,812 176,388,915 99,323,957 114,470,493 $2,646,037,657 353,145,772 466,884,415 266,005,613 180,356,555 278,470,228 203.6 189.1 135.4 144.6 144.8 245.5 Australia and Oceania Africa 83,568,417 27,901,515 77,764,725 28,519,751 99,241,555 43,517,070 118.7 155.9 Total $2 364 579 148 $2 768 589 340 $4,333,658,865 183.3 DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 239 up with our nearest neighbors and can be retained has not only con- centrated the attention of manufac- turers and exporters on South Amer- ican markets and the problems connected with entering them to advantage, but has, for the first time in our history, aroused an am- bition in many young men to learn the language and customs of the countries that lie to the south of us. There are hundreds of young men now preparing for careers in foreign trade where formerly there was one, and South America more than any other section has been the lodestone. If this sudden interest does nothing more than prepare young Americans for the export trade it will have been worth while. The trade with the individual South American countries in 1916 as compared with 1914, the year preceding the war, deserves careful study. This country sold Argentina $65,993,611 worth of goods in 1916, whereas in 1914 our total sales amounted to only $45,179,089. Im- ports from Argentina increased even more rapidly, for in 1916 we pur- chased $112,512,420 worth as com- pared with $45,123,988 worth in 1914. The imports were as usual raw materials. Exports to Bolivia showed only a slight gain from $1,145,555 to $1,367,891 while our imports from that country amounted to $204,904 as compared to practi- cally nothing before the war. Ex- ports to Brazil show an increase from $29,963,914 to $41,202,277, an encouraging development that holds much promise for the future. Our purchases from Brazil increased from $101,329,073 in 1914 to $132,- 663,984 in 1916. Chile bought $17,- 432,392 worth of goods from the United States in 1914, but in 1916 the amount spent with us had in- creased to $24,289,652. We in turn greatly increased our purchases in Chile, the figures being $25,722,128 in 1914 and no less than $64,154,859 in 1916. Our exports to Colombia increased from $6,786,153 to $11,- 125,232 and our purchases increased from $16,051,120 to $21,458,029. Sales to Ecuador, while not so important as they ought to be, increased from $2,967,759 in 1914 to $3,462,040, and purchases rose from $3,595,456 to $5,848,290 in 1916. Paraguay is the one country with which business, both import and export, has fallen off. Our exports to that country amounted to only $173,191 in 1914, but in 1916 they had fallen off to a mere $73,452. Similarly, our im- ports fell from $64,651 in 1914 to $53,337 in 1916. Exports to Peru increased from $7,141,252 to $10,- 173,176 and imports from that coun- try increased from $12,175,723 to $24,326,689. Our trade with Uru- guay has resembled that of Peru so far as quantity goes, our exports in 1914 amounting to $5,641,266 and in 1916 to $10,274,426, whereas our imports increased from $7,715,144 to $14,475,478. Figures for Venezuela are also somewhat similar, our ex- ports to that country increasing from $5,401,386 in 1914 to $8,999,272 in 1916, and our purchases showing a jump from $9,763,069 to $14,912,448. The foregoing figures are signifi- cant not only in showing that our exports to South American countries have increased in a satisfactory manner in the last two years, but also in calling attention to the fact that these countries are now selling a greater quantity of goods in this country. Our purchases consist of such essential raw materials as cof- fee, rubber, tin ore, nitrates and hides, which we need in large quan- tities. Before the war much of the rubber, all of the tin, and some of the hides went to Europe, there to be manufactured and shipped across the Atlantic again to the United States. Probably when the war is over the European countries will im- port all the raw materials they need direct from South America, but it is very unlikely that they will ever again supply us extensively with goods manufactured from South American materials. This condition not only makes for greater inde- pendence on our part, but brings us 240 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES into much better relation to the South American countries. The growth in our export trade has been more rapid than the growth in our imports and is a sub- ject that is much more interesting to most Americans. It is quite nat- ural to dwell at greater length upon what we succeed in selling than upon what we have to buy. Never- theless the recent great growth in our purchases abroad is significant and deserves the most careful study. In 1914 we purchased abroad $1,- 893,925,657 worth of goods, which is not far from normal, but in 1916 we spent no less than $2,197,883,510 for foreign products. The table that follows shows the purchases made by the United States since 1904, by continents. It will be seen that imports have fallen off from Europe only. It has been impossible for the manufactur- ers in the belligerent countries to concentrate on their foreign trade as they did before the war ; so, in spite of the fact that we have had more money to spend than ever be- fore, our purchases of manufactured goods from Europe have fallen off. In many quarters this fact is looked upon as a favorable one, inasmuch as it has resulted in a tendency to rely more on our own industries. Certainly our American ingenuity has had plenty of opportunity of proving itself. We are now success- fully manufacturing many lines of goods that were formerly exclusive- ly imported. From other parts of the world, however, we are making heavier pur- chases than ever before, but such purchases, as in the case of South American countries already men- tioned, have been very largely raw materials, which formerly we im- ported indirectly in an unmanufac- tured state through European mid- dlemen or were manufactured for us by European manufacturers. This establishment of direct relations with the newer and more undevel- oped countries of the world -will be most helpful, not only in saving freight charges and in doing our own work in our own factories, but in effecting closer trade relations with the producing countries. An idea of the part played by raw ma- terials and manufactured goods in our import trade since 1870 may be had from the two tables on page 241, the second table showing in some detail the changes that have taken place in the last two years. It will be seen that the recent trend of our import trade does not threaten American interests. We are making more and more of the manufactured goods we need, and importing more and more of the raw materials that formerly were PURCHASES MADE BY THE UNITED STATES, 1904-1916 Fiscal Years Ending June 30 Imports Europe North America South America Asia and Oceania Africa Total 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 Dollars 498,697,379 540,773,092 633,292,184 747,291,253 608,014,147 654,322,918 806,270,280 768,167,760 819,585,326 892,866,384 895,602,868 614,354,645 612,252,709 Dollars 198,778,952 227,229,145 235,353,322 263,576,349 238,815,898 253,999,920 306,767,486 305,496,793 334,072,039 361,943,659 427,399,354 473,079,796 591,895,543 Dollars 120,364,113 150,795,800 140,422,876 160,165,537 124,998,590 163,878,724 196,164,786 182,623,760 215,089,316 217,734,629 222,677,075 261,489,563 391,562,018 Dollars 163,820,151 187,371,412 204,865,329 242,260,820 206,222,482 224,610,035 230,255,139 243,724,182 261,932,365 314,038,218 329,096,884 300,292,655 533,407,455 Dollars 9,426,776 11,343,622 12,628,735 21,127,466 16,290,675 15,108,627 17,489,739 27,213,620 22,585,888 26,425,344 19,149,476 24,953,081 64,765,745 Dollars 991,087,371 1,117,513,071 1,226,562,446 1,434,421,425 1,194,341,792 1,311,920,224 1,556,947,430 1,527,226,105 1,653,264,934 1,813,008,234 1,893,925,857 1,674,169,740 2,197,883,510 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 241 manufactured for us by other coun- tries. For the most part the raw materials imported are such as we can not produce at home or can not produce in sufficient quantities to meet the demand. Another development of the last two years is our transition from a debtor to a creditor nation. At least it can safely be said that we are now a creditor nation so far as cur- rent accounts go. This has been the result, of course, of shipping abroad here at home, but much of it has been invested in foreign securities, as already mentioned. Just how much has been so invested can only be estimated, but about the middle of 1916 the figure was put at nearly a billion and a half of known in- vestments, with many other pro- posed loans under consideration. The largest loans have been made to the belligerent countries, but a steadily increasing amount is going into the more undeveloped countries AVERAGE ANNUAL IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES AND THE PROPORTION OF RAW MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS, 1870 TO 1914 Period Total Value Foodstuffs Raw Materials Manufactures Value Per Cent of Total Value Per Cent of Total Value Per Cent of Total 1870-1879. 1880-1889. 1890-1899. 1900-1909. 1910-1914. $512,021,878 680,050,955 757,264,781 1,087,799,986 1,688,874,472 $189,618.034 224,892,472 261,688,223 266.573,229 397,517,016 37.03 33.07 34.56 24.51 23.54 $74,245,895 132,740,135 185,512,723 357,425,263 580,339,002 14.50 19.52 24.50 32.86 34.36 $238,691,827 311,078,907 303,883,186 456,177,165 696,400,401 46.62 45.74 40.01 41.94 41.23 IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES, CLASSIFIED BY GREAT GROUPS ACCORDING TO USE AND DEGREE OF MANUFACTURE, DURING THE FISCAL YEARS ENDED JUNE 30, 1914 AND 1916 1914 1916 Great Groups Value Per Cent Value Per Cent Crude materials for use in manu- facturing $632 865 860 33 42 $944 105 228 42 96 Foodstuffs in crude condition and food animals 247,947 621 13 09 251 833 794 11 46 Foodstuffs partly or wholly manu- factured 227,644,329 12.02 309,708,717 14 09 Manufactures for further use in manufacturing Manufactures ready for consump- tion 319,275,488 449,318,214 16.86 23.72 359,441,501 315,353,634 16.35 14.35 Miscellaneous . .... 16,874,145 89 17,440,636 79 Total $1,893,925,657 100 00 $2,197,883,510 100 . 00 so much more than we have been importing, which has enabled us to establish credit abroad, to buy up American securities held in Euro- pean countries, and to import un- precedented quantities of gold. Much of this newly acquired capital has been used for development purposes for development purposes. The pur- chase of American securities held abroad has proceeded rapidly during the last two years and it is safe to say that the total amount of paper so repurchased reaches well over a billion dollars. Some estimates have put it as high as two billions. 242 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES More accurate statistics are to be had on the imports of gold. The net inward gold movement aggregated $456,032,344 for the twelve months ended September 30, 1916. For the year previous the total was $205,- 440,751, showing that the net inward movement has doubled within a year. More gold has been added to our store in two years than has ever been added to the supply of any nation before in the same length of time, and despite all pessimistic pre- dictions it seems only reasonable to suppose that this vast accumulation will be a powerful factor in enabling the country to hold its own in the world's commerce no matter what circumstances may arise. It will enable us to maintain ourselves in foreign markets on a much better footing than ever before and will enable us to meet without embar- rassment any foreign demands for gold. Mention has already been made of the fact that we have been deal- ing more directly with some of the producing countries. A few special instances will be of interest in this connection. For a great many years previous to the war the world's furs were sold through London and Leip- sic. Our furs, which are mostly seal, were sent all the way to London to be sold, and not until they had been auctioned off and dressed and dyed did we see them again, greatly enhanced in price as the result of two trips across the Atlantic, duties, and foreign labor. Furs trapped in Northwestern Can- ada likewise were shipped across the continent, across the Atlantic, and back again to us. The war gave us the opportunity of organizing fur sales in this country, with the as- sistance of the Government, and we have learned to dress and dye our furs quite as well as anybody ever did it for us. We now buy the fur skins direct from the countries in which they are trapped, and very likely we shall continue to do so when the war is over. We are buying more rubber direct now than we ever did before, and there seems to be no reason why we should go back to European mid- dlemen in the future. One of the most important developments in the way of direct buying has been the purchase of tin ore from Bolivia. We mine no tin in this country and have always been content to have England and Germany get the ore from the Straits Settlements and Bolivia and refine it for us. As a result of the difficulties encountered in getting tin in this manner under war time conditions, a company was organized in this country to buy ore direct from Bolivia and smelt it in this country. Fifteen tons of the refined metal a day are now pro- duced here, and it is tin of the very best quality. This direct dealing with Bolivia can not help stimu- lating commercial relations between the two countries. In short, it may be said that this country will never in the future be wholly satisfied with indirect buying arrangements. Another interesting phase of our new position in world's trade is the increasing tendency to substitute dollar exchange for sterling ex- change. Perhaps it is premature to say that the substitution is or is not going to be- permanent, but it is safe to say that the experiment, even if merely tentative, has had the effect of bringing our merchants into much closer touch with the merchants of other nations than ever before. The establishment of branch banks in South America is another important step that has been taken recently in an effort to put our dealings with our South American neighbors on a more satis- factory basis. In conclusion it might be said that the pre-eminent position which the United States has come to oc- cupy in the last two years has then been of inestimable benefit in stimu- lating the industries of the country, in giving us an international point of view, and in making it possible to get into closer touch than ever before with the manufacturers, ex- DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 243 porters, merchants, importers and bankers of other countries, and it is highly desirable that we do not let slip the advantages we have gained. It is not desirable, of course, that we go on exporting twice as much as we import, for international trade can not be con- ducted on any such basis for an in- definite period, but it will be greatly to our advantage to remain the first commercial nation and to retain the best of the great business so recently acquired. It can be done if Amer- ican business men determine that it must be done, if they realize fully the importance of foreign trade. They can not do it if they return to the indifferent methods that pre- vailed when the home market was looked upon as all-sufficient. The necessity of foreign trade need not be dwelt on in an article of this kind. Even the layman has had the opportunity in the last two years of seeing what wonders a thriving foreign business can accom- plish. The fact that our sales abroad do not comprise more than 1 to 5 per cent of our sales at home does not mean that the foreign sales are of trifling importance, as was once commonly assumed. The point is that the sales to outsiders are large enough to mean .the difference between stagnation and prosperity. They are so important that our man- ufacturers cannot afford to let them fall off, and it is my opinion that they will not allow any. but the most temporary part of our new business to get away from them. RACINE REEF LIGHTHOUSE IN WINTER GARB MODERN METHODS OF ORE HANDLING IN THE HOLD OF A SHIP CHAPTER XX. COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS By Dr. EDWARD EWING PRATT CHIEF OP THE BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE WE are indebted to the great European war for the slogan "Preparedness." The word was in the dictionary before hostil- ities began, but it lacked any real vitality. Americans had always as- sumed that they were pretty well prepared for almost any eventuality, as individuals and as a community. If we needed to fight we had a pop- ulation of a hundred million to fall back on; if we ever came to a pass where we needed more foreign trade, we could go out and get it; if we needed to make things that others had always made for us, all we had to do was make them. We were living in a fool's paradise. We know now that we were not adequately prepared to do anything but drift and muddle along rather prosperously by virtue of immense resources, favorable geographical situation, and a native ingenuity and resourcefulness which we had inherited from our pioneer ances- tors. What we have learned about the necessity of military prepared- ness will not be discussed here. This article will be concerned with pre- paredness for the commercial strug- gle which will come when peace is declared and. with the preparations we are making and must make to achieve industrial independence of the older manufacturing nations of Europe. As has been said many times, we have become the leading commercial nation of the world. This is not only true, but is becoming increas- ingly evident with the passing of each month. In August and Sep- tember, 1916, our exports exceeded half a billion dollars, which is not only a higher figure than we ever reached before, but is much larger than any nation ever achieved be- fore. Our imports have also 'grown rapidly, but the balance of trade in our favor has attained enormous proportions and our industrial pros- perity is so pronounced and so real that the most carping critics no longer question it. The question is, can this great trade and this great prosperity survive the war? It is certain that we cannot retain all of the present trade and it is not at all certain that we can continue as prosperous as we have been throughout 1916. But it is certain, I think, that we need not suffer so serious a disturbance when peace is declared as has been pictured in some quarters. We have acquired much new business that can be retained if we make the proper efforts to re- tain it, and as the war goes on our opportunities for acquiring more business of that sort increase. We need a thorough appreciation of the necessity of keeping our hold on as much of our newly acquired trade Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 246 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES as possible when the war is over. We on this side of the Atlantic are under the necessity of holding our own in foreign markets if we are to avoid difficulties when the war orders cease, and it is well to bear in mind that the belligerent nations will be under the necessity of winning back their old markets if they are to meet the obligations they have incurred in the war. It will be a bitter fight, with no quarter asked and no quarter given. Our competitors will not only try to oust us from our foreign markets, but undoubtedly will carry the fight right into our home markets. In planning to meet this struggle we must consider conditions that will arise immediately upon the ces- sation of hostilities and also the more permanent conditions resulting from the war. A number of our important industries will be disar- ranged when peace is made. Manu- facturers of munitions and other supplies needed by the armies are well aware of this fact, but there are two classes of manufacturers who are not facing the facts. One class is manufacturing the materials that go into the munitions and the other is turning out goods that are not munitions, but w r hich are re- quired for military purposes. Such manufacturers should determine just how much their business has been stimulated by the war, and they should carefully charge enlarge- ments of plant and equipment against present profits. It will be necessary also to keep in mind the fact that soon after peace is made there will be decided changes in the trade routes of the world. There will be important readjustments in the principal markets. It will be an important matter for us to have a large influence in determining these changes. The permanent effects of the war are of equal importance to us. The European nations will be compelled to seek foreign markets as they THE CZAB OF RUSSIA AND MILITARY OFFICEES WITH AMERICAN BUILT RED CROSS AMBULANCE IN THE FOREGROUND COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 247 never sought them before. But let us consider carefully under what condi- tions they will be obliged to seek them. Will they be as formidable after the war as they were before? There has been a wide difference of opinion among economists as to how the cost of production in Europe after the war will compare with what it was before the war, but the longer the war continues the bet- ter agreed are the authorities that costs as a whole will be higher. There has been a tremendous loss of men, of labor power. Millions have been killed and other millions incapaci- tated. In almost all the belligerent countries there has been a rapid and steady diminution of capital. It has been used up in destruction instead of production. Taxes are certain to be excessive for years to come, for immense debts have accumulat- ed. Fiscal affairs will be disorgan- ized. These facts are given here to show that the increased cost of production in our country should not be considered an insurmountable handicap in the coming struggle. The point is that we are confronted with no insurmountable difficulties. There is no circumstance which definitely debars us from holding our own when the test comes. The problems in foreign trade which we must work out are dif- ficult ones, however, and deserve our most careful attention, for the sta- bility of our prosperity will depend almost entirely upon our success in such trade. It was our foreign trade which was interrupted when the war broke out, and it w*as this interruption which threatened the most serious economic consequences. The war taught us that our domes- tic prosperity is most vitally con- cerned with the prosperity of our foreign trade, and it is for success in this foreign trade that we must carefully plan. Let us consider a number of important factors that will have a bearing upon our success in such trade. First of all comes the question of men properly prepared to carry on our business with and in foreign countries. We have never had an adequate supply of such men. The young American has never seriously considered preparing himself for such work. Other fields have ap- peared more attractive to him. Where we have had one capable man for such work the English and Germans have had dozens or per- haps hundreds. We must set about painting the advantages of the for- eign field in their proper colors and we must at once concern ourselves with training men in a practical, efficient manner. We must have men who know business, who know their own particular business, who know foreign languages, who know how to sell goods, and, above all, men who can go into foreign mar- kets with a sympathetic point of view. For the foreign field we need men who are diplomats as well as drummers. We must also pay more attention to financing foreign trade. We must familiarize ourselves not only with the extension of credits, the estab- lishment of branch banks, the dis- counting of paper, but with the whole mechanism of foreign ex- change and the investment of Ameri- can capital in foreign countries. Of such things most of us have known very little. We must be willing and able to provide funds for the con- struction of public utilities, factor- ies, mining plants, warehouses, and other public 1 improvements. The establishment of a convention- al tariff system 's another factor that will be necessary in our cam- paign for foreign trade. Many na- tions are able, by reason of their tariff systems, not only to prohibit the sale of or to handicap the im- portation of commodities from econ- omically unfriendly nations, but they are also able to encourage the exportation of their own commodi- ties by advantageous bargains with countries which are economically friendly. A conventional tariff sys- 248 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES tern is simply a tariff system with an international point of view. It is also important that we pre- pare to become the market place of the world for certain staple com- modities. In the past we have been content to purchase our rubber, tin, wool, furs and so on through Eng- land and Germany. It is necessary that we handle some of these sup- plies ourselves. We must prepare the machinery for handling them economically the facilities for grad- ing the articles, for buying and sell- ing, for settling disputes, and so on. We have already made some satis- factory progress in this direction, and there is no good reason why we should ever go back to the old way of buying through European middle- men. One of the most important factors in our campaign will be our mer- chant marine. We are turning out new tonnage more rapidly now than any other nation, and we should continue to do so. Large accessions to our merchant fleet have resulted from the Ship Registry Act. We have heard many opinions to the effect that our navigation laws are antiquated and operate to the dis- advantage of American boats, yet there is no important difference be- tween our laws and those of other important maritime countries, and there will be fewer differences as time goes on and certain European countries have an opportunity to carry out plans formulated a short time before the war started. So much for some of the important factors we must bear in mind in making our preparations. Now let us consider some of the steps al- ready taken. Thanks to the Federal Reserve Act our financial resources are for the first time in our history mobil- ized for foreign trade. To the Federal Trade Commission we can look for guidance in the mat- ter of co-operating in foreign trade. This commission will also see to it that we are protected from unfair competition in our own markets on the part of foreign manufacturers. A Tariff Commission has been authorized by Congress. The bene- fits that will come from a scientific, non-partisan commission of this sort are too numerous to mention. In forming this commission we have taken one of the most important steps in the direction of commercial preparedness. A Shipping Board has also been brought into being. For the first time in our history we now have an efficient instrument for shaping the growth and policies of our merchant marine. Definite and constructive work in advancing our trade frontiers is be- ing done by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, of the De- partment of Commerce. This bur- eau collects information about for- eign markets for American goods. The sources are the consuls, the newly appointed commercial at- taches, and a corps of traveling special agents. The office at Wash- ington is the warehouse, and the staff there and at the district offices is engaged in selling the information for action. Action is the price and results are the object of our work. The Bureau is rapidly improving in efficiency. Private corporations have been organized for financing foreign en- terprises and large sums of Ameri- can capital have been made avail- able for use in countries that form- erly depended entirely upon Euro- pean financiers. Nothing will sta- bilize our newly acquired foreign trade quite so effectively as the ap- pearance of American gold. The lumber manufacturers of the West have organized an export sales company to assist in the sale of Douglas fir in foreign markets. This company will undertake the grading of lumber for export, the proper seasoning of such lumber, and an extensive propaganda. It is one of the most intelligent steps that any American industry has taken in this COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 249 direction. It should be studied care- fully by every other industry de- sirous of taking steps to insure it- self against disaster when the war is over. There is much that remains to be done before we can look forward with complete assurance that when the war is ended we shall be able to hold the trade we have recently acquired in the world's markets. We are still in the midst of busy preparations for the future, or should be. We cannot prepare too carefully, because failure will mean a depression from which it may take years to recover. There is another phase of indus- trial preparedness quite distinct from that concerned with hold- ing our own in foreign markets. I mean preparedness to produce here at home all articles that are essential to our well being. We must make ourselves independent of the manufacturers of foreign coun- tries. That does not mean that we must sever all relations with foreign manufacturers, but it does mean that we should be in a position to get along without them if need be if there should be another great war between the important manufactur- ing countries of Europe or if we should get into such a war ourselves. In a large measure we are al- ready independent. If Intercourse with every other nation in the world were cut off, we could manage to get along. We could produce suf- ficient food for everyone and suf- ficient clothing and fuel. Our iron and steel industry is practically self- contained. Building materials we have in plenty. There would be no suffering for lack of real necessi- ties. Inconvenience and annoyance there would be though, and, if we were involved in a great war our- selves, perhaps a serious shortage of some materials essential for the manufacture of munitions. We de- pend upon other countries for many lines that we would sorely miss. We know it now, for we have missed them during the last two years. Are we going to be in the same position some time in the future? We have made considerable pro- gress in establishing new industries to supply goods formerly made for us by Europe and in expanding old industries to meet the war-time de- mand for such goods. These new industries have resulted either be- cause certain lines of goods former- ly received from the Central Powers and Belgium have been cut off alto- gether or because accustomed sup- plies from the Allies have been great- ly reduced by the shortage of ships. In either case we are learning to manufacture goods that we previ- ously purchased abroad and this ex- perience will undoubtedly, in the long run, be of more real benefit to the country than the temporary mu- nitions business. Our principal purchases from Ger- many, in the order of their value, have been hides and furs, cotton manufactures, dyes and chemicals, machinery and other manufactures of iron and steel, potash, pottery, silk and silk manufactures, toys, glace leather and glace-leather gloves, rubber, paper and paper manufactures, and salt. Germany had a practical monopoly of several of these classes such as dyes and certain chemicals, potash and toys. It seems hardly necessary to say that the cutting off of these lines was a serious matter for us. We soon realized that we must make a serious effort to manufacture our own coal-tar products and at least a certain amount of our own potash. How well we have succeeded with the coal-tar dyes is pretty generally known. Not every user of dyed goods is wholly satisfied that the quality of our dyes is yet all that it should be, but it should be borne in mind that the demand on the hur- riedly built plants was enormous and that in some cases it was in- evitable that quantity rather than quality should be given first con- sideration. Improvement in quality 250 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES has taken place steadily, however, and it is not likely that much more fault will be found in that direction. We are now producing about half the ordinary requirement of some 29,000 tons annually and the differ- ence has been partly made up by the use of natural dyes. Congress has accorded protection to the new industry in the shape of additional tariff and the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce has supplied a detailed census of the dyes we im- ported in normal times. This census is aimed to assist manufacturers in determining how much of each color is actually needed by the dye users of the country. Previous to the publi- cation of this work only our dyestuff importers had any such knowledge of the market. One Buffalo manu- facturer has stated that the census has saved him a million dollars and years of wasted effort. There are a number of other coal- tar products for which we formerly depended upon foreign manufactur- ers, including carbolic acid, aspirin, acetanilid, photographic developers, salicylic acid, saccharin, creosote and benzoic acid. These are all manu- factured at home now, although not in the quantity that might be wished. Prices are very high. But we have demonstrated our ability to manu- facture them and it is not likely that we shall allow the experience to go for naught. The lack of potash has been a sore point. The German deposits cau be worked so cheaply that in the past there has been no incentive to recover the material from kelp, alunite or other sources, but when the German supply was cut off there began an eager searching of our own resources. The result has been that we have made considerable progress in recovering potash from kelp, alu- nite, the brine of certain alkaline lakes, tobacco stems, mica and in the manufacture of Portland cement. The supply has been barely sufficient for industrial use, however, 'and our fields have had to do without it. But our children have not been obliged to do without toys. Ameri- can ingenuity stepped in quickly when the supply of German toys was cut off and so far as novelty AGRICULTURAL FAIR AT JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA, SHOWING AMERICAN MOTOR CARS AND AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 251 goods are concerned we are better supplied now than ever. Good progress has also been made in imi- tating typical German products, and it is not at all likely that Santa Glaus will ever again import heavily from abroad to fill our stockings. As a matter of fact we are doing some foreign business in this line ourselves and satisfactory relations have already been established with dealers in England, Australia and South America. We are now importing tin ore from Bolivia and doing our own smelting. Formerly we depended almost entirely upon England and Germany for our refined tin. These countries bought their sup- plies of ore and partly refined tin from the Straits Settlements and Bolivia and did the work of completing the refining for us. The war interfered with getting the supply in this manner and a firm was organized to import the ore from Bolivia and smelt it in this country. The new plant is now turning out fifteen tons of the finest tin a day. We need about 45,000 tons a year. An attempt is being made to es- tablish an all-American linen in- dustry. For years before the war started the United States was the greatest consumer of linen goods in the world and practically all such goods were purchased abroad. The war has greatly interfered with these imports, for Russia is by far the greatest producer of the raw flax fiber required by the Irish, Bel- gian and French mills. In this coun- try flax has been raised almost en- tirely for the seed, which is used to manufacture linseed oil, and the Department of Agriculture has esti- mated that in 1915 there were some 3,000,000 acres devoted to this crop. Of this great total only 2,000 acres were planted in flax for fiber, the yield for this purpose being esti- mated at only 4,000,000 pounds. It should be kept in mind that flax growing for seed and flax growing for fiber are two separate and dis- tinct industries. To some extent flax is grown for both seed and fiber, but the farmer must decide which is to be the main product and which the by-product, just as the sheep raiser must decide whether wool or mutton is to be the main consideration when he selects the stock he is to raise. In Russia the flax grower not only raises the flax but prepares the fiber for the mills, and this is a disagreeable and in- sanitary process and one that de- pends upon very cheap labor. The problem in this country was to find a satisfactory chemical process of preparing the fiber that could be carried on in a factory. Such a process has apparently been worked out, for several important concerns are now buying flax on a large scale in the West. They are also assist- ing the farmers in a financial way. The manufacture of the coarser goods from this straw is now being carried on successfully and in time the high-grade linens will be made also, in spite of the reputation of foreign makes. In the past our foreign linen bill has been some- where between 25 and 30 million dollars annually. The manufacture of certain lines of Cotton goods has expanded in a surprising manner since the war started. There has been a marked increase in the production of fine count and novelty fabrics and manu- facturers have demonstrated their ability in designing and finishing such goods. Embroidery cotton, both mercerized and plain finished, heretofore produced almost exclu- sively abroad, is being made satis- factorily by domestic spinners. There has also been an increase in the manufacture of brass bobbin yarn for lace manufacturers. The 'large demand for all fine counts, combed, gassed and mercerized yarns has forced a considerable increase in production. Scrubbing, wiping and allied cloths produced with yarns spun from cotton waste, and. hereto- 252 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES fore imported largely from Germany and Austria, are now made in this country. The shutting off of the supply of full-fashioned hosiery formerly im- ported from the Chemnitz district in Germany has greatly stimulated the production of such hosiery in this country, as well as some grades of fine-gaged seamless hosiery. The shortage of dyes has been the only obstacle in the way of completely meeting the demand for the best grades of hosiery. The only large artificial-silk plant in this country has doubled its ca- pacity since the war started and it is said that several other such plants are to be started. Several firms that previous to the war imported loopers and flat bar knitting machines have started the manufacture of these articles. Before the war this country de- pended almost as a matter of course upon German and Austrian sources for sugar-beet seed with which to keep going our flourishing young beet-sugar industry. Ordinarily the consumption of such seed in this country is about 135,000 bags, or approximately 15,000,000 pounds, and this is almost exactly the amount of seed we imported in 1913. It is estimated that the production of seed in 1916 was 60,000 bags and that in 1917 we shall have a yield of 85,000 bags. The present pro- ducers assert that they are going right ahead until it is no longer necessary to depend upon outside sources. An American industry with a mil- lion dollar market has come into existence as a result of cutting off the imports of petroleum from Rus- sia. By the end of 1914 at least a score of American refiners were ex- perimenting in the new field and at least ten sources of domestic white oil for medicinal purposes were de- veloped. These new American prod- ucts are quite the equal of the Rus- sian product and will probably hold the market permanently. The war found us unprepared to manufacture enough lanolin, or re- fined wool grease, to meet the de- mand. Ordinarily we import about 12,000,000 pounds of crude wool grease and 2,500,000 pounds of lan- olin. The domestic production of crude grease is about 6,000,000 pounds, but very little lanolin has ever been made at home. We have always used the crude grease in tan- neries, cordage factories, etc., and left to others the work of prepar- ing the refined wool fat, so valuable in salves, ointments and emulsions. Now we are at work doing our own refining. A well-known St. Louis firm is dressing and dyeing 10,000 sealskins by a process formerly used only in England. The plant is being ex- panded. In the past we sent the skins to London for dressing and dyeing, in spite of the fact' that we are the largest producers of seal- skins in the world and the largest consumer. The first sale of fully dressed and dyed sealskins wholly "made in America" ever held in this country took place in October, 1916. We shall never go back to the old way of carrying on this business. Within the last two years there has been introduced into this coun- try the chemical porcelain industry, with the help of the Bureau of Standards. Only a short time ago there was not an American manu- facturer who believed chemical porcelain could be made from Amer- ican materials in American factor- ies. Now two establishments are making the best type of modern chemical porcelain. In the past much of the clay used in this country in the manufacture of porcelain came from England, that for the manufacture of cruci- bles and other high refractories from Germany, and that required for other fine products from France. Experts in the Department of Com- merce have pointed out that clays for all these purposes may be ob- tained in the United States and by COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 253 proper treatment be made equal and in many cases superior to the ma- terial heretofore supplied by Europe. Many of these clays are found in the South and are now being used commercially. Before the war all naphtha and gasoline safety lamps were pur- chased in Europe. Since the war started some of the foreign patents have expired and several American lamps of this type have been placed on the market. With the help of the Bureau of Mines there have also been developed several types of per- missible electric safety lamps, which are now in the market in competi- tion with foreign makes. The war has had a very stimu- lating effect on the production of crude and calcined magnesite in California. In times past these de- posits have been used very sparing- ly, and principally in connection with the paper industry. In 1913 the imports amounted to approximately 168,000 tons, while the domestic pro- duction did not reach 10,000 tons. The imported material was largely used in the manufacture of refrac- tory furnace lining and in the man- ufacture of paper from wood pulp. No exact data as to the present out- put of the American companies are available, but it is thought that the domestic production in 1916 was about equal to the former imports. Eastern users, however, are urging greater production. There has been a striking increase in the production of cutlery and related articles. The old American preference for imported articles has kept alive in this country a thriving business in such articles. Barber shears, razors., butcher knives, cleavers, boning knives, and so on, are now supplied by American man- ufacturers in sufficient quantities to meet the demand. All these articles needed was a fair trial. As a result of restriction placed upon the shipments of asbestos from Canada, which is the world's chief source of supply, we are now pay- ing attention to our own deposits. In 1915 there was a great increase in the production of high-grade as- bestos in Arizona. The lower-grade asbestos produced in this country comes mainly from Georgia. De- posits are now reported from the Caspar Mountain and other regions in Wyoming. The Geological Sur- vey is of the opinion that the pres- ent output can be greatly increased. The list could be greatly extended, but the foregoing should be sufficient to prove the point that when Ameri- cans are forced by necessity they can manufacture practically any line of goods. We have it in us to make ourselves industrially inde- pendent of all other nations in case of necessity, and we are rapidly making progress in that direction. From the evidence in the case, therefore, it appears that it is pos- sible to make preparations that will save us from disaster in foreign trade when our old competitors re- enter the field. We haven't made all the necessary preparations at this writing, but we are doing well and there is a great deal of vitality in the movement now where at first there was only talk. And we are proving that we never again will have to depend upon others for im- portant products. "Preparedness" has a real and vital meaning for Americans to-day. Copyright by B. G. Mitchell THE WOOLWOBTH BUILDING The Tallest Commercial Structure Ever Erected. Home of the "Scientific American." CHAPTER 'XXL EDUCATION FROM DATA FURNISHED BY THE U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION I. SUMMARY OF STATISTICS THERE are nearly 22,500,000 enrolled in educational insti- tutions in the United States. Of these, 19,500,000 are in elemen- tary schools; 1,450,000 in secondary schools, both public and private, and 216,000 in colleges and universities. Close to a hundred thousand are in normal schools preparing to be teachers; 67,000 are in law, medical and other professional schools, and the remaining million or more are in various types of educational in- stitutions. There are 706,000 teach- ers, of whom 580,000 are in public schools. Annual expenditures for education aggregate $800,000,000. The following table summarizes the latest school and college enroll- ment figures.* SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ENROLLMENT IN THE UNITED STATES Public Private Total Elementary (kindergarten, primary and grammar) Secondary (high schools and academies) Secondary (preparatory departments of higher institutions) 17,934,982 1,218,804 22 414 1,626,310 154,857 63 324 19,561,292 1,373,661 85 738 Universities and colleges 87,820 128,673 216,493 Professional schools Normal schools 12,289 89 537 54,777 5 749 67,066 95 286 Total for the above 19 365 846 2 033 690 21 399 536 City evening schools 610 966 610 966 Business schools .... . 168 063 168 063 Reform schools 54 798 54 798 Schools for the deaf . . . 13 370 489 13,859 Schools for the blind 4 971 4 971 Schools for the feeble-minded 15,253 687 15,940 Government Indian schools 32 718 32 718 Schools m Alaska supported by the Govern- ment 3 666 3 666 Other public schools in Alaska 3,100 3,100 Orphan asylums and other benevolent institu- tions (estimated) 20 000 20 000 Private kindergartens (individually reported)" Miscellaneous (art, music, etc.) (estimated). . 74,725 60,000 74,725 60,000 Total for special schools 738,842 323,964 1,062,806 Total for all schools in the United States 20,104,688 2,357,654 22,462,342 'From Annual Report of the TJ. S. Commissioner of Education, 1916. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 256 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES OOi .-i05 5>OCO -H^H 05 N -8 O O>iO * 1000 CO t- ^ iooo C005 COO CO H * ^ CO * (OT}< N rH TH U3 CO ^ O rM-^ lOlO l-l^lClOjvj t^ruf oo'co So ^ O5 Tf oc ic" _ oS^eS S8U II. ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES Education in the United States has developed as a State rather than a national matter. All the States provide elementary educa- tion, ranging from seven to nine years, and secondary education of one or more years, and in practically every State higher educational op- portunities are available without cost for tuition to both sexes. Re- cently provision has been made in some States for adequate vocational, commercial and professional educa- tion at public expense, but only a small number of States have as yet created State systems of vocational education. Support of schools is from State and local sources, the proportion ranging from Massachu- setts, where 96.8 per cent of the funds come from local taxation, to Alabama, where only 24 per cent of the funds for school purposes come from local taxation and 69.4 per cent from the State. The Federal Government early in its history made important grants of land for general educational purposes; it gives financial aid to agricultural and mechanical colleges and experi- ment stations in all States, and has recently begun to support extension education for agriculture and home making. It has also maintained, since 1867, a Federal Bureau of Ed- ucation which serves as a clearing house of information on educatior for the benefit of all the States Control of public schools, orjginally centered in the local community, has lately become transferred in large measure to the county and to the State, as State aid and responsibil- ity for education have broadened. Conditions still vary, however, from almost complete State domination in a few States to nearly complete lo- cal autonomy in others. The National Government exerts no control over education in the States other than that involved in the administration of certain land grant funds and ap- propriations for extension educa- tion. The function of the Federal EDUCATION 257 Bureau of Education is advisory rather than administrative. III. COMPULSORY EDUCATION Education is compulsory, to a greater or less degree, in all the States except one Mississippi. Massachusetts adopted a compul- sory education law in 1852. Ver- mont followed in 1867; Michigan, New Hampshire and Washington in 1871; Connecticut and New Mexico in 1872 ; Nevada in 1873 ; California, Kansas, New York, New Jersey, Maine, Ohio, Wyoming and Wiscon- sin between 1874 and 1880. The more recent adoptions have been in the Southern States: Alabama, Florida, South Carolina and Texas in 1915 and Georgia in 1916. The laws vary widely in scope and ef- fectiveness. In some States they are operative only after acceptance by counties and local communities ; in others they are effective for only part of the territory of the State, large areas being exempted. The upper age limit for compulsory at- tendance ranges from age 12 in Georgia, Kentucky, North Carolina and Virginia, to age 16 in sixteen of the States, and 18, under certain conditions, in one (Idaho). The more usual compulsory period is 8 to 14 years of age, or "until com- pletion of the eighth grade." The minimum attendance in any one year varies from twelve weeks in Nebraska and Virginia to the "full school year" in twenty-nine States. Compulsory education laws have usually been fortified by State child labor acts and more recently (1916) by a Federal child labor law. IV. ILLITERACY Illiteracy in the United States Is 7.7 per cent as compared with 1 per cent in Great Britain, 4.3 per cent in France and 0.05 per cent in Germany. According to the census of 1910 there were five and a half million illiterates in the United States over 10 years of age. This is over a million more than the combined total population of Mon- tana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Ne- vada and California (4,447,507) ; or of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts and Rhode Island (5,438,945) ; or of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida (4,877,140). A State made up of these illiterates would be nearly as large as Illinois (5,638,591). There were more il- literates in 1910 than comprised the entire population of the United States in 1800 (5,403,383), or the equivalent of the entire combined metropolitan population of Phila- delphia, St. Louis, Boston, Cleve- land, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Detroit, and Buffalo. The percentage of il- literacy in the United States was lowered between 1890 and 1910 from 13.3 per cent in 1890 to 10.7 per cent in 1900, and 7.7 per cent in 1910 ; but the number of illiterates decreased less than 15 per cent and the num- ber of foreign born illiterates in- creased 43 per cent. More than two-thirds of all illiterates are country-dwellers ; the rural illiteracy (10.1 per cent) is nearly twice that in the cities (5.1 per cent). Exist- ing illiteracy is therefore ascribed to foreign immigration and lack of school facilities in country districts. The State and national governments are aiding city evening schools to eliminate illiteracy among the for- eign born, and several States Ken- tucky, Alabama, North Carolina have created State illiteracy commis- sions to deal with the problem in rural communities. V. TYPES OF SCHOOLS Elementary. Elementary educa- tion in the United States has become almost exclusively a public function. Of the 1,626,310 pupils reported in private elementary schools, 1,429,859 are in parish schools of the Catholic Church. Private kindergartens and special schools account for a large part of the remaining number. Secondary. The high school is the most typical American educa- tional institution. There are 11,674 public high schools, of which 8,440 258 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES have four-year courses. Secondary education has become more and more a public function; 89 per cent of the secondary students are in public high schools. It is estimated by the United States Bureau of Edu- cation that 25 out of every 100 children who enter school reach the high school, and that 10 out of every 100 graduate from high school. The most important recent change in sec- ondary education is the gradual in- troduction of the so-called "six-and- and 468 under private control; 327 are controlled by religious denomi- nations; 140 are for men only; 83 for women only ; and 340 are coedu- cational. There are 152,307 men students and 84,861 women students.* The number of men students has tripled and the number of women students has more than quadrupled since 1890. The following table shows the dis- tribution of school enrollment in the elementary and higher grades: DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL ENROLLMENT ACCORDING TO ESTIMATED PERCENTAGES Grades Estimated per cent. Estimated enrollment in grades First grade 23 50 4,596,904 Second grade Third grade 14.79 13 91 2,893,115 2,720,976 Fourth grade Fifth grade 13.28 11.28 2.597,739 2,206,514 Sixth grade 9.25 1,809,419 Seventh grade Eighth grade 7.63 6 36 1,492,527 1,244,098 Total elementary 100 00 19,561,292 First year high school 40 14 585,803 Second year high school Third year high school 26.75 18 84 390,389 274,951 Fourth year high school 14.27 208,256 Total high school 100 00 1,459,399 Higher institutions 378 845 Grand total 21,399,536 *Tbese are later figures than appear in/ the of this chapter. general summary at the beginning six" plan of organization, whereby six years are assigned to elementary education and six to secondary, the latter period being divided into "junior" and "senior" high schools of three years each. A hundred and fifty cities had taken steps toward adopting this form of organization in 1915. Higher Education. Of the 563 colleges and universities listed by the United States Bureau of Edu- cation, 95 are public . institutions VI. TEACHERS Of the 706,152 teachers employed in the United States, 169,029 are men and 537,123 women. The num- ber of teachers nearly doubled in the thirty years between 1885 and 1915. Nearly five-sixths of the teachers in public elementary schools are wo- men, and of the 57,909 public high school teachers, 32,862 are women. The colleges and universities have 5,293 women instructors and 19,447 men, The following table summar- EDUCATION 259 izes the number of teachers in vari- ous types of schools. VII. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Six States Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, In- diana and Wisconsin have regular- ly established systems of vocational or industrial education. Two others been pointed out that prior to the outbreak of the European war more trade workers were being trained at public expense in the city of Munich than in all the larger cities of the United States combined. VIII. COST OF EDUCATION The estimated cost of education TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES Teachers in Men Women Total Public elementary schools Public high schools Private elementary schools (estimated) Private high schools 89,615 25,047 8,060 5,820 432,534 32,862 39,354 8,070 522,149 57,909 47,414 13,890 Universities and colleges: Preparatory departments . ... 2,484 1,493 3,977 Collegiate departments Professional schools: Theology 16,963 1 516 3,800 20,763 1,516 Law 1,471 1,471 6 955 6,955 1 532 1,532 744 744 Veterinary medicine Normal schools, public: Normal department Other departments 364 1,636 605 2,904 981 364 4,540 1,586 Normal schools, private: Normal department Other departments Commercial and business schools Schools for defectives and delinquents Indian and Alaskan schools Kindergartens and miscellaneous (estimated) . 136 132 2,019 1,175 1,255 1,500 223 131 1,731 2,728 1,638 8,674 359 263 3,750 3,903 2,893 10,174 Total 169,029 537,123 706,152 California and Connecticut- maintain State-aided vocational schools, and some form of vocational or industrial education is provided by eight other States, while in the States which do not provide State aid for vocational education separate municipalities have established sev- eral types of vocational education at public expense. The need for indus- trial training for the youth of the nation has been urged by organiza- tions of business men, labor-union workers, and schoolmen within the past few years as a measure of national conservation and prepared- ness. European nations especially Germany have been ahead of the United States in this regard. It has in the United States for 1914, the latest year for which statistics are available, was $794,459,968. The table over leaf shows the distribu- tion of this expenditure and the per capita cost for different types of schools. IX. GIFTS AND BEQUESTS TO EDUCATION In the forty-four years, 1871 to 1914, private philanthropy added $584,418,082 to the available funds of colleges and other educational in- stitutions in the United States. The bulk of these funds goes to colleges and universities. Of the $31,357,398 given in 1914, $26,670,017 was for universities and colleges, $1,558,281 for schools of theology, $203,067 for 260 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES SCHOOL ENROLLMENT AND ESTIMATED COST Classification Enrollment, 1914 Estimated per capita cost Estimated total cost Public elementary schools 17,934,982 $27 11 $486 165 968 Public high schools ' 1 218 804 56 54 68 911 178 Private elementary schools 1 626 310 32 00 52*04 1*920 Private high schools Other public and private secondary schools . . Universities, colleges and professional schools Normal schools Commercial and business schools Reform schools Schools for the deaf 154,857 85,738 283,559 95,286 168,063 54,798 13 859 94.10 157.47 335 . 57 158.34 50.00 157 . 92 300 80 14,572,044 13,501,163 95,153,894 15,087,585 8,403,150 8,653,700 4 168 787 Schools for the blind 4,971 498 34 2 477 248 Schools for the feeble-minded 15 940 555 42 8 753 495 Government Indian schools 32,718 116 69 3 817 863 Schools in Alaska supported by the Federal G o vernment 3 666 56 13 205 773 Other public schools in Alaska Orphan asylums, etc 3,100 20 000 50.00 200 00 155,000 4 000 000 Private kindergartens Miscellaneous music, art, etc . 74,725 60 000 32.00 100 00 2,391,200 6 000 000 Total. 21,851,376 $36 36 $794 459 968 law schools, $1,495,773 for medical schools, $607,431 for public normal schools, $116,283 for private normal schools, and $706,546 for private sec- ondary schools. The following table shows the annual amount of gifts and bequests to education since 1S94 : GIFTS AND BEQUESTS TO EDUCATION, 1894-1914 1894 $10.855,305 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1900 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914. . volumes is an increase of 20,000,000 since 1908. X. LIBRARIES There were over 18,000 regularly established libraries in the United States in 1913, containing more than 75,000,000 volumes. The number of READING BOOM, CONGRESSIONAL LEBHARY EDUCATION 261 Of the 2,849 libraries containing 5,000 volumes or over, 1,844 are classified as "public and society li- braries," and 1,005 are school and college libraries. Public and society libraries have an aggregate of over fifty million volumes, with seven million borrowers' cards in force; 1,446 of these libraries were entire- ly free to the public. Libraries reporting from 1,000 to 5,000 volumes numbered 5,453, of which 2,188 were public and society libraries, and 3,265 school libraries. These libraries contained 11,689,942 volumes. Another group of libraries, comprising those that reported from 300 to 1,000 volumes, increased the total by 2,961,007 volumes. Of the 1,844 public and society libraries with over 5,000 volumes reported for the entire United States, more than half were in the North Atlantic States, and they contained 24,627,921 volumes out of the total of fifty millions; and of the three million volumes added to library collections for the year 1913, almost one-half were for the same section. New York State had 7,842,621 volumes in her 213 libraries ; Massachusetts, 7.380,024 in 288 libraries; Pennsylvania, 3,- 728,070; and Illinois, 3,168,765 volumes. Four-fifths of the bor- rowers' cards in use were in the North Atlantic and North Central States. Photo Harris & Ewing ENTRANCE HALL, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CHAPTER XXII. THE NEW NAVY THE NAVAL PROGRAMME OF 1916. ON August 29, 1916, President Wilson signed the Naval Ap- propriation Bill, authorizing a three-year building programme, of greater size and importance than this nation has ever previously con- templated. To get a perspective on this bill and what it means, consider INCREASE OF NAVY SINCE 1903 YEAR 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910... 1911.... 1913 1914 1915... Appropriation $102,091,670.27 98,958,507.50 122,663,885.47 136,935,199.05 131,350,854.38 126,478,338.24 123,225,007.76 140,800,643.52 144,868,716.61 149,661,864.88 Amount for increase navy $33,475,829.00 23,713,915.00 30,307,962.00 38,819,595.00 33,770,346.00 26,005,547.67 20,569,373.48 35,325,695 , 00 41,091,734.00 46,853,801.00 Building programme 1 first-class battleship 3 torpedo-boat destroyers 8 submarines 1 first-class battleship 2 torpedo-boat destroyers 2 first-class battleships 5 colliers 10 torpedo-boat destroyers 8 submarines 2 first-class battleships 1 collier 8 destroyers (3 sub-surface) 4 submarines 2 first-class battleships 2 colliers 6 torpedo-boat destroyers 4 submarines 2 first-class battleships 2 colliers 1 river gunboat 1 gunboat 2 tugs 4 submarines 1 submarine tender 8 torpedo-boat destroyers , 1 battleship, first line I 2 fuel ships 6 destroyers 1 destroyer tender 8 submarines 1 submarine tender 1 battleship 1 transport 1 supply ship 6 destroyers 4 submarines 3 battleships 6 destroyers 8 (or more) submarines 2 battleships 6 destroyers 2 seagoing submarines , 16 coast-defense submarines ! 1 oil fuel ship Copyright by Munn & Co., IDC, 264 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES the figures on the preceding page showing the increase during the past years. With these figures in mind con- sider the present bill, which in addi- tion to provision for enlarged per- sonnel and material authorizes ten battleships, six battle cruisers, ten scout cruisers, fifty destroyers, nine fleet submarines, fifty-eight coast submarines, three fuel ships, one re- pair ship, one transport, one hos- pital ship, two destroyer tenders, one submarine tender, two ammuni- tion ships and two gunboats. As soon as is practicable, which means in the very ne*r future, four battle- ships, four scout cruisers, four bat- tle cruisers, twenty destroyers, thirty coast submarines, one fuel ship, one hospital ship, one ammunition ship and one gunboat are to be begun indeed, the bill makes it mandatory to contract for or begin construc- tion on these within six months. For months the technical bureaus of the Navy Department have been working on the designs of the ves- sels. In these designs they have in- corporated military characteristics which are the result of the lessons learned from naval operations in the war and their application to the re- quirements of the Navy. The de- partment advertised for bids for tho construction of four battleships, four scout cruisers, twenty destroyers and thirty submarines of two dis- tinct types the day the bill was affirmed and at the same time di- rected the navy yards at Philadel- phia, Boston and Charleston to pro- ceed with the construction of the hospital ship, the fuel ship and the gunboat, respectively. The battleships, known for the present as Nos. 45 to 48, inclusive, will be slightly larger than their predecessors, the "Tennessee" and "California." Their chief charac- teristics are: Displacement, 32,600 tons ; speed, 21 knots ; battery, eight 16-inch guns, eighteen 5-inch guns, four 3-inch anti-aircraft guns; com- plement, 1,022. They will have the large cruising radius which charac- terizes all recent United States bat- tleships. Their armor and under- water protection will be unusually complete. The scout cruisers, known as Nos. 4 to 7, inclusive, will be the largest and fastest vessels of this class ever laid down for any navy. The chief characteristics are : Displacement, 7,100 tons ; speed, 35 knots ; length, 550 feet; beam, 55 feet; armament, eight 6-inch guns, four torpedo tubes and two 3-inch anti-aircraft guns; complement, 330. Their high-pow- ered machinery installations will be protected by light but efficient ver- tical and horizontal armor. A new feature never before incorporated in any ship of a powerful military type will be the equipment for carrying, launching and operating four of the largest size hydro-aeroplanes. The torpedo boat destroyers, known as destroyers Nos.' 75 to 94, inclusive, will carry a heavy battery and will have an unusually large cruising radius. They represent a small increase in displacement over the last class laid down, but will deliver an increased speed of about five knots. Their chief characteris- tics will be: Displacement, 1,185 tons; speed, 35 knots; battery, four 4-inch guns, four triple torpedo tubes, two anti-aircraft guns; com- plement, 95. They will attain their rated speed on full designed dis- placement, and not on a very much lesser displacement, which can only be attained by the stripping of many essentials, as in a number of foreign boats of this class, for which very high speeds are claimed. Of the coast defense submarines, twenty-seven will be of the usual type known as Nos. 78 to 104, in- clusive. The remaining three, Nos. 105, 106 and 107, will be a new type representing a marked increase in size over the usual coast-defense submarine and a decrease in size from the very large fleet submarine. Each of these three vessels will rep- resent different ideas in their de- tailed designs, and the Navy hopes, in their development, to arrive at a OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES size of vessel which will be suffi- ciently large to perform nearly all the duties required of a submarine, but at the same time will be suffi- ciently small to enable it to be built quickly in large numbers. The hospital ship will be the first built especially for this purpose for the Navy, those now in use being converted merchant vessels. The design has been worked out by the technical bureaus of the department in constant consultation with the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, with the result that it will embody every feature of the most up-to-date hospital on shore. It will have ac- commodations for 500 patients. Its chief characteristics and dimensions are: Displacement, 9,800 tons; length, 460 feet; breadth, 60 feet 10% inches ; draft, 19 feet 6 inches ; speed, 16 knots. As this vessel will be, under the terms of the Geneva Convention, immune from capture or attack in time of war, it will not, in accordance with the terms of that convention, carry an armament of any kind for offense or defense, and its design includes no military fea- tures of any sort. The fuel ship, known as fuel ship No. 16, will be a large oil tanker, of ordinary commercial type, except that its design will meet the re- quirements for a vessel which must accompany the battle fleet and be prepared to supply fuel oil to ves- sels of all sizes under adverse con- ditions of wind and sea. Its chief dimensions and characteristics are: Displacement, 14,500 tons ; length, 455 feet; beam, 56 feet; draft, 26 feet 4 inches (about) ; total dead weight carrying capacity, 9,600 tons ; speed, 14 knots. The gunboat, known as gunboat No. 21, will be a vessel designed espe- cially for long-continued service in tropical waters. Its chief charac- teristics will be : Displacement, 1,575 tons ; length, 241 feet 2 inches ; breadth, 41 feet 2% inches; draft, 11 feet 4 inches; armament, three 4-inch guns, two 1-pounder guns, four 30-caliber machine guns, two 3-inch field guns, two 3-pounder guns; speed, 12 knots; complement, 149. The only designs of the current programme not yet completed are those for the battle cruiser and the ammunition ship. Plans and speci- fications for the battle cruisers will be completed and issued to bidders about October 1, 1916, and for the ammunition ship November 1, 1916. This will permit contracts to be placed in advance of the termina- tion of the six months period named in the Appropriation Bill. VESSELS IN THE NAVY According to the official reports there were upon the Navy list 399 vessels June 30, 1915, listed as fol- lows: Battleships, 41; submarines, 57 ; fuel ships, 24 ; tugs, 48 ; yachts, 16 ; cruisers, 24 ; gunboats, 31 ; de- stroyers, 69; torpedo boats, 20; transports, 6; tenders, 9; monitors, 9; special types, 8; supply ships, 5; hospital ships, 2; armored cruisers, 10, and ships of all kinds in an un- serviceable condition, 20. In addi- tion to this list of ships there are authorized by the Naval Act of Copyright American Press Association SUBMARINE "D-l" 268 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES March 3, 1915, battleships Nos. 43 and 44, destroyers Nos. 69 to 84, inclusive, and submarines Nos. 60 to 77, inclusive. Appropriations for the beginning of the construction of these vessels were made available July 1, 1915. It is expected that on July 1, 1917, there will be in active commission the following vessels : Battleships 22 Armored cruisers 5 Cruisers 12 Destroyers 52 Gunboats 26 Submarines 56 Destroyer tenders 4 Submarine tenders 6 Transports 2 Repair ships 2 Fleet tugs G Hospital ship 1 Fleet colliers (manned by naval crews) 4 Mining ships 2 Supply ships 3 Ammunition ship 1 And in reserve with 40 per cent complements : Battleships over 15 years old 17 Armored cruisers 5 Cruisers 11 Destroyers 1C Old torpedo boats 19 Destroyer tender ("Dixie," 194) .... 1 Submarine tender ("Iris," 86) 1 Supply ship (100) 1 Transport ( 100) 1 NAVY OF THE FUTURE In its 1915 departmental report the Navy Department lists those ships of the present fleet, afloat and building, which will be serviceable in 1922. To this list must now be added the authorized ships in the most recent Navy bill, in order to gain an idea of what our present and projected Navy will amount to when the present stupendous pro- gramme is completed. Of course, the present plans are to complete the programme prior to 1922, and unquestionably further additions will be made to the Navy in future Congresses, but the following list, which is compiled from the Navy Department figures plus those of the new bill, should indicate the ap- proximate strength of the Navy in usable, lightable ships at a date of approximately 1920 to 1922, as far as present knowledge can project it: SHIPS OF THE FLEET SERVICEABLE IN 1920-1922 Dreadnoughts, first line. 27 Pre-dreadnoughts, second line 13 Superannuated pre-di ead noughts, third line 9 Battle cruisers . . o Scouts 31 Destroyers 108 Fleet submarines . 12 Coast submarines 120 Fuel ships 16 Repair ships. 3 Supply ships 4 Transports 5 Hospital ships 2 Mine ships 3 Destroyer tenders 4 Fleet submarine tenders 2 Ammunition ships 2 Harbor defense monitors 6 Harbor defense battleships 3 Gunboats 26 NAVY YARDS, STATIONS, BOSSESSIONS To the average man the Navy con- sists of the vessels which float in the water and such property as may be upon them. To the naval man, however, the property ashore neces- sary to maintain the ships at sea is every whit as important as the ves- sels themselves, and, as will be seen in a moment, is .no inconspicuous part of the expenditures necessary to make or maintain the Navy. The United States possesses eleven navy yards in the United States, located at Portsmouth, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk, Mare -Island, Puget Sound, Charleston, Pensacola and New Or- leans. Across the water it has navy yards in Hawaii, Cavite and Oloii- gapo. It possesses naval stations at Port Royal and Key West, and abroad at Guantanamo, San Juan, Guam and Tutuila. It possesses training stations at Newport, San Francisco and the Great Lakes; coaling stations at Frenchman's Bay and Melville, and in addition has property at Sitka, Alaska ; New London, Conn. ; Yokohama, Japan ; the Naval Academy at Annapolis, the naval proving ground at Indian Head, a naval hospital at Las THE NEW NAVY 269 Animas, a naval base at Culebra and a torpedo station at Newport, R. 1. The investment in these naval estab- lishments totals $196,059,926 since the beginning of the modern idea of the Navy in 1800, when the Ports- mouth, Boston, Washington and Norfolk navy yards were first estab- lished. COST OF NAVY The total cost of all the ships upon the Navy list to the date men- tioned, and excluding the new work authorized in the Naval Act of March 3, 1915, or the ships author- ized in the tremendous 1916 bill, is $459,686,551.32. It must not, however, be supposed that adding together the cost of bat- tleships and the cost of naval estab- lishments gives any idea of the cost of the entire Navy since it was first begun. The total expenditures for the Navy from 1794 to 1915, inclu- sive, totals the unthinkable sum of $3,214,339,051.10. This, of course, includes ships, establishments, pay, materials and all expenses in con- nection with the Navy Department. HOW NAVY APPROPRIATIONS ARE SPENT The Bureau of Supplies and Ac- counts of the United States Navy requires a closely printed statistical report of 294 pages to summarize the financial operations of the Navy. Nothing, therefore, but the most comprehensive and inclusive statis- tics can be given in the short space here available. The table on the next page will be found interesting as showing the principal items of expenditures in connection with the Navy. New expenditures authorized for the Navy include $11,000,000 for an armor plant and $1,500,000 for an experimental and testing laboratory. ENLISTED PERSONNEL Having a certain number of fight- ing ships and the required naval BLTJEJACKETS, NAVAL TRAINING STATION, NEWPORT, E. X. 270 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES PRINCIPAL ITEMS Amount appropriated by Congress for the flscal year 1915 ......... $145,61 6,241. 9C Total expenditures during 1915 ............. . Expenditures for maintaining ships in commission : Operation ................................................. $46,890,893.90 Repairs to ships ............................................ 4,931,279.89 Changes .................................................. 3,071,837.55 Repairs to equipage ............................... .......... 430,757.34 Total ................................................... $55,324,76&tB Expenditures for construction of vessels : Battleships ................................................ $20,029,890.37 Gunboats and fuel ships ..... ............................ 1 913 950.53 Destroyers ................................................. 5,475,285.52 Submarines ................................................ 3,636,416.44 Tenders and tugs ---- 935,121.34 Total (at navy yards, $4,540,152.65; under contract, $27,450,- 511.57) .................................. ............. $31,990,664.22 Expenditures for pay and allowances of officers and men : Navy $41,185,445.10 Marine Corps 3,920,563.99 Total $45,106,009.09 Cost of subsisting the enlisted men of the Navy and Marines afloat. $5,897,181.54 Average cost of subsisting one man for one day .36 Cost of maintenance of navy yards 16,275,490.63 Cost of all work done at industrial yards : Labor $17,*43,767.56 Material 14>5*,449.OO Indirect expense. .. 4,277,083.91 Total $37,079,300.47 f materials received into store (inclndi >f materials Issued from store (includi y investment of naval establishment: Value of materials received Into store (Including ordnance material) . $112,118,294.44 Value of materials Issued from store (including ordnance material. . 105,482,564.30 Propert Ships $459,686,551.32 Stations 206,635,104.59 Stores 192,070,228.67 Total - $858,391,884.58 Expenditures for naval militia.. 5 - __ : Present value of clothing and small-stores fund : Stock $3,587,075.04 Money ... : ":: 47 56 Total $5,104,422.54 stations, bases and navy yards to propriations and provision for this keep them in condition, a navy increase. would nevertheless be helpless were The total enlisted force 1 in the it not for its personnel, regarded by United States Navy was, on Jane Navy men as equally important with 30, 1915, 52,561 men, of which 47.505 material and equipment, and gener- were native born and 5,056 were for- ally all too much disregarded by the eign born. Of these, 48,908 were appropriating power, unfortunately white, the balance being negro, Chi- a non-technical body of men. Never- nese, Japanese, Filipino, Samoan. theless, the last Congress, in its huge Hawaiian, American Indian and building programmeTtoote cognizance Porto Rican. Fifteen States of the of the fact that more men and offi- United States furnish 65 per cent of cers were necessary and made ap- ..the enlisted, force. New York fur- 272 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Dishes the largest number of native born American seamen in the Amer- ican Navy, 6,719, and Alaska the smallest number with 6. Contrary to the general opinion the United States Navy does not have difficulty in obtaining men for enlistment. Its trouble comes in the high standard which makes the ma- jority of applications result in re- jections. For instance, during the year 1915 there were 102,561 appli- cations for enlistment. Of these only 17,704 were enlisted and 6,291 of this number were re-enlistments. Over 6.1,000 of the rejections were on account of disability and 17,000 for other causes. In order to supply men qualified for certain ratings in the Navy, the following schools are maintained : Electric schools at New York and Mare Island. Machinists' school at Charleston, S. C. Torpedo school at Newport, R. I. Coppersmith school at Philadel- phia. Fuel oil school at Philadelphia. Artificer school at Norfolk. Yeoman schools at Newport and San Francisco. Commissary schools at Newport and San Francisco. Hospital attendant schools at Newport and San Francisco. Musician schools at Norfolk and San Francisco. Mess attendant school at Norfolk. During the last fiscal year 2,278 men were pursuing courses at these various schools. Of these, 1,302 completed their course and were de- tailed to active duty. A new class of enlisted men at the Pensacola Aviation School is formed every three months. Some of these men are taught and exer- cised in the principles of flight, and all are trained in the mechanics of aviation. On January 1 a school for the DISTRIBUTION OF ENLISTED MEN OCTOBER 1, 1915 Vessels afloat (including 305 insular force) 41,593 Four training stations, including those under instruction, instructors and necessary details 4,494 Fifteen trade schools, including those under instruction, instructors and necessary details 1,376 Total 5 > 87 Sixteen hospitals: Hospital attendants 398 Patients 1.179 Total ' 1 57 '' Recruiting stations : Thirty-five main stations ; eighty-three substations 40 1 Radio stations * JV Aeronautic station *%* Vessels under construction ^ 0*** Grand total 52 > 636 Insular force (included in above table) : 17C! Cavite IT? Olongapo 3 8 Guam 5 Tutuila _ Total . 458 274 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES care and handling of gasoline en- gines was added to the School for Machinists' Mates at Charleston. It embraces a three months' course, in which the men learn to handle motor boats and vessels w^hich use this type of small engine. The radio courses at the Electric Schools at New York and Mare Island have been extended to in- clude, besides the Continental Morse Code, the American Morse Code, so that all the men who qualify at these schools may be competent to talk to any commercial shore sta- tions as well as the naval stations. DESERTIONS One of the troubles of all navies is found in the practice of deser- tion. Many men cannot stand dis- cipline, others become dissatisfied for one reason or another, and, fail- ing to understand the seriousness of the offense or being willing to take the chance of iDunishment if detect- ed, absent themselves from the Navy without permission and thus become deserters. Two thousand three hun- dred and twenty men thus deserted during 1915, a decrease of several hundred under 1914 and a still larger decrease from 1913 and 1912, the figures for which are respect- ively 3,237 and 3,055. Of the 1915 deserters, 480 voluntarily returned to service, and 413 absentees were apprehended and delivered. In 1907 a finger print identifica- tion system was installed in the identification office which now con- tains the finger prints of 133,214 men, including, of course, all those who have enlisted in the Navy since the establishment of this system. The result of the finger print sys- tem is to prevent re-enlistment under assumed names of men who have deserted from the Army and Navy or Marine Corps or who have been discharged for various reasons which would prevent them from re- LAYING THE KEEL OF A BATTLESHIP IS AN IMPRESSIVE CEREMONY 276 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES entering the service under their own names. OFFICERS The officers of the Navy are of various classes, as follows : Line, Medical, Dental, Pay, Chaplains, Professors of Mathematics, Naval Constructors and assistants, Civil Engineers and assistants, Chief Warrant Officers and Warrant Offi- cers. On June 30, 1915, there were, of all kinds, 3,803 officers in the service. Their classification is shown in the appended table: June 30, 1915 Line 2,029 Medical 351 Dental 31 Pay 221 Chaplains 27 Professors of mathematics 17 Naval constructors and assist- ant naval constructors 77 Civil engineers and assistant civil engineers 40 Chief warrant officers 468 Warrant officers 542 Total 3,803 Sixty-nine per cent of the Line Officers, 55 per cent of the Warrant Officers, 41 per cent of the Medical Corps, 45 per cent of the Pay Corps, 30 per cent of the Dental Corps, 1 per cent of the Naval Constructors and 53 per cent of the Chaplains were doing sea duty during 1915. It is therefore obvious what is sel- dom understood by the layman that a large proportion of the avail- able officers of the Navy must be engaged in shore duty ranging all the way from Annapolis work to being in charge of a radio station, from assignment to a navy yard to that of the Naval Observatory without which the Navy as a fight- ing organization would be like a movable body without a directing head. According to the provisions of the new Navy Bill, commissioned offi- cers (of the line) instead of being an arbitrary number will be based on a percentage of the number of en- listed men. The new law provides that there shall be line officers to the number of 4 per cent of the en- listed personnel. At the present time there are, in round numbers, 54,000 enlisted men. This number, however, is to be largely increased in the near future as fast as enlist- ments can be made. Sixty-eight thousand men are authorized, and 4 per cent of this number, or 2,720, is the number of line officers which will command the new Navy. Inasmuch as the number of offi- cers in each grade has also been placed upon a percentage basis, a great deal of changing and promo- tion is going on. At the present writing, 500 junior officers are tak- ing examinations for promotions, and practically all who pass will be promoted. Congress, having in- creased the number of appointments to Annapolis, has provided for an increase of trained officers in the future. In a short time Annapolis, instead of training from 900 to 1,200 young men in the magnificent plant where the Navy makes officers, will be housing and teaching 1,500 or more at a time. NAVAL CONSULTING BOARD One of the most spectacular ac- complishments of the present ad- ministration as far as the Navy is concerned is the organization of the Naval Consulting Board of Civilian Experts to advise with the Navy Department. Some of the greatest improvements utilized by the Navy have come from civilian inventors and civilian engi- neers. It was a civilian who in- vented the "Monitor," built the first submarine, mastered the science of flight, perfected wireless communi- cation, invented the gyroscope com- pass, electric steering gear, electric propulsion and silk floss life pre- servers. The Secretary of the Navy, Mr. Josephus Daniels, invited Thomas A. Edison to help form this board. Mr. Edison's acceptance was hailed by the country as proof of a new era joining the powers of invention and the training of naval experts to apply new discoveries to the in- THE NEW NAVY 277 A FOURTEEN INCH 50-CALIBER GUN creased efficiency of the Navy. Members of eleven leading scientific societies were asked to choose two members each of the Naval Consult- ing Board. Its members have no status except the status of American citizens glad to respond to a call to put their talent, genius, learning and time at the service of their country. They even pay their ex- penses when on their governmental mission. As thus constituted, named by their own societies, without political or other suggestion, the board as originally constituted was composed of the most distinguished civilian experts, each one of whom in some department has won a high place in his profession. The original composition of the committee was as follows: Thomas A. Edison, Chairman, and Miller Reese Hutchinson, Assistant to the Chairman. American Chemical Society W. R. Whitney and L. H. Baekeland. American Institute of Electrical Engineers Frank J. Sprague and B. G. Lamme. American Mathematical Society Robert S. Woodward and Arthur G. Webster. Copyright Harris & Ewing THE NAVAL CONSULTING BOARD IN SESSION 278 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Copyright International Film Service THE SUPERDREADNOUGHT "PENNSYLVANIA" American Society of Civil Engi- neers Andrew M. Hunt and Alfred Craven. American Aeronautical Society Matthew B. Sellers and Hudson Maxim. Inventors' Guild Peter Cooper Hewitt and Thomas Robins. American Society of Automobile Engineers Howard E. Coffin and Andrew L. Riker. American Institute of Mining En- gineers (Metals) William L. Saun- ders and Benjamin B. Thayer. American Electro-Chemical Soci- ety Joseph W. Richards and Law- rence Addicks. The American Society of Mechan- ical Engineers William Le Roy Emmet and Spencer Miller. American Society of Aeronautic Engineers Henry A. Wise Wood and Elmer A. Sperry. They organized by the election of these officers : Chairman, Thomas A. Edison ; First Vice-Chairman, Peter Cooper Hewitt; Second Vice- Chairman, William L. Saunders; Secretary, Thomas Robins; Assist- ant to the Chairman, M. R. Hutchi- son. POWDER The Navy as a whole has so many activities, it is difficult to know what to omit from so general a sur- vey as this must be. But no navy is of any use without guns, and guns can't shoot without powder I 'POMP AND CIRCUMSTANCED ANNAPOLIS During the fiscal year 1915, 3,984,- 978 pounds of smokeless powder was manufactured at the Indian Head (Md.) powder factory. This pow- THE NEW NAVY 279 der cost $0.341256 per pound, con- siderably less than it can be bought for in the open market. There was an increase of 700,000 pounds of new powder during 1915 over 1914, due not to increase in the powder factory but to improved methods of operation. With the new nitrating house in full operation the output of the Indian Head plant for 1916 will be about 5,000,000 pounds and for the fiscal year 1917 about 6,000,000 pounds. Owing to the abnormal rise in the cost of raw materials on account of the war, the cost of the powder now being manufactured is higher than for the last fiscal year, the raw ma- terials for which were nearly all contracted for before the war. The amount of powder delivered by the private plants during 1915 was 3,112,868 pounds, but now, be- cause of the increase of powder mak- ing facilities at Indian Head, out- side contracts have been greatly re- duced. At the same time, it is recognized that the facilities for the production of smokeless powder and other explosives in the United States enormously increased owing to the demands of the belligerents for these materials form a naval asset of great value. PEACE SERVICES Of the functions of the Navy in time of peace much could be writ- ten, but space forbids. Perhaps nothing sums its labors up better than the words of Mr. Daniels in transmitting his report to President Wilson. He states that during 1915 "our ships have charted islands in the Caribbean and in Alaskan waters. They have been privileged to carry thousands of non-com- batants from the war zone to places of refuge. They have protected Americans and American interests on the coasts of war-torn Mexico. They have afforded a patrol of our coasts to preserve neutrality. They have carried aid to flood sufferers in China and given succor to the starving in Samoa. They have transported marines to preserve peace in the revolutionary period in Haiti and have acted as protector and custodian of the interests of that island in the days of its travail. Maneuvers, war games, target prac- tice, reviews, have given evidence of its readiness and fitness. The in- crease in its personnel and in their training, the improvement in the morale of officers and men, and the perfection of its organization tell the story of a year of effort crowned with most gratifying advance. "The Navy is strong. It must be stronger to justify the confidence the country reposes in it ... as the first arm of defense of our shores and the protection of the liberties of our people." THE TERRACE AT BANCROFT HALE, ANNAPOLIS CHAPTER XXIII. THE ARMY BY C. H. CLAUDY TERRITORIAL IN its territorial organization the Army is arranged in departments, as follows : The Eastern Department. Em- bracing the New England States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, West Vir- ginia, North Carolina, South Caro- lina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, the post of Ft. Logan H. Roots, Arkan- sas, the Coast Defenses of New Or- leans and Galveston, the Panama Canal Zone, and the island of Porto Rico, with the adjacent islands and keys. Headquarters are at Gov- ernor's Island, N. Y. The Southern Department in- cludes the States of Texas (except the Coast Defenses of Galveston), Louisiana (except the Coast De- fenses of New Orleans), Arkansas (except the post of Ft. Logan H. Roots), Oklahoma, New Mexico and Arizona. Headquarters are at Ft. Sam Houston, Texas. The Central Department. Em- bracing the States of Ohio, Michi- gan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming (except that part included in the Yellowstone Park), Colorado and the post of Ft. Missoula, Mont. Its headquarters are at Chicago, 111. The Western Department includes the States of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana (Ft. Missoula ex cepted), Yellowstone Park in Wyo- ming, California, Nevada, Utah and Alaska. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, Cal. The Hawaiian Department. Em- bracing the Hawaiian Islands and their dependencies. Headquarters, Honolulu, Hawaii. The Philippine Department em- braces all the islands of the Philip- pine Archipelago, with headquarters at Manila, P. I. ORGANIZATION Internally the Army is divided as follows : The General Officers, General Staff Corps, Adjutant General's De- partment, Inspector General's De partinent. Judge Advocate General's Department, Quartermaster Corps, Medical Department, Medical Re- serve Corps, Dental Corps, Contract Surgeons, Corps of Engineers, Ord- nance Department, Signal Corps, Bureau of Insular Affairs, Chap- lains and Military Academy. Commands in the field are organ- ized as Cavalry, Field Artillery, Coast Artillery, Infantry and Phil- ippine Scouts. On September 20, 1916, there were authorized 11 Major Generals and 30 Brigadier Generals, 244 Colonels, 231 Lieutenant Colonels, 658 Majors, 2,099 Captains, 2,562 First Lieuten- ants, 1,369 Second Lieutenants and 85 Chaplains as officers, a total of Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 282 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 7,289 for a total authorized strength of 117,038 enlisted men. THE NEW ARMY BILL But the new Army act of June 22, 1916, makes changes which will be far-reaching in effect, increasing the authorized strength to 175,000 men. According to the new law the Army of the United States shall con- sist of the Regular Army, the Vol- unteer Army, the Officers' Reserve Corps, the Enlisted Reserve Corps, the National Guard while in the service of the United States, and such other land forces as may be authorized by law. The Regular Army of the United States, including the existing organ- izations, is to consist of sixty-four regiments of Infantry, twenty-five regiments of Cavalry, twenty-one regiments of Field Artillery, a Coast Artillery Corps, the Brigade, Divi- sion, Army Corps and Army Head- quarters, with their detachments and troops, a General Staff Corps, the retired list, additional officers, professors, Corps of Cadets, general Army service de.tachment, and de- tachments of Cavalry, Field Artil- lery and Engineers, and the band of the United States Military Acad- emy, the post non-commissioned staff officers, the recruiting parties, the recruit depot detachments and unassigned recruits, the service school detachments, disciplinary guards and disciplinary organiza- tions, Indian Scouts, and other offi- cers and enlisted men as may be provided. It is expressly stipulated in the new law that the enlisted personnel of all organizations of the Regular Army shall be at all times main- tained at a strength not below the legal minimum strength. The total enlisted force of the Regular Army, excluding the Phil- ippine Scouts and the enlisted men of the Quartermaster, Medical and Signal Corps, and unassigned re- cruits, must not, except in actual or threatened war, exceed 175,000 men. ACTUAL STRENGTH OF THE ENTIRE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT JUNE 30, 1916 Branches of Service Officers Enlisted Men Total General officers Staff corps and departments Engineers Cavalry Field Artillery Coast Artillery Corps 25 1,012 207 778 262 728 ' 10,896 ' 1,948 14,646 5,664 19 185 25 11,908 2,155 15,424 5,926 19 913 Infantry Miscellaneous 1,604 36,123 7 303 37,727 7 303 Total regular army Philippine scouts 4,616 182 95,765 5,430 100,381 5,612 Aggregate 4,798 101,195 105,993 an Adjutant General's Department, an Inspector General's Department, a Judge Advocate General's Depart- ment, a Quartermaster Corps, a Medical Department, a Corps of En- gineers, an Ordnance Department, a Signal Corps, the officers of the Bu- reau of Insular Affairs, the Militia Bureau, the detached officers, the detached non-commissioned officers, the Chaplains, the Regular Army Reserve, officers and enlisted men on 1915 STRENGTH But even before the passage of the recent Army bill there was a considerable discrepancy between what was authorized and what was in existence. At the close of the fiscal year 1915, the most recent date for which a report is available, there were appropriations available for the maintenance of an Army and all of the accessory employees aggregating 5,023 officers and 102,- el \ p $A 4 v -?,', K #' 284 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 985 enlisted men. Of these 67,000 men were mobile army troops, 20,- 000 coast defense troops, and the balance Hospital Corps, quartermas- ter men and other employees. Of this total number, about 29,000 were on service outside continental United States, leaving about 46,000 mobile army troops and about 13,000 coast defense troops within our borders. The actual strength of the entire military establishment on June 30, 1915, by branches of service, is shown in the table on page 282. DISTRIBUTION Prior to the Spanish War the United States kept its Army at home, with the exception of a few officers and men opening up com- munication in Alaska and in foreign diplomatic service. How becoming a world power affects Army life is well shown in the accompanying table. ors, miscellaneous public works, etc. ; $45,092,760.02 for rivers and har- bors, and the balance, $111,744,185.95, for military purposes, including the support of the Army, Military Acad- emy, militia, fortifications, arsenals, military posts and miscellaneous items. The various items, showing ex- penditures for 1915 and authorized for 1916, are shown in the table on the next page. ENLISTMENTS Perhaps nothing in the new Army bill is of greater importance than the sections referring to enlistments and reserve. Hitherto enlistments have been for three years. Now they are to be for seven years, three in active service and four in the reserve. There is also a provision, designed to attract capable men who do not desire so long an active serv- ice, that an enlisted man serving a year honorably may, on the recom- GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY Geographical Distribution Officers Enlisted Men Total In the United States In Alaska 3,502 23 64,756 747 68,258 770 In the Philippine Islands: Regular army Philippine scouts In China 455 182 45 12,454 5,430 1 361 12,909 5,612 1 406 In Porto Rico In Hawaii In the Isthmian Canal zone Troops en route and officers at other for- eign stations 37 322 192 40 670 9,199 6,15i 427 707 9,521 6,343 467 Total 4 798 101 195 105 993 APPROPRIATION The expenditures by the War De- partment for all purposes during the fiscal year 1915 amounted to $166,- 355,172.99. Of this amount, $9,518,- 227.02 was for the civil establish- ment, that is, maintenance of the War Department as an Executive Department, buildings and grounds in and around Washington, national and military parks, monuments, na- tional cemeteries, support of national homes for disabled soldiers and sail- mendation of certain superior offi- cers and at the discretion of the Secretary of War, be furloughed to the Regular Army Reserve. To further enlistments the Presi- dent is authorized to utilize the services of postmasters of the sec- ond, third and fourth classes in pro- curing recruits for the Army. For each recruit secured by a postmas- ter, who is accepted for enlistment, the postmaster is to receive $5. In addition to military training, THE ARMY 285 EXPENDITURES FOR 1915 AND APPROPRIATION FOR 1916 Expenditures for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1915 Appropriations for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916 Civil establishment (War Department proper). Salaries, contingent expenses, etc. (including office of public buildings and grounds) Civil public works and miscellaneous (exclusive of rivers and harbors) : Military and national parks $1,897,151.91 587 560 14 $1,925,598.00 407 060 00 Buildings and grounds in and around Washington National cemeteries 373,950.81 328 912 21 314,490.00 312 070 00 Miscellaneous objects National home for disabled volunteer soldiers . . . Miscellaneous relief acts, etc 955,170.07 4,193,665.65 1,181,816.23 379,760.00 4,931,009.50 1,973,471.20 Total civil estabh'shment $9,518,227.02 $10,243,458.70 Military establishment: Support of the army $98 076 645 78 $96 519 195 87 Military academy Militia 996,035 . 84 5 007 814 98 1,069,813.37 5 440 000 00 Fortifications Arsenals 6,300,355 . 59 481,096.19 6,060,216.90 653,600.00 Military posts and miscellaneous 882,237.57 570,924.99 Total military establishment Rivers and harbors $111,744,185.95 45 092 760 02 $110,313,751.13 33 989 811 64 Grand total $166,355,172.99 $154,547,021.47 soldiers in active service will here- after be given the opportunity to study and receive instruction upon educational lines to increase their military efficiency and enable them to return to civil life better equipped for either industry or general busi- ness. Civilian teachers are to be employed to aid Army officers in such instruction, and "part may con- sist of vocational education either in agriculture or the mechanic arts." PAY OF ENLISTED MEN The monthly pay of enlisted men is provided for rather liberally. Of course, clothes, medical and dental attention, quarters and rations are furnished in addition to the follow- ing monthly pay: Quartermaster sergeant, senior grade, Quartermaster Corps ; mas- ter hospital sergeant, Medical De- partment; master engineer, senior grade, Corps of Engineers ; and band leader, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery and Corps of Engineers, $75. Hos- pital sergeant, Medical Department; and master engineer, junior grade, Corps of Engineers, $65. Sergeant, first class, Medical Department, $50. Sergeant, first class, Corps of Engi- neers ; regimental supply sergeant, Infantry, Cavalry, Field Artillery and Corps of Engineers ; battalion supply sergeant, Corps of Engi- neers; and assistant engineer, Coast Artillery Corps, $45. Assistant band leader, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery and Corps of Engineers ; and ser- geant bugler, Infantry, Cavalry, Ar- tillery and Corps of Engineers, $40. Musician, first class, Infantry, Cav- alry, Artillery and Corps of Engi- neers; supply sergeant, mess ser- geant and stable sergeant, Corps of Engineers ; sergeant, Medical De- partment, $36; supply sergeant, In- fantry, Cavalry and Artillery; mess sergeant, Infantry, Cavalry and Ar- tillery; cook, Medical Department; horseshoer, Infantry, Cavalry and Artillery, Corps of Engineers, Signal Corps and Medical Department; stable sergeant, Infantry and Cav- alry ; radio sergeant, Coast Artillery 286 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Corps ; and musicians, second class, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery and Corps of Engineers, $30. Musician, third class, Infantry, Cavalry, Ar- tillery and Corps of Engineers ; cor- poral, Medical Department, $24. Sad- dler, Infantry, Cavalry, Field Artil- lery, Corps of Engineers and Medical Department ; mechanic, Infantry, Cavalry and Field Artillery and Med- ical Department ; farrier, Medical De- partment ; and wagoner, Infantry, Field Artillery and Corps of Engi- neers, $21. Private, first class, In- fantry, Cavalry, Artillery and Med- ical Department, $18. Private, Med- ical Department, and bugler, $15. LOSSES With the prospect of so great an increase in enlistment as the new bill calls for, it is natural to in- quire, first, what the general loss to the Army may be, and, second, if existing methods of recruiting, even with the help of postmasters, will serve. Enlisted men of the Regular Army, to the number of 27,020, were discharged upon expiration of serv- ice during the year ending June 30, 1915. During the preceding year the number of discharges upon expira- tion of service was 25,027, and dur- ing 1913 it was 12,095. These num- bers are, respectively, 19.7, 20, 11.3 per cent of the whole number of enlisted men in service or of en- listment contracts in force during these years. Losses from all causes other than expiration of service in 1915 num- bered 14,517. During the preceding year the losses were 12,487, and during 1913 they were 13,254. These numbers are, respectively, 10.6, 9.97 and 12.4 per cent of the whole num- ber of enlisted contracts in force during these years. The desertions from the Army during the year ending June 30, 1915, aggregated 4,435, which is 3.23 per cent of the whole number of enlistment contracts in force. This is a slight increase over the per- centage (3.10) for 1914. The num- ber of desertions during the year 1915 is 553 greater than the number reported during 1914, but 16 less than the number reported in 1913. The increase in the number of deser- tions over that for 1914 is natural, because the number of enlistment contracts in force during 1915 is 12,007 greater than in 1914. The increase in desertions is due in part to the fact that there were nearly 1,800 more original enlistments in 1915 than in 1914, it being a well known fact that desertions are fre- quent during the early periods of service. ENLISTMENT METHODS Recruiting officers at stations re- port whether applications for enlist- ment are the result, wholly or in part, of any form of advertising. The result of each of the several methods of advertising during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1915, is given on the second page following. RECRUITING FOR THE ARMY The general recruiting detail at the beginning of the fiscal year 1915 consisted of 129 commissioned offi- cers and 831 enlisted men. At the end of that year the detail consisted of 124 officers and 636 enlisted men. Sixty-five officers are regularly on duty at general recruit depots and 59 officers on duty at recruiting stations. Within the year enlistments and re-enlistments numbered 48,813, in- cluding 44,427 for the line of the Army, 1,031 for the Hospital Corps, 1,096 for the Quartermaster Corps, 834 for other staff departments, and 1,425 for the Philippine Scouts. The enlistments numbered 31,939, of whom 4,795 had former service. Of these enlistments, 30,342 (4,255 with former service) were for the line of the Army, 339 (120 with former service) for the Hospital Corps, 175 (139 with former service) for the Quartermaster Corps, 284 (78 with former service) for other staff de- partments, and 799 (203 with for- mer service) for the Philippine 288 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ENLISTMENTS THROUGH ADVERTISEMENT Methods of Advertising Number of Applications Sight of recruiting flag and station 64 703 Recruiting poster 28 197 In parks and squares. Canvass by recruiting parties 22,589 11 900 Recruiting circulars Recruiting booklet 11,611 5 792 Special circulars issued by recruiting parties Newspaper advertising >. Handbills Advertising cards. 5,341 4,159 3,734 905 Electric recruiting sign (2 districts) 696 Personal letters from recruiting officers Baseball team (1 district) 545 435 News items in newspapers Photographs (1 district, July, August and September) Postal cards 139 135 41 Total 160,922 Not the result of advertising. 6,575 Total number of applicants reported upon . . 167,497 Scouts. The re-enlistments for the line of the Army numbered 14,085, for the Hospital Corps 692, for the Quartermaster Corps 921, for other staff departments 550, and for the Philippine Scouts 626 ; in all, 16,874. It should be noted that the Army is .very particular about men it ac- cepts for enlistment. The total num- ber of enlistments (48,813) for 1915 does not show that 130,206 men who applied were rejected for one cause or another minority, small size, aliens, illiteracy, disease, imperfect physique, etc. With so satisfactory a condition existing and with the new induce- ments provided, it is not felt that any special difficulty will obtain in recruiting 175,000 men in a reason- able period. RESERVE The new enlistment law must necessarily operate to procure an Army Reserve of no mean propor- tions within a very few years. Ac- cording to the new law, this Reserve is to consist of all the enlisted men in the Reserve at the time the act was passed (a number so small as to be disregarded), all enlisted men who sign for seven years and serve three honorably, such men as may be furloughed into the Reserve be- fore completing three years' active service, and all who hold an honor- able discharge from the Army, with good character, are yet physically qualified and not over forty-five years old, who may enlist in the Reserve. Reservists of the Army receive $24 a year in time of peace ; if mobilized, the Reservist takes status of a regu- lar enlisted man and pay as such. But in addition, on reporting phy- sically fit for duty, a called-out Re- servist will receive $3 for each month he has belonged to the Re- serve, as well as transportation and subsistence from home to mobiliza- tion point. To secure a Reserve of officers available for service in the Army,, as officers of the Quartermaster Corps and other staff corps and de- partments, as officers for recruit ren- dezvous and depots, and as officers of volunteers, there is organized an Officers' Reserve Corps. Members of the Officers' Reserve Corps are not subject to call for service in time of peace. The President is authorized to ap- point and commission as Reserve officers in all grades- up to and in- cluding that of major, such citizens THE ARMY 289 as are found qualified to hold such commissions. ORGANIZED MILITIA The Organized Militia in the va- returns had a reported strength of 8,705 commissioned officers and 120,- 693 enlisted men. Of this force, 1,406 officers and 5,446 enlisted men belong to the staff and non-com- rious States according to the latest batant branches, 440 officers and THE DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY SMALL ARMS 1, Old matchlock arquebuse. 2, Pistol showing wheel lock. 3, Flintlock musketoou. 4, American or squirrel rifle. 5, American flintlock army rifle of 1815. 6, Springfield rifle,' 1863. 7, Breech loading American army musket, 1824. 8, Sharp breech loading carbine, 1852. 9, The Burnside carbine, a Civil War weapon. 10, Spencer repeating breeoh loading gun of 1860. 11, Henry magazine breech loading musket, 1860. 12, The Allin alteration Springfield rifle, 1865. 13, The English Snider alteration. 14, Springfield rifle, 1873. 15, English, Martini-Henry rifle. 16, Prussian needle gun. 17, French Chassepot. 18,f French Lebel rifle of 1893. 19, English Lee-Enfield, 1903. 20, Late model of German Mauser. 21, Austrian Mannlicher. 22, Latest Mauser model, used by Japan. 23, 1902 and 1908 Krag-Jorgensen, used by the United States. 24, Latest American military rifle. 290 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 7,438 enlisted men belong to the Coast Artillery, and 6,859 officers and 107,809 enlisted men to the mobile branches (Engineers, Field Artillery, Cavalry and Infantry). The mobile troops, with auxiliary forces, are organized into twelve tac- tical divisions. The National Guard of New York in its organization is the closest approximation to a com- plete divisional unit. On a divisional basis there is an excess of Infantry units equivalent to 23 regiments, and a deficiency in necessary elements as follows (1915) : 48 Troops Cavalry. 74 Batteries Field Artillery. 88 Companies Machine Guns.. 5 2/3 Battalions Engineers. 2 Battalions Signal Corps. 8 Field Hospitals. 20 Ambulance Companies. 11 Medical Supply Detachments. 13 Sanitary Detachments. In connection with this part of what would be a volunteer army in time of war it is interesting to note the issue of rifles to rifle clubs and schools. Since the provisions of the Act of Congress of 1914 have been put into effect, 1,780 rifles and 1,446,560 rounds of ammunition have been issued to 261 rifle clubs, of which 195 drew both rifles and am- munition, 65 ammunition only, and 1 rifles only. Twenty schools have taken advantage of this act and have drawn 1,015 rifles, 622 car- bines, and 118,400 rounds of am- munition. The rifles are of the model of 1898; the carbines of the model of 1S99 (both Krag- Jorgensens ) . The War Department has en- deavored to make it as easy as possible for the clubs and schools to obtain arms and ammunition under the provisions of this act. AERONAUTICS It is impossible in a short sketch of this kind to take up and epi- tomize the work of all the various arms of the service. The Army or- ganization is too vast a machine and its activities too great to permit brief treatment. Its own yearly reports require three large volumes of a thousand pages each, not to mention the thousands of documents and orders continually issued. But the aeronautical work of the Signal Corps is too vital to be omitted. There is no blinking the fact that up to the present the United States, the cradle of aviation, has been most laggard in Army development of fly- ing, and this in spite of the fact that it was the Signal Corps trials of 1908 and 1909 which established the heavier-than-air machine as a factor in warfare. The Signal Corps possesses an Aviation School on North Island, San Diego Bay, which is divided into two main departments the training and the experimental and repair department. The former is devoted to the training of student officers for junior military aviators, the instruction of enlisted men in flying, and the training of suitable enlisted men for aviation mechani- cians. The officers are given theo- retical and practical courses in the art of flying; in the construction, operation and repair of aeroplanes and aeronautical motors ; in meteor- ology, and in the navigation of the air. Enlisted men on flying duty are instructed in the art of flying and in the operation and care of aeroplanes and motors. Aviation mechanicians are trained to repair aeroplanes ajid motors by a thorough shop course. The personnel of the training course consists of the offi- cers assigned as instructors, two ex- pert civilian instructors in flying, and an expert civilian instructor on motors. The experimental and repair de- partment is composed of the officer in charge, an aeronautical engineer, an aeronautical mechanical engi- neer, and five civilian aviation mechanicians. It is charged with the conduct of experiments pertain- ing to machines, motors and appur- tenances, the study of new types, and the repair and reconstruction of aeroplanes and motors, THE ARMY 291 During the year 3,458 flights of a total duration of 1,269 hours and 50 minutes were made and 1,730 passengers carried. The most important thing which militated against military aviation was lack of men. The new law is liberal with the aviation section of the Signal Corps, providing for one colonel, one lieutenant-colonel, eight majors, twenty-four captains, and 114 first lieutenants, to be selected from among officers of the Army at large of corresponding grades or from among officers of the grade below who are qualified as military aviators. Special inducements as to pay and privileges are offered aviation offi- cers and the bars have been taken down for the married men and those over thirty years of age. It has been a vital necessity, for the United States has hardly 100 trained aero- plane pilots, both military and civilian. England and France have each over 3,000. It is a fact that the new law and enlarged appropriation ($13,280,000 plus two items of $300,000 for the purchase of sites for aeronautical stations) should go far, even if not the whole way, in providing our Army with capable aerial eyes in sufficient numbers to place the na- tion which invented the flying ma- chine at least on a par with any enemy likely to confront it. The Lewis Gun (top) The Maxim Gun The Benet-Mercier Gun (bottom) MODERN MACHINE GUNS Punching holes in packages of bills Receiving the bills The top of the macerator The macerator in action Cutting the bills in two DESTRUCTION OF OLD MONEY CHAPTEK XXIV. UNCLE SAM'S MONEY PART I. THE TREASURY TO the casual visitor at Wash- ington, the Treasury is, out- side, a beautiful example of architecture and, inside, a bewilder- ing succession of offices, vaults, cages and rooms with people and money in them. He is taken by a guide to view monetary exhibits $76,640,000 ON THE SHELVES IN ONE BIN AT THE TREASURY which pass his comprehension, per- haps sees the interior of a vault with more wealth than Midas ever dreamed of, and leaves with the confused impression that his Uncle Samuel is very rich indeed, but seems to need a lot of people and paraphernalia to take care of his cash! As a matter of fact, the activities of the Treasury Department are so varied and so numerous that only by a careful study of the laws under which it operates or a reading of its huge reports can any adequate idea be gained of its work. As for Uncle Sam's money and the way it is taken care of, it may fairly be stated that no visitor to the Treasury really gets any adequate idea. For instance, how much money is there in the United States? Not wealth money and wealth are en- tirely different. How many people, uninformed, will guess that, if the United States had to depend only on its money, and not at all on its wealth, it could pay its own ex- penses but for two years before going broke? Yet such is the case. The general stock of money in the United States June 30, 1915, was $3,989,400,000. Of the total stock, $420,200,000, or 10.53 per cent, was in the Treasury as assets. Coin and other money in national and other reporting banks, exclusive of those in the island possessions, amounted to $1,448,600,000, and, including $312,100,000 cash in Federal Reserve Banks, the sum of $1,760,700,000, or 44.14 per cent of the total stock of money, was held by banks, the re- maining $1,808,500,000, or 45.33 per cent, being outside of the Treasury and banks. The amount in circula- tion, exclusive of coin and other Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 294 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES money in the Treasury as assets, is $3,569,200,000, or $35.44 per cap- ita, an increase of $167,200,000 and a per capita increase of $1.09 over 1914. The accompanying table shows how this money is distributed. Of the total money in circulation, $1,662,981,438 is in gold coin and certificates, $414,961,583 is United States notes, Treasury notes and Federal Reserve notes, $785,393,047 is in National Bank notes and $705,- 883,506 in silver coin and certifi- cates. Thus nearly half (46.59 per cent) of our money in circulation is gold or its representative. THE WEALTH OF GOLCONDA IN TREASURY VAULT BILLS AND COIN Except on the Pacific Coast, where coin is still preferred to paper, the bulk of all monetary transactions of ordinary life is accomplished with gold or silver certificates, bank notes or the like. Held in some suspicion when first authorized (February 25, 1862), the familiar "greenback" is in the public mind to-day "as good as gold," even though it be but a silver certificate. For the people know that for every II 111 o2 s II: Oo PMg o > a; Ibl C "^TS ^HOO'-H'O'J'lMCOCO i < CO Tt^ r^ lOOt^-t^O wee'coeocoeoeo'eoedw ioi > O t-H criticisms, and is finally approved by the Post- master General. The approved design is placed in the hands of the engravers who cut it upon a small piece of annealed steel. After the approval of a proof of this engraving, the piece of steel is heated red hot in cyanide of potas- sium and hardened by suddenly dip- ping it into oil and Water. This single engraved subject is duplicated four hundred times upon the larger plates that the stamps are printed from, by means of the transfer process. This is a method of reproducing engraving devised many years ago by Jacob Perkins, an inventive American, who may be considered the father of the present method of duplicating bank note and stamp plates. It consists of making a re- versed duplicate or mold of the orig- inal engraving by rolling a soft, an- nealed steel roll upon it in the trans- fer press. Being accurately guided and held by the mechanism of this press, continued rolling under high 304 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES pressure forces the soft steel of the roll into the engraved lines of the original design, and forms an exact counterpart, in relief, of it. This roll, being hardened, is used to dup- licate the engraving by the same process, upon a soft steel plate, which it will do a great number of times before wearing out, reserving the original engraving, or die as it is called, for making additional rolls. The original engraving is never printed from except to make what are known as die-proofs. The paper, being printed wet, Contracts on drying, and the mathe- matically correct layout of the en- graved plate bears only an approxi- mate relation to the desired printed sheet. The paper we print to-day will vary in shrinkage from that we print to-morrow. As the physical properties of the tree govern the ex- pansion and contraction of the paper made therefrom, no two sheets are exactly the same size. The actual difference in size of the individual stamp is too minute to be readily discernible, but becomes a serious factor when the row is twenty stamps long as we now print the sheets. But that is not all. To smooth the paper for the operation of gum- ming, it is subjected to 500 tons pressure in a hydraulic press, and if very dry, it stretches but little, but if the day is damp and humid it stretches perceptibly. The con- traction of the gum itself is a fac- tor, and the atmospheric conditions still another. Our perforating ma- chines have not human intelligence, and they blindly perforate the sheets alike until their adjustment is changed. Therefore, the best we can do is to average the adjustment and it is only by chance that all the perforations are exactly central. Of course, it will be understood that typographic printing, being done on dry paper, eliminates many of these problems, and no great feat is per- formed in perfectly centering the perforations on a dry printed stamp. The present method of printing stamps is accomplished upon what is known as the "four plate power press." Four plates are used in or- der that the operation of inking, wiping, polishing and taking the im- pressions may be done simultaneous- ly. This press requires the service of a printer to polish the plates, one girl to lay the sheet in position and another girl to take it off after printing. After each two hundred sheets are printed, they are counted and dried. To secure a flat surface for subse- quent operations, they are pressed in a hydraulic press. They are next gummed by passing beneath a glass roller which is bath- ed in a solution of dextrine (which forms the gum), and the sheets are then carried by grippers through a drying chamber in which the gum is dried in less than thirty seconds. Just before leaving the gumming machine, the sheets are carried through a device that breaks the gum into innumerable cracks and materially prevents subsequent curl- ing. The printed and gummed sheets of 400 stamps are now fed through a rotary perforator that perforates the stamps in one direction and cuts the sheets in half. Another perfora- tor of the same construction perfor- ates the stamps crosswise and makes another cut, thereby quartering the original sheets. After a close and rigid inspection, these sheets are counted and made into packages for final packing for shipment to the post offices. The new building for the use of the Bureau of Engraving and Print- ing has been occupied since early in the spring of 1914. This building is the most modern type of factory building in the United States. While the exterior of the building is clas- sic and monumental in style, the wings, which are utilized for factory purposes, are constructed along mod- ern factory lines. The building is about 505 feet g .i*' Putting on the Seal and Numbering The Ink Milk Sizing the Bills The Final Step; Sealing and Numbering THE PAPER COMES OUT MONEY UNCLE SAM'S MONEY 307 long, fronting on Fifteenth Street, with a depth of about 296 feet and a height of 105 feet. It has a base- ment, four stories and attic, and is in the form of the letter "E," but with four wings instead of three, making three open end courts, two of which are approximately 230 feet long to the end of the wing. The two inner wings, to allow space for the driveways, are about 30 feet shorter. There is a mezzanine gallery on each floor, having a total length of about 1,800 feet on all floors where installed, which is used by the pub- lic for viewing the more interesting operations of the bureau, and this may be done without the possibility of any loss of a security or inter- ference with the workmen. None of the employees are permit- ted to leave the building during the lunch hour, as each individual em- ployee is held accountable for the securities which he or she is hand- ling during the working hours, and to permit them to leave the building would necessitate a check or count, which would be too expensive. Photo Harris & Ewing HAND VS, MACHINE COUNTING PART III. UNITED STATES ASSAY OFFICE AT NEW YORK By Hon. VERNE M. BOVIE, Superintendent THE United States Assay Office opened its doors at 30 Wall Street in 1854. It occupied the same historical building until its age made its demolishment necessary in 1914. In 1910 a new eight story building was built adjoining the old in the rear, and with an entrance on Pine Street. Since that time its operations have been carried on there. Appropriations have now been made by Congress for the erec- tion of a new building on the site of the old Wall Street building, to be joined to the present Pine Street building, so that for the indefinite future the office will continue its service from the same historic site on which it started. From deposits of a few thousands in value in 1854, the importance of the office has increased to such an extent that for the fiscal year 1916 the aggregate value of the deposits received and handled amounted to the huge sum of $325,958,585.38. Of this $321,609,643.73 was gold and $4,348,941.65 silver. $253,957,895.26 was from foreign countries and $72,- 000,690.12 from the United States. The number of deposits made was 17,338. During the year 149,867 assays were made. The Assay Office is the great pur- chasing, as well as selling, agent for gold for the Government. It is the station where the crude wealth pro- duced by our own mines, and the wealth that all the world sends to our shores in the ordinary activi- ties of commerce, is converted into values of United States dollars and cents. We purchase gold in any amounts from $100 in value up in any form suitable for mint purposes and from any source. We receive gold dust from Alaska and Dutch Guiana; bullion from Mexico, South and Cen- tral America ; gold and silver coins from all the countries of the world : old gold and silver jewelry from pawnbrokers and jewelers ; fine gold bars and mixed bullion, and light weight and mutilated United States coin. The purchase is made at the ac- tual gold value at the uniform rate of $20.67 per fine ounce. Silver is paid for in fine silver bars, which, in turn, are marketed by the depos- itors at the current price in the open market. The process by which the crude bullion is turned into fine metal is itself an interesting one. The office is divided into four general depart- ments : the Deposit and Weigh Room, where the metal is first re- ceived, weighed and melted ; the Assay Department, where its value and fineness are determined ; the Melting and Refining Department, where it is refined and cast into fine bars ; the Clerical Force, where the calculations are made and final pay- ments provided for. Immediately upon its receipt the deposit is weighed and at once sent to the Deposit Melting Room, where it is melted and thoroughly mixed and cast into bars. From the liquid Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 310 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES metal samples are taken during this melting from which the assays are made. These determine the propor- tions and fineness of the gold and silver contents. The melted deposit is again weighed in the Deposit Weigh Room, its values determined by the assays made from the sam- ples previously taken, and payment made by check by the Superintend- ent drawn on the Treasurer of the United States. The bar of mixed gold and silver is then turned over by the head of the Deposit Weigh Room to the Superintendent of the Melting and Refining Department. Here it is again melted and cast into thin slabs or anodes about 18 inches long and 14 inch thick of about the composition of two thirds silver and one third gold. These anodes are put in a muslin bag and are hung in a solution of silver nitrate and free nitric acid opposite a strip of pure silver called the silver cathode. Electric current is passed through and the silver passes from the anode to the cathode in pure silver crystals. It is scraped off into huge earthen jars and then taken to the melting room and cast into its final form of fine silver bars. The residue remaining in the mus- lin bag is taken out, washed and in turn melted and cast into smaller anodes, or slabs, which in turn are taken to the gold refining room and by a similar electrolytic process the fine gold extracted. The gold is then in the form of a warty, irregu- lar slab of gold. This in turn is melted and cast into fine bars ready for the vaults or for trade purposes. During the refining process the base metals and by-products are taken into solution and are later precipitated by chemical reaction and recovered. When it is realized that the ordi- nary deposit in its course through the office is melted five times; that not less than five and often seven or more assays are made of it ; that each bar is stamped with five sep- arate stamps; that it must be con- stantly weighed and re-weighed and checked and re-checked; some con- ception may be had of the care and attention to detail required in the office. Experimental work, looking to the discovery of better and more efficient methods, is being constantly carried on. The office uses the most perfect appliances obtainable for its work and seeks constantly to increase the efficiency and perfect the products of its labor. With the increased development of the commerce of the country and the recent almost phenomenal growth of its financial power, the importance of the work of the Assay Office, as related to the financial and business world, constantly increases. It is now the largest and most com- pletely equipped office of its kind in the world and through its doors is destined to pass in continuing vol- ume the golden stream that will make the United States the financial master of the world. If 3*1 I! PART IV. HOW COINS ARE MINTED By Hon. A. M. JOYCE, Superintendent U. S. Mint, Philadelphia IN the operation of providing coinage for the country the Gov- ernment purchases the gold bul- lion from anyone who offers it for sale at the rate of one dollar for each 23.2 grains of pure gold, or about $20.67 per ounce, and silver at the market quotations when request- ed. This bullion, if in an unrefined state, is refined and separated from all foreign matter. It is then sent to the mint and delivered to the superintendent of the melting de- partment. Nine parts of pure gold or silver are mixed with one part of copper (alloy) and the mixture melted in crucibles placed in the gas furnaces. It is then poured into molds and produces ingots about 12 inches long, 1% inches thick, and from 1 to 2 inches wide, depending upon the denomination to be made. Granulations of these ingots or melts are taken and sent to the assay- ing department and assayed for their fineness. If found correct, the ingot is stamped with the number and fine- ness of the melt; if not correct, it is condemned and remelted. This then places the responsibility for the legal fineness of every coin upon the assayer. The ingots passed by the assayer as correct are then delivered to the superintendent of the coining department. The superintendent of the coining department upon receiving the in- gots from the superintendent of the melting department passes them cold, through ten-inch hardened steel rolls, eighteen or twenty times, depending upon the denomination, each driven by a fifty horse-power electric motor, each draft reducing the thickness, and adding to the length of the strip until the last draft leaves it of such a thickness that a coin of the desired denomi- nation cut from it will weigh as nearly the right weight as it is pos- sible to roll. After rolling the ingot to the required thickness of the coin, or denomination required, it is put through the cutting machine where the blank, or planchet, is punched out, leaving the clippings to be re- turned to the melting room, there to be re-melted and returned to in- gots. The blanks are then sent to the selecting tables, where women desig- nated as selectors examine the blanks and pick out all imperfect pieces or cuts, known as "chips." The gold planchets or blanks are then sent to the weighing room, where they are passed through the automatic weighing machines. In practice it is impossible to cut all the gold planchets so that they will each weigh precisely the stand- ard weight, therefore, the law per- mits a tolerance or variation of the weight from standard of one-half grain on double-eagles and eagles, and one-quarter grain on half and quarter-eagles. The machines, known as automatic weighing machines, then weigh each of the planchets separately, and Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 314 OUR COUNTR1 AND ITS RESOURCES those found one-half grain above standard are deposited in a separate box, and marked "heavies," and those found standard and one-half grain light are placed in a separate box and marked "lights." The "heavies" that are found above the limit of tolerance are passed through a machine known as the shaving machine arid reduced to within the limit of tolerance, one-half or one- quarter grain, depending on the de- nomination, to good "heavies" one- half and one-quarter grain above standard. Those that are found too light are condemned and go back to the melting pot. After coinage, all coins are again re-weighed. At this stage the metal, after going through the various operations, is very hard, and, before it can be stamped, it is necessary to anneal or soften the same, otherwise it would be very destructive to the dies when the piece is being struck on the coining presses. The blanks are placed in a gas annealing furnace, where they remain in the retort un- til they become a "cherry red," when they are dropped from the furnace into water to keep them from oxi- dizing. After coming out of the wa- ter they are cleaned in a weak acid solution and dried out in centrifugal machines. They are then sent to the milling or upsetting machines, where the edge is turned up on the blank. The blanks are now bright and soft and ready for stamping or coining. In the coining room they are fed into the coining presses by automatic feeders, and the automatic fingers on the presses take one piece at a time from the bottom of the tube attached to the automatic feed- er and place it between the dies, at the same time pushing the finished piece out and dropping it in a screened box at the side of the press. The upper and lower die being re- spectively the obverse and reverse sides of the coin, in this position it drops automatically into a collar which is internally engraved to con- form to the edge of the coin, known as the reeding; at that instant the dies approach each other under a pressure of one hundred tons to the square inch, and the planchet is pressed so that the metal is driven into every corner and crevice of the engraved die, and at the same time outward into the engraving on the interior of the collar producing the reeding or rough edge. This enor- mous pressure is regulated by ad- justing screws, which determine just how close together the two dies, up- per and lower, will be brought to each other, and this adjustment is made so they shall come just close enough together to bring out every detail of the engraving. This coinage operation proceeds at the rate of from 90 to 120 pieces coined per minute, on one press, the speed of operation being adjusted according to the size of the press. There are in the Mint at Phila- delphia twenty-four coining presses of three different sizes. After stamping, each coin is sep- arately inspected and weighed. Six automatic inspecting machines are in use. Each machine is operated by two women who have a view of each side of the coin as it passes through the machine. The weighing is done on the automatic scales. The law permits a variation of one-half grain on double-eagles and eagles, and one-quarter of a grain on half and quarter-eagles, and one and a half grains on all silver coins, from the standard weight. The pieces that weigh above or below the stand- ard mark are kept separate. The condemned are rolled out and sent back to the melting pot. Owing to the greater tolerance (one and a half grains) on silver the blanks are rolled close enough to eliminate all weighing, but after coinage the pieces are weighed the same as gold. After weighing and separating the coin is counted by weight and placed in sacks ; the gold in $5,000.00 pack- ages and the silver in $1,000.00 pack- ages, and delivered to the superin- tendent, who places it in vaults sub- ? O w ft hJ M ft if It 1 s ! 316 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ject to orders from the Treasurer, Assistant Treasurers and banks. All metals are delivered to the superin- tendent by weight as well as value. Gold and silver coin and bullion are received and delivered at 1,000 fine ounces and minor metals and coin at troy ounces. At the end of the fiscal year, i. e., June 30th, the total weight of all the ingots delivered to the coining department by the superintendent during the year stands charged against said depart- ment and the total weight of all the good coin, condemned coin, clippings, sweeps, etc., that have been deliv- ered back by the coining department to the superintendent are placed to the credit of the coining department. Theoretically, this is supposed to balance, but if it does not the super- intendent of the coining department will be held responsible for the short- age. However, in practice, the law- recognizes the utter impossibility of putting such an enormous quantity of metal through all the different operations without a certain amount of loss or wastage, and this legal allowance on gold is 1/2000 part, or for every 2,000 ounces operated upon one ounce may be lost in wastage before the coining department is held responsible. On the same amount in silver the legal allowance would be two ounces. The actual wastage in the coining department under the new system of cleaning does not average more than five per cent of the legal allowance in gold and ten per cent in silver. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1913, the Mint at Philadelphia coined $19,678,227.50 in gold and the loss or wastage on this amount was 14.289 ounces, of the value of $284.12, and $1,936,199.75 in silver coin on which there was a loss or wastage of 22.05 ounces, of the value of $12.24, or a total value of $296.36 in gold and silver. This loss covers the workings of an entire year of $21,614,427.25. The legal percentage of wastage to the amount operated upon was gold, 1.37, and silver, 1.84. The precautions to guard against any possible loss by carelessness on the part of the employees during the process of manufacture are about as near perfect as human in- genuity can devise. At the opening of the day, the metal is weighed and charged to the various departments and a settlement of the same is made each day before the close of work. In the morning the entire weight of the metal that stands charged to the coining department on the superin- tendent's books constitutes the coin- ing department's opening balance. Every ounce of metal that is dis- tributed among the various depart- ments is charged to that department, and at the close of business for the day is weighed, and, if found cor- rect, the account with the various departments is closed and the metal locked in the vaults. A detailed statement of the workings of each department, showing the amount operated upon, finished and unfin- ished, together with loss and wast- age, is sent to the office of the super- intendent of the coining department, where a tabulated record is kept from day to day. It shows by the size of the operation if the loss ex- ceeds the legitimate loss in any one department by even less than one piece. If the loss is excessive, then the employees in that department are kept until the shortage is ac- counted for, or the error in calcula- tion discovered. It generally hap- pens to be an error in figures, or a coin or box of coin had been over- looked. On the whole it is rare for the question to arise. Once in a while in an extraordinarily large op- eration there might be a legitimate loss equal to the weight of a single piece in excess of the estimate of what the loss should be, and this would remain unaccounted for ex- cept as legitimate loss. It would be out of the question for any consider- able theft to be committed or even to conduct a systematic pilfering on a small scale without the culprit be- ing discovered in a short time. The If *f Is Is f I it i i-> 318 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES daily record of the day's workings kept in the superintendent of the coining department's office shows the loss or wastage on every operation. The scales used for the weighing of bullion, coin, and metals will weigh from 1/100 part of an ounce up to 10,000 ounces at each draft. When the coin is finished and counted it is delivered daily to the superintendent in sacks containing $5,000 in gold and $1,000 in silver An amounts that may have been coined the day previous. Out of every delivery of finished coin to the superintendent, there is taken at random by the assayer and superin- tendent one piece .for each 1,000 pieces of gold, and one piece from each 2,000 pieces of silver, which are locked in what is known as the "pyx box," the superintendent or his representative holding the key to one combination, and the assayer the key to the other combination. Each year in February as assay commis- sion, consisting of twelve or fifteen leading and representative citizens from all parts of the United States, the Judge of the United States Dis- trict Court, Comptroller of the Cur- rency, and the Assayer of the United States Assay Office in New York, are appointed by the President. The last named are ex-offlcio members of the Commission. He selects men who are expert chemists, scale mak- ers, coin specialists, financiers, pro- fessors and lawyers. They meet at the Mint in Philadelphia, organize themselves into committees on count- ing, weighing and assaying and these committees open the "pyx box," count, weigh and assay a large num- ber of the coins and report the re- sult to the President. In case any of these coins are found outside the legal limit of weight or fineness, it would be sufficient grounds for the removal of the operative officer or officers. Prior to the delivery of coin to the superintendent and before the assay pieces are taken out, the lat- ter, by the trial separately of not less than five pieces for each 1,000 pieces embraced in the proposed de- livery, must satisfy himself that the coins are within the legal limits as to the weight. If these trial pieces .prove satisfactory the delivery is made, and if not satisfactory all the coins are weighed separately and such as are not of legal weight are defaced and delivered to the super- intendent of the melting and refin- ing department. As an additional precaution, from the first and two subsequent deliveries in each week of gold and silver coins of each de- nomination of coin delivered by the coining department two specimen pieces are taken at random, certified and enclosed by the superintendent and assayer (in the same manner as above" prescribed for the Annual Assay Commission), and promptly forwarded to the director of the mint by registered mail for assay by the assayer of the Bureau of the Mint. Metals required for the manufac- ture of minor coins, that is, five cent nickel and one cent bronze pieces, are purchased by the superintendent of the mint, with the approval of the director of the mint as to price, terms and quantity, after public ad- vertisement, as provided by law. The metal so purchased is delivered to the melting department where it is converted into ingots 23 inches long, 4% inches wide, and % of an inch thick of legal alloy. The five cent piece, or nickel, contains 75 per cent of copper and 25 per cent of nickel, and the one cent bronze piece contains 95 per cent of copper and 5 per cent of zinc and tin. These ingots are delivered to the coining department, where they are passed through heavy sixteen- inch rolls and reduced to the thick- ness of the coin. About fifteen passes are required to make this reduction. Starting with the ingot 23 inches long, the strip is rolled fifteen feet and then cut in two. Each of these strips will be 12 feet long when finished. The strips are UNCLE SAM'S MONEY 319 then put thtuugh the cutting ma- chines, where six blanks of bronze, or five blanks of nickel are punched out. These presses make 170 revo- lutions per minute and in that time punch 1,020 bronze blanks, or 850 nickel blanks. These blanks are passed through rotary annealing fur- naces in order to make them soft and malleable before stamping. From the annealing furnace they are placed in tumbling barrels for the purpose of cleaning and bright- ening, and rolled in a solution of our own devising for about half an hour. No acid is used. After tumb- ling, or rolling the blanks are thor- oughly washed and then dried in centrifugal machines. No sawdust is used in this operation. The blanks are selected and milled. The fin- ished blanks, or planchets are taken to the coining room, where they are stamped and inspected, after which they are counted and placed in sacks. The nickel sacks hold $50 and the bronze $10. They are now ready for delivery. No pyx or special assay coins are taken from the minor coin. The tolerance on these pieces being much greater than on gold and silver, no adjusting is required. A separate plant for the minor coinage, remote from that used in the coining of precious metals, has recently been fitted up in another part of the building. This plant is equipped with heavy machinery, and is capable of turning out a greater percentage of coin at less expense. A separate plant also adjoins the minor coinage plant. It is known as the medal room. It is equipped with four of the latest improved hy- draulic presses and other suitable machinery and appliances for the manufacture of medals and proof coin. Here are made gold, silver and bronze medals for the Govern- ment and private partiel?. Gold and silver medals are made from fine gold and silver. All dies used in this and the other United States mints are made in the engraving department of this mint. All dated dies and all other coinage dies which have been in use are destroyed at the end of the cal- endar year. The engraver is the custodian of all dies. The operative officers in their ac- counts with the superintendent are charged and credited with deliveries of bullion or coin by weight and the account kept in fine ounces. Troy weights are used, while metric weights are by law assigned to the half, quarter dollar, and dime, 15.432 grains being considered as the equivalent of a gramme. The average cost for minting the different denominations, as shown by the cost report for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1913, is as follows: Per M ?ieces. 37.42 Eagles 13.13 Half-eagles 11.50 Quarter-eagles 10.24 Half-dollars 8.17 Quarter-dollars 6.80 Dimes 2.09 5-cent nickels 2.85 1-cent bronze 1.48 The above figures include the cost of ingot assays, ingot melting, the entire coining department and all of the superintendent's department net expenditures. During the year all sweeps, rags used in cleaning machinery, wash water, etc., are gathered and placed in a large iron vessel, the water evaporated and the residue burnt. After being dried the residue is taken to the sweep cellar where it is passed through a jaw crusher which re- duces the sweeps to one inch or less in diameter, then through a mill with sixty mesh screens which grinds the sweeps under water until they are fine enough to pass through the screen to the two settling tanks and a steam drier. The type of mill is a standard mining machine where the rolls and the pan remain sta- tionary. It is of sufficient size to make it unnecessary to keep the mill in continuous operation and thus the men are available in other places. 320 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES LEGAL WEIGHT AND FINENESS OF THE COINS OF THE UNITED STATES, THEIR DIAMETER AND THICKNESS Denomination Legal Weight Fineness Thousandths Diameter Inches Thickness Inches Grains Troy Ozs. GOLD: Double eagle 516 1.075 900 1.350 0.096 Eagle 258 .5375 900 1.060 .080 Half eagle 129 .26875 900 .848 .065 Quarter eagle 64.5 .134375 900 .700 .050 SILVER: Half dollar 192.9 .401875 900 1.205 .082 Quarter dollar 96.45 .200937 900 .955 .065 Dime 38.58 .080375 900 .705 .051 MINOR: Five cents 77.16 .16075 75 per cent copper 25 per cent nickel .835 .078 One cent 48 .1 95 per cent copper .750 .058 5 per cent tin and zinc The drier constantly agitates the wet sweeps, so that they cannot bake on the bottom. One settling tank is directly above the other and the lower contains a steam syphon which lifts the water to the upper. From the upper tank a connection leads the water back to the mill so that it may be used over again. After being thoroughly dried the sweeps are barreled, samples taken there- from and assayed. Afterwards they are sold to the highest bidder. During the ten years ended June 30, 1913, this mint coined $362,824,- 125.00 in regular domestic gold coin, $60,069.00 in Lewis and Clark gold dollars, and $14,953,488.38 in foreign (Mexican) gold coin, $7,041,294.65 in foreign silver and minor coin, $41,185,228.95 in domestic silver coin, and $24,477,958.21 in five cent and one cent pieces, making a total coin- age of $450,542,164.19, or 1,547,- 431,704 pieces. Upon this large coin- age the wastage or loss was gold, $18,491.93; silver, $12,129.15, and five and one cent pieces $4,346.22, a total of $34,967.30. The average coinage per year was $45,049,441.60 and the average loss or wastage was $3,496.73. Since the elimination of acid for cleaning purposes and the introduc- tion of the new cleaning method the wastage has been reduced one-half. The last three years show a very small wastage compared with for- mer years. During the last two years the coinage of gold and silver has fallen off considerably; the former due to the passage of an act authorizing the issuing of gold certificates on gold bars instead of the coin as here- tofore, and the latter owing to a large surplus of subsidiary coin in the vaults of the Treasury and sub- treasuries. On the other hand, the demand for minor coins has in- creased. This, no doubt, was due to the change in design of the five and one cent pieces. A complete system of cost-keeping shows the cost of each process in coinage operations per ounce of metal handled, and per dollar of product; calculations are made monthly and a statement of the same made. If the seigniorage on silver and minor coin is taken into considera- tion, it will show that this mint is the largest money making institu- tion in the Government service. As, for instance, a troy pound of copper will yield $1.20 and a troy pound of nickel $3.75. The copper and nickel cost approximately 15 cents per pound Tor the former and 38 cents for the latter. The tin and zinc for alloying will be added to the copper. Silver can be purchased for about 60 cents per ounce. CHAPTER XXV. HOW UNCLE SAM PROTECTS HIS REVENUE By A. H. PEARSON PERSONAL liberty in the United States is so complete that we scarcely realize there is a pow- erful central government to watch over our destinies and make us com- port ourselves with proper regard for the rights of citizens in our neigh- boring States. Frequently, an Amer- ican's first real contact with Federal power comes on his return from a trip abroad, when he is advised that he must pay duty on goods that he has brought with him. He may have looked with contempt on the poor foreigner who must submit to the pettifoggery of an officious govern- ment, and he may be returning with a smug "better-thari-thou" attitude, only to receive a rude shock to his complacency as the customs officials board the vessel and make him swear out a statement of his dutiable per- sonal effects. Then, no matter if he does consider it an invasion of his rights as a freeborn American citi- zen, he must submit to having his trunk opened, and searched more or less perfunctorily, to make sure that he has not perjured himself. He may even be called aside to answer searching questions about a certain piece of jewelry. Now, how did Un- cle Sam know that he had that trinket? For the first time he is aware of a spy system, not unlike that of Russia, which reaches out beyond our shores to foreign lands and keeps track of the purchases of the American tourists. Despite the humiliation of being treated as a CUSTOMS EXAMINATIONS OF DRY GOODS AT THE APPRAISER'S STORES Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 322 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ALL CUBAN LEAF TOBACCO MUST BE MINUTELY EXAMINED smuggler, he cannot help but feel a great respect for the omniscience of a government whose existence he barely realized up to that moment. Although examination of travel- ers' baggage is the most troublesome work that the Custom House has to deal with, it is a paltry business compared with the collection of du- ties on general merchandise. De- spite the far greater attention to per- sonal baggage, smuggling still con- tinues among tourists, especially those of the gentler sex, who display remarkable ingenuity in concealing their dutiable goods. One customs official hopelessly admitted that "women are born smugglers, and we cannot hope ever to suppress them." As for general merchandise, the opportunities for smuggling are so remote, the co-operation between the Government and the importers them- selves is so complete, and the pen- alty for smuggling is so severe as compared with the reward it offers, that practically no goods enter the country without paying duty. Take STAMPING BOXES OF IMPORTED CIGARS AFTER THEY HAVE BEEN THOROUGHLY INSPECTED si S2 t>* c| 5 S 3 I 02 s gs rO O II ""U 324 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES diamonds, for instance, which one would suppose could very readily be introduced into the country because their value per size is so enormous. Not only does the Government keep track of purchasers of diamonds abroad, but the dealers do as well, and they are constantly on the look- out for smuggled stones, realizing that it is to their own interest to report any stones introduced without paying the required tariff. Further- more, to make it unprofitable to smuggle the stones into the country, the tariff on them was reduced sev- eral years ago from 25 per cent to 10 per cent. Some idea of the enormous amount of work involved in keeping track of the goods that enter this country may be obtained by a visit to the Appraisers' Stores on the lower west side of New York. The building is ten stories high and takes up an entire block, while across the street is an annex of no mean size. In these buildings at least 10 per cent of everything that comes into New York from foreign ports must be examined. A sample of literally everything under the sun finds its way at one time or another into the Stores, and no matter what its char- acter may be, whether a fifty-karat diamond or a penny doll, it must be gravely considered and its value ac- curately and scientifically determ- ined, so that the proper custom duty may be levied thereon. To handle this enormous quantity of material engages the attention of 938 men, of whom 134 are examiners. The du- ties of the examiner are exceedingly difficult. Each man has a certain classification assigned to him, and he must be prepared to determine the wholesale value of any of the various articles that might turn up under that classification. He must be able to tell of just what material or materials the article was made, how much the materials were worth in the market from which they came, and just what was the value of the labor which was expended upon it. Not only that, but he must know the market values of the materials and labor at the time of shipment. This must be determined on his own knowledge and not on the word of the shipper. He cannot depend on anyone else, but must stand on his own statement, which he must be ready to back up with incontestable evidence in case the importer carries an appeal to a higher court. He Weighing Cotton Yarn Inside an Oven for Customs Determinations must be able to detect all the tricks with which unscrupulous manufac- turers delude the ignorant public. For instance, in the textiles depart- ment, the examiner must be able to tell whether a piece of goods con- tains cotton, linen, or silk, and in what proportion. Having determ- ined this, he must know the quality of the material used in making it up. If it is of silk, he must determine whether the silk is artificial or natu- ral. If natural, what kind of silk, and where it came from. If he is in doubt about the matter, he refers a sample to the laboratory, where HOW UNCLE SAM PROTECTS HIS REVENUE 325 An ITp-to-Date Smuggler's Vest Has Thirty six Pockets the fabric is subjected to a chemical test in order to determine accurately what its composition may be. Natu- rally, an examiner acquires before long such an experience as to qualify him as an expert, an experience that it is impossible to obtain anywhere else. Recently, curiosities, works of art, and antiques, over a hundred years old, have been admitted free of duty. The examiner who has to appraise the work of artists has an exceed- ingly difficult task. In many cases it is not at all easy to distinguish between spurious and genuine old masters. The work of these exam- iners is of undeniable value to the country in preventing the importa- tion of counterfeits. Similar protection against fraud is found in the case of tea. No duty is levied on tea, but all tea must be examined for purity before being admitted into the country. In the tea room of the New York Apprais- ers' Stores a hundred thousand sam- ples of tea must be tested per year. One of the photographs shows the manner of testing. Each cup con- tains a different sample of tea iden- tified by a number marked on the bottom of the cup, and one of the cups contains a standard sample. Which one it is the examiner does not know, for the identification of this sample also is marked on the bottom of the cup. The examiner then proceeds to arrange the cups according to the color and taste of the tea. After the grading is done the samples are thrown away and the cups turned upside down to show the identifying numbers. All the samples on one side of the stand- ard are passed as good tea, while those on the other side are rejected. To make sure that no error has been made the test is repeated with a second set of samples. In order to SMUGGLING DUTIABLE GOODS IN BOOKS 326 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES detect any pigment used in the tea the leaves are mashed on a piece of white paper, and then the paper is examined with a microscope for faint spots of coloring matter. The tests are very rigid and thorough, and the United States may pride itself on having nothing but pure tea to drink. Perhaps the most tedious work at the Stores is the testing of sugar. The tariff on sugar depends on the proportion of cane sugar the samples contain. This is determined accur- ately by means of a polariscope, which analyzes the light that passes through samples of the sugar syrup. In the case of sugar only samples are brought to the Stores, and as a check upon the examiner, two sam- ples out of each barrel are given him. Each sample bears its own number, but the examiners have no means of determining which two came out of the same barrel. Never- theless, his work must be so accu- rate that when like samples are paired again the readings will be practically identical. The laboratories of the Stores are also kept busy with quantitative an- alyses of various chemical products, particularly in the search for alco- hols in medicines, etc. There is a-lso a section devoted to metallurgi- cal analyses. Obviously it would be impossible to examine every article imported into the country, and so it is the practice to bring at least ten per cent of a shipment to the Stores. If the shipment consists of but one or two cases of goods at least one case must be examined. The cases that go to the Stores are picked out at random by the examiner. He compares the contents of the case with the invoice and then investi- gates one of the articles under the invoice minutely in order to deter- mine its quality. If this tallies with the specifications the case is passed. In the case of leaf tobacco, every package must be opened, in order to determine whether the leaves are good enough to be used for wrappers, which must carry a duty of one dollar and eighty-five cents per pound, or whether they are fit only for fillers, which pay thirty- five cents duty. TESTING THE COLOR AND STRENGTH OF TEA CHAPTEK XXVI. UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS ALASKA, 1867 ALASKA is a gigantic headland thrusting itself out from the extreme northwest ' corner of the American continent, with the waves of the Arctic Ocean washing its northern and western shores, and the Pacific bounding it on the south ; only the narrow Bering Strait sep- arates it from Siberia, while to the east lies Yukon Territory and Brit- ish Columbia. About a third of its area is within the Arctic Circle. We purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000; for a long time we neglected its possibilities, and the revenue from it was small, but since 1867, and mostly within the past sixteen years, its utilized min- erals, fish and furs have reached the enormous value of some $600,000,000, or more than eighty times its pur- chase price. About half this return must be credited to minerals, chiefly to gold, while fisheries and furs pro- vide the other half. Of course there have been large administration ex- penses, but these probably do not exceed $50,000,000. 17O 160 150 14O 130 SOME OF THE PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF ALASKA Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 328 OUR COUNTRY ANU ITS RESOURCES Alaska's 590,844 square miles, which we acquired for one and three- quarters cents an acre, give her al- most three times the area of France, and more than double that of Texas. This area falls into four natural divisions: the Arctic Slope region, with a maximum elevation of 3,000 feet; the Central Plateau, 3,000 to 5,000 feet; the Rocky Mountain system, entering from Yukon and stretching across the country in a northeasterly direction ; and the Pa- cific system, including the Alaskan, St. Elias, and "Panhandle" ranges, with such peaks as Mt. Crillon, 15,- 900 feet, the active volcano Mt. Wrangell, 17,500 feet, Mt. St. Elias, 18,024 feet, and Mt. McKinley, tow- ering to the height of 20,300 feet, and taking rank as the highest on United States soil, and the thirteenth highest in the world. The greatest river system of Alaska is that of the Yukon and its tributaries, the Koyukuk and the Tanana. This system provides 3,000 miles of navigable water. The Kuskokwim, another important riv- er, is navigable for 600 miles. There are several fine lakes, among them the 160-mile reach of Nikhkak, in the rugged Sitkan district. The climate is milder than might be expected from the high latitude. The interior, of course, presents rig- orous conditions, but the coastal re- gions of the Pacific are beneficially affected by a warm current similar to that of the Gulf Stream. These regions have a copious rain-fall; at Sitka the average is 80 inches, com- pared with 44.6 inches for New York City. The old belief that Alaska could never have any real agricultural value is disappearing. The Govern- ment experimental work, for which the main station is at Sitka, has re- sulted in producing at Coldfoot, 60 miles north of the Arctic Circle, 8- inch cucumbers, 19-inch rhubarb, 4- inch potatoes, and 8-pound cabbages. Lettuce is especially crisp and de- licious, and turnips of good quality aicain a weight of 16 pounds. Along the coast, seaweed and fish guano make excellent fertilizers. Here the heavy rains prevent grain from be- ing raised, except for forage; but in the interior, and particularly at Rampart, very satisfactory results have been obtained. Of the capital cities of the United States, 31 record as low degrees of temperature as Sitka, and 4 are colder than Valdez, while the winter of Juneau is usu- ally milder than that of Washing- ton, D. C. Roses, lilacs, and Eng- lish ivy thrive in the neighborhood of Seward, and southeastern Alaska boasts fifty species of birds, among them the song sparrow and the her- mit thrush. Juneau, the capital, with its quaint shops and its streets that terrace to the water, is picturesque and lively. It has good schools, churches, clubs, and hospitals, a library, a theater, a chamber of commerce, and news- papers. Fine lawns and well-fur- nished homes are not lacking, and the town is equipped with a good water supply and electric light. Some 27,000,000 acres of the Ter- ritory is covered by timber cedar, hemlock, spruce, and fir. Alaskan cedar is admirable for shipbuilding, cabinet work, and interior finish ; it is close-textured, and wonderfully durable under exacting conditions, and its odor is so suggestive of san- dalwood that it has been shipped to Japan, made into ornamental boxes and fans, and sold as genuine sandalwood. Of the fishing industries, that of salmon is of commanding import- ance ; the w r orth of the annual catch may be roughly placed at $15,000,000. In May, the "China boss" brings to the canneries a horde of Chinese, Japanese, South Americans, and Filipinos. Men, women and little children work at top speed during the canning season, twelve and four- teen hours a day and seven days a week. Fish poisoning is common. Housing conditions are unspeakably bad. In catching salmon, there are i 330 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES no restrictions as to method, and the trap system menaces the life of the industry. The day's catch of one fisherman, during a particularly heavy "run," was 3,000 salmon. Na- tives are asking for remedial legis- lation, the enforcement of the laws governing restraint of trade, and the regulation of child labor. Another urgent need of Alaska is more light- houses along her dangerous coasts. Alaska is under a Governor ap- pointed by the President for a four- year term. Since 1912 it has had a Legislature of two Houses. The Ter- ritory is in the Ninth Circuit of the Supreme Court, with its four judi- cial divisions at Juneau, Fairbanks, Valdez, and Nome. Each division elects two members for the Senate and four for the House, the Senate thus consisting of eight members and the House of sixteen. One dele- gate is sent to Congress from the Territory. Business licenses furnish most of the revenue, which is approximately $1,000,000. In 1909 there were 152 industrial establishments, with a combined capital of $13,000,000, a combined output valued at $11,- 130,000, and employing 73,479 men. Education is carried on by means of a hundred schools, enrolling, in 1913, 6,563 children, and costing $350,000 to support. These are maintained partly by the Federal Government and partly by the muni- cipalities. In 1913, 460 miles of railroad were in operation. In 1915, two routes for a most important Government railroad were before President Wil- son. One was the Cordova-Fair- banks route; the other was that from Seward, on Resurrection Bay, to Fairbanks, 471 miles inland along the Tanana River. He finally select- ed the latter route, two reasons probably influencing his choice. First, a railroad from Seward al- most to Knik already exists, and was purchasable for the very rea- sonable sum of $1,150,000; this re- duces the length of the new work by some hundred miles. Second, Se- ward has probably the best harbor and town site in Alaska. The new road will cost $26,000,000, including the construction of a branch from Matanuska Junction to the Mata- nuska coal field, one of the most valuable fields of high-grade coal in the Territory. The work is under the direction of the Alaskan En- gineering Commission, and will later be exended to Yukon, thus opening up the interior and its vast re- sources. According to the census of 1910, the population of Alaska was made up of 36,347 white and 28,009 na- tives, Asiatics, and negroes. The natives are the Eskimo, or Innuit, of the north and northeast, the Tin- nehs, or Indians of the interior, the Aleuts, or islanders, and the Tlingits of the North Pacific coast. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, 1898 TEiS cluster of islands consti- tuting the Territory of Hawaii was formerly known as the Sandwich Islands, and is found in the North Pacific Ocean. Hawaii, the largest and most southerly of the group, emerges from the sea about 1,300 miles north of the equa- tor, and 2,200 miles from San Fran- cisco. The discovery of these is- lands is usually credited to Capt. Cook, in 1778, although an earlier discovery is claimed by Spain. American missionaries were sent there in 1820, and these men re- duced the language to written form ; soon after this idolatry was abolished by a decree of the ruler, Kamehame- ha II. In 1844, the independence of the islands was guaranteed by the United States, Great Britain, and France. On August 12th, 1898, the archipelago was transferred to the Government of the United States, and on June 14th, 1900, it was or- ganized as a Territory. UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 331 The islands have an area of 6,449 square miles. Although they lie en- tirely within the tropics, the heat is moderated by the trade winds that blow for nine months of the year; clear skies and an equable temperature characterize the cli- mate and conduce to the healthfm conditions which prevail. The tem- perature at Honolulu, the capital, averages 71 deg. F. in December, and less than 77 deg. F. in July. The rainfall varies greatly, the windward side of the islands re- ceiving the most. At Hilo it may be eighty inches or more, while at the more sheltered Honolulu the aver- age is probably within thirty-eight inches annually. There are no hur- ricanes of damaging violence, al- though several high gales may be expected in the course of the winter season. r \ OAHU HAWAIIAN ISLANDS There are eight islands in the Ha- waiian group, besides numerous islets for the most part uninhabited. Hawaii Island, the largest, contains 4,210 square miles, and the popula- 10 of 28,623. It is mountainous, and presents some pic- turesque scenery. Its two main por- tions are connected by a sandy isth- mus that is but little above sea level. The summit of Mount Haleakala (10,032 feet) may be reached on horseback; the long, regular gradi- ents make this feat comparatively easy. At the summit is found the largest extinct crater in the world. The northwest coast possesses a good harbor in Lahaina, with steam- ers plying between that port and Honolulu. Molokai Island, not much more than a third as large as Maui, is occupied by a low mountain range, and is popularly known as the site of the leper settlement, where all those affected by the disease are iso- lated. Oahu Island, with a population of 90,000 and an area of about 500 square miles, presents some of the most charming, natural forma- tions, combining mountains and ra- vines, cascading waters, and rich foliage and vegetation into pictures wholly satisfying to the artistic eye. Coral reefs girdle its coasts, and on the southern shore is Honolulu, the capital of the Territory, on a plain formed by the upheaval of an old coral reef. Kauai Island possesses the most fertile soil of any in the group, the advanced decomposition of its lavas showing that volcanic action has been long extinct. It is roughly cir- cular in shape, of an area of 547 square miles, and in 1910 the popu- lation was 23,744. Twenty miles to the southwest is the little island of Niihau. Cook found few animals in the islands. There were dogs, rats and hogs, and a day-flying bat. The only reptile was a small lizard. There are now cattle, sheep and goats, and some deer. More than 332 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES fifty species of birds have been found, but the Chinese turtle-dove and the European house-sparrow are the only birds frequenting the towns. The windward districts are quite heavily forested. Sandalwood is no longer obtainable, but the can- dle-nut and the screw pine are char- acteristic of the slopes and valleys, while the cocoanut palm grows free- ly on the coast. The soil is general- ly very productive, and in 1910 there were 4,350 farms, covering 2,590,600 acres, the land being valued at $78,- 000,000; the live stock upon them was worth $4,300,000. The commer- cial products include coffee, rice, arrowroot, honey, bananas, sisal, wool, hides, skins and tallow, rub- ber, cotton, and tobacco, but sugar and tropical fruits are the chief ex- ports. On the sugar plantations the growing use of irrigation canals is resulting in increased crops ; that of 1914 was 618,000 tons, and the yield is from two to seven tons to the acre, depending upon location. The industrial establishments of the islands numbered, in 1910, 500, with 7,572 employees, and a combined capital of $23,875,000; the material used was valued at $25,629,000, the output at $47,404,000. Communication facilities are con- stantly being improved. There is a large and increasing mileage of good roads, and more than 300 miles of railway, 240 miles of it being on the islands of Hawaii and Oahu. In Honolulu almost every house has its telephone; there are 6,000 miles of wire on the five main is- lands. The best harbors, after that of flWfcolulu, are Pearl, on Oahu; Hilo, on Hawaii; and Kahului, on Maui. From these and the lesser ports of the group, 436 vessels of a total tonnag%**c| 1,574,845 cleared in 1915, and in the same year 456 vessels, of 1,605,925 tons, entered. Inter-island transportation is pro- vided for by a fleet of sixteen small steamers. At Honolulu new wharves have been constructed, and the larg- est steamers can now be accommo- dated. At Hilo and at Kahului breakwaters have been built, and the harbor of Kahului has been deepened. The erection of light- houses has progressed steadily. Ten steamship lines touch at the islands, from Canada, the United States, the Philippines, China, Japan, and Australia. Wireless puts the islands into communication with each other, with the Pacific coast, and with vessels at sea, and cables stretch to both shores of the Pacific. Upon formal annexation to the United States, a Legislature of two houses was established. Fifteen members are elected for a four-year term to the Senate, and thirty mem- bers with two-year terms constitute the House of Representatives. Once in two years these bodies meet in a sixty-day session. The President of the United States appoints for four years a Governor, at a salary of $7,000, and a Secretary. A Dele- gate is elected to the United States Congress by popular vote. The ju- diciary consists of a Supreme Court and Circuit and District Courts ; dis- trict magistrates are appointed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court ; all other judges, including those of a United States District Court, are appointed by the Presi- dent. There were nearly 8,000 con- victions in 1915, mostly for minor offenses. There were 170 public schools in 1915, where 735 teachers gave in- struction to 29,000 pupils, at a cost of $772,000; besides this, $70,000 was expended upon new buildings. These are free schools, and English is the language in general use. In addition, there are about fifty pri- vate schools, with an enrollment of 7,700 pupils, industrial schools for both boys and girls, a normal school, a College of Agriculture and the Me- chanic Arts> and a reformatory. The enrollment records disclose the fact that of all these pupils some 18,000 are Asiatics, 8,000 are of Hawaiian blood, 5,700 are Portu- guese, and 1,403 American, the re- Photos by the American Museum of Natural History Natives Catching Fish Objects of Culture HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 334 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES mainder being Germans and British. In the old days, the Hawaiian was a coast dweller, having his grass hut under the palms, and his garden or small plantation on the hill slopes. A little patch of kalo, less than fifty feet square, provided him with a year's sustenance. He was a great fisherman, and there are in existence lines made from fine olonci fiber which have seen a cen- tury of service, and are still in good condition. His huge sailing canoe was a familiar sight to the Me- lanesians, and the impression made by his gigantic war canoe, carrying pean costume ; his fishing line, when he condescends to fish, is of cheap foreign manufacture, and much of the fish he eats comes from the tin can ; the picturesque hut of grass has been almost wholly replaced by the shack of rude wood, and he is on intimate terms with the slum of the town. When Capt. Cook found him, he was one of a proud race 400.000 strong ; to-day that raoe has dwindled to less than 25,000, if we exclude the 12,000 of mixed blood. The modern Hawaiian has, how- ever, retained many of the char- - : : ^m-. <*-* , 1 1 1, , : ui GOVERNMENT BUILDING, HONOLULU its hundred ruddy-skinned warriors, must have been awe-inspiring. This was in the days when the goddess Pele spoke from her volcanic throne, and 'Tele's hair," a sort of natural mineral wool spun by the wind from lava-drops, was found in the crev- ices as substantial evidence of her reality. All this has passed. The Hawaiian of to-day affects Euro- acteristics that make him so attrac- tive to us. He is still a fine speci- men of physical humanity, pleasure- loving, athletic, and musical in voice and in temperament. His guitar still holds tones that have never been duplicated upon other instruments or evoked by other fin- gers. His women continue to weave their flower garlands and bright UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS necklaces, and the dance has lost none of its abandon. There are in the islands 80,000 Japanese, 22,000 Chinese, and 22,000 Portuguese, and several thousand Filipinos have been introduced. Japanese, Chinese, and Korean im- migration is now forbidden. The census of 1910 gives the popu- lation of Honolulu as 52,183, and the entire population of the inhab- ited islands is now estimated to be 322,856. Honolulu is in many as- pects quite modern ; electricity lights its streets and operates its cars. It has a Roman Catholic and an Angli- can bishop, and ministers of several other denominations. It has fine parks, a water system, hotels, clubs, newspapers, a hospital, a large library, a museum, and several large manufacturing establishments. The Hawaiian National Guard is a body of a thousand men, and mili- tary works are in progress at va- rious places in Oahu, including fortifications, a naval station, and a drydock at Pearl, on the island of Oahu. A direct property tax furnishes most of the revenue of the Territory, augmented by licenses and land sales, road, school and poll taxes. The assessed value of all property in 1915 was $176,601,222, the annual receipts from all sources were $2,- 796,146, and the expenditures $2,- 747,270; there is a bonded debt of $7,873,000. The exports of the Ter- ritory were $62,464,759, the imports $26,416,031, for the year ending June 30th, 1915. Practically all the export trade was with the United States, as was 80 per cent of the import trade. Raw sugar accounted for $51,368,995 of the export figures, refined sugar for $1,584,100, and tropical fruits for $6,319,129. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, 1899 IN our East India possessions, the Philippine and Sulu Islands, we have a territory as large as the United Kingdom, with a population larger than that of Canada. To put it more exactly, if less impressively, the area of the archipelago is 121,- 400 square miles, and the population is 9,000,000. The formation of the group suggests a wish-bone, with the largest and most northerly island, Luzon, as the stem; Mindoro and the long, narrow Palawan, with the chain of islets between them, forms the western fork of the bone; the eastern fork is made up of Samar, Panay, Negros and Mindanao, the latter being the second largest and the most southerly island of the group. The islands and islets num- ber altogether 3,141. The China Sea, which washes the western coasts, puts 500 miles of water between the group and the continent of Asia. The Sulu chain bridges the gap be- tween Mindanao and Borneo, and farther north the gap is again bridged by the long arm of Palawan and Balabac ; these extensions en- close the Sulu Sea; to the south rolls the Celebes Sea, and on the east is the vast extent of the Pa- cific, the first mainland encountered in this direction being Central America. 336 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The Philippines were discovered by Magellan in 1521. Spain took them by conquest in 1542, and held them for more than three centuries ; but on the outbreak of the Spanish- American War, Admiral Dewey, commanding our Pacific fleet, de- stroyed the Spanish warships in Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, and Manila was taken by General Mer- ritt in the following August. The Mt. Mayon, in Luzon, broke into devastating activity; mild earth- quake shocks are frequent, but the buildings are so constructed as to withstand fairly severe shocks. The islands are all mountainous, the gen- eral trend of the systems being north and south. Mt. Apo (10,300 feet) on Mindanao is the highest summit ; no other peaks exceed 9,000 feet. The longest river is the Cagayan, LOVELY PHILIPPINE SCENERY Treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898) ceded the archipelago to the United States. Then followed battles with the native forces under Aguinaldo, ending with his capture in March, 1901. Of volcanic formation, the Philip- pines still have twelve active vol- canoes. In 1880 destructive earth- quakes were experienced ; in 1897 which rises in the mountains of the eastern coast of Luzon and traverses the island in a northerly direction for 220 miles; other important streams are the Cotobate and the Agusan in Mindanao. The Laguna de Bay, a fresh water lake, near Manila, is thirty miles long, and numerous smaller lakes are scattered throughout the islands. The archi- UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 337 pelago has a longitudinal extent of a thousand miles; from northern Luzon to southern Mindanao is as far as from New York City to south- ern Florida ; hence it is to be ex- pected that climatic conditions vary greatly in different portions of the group. While the climate is, of course, tropical, the heat is on the whole more bearable than that en- countered in many temperate coun- tries. The seasons may be desig- nated as hot, wet and cold. The hot season (March to June) is at its worst just before the southerly trade winds begin to blow ; in the latter part of this season violent thunder- storms occur ; from July and through October the rain falls in torrents, often registering seventy inches for the four months; in Manila, seventy- five inches is perhaps a fair annual average. From November to March is the so-called cold season, when heavier garments are necessary to comfort and a sense of invigoration is born of the cloudless skies and the cleansed air. The mean temper- ature at Manila is, for the hot season, about 87 degrees; for the wet season, 85 degrees, and for the cold, 72 degrees. The fauna of the islands is not prodigal in mammals, but it offers peculiarities that well repay the nat- uralist. There are wild boar and deer; monkeys are found every- where, one species being a pure white ; there is a lemur about the size of a squirrel, which sleeps the day through and seeks its food by night, its long hind-legs propelling it over the ground in frog-like leaps 4 * there are two species of civet, and a wild cat; also porcupines, squirrels and rats, and numerous species of bats; lizards, alligators and turtles are found, and some enormous mol- luscs; the shell of the tablobo has been known to attain the weight of two hundred pounds. The waters provide both curious and valuable fish. The usual domestic animals are met with, and the buffalo is used in the fields. The forested area is extensive, and is under the supervision of the United States Forestry Bureau. It offers a wonderful variety of tim- ber, cabinet woods, palms, trees yielding gums, spices and dyewoods, and bamboo. No matter what par- ticular quality or combination of qualities may be sought to meet special uses, a timber may readily be found that will admirably serve the purpose. Since the supply great- ly exceeds any local demand that is likely to arise, these forests consti- tute a most valuable resource. Three-fourths of the trees are of the dipterocarp family, corresponding to the conifers of our zone. From this family may be obtained an abun- dance of woods eminently suitable for interior finish and for furniture, and exhibiting a wide range of color and texture. Tanguile and red lauan closely resemble mahogany in appearance. If hardness be the qual- ity sought, guipo and apitong may be relied upon ; they are extensively used for flooring, and a still harder wood used for this purpose is yacal ; this latter is ideal for heavy con- struction work, as are also ipil and pagatpat ; these timbers make strong and durable railroad ties. Should we seek beautiful cabinet woods there are many trees of the locust family, among which may be found colors and grainings to satisfy the most exacting tastes ; the ipel is a striking example in this class. Then there are woods that lend themselves to less common and even more diffi- cult demands. Mancono and dungon make the finest dumb-bells, bowling balls and bearings. Calantas is an excellent substitute for the Spanish cedar used in cigar boxes. Ebony, the highest priced of all Philippine woods, has a wide distribution, but the trees do not attain any great size; perfect pieces bring $300 a thousand feet board measure. The islands are far from poor in minerals. In most of the larger ones gold is found, and the crude work- ings of the natives have now given sas OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES place to an established industry that, in 1913, produced nearly a million dollars' worth of the precious metal. Other minerals found in greater or less quantities are silver, platinum, mercury, lead and manganese ; there are several coal fields, iron exists in various parts of the archipelago, cop- per has long been mined by the na- tives for manufacture into utensils, and there are evidences of sulphur, petroleum, rock salt, kaolin and gypsum. In 1913 the value of all minerals yielded up by the soil was $1,972,290. The aborigines were probably Ne- gritos, who were gradually forced into the remoter natural strongholds by their Malayan invaders, until the latter came to dominate the islands. Of the present entire population of 9,000,000 nearly 8,000,000 are Roman Catholics; the Moros are Mohamme- dans, and number perhaps 300,000 ; the uncivilized, pagan tribes of the mountains, scattered throughout the islands, make up the remainder. It will be seen that the non-Christian and uncivilized elements can neither singly nor together be taken as in any way representative of the Fil- ipino people. The Malayan is the dominant and representative stock. At the social functions of Manila one meets highly educated men and women in the conventional evening dress. Should we engage one of these men in conversation about his country, he will tell us that writing was common before the arrival of the first Spanish monk, and that the inhabitants were a highly moral peo- ple at that time ; that they have en- joyed three centuries of civilization ; that at the time of the American occupation, 45 per cent of the Chris- tians were literate; that there was a university in the Philippines be- fore Harvard was founded, and that the Americans found on their com- ing 1,674 public" schools, and colleges for both men and women in every capital city of any importance ; that Luna had already achieved interna- tional fame as an artist, and music and poetry of a high order were written ; and that the unusually fine examples of wood-carving demon- strate the artistry of the Filipino craftsman. On the other hand, he would not deny that American occu- pation had increased the number of public schools to more than 4,000, and had raised the literacy to 75 per cent. There are now 37 educa- tional divisions under direction of the Secretary of Public Instruction, with a public school enrollment of 500.000 ; there are normal and indus- trial trade schools, and private STATUE OF MAGELLAN IN PALACE AT MANILA schools enroll some 10,000 pupils. The University of the Philippines, maintained by the State, lias col- leges of Liberal Arts, Law, Medi- cine and Surgery, Engineering, Fine Arts, Veterinary Medicine and Agri- culture, with 2,000 students. Much thought has been given to the solution of tlie problem presented by the Moros. With this in view, a hundred miles of More ceuntry in UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 339 the island of Mindanao has been organized into eight colonies, where the mixed peoples live peacefully to- gether, their children attending the same schools. English is now the official language of the archipelago. The educated Filipino speaks sev- eral languages and follows American politics assiduously. The people are in general, kind, hospitable and in- telligent. Agriculture is the chief industry, in which one-half the workers are engaged. More than 8,000,000 acres are under cultivation, 3,000,000 acres, being devoted to rice. The principal products are rice, Manila hemp, copra, sugar, maize and tobacco. Ob- solete methods and insufficient labor account for the agricultural possi- bilities being in a neglected state, but our occupation is already accom- plishing good results in this direc- tion. All public schools have now an elementary course in agriculture, and a rural credit system is fur- NATIVES OF JOLO SELLING FRUIT thered by an Agricultural Bank hav- ing twenty-six agencies. In 1914 the outstanding loans of this institution aggregated nearly two millions of dollars. The 1915 imports amounted to $44,479,861, the exports to $50,915,- 061. Abaca or Manila hemp stands first on the export list with a value of $19,000,000; copra next with a value of $12,000,000, and sugar third with a value of $9,712,757; cigars and cigarettes accounted for $2,102,- 317, and all other tobacco for $1,- 589,678. The value of the chief im- ports was : Cotton goods, $9,669,247 ; rice, $5,448,301 ; steel and iron prod- ucts, $3,993,984. Half the entire trade of the islands is with the United States. The central government is vested in a Governor-General, who is also President of the Philippine Commis- sion, assisted by eight commissioners, four of whom are the executive heads of departments known as In- terior, Commerce and Police, Fi- nance and Justice, and Public In- struction. The commission consti- tutes one house of the legislature, the other is known as the Assembly, with eighty-one members elected by limited franchise for four years. Two Resi- dent Commissioners, elected by the Legislature, take their seats, but without a vote, in the United States House of Representatives. Political- ly, the archipelago is divided into thirty-six provinces and, in addition, the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, which is itself divided into provinces and districts. Thirty-one are known as regular, and the others as special, provinces; the first class are governed by provincial boards elected by the people; governors of the special provinces are appointed by the Governor-General and the commission, acting in concert. Muni- cipal officers are elected for terms of four years by the voters; about nine hundred towns enjoy this auton- omy. Each town has a justice of the peace ; in each of the twenty-six judicial divisions the administration of justice is under a judge of first instance, with the exception of the city of Manila, which constitutes the ninth district or division, and to which four judges are assigned. There is also a supreme court. Be- sides the municipal police, there is what is known as the Philippines Constabulary, with a strength of about 350 officers and 5,000 men. 340 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The garrison of the islands has 10,000 American and 5,000 native troops, and a body known as the Philippine scouts number about 5,000. Customs duties and internal taxes provide most of the revenue, which, in 1914, was $11,912,761 ; in the same year the expenditures were $13,333,- 321, but as at the beginning of the year there was a balance of $5,- 679,587, there was still on hand at its conclusion $4,259,027. In 1914 the bonded debt was $16,125,000. Of the expenditures for this year, more than $5,000,000 was devoted to social and public improvement and eco- nomic development. Leprosy, smallpox, the bubonic plague and cholera were formerly prevalent in the islands. Radical measures have been taken to stamp out these diseases, and much progress has been made. There are between two and three thousand lepers iso- lated in a colony on the island of Culion. Intestinal diseases, which ravaged the Philippines, have been Deduced by almost one-half; this re- sult is attributed largely to the pure water supply secured for Manila; in the smaller towns this has been accomplished by the drilling of hun- dreds of artesian wells. It is as yet hard to obtain accurate health statistics except for Manila ; here the birth rate is about 36, and the death rate 25 or less, per thousand. Manila has a population of 270,- 000; of these 17,000 are Chinese; there are probably 6,000 Americans, counting in the garrison, and 6,000 Europeans, two-thirds of them Span- iards. Chinese immigration to the Philippines was prohibited in 1902, and registration is required of Chinese laborers. The number of Chinese now on the islands is put at 50,000, and the entire number of whites (American and European) is estimated to be 20,000. The savage tribes of the mountains differ widely in many respects, and it is a mistake to call them all "Igorrotes." Even the Igorrotes, filthy and barbarous as they are, possess some good traits. Although they live in moun- tainous parts of the country they cultivate the soil industriously, first terracing the slopes, then laying out their plots upon these terraces, irri- gating them by canals that are con- structed with no mean skill. They are monogamists among whom di- vorce is unknown, and by whom in- fidelity is severely punished. There is little manufacturing done in the Philippines, but pina fibers, cotton and silk are woven into fab- rics that are frequently attractive and durable; baskets, cordage, pot- tery, furniture, hats, mats, musical instruments and carriages are also made; but the only manufacturing industry of note is that of cigars and cigarettes; 305,000,000 cigars were made on the islands in 1913, about one-third of this output being con- sumed in the country while the rest was exported ; and in the same year 4,500,000,000 cigarettes were pro- duced, mostly for local consumption. There are more than 5,000 miles of good road in the Philippines, 1,800 miles being hard-surfaced road of the first quality ; permanent bridges and culverts number nearly 6,000. At the time of the American occu- pation in 1898 there were but 120 miles of railway; this connected Manila with Dagupan. There are now 720 miles, with 212 miles more planned, if not actually under con- struction; 600 miles are on Luzon, 72 on Panay, and 60 on Cebu. The islands have 5,300 miles of telegraph lines and 1,173 miles of cables; 700 post-offices handle the mail. The postal revenue for 1914 was $380,- 942, and the telegraph revenue was $283,305. Money orders were sold to the value of $8,272,858. The fine harbor at Manila will allow of the entrance of vessels drawing thirty feet of water, and next in importance are the harbors of Cebu and Iloilo. Cebu is a city of 60,000 population, and Iloilo has 50,000. The ports of the Philippines in 1914 received for- eign vessels to a tonnage of 1,912,756, UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 341 and the tonnage of foreign vessels clearing was 1,931,249. The mercan- tile marine consists of some 700 ves- sels, about one-fourth of this fleet being steam vessels, totaling 55,000 tons. Four banks are established in the Philippines. In 1904, after a trou- blesome experience with the Mexican dollar, the United States tried the expedient of guaranteeing by gold the Filipino peso, a coin worth fifty cents in American money. Fluctua- tions in value are thus avoided, and the experiment has proved quite suc- cessful. The postal savings bank has now about 45,000 depositors, and the total deposits are nearly 3,000,000 pesos, The alertness of the Filipino, and his eagerness to learn, have already been touched upon. It should not, then, surprise us that more than a hundred newspapers are published on Filipino soil. The predominating language of the press is Spanish, but no less than 27 of these newspapers are in English, 33 are in native dia- PHILIPPINE COFFEE PLANTATION lects, and 3 are in Chinese. If fur- ther promise of a Filipino rena- scency is required, we may find it in the quiet tribute of the Hon. John Barrett, director-general of the Pan- American Union, who, in favorably comparing the Philippine Congress with the Japanese Parliament, finds in it "a ministry of bright men, of acknowledged ability as internation- al lawyers." PORTO KICO, 1899 PORTO RICO is the most east- erly island of the Greater An- tilles, in the West Indies ; it was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and was held by Spain until its capture by the United States in 1898. It is 100 miles long and about 40 miles in width, except toward the eastern end, which narrows considerably; the area is 3,436 square miles, and it has, besides, several islands of importance, of which the largest is Vieques (100 .square miles). Porto Rico is 1,400 miles from New York and less than 1,000 from Colon, Pan- ama. It is wonderfully fertile and presents a beautiful appearance. A mountain range, with a maxi- mum height of 3,800 feet, traverses the island from west to east, and there are 1,300 streams, of which fifty may be termed rivers ; but none are navigable for more than a mile or two from the coast. The hilly nature of the country causes tht trade winds to precipitate their moisture upon the northeastern low- lands, where the average rainfall is 120 inches, while at San Juan, the capital, it is but 55 inches. The temperature varies between 50 de- grees and 100 degrees. Although there are 40,000 small farms, valued in 1910 at more than $102,000,000, and 60 per cent of the workers are on the soil, not much more than one fourth of the land is under cultivation. The lowlands produce sugar, the hill slopes coffee and tobacco; much of the latter, of superior quality, is grown under cloth. Other products are sea island cotton, textile fibers, Indian corn, sweet potatoes, rice, maize, plan- tains and yams. Grapefruit, or- anges, pineapples, cocoanuts and other tropical fruits flourish. Most of the trade is with the United States. The country south of the mountain range is not so well 342 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES watered, but for this district there is now under construction an irri- gation system, to cost $3,000,000, which will greatly increase the out- put of the island. Molasses and honey are products of importance, but the staples are sugar and coffee, the former constituting 47 per cent o'f all exported products. In 1914 320,633 tons of sugar, valued at $20,240,335, and 50,211,947 pounds of coffee, valued at $8,193,544, were shipped from Porto Rico. Spanish cedar, ebony, rosewood, Indian sandalwood and mahogany are all found on the island, and the Talauma, with its white, sweet- scented flowers, furnishes a timber locally known as "sabino." At least twelve different plants are used in dyeing and tanning, and the fruit of the vijao, which grows in wild luxuriance, is used by the natives for ink and dyes, which are claimed to be quite fast in color; the root of the turmeric also yields a dye used for hammocks, ribbons and cloth, and this may prove to have commercial possibilities. Porto Rico is poor in fauna ; the passing of the armadillo and the agouti has left only small rodents, squirrels and a species of great land turtle as representative of the four-footed population. Of the few reptiles, none are venomous. Doves and various song birds frequent the higher districts; green parrots abound in the forests; and water birds, among them the gaudy flamin- go, are found along the coasts. Both salt-water and fresh-water fish are caught in considerable quantities. Of the domestic animals, cattle are raised in sufficient numbers to form an industry worthy of note. Little is known of the extent ol the mineral resources. Since much alluvial gold was recovered by the Spaniards, it is reasonable to infer that rich veins await discovery in the mountains. Copper, iron, tin, bismuth, mercury, platinum, nickel and coal have been found, and salt is worked extensively. This latter is the only mining enterprise upon an established basis. San Juan, the capital city, has a good harbor with a fairly clear en- trance ; when improvements now under way are completed the en- trance will be 600 yards wide, with 30 feet of water. The city had in 1910 a population of 50,000, with a town hall, a cathedral, a general hospital and a theater. Other towns are Ponce, which had 63,444 popu- lation, and Mayaguez, with a popu- lation of 42,429. The island boasts 74 municipalities, each electing its cwn mayor, city council and city officials. Porto Rico is administered by a Governor and an Executive Coun- cil, appointed by the President for a four year term ; six heads of depart- ments and five natives make up the Council. The Legislative Assembly is composed of two bodies, the Ex- ecutive Council and a House of Delegates; the seven electoral dis- tricts each supply five members to the House of Delegates. A Resident Commissioner to the United States is also elected by popular vote for the term of two years ; he takes his seat in the Federal Congress. Enact- ments of the Council and the House are subject to the veto of the Gov- ernor. The judiciary of the island includes an Attorney General with his staff, a United States Court, and a Supreme Court of five, all ap- pointed by the President; the Gov- ernor appoints fifty-nine justices of the peace ; seven District Judges are appointed by the Governor, while the people elect to office the judges and officials of thirty-four municipal courts. The educational system has been much improved since Americans UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 343 took charge of affairs. In 1899 more than 83 per cent of the people could neither read nor write. That year saw the complete reorganiza- tion of the school system, education being made compulsory. The num- ber of common schools has been in- creased from less than 800 to more than 4,300, with an enrollment of 207,010 in 1914. There are four high and twenty-five continuation schools, besides night schools, kin- dergartens and private schools. At Rio Piedras, a few miles from San Juan, is situated the University of Porto Rico, where students of both sexes receive instruction in such special subjects as teaching, science, engineering, medicine, law, architec- ture and agriculture; the farm and dairy of the University enable stu- dents to master the practice as well as the theory of agriculture, and in this the Government experiment sta- tion at Mayaguez offers its whole- hearted and valuable co-operation. In 1892 the island possessed 119 miles of railway. It now has more than 220 miles. This links together the towns of the western coast, partly encircles the island, and to a certain extent opens up the interior. It is intended to extend the present facilities until there is a railroad entirely around the island, and an- other project is the running of a new line across the island, with many branches and ramifications. There are a thousand miles of tol- erable roads in Porto Rico, 600 miles of postal telegraph wire, govern- ment owned, forty telegraph stations and 80 post offices. The telephone is also winning its way into business and social demand. The population was estimated for 1914 at 1,184,489, an increase over 1910 of 66,477. Of this population, less than 50,000 are negroes, some 340,000 are mulattoes, and the rest are whites. Almost nothing is known of the original inhabitants; a few of their stone weapons, im- plements and images, with some earthenware fragments, have been found, and are now preserved in the Smithsonian Institution; and at Gurabo, on the Rio Grande de Loiza, may be seen a sort of monument roughly hewn in stone and bearing a number of mystifying designs. The revenues of Porto Rico come from customs and excise, from the tax on property, an inheritance tax FIRST FLAG RAISING IN PORTO RICO and various fees and licenses. The receipts from these sources for the year ending July 1st, 1914, were $10,108,708; the property had an assessed value of $179,271,023. The police force numbered about 700 men and the military forces about 600. The industries of Porto Rico are chiefly concerned with the produc- tion of embroideries, drawn work and hats. In 1910 there were 939 industrial establishments ; their combined capital was placed at $25,- 544,385, and their output at $36,- 749,742. These establishments em- ployed 15,582 work people. The tonnage of American and foreign vessels clearing from Porto Rican ports during the year ending July 1st, 1914, was 1,216,909. The island is a port of call for thirteen steam- ship lines. In 1914 the imports were valued at $36,406,787 and the ex- ports at $43,102,762. In 1915 the exports to the United States alone reached a value of $43,311,920. 344 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES GUAM, 1899 GUAM, the largest and most southerly island of the Ladrone group, the rest of which belongs to Germany, lies in the North Pacific Ocean, nearly 1,500 miles east of the Philippines. It was discovered by Magellan in 1521, was held by Spain from 1688 to 1898, and was captured by the U. S. cruiser "Charleston" during our war with Spain. The island is 29 miles long, from 3 to 10 miles in width, and its area is 210 square miles. The northern part presents the appearance of a large plateau, while the southern portion is hilly, attaining a height of 1,280 feet The vegetation is luxuriant, and soil and climate are admirably suit- ed to agriculture, but the laziness of the natives has prevented any extensive development of this pur- suit. October to May is the dry sea- son, although rain not infrequently falls. The temperature is even, with August and September the hot- test months, the yearly mean tem- perature being about 81 deg. Fahr. Guam is occasionally visited by dev- astating typhoons and earthquake shocks are not uncommon. Trade winds moderate the heat and condi- tions are generally milder than in the Philippines. The valleys are forestrated with valuable hardwoods. Food fruits are the custard apple and sour sop, the pineapple and the cocoanut; breadfruit and bananas grow freely. The hau produces very strong and durable rope ; the leaves of the pan- danus are used in braiding hats and mats ; the ylang-ylang is well known for the perfume it yields. Among the vegetable products are rice, maize, sugar, cotton, indigo, castor oil and tobacco. About the only native animals are small rodents, but the roe and the wild goat thrive, as do swine and oxen. There are no venomous snakes and the scorpions and centi- pedes are not dangerous. The population of Guam is esti- mated at 13,000; the inhabitants are for the most part Chamorros with a mixture of Tagal, Malay and Span- ish blood, speaking a Malay-Spanish dialect, but English is rapidly gain- ing ground. The American occupa- tion is raising native standards. The lepers have been segregated, telegraphic communication has been improved, public schools established and a good hospital maintained. There is a Government agricultural experiment station at Agana, the capital, which has paved streets, sewers and a water system and is connected with Apra, the only safe harbor, by a very good road. The commandant of the naval sta- tion acts as Governor. The island has four administrative districts, each with a commissioner as its executive head. Peonage has been abolished and courts of justice estab- lished. The 1914 imports were val- ued at $160,000 and the exports at $50,000. Guam is a port of transit between the United States and the Philippines and army transports call there at frequent intervals, some- times monthly. SAMOAN ISLANDS, 1900 THE Samoan group is found in the South Pacific Ocean, 420 miles northeast of the Fiji Islands ; named by Bougainville "lies des Navigateurs," from the natives' skill in handling their canoes, it still appears on many maps as Navigators' Islands. The whole group numbers thirteen islands, for the most part mere rocky and barren islets. By the Tripartite Treaty of 1899, all those east of 171 deg. long, were turned over to the United States, which has had a naval and coaling station there since 1872. Germany retained possession of that portion of the group lying to the west of this UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 345 meridian. The United States pos- sessions comprise Tutuila, with an area of 77 square miles and a popu- lation of 7,300; Ofu, Aunua and Olosenga, having together an area of some 25 square miles with about 2,000 population; and Rose Island, uninhabited. Pagopago, the capital of American Samoa, is on the south coast of Tutuila ; its fine harbor almost di- vides the island into two parts. Tutuila is the best island of the entire group, of a mountainous char- acter, but possessing extensive forests. The natives of the archipelago are forbidden to sell land to the whites, but are permitted to retain their own laws and customs in so far as these do not conflict with the laws and ordinances established by the Governor, who is also the naval com- mandant. He is authorized to ap- point officers, regulate the police and make ordinances dealing with such matters as the assessment of taxes and the importation of spirits. A body of seventy-five men, under a drill sergeant of the United States Navy, constitutes a native guard. The natives are of fine physique, but are indolent and very independ- ent, and the plantations have to be worked by imported labor. Hook- worm and the yaws are prevalent, but a great deal has been done toward the amelioration of these diseases, and much attention is paid to sanitation and the public health. There are four religious missions, \vith numerous sectarian schools ; besides these, there is one govern- ment supported school and another largely maintained by the native population. The total number of schools is 83, with 2,000 pupils of both sexes. The political divisions are three the Eastern, comprising eastern Tutuila and Aunua ; the Western, which is western Tutuila ; and the District of Manua, taking in Tau and its neighboring islets. Each dis- trict has its native Governor ; under him are the county chiefs, and under them the chiefs of villages. Each village has its own court. The products of American Samoa include cocoanuts, cocoa beans, bananas, breadfruit, pineapples, or- anges, yams and taro, the last being a plant with leaves similar to those of the water-lily, with roots that are baked and used as food. Some cot- ton, maize, sugar and coffee are raised for local consumption. Copra (dried cocoanuts) and cocoa beans are about the only things exported, the output of copra running to 1,500 tons per annum ; this product is largely used as legal payment for taxes. PANAMA CANAL ZONE, 1904 THE Panama Canal Zone, com- prising 436 square miles of ter- ritory, was acquired by pur- chase, February 26, 1904, the sum of $10,000,000 being paid to the Re- public of Panama. In addition, Pan- ama is to receive an annual pay- ment of $250,000 during the life of the treaty, beginning nine years after date of ratification. The Canal Zone begins at a point three marine miles from mean low water mark in each ocean and ex- tends five miles on each side of the center line of the route of the canal. It includes the group of islands in the Bay of Panama, named Perico, Naos, Culebra and Flamenco. The cities of Panama and Colon are ex- cluded from the Zone, but the United States has the right to enforce sani- tary ordinances and maintain public order there, in case the Republic of Panama should not be able to do so. PART II. OF HUMAN INTEREST TO ALL UNCLE SAM'S PEOPLE CHAPTER I. THE AMERICAN FLAG By ALBERT A. HOPKINS AND INSTRUCTOR H. C. WASHBURN U. S. NAVAL ACADEMY, ANNAPOLIS, MD. FIRST PART BY THE EDITOR FROM the earliest time the flag has been of prime importance. According to Livy the cav- alry flag was a square piece of textile material fixed to the cross bar at the end of a spear. The Roman standards were guarded BLUE (tiutes) (Vei-t) (Or\ RED GREEN YELLOW SHIELDS SHOWING HOW THE HERALDIC COLORS ARE TRANSLATED INTO BLACK AND WHITE with the greatest care and venera- tion, and were kept in the temples of the great cities, and alter the advent of Christianity churches re- ceived them. All through mediaeval and modern history we find the fas- cinating trail of the standard under various names, which, like the "Oriflamtne" of France, have come down to us as a valuable heritage. Disregarding the history of flags in general we come to our flag, which is a modern flag in every sense of the word ; it has no myths or legends connected with it, and the Heralds' College has never been invoked in its design. Its bright colors are at- tractive and can be seen long dis- tances, which is not the case with all flags. Love for the flag has been fostered by State, school and church, so that nothing is more venerated in this country than the "Stars and Stripes." Great care has been taken by the Federal and State govern- ments to give the greatest possible protection for the national emblem; thirty-four States have legislation to preserve the American Flag from desecration, mutilation or improper use. The national flag must not be used for advertising, as a cover for a magazine, and the statutes of the United States forbid the use of the flag as a trade mark. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 348 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The settlements in the thirteen original States were largely English, and the ceremonial flags of the col- onies took the form of the English national standard of the period. In 1643 the colonies of Plymouth, Mass- achusetts Bay, Connecticut and New Haven formed an alliance called the "United Colonies of New England," and in 1686 they adopted the cross of St. George with a gilt crown over the monogram of James II. HEW ENGLAND COLORS, 1686 As early as 1700 the colonies be- gan to use flags of their own design, the "pine tree" flag of New England being an example. There are vari- ous forms of this flag. In one in- PINE TREE FLAG OF NEW ENGLAND stance the ground was blue with the cross of St. George in the center and a pine tree in the first quarter. This flag may have been used at the bat- tle of Bunker Hill. Another varia- tion was a flag with a white ground and a green pine tree in the center. FLAG USED AT THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL ( ?) The rattlesnake was another favor- ite symbol in the Southern colonies, and there are many variations of this flag, but the head of the snake must THE RATTLESNAKE FLAG OF SOUTH CAROLINA always face the staff. The motto is usually "Don't tread on me." South Carolina had a yellow flag with the snake on it. An early flag displayed in the South was a dark blue flag with a white crescent, and was raised at Charleston, S. C., on September 13, 1775. The word "Liberty" was a later addition and was used at the THE AMERICAN FLAG 349 historic defense of Fort Sullivan (now Fort Moultrie), Charleston Harbor, June, 1776. These flags, so interesting to stu- dents of colonial history, were not, however, strictly speaking, the fore- runners of the "Stars and Stripes." The flag, as we have it to-day, is the result of an evolution. The most prominent features of the flag are THE CRESCENT FLAG OF FORT SULLI- VAN, CHARLESTON HARBOR, 1776 EARLY AMERICAN FLAG OF THE REVO- LUTION IN THE SOUTH, CHARLES- TON, S. C. Same as Long Island Battle Flag C FLAG OF THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY the bars. These are not original, however, as we find them in the flag of the Dutch West India Company, and in 1704 the ships of the English East India Company carried flags with thirteen red and white stripes and the cross of St. George in the canton. FLAG OF THE DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY FLAG OF THE PHILADELPHIA TROOP OF LIGHT HORSE, 1775 350 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES It has also been suggested that the arms of Washington may have suggested the original form of our flag, but there seems nothing to sub- stantiate it. The first known in- stance of the use of stripes was in the flag of the Philadelphia Troop of Light Horse, 1775. This may have been suggested by the "Cambridge Flag," which Wash- ington raised at Cambridge on Janu- ary 2, 1776. This was truly the first American flag to show in concrete form the union of the colonies. There were thirteen alternate stripes of red and white, and in the canton was the combined crosses of St. George and St. Andrew. It is variously called the "Grand Union Flag," the "Great Union Flag," and the "Union Flag." The name "Cam- upholsterer who was the reputed maker of our first flag. CONTINENTAL OR GRAND UNION FLAG RAISED AT CAMBRIDGE JAN. 2, 1776 bridge Flag," however, appears to stick, and is eminently appropriate. This flag continued to be used until the Continental Congress adopted the "Stars and Stripes." The so- called "Betsy Ross" flag, or the first "Stars and Stripes," is enmeshed with much romance, but the testi- mony as to the events rests pretty largely on the statements of Mrs. Ross herself and these are not sup- ported by contemporary writers. Her house still exists at 239 Arch Street, Philadelphia, and is cared for by the American Flag House and Betsy Ross Memorial Association, and is a memorial to the little widowed WHITE PLAINS BATTLE FLAG OCT. 28, 1776 The facts, however, seem to have been these : On June 14, 1777, the American Congress adopted the fol- lowing resolution : Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alter- nate red and white ; that the Union be thirteen stars, white on a blue field, rep resenting a new constellation. THE FIRST NATIONAL FLAG OF UNITED STATES, ADOPTED JUNE 14, 1777 THE John Adams has the credit of pro- posing the committee that framed the resolution. Washington is said to have remarked, "We take the star from Heaven, the red from our mother country, separating it by white stripes, thus showing that we have separated from her, and the white stripes shall go down to pos- THE AMERICAN FLAG 351 terity representing liberty." This is pure bombast and is probably apocryphal. The design was not officially pro- mulgated until September 3, 1777. The stars were first arranged in a circle, but this gave way to three horizontal lines of four, five and four stars. This remained the na- tional emblem until May 1, 1795, when two more stripes and two more stars were added for Vermont and Kentucky. "The Star Spangled Banner" was written by Francis Scott Key (1779- 1843). This national lyric was in- approached under a flag of truce, when he was held temporarily on MANUSCRIPT OF THE "STAR SPANGLED BANNER" From Treble's "History of Die Flag of tlie United States of America." Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Publishers. spired when he witnessed the bom- bardment of Fort McHenry, Septem- ber 13, 1814. He was trying to ob- tain the release of a friend who had been captured by the British. Key was on this expedition, which had THE ORIGINAL STAR SPANGLED BANNER (Note fifteen stripes) -0tt. *. itab thrwtflta !. of '.IVkJTS'fa.'. h|bifi> 4..U * j JrjToS^I, U bfM.. . IM <- FIRST PUBLICATION "STAR SPANGLED BANNER" 352 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES his vessel, lest he disclose the in- tended attack on Baltimore. He was compelled, therefore, to witness the bombardment through the whole day and night, and when he saw the national emblem still floating in the breeze in the morning, his muse com- pelled him to write this national anthem. The song was first pub- lished in the Baltimore American, September 21, 1814. Originally, the song was written on the back of a letter and was copied out in full at night, in a hotel in Baltimore. It was struck off in handbill form and its popularity was widespread. Ferdinand Durang fitted the music of "Anacreon in Heaven" to the words. This remained the national flag for twenty-three years. It was used during the war of 1812. By 1818 five additional States were added; Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana and Mississippi were admitted into the Union, so that further changes in the flag were required. The act of April 4, 1818, provided first, "That from and after the fourth day of July, next, the flag of the United States be thirteen horizontal stripes, alternate red and white; that the union have twenty stars, white in a blue field." Second, "That on the FLAG OF TWENTY STARS AND THIR- TEEN STRIPES admission of every new State into the Union one star be added to the union of the flag; and that such ad- dition shall take effect on the 4th of July, next, succeeding such ad- mission." The return to the thir- teen stripes was due not only to a reverence for the flag of the Revo- lution but also to the fact that a further increase in the number of stripes would have thrown the flag out of balance, or would have made the stripes so thin that they would be indistinct at a distance. Since this time no change has been made in the flag except to add stars as required. In the war with Mex- ico the flag had twenty-nine stars in the union, thirty-five during the Civil War, and since July 4, 1912, forty-eight stars. Considerable con- fusion existed as to the way the stars should be placed. The official arrangement followed by the Army and Navy is as follows : THE "STARS AND STRIPES" OF TO-DAY "America" was written by the Rev. S. Francis Smith, D.D. Dr. Lowell Mason, one of the fathers of music in this country, turned over to Dr. Smith some foreign music and asked him if he found anything par- ticularly good to write words for the music. The latter found the tune of "God Save the King," and wrote the remarkable lyric at Andover, Mass., in February, 1832. It was struck out at a sitting with no idea of its future popularity. The first time it was publicly sung was at a children's celebration of American Independence, at the Park Street Church, Boston, July 4, 1832. THE AMERICAN FLAG 353 The Confederate flags are of con- siderable interest. The first was known as the "Stars and Bars." This was adopted at Montgomery, March 4, 1861, the day Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated. It was found that this flag was too much THE FIRST CONFEDERATE FLAG, "STARS AND BARS" THE ORIGINAL MS. OF "AMERICA" From Treble's "History of the Flag of the United States." Houghton, Mifflin & Cu., Publishers. During the Civil War the flag came in for much attention and the stirring words of Secretary Dix may be reproduced herewith: SECOND FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY 354 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES THIRD FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY like the flag of the North to be readily distinguished, so a second flag was adopted, May, 1863. This also was found to be objec- tionable, having the appearance of a flag of truce, so a broad transverse strip of red was added, so we have the third flag of the Confederacy. This was adopted February 4, 1865, The real battle flag was like the one pictured below. BATTLE FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY Our flag now waves over a united country and over colonial possessions of vast territory and wealth, and has also waved over Morro Castle, when we set the Cubans free, but it did not remain over that historic struc- ture, for we did not invade Cuba with any thought of conquest but to free her from the oppressor. WHEN AND HOW TO DISPLAY THE FLAG OF THE UNITED STATES (Copyright 6t/ Louis Annin Ames) HOLIDAYS Lincoln Birthday February 12th. Washington's Birthday..February 22nd. Jefferson Day April 17th. Battle of LexingtonApril 19th. (Patriots' Day) 'Memorial Day May 30th. Flag Day. June 14th. Battle of Bunker Hill.. June 17th. Independence Day July 4th. La Fayette Day September 6th. "Star Spangled Ban- ner" Day (Baltimore) September 13th. Paul Jones Day September 23rd. Columbus Day October 12th. Battle of Saratoga October 17th. UNITED STATES FLAG FLYING OVER MORRO CASTLE, HAVANA, CUBA Surrender of Yorktown .October 19th. Evacuation Day (New York) November 25th *On Memorial Day, May 30th, the Flag should fly at half staff from sun- rise to noon, and full staff from noon to sunset. STARS AND STRIPES is the official name of the national flag of the United States. In the Army our national flag is called the Standard, also the Colors. When borne with another flag, the regimental color, the two flags are called a "Stand of Colors." In the Navy our national flag is known as the United States Ensign. To show proper respect for the flag the following should be observed : THE AMERICAN FLAG 355 Photo Harris & Ewing THE KEY HOUSE, GEORGETOWN DISPLAY The flag should not be hoisted before sunrise nor allowed to remain up after sunset. At "Retreat" sunset, civilian specta- tors should stand at "attention" and un- cover during the playing of the "Star Spangled Banner." Military spectators are required by Regulation to stand at "attention" and give the military salute. During the playing of the National Hymn at "Retreat" the flag should be lowered but not then allowed to touch the ground. When the flag is flown at half staff as a sign of mourning, it should be hoisted to full staff at the conclusion of the funeral. In placing the flag at half staff, it should first be hoisted to the top of the staff and then lowered to position, dropping it from the top of the staff the distance of the width of the flag, and preliminary to lowering from half staff, it should first be raised to the top. On ship board the national flag is the flag to be raised first and lowered last. Where several flags are displayed on poles with the national flag, the Stars and Stripes should be hoisted first and on the tallest and most con- spicuous staff. Where two flags are dislayed, one our National flag, it should be placed on the right. (To ascertain the right of a building, face in the same direction as the building.) No flag should ever be flown from the same staff as the United States flag, except in the Navy; then only during Divine Ser- vice, when the Church Pennant may be displayed above the national flag God above Country. When, in parade, the national flag is carried with any other flag, it should have the place of honor, at the right. If a number of flags are carried, the national flag should either precede the others or be carried in the center, above the others, on a higher staff. When flags are used in unveiling a monument, tablet or statue, they should not fall to the ground, but be carried aloft, forming a distinctive feature of the ceremony. When the national flag is used as a banner the union should be at the right (as you face the flag). When used as an altar covering, the union is at the right (as you face the altar), and noth- ing should ever be placed upon the flag except the Holy Bible. The flag should never be flown re- versed except in case 'of distress at sea. PORTRAYING THE FLAG To properly illustrate the flag, the staff should always be at the left of the picture with the flag floating to the right. When two flags are crossed, the national flag should be at the right. If the national flag is pictured as a ban- ner, the union is at the right. SALUTE When the National colors are passing THE CHURCH PENNANT ONLY MAY FLY ABOVE THE STARS AND STRIPES 356 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES in parade or in review, the spectator should, if walking, halt, and if sitting, arise and stand at "attention" and un- cover. The national salute is one gun for every State. The international salute is, under the Law of Nations, 21 guns. On shore the flag should not be dipped by way of salute or compliment. ORAL FLAG SALUTE "I pledge allegiance to my flag and to the Republic for which it stands ; One nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." Trimming the Stars Zig-zagging MAKING AMERICAN FLAGS Striping Courtesy of the Int. Film Co. MRS. VERNON CASTLE AS BETSY ROSS PART II. THE TROPHY FLAGS OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY By Instructor H. C. WASHBURN U. S. NAVAL ACADEMY AT the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, is the greatest collection of naval trophy flags in the world. seas, victories won by the consist- ently maintained skill and efficiency, as well as by the traditional daring and devotion to duty, of our officers BRITISH ROYAL STANDARD This gorgeous blazoning of the arms of England, Scotland, and Ireland, together with the arms of the Hanoverian dominions in Brunswick, Lunenburg and Saxony, is said to be "the only British Royal Standard ever captured in battle." And indeed, this great standard, which measures thirty feet by twenty-five, was taken at the attack on York (now Toronto), when that place, then the capital of Upper Canada, was captured by the squadron under Commodore Isaac Chauncey and a land force under Gen- eral Pike, April 27, 1813. Nevertheless, it should be remem- bered that the royal standard has for centuries ceased to be a battle flag, that it is used primarily to signify the presence of the sovereign, and that it was found at the Parliament House at York, where it awaited the visit of a member of the royal family. It was in retaliation for Chauncey's raid on York, and more especially, perhaps, for the taking of the Royal Standard from the Parliament House, that the British sent General Ross's army against Washington in 1814, and burned the public buildings at our capital. These old flags, one hundred and seventy-two in number, are the priceless symbols of our long honor roll of heroic victories on the high and men. Flags of Great Britain, of France, Spain, Mexico and Korea; United States ensigns flown on ships of renown ; in one instance 358 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES the Stars and Stripes side by side with the Stars and Bars of the Confederacy ; their age, their faded colors, and the security of their re- pose as they hang in draped folds of the nation has been maintained by a navy whose traditions are im- perishable. Since 1847, the gradually increas- ing collection of trophies has been DONTGIVEUP THE SHIP THE BATTLE FLAG OF LAKE ERIE In the Flag Room at Annapolis, whose high ceiling and walls are ablaze with captured trophies, the place of honor is assigned to the "DON'T GIVE UP THE SHIP" flag; its message and its story are woven through the threadbare strands of every flag in the collection. This battle flag of the squadron under Master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry, and his signal for going into action, was flown successively on his flagships the "Lawrence" and the "Niagara," at the battle of Lake Erie, September 10, 1818. Made at Erie by Perry's order, at the suggestion of Purser Samuel Hambleton, it bears on a dark blue field, in white letters rudely fashioned by the hands of jack tars, the dying words of Captain James Lawrence, mortally wounded in the action between the United States frigate "Chesapeake" and the British frigate "Shannon." When the British squadron came in sight of Perry's men, their commander jumped on a gun-slide, and ad- dressed the crew of the flagship: "My brave lads, this flag bears the words of Captain Lawrence. Shall I hoist it?" . Wild cheers from their bared throats were echoed from the other ships of the squadron as the bunting was run up to the main- royal masthead. The men took their places at the guns. In the battle that ensued, Perry saved the Great West, and won a complete victory, which enabled him to send his famous message to General Harrison: "We have met the enemy and they are ours two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." The flags of all these vessels are in the Navy Collection, but the commanding position is assigned to this battle flag, with its message: "DON'T GIVE UP THE SHIP!" behind the glass of their exhibition cases, are significant reminders that we are at peace with those who in the past were enemies, and signifi- cant object lessons chat the honor kept at the Naval Academy, where, for many years, the flags were exhib- ited in the old Naval Institute Hall. In 1900, however, when this building was about to be torn down, the THE AMERICAN FLAG trophies were packed in sealed boxes, to await the day when they should be properly preserved, and placed on exhibition in the new buildings of the Naval Academy, in which alcoves and paneled spaces had been planned for their recep- tion. It was known that the flags, when packed away, were in poor condi- tion, and it was feared that in spite of all precautions they would be damaged by moths. Efforts to have ings and grounds at the Naval Aca- demy, began a correspondence which included the naval committees of Congress, patriotic societies, and the custodians of flag collections the world over. In the course of this correspondence, a letter was received from the Hon. Curtis Guild, ex-Gov- ernor of Massachusetts, in which Governor Guild named as his choice of an expert on flag preservation Mrs. Amelia Fowler, of Boston. At the request of Commander Cole, Mrs. JACK OF THE BRITISH FRIGATE "GUERRIERE" The "Guerriere," Captain James Richard Dacres, was defeated and cap- tured by the famous "Constitution," Captain Isaac Hull, on August 19, 1812, in the first of the frigate actions of our second war with Great Britain. "The sea-spell of England was broken," and although the "Constitution" herself fought two more splendid actions under the command of Bainbridge and Stewart respectively, against the "Java," and against the "Cyane" and the "Levant," the American people have never forgotten the first flush of pride which they felt when they heard the news of Hull's triumph. Among all the single-ship victories won by American naval officers in the War of 1812, the classic of the honor roll is the fight between the ship we have come to love as "Old Ironsides" and His Majesty's ship "Guerriere." them put in a permanent state of preservation were, however, unsuc- cessful, until 1911. To Commander William Carey Cole, U.S.N., more than to any other individual, but also to Captain John H. Gibbons, U.S.N., then Superin- tendent of the Naval Academy, who supported Commander Cole in his work, is due the credit for the ac- complishment of the restoration of the flags. Early in 1911 Commander Cole, as officer in charge of build- Fowler examined the flags in April, 1911. She found them so seriously damaged by the ravages of moths, as well as the decay of age, that no ordinary method of preservation would suffice to insure their perma- nent existence. She accepted the contract for their preservation. Her special process consisted in spreading the tattered remnants of each flag upon a backing of heavy Irish linen of neutral color. This delicate work was guided by the 360 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES original measurement of the flag, by a knowledge of its design, and by placing in lines at right angles the disarranged strands of the warp and woof threads in the fragments of bunting. What remained of the original flag was then sewn firmly to the linen backing by needlewomen, under Mrs. Fowler's instruction and the original, the stitches, dyed to match the adjacent edges of the old bunting, complete the design of the flag, and tell graphically the story of the pieces that are gone. On April 8, 1912, Congress passed an act appropriating $30,000 for the work of preservation and prepara- tion for exhibition. Shortly before ENSIGN OF THE CONFEDERATE STATES RAM "ALBEMARLE" This is the only Confederate flag placed on exhibition in the great trophy collection of the United States Navy, and it has been placed side by side with the ensign of the United States sloop-of-war "Kearsarge," to symbolize the Union of the North and the South. The "Albemarle," long the terror of her enemy's wooden vessels, was sunk with a spar torpedo handled from a picket launch by Lieutenant William Barker Gushing, at Plymouth, Roanoke River, North Carolina, on the night of October 27, 1864. Gushing, "the bravest of the brave," whose intrepid deed matches if it does not excel the burning of the "Philadelphia" in the harbor of Tripoli by Stephen Decatur, by this one stroke put an end to the war in North Carolina. His well-nigh miraculous survival enabled him to see this trophy of his exploit, the flag flown on the "Albemarle," which was taken shortly after his exploit, at the capture of Plymouth by the Union army. guidance. The stitches, of silk or linen thread, cover the entire sur- face of the flag, with circular meshes a network very strong, yet hardly visible, since the thread is carefully dyed to match the colors of the old flag, however faded or stained in varying degrees. Where there are gaps or missing parts in this act was passed, Commander Cole held up, before the members of the House of Representatives, as an impressive witness, the disintegrat- ing fragments of Oliver Hazard Perry's battle-flag, the signal for going into action at Lake Erie, which bears the dying words of James Lawrence, "Don't Give up THE AMERICAN FLAG 861 the Ship." The sight of this trophy in such a deplorable condition was a final argument for the appropria- tion to which the House and the Senate could not but respond, and to which they responded with ad- mirable generosity. On July 12, 1912, Mrs. Fowler's needlewomen, who averaged forty in number began the arduous labor of sewing over by hand every square on the ground that the honor of cataloguing the collection fell to me, and as some account of the work of cataloguing, which occupied two years, is also requested, it seems proper to state that Commander Cole entrusted to me the work of verifying the identity of all the flags, discovering, if possible, the data concerning certain flags of un- known history, settling questions of ADMIRAL FARRAGUT'S FLAG This is the last flag hoisted by Admiral David Glasgow Farragut, conqueror of the Mississippi and victor of New Orleans and Mobile Bay. It was flown at the masthead of U.S.S. "Tallapoosa," his last command, and was hung at half-mast during the naval obsequies of George Pea- body, at Portland, Maine. Looking up at this flag as a salute was fired at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in Admiral Farragut's honor, he remarked, "It would be well if I died now, in harness." He died shortly after- ward, on August 14, 1870. Until very recently, when Congress established the rank of Admiral, the only officers of our naval service who flew the flag with four stars were Farragut, David Dixon Porter, and George Dewey. inch of the flags. Some idea of the magnitude of the task will be had when it is explained that the col- lection contains no less than 15,00u square yards of bunting. The flags were completely restored, and placed on exhibition with great skill, by May 16, 1913. The work had occu- pied ten months. As I have been asked to write an account of the flags for this book the best plan of exhibition, and writing the official inscriptions, or the catalogue proper. When I took up this work, I found confronting me a task difficult in some ways, if not impossible. Evidence was not lacking that a considerable number of the flags had been confused with other flags. To mention a few of these cases since corrected in every in- stance the ensign of the British 362 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES frigate Cyane was listed as the en- sign of the Guerridre, and the jack of the Guerriere was listed as the jack of the Cyane; there were five other errors in the identity of Brit- ish flags ; even flags captured during the Spanish War had been incor- inscriptions on the hoists of the flags, by eliminating each certainty in identification as it appeared, and by collecting all possible information from individuals who knew certain flags, the problem narrowed down to three or four cases. At last, these ENSIGN OF THE UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP "MAINE" The battleship "Maine," commanded by Captain Charles Dwight Sigsbee, was blown up while at anchor in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, on the night of February 15, 1898. This flag its colors intermingled by the action of salt water was recovered from a locker of the "Maine" after her destruction. It is thought to be the flag lowered at sunset on the evening of February 15, 1898. So far as is known, no poem has been written about the flag of the "Maine" to stir the hearts of Americans. Perhaps there is no need of a poem to summon up the memory of that ship; monuments attest the fame of her gallant dead, and her flag stands among the trophies of the Navy symbol of the honorable keeping of a nation's word, disclaiming desire for conquest, and of the freedom of Cuba. rectly labeled and numbered. The old catalogue, published in 1888, was untrustworthy, and subsequent er- rors had made it virtually useless. Gradually, by dint of gathering all the evidence available in the form of were disposed of by the discovery of some old drawings and photo- graphs. In the course of this work, the history of all but two of the flags of unknown history was dp termined. CHAPTER II. AERONAUTICS BY BARON L. D'ORCY, Mem. S. A. E. Static and Dynamic Aircraft The Drift Balloon Captive and Kite Bal- loons Dirigible Balloons History and Mechanics of the Aeroplane The Development of Military Aviation Scouting Aeroplanes Fighting Aeroplanes Bombing Aeroplanes The Seaplane Aeronautics in America STATIC AND DYNAMIC AIRCRAFT i. e., static aircraft, is called aerosta- tion; its vehicles are the drift bal- loon, the kite balloon and the di- rigible balloon, all of which, it should be noted, possess the faculty of staying aloft without expending motive power. The science dealing ERONAUTICS, the science of aerial navigation, and its vehi- cles, generically termed aircraft, subdivide into two distinct branches and types, respectively. The science dealing with machines which are supported by a gas lighter than air, Photo Hollinger WILBUR WRIGHT Photo Hollinger ORVILLE WRIGHT Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 364 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES with machines which are supported by the pressure onrushing air ex- erts on cambered surfaces, i. e., dynamic aircraft, is called aviation; its vehicles are the glider and the aeroplane, of which, however, only the latter possesses practical value, gliders being only used for experi- mental purposes. Unlike static air- craft the aeroplane cannot remain motionless in the air, for its ability to stay aloft is conditional upon its faculty to create air pressure by continuous motion. This obvious drawback may some day be obviated by the helicopter or direct-lift ma- chine, in which sustentation is sought to be attained independently of horizontal motion by the use of vertical lifting screws. This type of machine is still in its experimen- tal stage; such is also the case of of the ornithopter or wing-flapping machine, which seeks to copy the movements of the bird's wing-beats, and of the soaring machine, which is supposed to fly by the use of favora- ble air-currents. THE DRIFT BALLOON The drift balloon (or aerostat) was invented by the Montgolfier brothers of Annonay, France, who built in 1783 a balloon supported by heated air. Before the close of the same year the crude hot-air balloon (called montgolfiere) met a much more sci- entific rival which shortly succeeded in eliminating it : this was the char- Here, so named after the physicist Charles, who substituted hydrogen for hot air and invented nearly all the fitments of the modern aerostat. Hydrogen gas has a lifting power of about 60 pounds per 1,000 cubic feet and remains the most efficient static motor to the present day ; but as its production is expensive, sport- ing balloons are generally inflated with coal gas, which was invented in 1821 by George Green, of Eng- land. Coal gas, however, lifts only about 35 pounds per 1,000 cubic feet. A modern aerostat consists of an envelope, made of varnished silk, calico or rubber-proofed fabric im- pervious to gas, which is inflated through a long neck on the under side, called appendix. The envelope is surrounded with a net, the bottom of which is constituted by a suspen- sion ring to which the wicker basket carrying the aeronauts is toggled with eight ropes. The top of the envelope is provided with a valve which allows part of the gas to es- cape whenever the aeronaut wishes to descend. Upon landing, the bal- loon must at once be disinflated in order to avoid being dragged; this is achieved by the ripping panel, which covers a vertical seam in the envelope and is operated by a rope whereby the balloon can be torn open instantly. The equipment of an aerostat com- prises: (1) a guide-rope, which en- ables the pilot to maintain his verti- cal equilibrium, when near the ground, without expending ballast, the balloon being then relieved of part of its weight by the rope trail- ing on the ground; (2) ballast, con- stituted by sand carried in bags, and (3) various recording instruments such as a barograph, a statoscope, a compass, etc. In the days when self-propelled aircraft were inextant, the drift bal- loon had a wide usefulness not only in the field of scientific and sporting achievement where its value re- mains unimpaired but also as a vehicle of transportation. This was conclusively demonstrated during the siege of Paris in 1870-71, when the besieged garrison organized a balloon-mail service by means of which 164 voyagers amongst whom Gambetta and 3,000,000 despatches were carried over the Prussian lines. Out of sixty-six balloons only five were captured by the enemy and two were lost in the Atlantic ; and so great was the moral and material success of this enterprise that Bis- marck threatened to shoot every aeronaut as a spy, and Krupp pro- duced the first anti-aircraft gun. .8 2^5 i: 1 ^5 o *:s .y d d .. I 5 PT(T> ^ 3 f sa OP o ^ 366 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Although the dirigible balloon and the aeroplane have now entirely eliminated the drift balloon from military use, it seems certain that the aerostat will always retain its value for scientific and sporting achievements. CAPTIVE AND KITE BALLOONS The typical captive balloon is nothing but an aerostat which is maintained at a given height by a Ifc Courtesy of "Flying" FRENCH KITE-BALLOON ENGAGED "GTJN-SPOTTING" IN cable attached to the ground. Such was the famous Entreprenant, which afforded General Jourdan, command- ing the French army at the battle of Fleurus (1794), such an excellent view of the enemy's movements, that it actually turned a near French de- feat into a brilliant victory. Such was also the gigantic sightseeing balloon Giffard built for the Paris Exhibition of 1878 ; ihis craft, which had a volume of 882,500 cubic feet, carried thirty-eight passengers at a time to a height of 1,600 feet, and was hauled down by a 300 horse- power steam winch. This balloon has remained the largest spherical of either drift or captive type. Contrary to what might be ex- pected, the lesson of the battle of Fleurus was lost to military science and it was only after the Franco- Prussian war that the military es- tablishments of the principal nations adopted the captive balloon for pur- poses of observation in field and siege warfare. In this function cap- tive balloons played a certain role during French and British colonial expeditions ; nevertheless their use- fulness proved to be a limited one on account of their inability to stand up in a strong wind. The defects of the ordinary cap- tive balloon were overcome by two German army officers, Captains Par- se val and Sigsfeld, who produced in 1898 the so-called Jcite-balloon a craft which has proven so success- ful that it is now recognized to be an indispensable auxiliary of every up-to-date army and navy. The kite-balloon consists essen- tially of an elongated gas-bag which is divided into two unequal portions, the larger of which (comprising about four-fifths the total volume) is filled with hydrogen; the remaining one-fifth constitutes the ballonnet, or air-cell, and this is automatically in- flated by the wind through a con- venient aperture. The ballonhet ful- fills two purposes: first, it creates within the gas-bag a sur-pressure equal to the pressure of the wind plus the static pressure of the hydro- gen, thus enabling the balloon to maintain its shape regardless of any wind the mooring cables can with- 368 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES stand; and secondly, air being much heavier than hydrogen, the air-cell causes the balloon to assume an in- clined position, which is particularly favorable for counter-acting the de- pressing tendency of the wind. In order to keep the craft always head- on to the wind a sausage-shaped air bag rudder is fitted to the rear of the envelope, which is inflated the same way as the air-cell; longitudi- nal stability is further insured by a number of sails and a device simi- lar to a kite's tail. The standard type of kite-balloon has a volume of from 25,000 to 35,000 cubic feet, and it carries one or two observers who are connected by tele- phone with the artillery unit they are attached to. As a fire-control station for military, and even naval operations of a stationary character (siege, blockade, etc.), the kite-bal- loon far surpasses the aeroplane, af- fording, as it does, a steady platform wherefrom field glasses or telescopes can be used to great advantage. In the Great War the kite-balloon is chiefly being used on the western front, where hundreds of them dot the rears of the Allies' and German lines. Their importance in effectu- ally regulating artillery fire was par- ticularly well demonstrated in the aerial operations which preluded the battle of the Somme. X few days be- fore the big Allied "drive" began, British and French fighting aero- planes methodically attacked every kite-balloon which stood watch over the German lines in that sector, fif- teen being set on fire and destroyed and the remainder being driven down. It was only after the German commanders had been thus deprived of their fire-control stations that the Allied drive started with its bom- bardment and subsequent infantry attack. As kite-balloons do not possess any means of defense it becomes neces- sary to provide their occupants with parachutes so that they might es- cape with their lives should the bal- loon be carried away by a storm or be set afire by enemy aviators. Not- withstanding the latter contingency, which incidentally can be neutral- ized in some measure by the co- operation of anti-aircraft guns and friendly fighting aeroplanes, kite- balloons appear to be decidedly su- perior to aeroplanes in the function of directing artillery fire because of the former's ability to hover over a place, which aeroplanes do not possess. DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS The dirigible balloon is the logical outcome of the Montgolfier brothers' ambition which prompted their in- vention -to navigate the atmosphere at will in lieu of drifting slavishly before the prevailing wind. The basic elements of a dirigible are (1) an elongated gas-container, called hull or envelope, and so shaped in order to attain the greatest speed with the least expenditure of motive power; (2) one or more cars or na- celles containing the power-plant which drives a number of propellers the fuel supply, the crew and the passengers, and eventually a com- mercial or military load; (3) a sys- tem of connection between cars and hull; (4) such means as w r ill assure the permanency of the hull's shape ; and (5) such means of control as will effectually regulate the longi- tudinal and vertical equilibrium. A century elapsed before all these requirements could be successfully filled. This is why the invention of the dirigible cannot be attributed to one sole man, but is rather due to a series of inventions, such as that of the ballonnet, of the stabilizing fins and of the horizontal rudder, and finally of the gasoline engine, which latter has, more than anything else, made the actual success of the diri- gible possible. The existing dirigibles may be divided, according to their mode of construction, into two classes, viz., (1) pressure airships in which the permanency of the hull is insured by maintaining within the flexible en- AERONAUTICS 369 velope a pressure superior to the atmospheric pressure, and (2) riff id or structure airships, in which the same object is attained by means of a rigid framework covered with fab- ric which encloses a number of drum- shaped gas bags. Pressure airships further subdivide into vessels of the CROSS SECTION OF AN ASTRA-TORRES AIRSHIP, SHOWING MODE OF SUSPENSION non-ri(jid and semi-rigid type, accord- ing to whether the car or cars are directly hung from the envelope by means of steel cables or are sus- pended from a metal keel attached to, or built into, the hull. Of the former type are the Astra-Torres, the Clement-Bayard, the Parseval and the Zodiac airships ; the Crocco- Ricaldoni, the Forlanini, the Gross- Basenach and the Lebaudy dirigibles pertain to the latter. But whatever the mode of suspension, all pressure airships have as a common feature the ballonnct, a collapsible air-cell located at the bottom of the hull, which can be inflated with air by a ventilator whenever the gas con- tracts through a change of tempera- ture or of atmospheric pressure so that a constancy of displacement may be realized. The ballomiet com- pensates losses of volume, but not ones of lift (air being about four- teen times heavier than hydrogen) ; a decrease of lift can be made good only by jettisoning ballast (sand or water). An excess of pressure with- in the hull caused by an expansion of the hydrogen is relieved by auto- matic valves, which are fitted to both hull and ballonnet ; but as the ballonnet valves open at a less pres- sure than those of the hull an excess of pressure will first be relieved by an expulsion of air from the bal- lonnet. If, therefore, the latter has a sufficient capacity, no losses of gas will occur in the process of regulat- ing the vertical equilibrium. On some pressure airships two ballonnets are fitted, one fore and one abaft, which can respectively be pumped full of air and thus steer the vessel up and down by static means ; it is more common, however, AERIAL NAVIGATION CHARTS (as shown on the left) are designed and colored to closely resemble the ground as seen from above (on the right) 370 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES to effect this function dynamically, i. e., by fitting the airship's stern with a horizontal rudder, called ele vator, which acts by the virtue of the pressure onrushing air exerts upon an inclined plane. In addition (Photo J. E. Watkins) OTTO LILIENTHAL'S BIPLANE GLIDER to an elevator and a vertical rudder, for steering right and left, most air- ships are fitted with horizontal and vertical fins, which serve the pur- pose of checking any pitching and yawing tendency. The engines used on airships dif- fer but little from the well known automobile type, except that partic- ular care is taken in their design to obtain the least possible weight and a low fuel consumption ; the best airship engines (Chenu, Clement- Bayard, May bach) do not consume more than one-half pound of fuel per horse-power in one hour. Pro- pulsion is effected by air-screws, which are generally mounted on out- riggers on either side of the cars. Rigid airships need no ballonnet, the shape of their hull being ren- dered permanent by the framework. This system has the advantage of being supported by independent gas- bags so that if one of these should accidentally become disinflated the airship could still continue its jour- ney. - This feature is particularly valuable for military service and it has enabled many a Zeppelin the most successful rigid airship to date to escape destruction after having been hit by enemy fire. A remark- able proof of the value of the sec- tional construction of rigid airships was furnished by a Zeppelin which collided with a tree and had its bow ripped open by the impact ; the dam- age was quickly repaired by taking off three front compartments and by lightening the front car, where- upon the airship concluded its jour- ney, a matter of ninety miles. A similar accident, had it happened to a pressure airship, would have caused the destruction of the vessel. The great difficulty confronting the operation of Zeppelins is the moor- ing of these enormous vessels in the open, for unlike pressure airships they cannot be instantly disinflated in case of an impending hurricane; but this drawback, which has caused the loss of a score of Zeppelins, is now being overcome by the increased skill of the airship crews and by a perfected system of anchoring, but S. P. LANGLEY'S STEAM-DRIVEN AERO- PLANE MODEL WHICH FLEW IN 1896 ABOVE THE POTOMAC RIVER A DIS- TANCE OF % MILE chiefly by a great number of "air- ports," which the Germans have fit- ted with elaborate sheds, hydrogen generating plants, workshops, etc. AERONAUTICS 371 On the left is shown the motorless glider on which O. Wright remained aloft for nine minutes ; on the right, the man-lifting kite of Capt. Sacconey used for military observation Before the Zeppelins had become notorious in the Great War as en- gines of indiscriminate destruction they achieved a more legitimate fame as pleasure craft. For several years previous to 1914 the German Airship Navigation Company of Frankfurt maintained between vari- ous German towns a highly success- ful passenger service in which no passenger ever lost his life, although several accidents marked the opera- tion of the air liners. The Zep- pelins engaged in this service were fitted with a luxurious cabin-car, seating twenty-four, and a cold res- taurant service was provided. A look-out post fitted on top of the AN EARLY EXAMPLE OF THE CUKTISS "FLYING BOAT" 80 horse-power engine; speed in air, 60 miles an hour; speed on water, 50 to 60 miles an hour 372 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES (Photo E. L. Ovington) FRONT VIEW OF THE 50 H. P. GNOME ROTARY, AIR-COOLED MOTOR hull, which could be reached from the bow-car by means of a stairway enclosed in a chimney, enabled the airship commander to navigate by astronomical observation. While private enterprise thus de- veloped the air-liner the German mil- itary authorities created the air- cruiser a Zeppelin in which the pleasant cabin-car holds bombs of the explosive and incendiary kind and mounts machine guns, and late- ly, even small quick-firers for ward- ing off enemy aeroplanes. Outside of Germany the value of the rigid air-cruiser with its great range and carrying capacity was either overlooked or contested, al- though in 1912 the first naval Zep- pelin covered on its trial run a dis- tance of 1,200 miles in 31 hours, with a crew of 31 and a wireless outfit carrying 200 miles. When the war broke out the Allies possessed only pressure airships of low range and slow speed, as com- pared to the dozen Zeppelins Ger- many was able to line up; this ex- plains the marked superiority in long-range scouting the Germans possessed during the initial onrush on both fronts. The Allies clearly DETAILS OF AEROPLANE DESIGN On the left, a machine with folding wings ; on the right, the armored nose, enclosing a rotary motor, of a military monoplane AERONAUTICS 37,'* perceived their inferiority in this respect and also their inability to produce in a short time rigid air- ships which would meet the Zep- pelins on even terms; so they set upon developing the bombing aero- plane and the anti-aircraft gun. Gradual improvement both in these weapons and in the skill of their operators soon cut short the Zep- pelin's value for overland scouting, reducing its activity to night raids on more or less defended towns, which achieved, however, little mili- tary damage. The greatest present asset of the Zeppelin seems to be its faculty to act as a fleet auxiliary for strategic reconnaissance, because it exceeds in this respect not only the radius of action but also the climbing ability of seaplanes. If it be realized that a Zeppelin can see, from a height where it is little vulnerable, four times as far and travel twice as fast as the swiftest scout-cruiser, the ex- traordinary handicap the British Grand Fleet had to cope with in the battle of Jutland may readily be understood. Although of much less potentiality than the Zeppelins, the pressure air- ships of the Allies have been found very useful for anti-submarine de- fence, mine-sweeping and minor scouting operations. It seems, how- ever, that should the dirigible sur- vive in spite of the aeroplane, which is quite possible, the rigid system will likely prove the ultimate type, there being a limit of size beyond which it will be neither practical nor economic to build pressure air- ships. It is interesting to note how rap- idly standardized airships can be built in large quantities : since the outbreak of the Great War the three factories of the Zeppelin Company have turned out airships at the rate of one in three, four and five weeks, respectively. By July, 1916, one hundred and ten Zeppelins had been launched, including twenty-five prior to the war; it is true, on the other hand, that up to that date thirteen Zeppelins had been lost in times of peace and forty-two due to the agency of war. Owing to its great vulnerability the military future of the Zeppelin seems rather uncertain ; its commercial possibilities, however, appear to be more promising for the immediate future and more especial- ly so for a trans-Atlantic service. HISTORY AND MECHANICS OF THE AEROPLANE The aeroplane is just like the dirigible balloon not so much one man's invention as the combined product resulting from experiments (Photo L. d'Orcy) TWO - SEATER SCOUTING AEROPLANE (160 H. P.) OF THE TI. S. ARMY AVIA- TION SECTION STARTING TO GET OFF conducted and theories worked out for nearly a century by several schools of investigators. The funda- mental theory of the aeroplane was clearly set forth by an Englishman, Sir George Cayley, as early as 1809, and actually furnished the basis upon which the modern aeroplane was subsequently built up. In 1846 another Englishman, Strinfffeltow, gave a practical proof of this theory by building a small aeroplane model driven by a steam engine, which made several successful flights un- der perfect balance; this machine was, in conformity with Cayley 's theory, a monoplane. In 1866 F. 8. Wenham, also of England, invented the multiple surfaced aeroplane and \t was again Stringfellow who vindi- 874 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES cated the claims of the new prin- ciple by a successful free flight of a triplane model. Further important contributions to the dynamics of the aeroplane were made by A. Pgnaud, H. Phillips, Sir Hiram Maxim and 8. P. Langley, late secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. The latter built, in 1903, a man-lifting aero- plane, which, but for its defective launching device, would have flown under control just as it did eleven years afterward with its original ro- tary motor. The first aeroplane to have actually left the ground, carry- ing a man, was the bat-shaped ma- chine with which C. Ader, of France, made, from 1890 to 1896, several short flights. The balance of this machine, however, was poor, and it was only after the German O. Lilien- thal had discovered by prolonged gliding experiments the means of controlling the balance of flying ma- chines that progress became practi- cal. Lilienthal's gliding experiments were repeated and perfected in this country, under the guidance of O. Chanute, by the Wright brothers, of Dayton, Ohio, who gave the aero- plane its one missing link, the w T arp- ing mechanism for insuring trans- verse equilibrium; having thus brought the dynamic flyer under three-dimensional control, the Wright brothers fitted their glider with a gasoline engine driving twin propellers and succeeded in making their first power-flights on December 17, 1903, on the beach of Kitty Hawk, N. C. The Wright brothers, therefore, fully deserve the credit of having rendered practical in other words, invented the aeroplane. The basic elements of an aero- plane are: (1) the main surfaces, or wings, of which there are one or more pairs (in the latter case super- posed or in tandem) according to whether the machine is a monoplane or multiplane (biplane, triplane, quadruplane, etc) ; (2) the auxil- iary surfaces or control organs which regulate the machine's balance and direction (ailerons, fins, elevator and rudder) ; (3) the bodywork or fuselage, which forms the bridge be- tween the wings and the tail and affords accommodation for the pas- sengers, the fuel tanks, the navigat- ing instruments, etc. ; (4) the power- plant, composed of one or more en- gines actuating one or more propel- lers, whose position ahead or abaft of the wings causes the aeroplane to be called a tractor or pusher; and (5) the undercarriage, which is fit- ted with either wheels or floats, or both, for starting from and alight- ing on land or water, or both. The seaplane or marine aeroplane is the invention of Henri Fabre, of Marseilles, France, who made the first flight from the sea on May 21, 1910, at Martigues. The "flying boat," whose development is chiefly due to Glenn H. Curtiss and M. Den- haut, is a seaplane in which the bodywork is combined with a cen- tral boat of large flotation, thus do- (Photo L. d'Orcy) AMERICAN-BUILT SPEED SCOUT FITTED WITH A 100 H. P. STATIONARY CUR- TISS MOTOR. HORIZONTAL SPEED, 119 MILES PER HOUR. ing away with a special undercar- riage. Particular credit for having ad- vanced the mechanics of the aero- plane is due to Louis BUriot, E. Nieuport, J. Btichereau and R. Saulnier (monoplane construction) ; to the Voisin and Farman brothers (development of the pusher biplane) to Louis Brgguet and A. V. Roe, the AERONAUTICS 375 THE ROLLING STOCK OF AN AEROPLANE SQUADRON On the left, a motor repair lorry ; on the right, an aeroplane truck with its trailer originators of the tractor biplane, and to Gustave Eiffel, whose aero- dynamic research work has placed the aeroplane on a scientific basis. No less credit should go to the Seguin brothers for their invention of the Gnome motor, which has probably furthered the progress of aviation more than any other single invention and still appears as the prototype of the most promising aeroplane engine; and to L. Chau- viere, inventor of the wooden air- screw. Quite an important advance in aeroplane design was achieved in 1913 by a Russian engineer. M. Si- korski, who first conceived the idea of building aeroplanes of very large size, driven by several independent motors and capable of carrying a dozen people in a comfortable, heat- ed and lighted cabin. In this coun- try Glenn H. Curtiss has since suc- cessfully produced large seaplanes based on a similar principle. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY AVIATION As soon as the aeroplane had proved its ability to effect voyages with sufficient reliability and its range, carrying capacity and climb- ing ability increased, military au- thorities all over the world were prompt in adopting it for purposes of reconnaissance. It was in this function that the aeroplane made its dtbut in the Great War and the services it rendered were so im- portant that all the belligerents quickly decided upon greatly enlarg- ing their aerial establishments. As specific examples of the w r ork achiev- ed by scouting aeroplanes one might mention how in the battle of Mons the British expeditionary force was saved from envelopment and possible annihilation by an aviator who re- ported that the Germans had twice the numbers that had been antici- pated. Again, at the battle of the Marne it was an aeroplane recon- naissance which disclosed the gap between Von Billow's and Von Hau- sen's armies, and thus enabled Gen- eral Foch to drive a wedge into the German lines, forcing them to re- treat. The examples cited sufficiently emphasize tne value of the aeroplane for scouting; but as both Allies and Teutons went to war provided with "aerial eyes," each party soon felt the neefl of preventing the enemy from seeing and forestalling the friendly moves. Such was the in- ception of what is to-day termed a "fighting machine." Then the neces- sity arose of destroying an impor- tant supply station or a railway junction of the enemy, which ob- ject could not otherwise be reached than by attacking the place froir above: this necessity created thi bombing aeroplane. Originally there were no special machines for the manifold duties 376 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES of scouting, fighting and bombing, every aeroplane being supposed to carry out all or any duty as the necessity arose. As a result no aero- plane was really efficient in any func- tion. Curiously enough the Germans still adhere in some measure to this theory which the British and French air services rejected early in the war. SCOUTING AEROPLANES The modern scouting aeroplane, as developed by the Allies, is a two- seater of great speed range else a detailed inspection of the underlying is as a rule a highly trained special- ist, who must be able to distinguish from a height of several thousand feet a convoy train from artillery, field guns from howitzers, or a sup- ply station from an aircraft park, and be conversant with the Morse code, so that he may instantly send off his report by wireless telegraphy. To fly back to headquarters would mean too much loss of time. The observer's duty is the more difficult as the enemy below will do every- thing to mislead him, by setting up dummy guns and holding back his gun fire while the aeroplane hovers FIXED MACHINE GUN EMPLACEMENT OF A FRENCH FIGHTING AEROPLANE objective becomes impossible whose only task consists in observing a given objective and reporting the re- sult in the quickest way possible. Its armament is purely defensive and generally consists of one ma- chine gun firing broadsides and abaft (on tractors) or ahead (on pushers). The crew is composed of a pilot and an observer; the latter above; troop columns on march will stop and seek shelter; positions which cannot be masked will be de- fended by anti-aircraft guns or pos- sibly by fighting aeroplanes which the observer will have to fight off with his machine gun. And reconnaissance is not limited to noting the movements and strength of enemy forces ; it includes AERONAUTICS 377 "gun-spotting," which consists in con- veying to the artillery the exact range of an objective to be shelled. These manifold duties of the ob- server explain why a scouting aero- plane must be a two-seater : the pilot is indeed kept busy enough in trying to keep to his right course while dodging anti-aircraft shells by flying in erratic zigzags. Although anti-aircraft guns have greatly improved in precision during crossing the enemy lines at only 2,- 500 feet altitude and still was able to effect a safe return. The wartime services of an aero- plane may attain a period of three to six months, although a good many machines last but a few weeks; ro- tary motors last 100 to 150 hours of service, provided they are thorough- ly taken apart and cleaned after ev- ery 20 hours of service. Stationary engines last a good deal longer. FRENCH AVION-CANON MOUNTING ONE iy a IN. Q. F. GUN two years of warfare of which the monthly lists of the belligerents' air- craft losses bear eloquent testimony nothing short of a direct hit into a vital part will down an aeroplane, provided its petrol-tank has not been set afire. Shrapnel balls and rifle bullets are little effective against aeroplanes flying at a height, of 10,000 feet; a French scouting ma- chine received 400 bullet holes while The tactical unit of the aviation service is the squadron, which con- sists (in the United States and Brit- ish armies) of twelve machines of the same type, twelve motor trucks with their trailers for land trans- portation and of a repair-car, and several automobiles and motorcycles. The squadron subdivides into three companies (flights in the R. Flying Corps) of four machines each. 378 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES TABLE SHOWING THE EVOLUTION OF THE ZEPPELIN AIRSHIP Year Length (Feet) Beam (Feet) Total Lift (Tons) H. P. Speed (Miles) , 1900. . . 1905 420 420 38 38 4 12.8 12 9 32 170 15 25 1908 1910 446 485 42.6 46 17.0 21 8 210 330 28 35 1912 1914 518 518 48.5 54 4 25.4 30 5 600 800 47 53 1916 780 80 61.0 1,500 65 WORLD'S RECORDS FOR AIRCRAFT (Those marked * are not recognized by the International Aeronautic Federation) DISTANCE (Cross Country) Aeroplanes. . . 646 miles, by A. Seguin, Paris-Bordeaux-Paris, on Oct. 13th, 1913. (H. Farman pusher, 80 h. p. Gnome). 745 miles* by the Italian Army airship M-2 on Oct. 14th, 1913. 1896.97 miles by Berliner, Bitterfeld to Bisserstk, Russia, Feb. 8, 10th, 1914. DURATION (Non-stop) .21 hrs., 48 min., by W. Landmann, at Johannistal (Germany) on June 26-27th, 1914. (Albatros biplane tractor, 75 h. p. Mercedes.) ,35 hrs., 20 min., by the "Adjutant-Vincenot" (French army ship), on June 27th, 1914. 87 hrs., by Hugo Kaulen, Bitterfeld to Perm (Russia), on Dec. 13- 17th, 1913. SPEED OVER CLOSED CIRCUIT . 126.67 miles per hour, by M. Prevost, at Reims (France) on Sept. 29th, 1913. (Deperdussin monoplane, 160 h. p. Gnome). Dirigibles 58 m. p. h.* by the Italian army airship V-l, in Feb., 1915. ALTITUDE Aeroplanes 21,471 ft., by E. Audemars, at Issy, France, on Sept. 8th, 1915. (Morane-Saulnier parasol monoplane, 80 h. p. Le Rhone.) Dirigibles 10,728 feet*, by the Italian army airship M-l in Feb., 1915. Drift balloons 34,433 feet, by Suring and Berson at Berlin, on June 31st, 1901. OVERSEA 320 miles* St. Gran, from Cruden Bay (Aberdeenshire) to Kleppe near Stavanger (Norway), on July 30th, 1914. Bleriot monoplane. Dirigibles. . . . Drift balloons Aeroplanes. . . Dirigibles Drift balloons Aeroplanes . FIGHTING AEROPLANES Although scouting aeroplanes do carry defensive armament, it often becomes necessary to protect them against a concerted enemy attack. Such is the function of the fighting aeroplane, a high-speed, single-seat- er tractor, which can out-fly and out- climb any other type of machine. The pilot aims the machine-gun, which is rigidly fixed in front of him, by steering the aeroplane against the target ; the blades of the air-screw are armored and thus de- flect the bullets which hit them. In this way about 30 per cent of the bullets go astray. This gun-mount- ing, which was invented by R. Gar- ros, the famous French airman, has since been adopted by the Germans on their Fokker monoplanes with the one variance, however, that the gun is connected with a timing device actuated by the motor, so that it can fire only when the blades of the air-screw do not cover the muz- zle. Quick maneuvering ability being one of the chief assets in aerial com- bat, it follows that fighting aero- planes must be highly sensitive, in other words, neutrally equilibrated, so as to instantly respond to control ; this is why only pilots showing par- ticular aptitude for aerial combat are entrusted with the operation of fighting machines. In addition to protecting scouting machines, fighting aeroplanes are also used for destroying kite bal- loons, convoying bombing machines on raids and even attacking Zep- AERONAUTICS 379 pelins. Two Zeppelins were thus de- stroyed from small combat machines carrying but a few bombs, by the late Flight-Sub-Lieut. R. Warneford, R.N.A.S., and Lieut. W. L. Robinson, R.F.C., respectively, whereas aero- planes of all types, as well as kite balloons, have been lost by the chief belligerents in numbers aggregating several hundreds. BOMBING AEROPLANES Fighting aeroplanes are but oc- casionally used as -bombers and more especially in cases where quick climbing is imperative. Bombing raids proper are carried out by so- called bombing aeroplanes, in which high speed is forsaken in favor of great carrying capacity. The load of explosives such a machine carries can be apportioned either into a great number of light bombs or else into a few powerful missiles, some of which weigh as much as 300 pounds. Considering the first two years of aerial operations it appears that the French and the British achieved in- contestable aerial supremacy in scouting and fighting only toward the close of this period ; it is there- fore the more striking that the action of bombing aeroplanes, in other words the aeroplane offensive, should COCKPIT, MOUNTING A MACHINE GUN, OF A BRITISH BOMBING AEROPLANE have belonged practically all the time to the Allies. The big bombing raids by French and British aero- plane fleets some of them composed of fifty and sixty machines against the airship sheds, railway junctions, shell factories, supply stations, sub- marine bases and coast defense works of the Germans, in the course of which immeasurable moral and material punishment was inflicted, certainly appear as one of the most striking phases of aerial warfare. An indication of what the battle aeroplane of to-morrow might be, is furnished by the French avion-ca- non; this is a large pusher, mount- ing on its bow a 1^-inch quick fire SEAPLANE UNDER CARRIAGES On the left, a "twin-floater ;" on the right, a "flying-boat" 380 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES gun, which fires an incendiary shell, and is chiefly used for shooting down kite-balloons. THE SEAPLANE The functions of the seaplane ar*> to all intents similar to those of the aeroplane, viz., scouting in ad- vance of fleets and naval bases, clearing the skies of enemy aircraft and bombing the enemy's coast es- tablishments. Seaplanes work under a double handicap: first, all other elements being equal, their heavy floats great- ly decrease the useful load which might otherwise be utilized for in- creasing their range or their load of bombs, and secondly, the design of seaplane-floats is not yet sufficiently advanced to permit alighting on or starting from a rough sea. Con- sequently flights of several hundred miles' length, which are common enough over land, are infinitely more difficult to carry out over the sea; this is why all seaplane operations have unlike the work of land ma- chines occurred in close proximity of permanent bases or mother-ships. Notwithstanding their limitations seaplanes have rendered exceeding- ly useful services as fleet auxiliaries, particularly in the Gallipoli cam- paign, where gun-spotting seaplanes directed the Allies' guns on targets invisible but from the air. Sea- planes have also played a notable r61e in patrolling the coasts of the warring nations and in detecting and even destroying submarines and mines. And in the battle of Jutland the work of a solitary British sea- plane pilot was recommended by Vice-Admiral Beatty in the follow- ing terms: "Lieut. F. J. Rutland, R. N., for his gallantry and per- sistence in flying within close range of four enemy light cruisers:, in order to enable accurate informa- tion to be obtained and transmitted concerning them. Conditions at the time made low flying necessary." The present trend in the design of seaplanes (as well as of aero- planes) appears to be toward ma- chines propelled by several motors and propellers, the purpose of which is to keep the machine aloft or at least capable of returning to its base even if one motor should break down or be destroyed by the enemy. THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN TROPHY donated with the object of fostering the art of aerial navigation, is now in the permanent possession of Mr. Glenn H. Cur- tiss, who won it three times in succession. AERONAUTICS IN AMERICA The Great War has had a very beneficial influence on the American aircraft industry ; millions of dollars worth of aeroplanes and motors were AERONAUTICS 381 purchased in this country by the Allies, chiefly for training purposes, and the profits derived thereby have enabled American manufacturers to develop aeroplanes and engines which begin to compare favorably with the products of Europe. Among the aeroplanes thus produced one might mention the huge multiple en- gined "flying boats" of Glenn H. Curtiss; a machine of this type is now being developed for crossing the Atlantic from Newfoundland to Ire- land, a distance of 1,800 miles. The important services the aerial arms have rendered to the warring nations has awakened the American public" to the realization that the United States needs and has so far lacked an air service adequate to its policies; as a consequence the Aero Club of America instituted the National Aeroplane Fund which, thanks to the generosity of patriotic citizens, has enabled the National Guard of various States to acquire aeroplanes and train aviators, and Congress appropriated a sum of over $15,000,000 for the development of aeronautics in the Navy and Army. On July 13, 1916, President Wilson crowned these measures by creating the Aerial Reserve Corps, which is nothing short of an aerial militia. The Post Office Department is fur- thermore considering the establish- ment of several aeroplane- mail routes. AEROPLANE TYPES On the left, a flying boat; on the right, a tractor biplane 5 - CHAPTER III. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY By AUSTIN C. LESCARBOURA NO list of the greatest modern inventions fails to include wireless telegraphy and tele- phony. And it is perhaps equally true to state that no invention is regarded with as great awe by the laity. Yet wireless communication in its essentials is simple. There is nothing truly mysterious in wireless or radio telegraphy and telephony. MILESTONES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF WIRELESS The real beginning of wireless communication, or rather the propa- gation of electric waves through space and their subsequent detection at remote points, is largely a matter of opinion. Some authorities prefer to look upon Steinheil of Munich, Germany, as having taken the first step toward radio communication. For in 1838, Steinheil, following the suggestion of Gauss, demonstrated the feasibility of using the ground as the return circuit for a wire tele- graph system, which in a measure is a form of wireless telegraphy in the embryonic state; and what is more, the work of Steinheil caused much attention to be directed to the possibilities of communication with- out wires. Such names as Trow- bridge, Preece, Rathenau, Strecker, Morse, Lindsay, Willdns, and Mel- huish have been associated with the conduction of electric currents through bodies of water and through moist earth, largely through the in- spiration offered by Steinheil's pio- neer work. Aside from the conduction method of communication suggested by the experiments of Steinheil, electro- magnetic induction between parallel metallic conductors was suggested and studied by Trowbridge, Preece, Lodge and Stevenson. A combina- tion of the conduction and induc- tion principles also was the subject of much experiment, and under the guidance of Sir William Preece, aid- ed by the British Postal Telegraph Engineers, it became the basis of a workable system of wireless com- munication for short distances. How- ever, for several reasons this system did not lend itself to commercial purposes, and hence nothing came of it. Still another workable sys- tem of communication without wires was developed by Edison, Gilliland, Phelps and W. Smith, utilizing the principle of electrostatic induction between conductors spaced some dis- tance apart. The latter system was primarily intended as a means of communication to and from moving railway trains. However brilliant may have been the conceptions of the various pio- neer systems already referred to, the real dawn of commercially practi- cable wireless communication came with the scientific investigation of electromagnetic waves, resulting in a clear understanding of the genera- tion, propagation, and detection of these waves. Credit in large meas- ure is due Maxwell, who, in 1865, announced his remarkable electro- magnetic theory of light. But Max- Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 384 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES well's work, despite its profundity and its rich and invaluable collec- tion of mathematical data, was pri- marily theoretical. As a result, its full value as applied to the propa- gation of electromagnetic waves was not realized until 1888, when Hertz's discoveries and practical investiga- tions again attracted attention to the subject. The work of this young German scientist corroborated the theories of Maxwell; and so rich in possibilities was the field opened by Hertz that numerous scientific workers in various lands set upon the task of acquiring further knowl- edge of the properties of the electro- magnetic waves. Among the early workers in the field of electromagnetic transmission of power was Nikola Tesla, who, in 1892, conducted a series of specta- cular experiments on high frequency electric currents. In passing it must not be forgotten that Prof. D. E. Hughes, according to a paper pre- pared by Sir William Crookes in 1892, developed a system of trans- mitting signals a few hundred yards without connecting wires, using a microphonic detector and telephone receiver for the receiving station. It appears that Prof. Hughes dis- covered the remarkable property of loose-contact filings to cohere under the influence of electromagnetic waves as far back as 1879; but be- cause of the fact that he did not give his work sufficient publicity, some twelve years later Prof. E. Branly of Paris received all the credit for the wireless coherer, which played the leading part in the pio- neer days of actual radio communi- cation. Using Branly's coherer as a basis, wireless communication at- tracted the attention of Dr. A. Muir- head, Capt. H. B. Jackson, R.N., and Prof. R. Threlfall, as well as Prof. A. S. Popoff of the Imperial Torpedo School in Cronstadt, Russia, besides many other lesser known investi- gators. Yet all that had been done until this time was more in the nature of laying a substantial foundation for what was to follow. Much of the work was indeed practicable; but none of the investigators had settled down to the development of com- mercial wireless communication. Then came Marconi. This young Italian scientist, born at Bologna, was keenly interested in the work of Prof. Rhigi of the University of Bologna, and it gave him the idea for commercial wireless telegraphy. June, 1895, witnessed the young Italian experimenting with sending and receiving apparatus on his father's estate, the Villa Griffone, near Bologna. To relate in detail the ramifications of Marconi's early work would require far more space than can be devoted to this entire wireless chapter, for the work he undertook was slow and painstaking. Although he had the advantages of using various ideas developed by the early investigators and of combining these into a wireless system, each idea by itself was crude and had to be systematically developed. These distances, covered with Mar- coni's early apparatus, speak vol- umes for the rate of progress made by him: 1895, 30, 100, and 2,400 meters, or 1^ miles ; 1897, 14 miles ; 1898, 20 miles ; 1899, 85 miles ; 1900, well over 100 miles; 1901, trans- atlantic transmission of the letter "s" in the Morse code, over a dis- tance of 2,200 miles. In the years that followed, the progress made was so rapid that long-distance com- munication has now become quite commonplace. Radio telegraphy, as we know it to-day, is not the invention of any one man. Not unlike all other great inventions it represents the labors of numerous investigators and in- ventors, many known to us and many more unknown to us. Among the better known later-day contributors to wireless telegraphy are Lodge, Muirhead, Salby, von Arco, Braun, Fleming, Fessenden, DeForest, Stone, Shoemaker, Blondel, Artom, Pick- ard, von Lepel, Poulsen, and Pierce. ft I llsli o ~ > & s & ^ 3 s llB m t'l sis 386 , OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES HOW ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES TRAVEL THROUGH SPACE It would be difficult to explain how electromagnetic waves, which are not susceptible to our senses, travel from a wireless transmitter to a receiver at the astounding rate of 186,300 miles per second, were it not for the simple analogy offered by a body of still water. Suppose a stone is thrown into a quiet pool of water. It will be noticed that waves or ripples form in perfect circles around the spot where the stone struck the surface, spreading out in ever-widening cir- cles from the source. The ripples near the center are big and readily seen, while those some distance away are small and barely discernible, finally disappearing altogether, pro- vided the body of water is sufficient- ly large. In other words, the rip- ples are largest near the source of disturbance, but lose their strength in a gradual decrease the farther they are removed from the source. Although according to appearances the waves or ripples appear to form at the spot where the stone hit the surface, spreading out in ever-widen- ing concentric circles, as a matter of fact they form at the immediate point where they appear. There is absolutely no transference of water from the center outward. Instead, a certain amount of mechanical en- ergy is transmitted through the body of water, producing waves or rip- ples at intervals. The water merely acts as the Conductor for the energy imparted to it by the impact with the stone. This may be readily proved by placing a small chip of wood at any spot a short distance from the source of the disturbance: it will be noted that the chip re- mains in the same spot, although it rises and falls following the up and down or rolling motion of the wa- ter upon which it rests. If there were the actual movement of the water from the center outward, the chip, obviously, would move along with the moving water Much in the same manner do elec- tromagnetic waves react upon space, or, to use the name given to the medium through which these waves are propagated, ether. Nothing act- ually moves through ether in the transmission of signals by wireless; instead, the transmitting apparatus imparts energy to the ether, which in turn vibrates in much the same manner as the pond of still water. The vibrations spread through the ether in every direction, following the contour of the earth, until the force is spent. Ether, it is well to mention here, is a substance or medi- um imagined by physicists in order to explain the phenomena of light, radiant heat, and electromagnetic waves. The waves employed in radio communication range from 300 feet to 30,000 feet in length, meas- ured from one crest to the next, just as in the instance of the rip- ples on a pond. X-rays, on the other hand, have a length of about 2.5 millionths of an inch; actinic rays of the maximum intensity/ 10 mil- lionths of an inch; light rays, from 10 to 18 millionths of an inch; and heat rays of maximum intensity, about 15 millionths of an inch. WIRELESS TRANSMITTERS AND RE- CEIVERS For wireless communication it is necessary to have a means of creat- ing and imparting electromagnetic waves to the ether, and a means of intercepting and detecting these same electromagnetic waves at a re- mote point. The former is called a transmitter, or sender, while the latter is known as the receiver, or receptor. The most common form of trans- mitter is one in which the electro- magnetic waves, created by the discharge of a condenser across a suitable air gap, are imparted to the ether by means of an elevated sys- tem of insulated conductors known as an aerial, and a connection with the earth or ground. The condenser receives its charging current from a transformer or induction coil, and li Is. I 5 2 "II 5 !r OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES whenever it becomes overcharged it discharges an instant later across a gap in circuit with it. Since the length of the wave generated by a spark discharge is governed by two factors, capacity (the measure for the storage capacity of the con- denser) and inductance (the length of conductor in the wave-generating circuit), the circuit includes not only the condenser and spark gap, but a variable form of conductor or in- ductance, as well. The latter is al- ways in the form of a flat spiral, or a helix. The adjustment of the capacity and inductance in the wave- generating circuit is known as tun- ing, just as a musical instrument is adjusted to emit a note of a desired pitch. By inserting a telegraph key in the primary circuit of the trans- former, or induction coil, it becomes possible to generate waves at will ; and by the proper manipulation of the telegraph key, an operator can emit different trains of waves to correspond with the dots and dashes of any telegraphic code. There are other methods of gen- erating electromagnetic waves aside from a condenser charged by a high tension current furnished by trans- former, or spark coil. Among them may be mentioned the high fre- quency alternator, capable of generating current of a frequency, of over 50,000 cycles by purely mechanical means. Several gen- erators of high frequency current have been built, and within the past few years considerable progress has been made along this line, despite the seemingly unsurmountable me- chanical obstacles encountered at the beginning. A purely mechanical means of creating high frequency current suitable for the electromag- netic wa^'as employed in radio tel- egraphy and telephony is obviously the most desirable, which accounts for the persistent efforts of inven- tors along these lines. Another method of generating high frequency currents is found in the employment of some form of low tension arc, across the terminals of which are shunted a condenser and a variable inductance. With such an arrangement high frequency current is generated, the arc acting as the gap across which discharges the con- denser. Whereas in the case of the usual spark transmitters the con- denser discharges or electromagnetic waves take place in the form of sep- arate trains, each train or group comprising a number of sparks, each succeeding one less powerful than the one before, in the arc generator the waves are continuous and of the same, uniform strength. Thus the spark transmitters have come to be known as damped wave transmit- ters because of their damped waves, while the arc transmitters are known as undamped wave transmitters. The damping of the waves lends itself to an analogy in the form of a sim- ple pendulum: In the undamped transmitter, the pendulum would be kept swinging an equal distance each swing, because the power would be imparted so to accomplish this regularity; while in the damped transmitter, the power would be im- parted at one swing and not again for several swings, resulting in the pendulum swinging over a lesser arc each succeeding swing until the power were again imparted to the pendulum. The electromagnetic waves, either of the damped or undamped variety, chopped up in short and long trains to represent the desired characters of any telegraphic code, have now been propagated through ether. The problem is not only to intercept them but also to detect their presence. The first step in receiving electro- magnetic waves is the erection of a suitable system of elevated,, insu- lated wires, known- as the aerial or antenna, which serves to intercept the electromagnetic waves, and to lead the currents induced in the wires down through the receiving instruments to the ground. The heart of any receiving set for wireless telegraphy is that member 390 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES which detects the presence of high frequency currents flowing down through the aerial and receiving ap- paratus. It is known as the de- tector. In the pioneer days of the art, a glass tube containing two electrode plugs between which was placed a small quantity of metallic filings, served the purposes of detec- tor. The action of the filings co- herer, as this detector is known, is simple: the high frequency current passing through the mass of loose filings possesses the property of causing these to cohere together so as to make a better contact between the two metal plugs. The lowering of the electrical resistance of the filings is sufficient to permit the cur- rent of a local battery to flow across the bridge thus formed and operate a relay, which in turn operates a Morse register that prints the sig- nals in the form of dots and dashes on a paper ribbon. Some suitable form of tapper is used to shake the filings apart after the high frequency currents have ceased to flow through them. The tapper, known as the decoherer, is usually operated by the relay. The filings coherer, while possess- ing the important advantage of al- lowing a Morse register to be used in conjunction with it, has long since ceased to be employed in com- mercial wireless work, although it remains the favorite form of demon- stration apparatus for the class- room. It has given way to infinitely more sensitive detectors which are used in conjunction with telephone receivers worn on the head of the wireless operator. With the advent of more sensitive detectors the range of wireless transmitters has jumped from the tens of miles to the hun- dreds and even thousands of miles. So numerous and varied are the wireless detectors of to-day that even a superficial description of each type is precluded by space limitations. Suffice it to state that among the most popular types of detectors are the crystal rectifier, utilizing cer- tain minerals and crystal formations such as iron pyrites, zincite, bornite, galena, silicon, carborundum ; the electrolytic detector, which, while exceedingly sensitive, has given way to the first type because of the great- er convenience of the crystal detec- tors; the magnetic detector, which would be a truly ideal type were it not for the fact that its sensitive- ness is of a rather low order; and the audion, which is the most suc- cessful detector and the one in most general use to-day. Aside from the detector, a wire- less receiving set comprises a tele- phone receiver or receivers, and ad- justable condensers and coils for changing the capacity and induc- tance of the receiving circuit to tune it to any length of wave desired. If a transmitter is emitting waves of a length of 400 meters, for ex- ample, a receiving set must be tuned to the neighborhood of 400 meters in order to receive the waves. And while it is tuned to receive those waves, other w r aves of other wave- lengths will not be heard in the re- ceivers of the operator. Thus it is possible for several transmitting set? to be operating in one locality at the same time, while the same number of receiving sets are receiving, each from the desired transmitter, with- out interference from other trans- mitters. Tuned or syntonic wireless has reached a high degree of develop- ment to-day, although much remains to be accomplished. After having developed their de- tectors to the highest possible de- gree of sensitiveness, wireless men were confronted with the problem of increasing still farther the range of receiving apparatus. Solution was found in the introduction of ampli- fiers, or magnifiers of the weak cur- rents in the detector circuit. Some form of magnifiers are in reality an ordinary telephone circuit, in that the receiver, connected to the de- tector, is capped over a microphone transmitter, which in turn is elec- trically connected to a powerful bat- p W ** 3 50 M &S !1 392 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES tery and another telephone receiver. Thus the faint sounds of the first telephone receiver are spoken into the microphone, which in turn im- presses them on a circuit contain- ing a loud-speaking receiver, or, at least, a receiver that produces loud sounds in the ears of the operator. Other forms of amplifiers utilize a modified form of the audion detec- tor. In the one-step amplifiers of this type, an amplification or mag- nification of from 6 to 10 times is attained; in the two-step amplifier from 60 to 100 ; and in the three-step from 600 to 1,000, according to Dr. DeForest, the inventor of the audion amplifier. Thus it will be appreci- ated that the sensitiveness of the detector is materially improved by the use of an amplifier; and it is the combination of highly sensitive detectors and amplifiers more than anything else that accounts for the remarkable long-distance communi- cation of present-day wireless. TELEPHONY WITHOUT WIRES Wireless telephony differs from wireless telegraphy only in details; for in general principles involved they are identical. If the wave trains of a spark transmitter were sufficiently close together to be above the range of audibility when received in the telephone receivers of the operator at the receiving station, it would be but a matter of a few slight changes, such as replacing the telegraph key with a microphone, to convert the average wireless tele- graph transmitter into a radio tele- phone set. As it is, the requirements of suc- cessful radio telephony begin with a generator of undamped waves of very high frequency, so that the wave trains when received are above the range of audibility. Until recently some form of elec- tric arc was, and still is, employed for generating the high frequency current for a radio telephone trans- mitter. Although on occasions fair success attends the employment of arc generators, a radio telephone sys- tem based on the use of such gen- erators cannot be the ideal system of the future. An electric arc is necessarily unsteady; its electrodes usually burn away at a high rate, resulting in sputtering and frequent readjustment to bring the electrodes closer together to make up for the consumption of electrode material. A constant variation in the consump- tion of current results in fluctuations in the high frequency current, which is fatal to clear transmission. Yet, despite the shortcomings of the elec- tric arc as a generator of high fre- quency currents, much progress has been made with it by numerous in- vestigators. A Danish investigator, Poulsen, has done much toward applying and improving the arc generator for wireless telephone purposes. More recently, Colin and Jeance of France have done considerable work on an arc telephone, on occasions succeed- ing in communicating over a range of several hundred miles. In Amer- ica, Dubillier, Collins, DeForest and other investigators have in the past devoted considerable attention to the arc generator with a fair degree of success. Outside of the microphone, which must be able to handle large vol- umes of current without injury, in a wireless telephone set the arc gen- erator is the center of interest; and likewise it is true that the generator is the point of divergence between the various systems. The Janke system, for instance, is a variation of the Poulsen arc, in that the arc is placed in liquid alcohol to insure greater steadiness. To impress the voice on- the high frequency current, a special water-cooled multiple microphone is used. The TYK system, on the other hand, is not an American sys- tem like the former, but a Japanese system developed by Torikato. Its chief value lies in its utmost sim- plicity. The system consists of a 500-volt arc between points of burnt magnetite and brass, shunted by a * 1 * g 394 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES circuit with a rather large capacity and a small inductance. A heavy-cur- rent microphone is placed in series with the aerial. Although it is sup- posed that the TYK system is really an arc system, the inventor is of the opinion that the result produced is a quenched spark of spark fre- quency beyond the limit of audibil- ity. By a "quenched spark" is meant a discharge that does not oscillate to any appreciable extent; in other words, the discharge rapidly dies out or it is highly damped. Various quenched spark systems have also been tried, notably that of Ditcham, but as a general thing systems based on the use of quenched spark generators do not possess good speech quality. The speech quality of the TYK system is re- ported to be poor, which confirms, to some extent, the belief that its generator is a form of quenched spark gap. High frequency alternator sys- tems have been used as far back as 1906 by Fessenden, but as in the case of their application to wire- less telegraphy, even to-day they are considered largely in the light of ex- periments because of their prohibi- tive cost, their low frequency and consequently long wave length, and the difficulty of speed regulation. The reaction vacuum tube sys- tems are the last word in radio tele- phony, and judging from the results obtained thus far with them there can be but little doubt that they possess the qualities of the ideal apparatus of the future. Marconi, DeForest, and others have, of late, investigated the possibilities of the reaction vacuum tube in connection with radio telephony. DeForest has developed a tube which is a modi- fication of his audion amplifier. Known as the oscillion bulb or tube, this generator, together with WIRELESS TELEPHONE APPARATUS USED WITH SUCCESS BY COLIN AND JEANCE OF FRANCE IN TRANSMITTING THE SPOKEN WORD OVER SEVERAL HUNDRED MILES WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY 395 a potentiometer for close regulation, filament rheostat, impedance coils, loading inductance, telephone trans- former coil, microphone transmitter, fixed condenser and minor accessor- ies, a current supply for the filament and another of 150 to 300 volts for the production of the high frequency currents, forms a complete radio tel- ephone for short distance transmis- sion. For long distance work a num- ber of oscillions are employed, to- gether with a higher voltage as high as 1,500 volts for a set with a range of 150 to 200 miles. Wireless telephony owes much to the work of the engineers of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company who, in the latter part of 1915, succeeded in telephoning by wireless from "Washington to Paris, and from Washington to Hawaii, the latter a distance of 4,900 miles. It is understood that a form of reaction vacuum tube was employed in large numbers in generating the high fre- quency currents required. At the present moment it seems that wireless telephony, long a lab- oratory experiment, is at last a com- mercially practicable means of com- munication. Even so, however, the great expense of installations for long distance work may cause its universal use to be postponed for years to come, although it is -safe to prophesy the widespread employ- ment of short-distance wireless tele- phone sets for ship-to-shore com- munication in the immediate future. HOW THE WORLD USES WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY The later-day pioneers in wireless telegraphy, even in their wildest flights of fancy, never realized to what extent their work would play a part in the commercial world and in military and naval affairs. True, they prophesied the transmission of energy by means of electromagnetic waves on a vast scale, and even to- day there does not appear to be much promise of success along these lines. But the fact remains that communication without wires has been applied to a wide range of uses other than those originally planned. Ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore com- munication was the original aim of wireless men radio telegraphy was to be a maritime invention. To-day the greatest employment of wireless remains on the water rather than on land; and always will its greatest field be on shipboard. There is hard- ly an ocean-going vessel carrying passengers that is not equipped with wireless, for laws have been enacted obliging such ships to carry radio apparatus because of the security it affords the traveler on water. So numerous and powerful are the land stations operating in conjunction with the ships that it is very seldom in- deed when a ship is out of touch with land. Ocean travelers receive the news of the world every day, which is flashed out by powerful stations in America and Europe. Serious work has been done in es- tablishing radio telegraph and tele- phone communication between mov- ing trains, notably that of the Lack- awanna Railroad. Although on cer- tain occasions a range of between fifty and one hundred miles has been covered between a moving train and fixed station, the results on the whole have not been satisfactory. Perhaps it is that the tests have been premature, and that a suitable sys- tem of communication, somewhat different from existing ones, must be developed for this particular pur- pose. Employing an aerial eighteen inches above the roof of a steel car, which is obviously grounded through the rails, it becomes evident that it is almost impossible to secure any distance with a wireless apparatus installed and operated under these conditions. The European War has given especial impetus to wireless, partic- ularly as applied to aircraft. In de- signing radio apparatus for airships and aeroplanes due consideration must be given to the extremely lim- 396 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ited space available on such craft, and the limited weight that can be carried. In the case of aeroplanes the guy wires and other metallic parts of the machine are generally used as the ground (the capacity ground), while the aerial is in the form of a trailing wire that is paid out from a reel after the machine has reached the proper height. Most aeroplane sets have a range of from five to thirty-five miles, and because of the intense noise and vibration of the engines it is a very difficult matter to receive messages on board ; in fact, military operations make due allowance for this condition and depend upon the aeroplane wireless operator to devote his attention al- most exclusively to sending. On board airships of the Zeppelin or the flexible types it is possible to employ more powerful apparatus, hence a greater range can be cov- ered. A typical airship installation consists of a transformer, quenched spark gap, capacity and induc- tance, aerial wire lowered down from a winch, ammeter, rapid-change switch for different wave-lengths, and an alternating current generator driven off one of the engines of the airship. Such a set, weighing about fifty-five pounds without the alter- nator, has a range between 60 and 120 miles. The aerial wire is over 600 feet long when fully paid out. Armies in the field employ porta- ble wireless sets for insuring com- munication between scattered com- mands. Some sets for use in rugged country are arranged to be carried on mule-back, and are known as pack sets. But the most common wireless sets are those mounted on two wagons, one for the generating equipment and the other for the wireless apparatus proper. The aerial of these sets is arranged in the form of an umbrella, spreading out in all directions from a common pole. The latter is usually of alum- inum or an alloy of that metal, made up of a number of sections which can be readily coupled together. Within five minutes a mast of this kind can be erected, together with the aerial and the Counterpoise or capacity ground. Still another form of portable military set is the auto- mobile truck set, which is carried as one unit on a powerful motor truck, and has a range of well over one hundred miles under favorable conditions. The European War has served to demonstrate the value of long-dis- tance wireless stations for maintain- ing communication between widely separated countries. Germany has set a mark in the art by maintain- ing telegraphic communication with neutral countries after finding herself surrounded by enemies on all sides and isolated from the outside world. Through the wireless station at Nauen, near Berlin, the German authorities have been able to give each day to the neutral world the news of the war from the Teuton point of view, without danger of the news being censored or altered in any way by enemy powers. Much of the telegraphic traffic between Ger- many and the United States during the war has been handled through the Nauen and Eilvese stations in Germany, and the Tuckerton and Sayville stations in the United States. The Allied powers too, although not isolated from the outside world, have made good use of wireless tel- egraphy in keeping in touch with each other and in maintaining com- munications between their scattered armies throughout the globe. It is understood that the Allies in the West and Russia have kept in touch by" wireless telegraphy, the Eiffel tower having been used in the West, and a powerful station at Petrograd, for the purpose. Wireless has also been employed to an unprecedented degree in keeping in touch with war- craft of all kinds, even to the sub- marine boats fitted with folding masts that can be hastily erected to support an aerial when the craft are on the surface. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY 397 Upon the completion of the* Euro- pean War a great chain of wireless stations encircling the globe will be put into operation. It is not unlikely that these stations may soon prove a formidable competitor to the cables, although it is doubtful if they can ever be more than a supplement to the older form of inter-continental communication. M'any of the world- encircling wireless stations repre- sent the very latest phase of the art, with ranges of thousands of miles, and arranged to receive and transmit messages simultaneously and with- out interference. Among other uses of wireless is the collection and distribution of weather information to seamen and others, which service is of great value to all mankind. Wireless has also been applied with success to the problems of higher surveying, particularly by the French in the Sahara and on the Congo in Africa, and by Capt. Edwards on the boun- dary between Brazil and Bolivia. A careful comparison of time between distant points has also been rendered possible by wireless, which, because of the high velocity at which the electromagnetic waves travel, can be considered as being practically an instantaneous means of communica- tion for such distances as are en- countered on this earth. RECENT WIRELESS TELEPHONE APPARATUS DEVELOPED BY DR. LEE DE FOREST, EMPLOYING THE OSCILLION OR OSCILLATING-VALVE FORM OF GENERATOR MOVING PICTURE ACTORS IN SELF-CONTAINED DIVING SUITS, TAKING PART IN AN UNDERWATER PHOTOPLAY SCENE CHAPTER IV. MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING By AUSTIN C. LESCARBOURA PERHAPS it is because pictures are the ultimate universal lan- guage that a world-wide fascina- tion attaches to motion pictures and their production. Or it may be due to the romance of picture making the story in back of the screen story, which so often excels the tale of the film in point of human interest. But whatever may be the reason, the fact stands that no modern in- dustry commands as great interest among the multitudes as motion pic- tures, not only in the finished prod- uct but in the manufacturing processes. PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE THOUSANDS From a purely mechanical point of view, motion pictures are nothing more than a number of photographs of any one object or group of ob- jects taken at frequent intervals on a strip of film. The exposures are made at the rate of sixteen per second; and each picture a photo- ARTISANS OF THE FILMS, THEIR STOCKROOM AND THEIR WORKSHOP (1) Carpenters, painters and electricians at work in the erection of a Vitagraph Bet. (2) Where the furniture employed in Lasky motion picture productions is stored. (3) The woodworking shop of the Lasky western studio Copyright by Munn & Co.. Inc. 400 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES graph as perfect as the best of lenses and the highest photographic skill can produce measures but one inch in width by three-quarters inch in height. Perforations are provided along either edge of the film, with which the mechanism of the camera engages for the purpose of intermit- tently drawing the celluloid strip through the rays of light coming in through the lens, the object being to move the film a trifle over three- quarters of an inch each time an exposure has been made, so as to bring a fresh section of film in the path of the light rays. The film that is exposed in the camera is generally a negative. It is developed in much the same man- ner as an amateur film, although its great length calls for the em- ployment of a rack or a drum on which to wind it in order to facili- tate handling. The negative devel- oped and dried, it is passed through a printing machine together with fresh unexposed positive stock so as to make as many positive prints as may be required. It is the positive print of any motion picture produc- tion that is passed through the pro- jecting machines in theaters and viewed on the screen by the millions. But let us look in back of the screen : let us glance into the activi- ties of those who make the film pro- ductions possible, but who always remain unknown to the audience, while the actors who perform no greater part in the work become famous. A SUBMARINE THAT NEVER SAW THE SEA The audience is tense with excite- ment as the hero in the film play struggles frantically with the con- trol apparatus of a submarine that is fast sinking to the ocean bottom, because of the constantly rising water in its hold. And as he strug- gles at his post the water pours in on him through an ugly gash made in the conning tower of the craft by an enemy destroyer. Perhaps it is the climax in a gripping drama, then again, it may be the big scene or "punch" in a hilarious comedy. But, however that may be, the real- ism of the scene has the desired effect on the audience. What dan- gers these motion picture folk incur in their daily work ! is the general comment of the unsuspecting public. Several months ago the scene in question was acted, not, as might be supposed, in the interior of a submarine, but in a quiet corner of a motion picture studio. The "sub- marine" was an elaborate structure of wood, metal, and plenty of paint ; life-sized to be sure, but only of a sufficient length or depth to repre- sent the particular compartment portrayed in the picture story. For weeks the artisans of the stu- dio workshops had worked in build- ing this pseudo submarine ; and be- fore the camera crank was turned the technical director had gone over every detail of its construction to make sure that it emulated success- fully the interior of a modern sub- marine. Then the studio hands built a tank around the scenery. The "set," as the scenery for a studio scene is called, was now ready for the director. The director, being unable to carry out his programme of photo- graphing certain outdoor or "loca- tion" scenes on a certain day because of rain or poor light, decided to stay at the studio and photograph the in- terior scenes called for in the scenario or working plan of his pic- ture. After rehearsing the action of this particular scene several times, the lamps flashed up and the camera man took his place by the side of his camera. At the com- mand of the director one of the stage hands climbed up on the deck of the "submarine," pulling a heavy hose after him, which he placed in the opening of the conning tower. The water was turned on, and it flowed through the hose and passed down upon the back of the actor playing the part of the hero-sailor struggling with the control mechan- ism of a balky underwater craft. MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING 401 The water, bounded on all sides by the improvised tank of wood and rubberized canvas, slowly rose in the "submarine" interior. The cam- era, which all the while was record- ing the action, was naturally so focused as to take in only the de- sired portion of the setting the sides of the tank did not show in the film. The scene was a success. Typical of the striving of all American producers for realism is the foregoing instance. A half dozen years ago the audience of the average picture theater was not as critical as the audience of to-day. Formerly a director depended solely upon a good story and fair acting to make a film production a suc- cess ; whereas to-day the director strives to reinforce these two essen- have even the most insignificant details accurate and confidence- inspiring. JACKS AND MASTERS OF ALL TRADES No motion picture studio would be complete without its carpenter shop and staff of expert workmen. There are so many things that must be built especially for the pictures that a complete equipment of wood- working and metalworking machines and a skilled gathering of artisans are an absolute necessity. It would be impossible to describe with any pretense to thoroughness the range of work turned out by the studio workshops. It is only by offering a few examples of what they do regularly that a general idea of the scope of their toil can be BACKGROUNDS MADE TO ORDER TO FIT THE FILM STORIES (1) A set representing the living room of a country home. Note how the stairway at the left terminates in a wooden platform, beyond the range of the camera, in this Than- houscr set. (2) A set representing an office. The players at the left do not appear in the Gaumont film being produced, for they are out of the range of the camera. tials with the utmost realism of scenery. It is imperative, claim the producers, that the pictures be re- plete with realism,; the audience must not be permitted to recall the fact that after all the scenes in many instances are but improvised backgrounds and the necessary pieces of furniture taken from the stock room or property room of the studio. In brief, the audience must be made to forget the mechanical end of picture production; and to this end every effort is made to gained. One day they may be build* ing a safe of light wood or com- pressed paper accurately made even to the bolt mechanism which may bring forth roars of laughter from an audience months hence when it is dropped on the head of one of the comedians in a film play. They may be called upon to build an aeroplane, closely following the lines of a genuine machine that is to be used in the scenes of actual flying. The workmen may perhaps put in one or two weeks' work in 402 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES building the aeroplane, exercising much ingenuity in its construction. As likely as not the tires of the landing gear may be made from short lengths of rubber hose or can- vas tube, filled with sawdust. And the same degree of ingenuity may be repeated a dozen times or more in the construction of the machine ; all this work to appear for a few sec- onds on the screen, and probably doomed to be blown to pieces or burned to ashes. The men may turn to the construction of a mirth-pro- voking hose-cart or fire-wagon for the fire department of some imag- inary rural community. Again, his- torical or period plays may keep the artisans busy building a replica of the first steamboat, or making an old stage-coach, or a Roman gladia- tor's weapons and shield, or even, an ancient catapult. All these things are in the day's work. In a recent war play, "The Fall of a Nation," four huge siege guns figured conspicuously in the battle scenes between defenders and in- vaders. Each gun was a faithful reproduction of the famous Krupp 28-millimeter siege howitzers, mount- ed on caterpillar wheels. When seen on the screen, even a military expert would be apt to mistake the guns for their counterparts busily engaged on European battlefields. As a matter of fact, however, these "guns" were made of wood, and at the time represented perhaps one of the most intricate pieces of work yet undertaken by the film artisans. They were a faithful copy of the actual pieces, even down to the re- coil cylinders which actually func- tioned following the explosion of a charge of black powder in the metal- lined barrel. The guns were said to have cost the producers of the film some $10,000 each, and although the amount appears rather high at first, nevertheless it serves to accentuate the great amount of preliminary re- search work and designing that had to be carried out before the actual construction began. And here again the producers insisted that if the guns were to be used at all, they must be accurate enough to pass before the most critical audience without arousing undue suspicions. The producer of a submarine story, which, in its main essentials, closely follows the theme of Jules Verne's "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea," recently endeavored to secure the loan of a United States submarine from the Navy Depart- ment, without success, so the story goes. Whereupon he set out to build a submarine of sheet iron, with a length of over 100 feet, a beam of 15 feet, and a draft of 4 feet. The shell had to be of sufficient strength to withstand a submergence of forty feet deep. By means of tanks the submarine could take on water in order to settle down beneath the waves, while compressed air tanks permitted of blowing out the water ballast when the craft was to be brought up to the surface again. The submarine was fitted with a torpedo tube capable of discharging a regulation torpedo. In all, six months' time was expended in build- ing this submarine, which closely followed the lines of the "Nautilus," the famous craft of Captain Nemo; indeed, the Navy submarines were hardly suitable to represent the fic- titious craft, which may have been one reason why the producer de- cided to construct a special sub- mersible, fitted with a lock in its bottom through which divers wear- ing self-contained suits could pass out to the ocean floor. In a certain production, "The World and the Woman," there was to be a garden scene during a thun- der storm. One of the features of the scene was a driving rain, while another was a flash of lightning. The scenario called for these things ; there was nothing for the studio artisans to do but to produce the desired effect. An aeroplane propellei was mounted on a substantial support, and to it was applied the power of an electric motor through belting. An artificial garden set was soon H'g 1 ; r. *' -' - 03 a - v 5' I fa ii- 404 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES arranged and housed in a suitable shelter to make it dark the photo- graphing took place in the yard of the studio, in the middle of a beau- tiful day. Above the set was ar- ranged a trough, perforated with many holes to allow water to drop below on the scenery. When every- thing was ready, the electric motor was started, causing the aeroplane propeller to blow up a veritable hur- ricane through the set. Stage hands with watering cans began to pour water into the trough, which fell in the form of rain only to be driven at an angle across the setting, simu- lating a powerful gale. And at the propitious moment another stage hand set off a flashlight, giving the desired flash-of-lightning effect on the film. All of which bespeaks well of the skill of the artisans of the screen. Most of their work is done in wood and canvas, although occasionally they resort to metal, as witness the submarine already mentioned. Papier mache, plaster of Paris, compressed fiber and clay are also used in pro- fusion, especially in the making of statues, ornate panels, and other work of a similar nature, forming part of elaborate sets. The equipment of most motion picture studios is usually such as would do justice to a thriving wood- working shop and machine shop combined. A typical comedy-pro- ducing studio in southern California, for instance, has over $2,000 worth of woodworking equipment in its carpenter shop, while the stock of lumber constantly on hand and other items are said to bring the total up to $4,000. The concern em- ploys regularly over seventy-five carpenters. BUILDING INTERIORS TO FIT THE STORY The interior settings of a film play require the closest attention on the part of the producers. For here again the constant demand for ac- curacy and realism is paramount. The smallest details must be watched. If the director calls for a tenement house scene, the stage car- penters must build him a dilapi- dated hall and stairs, and small, squalid rooms. The scene must ap- pear much the worse from wear and old age the steps must look worn; the walls must be marred, with here and there a hole in the plaster ; and there must be dirt a-plenty. Again, if the director calls for the home of a rich man, it is necessary that he state what kind of rich man the film author had in mind. Is he a wealthy man from a family of long BRAINS AND SKILL AT WORK IN THE MOTION PICTURE STUDIO At the left: The technical director of the Vitagraph studio supervising the arrangement of the furnishings in an elaborate set. At the right: Film artisans at work, making the various objects required in Vitagraph pictures. "i ao _ II = iift- a - a'sessss |8 555 P ??"!?< H . 2 te 2 o H S^^|^. H o n a> co M SB O tn on O^ 8-*S 3 E-* n 5 III! :!i '28 1*9 rt. g 1 2. g ^ 406 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES standing, or i he a nouveau richef If he belong to the former class, the furnishings are to be of a quiet, harmonious design, with the paint- ings and other ornamentation typi- fying good taste ; while if he belong to the latter, the furnishings must be of a garish sort. For it is in this manner that the motion picture producer endeavors to amplify the type of man whose home is repre- sented. And motion picture tradi- tions have it that a man with newly- acquired wealth must have garish tastes, and that a tenement house must always be old, dirty, and much the worse from excessive wear. In other words, exaggeration Is prac- ticed in order to leave little to the Imagination of the audience. Obviously, it would not do to leave the selection of furnishings nnd their proper arrangement to stage hands and carpenters, and ac- cordingly the demand for accuracy and realism has brought into exist- ence a new type of executive In the film industry the technical director, or art director as he is sometimes called. To him falls the task of reading through the synopsis or scenario of a film story, followed by the supervision of the erection of sets. He is responsible for the ar- rangement of the furnishings, even down to the smallest details, as well as for the costuming of the players. However, he Is not responsible for the action part of a scene ; that task remains, as ever, the work of the director. The technical director must be a veritable human encyclopaedia a man of remarkably broad knowledge and experience. He must be well read ; and what he docs not know he must be able to "dig up" at short notice. Here is how his knowledge and experience are applied : If a scene is laid in a certain country and the time is of a different century, he must know what gar- ments the players are to wear, the accouterments of the soldiers, the etiquette of the period and country, the furnishings of the interiors, the head-dress of the women, and u thousand and one other details. Perhaps actual incidents are most convincing in illustrating how the directors strive for accuracy, and how the absence of technical direc- tion may be fatal to an otherwise perfect production. The story is told of how Irvln Cobb, the noted Ameri- can writer, was visiting a prominent Los Angeles studio while a director was rehearsing a scene of a war play in which a regiment of Ger- man soldiers were marching through a Belgian village. To add what he considered a touch of comfort nnd naturalness to the scene, the director had the men leave their coats unbuttoned. Mr. Cobb, then only recently returned from the war zone, was horrified at this gross mis- representation of facts. lie did not hesitate to tell the director that at no time do the Germans have their coats unbuttoned while actually on the march or on duty. TJie director was grateful for the tip, for he realized the humiliation that might have been his if the otherwise per- fect scene were held up to ridicule by the better-informed of the mil- lions who would ultimately view the picture. At the same time the au- thor also commented on the wearing of the Iron Cross decoration, which the director had Insisted the men should w ?ar conspicuously, whereas it is actually tucked away with only its ribbon showing. Can there be any doubt of the necessity of a tech- nical director? To return to Interior settings : These represent one of the big Items of expense In the production of a film. One reason Is that the average set can be used In one production only, after which It must be dis- mantled. In the earlier days the audience might not have commented on seeing the same pieces of furni- ture used several times. But to-day the oudlence Is more observing and will soon detect any attempt to use the same lamp, settee, or other fur- 408 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES nishings repeatedly. Conspicuous repetition has got to be avoided by the producers. And as in the in- stance of the garments worn by the players, the furniture must be in keeping with the last word in in- terior furnishings. So every studio maintains a large room or several rooms in which an almost endless variety of furnishings is stored. The walls of an interior set are generally built of compressed paper or light board, backed up with framework and props, to facilitate the work of erection and destruc- tion. Tremendous quantities of the necessary materials are employed in the course of a year, as witness some 50,000 feet or more of com- pressed paper board used by a lead- ing comedy producer, together with over 500,000 feet of lumber. The same concern spends over $1,800 for some 15,000 rolls of wall paper each year, with which to cover the walls of its sets. The cost of even the most modest set runs up into the hundreds of dollars, for it must be remembered that practically every set must be built and decorated to order, and filled with the necessary furniture, which may not be used for a long time to come. Elaborate sets run up into the thousands of dollars. A good restaurant or cabaret scene may cost from $2,000 to $5,000, de- pending upon its elaborateness and size. A setting calling for intricate electric lighting effects sometimes exceeds the $5,000 mark, for in- stance, the witches' scene in the re- cent production of "Macbeth," star- ring Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree, which is said to have cost over $10,000 because of the elaborate ap- paratus for producing the weird fire effects. IN THE LAND OF TWO-DIMENSIONED STRUCTURES The film artisan finds his biggest field of endeavor in the outdoor sets, for under the open skies his under- takings are not hindered by space limitations and can therefore as- sume the most gigantic proportions. Here again, the striving for realism is the first consideration; here the technical director must exercise his knowledge of architectural design covering every period in history and every part of the world. Perhaps the greatest set that has ever been constructed up until the time of writing was one represent- ing the ancient city of Babylon, em- ployed in the gigantic production "Intolerance." On the front of this huge setting the side that faced the camera there rose high walls painted to simulate stone, 100 feet in height and adorned with reliefs of strange winged creatures and ele- phants. The towers of the set stood 135 feet high, and the various struc- tures covered a ten-acre tract of land in Hollywood, Cal., just outside of Los Angeles. For more than six months the carpenters, masons, con- crete workers and painters were busied with the set, and the cost of the work is reported to have been in excess of $50,000. But slightly less pretentious was the set erected at an approximate cost of $35,000, representing the pal- ace, house of parliament, prison, royal court, and adjacent buildings in a mythical country featured in the production "Civilization." The first spadeful of earth in prepara- tion for the erection of the set was turned in May, 1915. The completed set was ready for use in November of the same year. Into its construc- tion went thirty carloads, or ap- proximately 600,000 feet, of lumber. Glass valued at a total of $4,000 was necessary for the several hundred windows, while tons upon tons of cement and plaster were used as the other principal materials. For the steps of the largest building alone ten tons of cement was used. The sidewalks, with their curbings, meas- ured some 1,200 feet, and twenty men were employed for three months laying them out and arranging the parkings between them. Trees, shrubbery and lamps were among MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING 409 the ornaments placed within the boundaries of the set. Covering an area of over six and one half acres, the set has stood atop one of the hills in southern California, endur- ing the elements successfully as though it were intended as a perma- nent structure. It is principally in portraying for- eign scenes that the film artisans are called upon to build elaborate sets. Years ago, before the industry had reached its present high stand- ard, companies traveled abroad in order to produce plays at the actual locations called for by the scenario. To-day, in marked contrast, the pro- ducers find it easier to bring the foreign or distant spots to the stu- dio, literally speaking. Accuracy enables them to convince the au- dience that the scenes have been laid in the country called for by the story. All parts of the world have been brought to the foothills of Cali- fornia, the shores of Florida, and the edge of the Palisades of New FIRST MOVING PICTURE STUDIO IN THE U. S,, BUILT IN 1905 This structure was mounted on pivots so that it could constantly be turned to keep the sunlight streaming in through its crude skylight. Jersey, where the producers have better laboratory facilities, under- stand the light conditions, can secure experienced players and save time. Typical instances of foreign sets have been the barracks of Delhi, India, and a street in a village of a mythical country, recently erected and used by a Western producer. The former consisted of seven indi- vidual structures and entailed an expenditure of $3,000 ; the latter represented a street lined with houses of solid construction. The houses were made of plaster-covered timbers, while the stone walls and trees were handled with great care to obtain correctness of detail. The entire set required about six weeks to build and involved an outlay of perhaps $5,000. There is practically no end to the elaborate outdoor sets erected by motion picture producers. In the production of "Ramona" it was said that over 1,800 sets were especially built for the play, and that the pic- turesque Spanish monastery for one of the sets cost some $10,000. A commendable piece of work was the set representing the temple of an Aztec monarch in the sixteenth century, which was used in the pro- duction "The Captive God." Its framework was built of timbers, but the body was of plaster plaques. About 7,000 of these plaques were required ; and the total cost of the set is said to have been $3,000. A set representing a border town on the line separating Mexico from the United States, for use in a typi- cal Western drama, was recently constructed at a cost of $1,500. It consisted of fifteen buildings, each entirely of frame construction. While the cost of the village was not great, at the time it was regarded by film men as one of the most realistic sets ever built for the screen. Thousands of other sets might be described, for they come and go without end. But enough instances have been cited to prove that the production of motion pictures is a costly enterprise if realism is to be secured. Also, there is to be found no more skilled and ingenious arti- san than the artisan of the screen, whose work, generally unappre- ciated, plays so conspicuous a part in the remarkable productions of our day. CHAPTER V. THE REALM OF THE AIR By C. F. TALMAN THE gaseous envelope of the earth which we call the atmosphere is interesting not only as the environment of life, in all its forms, but also as the seat of various remarkable physical phenomena. Considered especially with reference to their biological, and above all their human, relations, the activities of the atmosphere are known collectively as weather; but the study of the atmos- phere, the science we call Mete- orology, is broader than the study of weather. Hence, if weather is important, and everybody knows that it is immensely so, in terms of health, comfort and dollars, meteor- ology is still more important. This science ought to be, but is not yet, represented by professorships in every university in the land. EXTENT AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE The lower part of the atmosphere is the densest because it is com- pressed by the weight of the air above it. Thus it happens that, al- though the total depth of the at- mosphere is probably at least 300 miles, one-half of its mass., i.e., one- half of the quantity of matter in it, lies below an altitude of about three and one-half miles above sea-level, while about seven-eighths lies below the ten-mile level. Above about five miles the atmosphere is too rare (or rather the oxygen in it is too rare) to support life. The highest ice- clouds seldom occur higher than ten miles. Storms hardly ever reach this height. In short, the phenomena of life and the phenomena of weath- er are confined to a layer of air so shallow, in proportion to the dimen- sions of our globe, that on the sur- face of an orange it would be rep- resented by a sheet of paper thin- ner than the average book-paper. Dry air is a mixture (not a chemi- cal compound) of several gases, viz., about 78 per cent nitrogen, 21 per cent oxygen, 1 per cent argon, and 0.03 per cent carbon dioxide, by vol- ume, besides minute quantities of hydrogen, neon, krypton, xenon, helium and possibly other sub- stances. At levels habitable by man the air always contains invisible water vapor (from a small trace to about 5 per cent), and usually small and variable amounts of ozone, am- monia, nitric acid, and other gases, which, on account of their irregular occurrence, are not classed among the normal constituents of the atmos- phere. Lastly, the lower air always contains solid impurities, in endless variety, generically known as dn*t. THE UPPER AIR Such is the composition of the air for a few miles above the earth, but the proportions of its constitu- ents do not remain the same at higher levels, since the lighter gases extend farther upward than the heavier. Probably there is no water vapor above about 12 miles; no oxy- gen above about 00 miles, and no nitrogen above about 70 miles. From a level of about 50 miles upward the atmosphere, instead of being "air," Copyright by Mtinn & Co., Inc. 412 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES is mostly hydrogen the lightest known gas. Moreover, at the 50- mile level the atmosphere is less than 1/75,000 as dense as at sea- level; i. e., it is more than seventy- five times as attenuated as the best "vacuum" obtainable with an ordi- nary mechanical air pump. At 300 miles above the earth it is computed to be about one-two-millionth as dense as at sea-level. Ozone, which occurs transiently and in small amounts in the lower atmosphere, is believed to be permanently present and abundant at high levels, where it is formed from oxygen, probably under the influence of ultra-violet The past twenty years have wit- nessed a remarkable development of upper-air research, or aerology. Up to a height of about four miles the atmosphere has been extensively ex- plored by means of self-registering meteorological instruments (mete- orographs) attached to kites not of the schoolboy pattern, but box or cellular kites, the "string" of which consists of several miles of steel wire, wound around the drum of a power-driven winch. Captive bal- loons have also been utilized to some extent. For attaining great alti- tudes, however, free balloons must be used. The so-called sounding- SOUNDING THE UPPER AIR Left: Launching a pair of sounding balloons, with self -registering meteorological instru- ments attached. Upper right: Balloon meteorograph and the protective cage in which it is sent aloft. Lower right: Weather Bureau party making upper air observations. light from the sun and of auroral discharges. The existence in the at- mosphere of a gas unknown to chem- ists and lighter than hydrogen has been maintained in some quarters (especially by Dr. Alfred Wegener), and it has been named "geocoroni- um," or "zodiacon." If present at all, it is presumably the chief constituent of the atmosphere in the upper levels. oalloon, which carries a meteoro- graph, bursts far above the earth, and the attached instruments are carried gently down by a parachute, or an auxiliary balloon. Sounding- balloons rise to various heights up to 20 miles. Small balloons sent up without a meteorograph attached, merely for the sake of observing the drift of the air at various levels, are THE REALM OF THE AIR 41H called pilot-Walloons. An altitude of more than twenty-four miles has thus been attained. Since the year 1902 it has been known that the atmosphere is div- ided into at least two layers, or shells, having quite different char- acteristics. If from some place in middle latitudes we could travel in a balloon as far upward as we pleased, carrying a thermometer with us, we should find the air rap- idly growing colder, at a more or less uniform rate, as we ascended until we reached an altitude of about seven miles. Then the fall in tem- perature would abruptly cease, and might even be succeeded by a slight- ly rising temperature for a certain distance upward. This would indi- cate that we had passed out of the troposphere, as the lower stratum of the atmosphere is now called, and entered the stratosphere, or isother- mal layer, in which there are no very decided or regular changes of temperature with altitude. The boundary between the two layers lies much higher in equatorial re- gions, and the temperatures at the summit of the troposphere in such regions are lower than anywhere KITE AND BALLOON HOUSE AT AN AEROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY else in the atmosphere. A sounding- balloon over Batavia, Java, has re- corded 133 degrees below zero, Fahr., at an altitude of about ten miles. Besides differing from the tropo- sphere in its lack of regular temper- ature contrasts in a vertical direc- tion, the stratosphere has an inde- pendent circulation ; concerning which, however, not much is yet pos- itively known. THE PBESSUEE OF THE ATMOSPHERE The atmosphere presses down up- on the earth with a weight which, at sea-level, amounts, on an average, to 14.7 pounds to the square inch. This pressure is, at any point, ex- erted equally in all directions; it acts, for example, on the whole sur- face of the human body, and this means that a man of average size lives under a burden of some seven- teen tons of air. He is not incom- moded because the pressure from without is balanced by that of the air inside his body. The pressure of the air decreases upward at the same rate as its density ; at an alti- tude of three and one-half miles it is about half as great as at sea-level. Thus the atmospheric pressure on mountains and plateaus is considera- bly less than in lowlands. At no place is the pressure invariable, nor is there a constant relation between pressure and altitude; but, knowing approximately the average atmos- pheric pressure over the earth's sur- face, and knowing also the area of the latter, we can compute in round numbers the total weight of the at- mosphere about 5,000,000,000,000,- 000 (5 quadrillion, according to American notation; 5,000 billion, ac- cording to British notation) tons. This is about 1/1,200,000 of the en- tire weight of the terrestrial globe. The pressure of the air is meas- ured by means of an instrument called the barometer, and hence is often referred to as "barometric" pressure. In this instrument the weight of the air is balanced against a column of mercury, and the height of the latter, generally expressed in inches or millimeters, is taken as the measure of the former. Hence, when we say that the average baro- metric pressure at sea-level is 29.92 "inches," we are really expressing 414 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES in a roundabout way the weight of the air at that level. HOW THE ATMOSPHERE IS HEATED Our life and our weather are both maintained by a tiny fraction less than half a millionth of the heat given off by the great luminary around which the earth revolves in space. At any given moment half the surface of the globe basks in the sunshine while the other half is in shadow. Besides rotating on its THE MARCH OF THE SEASONS 8, the sun ; N, north pole of the earth ; B, winter in N. hemisphere and summer in S. hemisphere ; D, summer in N. hemisphere, winter in S. hemisphere ; A, G, equinoxes. axis once a day, the earth revolves around the sun once a year, and its axis, which always remains parallel to itself, is inclined to the plane of its orbit. These facts (illustrated in the accompanying diagram) explain the alternation of day and night, the march of the seasons, and the opposition of the latter in the two hemispheres. The northern half of the globe receives more than its share of solar heat at the season when the southern half is receiving less, and vice versa; hence the north- ern summer coincides with the southern winter, and the northern winter with the southern summer. The amount of heat received at a particular place, at a given time, de- pends chiefly upon the angle at which the sun's rays reach the ground, and this is continually changing. The interposition of clouds, variations in surface top- ography, different heat-absorbing properties of water and land, and a number of other complications ac- centuate still further the contrasts in temperature between different parts of the earth's surface, and these contrasts give rise to the winds. Some of the heat that comes to us from the sun is absorbed in its pas- sage through the atmosphere, but the greater part of it penetrates to the earth, where it is absorbed, and then given out to the lower strata of air. Thus our atmosphere is heated chiefly from below. The air that is heated at the earth's surface expands in all directions, but es- pecially upward, where it encounters the least resistance. Moreover, air that has risen and spread out later- ally increases the pressure on the air over which it has flowed, and this lower air pushes in toward the over-heated area. The inflowing cool- er air helps to drive the heated air upward. In other words, the heated air does not rise merely on account of its expansion, but because it is pushed up by the air around it. Philosophically speaking, our atmos- phere is kept in motion by solar energy, just as a steam-engine is kept in motion by the energy of fuel. Since the atmosphere is relatively very shallow, the distances the air rises and falls under the effects of temperature are extremely small compared with the distances it is, carried over the surface of the earth. It is chiefly the horizontal movement of the air that we think of as "wind," but the up-and-down move- ment is an essential part of the pro- cess and has several important ef- fects. THE GENERAL WIND OF THE GLOBE In the equatorial regions the sur- race air is heated more than else- where, and rises and overflows, at high levels, toward the poles; while the relatively cold air of high lati- tudes flows equatorward, near the earth's surface, to replace it. A simple circulation between the equa- tor and the poles could, however, only occur if the earth did not ro- THE REALM OF THE AIR 415 tate on its axis. The "deflective force" of the earth's rotation causes a particle of air moving in any di- rection over the earth's surface to deviate to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern (a phenomenon that is not limited to air movements, but ap- plies in general to bodies moving freely over the earth). At about latitude 30 degrees the winds com- ing from the equator have been so much deflected that they move al- most eastwardly. The result is a great whirl around the pole, occupy- ing most of the temperate zone in each hemisphere, with prevailing winds from the western quadrant at all levels. The centrifugal force of this whirl causes the air to bank up at about latitude 30 degrees, pro- ducing a belt of high pressure in that region, which is sometimes known as the horse latitudes. Between this belt and the equator there is a regular circulation of air equatorward below (the trade winds') and poleward above (the anti-trades} ; and both these systems of winds are given an oblique direc- tion by the earth's rotation. Near the equator, between the two trade- wind systems, is a region of calms and variable winds, with abundant clouds and rain, known as the dol- drums. Trades and doldrums shift alternately north and south in the course of the year, following the sun, and give to regions w r hich come under their control, successive dry and rainy seasons. Within the polar circles the low temperatures increase the density of the air, which flows away from the poles near the earth's surface; an effect that appears to be strengthened by the drainage of air down the glacier slopes of the two polar continents (Greenland and Antarctica). The accompanying table shows in a general way the arrangement of the principal wind-belts of the earth. This represents prevailing condi- tions, which are, however, subject to many interruptions. In middle latitudes, for example, while the pre- vailing drift of the air is eastwardly, the actual wind at any place and time is usually determined by the positions of cyclones and anticy- clones (of which we shall say more NORTH TOLE Arctic calms and outflow- ing winds, deflected west- wardly (with poleward winds overhead). Westerly to southwesterly winds of middle latitudes. Horse latitudes ("calms of Cancer"). Northeast trade winds (with southwest anti- trades overhead). Doldrums. or equatorial calms (with east winds overhead). Southeast trade winds (with northwest anti- trades overhead). Horse latitudes ("calms of Capricorn"). Westerly to northwesterly winds of middle lati- tudes (including the "brave west winds" of southern oceans). Antarctic calms and out- flowing winds, deflected westwardly (with pole- ward winds overhead). SOUTH POLE presently). Any of these general wind-systems may be disturbed by the seasonal winds known as mon- soons, which blow outward from a continent to the ocean in winter and in the reverse direction in summer. 416 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Interruptions on a smaller scale arise from a day-and-night alterna- tion of winds to and from bodies of water (land and sea breezes; land and lake breezes), and a similar daily reversal of the wind direction in mountainous regions (mountain and valley breezes). CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES Cyclones and anticyclones are areas of low and high barometric pressure, respectively, exhibiting cer- tain typical conditions of wind and weather. In this country the term "cyclone" is persistently misapplied by the hands of a clock) around the center; not in circles, but more or less spirally inward. In the south- ern hemisphere their direction is re- versed. The anticyclone has a cir- culation opposite to that of the cy- clone (clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern). There are certain regions of the globe in which cyclones or anticy- clones of large extent (known as "centers of action") tend to persist through a season or the whole year, though with fluctuations in size and activity. Most cyclones and anti- by the newspapers and the public to a very small intensely violent storm of the "spout" variety, prop- erly known as the tornado. The true cyclone covers an area thou- sands of times as great as that cov- ered by a tornado, and its winds may be either stormy or gentle. In the northern hemisphere the winds of a cyclone blow "counterclockwise" (opposite to the direction followed cyclones, however, travel over the earth, and those of the temperate zone (the "lows" and "highs" of the weather map) move in a general west-to-east direction. In the United States their speed averages about 600 miles a day. (This refers to the translation of the whirl as a whole, and not to the force of its winds.) In general, cyclones are at- tended by clouds and rain or snow; THE REALM OF THE AIR 41? A FREAK OF THE TORNADO anticyclones by fair weather. The temperature commonly rises with the approach of a cyclone, and falls in its rear. It is the constant passage of cyclones and anticyclones over the country that gives us our change- able weather. On the weather map these areas are depicted by drawing lines, called isobars, connecting places having the same barometric pressure. Wherever the isobars are crowded the winds the strong; where they are widely spaced the winds are gentle. The tropical cyclone (hurricane of the West Indies, typhoon of the China Sea, baguio of the Philippines) is a relatively violent whirl, which originates in the stagnant air of the doldrums, and usually moves in an oblique and curved path toward higher latitudes, frequently passing into the temperate zone, where it increases in size and decreases in strength. While middle-latitude cy- clones occur throughout the year, tropical cyclones are almost lim- ited to particular seasons (those of the West Indies are commonest from July to October), and they are also confined to rather small regions of the globe. Storms of this type cause frightful devastation in the Carib- bean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and occasionally in the southeastern United States (as at Galveston, Sep- tember 8, 1900, when 6,000 lives and $30,000,000 in property were destroy- ed, chiefly by the great waves gen- erated by the storm). TORNADOES AND THUNDERSTORMS The tornado is a small vortex in the atmosphere, occurring generally in the southeastern part of a cyclone, and rarely experienced, in its full development, elsewhere than in the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains. Its average diameter is about 1,000 feet, and it travels along a path varying in length from a few hundred yards to 200 or 300 miles. The whirl as a whole moves at a speed averaging 25 miles an hour, while the velocity of rotation proba- bly sometimes amounts to 500 miles an hour a wind-force far exceeding that of any other type of storm. Within the narrow track of the disturbance buildings are blown to bits, trees are uprooted, and human beings only find safety underground ; but close on either side of the track little or no damage is done. The position of the whirl is marked by a funnel-shaped cloud. Waterspouts, which occur on the ocean and other large bodies of water, are similar in character to tornadoes, though gen- erally very much less violent. Thunderstorms occur chiefly in warm climates and during the warm season in temperate climates, but they are by no means unknown in the polar regions. They are char- acterized by rapidly rising air cur- rents, which may be either incidental ONE OF THE FEW AUTHENTIC PHOTO* GRAPHS OF A TORNADO 418 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES to the circulation of a cyclone or due to local overheating of the ground under strong sunshine. Cy- clonic thunderstorms sometimes oc- cur along a line several hundred miles in length, extending radially from the center of a cyclone, and sweeping over the country at a fair- ly uniform speed. This phenomenon is called a line-squall. The electrical features of a thun- derstorm are the result and not the cause of the atmospheric movements. The process by which the clouds be- come so strongly electrified as to give rise to disruptive discharges be- tween cloud and earth, or cloud and cloud, is not yet settled beyond con- troversy, but has been plausibly as- cribed to the breaking up of rain- drops in uprushing air currents, and the consequent separation of positive from negative electricity. Lightning owes its luminosity to the heating of the air along the path of the elec- trical discharge. The sudden expan- sion of the heated air produces the sound-wave we call thunder. A flash of lightning sometimes con- sists of a single virtually instantane- ous discharge; but in other cases several discharges occur in rapid succession along the same path, giv- ing to the lightning a flickering ap- pearance. The duration of a mul- tiple flash of this character may amount to half a second or more. When such a flash is photographed with a camera swinging on a vertical axis, the successive flashes appear side by side on the plate. The rare form of discharge known as pearl or beaded lightning presents the ap- pearance of a string of luminous beads. Still rarer is rocket light- ning, which shoots up into the air at the apparent speed of a skyrocket. Ball lightning, which takes f he form of a globe of fire moving slowly through the air near the earth (sometimes indoors) has not yet been satisfactorily explained. Heat lightning is the reflection on the clouds of ordinary lightning too dis- tant to be audible. Lightning is far more destructive in the rural districts than in cities and towns. In this country the aver- age annual property loss from this cause is about $8,000,000, while about 1,500 persons are affected an- nually by lightning stroke, one-third of this number being killed. The efficacy of well-constructed light- ning-rods is not doubted by compe- tent authorities. Statistics show that they reduce the fire hazard from lightning by 80 to 90 per cent in the case of houses, and by as much as 99 per cent in the case of barns. OTHER ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA St. Elmo's fire (also known under a score of other "names) is a brush discharge from the points of ter- restrial objects, and is most common on mountains. It is also seen on the masts and spars of vessels. Brush discharges on a vast scale are said to occur along the crest of the Chil- ean Andes, whence they are visible hundreds of miles out at sea. The aurora (called aurora ^ore- alls in the northern hemisphere and aurora australis in the southern) is now most commonly attributed to the passage of cathode rays through the atmosphere, under the effects of some kind of radiation or emission from the sun. It is especially com- mon and brilliant at times when sun- spots are numerous, and is accom- panied by disturbances in the earth's magnetism. The aurora has been carefully studied in high latitudes by means of simultaneous photo- graphs from two stations, whereby its altitude and distance from the place of observation can be determ- ined. There appear to be two prin- cipal forms: viz., a tranquil, homo- geneous arc, occurring only at great altitudes, and shifting beams and "draperies," occurring mainly at lower levels. There is some evidence that a feeble auroral glow commonly extends over the whole nocturnal sky, in all latitudes (earthlight) . MISCELLANEOUS WINDS A wind blowing from a warm re- THE REALM OF THE AIR 419 gion toward a cyclonic center is called, in southern Europe, a sirocco, and this term is sometimes applied to similar winds elsewhere. Such winds are commonly associated with the heated terms or "hot waves" of our American summers. Winds blowing in winter from regions of high barometric pressure and low temperature bring us cold leaves and sometimes blizzards (the latter term implying the presence of driving snow in addition to high wind and low temperature). The northers of Texas come under this head. A foehn (pronounced like "fern" but without the r) is a wind which has been robbed of much of its moisture through precipitation (rain- fall) on the windward slope of mountains, and which is further dried and heated in descending the leeward slope. (The heating is due to the "adiabatic" process, an ex- planation of which will be found in physical and meteorological text- books.) In the western United States such a wind is called a chinooJc. Its effects are most pro- nounced in winter, when it brings about a very sudden rise in temper- ature and causes snow to vanish as if by magic, whence it has been nicknamed the "snow-eater." The bora of the Adriatic and the mistral of the French Riviera differ from the foehn in the fact that they blow from a cold mountainous in- terior to a warm coastland, and, therefore, though heated in their descent, produce the impression of a cold wind. Types of wind, the world over, are not numerous ; but as the local examples of a given type were named before their generic identity was recognized the number of wind names in use amounts to several hundred. The khamsin, harmattan, simoon, leveche, leste, levanter, pampero, zonda, buran, purga, brick fielder, southerly burster, williwaw, pontias, tivano, ora, etc., are a few of these locally named winds. MOISTURE IN THE AIR For a given temperature of the air there is a maximum amount of moisture that can be present in an invisible form (water vapor). When the air is charged to the limit it is said to be "saturated." Absolute humidity is the weight of water va- por present, per unit volume, or the tension of this vapor; relative hu- midity, the ratio of the amount pres- ent to the amount necessary for sat- uration, expressed in percentage. Cooling of saturated air causes con- densation, in the form of cloud, fog, mist, rain, snow, hail, dew or hoar- frost. The temperature at which condensation occurs is called the dew-point, and this varies with the humidity. BESSON'S NEPHOMETER FOR MEASTTR- ING CLOUDINESS The highest clouds consist of ice needles, and present a feathery ap- pearance. Fleecy-looking clouds are composed of Uttle droplets of wa- ter. According to the International Cloud Classification there are ten 420 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES principal forms of cloud; viz., three feathery forms, cirrus, cirro-stratus and cirro-cumulus, and seven fleecy or homogeneous forms, alto-cumulus, alto-stratus, strato-cumulus, nimbus, cumulus, cumulo-nimbus and stratus. A few subordinate forms are also recognized. A common type of cir- rus is popularly called "mares' tails," cirro-cumulus is known as "mackerel sky," cumulus is called "w o o 1 p a c k," and cumulo-nimbus "thunder-clouds," or "thunder- heads." . .Nimbus is the rain cloud. A cloud at the earth's surface con- stitutes fog. Haze is a turbid state of the atmosphere, sometimes due merely to the varying optical prop- erties of air of different tempera- tures and densities, and sometimes to the presence of an unusual phenomena (photometeors) . Falling raindrops produce, by refraction and reflection, the rainbow, opposite the sun. There is usually a bright primary bow and a fainter secondary bow; and one or both may be fring- ed with supernumerary or spurious boics. Lunar rainbows are some- times seen. They are, as a rule, nearly colorless, owing to feeble il- lumination. Water clouds produce around the sun or moon, by diffrac- tion, a diffuse reddish ring, called the corona. From a mountain top or a balloon a person sometimes sees his shadow cast on a bank of fog or cloud. (The shadow seems "gi- gantic," owing to over-estimation of its distance. ) The head is often sur- rounded by a glory of colored light, due to diffraction. The whole phe- BANDED FORM OF ALTO-CUMULUS amount of dust, smoke or fine wa- ter-drops. Dust-haze, or dry fog, is characteristic of dry climates and dry seasons; it is also a result of fires in forests, moors and prairies, and of volcanic eruptions. Remark- able instances of daytime darkness have sometimes been produced by exceptionally dense haze of this character. Moisture in the atmosphere is ac- countable for a variety of optical nomenon is called the specter of the Brocken. Halos are due to the refraction or reflection (or both) of light by ice crystals in the atmosphere. They may take the form of rings of defi- nite angular size (the commonest has a radius of 22 degrees) sur- rounding the sun or moon; also of rings or arc's in various other posi- tions, and disks of light (parhelia and paraselenae; in popular Ian- THE REALM OF THE AIR guage, "sundogs" and "moondogs"). Some forms of halo are distinctly colored; others are not. An excel- lent descriptive account of such phenomena will be found in the Monthly Weather Review (published by the U. S. Weather Bureau) for July, 1914, pages 436-446. Not all photometeors are due to moisture. Mirage, for example, re- sults from the refraction of light through adjacent atmospheric strata having very different densities. One form of mirage is common over hot plains and deserts in calm weather, presenting the illusive appearance of a sheet of water. warm season. It consists of ice and compact snow, generally in concen- tric layers. Little pellets of snow, like tiny snowballs, falling chiefly in early spring and late autumn, but also in winter, have been inap- propriately named soft hail (the German name Graupel is preferable). The term sleet is applied by the United States Weather Bureau to small particles of clear ice frozen raindrops. The British apply this term to a mixture of rain and snow. Moisture condensed from the air on cold surfaces at night (just as it is condensed on the outside of an ice-pitcher) is called dew. If the TEMPERATURE ZONES (ACCORDING TO STTPAN) PRECIPITATION Moisture that is condensed out of the atmosphere and deposited on the earth is called precipitation. The commonest liquid form of precipita- tion is rain, and the commonest frozen form, snow (each flake of which is an aggregation of tiny ice- crystals). Hail, properly so called, falls almost exclusively in connec- tion with thunderstorms, and hence, in our latitudes, is limited to the deposit occurs in a frozen form it is called hoarfrost. Fog drifting against terrestrial ob- jects in cold weather sometimes leaves a rough deposit of ice, called rime. The smooth icy deposit due to rain freezing as it falls often very destructive to tree branches, telegraph wires, and the like is now officially termed glaze in this coun- try, but is popularly misnamed "sleet." In England it is known as 422 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES glazed frost. The occurrence of glaze on an extensive scale consti- tutes an ice storm. In connection with the subject of precipitation passing mention may be made of the widespread delusions that prevail as to the possibility of producing or preventing it artificial- ly. It is held, on the one hand, that cannonading and other explosions cause rain, and, on the other, that the firing of cannon, bombs and rock- ets drives away hail. Both beliefs are unfounded. The energy involved in such explosions is insignificant in comparison with the atmospheric forces that determine the occurrence of precipitation. CLIMATE The meteorological conditions that are characteristic of a particular re- gion constitute its climate. With re- spect to temperature, climates are distinguished not only as hot, cold and temperate, but also as equable and the reverse. Marine climates i. e., those of regions exposed to winds from the ocean have small daily and yearly ranges of tempera- ture, while continental climates those withdrawn from oceanic in- fluences are subject to great ex- tremes of temperature. The highest temperatures are not limited to the equatorial regions, nor the lowest to the polar regions. Probably no other part of the world experiences quite such hot weather as prevails in the deserts of southern California in summer. A shade temperature of 134 deg. Fahr. has been regis- tered at Greenland Ranch, in Death Valley. Oceanic islands in the tor- rid zone never have temperatures as high as those that prevail widely over the interior of the United States during "hot waves." On the other hand, the cold weather experi- enced in winter in our northwestern and north-central States far sur- passes anything known in much more northerly seaboard regions of western Europe. The lowest winter temperatures in the world are those that occur in north-central Siberia, where, at Verkhoyansk, an official temperature of 90 degrees below zero, Fahr., has been recorded. Rainfall, as an element of climate, includes all forms of aqueous pre- cipitation (the frozen forms being expressed in their "water equiva- lent"). Measurements of rainfall re- fer to the depth of water that would lie upon the ground if none of it ran off, soaked in or evaporated. Annual rainfalls may be classified, especially with respect to their ag- ricultural significance, as excessive when over 75 inches; copious, 50-75 inches ; moderate, 25-50 inches ; light, 10-25 inches ; desert, under 10 inches. The heaviest rainfall occurs within or near the tropics (though great deserts also occur in this region). The rainiest place in the world for which we have meteorological rec- ords is Cherrapunji, a hill station in India, with an annual rainfall of about 426 inches. The heaviest mean annual rainfall in the United States (not including Alaska) is about 133 inches in Tillamook County, Oregon. The heaviest snowfall in the United States probably occurs in the high Sierra Nevada, near the border be- tween Nevada and California. A total depth of 65 feet has been known to fall here in the course of a winter. That "the climate has changed" within a generation or so is a stub- born popular delusion, which pre- vails more or less all over the world, and has probably prevailed in every age. The belief in the "old-fashioned winter" is an example of this de- lusion. More than a century ago American philosophers wrote disser- tations on the changes of climate that they supposed had occurred since early colonial times. Such ideas arise chiefly from the fact that exceptional weather impresses itself more lastingly upon one's memory than normal weather. CHAPTER VI. THE HEAVENS ABOVE By C. F. TALMAN TENNYSON, who, of all the brethren of his craft, did most to poetize the facts of astron- omy, speaks of the stars as "cold fires, yet with power to burn and brand his nothingness into man." Nonentity has its advantages. A sovereign remedy for the trivial worries of human life is the con- templation of the starlit sky and the realization of the infinitesimal im- portance of the earth and all things earthly in comparison with a bound- less universe. The nightly spectacle of the stars is, however, commonly ignored. Many people look at it all their lives without really seeing it. The more conspicuous constellations ought to be as familiar to every human being with two eyes in his head as the town hall or his next- door neighbor's stable. They are far from being so. Most people you meet will admit frankly that the only constellation they know by sight is the Big Dipper which, as it happens, is not a constellation at all. A knowledge of the heavens is more general in primitive and pio- neer communities than in centers of civilization and culture. The pas- toral tribes of Chaldea and Arabia, thirty centuries ago, were better ac- quainted with the stars than are modern New Yorkers and Londoners. During the South African war the English soldiers were astonished at the ease with which the colonial troops marched at night, using the stars to guide them in lieu of a compass. The relative "nothingness" of the earth and its inhabitants is chiefly a modern idea, though it was not entirely unfamiliar to the specula- tive philosophers of antiquity. Thanks to the brilliant labors of many astronomers of whom Coper- nicus should be mentioned first of all we now know that the world on which we live is a planet or satellite, revolving humbly around an enormously greater body, which we call the sun ; and we know that the sun, in its turn, is a rather un- important member of a vast system of suns, or stars. The sun looks bigger than the other stars only be- cause it is nearer to us. How many stars are there? Sur- vey the heavens on a cloudless and moonless night, and you w r ill prob- ably get the impression that the number visible to the naked eye is almost infinite. This impression is, however, quite erroneous. The greatest number of stars which the unaided eye can distinguish at any one place on the earth and at any one time is hardly more than two thousand. With an opera-glass many thousands more can be seen, and this little instrument will be found an invaluable adjunct in a study of the heavens. A portable telescope with an object-glass only two inches in diameter discloses, in the entire sky, upwards of 700,000 stars. Great telescopes, such as those Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 424 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES THE ATWOOD SPHERE FOR STUDYING THE STARS as installed at the Academy of Sciences, Chicago. The stars, down to the fifth magni- tude, are represented by perforations, of different sizes, in the sheet iron sphere, through which light shines from the exterior. The sphere can be revolved by an electric motor, making the constellations rise and set. of the Lick, Yerkes and Mount Wil- son Observatories, show at least two hundred million. There are un- doubtedly many million more be- yond the range of all telescopes on account of their prodigious dis- tances, and there are probably many comparatively near stars that are invisible because they give little or no light. Indeed these dark stars are suspected to be much more numerous than the bright ones. One estimate makes them 4,000 times as numerous ; but this is little better than a guess. The brightness of the stars, as viewed from the earth, is expressed on a scale of "magnitudes," so re- lated to one another that an average star of one magnitude is two and one-half times as bright as one of the next lower magnitude. Of the first, or brightest, magnitude there are only twenty stars; the brightest of all being Sirius, the Dog Star. There are sixty-five stars of the second magnitude, and two hundred of the third. The faintest stars visible to the naked eye on a clear, moonless night are of the sixth magnitude. That the astronomer, without leaving our tiny earth, can measure the distances of the heavenly bodies (or at least of many of them) is neither more nor less wonderful than that the surveyor, without crossing a river, can measure the distance of a tree on the opposite bank; though the astronomer's task requires more delicate instruments and more painstaking observations. In both cases quite a simple trigono- metrical operation is involved. The surveyor gets the bearing of the tree from each end of a measured base-line; and having thus two angles and one side of a triangle, the rest is easy. In measuring the distance of the moon from the earth, the astronomer uses for a base-line the known distance between two widely separated observatories say I : 9-incb Transit Circle 40-incb Equatorial. Yerkes Observatory 86-inch Equatorial, U. S. Naval Observatory Jferkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis, Washington, D. C. 426 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES EXTERIOR OF THE SPHERE at Greenwich and Cape Town and. gets the bearing of the moon, or rather its apparent position as pro- jected on the far more distant back- ground of stars, from each observa- tory. The difference in the direction of the moon as seen from two places on earth (generally reduced to the difference in its direction from the center and surface of the earth respectively) is known as the moon's "parallax," and gives us the moon's distance about 239,000 miles. The sun's parallax is found in a somewhat different manner, but the process also involves the use of the distance between two places on earth as a base-line. The distance of the sun from the earth is about 93,000,000 miles. An express train would take more than 250 years to perform a journey of this length, and a cannon ball about nine years. Light, traveling at a speed of 186,000 miles a second, requires a little more than eight minutes to reach us from the sun. Yet, this distance, enormous as it is, is insignificant compared with the distances of even the nearest stars. In measuring the parallax of a star terrestrial distances are far too small to serve as the base line, and accordingly the star is sighted from two opposite points in the earth's circuit about the sun, giving a base-line one hundred and eighty- six million miles in length. Even so, the base-line is barely long enough to give a measurable parallax for a comparatively small number of stars, and the observations involved are among the most refined known to astronomy. Photographic meth- ods are now employed in measuring stellar parallaxes. The distances of the stars are so great that to state them in miles would be as awkward as stating the distance from New York to Cal- cutta in inches. Hence a larger unit is commonly employed, known as the "light-year." This is the distance which light travels in a year, and is a little less than six trillion miles (according to the American and French meaning of the term "tril- lion," corresponding to the British "billion"). Another unit, more re- cently introduced, is the "parsec," defined as the distance at which a star's parallax is one second of arc, or 206,265 times the distance of the MECHANISM OF THE SPHERE THE HEAVENS ABOVE 427 earth from the sun. At a distance of one hundred parsecs our sun would be a star of the tenth magni- tude. Our nearest neighbor in stel- lar space is a star of the southern heavens called Alpha Centauri (the brightest star in the constellation of the Centaur), its distance being 4.3 light-years. Concerning the actual dimensions of the stars we have little positive knowledge, but it is certain that some are very much larger than others, and that our sun is far from being one of the giants of the uni- verse. To Canopus, a magnificent star of the southern skies, has re- cently been ascribed by some as- tronomers the honor of being the biggest of the stars, one estimate giving him a volume about two and one-half million times as great as that of the sun. While such figures are highly speculative, they are not improbable. What are the stars made of? Be- fore the invention of the spectro- scope there appeared to be little prospect that mankind would ever find the answer to this question. The spectroscope is an instrument which analyzes a beam of light, and fur- nishes certain information concern- ing the source from which it comes. It spreads out the light into a rain- bow-colored strip, called the spec- trum. If the source is a luminous gas, the light is broken up into a number of bright lines or bands. If the light, coming from a luminous solid, liquid, or dense gas, has passed through a cooler and less luminous gas, the spectrum as a whole is bright, but is crossed by dark lines or bands. In either case the posi- tions of these lines and bands reveal the chemical composition of the gaseous material. The interpretation of the lines and bands depends upon laboratory experiments, and the spectroscope is much used by chemists in making analyses; but it is also used, in conjunction with the telescope, by astronomers, to determine the com- position, not of solid or quasi-solid bodies in the heavens, but of the gaseous envelopes or atmospheres by which these bodies are surrounded. Both our sun and the other visible stars are so hot that some or all of the substances of which they con- sist (apart from those which are gaseous at low temperatures) are vaporized, and form such enveloping atmospheres. The solar spectrum shows that the sun's atmosphere, and hence the sun itself, contains an abundance of calcium, iron, hydrogen, sodium, nickel, and other substances found on earth. About forty terrestrial elements are positively known to ex- ist in the sun, and the presence of others is indicated on less certain evidence. With the aid of photography the spectra of more than 200,000 stars have been examined. Some show the presence of a few, others of many elements known on earth. The differences between different stellar spectra are, apparently, not due to any radical differences in the com- position of the stars themselves, but rather to the fact that their physi- cal conditions differ, especially as to temperature, and hence they have different kinds of atmospheres. In short, the stars, the sun and the earth are probably all made of the same sort of matter. The stars are frequently described as "fixed," to distinguish them from the planets of our solar system, which, as we shall presently see, change their apparent positions in the sky more or less rapidly with respect to the stars and to one an- other. Actually, however, all the stars are in rapid motion through space. Our sun, for example, travels at a speed of about twelve miles a second. Many stars move much faster. At the Mount Wilson Ob- servatory one has recently been found with a velocity of about 358 miles a second. The movements of stars make themselves evident in two ways. In 428 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES the course of years certain stars have been observed to change their positions a little with respect to other stars. This change is known as "proper motion," and is always very gradual. The greatest proper motion known is that of a star dis- covered by Barnard, in 1916, which in about 180 years changes its place in the sky by an amount equal to the apparent diameter of the moon. Proper motion of a star whose dis- tance from us is known by observa- tions of parallax shows how fast the star is moving across the line of our vision, i. e., the line extending from our eyes to the star, but does not tell us whether, or how fast, the star is approaching or receding from us. This so-called radial motion, or motion in the line of sight, is de- termined by means of the spectro- scope. The result of such motion is a slight displacement of the spectral lines from their normal positions. Displacement in one direction shows that the star is approaching, and in the other that it is receding; while the amount of displacement indicates the speed of approach or recession. In general the stars are so far apart that they show no definite effects of one another's attraction, but there are a number of pairs of stars which are obviously revolving around common centers of gravity. These are called "binaries." Among those thus far discovered the periods of revolution range all the way from a few hours to 1,500 years. Some of these pairs are so close that they appear as a single star even in the most powerful telescopes, but their double character is re- vealed by the spectroscope, and hence they are known as "spectro- scopic binaries." If the plane in which the stars revolve lies more or less "edge on" to the earth, each star will, of course, successively move toward and from us in the course of its revolution. This causes a shifting of the spectral lines similar to that mentioned in the last paragraph. If both stars are bright enough to show spectra, the corresponding lines of these spectra will alternately coincide and separate. If only one star shows a spectrum, its lines will shift alter- nately to right and left. When, in such cases, the parallax of the stars is known, we can compute from well- known laws of gravitational motion the actual dimensions of the orbits in which they revolve and the masses of the stars, notwithstanding the fact that the best telescopes do not show these bodies separately, and may not show one of them at all a remarkable example of what has been called "the astronomy of the invisible." Many stars are observed to vary in brightness, either regularly or otherwise. When there is a regular period of variation, the spectroscope generally shows the star to be double, and the variations of bright- ness are apparently determined by the different aspects presented by the two components during the peri- od of revolution. There is also good reason to believe that some variable stars are not spherical, but are elongated into an elliptical, pear- shaped, or hour-glass-shaped form, and the rotation of such a star might present to us markedly varying amounts of surface. In an interest- ing class of variable stars known as "eclipsing variables" of which Al- gol, the "demon star," is the most famous example the principal star of a pair is periodically "eclipsed" by the passage in front of it of a less luminous (not necessarily dark) satellite, which is itself invisible in our telescopes. There are still other variables of which the fluctuation in brightness is apparently the result of periodic outbreaks of activity in the star itself, due to causes of which we have no knowledge. It has occasionally happened that a temporary star has made its ap- pearance in the firmament, and some of these "nova?," as they are called, have been of great brilliancy. The most famous of them was one which THE HEAVENS ABOVE 429 appeared in the year 1572, and which is commonly associated with the name of Tycho Brahe, the Danish nobleman-astronomer, because he wrote a description of it, though he did not discover it. For some days it was brighter than any other star in the sky and visible in broad daylight. It then gradually faded, and at the end of sixteen months had become invisible. Another re- markable nova appeared in the con- stellation of Perseus in 1901. Two days before its discovery a photo- graph of that portion of the heavens, showing stars as faint as the eleventh magnitude, did not include it. When first observed, it was of the third magnitude, and it bright- ened in two days to the first, after which it rapidly faded. It is still hypothesis, supported by spectro- scopic evidence, novae are due to the passage of a normally faint or dark star through a gaseous region in space; the star being made lu- minous by friction, just as a meteor- ite becomes luminous in passing through the earth's atmosphere. Such gaseous regions are known to exist, and many of them are self- luminous, constituting some of the bright cloud-like patches in the heavens known as "nebulae," two or three of which are faintly visible to the naked eye, while probably half a million or more are within the range of the biggest telescopes, or the camera. Not all nebulae are gas- eous. Many are merely distant clusters of stars, presenting in ordi- nary telescopes the same appearance Photographed by Ritchey, Yerkes Observatory The Great Nebula in Andromeda Spiral Nebula visible in the telescope as a star of the twelfth magnitude. Various explanations of these sud- den apparitions have been suggested. The collision of two dark or faint stars in space would doubtless give rise to a great burst of luminosity, or a vast eruption of glowing mat- ter might occur from a star that was previously quiescent (but this is an explanation that needs to be explained). According to a recent as gaseous nebulae. Whether a nebula is gaseous or not can some- times, but not always, be determined by the spectroscope. Nebulae assume various character- istic forms; some are ring-shaped, some elliptical; some (the "plan- etary" nebulae) disk-shaped, and al- most uniformly bright throughout. Others are quite irregular in shape ; of this type is the Great Nebula in Orion, the most magnificent object 430 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES of its kind in the sky. This nebula, which can be vaguely seen with the naked eye, surrounds one of the stars in Orion's sword : "a single misty star Which is the second in a line of stars That seem a sword beneath a belt of three" (a description, by the way, that is probably lost on ninety-nine out of every hundred readers of Tennyson's "Merlin and Vivien" especially in America, where astronomy has been almost completely banished from schools and academies). Fine details of the nebula? which the eye, aided by the best of tele- scopes, cannot detect are revealed by long-exposure photographs. It thus appears that many, and perhaps most, of them are made up of spir- ally twisted wisps of light, studded with points of condensation. The camera has also disclosed the pres- ence of faint nebulous matter spreading over great areas -of the sky ; in some cases enveloping a whole constellation. Just as thero are dark stars, so there appear to be many dark nebula?. It is probable that such objects, silhouetted against a luminous background of dense star fields, account for some of the striking black patches in the sky, once supposed to be merely starless regions of space. The galaxy, or Milky Way, a great luminous band encircling the sky, presents a nebulous appearance to the naked eye, but even a small telescope shows it to be made up of innumerable stars, from the eighth magnitude down, including many dense clusters. It contains, however, very few gaseous nebulre. The num- ber of stars in a given area of sky decreases more or less regularly as we move away from the galaxy. Thus it seems likely that the stellar universe, or, at least, the system of stars to which our sun belongs, has a more or less disk-like shape (com- parable to that of a thin watch), with the sun and the solar system somewhere near the middle of it. We should see the densest accumula- tion of stars in looking toward the edge of the disk, and this would correspond with the galaxy. We have now, in a truly cosmo- politan spirit, taken a general sur- vey of the universe before paying particular attention to the little nook of it in which we live. It is time to say a few words about the solar system. At the center of this system is the sun ; an intensely hot rotating globe, about 866,000 miles in diam- eter, probably of very dense gaseous matter, completely enclosed and hid- den from our view by a shell of clouds, which we call the "photo- sphere." While our earth has a cool atmosphere, composed of nitrogen, oxygen and other substances that are gaseous at ordinary tempera- tures, and in which water-vapor is condensed, by cooling, into the drop- lets and ice-crystals of which ter- restrial clouds consist, the sun, on account of its vastly higher tempera- ture, maintains an atmosphere in which even the most refractory ele- ments are vaporized, and its clouds, also liquefied and solidified by cool- ing, do not consist of water, but of various metals, with carbon and other elements. The solar atmosphere extends far above the photosphere. Immediately overlying the latter is a gaseous lay- er, consisting partly and perhaps chiefly of hydrogen, called the "chromosphere." In structure it may be compared to a sheet of flame, for, though we can see the photo- sphere through it, the chromosphere itself shines with a brilliant scarlet light, which is visible along the border or "limb" of the sun at the time of a solar eclipse. At such times long outward projections from the chromosphere are often seen, and these are called "prominences." With the aid of the spectroscope it is pos- sible to see both the chromosphere and the prominences without an eclipse, and even to photograph 432 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES them. Some prominences are quies- cent, hanging for days over the same spot, while others may be seen to shoot upward, often at a speed of from 100 to 200 miles a second, and to altitudes which, in extreme cases, amount to from 200,000 to more than 300,000 miles. Lastly, the sun has an extremely tenuous outer atmos- phere ; of vast extent, which is seen as a broad wispy glow during an eclipse, and is known as the "co- rona." The surface of the photosphere usually exhibits a few or many dark patches, of various shapes, known as "sunspots." These vary in size .from tiny points, just visible in the telescope, to great blotches that can be seen, through smoked glass, with holes in the photosphere, and were formerly believed to be, at least, deep depressions in its surface; but they are now regarded as the tops of vortices, or cyclones, in the solar atmosphere. This atmosphere is un- doubtedly the seat of an active cir- culation, analogous to the wind- system of the earth, and one conse- quence of the circulation is that the cloud layer, or photosphere, rotates much more rapidly near the solar equator than elsewhere ; viz., once in about twenty-five days, as compared with thirty days and upwards in high solar latitudes. The temperature at the surface of the sun far exceeds the highest that can be attained with the electric furnace, the most powerful heating SATURN, THE LIGHTEST OF THE PLANETS IN PROPORTION TO ITS SIZE, WOULD FLOAT IN WATEB. (IF THERE WERE AN OCEAN BIG ENOUGH TO HOLD IT!) the naked eye, and are actually 100,000 miles or more in diameter. The spots are transient phenomena, lasting from a few days to a few months, and changing more or less rapidly in shape. As the sun ro- tates, carrying the spots with it, the latter appear at one limb of the solar disk and travel across to the opposite limb. The spots look like device known to man. Estimates range up to 16,000 or 18,000 deg. Fahr. The sun's output of heat has been the object of elaborate observa- tions with instruments, such as the bolometer and the pyrheliometer, de- signed for measuring the minute fraction of this heat that we receive on earth, and it is found to be sub- ject to slight fluctuations; yet in THE HEAVENS ABOVE 433 Neptune (1 satellite) Uranus (4 satellites) Saturn (10 satellites) Jupiter (9 satellites) Asteroids Mars (2 satellites) Earth (1 satellite) Venus Mercury RELATIVE SIZES OF PLANETS (Sun's Diameter on Same Scale Equals Length of Cut) Corrected to date from Todd's "New As- tronomy." Copyright 1897 and 1906. Used by permission of American Book Company, publishers. the long run it remains substantially uniform, and probably has so re- mained since prehistoric times. How is this supply of heat maintained? The impact of meteors falling with enormous speed into the sun would account for part of it, but the much slower fall of the outer portions of the " sun itself in other words, a gradual shrinking of the whole body seems to be the chief explanation. It has been computed that a con- traction of only six miles per cen- tury would keep the sun at its pres- ent temperature. Several centuries must elapse, however, before this slow shrinking, if it exists, can be verified with the telescope. The student who has familiarized himself with the constellations and their principal stars with the aid of star maps will notice in the noc- turnal sky a few star-like objects, some of them very brilliant, which are not shown on the maps, and which move from one constellation to another. Their paths all lie with- in a comparatively narrow zone of the heavens, called the "zodiac." These are the planets. Compared with the stars and the sun they are actually of very small size, though some of them outshine any of the stars because of their proximity to us. The nearest of all the planets does not shine in our skies; it lies at our feet. We call it the earth. There are eight known planets ; not counting their attendant moons, or satellites, nor the small bodies known as asteroids, or planetoids. All the planets, with their moons, and also the asteroids, revolve around the sun in orbits that, in most cases, are nearly circular. They all shine with light reflected from the sun. The names of the planets, the order in which their orbits lie from the sun, and their relative sizes are shown by the accompanying dia- gram, the total length of which in- dicates the diameter of the sun, on the same scale. The satellites, not all of which are shown, are not drawn 434 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES to scale (those of Mars would be in- visible if their relative size were not here much exaggerated). Mercury is the nearest planet to the sun. Though there has been much specu- lation about an "intramercurial planet" it has even been given the name Vulcan no such body is now believed to exist. On the other hand, it is extremely probable that one or two unknown planets lie be- yond the orbit of Neptune. Besides revolving around the sun, each planet rotates on its axis. The TELESCOPIC VIEW OF THE MOON A DAY AFTER FIRST QUARTER The image is inverted as compared with a naked eye view. The rough edge to the right is the "terminator" the line along which the sun is just rising. Here the craters cast long shadows and are most favorably observed THE HEAVENS ABOVE 435 rotation of the earth causes the, to earth-dwellers, apparent daily revolution of the sun, moon and stars, just as the motion of a train in which you are riding causes the apparent motion, in the opposite di- rection, of objects outside the win- dows of your carriage. The moons or satellites have even more complex motions than the plan- ets. They are carried by the latter around the sun ; they rotate on their axes ; and they revolve around the planets to which they severally be- long. Mercury and Venus have no moons ; the earth has only one ; Mars has two, both very small and very close to the planet. At this writing (1916) Jupiter is known to have nine, Saturn ten, Uranus four, and Neptune one ; but it is not likely that all the satellites of these four planets have been discovered. Our own moon the moon is much the nearest of all celestial bodies to the earth. Her diameter is a little more than one-fourth as great as the earth's, and she re- volves around our planet in about twenty-seven and one-third days. The lunar "month," determined by the relative positions of the moon and sun in our skies, is twenty-nine and one-half days. Since the moon always keeps the same face toward the earth, she turns once on her axis while she is revolving once around the earth. The moon is usually described by modern astronomers as a "dead planet." She is supposed to have had an atmosphere ages ago, but to have lost it, and to be devoid of moisture and incapable of support- ing life. All that is certain, how- ever, is that if a lunar atmosphere exists it is excessively rare, and that most, if not all, forms of life known to us would perish if trans- planted to our satellite. Some re- cent observers, notably Professor Pickering, believe they have de- tected patches of vegetation and ice, frost or mist on the lunar surface. The moon is the most interesting of all objects in the telescope, be- cause of the innumerable mountains chiefly extinct volcanic craters which cover her surface. Many of the craters are far larger than any similar formations known on earth. Several hundred of the craters have been named in honor of early as- tronomers and philosophers. The so-called "seas" on the moon are desert plains perhaps the dry beds of former oceans. The gravitational pull of the moon, combined with that of the. sun, pro- duces the tides in our oceans. As the earth rotates, a wave of water travels around the globe, following the direction of the moon's apparent motion, while another wave, on the opposite side of the globe, is due to the fact that the earth itself is pulled, by the moon's attraction, away from the overlying ocean. Thus at any one place in the ocean there are two tides a day. In her revolutions around the earth the moon frequently passes between us and the sun, in such a position as to obscure the whole or a part of the sun's disk as seen from portions of our planet, producing a solar eclipse. As the direction of the moon at any time with respect to the sun is not the same from all parts of our globe, an eclipse that is "total" in one region of the earth will be "partial" or nil in other regions. At any one place "totality" is very brief, lasting only three or four minutes in an average eclipse. There is a very narrow zone along which totality occurs progressively, as the moon advances in her orbit and the earth rotates (these two motions are in the same direction, otherwise the duration of the eclipse would be even less) ; on either side is a much broader zone, in which a partial eclipse is seen ; while over the rest of the earth there is no eclipse. A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon, in the course of her revolution, passes through the shadow cast by the earth, and is thus temporarily 436 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES deprived of sunlight. If the moon is completely immersed in the shadow the eclipse is total; if only partly immersed, it is partial. A lunar eclipse, unlike a solar eclipse, is always visible to the entire hemi- sphere of the earth turned moon- ward at the time. Mercury and Venus are called "inferior" planets, because their orbits lie within that of the earth. As viewed from the earth they seem to oscillate from one side of the sun to the other; now appearing in the western sky after sunset, and now in the eastern sky before sun- rise. Mercury's apparent position in the sky is never very far from that of the sun, and hence this planet is never above the horizon long enough after sunset or before sunrise to be conspicuous. Venus moves consider- ably farther from the sun, and at such times becomes a magnificent object, much brighter than any other planet or fixed star. It is probable, though not certain, that Mercury and Venus always keep the same faces turned toward the sun, just as the moon does toward the earth. If so, scorching heat must prevail perpetu- ally in one hemisphere of each planet, while intense cold reigns in the other. Mercury appears to have little or no atmosphere; but Venus gives unmistakable evidence of pos- sessing one, and also clouds. As to permanent surface markings on these planets astronomers are not in agreement. The "superior" planets, i. e., the planets whose orbits are outside that of the earth, sometimes lie in the same direction from the earth as the sun, when they are said to be in "conjunction" with that luminary, and are invisible; sometimes in the opposite direction, when they are said to be in "opposition," and shine through the night, rising about sun- set and setting about sunrise. Posi- tions midway between conjunction and opposition are known as "quad- rature." Mars, when at opposition, and therefore nearest the earth, is an object of great interest on account of the many details of its surface that can then be seen through pow- erful telescopes, under favorable at- mospheric conditions. These mark- ings show that the planet rotates on its axis once in about twenty-four and one-half hours; hence its "day" is a little longer than the earth's. Near the planet's poles are two white patches, the "polar caps," which be- have as if made of snow or ice, varying in size with the Martian seasons. The rest of the surface is mottled with grayish green and yel- lowish areas, and shows a number of dark lines and spots that have been variously reported and inter- preted by different observers. Among these are the so-called "canals," de- scribed as radiating and intersecting lines of such geometrical regularity as to suggest an artificial origin. Many double or twin canals have also been reported. One hypothesis in regard to these lines is that they are irrigation channels, fringed with vegetation. This implies, of course, the present or former existence of intelligent beings on Mars. Some astronomers, however, consider the canals a mere optical illusion, due to the tendency of the eye to join up by lines any aggregation of small or faint markings. Beyond the orbit of Mars lie the asteroids, or minor planets, of which several hundred are known, while many new ones are discovered ev- ery year. The largest of these bod- ies is barely 500 miles in diameter, and most of them are very much smaller. Next in order comes the giant planet Jupiter, one-tenth as great in diameter as the sun, around which it revolves in a period of nearly twelve years. Jupiter turns on its axis once in about ten hours ; faster than any other planet. As in the case of the sun, we see little if any of its real surface, but only a dense layer of clouds in which it is en- veloped. These clouds assume belt- THE HEAVENS ABOVE 437 like forms, visible even in a small telescope. The planet itself is be- lieved to be in a fluid or semi-fluid condition, and intensely hot, though hardly hot enough to be luminous. Jupiter is the second brightest of the planets, and much brighter than any fixed star. Saturn, which lies next beyond Jupiter, is unique among the planets in the possession of a system of flat and very thin rings, like circular disks of paper perforated in the middle. According to the position of the planet with respect to the earth and the sun the rings present very different appearances, and at times disappear altogether, at least in ordinary telescopes; viz., when they are "edge on" to us, or "edge on" to the sun, or, again, when they turn toward us the side on which the sun is not shining. At other times they are broadly ellip- tical and conspicuous in a small telescope. These strange appen- dages were long a puzzle to the as- tronomers, but are now known to be made up of innumerable little bodies, comparable in size to meteors, re- volving around the planet. Saturn exhibits* cloud-belts, like those of Jupiter, though less distinct, and its structure is probably similar to Jupiter's. tlrapus is barely visible to the naked eye. It was the first planet to be found with the telescope, hav- ing been discovered in 1781 by Sir William Herschel, who at first sup- posed it to be a comet. All the planets with which men were then acquainted had been known from an- tiquity, and the discovery of a new one created a great stir. Much more remarkable, however, from a scien- tific point of view was the discovery of Neptune, in 1846. The position of this planet was computed before the planet itself was seen, solely on the basis of irregularities in the movements of Uranus, which were evidently due to the disturbing in- fluence of another and undiscovered member of the solar system. The computations were performed inde- pendently by Leverrier in France and Adams in England, and the planet was found by the astronom- ers at the Berlin Observatory at the place where Leverrier told them to look for it. Neptune is invis- ible to the naked eye. Its distance from the sun is 2,791,000,000 miles, and its "year," i. e., its period of revolution around the sun, is 165 of our years. It has there- fore not made half a circuit since its discovery, in the days of our grandfathers. Comets, once objects of awe and terror, are commonplace to the modern astronomer, who, with his telescope, finds half a dozen new ones every year. About one-fifth of these become, at some time in their history, bright enough to be seen with the naked eye. While many comets, especially the fainter ones, have no visible "tails," a few have displayed more than one of these appendages. The tail is always di- rected away from the sun, and often attains a stupendous size ; some have been more than 100,000,000 miles in length. Most astonishing is the fact that, in spite of their size, comets are always excessively light; mere feathers compared with any of the planets. This is proved by the fact that they do not produce the slight- est disturbance in the movements of planets or satellites near which they pass, though their own movements are greatly modified by these ap- proaches. Comets are self-luminous, but their brightness is doubtless increased by reflected sunlight. Many of these bodies are permanent mem- bers of our system, performing their revolutions around the sun at in- tervals of a few or many years. Others, so far as we know, make this circuit only once, and then dash away for all time into outer space. Meteors, or shooting stars, appear to be intimately related to comets, and may be produced, at least in part, by the distintegration of the 438 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES latter. These bodies only become visible to us when they pass through our atmosphere and are made Om- inous by friction. Millions of them enter the atmosphere every day. Most of these are probably vaporized and dissipated, some pass on into space, and some reach the earth as meteorites. Vast swarms of mete- ors appear to be constantly traveling in regular orbits around the sun. The "zodiacal light," a faint glow extending along the zodiac in both directions from the sun, and best seen in our latitudes in the evenings of February and March, is probably due to sunlight reflected from a great ring of meteors. CRATERS ON THE MOON h.' pSei formation known as the "Straight Wall." THE HEAVENS ABOVE 439 THE NORTHERN HEAVENS The maps shown on the following pages represent the heavens as seen, on the different dates given, from stations in and about the latitude of New York (40 N) It is not an easy matter to recognize the stars by looking at the map. A certain amount of study is necessary : for, of course, the different stars of a constellation are not linked togetherby lines as they are in the map and furthermore their magnitude is very much exaggerated. The best plan for the novice is to start with a well known constellation, such as that of the Great Bear. The' "Dipper" which is a part of the Great Bear is so conspicuous a group in the northern skies that anyone can point it out. Knowing the Dipper, the Pole Star may readily be discovered by tracing a line from ft through a of the Dipper ana about five times as far. Around the Pole Star (Polaris) which is of the second magnitude, the entire northern heavens appear to revolve once a day Having found the Pole Star the constellation of Cassiopeia may be found by- extending a line from e of the Dipper through the Pole Star and as far again to the other side, where a cluster of stars in the form of a large ragged W will be found. If we run a line diagonally from a of the Dipper through y and about eight or nine tunes as far again, we shall come to the first magnitude star Spica, in the constellation of the Virgin, while a line extended from a through ft and about eight times as far again will bring us in the midst of the constellation of the Lion. At the eastern end of this constellation, is the second magnitude star Denebola, and the distance from this star to Spica is about the same as that from Spica to Arcturus, the first magnitude star in the constellation of Bootes. Thus we may proceed building up our knowledge of various groups and using these groups as reference points to find new constellations. Contrary to custom in geographical maps, our jstar maps are drawn with the east on the lefthand side and the west on the righthand THE "DIPPER" AS AN INDEX TO THE HEAVENS. side, while north is at the top of the page and south at the bottom. This is due to the fact that the heavens are viewed looking upward, while the geographical map is viewed looking downward. In locating stars and con- stellations, it is best toliold the map over- head when the actual poirtfcs of the compass and those marked on the map will bear the true relation to each other. NIGHT SKY: JANUARY AND FEBRUARY If one views the heavens on the hours specified under our map of January, he will find almost directly overhead a bright star with a triangle of lesser stars beside it. The bright star is Capella or the Little She Goat which is held on the arm of Auriga, the Charioteer, whose left hand is represented by the triangle of stars, >), e, OST OFFICE DEPARTMENT BUILDING House as a whole except as referred to the House by the committee or by unanimous consent. Therefore, the committee is extremely important to all legislation and nine out of ten of the thousands and thousands of bills of all kinds, which are pro- posed in the House, are quietly strangled in committee and never see further light. Inasmuch as many such bills are proposed merely for "home consump- tion" and in order to make an im- pression on the "folks back home," this system works out without hard- ship either to the Representative proposing the bill, the bill itself, or the House of Representatives as a whole. The committee, the members of which may be anywhere from three to twenty in number, will debate a proposed bill, hold public hear- ings for the benefit of interested parties, make amendments to it, and finally offer it, perhaps in a completely changed form, back to the House for consideration. The House can then pass it or reject it at its pleasure. Having succeeded in pass- ing the House, such a bill goes to the Senate and the Senate can then either pass it or reject it. In the more common cases a bill passed by the House which is not entirely pleasing to the Senate is revised or amended by the Senate and then sent back to the House, tn case it is impossible for the two branches of the Legislature to agree upon a bill, a Conference Committee is ap- pointed, usually of three members of each House, which Conference Com- mittee meets and endeavors to ef- fect a compromise and the com- promise bill is frequently passed without further debate by both Houses of Congress. No story of the House of Repre- sentatives would be complete which did not contain a few words of ref- erence to the most powerful figure in the House, who is, of course, the Speaker. The Speaker at one time appointed the members of all com- mittees, including that of the Com- mittee of Rules, which determines the order in which important meas- ures shall come before the House. In the old days he was himself chairman of this committee, but, in 1910, the House took this power away from its Speaker. It increased the Committee on Rules from five to ten and agreed that the House itself should make the appointments. THE LEGISLATIVE HALLS 461 This has shorn the Speaker of his previous power but he still has plenty left. He can recognize or refuse to recognize any member try- ing to address the Chair and can thus accelerate or retard the pas- sage of any bill. The fact that the House elects usually as its Speaker a national fig- ure in politics and a man of great force of character as well as of brains is one of the safeguards of the national legislature. He is, of course, invariably elected by a strict party vote, a Democratic House of Representatives becoming the more powerful as a Democratic organiza- tion by possession of a Democratic Speaker, the same obtaining for a Republican House. The wisdom of our forefathers in providing for a Senate, composed of two men from each State, represent- ing the States, and not the people, to act as a check upon the Repre- sentatives of the people in the House of Representatives, is continually made manifest. The Senate acts often as a brake upon the too head- long action of the House and many an ill-considered piece of legislation, enacted with insufficient debate, and, perhaps, in the heat of partisan feel- ing in the House, has been so altered in the Senate that its originators could not recognize it when it finally came back to them. The final bulwark of the people against wrong action on the part of the National Legislature is the Su- preme Court, which must pass upon the constitutionality of disputed en- actments ; and with first a commit- tee, next a House, then a Senate, then, perhaps, a joint committee, again an action by both House and Senate, a possible veto, a re-enact- ment over that veto and finally pos- sible review by the Supreme Court, as to the admissibility of legislation under the Constitution of the United States, that law must be ingenious indeed which is unjust or ill-advised when finally read into the Statutes of the United States. SUPREME COURT If the Senate feels its dignity to such an extent as never to yield to the blandishments of the press pho- tographer or motion picture director, what must be said of the Supreme Court? To imagine this body per- mitting itself to be photographed is an impossibility. Of course, there are plenty of photographs showing the Supreme Court in session, but none of them are real. All are made by combining pictures of the vari- ous justices with an interior of the Court; a real photograph has never been made. The Supreme Court room was formerly the Senate Chamber. Un- til 1859 the Senate met in the pres- ent Court room, the Court then sit- ting in the room beneath, which is now the Law Library. It is a sim- ple and impressive room even when unoccupied, and when the Court is in session no American can look upon its deliberations unmoved, for it represents to him the very apothe- osis of the democracy on which his nation is built, the justice and lib- erty which make America, America. As every American knows, the Supreme Court is the one branch of the Government which has abso- lutely no connection with politics, with patronage, with partisan meth- ods of any kind. Justices, appointed for life, can only be removed for high crimes or misdemeanors, and no justice ever has been removed since the Court was founded. Presi- dents with Supreme Court vacancies to fill have all realized that the American people would scrutinize their appointments with the keenest eyes, and let the Senate know in no uncertain manner if they did not approve. The result has been a con- tinuing body which represents the highest legal and personal attain- ments, and one which, although it often makes decisions which are un- satisfactory to many people, is never questioned as to its integrity by its most violent critics. An appointment to the Supreme 462 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Photo Harris & UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT Bench is justly regarded as exceeded in honor only by the Presidency, and many contend that as the one is a permanent appointment, the other but a temporary position, the nine Supreme Court Judgeships represent the nine highest honors America has to offer. Certain it is that no man who has sat on the Supreme Bench has ever lacked for apprecia- tion from his fellow citizens, or honor from them for the high at- tainment which put him there. The Court sits from October to June, from noon until 4 P. M., five days in the week, reserving Satur- day for consultation. Strangers are permitted to visit the court at all times, although accommodations are limited. THE PRESIDENT DELIVERING THE INAUGURAL ADDRESS CHAPTER III. THE PRESIDENT THE EXECUTIVE THE real functions of the President of the United States are, curiously enough, com- paratively little understood by the body politic. He is usually re- government which obtain in Europe. As a matter of fact, the President of the United States has executive powers which, in many ways, are Photo Copyright by G. V. Buck. Washington. D. C. EXECUTIVE STAFF OF THE WHITE HOUSE ferred to in conversation as being considerably less in extent than the equal of any prince, poten- those possessed by many a prime tate, czar or other ruler of the minister of a European country and monarchies or other forms of decidedly less power than many Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 466 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES monarchs. On the other hand, the President of the United States en- joys certain privileges and powers not possessed by even the rulers of absolute monarchies. The three principal functions of the President may be stated as a control of foreign relations, those powers which are concerned with legislation, and those which relate to the domestic administration, the latter largely concerned with the matter of appointments and patron- age, particularly in the appointment of members of the Supreme Court. The President has a practically unfettered initiation in regard to all when the Mexican war began with- out any initiative by Congress. A question frequently asked of those who know, and especially by new Congressmen who come for the first time to the great legislative halls upon Capitol Hill, is "What is the form of the President's power over Congress? By what means does he bend this immense legisla- ture representing the forty-eight States and the hundred million of people, to his will?" The answer to this question is ex- tremely complicated if taken up in detail, but in its broad essentials the control of the President over Photo Harris & Ewing TELEGEAPH ROOM, EXECUTIVE OFFICES, WHITE HOUSE foreign affairs, but is checked in his control of the foreign relations of the United States by the Senate, which must approve by a two-thirds majority all treaties negotiated with a foreign country through the De- partment of State for the President. While the power to declare war belongs entirely to Congress, it is perfectly possible for an Executive, without an act of Congress, virtu- ally to engage in hostilities. An ex- ample of this is recent within the public mind in the expedition sent across the Mexican border. A some- what similar case occurred in 1845 Congress may be stated to lie in four great things. In the first place, there is that political unity of a party which means so much to the politician. Supposing that the Pres- ident has a majority in Congress (and few Presidents have made much headway without it), the Con- gress is naturally desirous of ap- pearing before the country as sup- porting and aiding the President in his work. The President then has the political power of his party be- hind him in any request which he makes of Congress or any sugges- tions which he gives them. THE PRESIDENT THE EXECUTIVE 467 This more or less sentimental con- sideration, however, is probably of less avail than the three great pre- rogatives which the President has. These are, of course, the power of vetoing legislation passed by Con- gress, which does not meet his views, the power of calling an extra ses- sion of Congress and the power of making numerous appointments, many of which serve as "payments" for political work or for something done for the President by some Con- gressman or Senator. The veto is employed a hundred President responsible for the con- duct of the Government and are usu- ally with him, right or wrong. Sen- ators and Representatives know that when a bill is vetoed, they will have to explain and explain pretty promptly to their constituents just why they are right and the Presi- dent is wrong if they are going to, to use a slang phrase, "get by with it." It has sometimes been suggested by some members of Congress who did not want legislation desired by the White House to pass, that by Photo Harris & Ewing THE WHITE HOUSE HOME OF THE PRESIDENT AND CENTER OF WASHINGTON'S SOCIAL ACTIVITIES times in a veiled threat to once in actuality. More than one Senator or Representative has been quietly told, perhaps by the President, more likely by some friend, that this or that particular bill has no oppor- tunity to pass unless a tico-thirds majority can be mustered. This threat of the veto is usually suffi- cient to keep undesirable legislation from passage. Every Senator and Representative knows that the peo- ple of the United States hold the making an agreement to end the ses- sion of Congress on such and such a day and so arranging matters that the objectionable legislation did not come up, the President might be cir- cumvented without an open break. Older members, however, know that the Congress has power only to end its deliberation. The Presi- dent has the power, guaranteed un- der the Constitution, of calling a special session at any time when it may be necessary to do so. 468 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES More than one President has in- formed a Congress, anxious to end without passing legislation which he deemed necessary, that if it did so, a special session would immediately be called. Here again is the neces- sity for the legislator to explain to his constituents just why there is an extra session ! The majority will not believe the President called a special session of Congress without a reason therefor and the question most naturally arising is "What is that reason?" If it had to be ex- plained to the people that Congress time become that recent Presidents have ruled that they positively would not see office seekers. Mr. Wilson has gone even further and refuses to discuss patronage matters with Senators, Representatives or politi- cians. Unquestionably, all Presidents have had to break their rules at times, but generally this refusal has served to give them much time for the public business which would other- wise be wasted. Most Presidents refer officer seekers to heads of depart- ments and thus lift from their shoulders a burden none the less Photo Harris & Ewing THE WHITE HOUSE KITCHEN IS LARGE ENOUGH TO PROVIDE FOR LARGE BANQUETS has been negligent or has been at- tempting to pass over its responsi- bilities and failed to support the President, there is naturally apt to be fireworks at the next Congres- sional election. The appointive power of the Pres- ident has its drawbacks. Thousands who want jobs either try to see the President personally, or try to have "a friend" see him in their behalf. So great have office seeking calls on his great that it is concerned with minor matters. Of course, the office seeker still dogs the President's door and many who, as one quaint wit expressed it, "also icant to serve who only stand and wait" are still to be found in the White House. But if such an office seeker gets the President's ear he is apt to find a chilly atmos- phere when he gets to the real rea-son for his visit. THE PRESIDENT THE EXECUTIVE 469 While it is true that the Presi- dent has no powers over Congress save such as are conferred upon him by the veto, the extra session call, appointments and the opinion of the people of the United States, it may nevertheless be said that his con- trol of the Government is more ab- solute than his strictly legal powers might presuppose. More and more is this single man being considered by the American people as its Gov- sired enactments, which are thus known as "executive legislation." As a matter of fact, the President has no power to introduce any bills into Congress. He can merely indi- cate to Congress by messages what his desires, opinions or feelings are in regard to any immediate legisla- tion. But practically, having at his disposal Federal patronage which is of value to many Senators and Rep- resentatives, he frequently can ob- Photo Harris & Ewing THE FAMILY LINEN IS WASHED IN THIS LIGHT AND AIRY LAUNDRY ernment, and less and less is it hold- ing Congress responsible for the con- duct of that Government. If it were not for the provision which makes it necessary for the Senate to concur in Presidential ap- pointees to the more important posi- tions at his disposal he would be invested with a much vaster power than he actually is. Nevertheless, a tremendous quantity of Federal pat- ronage is within the gift of the President and it is by the use of this patronage that he is frequently able to swing Congress into line with de- tain the introduction of such bills or push through such legislation as may seem to him to be good. It will sound strange to many ears but the so-called Cabinet of the United States has no legal existence. The cabinet ministers of England are an integral part of the Government. The cabinet officers of the United States are but the heads of the sev- eral departments. True, there is nothing in the Con- stitution or any law which restricts the President from making such free choice as he may desire of those 470 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES gentlemen who stand at the head of the several great departments of the Government, but when they are called into conclave to advise with the President, they have no power whatever save as personal friends, giving their advice and opinions in matters which he may submit to them. An exception should be noted to the restricted powers of the Presi- dent w T hen a state of war exists. At such a time the Presidential pow- er immediately swings to its maxi- Republicans, Democrats, Progres- sives, Prohibitionists, Socialists, men of every party and political faith, unite in support of the President in matters which concern the welfare of the country, and to this patriotic feeling and belief in the integrity of the holder of the Presidential of- fice can be found the root of that power which the President enjoys in time of national stress. The only way in which a Presi- dent can be removed from office is by the process of impeachment. This Photo Harris & Ewing THE PRESIDENT'S ROOM AT THE CAPITOL Rarely used except at the end of a session mum. As commander of the Army and Navy and charged with the wel- fare of the Nation, in time of war his powers may exceed those vested in any other luler in any country. The American people have an im- mense reverence for the position of Chief Executive of the Nation, and any man who obtains that office is at once invested by all Americans with an authority and a dignity far beyond that of any other ruler. process is a prerogative of the House of Representatives. An im- peached President is tried by the Senate sitting as a court with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States presiding. Only one President of the United States has ever been impeached, Andrew Johnson, and the impeachment was not sustained. In addition to advising with the Cabinet officers in regard to the con- THE PRESIDENT THE EXECUTIVE 471 duct of the business of the United States Government, the President has a busy time with foreign re- lations. He must not only appoint all ambassadors and ministers to foreign countries, but he receives the Ambassadors of foreign countries to this nation and deals directly with those representatives of foreign gov- ernments and rulers. He has an enormous official and personal cor- respondence, the greater part of which, of course, is handled in a not yet been accomplished, but which has threatened on more than one occasion and may yet become a fact. There is nothing in the Constitu- tion or the laws of the United States to forbid the continual re-election of one man to the Presidency. Still a third unwritten law is that popular opinion that the President must necessarily attend to business in the White House. A President is entitled, by lack of any restrictions to the contrary, to live in any part Photo Harris & Ewing THE PRESIDENT SIGNING THE SAN ANTONIO BILL, MAKING IT LAW routine manner by a large force of clerks in the White House. There are a number of unwritten laws in regard to the Presidency, most of them more honored in the breach than in the observance. One is to the effect that the President of the United States should not leave the United States during his term in office, a thing, however, which has been done. Another concerns the election of a President for more than two con- secutive terms, a feat which has of the United States he desires and cannot be compelled by any power, other than that of public opinion, to remain in Washington or attend to business ! He can take a vacation every day in the year if he wants and no one can call him to account save the House of Representatives by impeachment proceedings. The President of the United States is an extraordinarily busy man. Just how busy it is almost impossible for the uninitiated to appreciate. While it is perfectly possible for 472 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES any citizen of the United States who has business with the President to see him, it is not possible for even a Senator or a member of the Cab- inet to walk in upon the President uninvited. It is necessary for any one having business with the Presi- dent to make an engagement in ad- vance. At the beginning of every business day a slip of paper headed "The President's Engagements" is laid before the President showing THE PRESIDENTS ENGAGEMENTS Thursday, Fobruary 25, 1915. .. * r K>:25 a.m. Rep. SaaU and eeaber* of Carolina dologatior.. 10:30 a.o. Rep. Oudgor. 10:40 a.u. Rep. UUcholl. 10:45 a.m. Hop. Stevens of KSH h ft): 50 a.m. Rep. Die.kinaor. of iJis 15:55 a. a. Rep. Hill of Illinois r Rep. Raker. 'V il:50 a.o. Rep. Portor. t/ll;55 a.o. Rep. Helvering. '^l^OO Noon. Rep. Viraor. o( Georgia. 12:30 p.m. 12:45 p.u. exactly what he has or his secre- tary has agreed he shall do with his time. Such a Presidential en- gagement slip is reproduced here- with, and shows that from 10:25 A. M. to 12:45 P. M., which is shortly before lunch, the President has en- gaged to see and talk with sixteen different people. As a matter of fact, twenty-four hours is all too short for any Presi- dent to get through the hundreds of routine and thousands of official matters which require his attention daily. No President has ever abused the confidence of the American peo- ple. All have been extremely hard- working men who took vacations and laid down their work only when their health absolutely required it. For the job of being President of the United States is perhaps the hardest individual piece of work which any man can possibly do and the reward of $75,000 a year and $25,000 for traveling expenses is far smaller than the responsibility of the position should demand. When it is considered that there are sev- eral men in this country drawing a salary of one million dollars a year or more for commercial work and any number of railroad presidents and presidents of corporations whose salaries exceed that of the President of the United States, it can well be understood how the principal emolu- ments of the office of Chief Execu- tive are found in the honor and glory of directing the destinies of the greatest nation in the world, and not in any material reward which the position may bring. Outside the White House, the per- son of the President is always guarded with Secret Service at- tendants. If he goes to the theater which the present occupant of the White House does often he has, of course, his own box. Somewhere near are the Secret Service men, who precede him to the box and watch it from the rear and from the audience. If the President goes automobiling, a huge Secret Service car with U. S. S. S. on the rear, follows him. When out on the high- road, no car passes the Secret Ser- vice car and the White House car from the rear. If the President happens to want to travel at fifteen miles an hour, he may come into the city at the head of a proces- sion of a hundred cars, all of them anxious to pass, but none of them able to get by the Secret Service car, the crew of whicii is taking ss THE PRESIDENT THE EXECUTIVE 473 chances with the crank who might annoy, or worse, the President of the United States. The public reception a relic of days when visitors to the Nation's Capitol were few and far between is one of the trials of a President's life. He must learn to be more than expert in his greeting, or he will have a hand and arm incapaci- tated for work by the too cordial grasps of his admirers. Indeed, often in small receptions to a visit- ing delegation or convention, at- tendants will quietly pass the word and request all visitors to be careful not to grip the President's hand hard. Perhaps no President who ever shook hands with five thousand people in an afternoon had this mat- ter down to a finer science than President Roosevelt, whose method of shaking hands left the visitor nothing to do but grin and bear it; the firm and sudden grip was, of course, self-preservative. The President, nominally the head of Washington society, has little time for gayety, and the White House is not normally the scene of enter- tainment. Of course, official recep- tions to the Cabinet, and to members of Congress and to the Diplomatic Corps are necessary and frequent oc- currences, but as a rule our Presi- dents have been too busy to indulge in those formal and elaborate func- tions more characteristic of older countries than one which is largely built on the idea of the value of time. The President of the United States, in addition to his numerous duties as Chief Magistrate, finds time to be also President of the American Red Cross, ex-offlcio Pres- ident of the Washington National Monument Society, patron ex-offlcio of the Columbia Institution for the Deaf, a Member of the Smithsonian Institution, Chairman of the Arling- ton Memorial Bridge Commission and member of the Commission on Memorial to Women of the Civil War. THE WHITE HOUSE No nation in the world with any pretensions to size or importance houses its king, potentate, emperor, czar or president as poorly as the United States provides for its Chief Executive, and probably not until the Executive Mansion or White House crumbles to dust or burns to the ground will this condition be remedied. No President likes to say that what was good enough for Washington and Lincoln and Mc- Kinley is not good enough for him. President Roosevelt had the courage to add two \ving-like structures to the White House, the one for the accommodation of visitors at the great White House receptions, the other to accommodate executive of- fices, clerks, files, etc., but with this exception the White House stands to-day what it has been for many yearns, a residence not comparable in size, beauty, convenience or utility with a dozen private residences in the Capitol City and thousands throughout the land. Built of Virginia freestone, and painted white since 1814 to conceal the marks of the fire w T hich de- stroyed it when the British worked their will with the then struggling capital, the White House is to-day what it has always been a two story structure but 170 feet long and 86 feet deep. It is beautiful with the beauty of simplicity ; designed by James Hoban from the home of the Duke of Leinster near Dublin, it has architecturally satisfying lines, and the great portico with Ionic columns is not unimpressive. Moreover, the house is modernized inside, and has, of course, all modern conveniences of light, heat, ventila- tion, convenient kitchens, laundries, garage, servants' quarters, etc. But the fact remains that it is a relic of an age when the Government of the United States was on trial, when the tide which receded from the pomp and royalty of the mother country ran far up on the shores of sim- plicity and plain living, and that Photos Harris & Ewing State Dining Room The East Room Garden Facade THE WHITE "HOUSE The President's Desk THE PRESIDENT THE EXECUTIVE 475 it is all out of keeping with the won- derful buildings now being con- structed for the Government, and built by it for its own use in times past It is almost laughable to think of a two million dollar memorial to Lincoln who so loved simplicity and a shelter provided for the exist- ing chief magistrate which would be dear at almost any price! The White House is beautifully sit- uated in extensive grounds, with a private and fenced-in park of its own to the rear as well as in front, in which are to be found many shade trees, plants of all sorts, fountains, a tennis court, etc. The White House is open to visi- tors at certain times, and any one can see the President who has a real reason for wanting to see him. But he is well guarded from an- noyance or the mere seeker for sen- sation, and no one gets to him with- out running a gauntlet of guard, and clerk and secretary. CHAPTER IV. THE CABINET IN the Cabinet deliberations the President is both morally and legally supreme. While the Cabinet of the United States has no legal ex- istence as such it has by custom become an integral part of the United States Government. The Constitution says that the President has the power to "require the opinion in writing of the principal officer in each of the Executive De- partments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices." Later on, it says, "The Congress may by law vest the ap- pointment of such inferior officers as they deem proper in the Presi- dent alone, in the courts of law or the heads of the Departments." That is all the Constitution says of what is generally called the Cabinet. However, the President's choice of the heads of the various Depart- ments of the United States is rare- ly, if ever, questioned by the Sen- ate, it being recognized that he has the right to call to his assistance men in whose judgment and wis- dom he has confidence and with whom he can work and advise to the benefit of the country at large. When the Cabinet meets, the President sits at the head of the table and the various cabinet mem- bers around it in the order of their seniority. It is generally supposed that questions are submitted to the Cabinet first for discussion and later that the Cabinet officers vote upon them. Such, of course, is not the case. The Cabinet acts in an advisory capacity only and has no power over the President in any way whatsoever. There is a story, probably apocryphal, of General Grant, who, when he and his Cab- inet disagreed as to a certain policy, offered to put the matter to a vote. The President is reported to have called upon his Cabinet members in turn, beginning with the Secretary of State, As each Cabinet member's name was called, he is said to have answered "Aye." When the Presi- dent had finished he called his own name and gravely responded "No." Then he said to the assembled Cab- inet officers, "There are seven votes in the affirmative and one in the negative and," here President Grant paused, "the negative vote is in the majority." Whereupon the Presi- dent did as he had intended to do all along in spite of the advice of his officers ! In the event of any serious disa- greement between a Cabinet officer and the President there is only one course open and that is a resigna- tion. Historic instances will occur to many. What is not so generally known, however, is that some Cab- inet officers have to be asked to re- sign. Sometimes the asking is out- right, as in a story told of Grant who made one of his Cabinet offi- cers sit down at his own desk and dictated his resignation for him, and sometimes it is more gentle, as in the case of President McKinley and Secretary of War Alger. There was difference of opinion between Presi- dent McKinley and his Secretary of War, and it is understood that it was not until a very vigorous hint had been given by those close Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 478 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES to the President that Mr. Alger saw the light and tendered his resigna- tion. The case of Mr. Ballinger is fresh in the public mind and stu- dents of politics, at least, will not need to be reminded that this gentle- man stayed in office for some time after there was a decided degree of friction between him and the Chief Magistrate of the land. The President has a personal sec- retary, who in turn has many as- sistants. The job of being private secretary to the President of the United States is not, as one might think, that of an amanuensis. Ra- ther has the office the dignity of a personal cabinet officer. The sec- retary to the President of the United States must be a man of great tact, ready memory, and have an able grasp upon political affairs. He is the one man about him whom the President must be in a position to trust absolutely, and the character of the many gentlemen who have held this office has been well shown by their future careers. INSULAR AFFAIRS ADMIRAL OF THE NAVY 2E3SSffl<2! KCUT/VE) THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. ARCHITECT EXCISE SEtYERS ASSESSOR FIRE OCfT STREETS AUOITOa HEALTH STCLCAHIM6 CHARITY INSPECTS SURVEYOR COUNSEL POLICE TREES COLLECTOR SCHOOLS WATER DEFT PUBLIC UTILITIES COMMISSION ORGANIZATION OF THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT Prepared by Mr. W. I. Swanton, Assistant Engineer U. S. B. S. CHAPTER V. THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE THE following brief notes rep- resent the abridgment of a ninety-two page pamphlet, prepared by the direction of the Secretary of State, which shows the enormous condensation nec- essary in a work of this kind. Vice-President die, the Secretary of State would become President. This really makes him the "Premier," al- though there is no official sanction for the title. The act of July 27, 1789, created an executive department, to be Photo by Harris & Ewing THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES Separate written authority from the President must accompany his signed document before the Seal can be impressed The Department of State is of par- ticular interest, in view of the fact that, after the Vice-President, the Secretary of State is the ranking of- ficial of the Government. In other known as the Department of For- eign Affairs. By the act of Sep- tember 15, 1789, the name of the department was changed to that of the Department of State, the princi- ' words, should both the President and pal officer thereof to be called the Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 480 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Secretary of State, and provision was made for the safe-keeping of the acts, records, and seal of the United States. THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA The Department of State looks ask- ance at any reproduction of the Great Seal and will never sanction its publi- cation or use, but it will be found iu cyclopedias, dictionaries and atlases. So its publication here needs no apology, although a request to make a cut of a passport was denied the writer largely because the Great Seal was shown on it. When properly understood the seal should have the same respect as the flag. A committee was appointed on July 4, 1776, to prepare a Great Seal. posed to represent Congress. This all symbolizes the union and strength of the States preserved through the aid of Congress. The olive branch in the "dex- ter" talon represents peace, while the "sinister" talon holds thirteen arrows. In his beak is a scroll with the motto, "E Pluribus Unum" (one unity composed of many parts). What is above is called the "crest," but it is not really a crest at all, because the stars could not be tangibly represented as in na- ture, and attached to the top of a hel- met, or could reasonably be represented as' resting on a shield. The reverse, which has never been cut, consists of an unfinished pyramid. In the zenith is an eye in a triangle surrounded by a glory. On the base of the pyramid are the letters, "MDCCLXXVI," and underneath the motto, "NOVU8 ORDO SECLORUM" (a new series of ages), while above is THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES The members were Benjamin Franklin. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Sev- eral excellent designs were submitted, but Congress was not satisfied, so an- other committee was appointed com- posed of Messrs. Middleton, Boudinot and Rutledge, and finally, on June 20, 1782, the Great Seal, as we now know, was adopted. It must be admitted that the heraldry is a little mixed, as might be supposed of the sturdy Americans who were far removed from the Heralds' College. A heraldic interpretation is dry and uninteresting, but in brief the sense is about as follows : The Ameri- can Eagle bears on his breast an es- cutcheon composed of thirteen bars, sup- porting top, or a "chief," which is sup- the motto, "ANNUIT COEPTIS" (God has favored the Undertaking). The origin of "E PLURIBUS UNUM" is shrouded in mystery and is variously ascribed to Virgil and others. In the early days the Secretary of State was charged with a multitude of duties, for under him all patents were issued; but in 1849, the work of the Patent Office was turned over to the Department of the Interior. Copyrights were also under the direction of the Secretary of State, but in 1850 it was transferred to another department. The census en- 482 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES RECORDS OF THE FIRST CENSUS OF 1780 MADE BY THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE ARE STILL IN EXISTENCE umeration was also under the charge of the Secretary of State in the early days. Certain matters relating to pardons were also under his juris- diction, but in 1893 President Cleve- land transferred such work to the Department of Justice. In 1856 a law was passed providing that the Secretary of State should be author- ized to grant and issue passports, and to cause them to be granted and verified in foreign countries by dip- lomatic and consular officers, under such rules as the President might prescribe. What might be called the organic THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 4S3 law, indicating the duties of the Sec- retary of State, is comprised in Sec- tion 202 of the Revised Statutes, reading as follows: "The Secretary of State shall per- form such duties as shall from time to time be enjoined on or intrusted to him by the President relative to correspon- dences, commissions, or instructions to or with public ministers or consuls from the United States, or to negotiations with public ministers from foreign States or princes, or to memorials or other applications from foreign public ministers or other foreigners, or to such other matters respecting foreign affairs as the President of the United States shrll assign to the department, and ho shall conduct the business of the de partment in such manner as the Presi- dent shall direct: Provided, That the Secretary of State may prescribe duties for the Assistant Secretaries, the soli- citor, not interfering with his duties as an officer of the Department of Justice, and the clerks of bureaus, as well as for all the other employees in the de- partment, and may make changes and transfers therein when, in his judgment, it becomes necessary. (June 20, 1874, vol. 18, p. 90.)" By the act of February 3, 1887, the Secretary of State was charged with the duty of certifying to the two Houses of Congress, and with the publication in some newspaper, of the Presidential election returns. Among the other duties of the Sec- retary of State might be mentioned the communication and correspon- dence of the President with the gov- ernors of the States and the attesta- tion of all presidential proclama- tions, together with the publication of the laws and the Statutes at Large in the United States, em- bracing all acts of Congress, all proclamations issued by the Presi- dent, all treaties between the United States and foreign nations, includ- ing postal conventions, and all con- current resolutions of the two Houses of Congress. The compensation of the Secretary of State, under the act of September 11, 1789, was $3,500; under the act of February 20, 1819, it was raised to $6,000; in 1853, increased to $8,000; and under the act of March 4, 1911, increased to $12,000. In 1909 the question of reorganiza- tion was taken up, and it was found necessary to modernize and other- wise make for efficiency. This was caused by a number of reasons. The foreign trade of the country had been growing at an enormous extent. The people, endeavoring to market their manufactured products abroad, found themselves engaged in com- petition with the highly developed industries of England, France, Ger- many, and other countries; they were brought face to face, not only with the questions of tariffs and customs administration, but also with the need of that measure of diplomatic and consular support en- joyed by their competitors. The war with Spain had marked a new epoch in the history of Ameri- can foreign relations. The American people, after having been regarded for many years as a stay-at-home nation, absorbed in the development of their own resources, had sudden- ly been recognized to have assumed a new position among nations, so that it would be thenceforth impos- sible for this Government to escape the responsibilities of being one of the great forces in international af- fairs, and of taking a more promi- nent part in discussions and delib- erations concerning matters of in- ternational importance. Consequently the Department of State had been called upon to deal with a multitude of questions with which, before the Spanish war, it had not been concerned. The Hague conferences, the adjustment of boun- daries and other questions between the United States and Mexico and Canada, the arbitration of disputed questions with Canada and other nations, the negotiation of treaties to meet new conditions arising from the growth of the foreign interests of our people, the efforts of the United States to improve the condi- tions in Central America, the con- stantly increasing number of ques- tions arising from the development of Mexico, and the adjustment of 484 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES difficulties and protection of the in- terests of nearly 40,000 of our citi- zens who had temporarily taken up their residence and invested nearly $1,000,000,000 of American money in that country, the reorganization and improvement of the Diplomatic and Consular Services, and the increas- ing demand of the public upon those organizations all these things and others had thrown upon the Depart- ment of State a mass of correspond- ence and a great number of questions for determination or discussion en- tirely beyond its ability to treat efficiently with the then existing equipment. Every immigrant coming to this country, and every American going to a foreign country, increases, in one way or another, the possibility of work for the Department of State. The inadequacy of the force of the Department became critical, and a tentative reorganization of the De- partment upon modern lines, with a view to a maximum degree of effi- ciency, was then effected. The Secretary of State is peculiar- ly the adviser of the President, es- pecially those points involving broad questions of general policy, and the Secretary of State is also responsible for the conduct of foreign relations, and, in addition to the time required for the study of important diplomatic questions, he receives the represen- tatives of foreign governments for the discussion of diplomatic business and is in touch with matters affect- ing treaties with the Committee on Foreign Relations of the Senate. The Assistant Secretary, who receives a salary of $5,000 a year, does not specialize, but must be prepared to be in close touch with all the larger questions of foreign policy, and re- lieve the Secretary, as far as pos- sible, of a portion of the general work. This is a very responsible position in the Department. The Second Assistant Secretary is assigned to the detailed treatment by the departmental and diplomatic services of current diplomatic and political questions, except such spe- cial matters as may, from time to time, be assigned the Counselor. It is his duty to direct the activities of all the bureaus and divisions in re- spect to the diplomatic questions that are constantly arising all over the world, and to examine and ap- prove the correspondence in respect to such matters prepared for the signature of the Secretary or the Acting Secretary. His salary is $4,- 500 a year. The administrative direction of the Diplomatic Service, as distin- guished from the treatment of sub- jects of international intercourse, is delegated to the Third Assistant Secretary of State. He is responsi- ble for the maintenance, upkeep, and expenditures for that service. He also directs the treatment of all questions in relation to international congresses, conferences, commissions, expositions, and ceremonial matters, and has the supervision of the Di- vision of Western European Affairs. He is charged with the approval or disapproval of expenditures of pub- lic moneys in the department and the foreign service. His salary is $4,500 a year. The administration of the Con- sular Service and the direction of its activities in connection with the pro- motion and extension of our foreign commerce is delegated to the Direc- tor of the Consular Service, who has immediate control of expenditures for the maintenance of that organi- zation. He is also charged with the study and treatment of such special subjects as may, from time to time, be assigned to him by the Secretary and the Assistant Secre- tary of State. He also receives $4,500 per annum. The Chief Clerk has the direction of the internal business of the de- partment, of the clerical force, the methods of transacting business, in- cluding the receipt and transmission of mail, the purchase of supplies, etc. His compensation is $3,000 a year. THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 485 Generally speaking, the questions of law, international or municipal, which may be involved in the de- termination of matters brought be- fore the department, are referred to the Solicitor's office. The result is, that the scope of the work coming before the office is very broad, in- cluding questions of constitutional law, admiralty law, criminal law, the law of torts, contracts, etc., and, of course, all branches and fields of international law. The more im- portant of the matters which actual- ly come before the office for determ- ination are as follows : Diplomatic claims International extraditions Citizenship, naturalization, expatria- tion, passports, etc. Extraterritoriality and the jurisdiction of ambassadors, ministers, or consular courts Neutrality, belligerency, contraband, asylum, etc. International arbitrations Distribution of awards There are also seven chiefs of bureaus as follows : Accounts and disbursing clerk Appointments Citizenship Consular Diplomatic Indexes and archives Rolls and library The affairs of the department are also handled by Chiefs of Divisions, for Far Eastern affairs Information Latin-American affairs Mexican affairs Near Eastern affairs Western European affairs There are also translators, as- sistant solicitors, law clerks, private and confidential secretaries, as well as dispatch agents in New York, San Francisco, New Orleans and London. In the Bureau of Rolls and Li- brary are contained some of the most valuable documents concern- ing our history, including the Declar- ation of Independence, Continental Congress records, and historical manuscripts of all kinds. OUR CONSULAR SERVICE many years it has been the custom for Americans to ridi- cule the American Consular Service, holding up to scorn the comic opera creation who held the center of the stage with his palm- leaf fan and slow drawl as the pro- totype of a consular officer. In the distant past there may have been an occasional officer who lived down to this popular conception, but it is so no longer. The modern Consular Service had its inception in the days of Grover Cleveland, although it was Theodore Roosevelt who put it upon its pres- ent firm, non-political and non-par- tisan basis, with merit and merit only as the cause for advancement. Since then it has grown in efficiency and size until to-day it is unrivaled. In the past good results from the Consular Service were infrequent because of the method of appoint- ment of consular officers without re- gard to their particular fitness for the places to which they were sent, or as the former Secretary of State, Mr. Root, expressed it, "The placing of round pegs in square holes." Since 1896, when the first order pro- viding for an examination before appointment went into effect, the Service has been strengthened and improved until those who knew it in the old days can no longer recog- nize it. Men who pass an examination for a Consular position to-day have to know a variety of things and know them well. Examinations are both oral and written, the two .counting equally. The oral examination de- termines the candidate's business ability, alertness, general contem- porary information, and natural fit- OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES IN CONGRESS, Jray*. , 7J f. --&^.,^,~^*~^AU^ xtdL^ . iJL. -~t~~ .^L*/~^ i-^*,^., *////Z--i- x^. JKj***J& ^JUt-iS-rA^, A -.**<(--*--, ..A, /, . ^ /.,./.,. ^rty^/tlL***^^^.,/-.*/-^*,*.. G4UmuiMAU4MiAA. ^c^fauf-AZZ-j^ S3uZ2-^-fc^C-x?^lZZZ^5i5^ Mdl(^CwAy>A4^ .fcgZ^. /<* X- ^ciy ~~*m~^~> &,*(< A.4., M/., ..... /^../<~^- **,. /^y* ^> 4*"^" +**^~~~~~-* Jti..,;J.*m~-~. ^^*~^M~^^--^f~.j^tii^jti~tA*,. 4^4^*^.^y2^.^~^,^~L-~^#~ THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 487 ": *r &: II tr*ffv: : si : . B: * ; i i I i i 23;?* ||.OU II :!:: 5 i 5 **.!:; : o: r. : 3? 5 ^.: : ;:: P E: : P: : : : : : 2": : : : : : f: ; i 8 1 ?: : I LL": : L: : M ^ ::' vj Bi i I i : ::!::'::': i :":!:: H: : :i I = '^ !::: : 92.IS>: : liLaiSw: : ^SL,: : |: aS!^: : : g>: SSi^: JSS-SSi^ic: sj^: SSS gplli^ll^lPpgii^gggl^o^g^pgiip^glilPl^gJIglES ^ 4*. 00 M ^- Jf - t*O S^-picOW S- - ^Co^H-ytoa S^pSco-k 488 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ness for the service, including moral, mental and physical qualifications, character, address and general edu- cation and good command of Eng- lish. The written examination in- cludes French, German or Spanish; the natural, industrial and commer- cial resources and the commerce of the United States, especially with reference to possibilities of increas- ing and extending the foreign trade of the United States ; political econ- omy and the elements of interna- tional, commercial and maritime law, American history, government and institutions; political and com- mercial geography; arithmetic (as used in commercial statistics, tariff calculations, exchange, accounts, etc.) ; the modern history, since 1850, of Europe, Latin-America and the Far East, with particular atten- tion to political, commercial and eco- nomic tendencies. After passing a stiff examination and getting an appointment, young consular officers go to school in Washington, at a "model consulate" in' the Consular Bureau at the State Department. Every newly appointed consul is required to proceed to Washington and spend at least thirty days in this school learning just what he will be expected to do when he reaches his post, and how he may get the best results from whatever conditions confront him. Although this special form of training has been in force but a comparatively short time it is showing its good effect by the improvement in the work and reports of the consular officers, and by the attitude of appreciation and understanding of their duties which the consuls dis- play as a result of the instructions. A consular officer has no duty of greater importance than that of service to his countrymen. The splendid service rendered by United States consular officers in the field of the great war now raging is well known, and none of the unfortunates who were helped in Berlin, London, Paris and Belgium by our Consuls General, consuls and consular agents will ever forget the service they received. Some of the accompany- ing pictures show how great was the pressure on the consulates of the great neutral nation in the countries at war, where citizens of the enemy clamored for help, relief, passports, and the hundred and one things that only a trained, hard working and disinterested staff could do. Important as such services are, they are, luckily, not often required. Nor is the gathering and transmit- tal of commercial information, im- portant though that duty is, the whole work of a consular officer. Only when reading a list of his duties is it easy to comprehend why those who fill such positions must be highly educated and alert men. For instance, a consular officer must maintain and promote all in- terests of American citizens. He is required to protect them in all privileges provided by treaty or con- ceded by usage; to vis6 and, when so authorized, to issue passports; when permitted by treaty, law or usage, to take charge of and settle the personal estates of Americans who may die abroad, without legal or other representatives, and remit the proceeds to the Treasury in case they are not called for by a legal representative within one year ; to ship, discharge, and, under certain conditions, maintain and send Amer- ican seamen to the United States ; to settle disputes between masters and seamen of American vessels ; to investigate charges of mutiny or in- subordination on the high seas and send mutineers to the United States for trial ; to render assistance in the case of wrecked or stranded Amer- ican vessels, and, in the absence of the master or other qualified per- son, take charge of the wrecks and cargoes, if permitted to do so by the laws of the country ; to receive the papers of American vessels arriving at foreign ports and deliver them after the discharge of the obliga- tions of the vessels toward the mem- bers of their crews, and upon the production of clearances from tlie 490 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES proper foreign port officials; to cer- tify to the correctness of the valua- tion of merchandise exported to the United States where the shipment amounts to more than $100; to act as official witnesses to marriages of American citizens abroad ; to aid in the enforcement of the immigration laws, and to certify to the correct- ness of the certificates issued by Chinese and other officials to Chi- nese persons coming to the United States ; to protect the health of our seaports by reporting weekly the sanitary and health conditions of the port at which he resides, and by issuing to vessels clearing for the United States bills of health describ- ing the condition of the ports, the vessels, crews, passengers and car- goes; and to take depositions and perform other acts which public notaries in the United States are authorized or required to perform. In addition to the foregoing du- ties, consular officers in China, Tur- key, Siam, Muskat, Morocco, and a few other so-called non-Christian countries, are invested with judicial powers over American citizens in those countries. These powers are usually denned by treaty, but gen- erally include the trial of civil cases to which Americans are parties, and in some instances extend to the trial of criminal cases. The service now employs about 1,700 people. The principal officers and their compensations are as follows : Consuls General Consul General of Class 1 $12,000 Consul General of Class 2 8,000 Consul General of Class 3 6,000 Consul General of Class 4 5,500 Consul General of Class 5 4,500 Consuls Consul of Class 1 $8,000 Consul of Class 2 6,000 Consul of Class 3 5,000 Consul of Class 4 4,500 Consul of Class 5 4,000 Consul of Class 6 3,500 Consul of Class 7 3,000 Consul of Class 8 2,500 Consul of Class 9 2,000 At present there are 241 consuls in the nine classes. The consular officer in London, Paris or Berlin lives a busy, active and civilized life. The consular of- ficer in some small place in a semi- civilized country may have little to do and no amusement. But in either event he is a willing servant of his country and doing for it a work beyond computation in price, al- though it is a fact that fees col- lected for the multitudinous serv- ices he renders almost equal the cost of the service. All fees received by any officer in the consular service for services ren- dered in connection with the duties of his office or as a consular officer, including fees for notarial services, and fees for taking depositions, exe- cuting commissions or letters roga- tory, settling estates, receiving or paying out moneys, caring for or disposing of property, are paid into the Treasury of the United States. The only compensation of officers is their salaries, except in the case of consular agents. Consular agents are paid oe half of the fees re- ceived in their offices, up to a maxi- mum sum of one thousand dollars in any one year, the other half being paid into the Treasury. The fees collected do not nearly equal the expenditures of the serv- ice. Fees for a deposition may run to $100, depending on its length. The illustrations on page 481 show two types of consulates in far coun- tries the handsome residence at Cairo, Egypt, contrasted with the mud-roof dwelling in far off Tur- key. But the type of dwelling makes little difference to its occupant he is there to serve, to open the mar- kets of his country to American manufacturers, and to serve Amer- icans in need or in distress. In- deed, he does more than serve his own countrymen not infrequently he serves the merchants of the coun- try to which he is sent. The Consular Reports public documents published from the let- ters sent in to the Consular Bureau of the State Department contain vital information regarding trade THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 491 conditions in all countries. How valuable these are was well brought out recently in a published inter- view with the president of the Shef- field (England) Chamber of Com- merce. It seems that certain Shef- field manufacturers had sudden need to know the sources and distribution throughout the world of wolfram ore, from which tungsten, essential in the manufacture of high-resist- ance steel for guns and armor, is made. The president of the Cham- ber of Commerce was unable to locate the information he desired from British sources. In his inter- view he said: "It was suggested that I would find 1i in the reports of American consuls, did find it there. I discovered where wolfram was produced ; the quality, state of the trade and amount avail- able. That information assisted ma- terially in bringing about the manufac- ture of tungsten powder in this country, which, although started during the war, has been a magnificent success and will be a great success after the war." The Director of the Consular Service, Mr. Wilbur J. Carr, who has risen from the ranks in his twenty years of service, called at- tention recently to a unique feature of America's system, which is one reason why it is so efficient. This is the system of inspection. Speak- ing of it, Mr. Carr said: "In this field we have been pioneers. The law of 1906 created five so-called consul generals at large. Each travels over a grand division of the world, in- specting- each consular office once every two years. The Department of State is enabled by this means not only to detect and rectify irregularities in the work of individual consuls, but to en- force uniformity of method and organ- ization. If a consular officer in a far- off corner of the globe, by inspiration or careful thought evolves an improved method of performing some routine duty or discovers a new and effective way by which the foreign trade of the United States may be promoted, this is discov- ered by the inspector on his next visit and if found good in every way, com- municated to the Department of State, and by it to the other consuls at large, with the result that all which is best in individual offices and in the practices of individual officers becomes eventually the common property of the service. Other governments recognize the prac- tical value of this inspection system. Great Britain has undertaken something analogous in a tentative way and the French foreign office has a like project under consideration." OFFICIAL DUTIES SECRETARY OF STATE The Secretary of State is charged, under the direction of the President, with the duties appertaining to corre- spondence with the public ministers and the consuls of the United States, and with the representatives of foreign pow- ers accredited to the United States ; and to negotiations of whatever character relating to the foreign affairs of the United States. He is also the medium of correspondence between the President and the chief executives of the several States of the United States ; he has the custody of the Great Seal of the United States, and countersigns and affixes such seal to all Executive proclamations, to .various commissions, and to warrants for the extradition of fugitives from justice. He is regarded as the first in rank among the members of the Cabinet. He is also the custodian of the treaties made with foreign states, and of the laws of the United States. He grants and issues passports, and exequaturs to foreign consuls in the United States are issued through his office. He publishes the laws and resolutions of Congress, amendments to the Constitution, and proclamations declaring the admission of new States into the Union. COUNSELOR The Counselor becomes the Acting Secretary of State in the absence of the Secretary. He is charged with the su- pervision of such matters and the prep- aration of such correspondence as may he assigned to him by the Secretary. ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE Under the organization of the depart- ment the Assistant Secretary, Second Assistant Secretary and Third Assistant Secretary are charged with the super- vision of all correspondence with the diplomatic and consular officers, and are intrusted with the preparation of the correspondence upon any questions aris- ing in the course of the public business that may be assigned to them by the Secretary. DIRECTOR OF THE CONSULAR SERVICE The Director of the Consular Service is charged with the general supervision of the Consular Service and such other 492 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES duties as may be assigned to him from time to time by the Secretary. CHIEF CLERK The Chief Clerk has general super- vision of the clerks and employees and of departmental matters ; charge of the property of the department. FOREIGN TRADE ADVISER General supervision of foreign trade matters ; diplomatic and consular corre- spondence and miscellaneous correspond- ence relating thereto. DIPLOMATIC BUREAU Diplomatic correspondence and miscel- laneous correspondence relating thereto. DIVISION OF LATIN-AMERICAN AFFAIRS Diplomatic and consular correspond- ence, on matters other than those of an administrative character, in relation to Central America, Panama, South Amer- ica and the West Indies. DIVISION OF MEXICAN AFFAIRS Diplomatic and consular correspond- ence, on matters other than those of an administrative character, in relation to Mexico. DIVISION OF FAR EASTERN AFFAIRS Diplomatic and consular correspond- ence, on matters other than those of an administrative character, in relation to Japan, China, and leased territories, Siberia, Hong-kong, French Indo-China, Siam, Straits Settlements, Borneo, East Indies, India, and in general the Far East. DIVISION OF NEAR EASTERN AFFAIRS Diplomatic and consular correspond- ence, on matters other than those of an administrative character, in relation to Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Rou- mania, Servia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Abyssinia, Persia, Egypt, and colonies belonging to coun- tries of this series. DIVISION OF WESTERN EUROPEAN AFFAIRS Diplomatic and consular correspond- ence, on matters other than those of an administrative character, in relation to Great Britain (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and British colonies not else- where enumerated), Portugal, Spain, France, Morocco, Belgium, the Kongo, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, the Neth- erlands, Luxemburg, Denmark and Liberia. CONSULAR BUREAU Consular correspondence and miscel- laneous correspondence relating thereto, and administrative matters relating to the consular service. BUREAU OF APPOINTMENTS Custody of the Great Seal and appli- cations for office, and the preparation of commissions, exequaturs, warrants of extradition, Departmental Register, dip- lomatic and consular lists and consular bonds ; correspondence and other matters regarding entrance examinations for the foreign service. BUREAU OF CITIZENSHIP Examination of applications for pass- ports, issuance of passports and authen- tications ; receiving and filing duplicates of evidence, registration, etc., under act of March 2, 1907, in reference to ex- patriation of citizens and their protec- tion abroad ; keeping of necessary rec- ords thereunder ; conduct of correspond- ence in relation to. the foregoing. BUREAU OF INDEXES AND ARCHIVES Recording and indexing the general correspondence of the department; charge of the archives. BUREAU OF ACCOUNTS Custody and disbursement of appro- priations and indemnity funds, and cor- respondence relating thereto. BUREAU OF ROLLS AND LIBRARY Custody of the rolls, treaties, etc. ; promulgation of the laws, treaties, Ex- ecutive orders and proclamations ; care and superintendence of the library and public documents ; care of papers relat- ing to international commissions. DIVISION OF INFORMATION The preparation and distribution to the foreign service of diplomatic, com- mercial and other correspondence and documents important to their informa- tion upon foreign relations ; editing "Foreign Relations" of the United States. OFFICE OF THE LAW CLERK Editing and indexing the laws, resolu- tions, public treaties and proclamations for publication in the Statutes at Large. SUPERINTENDENT OF BUILDING The superintendent of the State, War and Navy Department Building is the executive officer of the commission created by Congress, consisting of the Secretaries of State, War and Navy, for the government of this building. He has charge of, care, preservation, repairing, warming, ventilating, lighting and clean- ing of the building, grounds and ap- proaches, and disburses the special ap- propriations for this purpose ; he has charge of all the employees of the build- ing proper, and appoints them by direc- tion of the Secretaries. CHAPTER VI. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY T! Secre- tary of the Treasury is charged by law with the manage- ment of the na- tional finances. He prepares plans for the improve- ment of the reven- ue and for the support of the public credit ; superintends the collection of the revenue, and directs the forms of keeping and rendering public ac- counts and of making returns; grants warrants for all moneys drawn from the Treasury in pur- suance of appropriations made by law, and for the payment of moneys into the Treasury ; and annually submits to Congress estimates of the probable revenues and disburse- ments of the Government. He con- trols the construction and main- THE TREASURY BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. 0. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 494 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES tenance of public buildings, the coinage and printing of money, the administration of the Coast Guard and the Public Health branches of the public service. He is ex-offlcio chairman of the Federal Reserve Board created by act approved De- cember 23, 1913, known as the "Federal Reserve Act." There are three Assistant Secre- taries in charge of the bureaus and divisions of the Treasury Depart- ment. One has charge of Public Health Service, Supervising Archi- tect's Office, the selection of sites for public buildings, Coast Guard, Ap- pointment Division, General Supply Committee, Section of Surety Bonds and all unassigned business of the Department. To the Assistant Secretary in charge of fiscal bureaus is assigned general supervision of all matters relating to the Office of the Comp- troller of the Currency, the Office of the Treasurer of the United States, the Bureau of Internal Reve- nue, the Bureau of the Mint, the Office of the Comptroller of the Treasury, the Auditors of the sev- eral departments, the Register of the Treasury, the Bureau of En- graving and Printing, the Division of Bookkeeping and Warrants, the Division of Loans and Currency, the Division of Mail and Files, the Divi- sion of Printing and Stationery, the Division of Public Moneys, the Se- cret-Service Division, the Federal Farm Loan Board, and the Office of the Disbursing Clerk. To the Assistant Secretary in charge of customs is assigned the general supervision of the Division of Customs, of all matters pertain- ing to the Customs Service, and the Bureau of War-Risk Insurance, as referred to later on. CHIEF CLERK The chief clerk is the chief ex- ecutive officer of the Secretary, and, under the direction of the Secretary and Assistant Secretaries, is charged with the enforcement of depart- mental regulations general in their nature; is by law superintendent of the Treasury Building and other re- lated buildings and rolling stock belonging to the department; the direction of engineers, watchmen, firemen, etc., connected with the maintenance and protection of the Treasury buildings, etc. ; the ex- penditure of appropriations for con- tingent expenses ; the administrative control of appropriations made for Government exhibits at various ex- positions; the supervision and gen- eral administration of the General Supply Committee ; handles offers in compromise cases ; the custody of the records, files and library of the Secretary's office ; the custody of all sites for proposed buildings in Washington; the checking of all mail relating to the personnel of the Treasury Department ; the handling of requests for certified copies of official papers, and the charge of all business of the Secretary's office which is not otherwise assigned. COMPTROLLER OF THE CURRENCY The Comptroller of the Currency is the chief officer of that bureau of the Treasury Department which is charged with the execution of all laws passed by Congress relating to the issue and regulation of the na- tional currency, generally known as national bank notes, secured by United States bonds ; and under the supervision of the Federal Reserve Board is also in charge of the issue of circulating notes to Federal Re- serve banks. In addition to these powers the Comptroller exercises general super- vision over all national banks throughout the United States, in- cluding Alaska and Hawaii, in the matter of their organization and regulation. He is vested with the power to appoint receivers and to enforce penalties prescribed for DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 495 SEPARATING CHARRED BANK BILLS violations of the national bank act. Under the Federal Reserve act he executed and issued the certificates or charters for the Federal Reserve banks. The Comptroller of the Cur- rency is ex officio a member of the Federal Reserve Board. Reports of condition of all na- tional banks are made to the Comp- troller not less frequently than five times a year, by the banks, and also periodically by the national bank examiners appointed by him. His powers are exercised under the general supervision of the Sec- retary of the Treasury, but under the law his annual report is made direct to Congress ; all other bureaus of the Treasury Department report to Congress through the Secretary of the Treasury, and these reports are printed. TREASURER OP THE UNITED STATES The Treasurer of the United States receives and keeps the moneys of the United States and disburses the same upon war- rants drawn by the Secretary of the Treasury, countersigned by the Comptroller of the Treasury, and not otherwise. He takes receipts for all moneys paid by him and gives re- ceipts for all moneys received, and all receipts for moneys received by him shall be endorsed upon warrants signed by the Secretary of the Treas- ury, without which warrant so signed, no acknowledgment for money received into the public Treasury shall be valid. He renders his accounts to the Comptroller of the Treasury quarterly, or oftener if required, and transmits copies there- of, when settled, to the Secretary of the Treasury. The moneys in his hands are at all times subject to the inspection of the Secretary of the Treasury and the Comptroller of the Treasury. The Treasurer makes a report to the Secretary of the Treas- ury every 30th of June, showing the condition of all of the several accounts. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES COMMISSIONER OF INTERNAL REVENUE The Commissioner of Internal Revenue has general superintend- ence of the collection of all in- ternal-revenue taxes, the enforce- ment of internal-revenue laws, ap- pointment of internal-revenue em- ployees, compensation and duties of gangers, storekeepers and other subordinate officers ; the preparation and distribution of stamps, instruc- tions, regulations, forms, blanks, hydrometers, stationery, etc. TESTING ALCOHOLIC DIRECTOR OF THE MINT* Five coinage mints have been established in different sections of the country, of which two, located at New Orleans, La., and Carson City, Nev., now operate only as Assay Offices. The Mints now engaged in coinage operations are located at Philadelphia, San Fran- cisco and Denver, that at Phila- delphia being the largest. In addi- tion to the Assay Offices located at New Orleans, La., and Carson City, Nev., the Government maintains six others, located at New York City, Seattle, Wash.; Deadwood, S. D. ; Boise, Idaho ; Salt Lake City, Utah, and Helena, Montana. Tho headquarters of the Mint Ser- vice are in the Treasury Department, Washington, D. C., known as the Bureau of the Mint. This consists of the office of the Director of the *The subject of the assay of coins, bullion, etc., and the minting of money forms an interesting chapter in the first part of this book. (Pages 309 to 320.) DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 497 Mint, an assay laboratory for the purpose of testing the weight and fineness of the coins made at the several mints, and a clerical force which, under the Director of the Mint, reviews the accounts of the various institutions, prepares for publication, quarterly, an estimate of the value of the standard coins of foreign countries for custom house and other public purposes, and works up the statistical data for the annual report of the Director on the operations of the Mint Service for the fiscal year, including also statistics of the pro- duction of precious metals in the United States and the world for the calendar year. ceipts of the precious metals to the Mints to be coined. Much of the metal is not suitable for immediate coinage, and refineries are main- tained at the Mints at San Fran- cisco and Denver and the Assay Office at New York City to purify the metal. Such of it as may be needed for coinage is then alloyed with copper, the proportions being nine parts of gold or silver to one part of copper, making what is known as 900 fine or "standard" metal, which has been found most suitable for coins, the pure gold or silver being comparatively soft, and subject to appreciable abrasion or wear. Minor coins are manufactur- ed from nickel and bronze, the MONEY OF ALL KINDS IS TRANSPORTED IN HEAVILY GUARDED TRUCKS The Mints and Assay Offices have been established in localities suit- able for the convenient acquisition of gold and silver by the Government for the purpose of coinage. Gold and silver bullion is received and paid for at its exact valuation (the price of gold remaining stationary, while that of silver fluctuates) and the Assay Offices forward their re- stocks of the necessary metals being bought in the open market as re- quired. As the stock of gold in the coun- try has accumulated far beyond the needs for that metal as a circulating medium, it has been found most con- venient and economical, after filling the yearly demands for new gold coin, to melt the balance of this 498 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES precious metal into bars of uniform and convenient size, to be stored in the vaults of the mints and held as a reserve against which gold cer- tificates may be issued. New coin usually gets into cir- culation through the Disbursing Of- fice of the Treasury Department and banking institutions in exchange for the larger denominations of money. The mints manufacture not only all of the domestic coin, but also the coinage for the Philippine Isl- ands and, as their business permits, such of the coinage of adjacent coun- tries as it is found expedient and practicable to handle. At the Philadelphia Mint there is maintained a complete engraving and medal-making establishment, where are manufactured all dies .used in the domestic and Philip- pine coinage, and also dies and med- als of a national character. COMPTROLLER OF THE TREASURY The Comptroller of the Treasury, under the direction of the Secre- tary of the Treasury, prescribes the forms of keeping and rendering all public accounts except those relat- ing to postal revenues and the ex- penditures therefrom. He is charged with the duty of revising accounts upon appeal from settlements made by the auditors. Upon the applica- tion of disbursing officers, the head of any executive department, or other independent establishment not under any of the executive depart- ments, the Comptroller is required to render his . advance decision upon any question involving a payment to be made by them or under them, which decision, when rendered, gov- erns the auditor and the Comptrol- ler in the settlement of the account involving the payment inquired about. He is required to approve, disapprove, or modify all decisions by auditors making an original con- struction or modifying an existing construction of statutes, and certify his action to the auditor whose du- ties are affected thereby. Under his direction the several auditors super- intend the recovery of all debts finally certified by them, respect- ively, to be due the United States, except those arising under the Post Office Department. He superin- tends the preservation by the auditors of all accounts which have been finally adjusted by them, to- gether with the vouchers and certifi- cates relating to the same. He is required, on his own motion, when in the interests of the Government, to revise any account settled by any auditor. In any case where, in his opinion, the interests of the Govern- ment require, he may direct any of PORTICO OF THE TREASURY the auditors forthwith to audit and settle any particular account pend- ing before the said auditor for set- tlement. It is his duty to counter- sign all warrants authorized by law to be signed by the Secretary of the Treasury. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 499 REGISTER OF THE TREASURY The Register of the Treasury signs all bonds of the United States, 'the bonds of the District of Columbia, the Philippine Islands, the city of Manila, the City of Cebu, and the Porto Rican gold loans, and keeps records showing the daily outstand- ing balances thereof. He certifies to the Treasurer of the United States, the Auditor for the Treas- ury, and the Loans and Currency Division, Secretary's Office, the in- terest due on United States loans at interest periods ; also gives an administrative examination to paid interest checks received from the Treasurer, and transmits the same to the Auditor for the Treasury. He examines and records all paid inter- est coupons and all other United States securities redeemed, and keeps records of the outstanding principal and interest of the bonded indebted- ness of the Government. $500,000 IN NOTES ON A TRUCK BUREAU OF ENGRAVING AND PRINTING* The Bureau of Engraving and Printing designs, engraves, prints and finishes all of the securities and other similar work of the Govern- ment, embracing United States notes, bonds, and certificates, Na- tional Bank notes, Federal Reserve notes, internal-revenue, postage and customs stamps, Treasury drafts and checks, disbursing officers' checks, licenses, commissions, patent and pension certificates, and por- traits authorized by law of deceased Members of Congress and other pub- lic officers ; also all postage stamps and all securities issued by the Bu- reau of Insular Affairs to our insular possessions. *A special chapter by Director Ralph will be found in the first part of this book and is filled with interesting facts and pictures. (See pages 299 to 307.) 500 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES THE UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE By RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon-General T! United States Pub- lic Health Service was created as the United States Marine Hospital Service by the act approved July 16, 1798. It contin- ued as the United States Marine Hospital Service until July 1, 1902, when Congress changed the name to that of the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service of the United States. The act approved August 14, 1912, further changed the name of the Service to that of the Public Health Service, and greatly increased its powers and functions. As originally created the United States Marine Hospital Service had for its function the medical and surgical relief of the sick and in- jured seamen of the merchant mar- ine and the Navy. The organic act placed the Marine Hospital Service in the Treasury Department, where it has continued to remain as a bureau. The organic act was amend- ed by the acts of March 2, 1799. May 5, 1802, February 26, 1811, and July 29, 1870. As at present organ- ized the Bureau of the Public Health Service is situated at Washington, D. C., and comprises seven divisions, the operations of which are co-ordi- nated and each under the immediate supervision of the Surgeon General. An Assistant Surgeon General is in charge of each of these divisions, ex- cepting the miscellaneous division. Through the Division of Marine Hospitals and Relief professional care is taken of sick and disabled seamen at twenty-two marine hospi- tals and one hundred and twenty- three other relief stations. The bene- ficiaries include officers and crews of registered, enrolled, or licensed ves- sels of the United States and of the Coast Guard and Lighthouse Ser- vice; seamen employed on vessels of the Mississippi River Commission, and of the Engineer Corps of the Army; keepers and surfmen of the Coast Guard. A purveying depot for the purchase and issuance of sup- plies is maintained at Washington. Physical examinations of officers and seamen and keepers and surfmen of the Coast Guard and the examina- tions for the detection of color- blindness in masters, mates, and pilots are conducted through this di- vision, and the medical evidence of disability in claims for benefits against the Coast Guard are re- viewed. Through the Division of Domestic (Interstate) Quarantine is enforced Section 3 of the act of February 15, 1893, relating to the prevention of the spread of contagious or infec- tious diseases from one State or Territory into another. The control of the interstate spread of disease is effected by the Interstate Quar- antine Regulations, compiled by this division. These regulations prohibit the carrying of persons afflicted with contagious diseases by interstate carriers and provide the conditions under which certain other infected persons may be transported. They provide that the vehicles of these carriers be maintained in a sani- tary condition and that water fur- nished thereon shall conform to the bacteriological standard for drinking water supplied to the public by common carriers in in- terstate traffic as adopted by the Treasury Department on October 21. 1914. For the enforcement and ad- ministration of these regulations the country has been divided into twelve Interstate Sanitary Districts, each under the direction of this division. Laboratories have been established at central cities in these districts and an officer of the Public Health Service placed in each. The educa- tion of the general public in hygiene DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 501 and sanitation is conducted by the Domestic Quarantine Division by means of lectures, the loan of stere- opticon slides to physicians, welfare workers, educators, etc., by exhibits, such as at the Panama Pacific In- ternational Exposition and on the Government Safety First Train, and by press items issued to about 8,000 newspapers. Sanitary and relief work in Alaska, hospitals and sani- tary work at international exposi- ing thereto. He has control of fifty- five Federal quarantine stations in the United States, and others in the Philippines, Hawaii, and Porto Rico, and supervises the medical officers detailed in the offices of the Ameri- can consular officers at foreign ports to prevent the introduction of con- tagious or infectious diseases into the United States. Under section 17 of the act approved February 20, 1907, he has supervision over the EXAMINING AN ALIEN AT ELLIS ISLAND BY MENTAL TESTS tions, inspection of Government buildings for sanitary defects, and the important duty of the suppres- sion of epidemics come within the scope of this division. Through the Division of Foreign and Insular Quarantine and Immi- gration the Surgeon General en- forces the national quarantine laws and prepares the regulations relat- medical officers engaged in the physi- cal and mental examinations of all arriving aliens. In the Division of Personnel and Accounts are kept the records of the officers and of the expenditures of the appropriations. The Division of Sanitary Reports and Statistics collects and publishes information regarding the prevalence 502 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES and geographic distribution of dis- eases dangerous to the public health in the United States and foreign countries. Court decisions, laws, regulations, and ordinances pertain- ing to the public health are compiled, digested and published. Its publi- cations contain articles on subjects relating to the public health. This division issues the Public Health Re- ports (weekly) and Supplements to, and Reprints from, the Public Health Reports. The Division of Scientific Re- search conducts the scientific investi- gations of the service. Intensive studies of diseases of man, including hookworm diseases, 'malaria, pel- lagra, trachoma, typhoid fever, and tuberculosis, of school, mental, and industrial hygiene, of rural sanita- tion, of public health administration, of water supplies and sewage, and of coastal waters are carried on from special headquarters in the field in co-operation with State and local health authorities. Technical and purely laboratory studies are conducted at the Hygienic Labora- tory in Washington, at special field laboratories, and at the leprosy in- vestigation station in Hawaii. In- formation thus obtained is dissem- inated through publications, cor- respondence, lectures, and confer- ences with health authorities con- cerning the results of field studies in their jurisdictions. Through the division the department enforces the act of July 1, 1902, "to regulate the sale of viruses, serums, etc." The Surgeon General is required by law to call an annual conference of State and territorial health author- ities, and special conferences may also be called at any time. For ad- vice in respect to scientific investi- gations he may convene the advisory board of the Hygienic Laboratory. Through the Miscellaneous Di- vision the various service publica- tions are issued, including the an- nual reports, public health reports, supplements, and reprints, public health bulletins of the Hygiene Lab- oratory, and miscellaneous publica- tions on health topics. The commissioned corps of the United States Public Health Service on July 1, 1916, consisted of the Sur- geon General, 6 Assistant Surgeon Generals, 1 Assistant Surgeon Gen- eral at large, 13 senior surgeons, 72 surgeons, 37 passed assistant sur- geons, and 70 assistant surgeons. In addition there are scientific assist- ants, consisting of acting assistant surgeons, epidemiologists, internes at marine hospitals, pharmacists, etc. UNITED STATES COAST GUARD* By CAPTAIN COMMANDANT E. P. BERTHOLF The Captain Commandant of the Coast Guard is charged by law with the administration of the Coast Guard, under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury. Headquarters are located at the Treasury Department The act of January 28, 1915, provided that the Coast Guard be created in lieu of the then existing Revenue-Cutter Service and the Life- Saving Service, and to be composed of those two organizations. It also provided that it shall constitute a part of the mili- tary forces of the United States, and shall operate under the Treas- ury Department in time of peace and as a part of the Navy, subject to the orders of the Secretary of the Navy, in time of war, or when the President shall so direct. In general the duties of the Coast Guard may be classified as follows: Rendering assistance to vessels in distress and saving life and prop- erty; destruction or removal of wrecks, derelicts, and other floating dangers to navigation ; extending *This subject is so important that it forms a chapter in the first part with thouses under the title of "Government Protection of Life and Property at Sea." Lighthouses DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 503 ICEBERG SIGHTED BY THE "SENECA" ON JUNE 8, 1916, IN LATITUDE 42.35 NORTH, LONGITUDE 49.36 WEST medical aid to American vessels en- gaged in deep-sea fisheries; protec- tion of the customs revenue; oper- ating as a part of the Navy in time of war or when the President shall direct ; enforcement of law and regu- lations governing anchorage of ves- sels in navigable waters ; enforce- ment of law relating to quarantine and neutrality; suppression of mu- tinies on merchant vessels ; enforce- ment of navigation and other laws governing merchant vessels and mo- tor boats; enforcement of law to provide for safety of life on navi- gable waters during regattas and marine parades; protection of game and the seal and other fisheries in Alaska, etc. ; enforcement of sponge- fishing laws. To assist the Captain Command- ant in conducting the business of his office there are established the following divisions: Division of Operations Having cognizance of matters relating to the personnel and operations of the service. Division of Material Having cog- nizance of matters relating to sup- plies, outfits, equipment, accounts, and the files'. Division of Construction and Re- pair Having cognizance of matters relating to the construction of and repairs to the hulls of vessels and boats, stations, wharves, and all other property. Division of Engineering Having cognizance of matters relating to the construction of and repairs to the motive power of vessels and boats and the machinery of all other property. Division of Inspection Having cognizance of matters relating to the inspection of vessels, stations, boats, and all other property. Under the direction of the Cap- tain Commandant statistics are pre- pared regarding the loss of life and property on account of wrecked ves- sels in American waters. He is also required to acquaint himself, as far as practicable, with all means em- ployed in foreign countries which may seem to affect advantageously the interests of the Coast Guard, and to cause to be properly investi- gated all plans, devices, and inven- tions for the improvement of life- saving apparatus for use at the sta- tions which may appear to be meri- torious and available. This is ac- complished through the medium of the Board on Life- Saving Appliances, which meets annually at Boston, Mass., for that purpose. OFFICE OF THE SUPERVISING ARCHITECT Under the direction of the Secre- tary of the Treasury, the Supervis- ing Architect acquires the sites and designs, constructs, equips, supplies, operates and repairs United States public buildings generally, marine hospitals and quarantine stations, and wharves, bridges, roads, sewers, 504 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES etc., in connection therewith. When specially authorized by law plans are obtained by competition among private architects. The Super- vising Architect's Office was organ- ized in 1853. Until 1861 an Army Engineer had charge of construc- tion work; since then Supervising Architect in sole charge. Present organization: Supervising Architect, the Executive Officer, directing the administrative phases of the work and in charge of the Accounts, Maintenance, Repairs, and Files and Records Divisions, and Cus- todians' and Janitors' field force; the Technical Officer, directing the architectural and engineering work and in charge of the Drafting, Structural, Mechanical and Elec- trical Engineering, and Computing Divisions, Public Information Room, Duplicating and Photograph Gal- leries, and the Construction field force. Board of Award, composed of Supervising Architect, Executive Officer, Technical Officer and Super- intendent of Drafting Division, passes upon and recommends all im- portant expenditures (except for land). Building work usually done by contract. Furniture and supplies generally obtained from manufac- turers upon blanket annual con- tracts. Awards are to lowest best bidder, after advertising and public opening of bids. Supervising Archi- tect approves materials and per- formance. Materials are tested by the National Bureau of Standards. Department orders land purchases and all expenditures from $500 up- wards. Funds disbursed from Washington mainly. Each project supervised by resident superintend- ent ; each finished building in charge of custodian. Operating force and field force overseen by traveling inspectors. In 1853 the Supervising Architect had charge of 15 completed build- ings and 28 to be constructed. In 1916 there are 1,073 completed pub- lic 1 buildings, branch mints, assay offices, marine hospitals and quaran- tine stations; 117 separate projects under construction, 301 projects au- thorized, but not yet under con- struction ; and 164 sites only (ac- quired or to be acquired) for which no buildings have yet been author- ized. The present headquarters force (quartered on the top floor of the Treasury Building) numbers 246. Field forces: Construction, 124; Operating force, about 5,000. The whole force of architects, engineers, draftsmen, computers, superintend- ents, inspectors, lawyers, account- ants, stenographers, clerks, mechan- ics, janitors, etc., is within the classified civil service. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915, the expenditures were : Sites $1,288,597.04 Construction 11,477,120.40 Repairs, etc 1,347,303.67 Supplies and Operation... 5,951,546.99 UNITED STATES BUREAU OF WAR RISK INSURANCE By DIRECTOR WILLIAM C. DE LANOY The Bureau of War Risk Insur- ance was created by Act of Con- gress on September 2nd, 1914, to cover American vessels and their cargoes against the risks of war. It was to expire September 2nd, 1916, but on August llth, 1916, was extended for a period of one year. During the two years of this Bureau's existence it has covered war risk insurance on many vessels and cargoes where the market was small and without the assistance which was granted by the Bureau many of these vessels could not have sailed. From September 2nd, 1914, to September 2nd, 1916, the Bureau issued 1,590 policies insuring ships and cargoes of a value of $145,831,- 602, for which the Government re- ceived in premiums $3,000,926.83, with a known loss to date of only $771,329.57, reduced through salvage DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 505 by the sum of $58,811.42, reducing months, have been $34,882.47. The the net loss to $712,518.15. Bureau has a list of ports to which The expenses attending the con- the rates are not made public, but duct of the Bureau up to August may be had upon application to the 31st, 1916, a period of twenty-three Bureau. AUDITOR FOR THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT The Auditor for the Treasury Depart- enue, Treasurer and assistant treasurers, ment receives ami settles all accounts of mints and assay offices, Bureau of En- the Department of the Treasury, includ- graving and Printing, Coast Guard, Pub- ing all accounts relating to the customs lie Health Service, Farm Loan Board, service, the public debt, internal rev- public buildings and Secret Service. AUDITOR FOR THE WAR DEPARTMENT The Auditor for the War Department teries, fortifications, public buildings and receives and settles all accounts of the grounds under the supervision of the Department of War, including those re- Chief of Engineers, rivers and harbors, lating to the military establishment, the Military Academy and the Panama armories and arsenals, national ceme- Canal. AUDITOR FOR THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT All claims and accounts arising under of Mines, Patent Office, Capitol Build- the Department of the Interior, which ing and Grounds, Freedmen's Hospital, includes those having relation to the Howard University, Columbia Institu- protection, survey and sale of public tion for the Deaf, Government Hospital and Indian lands, the reclamation of for the Insane, Hot Springs Reserva- arid public and Indian lands, Army and tion, the Yosemite and other national Navy pensions, Indian affairs, Geological parks, and the construction of railroads Survey, Bureau of Education, Bureau in Alaska, are settled in this office. AUDITOR FOR THE NAVY DEPARTMENT The Auditor for the Navy Department accounts relating to the Naval Estab- receives and settles all accounts of the lishment, Marine Corps and the Naval Department of the Navy, including all Academy. AUDITOR FOR THE STATE AND OTHER DEPARTMENTS The Auditor for the State and Other ing governmental establishments : Gov- Departments receives and settles the ac- ernment Printing Office ; Interstate Coin- counts of the White House : the two merce Commission ; Smithsonian Institu- Houses of Congress ; the Supreme Court ; tion and National Museum ; District of the Departments of State, including the Columbia ; Civil Service Commission ; expenses of the Diplomatic and Consular the Federal Reserve Board ; the Federal Service ; Justice, covering expenses of Trade Commission ; and all boards, coin- United States courts ; Agriculture, in- missions and establishments of the Gov- cluding its field service ; Commerce ; ernment not under the administration Labor ; also the accounts of the follow- of any executive department. AUDITOR FOR THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT The Auditor for the Post Office De- upon the Treasury issued in liquidation partment receives and examines all ac- of indebtedness ; superintends the col- counts of the office of the Postmaster lecting of debts due the United States General and of all bureaus and offices for the service of the Post Office Depart- under his direction ; all postal and ment and all penalties imposed ; directs money order accounts of postmasters suits and all legal proceedings in ciTil and foreign administrations ; all ac- actions ; and takes all legal measures counts relating to the transportation of to enforce the payment of money due mails, and to all other business within the United States for the service of the the jurisdiction of the Post Office De- Post Office Department, and for this partment ; and certifies the balances purpose has direct official relations with arising thereon to the Postmaster Gen- the Solicitor of the Treasury, Depart- eral for accounts of the postal revenue ment of Justice. He receives and ac- and expenditures therefrom, and to the cepts, with the written consent of the Secretary of the Treasury for other ac- Postmaster General, offers of compro- counts. He also receives and examines raise under sections 295 and 409, Revised reports and accounts of postmasters Statutes. He is required to submit to operating postal savings banks, and ac- the Secretary of the Treasury quarterly counts for expenditures from the appro- statements of postal receipts and ex- priation for continuing the establish- penditures, and to report to the Post- ment, maintenance, and extension of the master General the financial condition postal savings depositories. He registers, of the Post Office Department at the charges and countersigns the warrants close of each fiscal year. CHAPTER VII. DEPARTMENT OF WAR*. SECRETARY OF WAR THE Secretary of War is head of the War Department, and performs such duties as are re- quired of him by law or may be enjoined upon him by the President concerning the military service. He is charged by law with the supervision of all estimates of ap- propriations for the expenses of the department, including the military establishment; of all purchases of Army supplies ; of all expenditures for the support, transportation, and maintenance of the Army, and of such expenditures of a civil nature as may be placed by Congress under his direction. He also has supervision of the United States Military Academy at West Point and of military educa- tion in the Army, of the Board of Ordnance and Fortification, of the various battlefield commissions, and of the publication of Official Records of the War of the Rebellion. He has charge of all matters re- lating to national defense and sea- coast fortifications, Army ordnance, river and harbor improvements, the prevention of obstruction to naviga- tion, and the establishment of har- bor lines ; and all plans and loca- tions of bridges authorized by Congress to be constructed over the navigable waters of the United States require his approval. He also has charge of the establishment or abandonment of military posts, and of all matters relating to leases, revocable licenses, and all other privileges upon lands under the control of the War Department. ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF WAR To the Assistant Secretary of War is assigned the general direction and supervision of all matters relating to rivers and harbors $ bridges over navigable waters of the United States ; leases, revocable licenses, and all other privileges upon lands under the control of the War De- partment; inspections relating to the military establishment; recruit- ing service, discharges, commutation of rations, courts-martial, and other questions relating to enlisted men, including clemency cases and mat- ters relating to prisoners at military prisons and penitentiaries. He also has charge of routine matters relating to the militia ; the promotion of rifle practice; the su- pervision of miscellaneous claims and accounts ; matters relating to national cemeteries, boards of sur- vey, open-market purchases, and medals of honor. The Assistant Secretary of War is also vested with authority to decide all cases which do not involve ques- tions of policy, the establishment or reversal of precedents, or matters of special or extraordinary im- portance which may be assigned to him. *A special chapter on the Army begins on page 281. Oopyright by Mwm & Co., Inc. DEPARTMENT OF WAR 507 ASSISTANT AND CHIEF CLERK The Assistant and Chief Clerk of the War Department is the head of the Office of the Secretary of War, and as such has charge of the rec- ords and files, and supervision of the receipt, distribution, and trans- mission of the official mail and cor- respondence of that office, and is charged with the administrative action required by law to be taken in connection with the settlement of disbursing officers' accounts that do not relate to the different staff corps of the Army. He has general super- vision of matters relating to civi- lian employees in and under the War Department; printing and binding and advertising for the War Department and the Army; appropriations for contingent ex- penses, stationery, rent of build- ings; and the department's tele- graph and telephone service; and performs such other duties as may be required by the Secretary of War. THE GENERAL STAFF CORPS, U. S. ARMY The duties of the General Staff Corps, as stated in the organic act of Congress establishing it, are: OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF STAFF The Chief of Staff is the military advisor of the Secretary of War. The Office of the Chief of Staff, for the purpose of carrying into effect the supervising, co-ordinating and informing powers conferred upon him by law, constitutes a supervis- ing military bureau of the War Department. The Chief of Staff issues, through the Adjutant General of the Army, all orders and instructions of the Secretary of War affecting the Regu- lar Army and the National Guard. FUNCTIONS OF THE GENERAL STAFF CORPS The collation and discussion of all obtainable data relating to strate- gical, tactical and logistic features of military operations at home and abroad ; the formulation of com- plete working plans for passing quickly from a state of peace to a state of war, including the mobiliza- tion of all the available military forces of the United States; also the preparation and keeping up to date of detailed plans of defensive and offensive operations against each country with which the United States might become involved in war. The collection, classification and distribution of military information concerning (a) the strength, organ- ization, personnel, armament and equipment of our own and foreign armies ; ( & ) natural and artificial routes of communication (rivers, canals, roads and railroads) ; (c) the manufacture of arms, ammuni- tion and other war materials; (d) supplies of food, horses, mules, pack and draft animals; (e) road vehicles, including motors and trac- tors. The supervision of the work of military attaches and observers ; the conduct of correspondence with them ; inspection of their accounts and recommendations as to their de- tail and relief ; the exchange of mili- tary information with foreign war offices through their representatives in Washington ; the preparation of instructions for the guidance of offi- cers of the Army serving or travel- ing abroad or acting as military attaches or observers, and the colla- tion of information contained in their reports. The collation, preservation, ar- rangement, filing and indexing of maps, sketches and plans, American and foreign ; and the general super- vision over the compilation of a pro- gressive military map of the United States and its possessions. The collection, preparation and distribution to the military service 508 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES of military information concerning our own and foreign countries. The preparation, from official rec- ords, of analytical and critical his- tories of important campaigns for distribution to the Army. The supervision and co-ordination of military education; training; plans for field maneuvers. The study of the needs of the military service, and recommending changes therein; consideration of matters pertaining to armament, equipment and clothing; location, design and construction of posts. The preparation of schemes of legislation for the increase of mili- tary preparedness, when directed by higher authority, for submission to Congress, and such other schemes of legislation for the improvement of the military service as may be directed. The maintenance at the War Col- lege of a military library for the use of the War Department and the Army at large. The conduct of a photographic laboratory for the reproduction of maps, sketches, photographs and illustrations, lantern slides and such other photographic work as may be required for the War Department and the Army at large. THE ARMY WAR COLLEGE The idea of a War College for the United States Army was first suggested by the Honorable Elihu Root, then Secretary of War, in his annual report for 1S99. In the words of its founder, its purpose is "not to promote war, but to preserve peace by intelligent and adequate prep- aration to repel invasion. It is a growth and not a new departure. Only an insti- tution permanent, but always changing fectiveness to which that judgment it entitled." The functions thus described are really those of a General Staff and it is worthy of note that the Army War College as first established by War Department order in 1901 per- formed the duties of such a body until the General Staff was actually created by Act of Congress in 190o. WAR COLLEGE, WASHINGTON, D. C. in its individual elements, in which, by conference and discussion, a consensus of matured opinion can be reached, can perpetuate the result of individual effort After that date the War College as- sumed its true function of training selected officers for staff duty and secure continuity of military policy, and higher command in war, the control - expSo d ns f o r f military questions, the respect and ef- lin S id ** being that each class shall be a useful adjunct to the General DEPARTMENT OF WAR 509 Staff in its study of the military problems affecting our country. In order to accomplish this result, the year's work is made to include studies in the tactical and strate- gical handling of large bodies of troops, in the general control of the auxiliary services, and in offensive and defensive questions of military, as dependent upon national, policy. The course opens with map prob- lems and map maneuvers of a prac- tical nature, representing actual phases in military operations that might have to be undertaken by our forces in time of war. These studies are confirmed on the ground, when- ever practicable, by terrain, tactical and staff rides. These problems are only sufficient to insure that ideas shall be uniform and that opera- tions shall be conducted in accord- ance with an accepted doctrine of war. The remainder of the course includes a series of original investi- gations, studies of war plans, contri- butions to military monographs, studies in military geography, in methods of obtaining military in- formation, and in military historical research. The final result is that each class contributes something of permanent value for future refer- ence. This is possible only because the officers detailed to take the course are men of experience, preferably graduates of the Staff College at Fort Leaven worth, and well versed in the theory of their profession. The President of the Army War College is a general offi- cer detailed to the General Staff as assistant to the Chief of Staff, and the faculty is selected from the grad- uates of the Army War College. At first the sessions of the Army War College were held in a private residence rented for the purpose in Washington and this continued until 1907 when the present magnificent building on the site of the old Wash- ington Barracks was first occupied. It provides quarters not only for the War College but also for the bulk of the General Staff on duty in Washington. The building, which cost about $700,000, is of modern construction and material but is purely classic in design. It is massive, well proportioned and im- pressive. In size the building is 300 feet long and 125 feet deep. The materials used in the construction of the exterior are red Pompeian pressed brick, laid in Flemish bond, with ornamentation of limestone and roof of dark slate. Photo G. V. Buck CONFERENCE ROOM, WAR COLLEGE In the center of the front fagade is the main entrance pavilion, con- sisting of a pedimental gable with massive piers on either side and beautifully proportioned Ionic col- umns in the center. The design of this entrance pavilion is duplicated at either end of the building. The portions of the structure flanking the pavilion are in the pilaster style of treatment. Great dignity is lent to the exterior by the approaches. Low granite steps lead to a wide platform paved with red brick laid in ornamental patterns. The build- ing is one of the most artistic edi- fices in the country, and is con- sidered to rival the Library of Con- gress in its technical perfection. The interior is perfectly adapted to its purposes. Passing under the entrance pavilion, the visitor arrives in the large rotunda, with its four columns supporting an octagonal dome. Immediately beyond this is the main lecture room for the War 510 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES College, with a seating capacity of 250; to the right of the rotunda, in the center of the building, is the library, and to the left is the map room, both extending to the roof. On the long sides of the building are the various lecture and conference shops, store rooms and vaults are in the basement. The map room contains a magnificent collection of the military maps of all nations ar- ranged for ready reference. The library contains more than 100,000 volumes, and its method of classi- Photo Harris & Ewing ARMY WAR GAME BEING PLAYED AT THE WAR COLLEGE BY DISTINGUISHED ARMY OFFICERS rooms, record rooms, work rooms and offices. The galleries of the library and map room are set aside for map drafting and mounting. The photographic department, complete for every kind of work, the work- n'cation and card indexing, devel- oped by the present Assistant Librarian, is considered to be the most remarkable and complete sys- tem of its kind for ready reference in this country. MILITIA BUREAU The Militia Bureau is vested with all administrative duties involving the organization, armament, instruc- tion, equipment, discipline, training, inspection, ana payment of the Na- tional Guard ; the conduct of camps of instruction of the National Guard, and the administrative duties con- nected with the preparation of the National Guard for participation in field exercises and maneuvers of the Regular Army; the mobilization of the National Guard in time of peace ; and all matters not herein generi- cally enumerated which do not under existing laws, regulations, orders, or practice come within the jurisdic- tion of the General Staff or any division or bureau of the War De- partment. DEPARTMENT OF WAR 511 MILITARY BUREAUS THE CHIEFS OP THE MILITARY BUREAUS OP THE WAR DEPARTMENT ABB OFFICERS OF THE REGULAR ARMY OP THE UNITED STATES AND A PART OF THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT OFFICE OF THE ADJUTANT GENERAL The Adjutant General is charged with the duty of recording, authenti- cating, and communicating to troops and individuals in the military serv- ice all orders, instructions, and regu- lations issued by the Secretary of War through the Chief of Staff, or otherwise; of preparing and dis- tributing commissions ; of compiling and issuing the Army Register and the Army List and Directory; of consolidating the general returns of the Army; of arranging and pre- serving the reports of officers of the Army detailed to visit encampments of militia ; of compiling and main- taining a list showing the names of officers of the Army on detached service; of managing the recruiting service, and of conducting corre- spondence concerning the military service generally, including such as pertains to military training camps, rifle practice, the Officers' Reserve Corps, the Reserve Officers' Train- ing Corps and the Enlisted Reserve Corps. He is also vested with the government and control, under the direction of the Secretary of War, of the United States Disciplinary Barracks and its branches, and all offenders sent thereto for confine- ment and detention ; and is charged with the duty of issuing and record- ing orders from the War Depart- ment remitting or mitigating sen- tences of general prisoners, or honor- ably restoring them to duty. The Adjutant General is vested by law with the charge, under the Secretary of War, "of the military and hospi- tal records of the volunteer armies and the pension and other business of the War Department connected therewith ;" of publishing War De- partment regulations, manuals and miscellaneous documents pertaining to the military service and dis- tributing to the Army such publica- tions, as well as those publications of a private nature as are useful in the military establishment; of pub- lishing and distributing the Official Records of the Union and Confed- erate Armies ; of obtaining, compil- ing and keeping continually up to date all obtainable information as to the names, ages, addresses, occupa- tions and qualifications for appoint- ment as commissioned officers of the Army, in time of war or other emer- gency, of men of suitable ages who, by reason of having received mili- tary training in civilian educational institutions or elsewhere, may be re- garded as qualified and available for appointment as such commissioned officers ; and of issuing certificates of enlistment in the Enlisted Reserve Corps. He also has charge of the historical records and business of the permanent military establish- ment, and all pension, pay, bounty, and other business pertaining to or based upon the military or medical histories of former officers or en- listed men, including the considera- tion of applications for the Congres- sional Medal of Honor ; for the bene- fits of the act of Congress approved April 27, 1916, establishing the Army and Navy Medal of Honor Roll ; for certificates of military service, certificates of merit, and certifi- cates authorizing the purchase of campaign badges, and for removal of charges of desertion and the issue of discharge certificates to such sol- diers finally charged with desertion as are entitled to relief under the terms of existing law. The archives of the Adjutant General's office in- clude all military records of the Revolutionary War in the possession of the General Government ; the rec- ords of all organizations, officers, and enlisted men that have been in the military service of the United 512 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES States since the Revolutionary War, including those pertaining to the vol- unteer forces and the National Guard while in the active service of the United States ; the records of the movements and operations of troops ; the medical and hospital records of the Army; all reports of physical examination of recruits and identi- fication records; the records of the Provost Marshal General's Bureau; the records of the Bureau of Refu- gees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands ; and a considerable collection of Confederate records, including those pertaining to the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the Confederate Government. OFFICE OF THE INSPECTOR GENERAL The duty of the officers of the Inspector General's Department is to inspect the Army in all its de- tails, and the scope of their inquiry includes every branch of military affairs. They exercise a comprehensive and general observa- tion within the commands to which they are assigned over all that per- tains to the efficiency of the Army, the condition and state of supplies of all kinds, of arms and equipments, of the expenditure of public prop- erty and money, and the condition of accounts of all disbursing officers of every branch of the service; of the conduct, discipline and efficiency of officers and troops, and report with strict impartiality in regard to all irregularities that may be dis- covered, with a view to their being remedied. They also inspect the Soldiers' Home, the ten branches of the National Home for Disabled Vol- unteer Soldiers, the Army transports and National Guard ; and make in- vestigations ordered by the Secretary of War or Department Commanders. OFFICE OF THE JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL The Judge Advocate General is directed by law to "receive, review, and cause to be recorded the pro- ceedings of all courts-martial, courts of inquiry, and military commis- sions." He reports upon applica- tions for clemency, parole, pardon, restoration to the colors, remission of citizenship rights, and re-enlist- ment of general prisoners and dis- honorably discharged soldiers. He also furnishes the Secretary of War information and advice relating to lands under the control of the War Department, as well as reports and opinions upon legal questions arising under the laws, regulations, and cus- toms pertaining to the Army, and upon miscellaneous questions aris- ing under civil law; examines and prepares legal papers relating to the construction of bridges, dams, or other work over or in navigable waters; drafts bonds and examines those given to the United States by disbursing officers, colleges, rifle clubs, and others ; examines, revises, and drafts charges against officers and soldiers ; and drafts and exam- ines deeds, contracts, licenses, and other legal papers relating to mat- ters under the War Department OFFICE OF THE QUARTERMASTER GENERAL Under the provisions of the Re- vised Statutes, Statutes at Large, current appropriation acts, and Army Regulations, the Quartermas- ter General is charged with the fol- lowing duties: (a) Pay of officers and enlisted men of the Army, including Staff Corps and Staff Departments, Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry and Phil- ippine Scouts ; additional pay for length of service and foreign serv- ice ; pay of retired officers and re- tired enlisted men ; pay of Regular Army Reserve, Officers' Reserve Corps, Enlisted Men's Reserve; mileage; commutation of quarters for commissioned officers and vet- DEPARTMENT OF WAR 513 erinarians; pay of nurses, hospital matrons, veterinarians of Cavalry and Field Artillery and Quartermas- ter Corps, contract surgeons and re- tired pay clerks ; expenses of courts martial, courts of inquiry, military commissions, and compensation of reporters and witnesses attending same ; travel allowance to enlisted men on discharge ; value of clothing undrawn to enlisted men on dis- charge; interest on soldiers' depos- its ; receiving and paying deposits of enlisted men ; gratuity pay. (6) Purchase of subsistence sup- plies for issue as rations to troops, civil employees, hospital matrons, and others entitled thereto; sub- sistence of masters, officers, crews, and employees of the Army Trans- port Service; hot coffee for troops traveling when supplied with cooked or travel rations ; meals for recruit- ing parties and applicants for en- listment while held under observa- tion ; for sales to officers ; commuta- tion of rations to the Cadets of the United States ' Military Academy ; commutation in lieu of rations to enlisted men on furlough, enlisted men and male and female nurses when stationed at places where ra- tions in kind can not be economically issued and when traveling on de- tached duty, enlisted men selected to contest for places or prizes in Army rifle competitions while travel- ing to and from place of contest, male and female nurses on leaves of absence, applicants for enlistment, and general prisoners while travel- ing under orders ; commutation in lieu of regular established ration for members of Nurse Corps (female) while on duty in hospitals, and for enlisted men, applicants for enlist- ment while held under observation, and general prisoners sick in hospi- tals ; prizes for enlisted men gradu- ates of schools for bakers and cooks ; authorized issues of soap, candles, matches, and salt and vinegar for animals; towels for offices; author- ized issues of toilet paper, toilet ar- ticles, barbers' and tailors' materials for use of general prisoners confined at military posts without pay or allowances, and applicants for en- listment while held under observa- tion ; issue of toilet kits to recruits ; for other necessary expenses inci- dent to the purchase, testing, care, preservation, issue, sale, and ac- counting for subsistence supplies; for purchase, issue, repair and main- tenance of stoves, ranges, field ranges, field bakeries, and appliances for cooking and serving food to troops in garrison and in the field; tableware, kitchen utensils, and mess furniture, stationery for the Army, including blank books, blank forms, and the necessary printing; purchase, issue, repair and main- tenance of prescribed field equipment and supplies for garrison use; pur- chase and issue of ice for use of troops, offices, and preservation of stores ; providing cold storage ; con- struction and maintenance of ice plants, laundries, post bakeries, and power plants for lighting, and for supply of water ; purchase and issue of water bags, sterilizers and neces- sary chemicals for purifying water; purchase and issue of fuel for heat- ing barracks, quarters and other public buildings and for cooking food ; fuel for operation of modern batteries, pumping and other power plants; fuel for operation of trans- ports and harbor vessels of the Army; furnishing light, including mineral oil ; necessary furniture, text books, paper, and other equip- ment for post schools and libraries ; subscriptions for newspapers and periodicals for the enlisted men; forage for the animals of the Army, including bedding; purchase and issue of typewriters, adding ma- chines, addressographs and other devices for use of the Army; seeds and implements for raising forage at remount depots ; hire of all em- ployees pertaining to the Quarter- master Corps ; extra duty pay for members of disciplinary barracks guard, to enlisted men on duty as school teachers and stewards and cooks at recruit depots; purchase and issue of office furniture and 514 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES office equipment ; payment of re- wards for apprehension of deserters and escaped military prisoners; do- nations of $5 to dishonorably dis- charged prisoners ; purchase and issue of blacksmiths' tools and materials, horse and mule shoes, horseshoe nails, wheelwrights' and other tools ; purchase and supply of flagstaffs, surveying instruments, re- frigerators, wall lockers, trunk lock- ers, window shades, screen doors and window screens ; purchase and issue of animals for the Army ; equipment and maintenance of remount depots ; purchase, issue, and repair, main- tenance and operation of wagons, motor vehicles, and other vehicles; purchase, manufacture, and issue of harness and pack equipment; pur- chase and manufacture of uniforms for the Army; purchase and issue of other articles of clothing; pur- chase and manufacture of tentage and other articles of equipage ; pur- chase and issue of technical books: transportation of troops and impedi- menta ; transportation of civilian employees, of baggage of officers, troops and employees; transporta- tion of animals for the Army ; trans- portation of Army supplies ; trans- portation of funds; payment of wharfage, tolls, and ferriage; con- struction, operation, and mainte- nance of harbor vessels for the Mo- bile Army and for the Coast Artil- lery, including mine planters and cable ships ; operation and mainte- nance of Army Transport Service on the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and the Gulf of Mexico; charter of ves- sels for transport purposes ; lease of buildings for quarters, storehouses and offices ; lease of grounds for camp sites ; hire of lodgings for re- cruits ; care and protection of mili- tary reservations; care .and main- tenance of post cemeteries and na- tional cemeteries ; care and improve- ment of grounds at military posts; and attends to all matters connected with the military service which are not expressly assigned to some other bureau of the War Department. (c) Constructs and repairs quar- ters for officers, barrack^ for en- listed men, storehouses for storage of supplies, administration build- ings, offices, power plants, roads, walks, wharves, water systems, sewer systems and drainage sys- tems ; acquires land for military purposes. OFFICE OF THE SURGEON GENERAL The Surgeon General is the ad- viser of the War Department upon all medical and sanitary affairs of the Army. He has administrative control of the Medical Department; the disbursement of its appropria- tions ; the designation of the stations of medical officers, dental officers and veterinary surgeons, and the issuing of all orders and instructions relat- ing to their professional duties; the recruitment, instruction and control of the Hospital Corps and of the Army Nurse Corps. He directs the selection, purchase and distribution of medical supplies. The Army Medical Mu- seum, the library of the Surgeon General's Office, medical supply- depots, and the general hospitals are under his direct control. OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS The Chief of Engineers commands the Corps of Engineers, which is charged with reconnoitering and surveying for military purposes, in- cluding the laying out of camps, selection of sites, and formation of plans and estimates for military de- fenses, construction and repair of fortifications and their accessories, the installation of electric-power plants and electric-power cable con- nected with seacoast batteries, and furnishing the necessary electrical supplies connected therewith ; plan- ning and superintending of defensive or offensive works of troops in the field ; examination of routes of com- munications for supplies and for DEPARTMENT OF WAR 515 military movements ; construction and repair of military roads, rail- roads and bridges ; and military demolitions. In time of war, within the theater of operations, it has charge of the location, design, and construction of wharves, piers, land- ings, storehouses, hospitals, and other structures of general interest ; and of the construction, main- tenance, and repair of roads, fer- ries, bridges, and incidental struc- tures ; and of the construction, maintenance, and operation of rail- roads under military control, includ- ing the construction and operation of armored trains. The Corps of Engineers is also charged with the improvement of rivers and harbors; with matters arising under the laws for the pro- tection and preservation of navigable waters, including the establishment of harbor lines, anchorage grounds, and rules and regulations therefor; rules and regulations for canals owned, operated, or maintained by the United States, for any public navigable channel improved under authority of Congress, and for the navigation of streams on which the floating of loose timber and sack rafts is the principal method of navigation; also with the issuance of permits for the construction, alteration, maintenance, and opera- tion of bridges, the granting of per- mits for structures or work in navi- gable waters, and the removal of wrecks and other obstructions to navigation ; with questions pertain- ing to the supervision of the harbor of New York and adjacent waters to prevent obstructive and injurious deposits ; with surveying and chart- ing the Great Lakes, the natural navigable waters of the New York State canals, Lake Champlain, the Lake of the Woods, and other boundary and connecting waters be- tween said lake and Lake Superior; with the preservation of Niagara Falls; with public buildings and grounds in the District of Columbia ; with the water supply of Washing- ton, D. C. ; with the construction of monuments and memorials ; and with the construction of roads and bridges in the Yellowstone and Cra- ter Lake National Parks. OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF ORDNANCE The Chief of Ordnance commands the Ordnance Department, the du- ties of which consist in providing, preserving, distributing, and ac- counting for every description of artillery, small arms, and all the munitions of war which may be re- quired for the fortresses of the country, the armies in the field, and for the whole body of the militia of the Union. In these duties are comprised that of determining the general principles of construction and of prescribing in detail the models and forms of all military weapons employed in war. They comprise also the duty of prescrib- ing the regulations for the proof and inspection of all these weapons, for maintaining uniformity and econ- omy in their fabrication, for insur- ing their good quality, and for their preservation and distribution at all times. BOARD OF ORDNANCE AND FORTIFICATION The Board of Ordnance and Forti- fication was created in 1888 to assist in the development of war material, especially that pertaining to ord- nance and fortification. The board has an appropriation from Congress for carrying out the development and test of inventions for which no special provision is otherwise made, and considers a very large number of inventions submitted by civilians, as well as persons in the military service, each year. A large amount of very important development work has been carried on under the board and the board is glad to have sub- mitted to it any inventions relating to military subjects. 516 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The membership of the board con- sists of six senior Army officers, rep- resenting various technical branches of the service, and of one civilian. OFFICE OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER The Chief Signal Officer is charged with the duty of operating or super- vising the operation of all military air craft and with the duty of train- ing officers and men connected there- with ; with the supervision of all military signal duties, and of books, papers, and devices connected there- with, including telegraph, telephone, and radio apparatus and the neces- sary meteorological instruments for use on target ranges and other mili- tary uses ; the construction, repair, and operation of military telegraph lines and cables, and the duty of collecting and transmitting informa- tion for the Army by telegraph or otherwise, and all other duties usually pertaining to military sig- naling. OFFICE OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS The Office of Public Buildings and Grounds, Washington, D. C., is the successor of the Commis- sioners of Public Buildings and Grounds, established in 1792 under the direction of President Wash- ington, and is now a bureau of the War Department. The United States Army Engineer Officer in Charge is Military Aide to the President. He administers the public park system of the District of Columbia for the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, under whose jurisdiction and control it has been placed by law ; this park system comprises over 400 parcels of Federal property, amount- ing in all to over 1100 acres, and includes the Mall System as pro- posed by L'Enfant and elaborated by the Park Commission of 1901. He is in charge of the preservation, care and safety of all the buildings occupied by the War Department, of the Highway Bridge across the Poto- mac and of the monument at the birthplace of Washington. As Ex- ecutive and Disbursing Officer of the Grant Memorial Commission, of the Lincoln Memorial Commission, of the Arlington Memorial Amphi- theater Commission and of the Fran- cis Scott Key Monument Commis- sion (which monument is to be erected at Fort McHenry. Baltimore, Md.), he supervises and controls the erection of those memorials. As Ex- ecutive and Disbursing Officer of the Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway Commission he has the development of that project under his charge. He is a member and disbursing officer of the commission to prepare plans and estimates for an armory for the National Guard of the District of Columbia, and he is Executive and Disbursing Officer of the Arlington Memorial Bridge Commission. BUREAU OF INSULAR AFFAIRS Following the Spanish-American War the War Department was con- fronted with varied and complex problems in the administration of the civil affairs of the territory occupied by the military forces of the United States. There were no precedents to which the officers charged with the administration of the affairs of this territory could turn for guidance, and the difficul- ties of these officers were further complicated owing to the lack of any administrative machinery for hand- ling these problems. Notwithstand- ing the frequency in the past with which the War Department had been called on to conduct military governments and civil governments during military occupation, there had existed in the department no bureau or division to which in a DEPARTMENT OF WAR 517 particular manner was committed this work of supervision. The then Secretary of War, recognizing the urgent need of such a bureau or division, organized, in December, 1898, the Division of Insular Affairs. The rapid growth of the division thus organized led to its being .given a legal existence July 1, 1902, and since that date has been known as the Bureau of Insular Affairs. To the Bureau of Insular Affairs, under the immediate direction of the Secretary of War, is assigned all matters pertaining to civil gov- ernment in the island possessions of the United States subject to the jurisdiction of the War Department, the Philippine Islands and Porto Rico being the only ones so subject at the present time. The bureau is also the repository of the civil rec- ords of the government of occupa- tion of Cuba, and had assigned to it matters pertaining to the provisional government of Cuba. It makes a comptroller's review of the receipts and expenditures of the Philippine and Porto Rican governments; at- tends to the purchase and shipment of supplies for these governments; has charge of appointments of per- sons in the United States to the civil service of the Philippines and Porto Rico, including arrangements for transportation. It gathers sta- tistics of insular imports and ex- ports, shipping and immigration, and issues periodical summaries of the same. In addition the bureau has, subject to the direction of the Secretary of State, supervision and control of the Dominican Receiver- ship for the collection of customs revenues and payment of the inter- est and principal of the adjusted bonded indebtedness of the Domini- can Republic. It exercises for the receivership practically the same functions as it does for the insular possessions, particularly with re- spect to the custody of records, the preparation and dissemination of statistics and other information, the purchase of supplies and the appointment of employees. BOARD OF ENGINEERS FOR RIVERS AND HARBORS The Board of Engineers for Rivers and Harbors is a permanent body, created by the River and Harbor Act of June 13th, 1902. To it are referred all reports upon exam- inations and surveys provided for by Congress, and all projects or changes in projects for works of river and harbor improvement upon which report is desired by the Chief of Engineers, United States Army. It is further the duty of the Board, upon request by the Com- mittee on Commerce of the Senate, or by the Committee on Rivers and Harbors of the House of Repre- sentatives in the same manner, to examine and report through the Chief of Engineers upon any ex- aminations, surveys, or projects for the improvement of rivers and har- bors. In its investigations the board gives consideration to all en- gineering, commercial, navigation and economic questions involved in determining the advisability of un- dertaking such improvements at the expense of the United States. OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF COAST ARTILLERY 1. It is the duty of the Chief of Coast Artillery to keep the Chief of Staff advised and informed with respect to the business under his charge, including the efficiency of the personnel and material of the coast artillery, and he shall, as circumstances require, make such recommendations in reference there- to as shall in his judgment tend to promote efficiency. 2. He shall from time to time, and as frequently as conditions require, confer directly with the chiefs of bureaus of the War Department and advise them of all matters relating to coast artillery material or per- sonnel that pertain to their re- 518 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES spective branches of the service, which the experience and observa- tion of the coast artillery arm of the service show to be of practical importance. In like manner he may correspond directly with the com- mandant of the Coast Artillery School, and with the president of the Coast Artillery Board, on coast artillery questions of a purely tech- nical character which do not involve matters of command, discipline, or administration, and do not relate to the status or interests of individuals. 3. He shall make recommendations as to the instruction of coast artil- lery officers and men, and as to examinations for appointment and transfer of officers to the coast artil- lery arm and for promotion therein, and shall recommend such examina- tions and such courses and methods of instruction in the Coast Artillery School and elsewhere as he shall deem requisite to secure a thorough- ly trained and educated force ; to this end he is authorized to issue directly to coast artillery officers bulletins and circulars of informa- tion on current coast artillery mat- ters of a purely technical character which do not involve matters of command, discipline, or administra- tion, and do not relate to the status or interests of individuals. 4. He is charged with the recom- mending of officers of coast artillery for special duty and assignment to coast artillery organizations and stations. 5. He shall be a member of the Board of Ordnance and Fortification and is by law a member of the Gen- eral Staff Corps. CHAPTER VIII. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE ATTORNEY GENERAL E Attor- ney Gener- al is the head of the De- partment of Jus- tice and the chief law officer of the Govern- ment. He rep- resents the Unit- ed States in matters involving legal questions ; he gives his advice and opinion, when they are required by the President or by the heads of the other executive departments, on questions of law arising in the administration of their respective departments ; he appears in the Su- preme Court of the United States in cases of especial gravity and im- portance; he exercises a general superintendence and direction over United States attorneys and mar- shals in all judicial districts in the States and Territories ; and he pro- vides special counsel for the United States whenever required by any department of the Government. SOLICITOR GENERAL The Solicitor General assists the Attorney General in the perform- ance of his general duties, and, by special provision of law, in case of a vacancy in the office of the Attor- ney General, or of his absence or disability, exercises all those duties. Under the direction of the Attorney General, he has general charge of the business of the Government in the Supreme Court of the United States, and is assisted in the conduct and argument of cases therein by the Assistant Attorneys General. He also, with the approval of the Attor- ney General, prepares opinions ren- dered to the President and the heads of the executive departments, and confers with and directs the law officers of the Government through- out the country in the performance of their duties. When the Attorney General so directs, any case in which the United States is inter- ested, in any court of the United States, may be conducted and ar- gued by the Solicitor General; and he may be sent by the Attorney General to attend to the interests of the United States in any State court, or elsewhere. Performs such other duties as may be required. THE ASSISTANT TO THE ATTORNEY GENERAL The Assistant to the Attorney General has special charge of all suits and other matters arising un- der the Federal anti-trust and inter- state-commerce laws, and performs such other duties as may be required of him, from time to time, by the Attorney General. Copyriglu by Munn & Co., Inc. 520 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ASSISTANT ATTORNEYS GENERAL The several Assistant Attorneys The Assistant Attorney General in General assist the Attorney General charge of the interests of the Gov- in the performance of his duties, ernment in all matters of reappraise- They assist in the argument of cases ment and classification of imported in the Supreme Court and in the goods in litigation before the sev- preparation of legal opinions. eral boards of United States General Five Assistant Attorneys General Appraisers and the Court of Cus- are located in the main department toms Appeals, is located at 641 building at 1435 K Street, and, in Washington Street, New York, addition to their general duties, par- The Assistant Attorneys General ticular subjects are assigned to them and the solicitors for the several by the Attorney General for the executive departments exercise their transaction of business arising there- functions under the supervision and under with United States attorneys, control of the Attorney General, other departments, and private par- They are the Solicitor for the De- ties in interest. partment of the Interior, the Solicitor The office of the Assistant Attor- for the Department of State, the ney General, including a number of Solicitor of the Treasury, the So- assistant attorneys and clerks licitor of Internal Revenue, the charged with defending suits in the Solicitor of the Department of Corn- Court of Claims, is located at 8 merce, and the Solicitor of the Jackson Place. Department of Labor. PUBLIC LANDS DIVISION To it are assigned all suits and ing all suits or proceedings to set proceedings concerning the enforce- aside conveyances of allotted public ment of the public-land law, includ- lands. CHIEF CLERK The chief clerk, under the direction the Division of Mails and Files ; the of the Attorney General, has general purchase and distribution of supplies supervision of the clerks and employees ; for the department and the United the consideration of applications for States courts; the expenditure of the leave of absence ; the direction of the appropriations for contingent expenses force of laborers, charwomen and watch- and rents ; the consideration of requisi- men ; superintends all buildings occu- tions upon the Public Printer for print- Sied by the department in Washington ; ing and binding ; and supervision of the as charge of the horses, wagons and preparation of the annual report and carriages employed ; has supervision of the estimates of the department. DISBURSING CLERK The disbursing clerk disburses from the salaries and expenses of certain about forty appropriations, under the employees stationed in the field ; the direction of the Attorney General, in- contingent expenses of the department : eluding the salaries of the Justices of supplies for United States courts ; and the Supreme Court of the United States other special and miscellaneous appro- and the judges of the other United priations. He is also authorized and States courts located in the District of directed by law to withhold and account Columbia ; the salaries of the officials for the income tax as it may apply to of the department proper, as well as Federal employees. SUPERINTENDENT OF PRISONS The superintendent of prisons has in reform schools and in county jails, charge, under the direction of the Attor- He has supervision over the construc- ney General, of all matters relating to tion work in progress at United States United States prisons and prisoners, penal institutions. including the support of such prisoners The superintendent of prisons is pres- in both State and Federal penitentiaries, ident of the boards of parole for the DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE 521 United States penitentiaries and presl- institution which, from time to time, dent of the boards of parole for United may be used for the confinement of States prisoners in each State or county United States prisoners. APPOINTMENT CLERK The appointment clerk has charge of and employees of the department in all matters relating to applications, Washington, and for United States recommendations, and appointments, in- judges, attorneys, and marshals and eluding certifications by the Civil Serv- other officers under the department. He ice Commission ; conducts correspondence also compiles the Register of the Depart- pertaining thereto ; prepares nominations ment of Justice and matter relating sent to the Senate ; prepares commis- to that department for the Official sions and appointments for the officers Register of the United States. ATTORNEY IN CHARGE OF PARDONS The attorney in charge of pardons the Secretary of War and the Secre- takes charge of all applications for Ex- tary of the Navy, respectively ; of the ecutive clemency, except those in Army briefing of the cases and the correspond- and Navy cases, these being referred to ence in relation to them. ATTORNEY IN CHARGE OF TITLES The attorney in charge of titles pre- growing out of the same. He has charge pares opinions upon the title to lands of all proceedings to acquire land under belonging to or sought to be acquired eminent domain, and conducts all the by the Government for public purposes correspondence relating to the above and opinions upon all legal matters matters. CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS The Chief of the Division of Accounts court accommodations ; and the advance- has charge of the examination or audit ment of funds to United States mar- of all accounts payable from appropria- shals ; also matters relating to the ap- tions for expenses of the Department of pointment of office and field deputy mar- Justice and the courts of the United shals are in charge of the chief of this States. Accounts of United States mar- division. shals, attorneys, clerks, and commission- Statistical information published in ers are examined, recorded, and trans- the annual report of the Attorney Gen- mitted to the auditor ; while other ac- eral showing the business transacted in counts are recorded, audited, and trans- the courts of the United States, bank- mitted to the disbursing clerk for pay- ruptcy statistics, and the various re- ment, under recent legislation. ports required by law pertaining to ex- Authorization of court expenses, in- penditures under appropriations for the eluding items for office expenses and courts and the various divisions of clerical assistants for clerks of United the department are also compiled in States courts ; the approval of leases of this division. CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF INVESTIGATION The Chief of the Division of Invest!- compensation or expenses are paid from gation has general supervision of the the appropriation "Detection and prose- examination of the offices and records cution of crimes," and who are employed of the Federal court officials throughout for the purpose of collecting evidence the United States, and directs the work or of making investigations or examina- of all the examiners, special agents, and tions of any kind for this department accountants of the department, whose or the officers thereof. LIBRARIAN The librarian has general charge and of books to be purchased for the library, supervision of the library. He is a mem- directs the cataloguing, and co-operates ber of the committee for the selection generally in the service of the library. CHAPTER IX. POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT* POSTMASTER GENERAL THE Postmaster General is the executive head of the Federal Postal Service. He appoints all officers and employees of the Post Of- fice Department except the four As- sistant Postmasters General and the purchasing agent, who are Presiden- tial appointees. With the exception of postmasters of the first, second and third classes, who are likewise Pres- idential appointees, he appoints all postmasters and all other officers and employees of the service at large. Subject to the approval of the President, he makes postal treaties with foreign Governments. He promulgates all rules and regu- lations ; superintends generally the business of the department, and executes all laws relative to the postal service. Much information is contained in his annual report. CHIEF CLERK The chief clerk of the Post Office De- partment is charged with the general superintendence and assignment of the clerical and subclerical forces of the department and the consideration of ap- plications for leave of absence for such employees ; the supervision of the prep- aration of estimates of appropriations for the departmental and postal service : of advertising ; the supervision of requisi- tions upon the Treasury and the ex- penditure of the appropriations for the departmental service ; the keeping of the journals and order books ; the furnish- ing of stationery supplies for the de- partmental service ; the consideration and signing of requisitions upon the Public Printer for the printing and bind- ing required in the Postal Service and the department, and receiving, and inspect- ing on receipt, of blanks required in the Post Office Department ; the preparation of contracts and general superintendence of the publication and distribution of the Official Postal Guide; the fixing of rates, subject to the approval of the Postmaster General, for the transmission of Government telegrams ; the miscel- laneous business correspondence of the Postmaster General's Office, and miscel- laneous correspondence of the depart- ment not assigned to other offices ; the care of the department and other build- ings used in connection therewith, and of all furniture and public property therein ; and the performance of such other duties as may be required by the Postmaster General. SOLICITOR FOR THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT The solicitor is charged with the duty of giving opinions to the Postmaster General and the heads of the several offices of the department upon questions of law arising upon the construction of the postal laws and regulations, or other- wise, in the course of business in the Postal Service ; with the consideration and submission (with advice) to the Postmaster General of all claims of post- masters for losses by fire, burglary, or other unavoidable casualty, and of all certifications by the Auditor for the Post Office Department of cases of pro- posed compromise of liabilities to the United States, and of the remission of fines, penalties, and forfeitures under the statutes ; with the giving of advice when desired in the preparation of cor- respondence with the Department of Justice and other departments, includ- ing the Court of Claims, involving ques- tions of law or relating to prosecutions or suits affecting or arising out of the *Tbere is a special chapter on the Post Office, page 161. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 523 Postal Service, and with assisting when desired in the prosecution or defense of such cases, and the maintenance of suit- able records of opinions rendered affect- ing the Post Office Department and the Postal Service ; and with the considera- tion of applications for pardon for crimes committed against the postal laws which may be referred to the de- partment ; with the preparation and sub- mission (with advice) to the Postmaster General of all appeals to him from the heads of the offices of the department depending upon questions of law ; with the determining of questions as to the delivery of mail the ownership of which is in dispute ; with the hearing and con- sideration of cases relating to lotteries and the misuse of the mails in further- ance of schemes to defraud the public ; with the consideration of all questions relating to the mailability of alleged in- decent, obscene, scurrilous, or defama- tory matter ; with determining the legal acceptability of securities offered T>y banks to secure postal savings deposits ; with the examining and, when neces- sary, drafting of all contracts of the department ; and with such other like duties as may from time to time be required of him by the Postmaster General. PURCHASING AGENT The purchasing agent supervises the purchase of all supplies both for the Post Office Department proper and for all branches of the Postal Service. He reviews all requisitions and authoriza- tions for supplies and, if. proper, honors the same. He passes upon the suffi- ciency and propriety of all specifica- tions for proposals for supplies ; pre- pares the advertisements and forms for proposals necessary to the making of contracts for supplies ; reviews the re- ports of the committees on awards and recommends to the Postmaster General such action as in his judgment should be taken thereon. CHIEF INSPECTOR The chief inspector supervises the work of post office inspectors and of the division of post office inspectors. To him is charged the preparation and issue of all cases for investigation, all mat- ters relating to depredations upon the mails and losses therein, the custody of money and property collected or received by inspectors, and the restoration there- of to the proper parties or owners, and the consideration and adjustment of ac- counts of inspectors for salary and ex- penses. To his office are referred all complaints of losses or irregularities in the mails and all reported violations of the postal laws. FIRST ASSISTANT POSTMASTER GENERAL The First Assistant Postmaster hire, labor incident to cleaning post General has charge of the following offices, telephone rental, water rental, divisions, to which are assigned the duties specified: Post Office Service. The organ- ization of post offices, salaries of postmasters, the appointment and salaries of assistant postmasters, supervisory officers, clerks, and city letter carriers, authorization of new or changes in existing service on pneumatic tube routes, and Govern- ment-owned automobile routes, es- tablishment of mail messenger and regulation, screen, or other wagon service, the performance of service by contractors on such routes and .complaints concerning the same, Government-owned automobile serv- ice, the establishment, maintenance and extension of city delivery-and- collection service, and all matters concerning special delivery service. laundering, towel service, and mis- cellaneous service items. Postmasters' Appointments. The appointment of a postmaster, to post- masters' bonds and commissions, bonds of all employees in post offices except rural carriers and village de- livery carriers, leave of absence of postmasters, and the establishment, discontinuance, or change of site, of a fourth-class post office. Dead Letters. The treatment of all unmailable and undelivered mail matter which is sent to it for dis- position ; the examination and for- warding or return of all letters which have failed of delivery ; the inspec- tion and return to the country of origin of undelivered foreign mat- ter; recording and restoration to owners of letters and parcels which Allowances for rent, light, fuel, clerk contain valuable inclosures; care and 524 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES disposition of all money, negotiable paper, and other valuable articles found in undelivered matter and correspondence, both foreign and domestic, relating to these sub- jects. SECOND ASSISTANT POSTMASTER GENERAL The Second Assistant Postmaster General has charge of the authoriza- tion of new or changes in existing steamboat, aviation and Alaska star route services. Railway Adjustments. Has charge of the preparation of cases author- izing the transportation of mails by railroads; the establishment of rail- way postal car. service and changes in existing service; prepares orders and instructions for the weighing of the mails on railroads ; receives and tabulates the returns and com- putes basis of pay therefrom; pre- pares cases for adjustment of allow- ances to railroads for carrying the mails, and for postal cars; author- izes expenditures and credits for the weighing of the mails, and transpor- tation by freight or express of postal cards, stamped envelopes, periodical mail matter and mail equipment ; and prepares all correspondence rela- tive to these matters. Foreign Mails. Is charged with the duty of arranging all details con- nected with the transportation of foreign mails; the preparation of postal conventions (except those rel- ative to the money-order system) and the regulations for their execu- tion, as well as the consideration of the questions arising under them and with the preparation of all corre- spondence relative thereto. Also has supervision of the ocean mail ser- vice, including the adjustment of accounts with steamship companies for the transportation of mails to foreign countries. Railway Mail Service. Is charged with the supervision of the Railway Mail Service and railway postal clerks ; prepares cases for the ap- pointment, removal, promotion, and reduction of said clerks; conducts correspondence and issues orders relative to the moving of the mails on railroad trains ; has charge of the dispatch and distribution of mail matter in railway postal cars and post offices ; conducts the weigh- ing of mails; and attends to all correspondence relative to these matters. THIRD ASSISTANT POSTMASTER GENERAL The Third Assistant Postmaster General has charge of the following divisions, to which are assigned the duties specified: Finance. The financial opera- tions, including the collection and deposit of postal revenues; the dis- tribution of postal funds among the several depositaries so as to equal- ize, as far as possible, receipts and expenditures in the same section; the payment by warrant of all ac- counts settled by the auditor; the receipt and disposition of all moneys coming directly to the department; and the keeping of books of account showing the fiscal operations of the postal and money-order services and the regulation of box rents and key deposits. Stamps. The supervision of the manufacture and issuance to post- masters of postage stamps, stamp books, stamped envelopes, newspa- per wrappers, postal cards, and pos- tal saving stamps and cards by the various contractors; and the keep- ing of the accounts and records of these transactions. The receipt and disposition of damaged and unsala- ble stamped paper returned by post- masters for redemption and credit. Money Orders. The supervision and management of the money-order service, both domestic and interna- tional ; the preparation of conven- tions for the exchange of money or- ders with foreign countries. Registered Mails. The supervision and management of the registry, in- POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 525 surance, and collect-on-delivery ser- vices; the establishment and con- trol of all registry dispatches and exchanges; the instruction of post- masters and the furnishing of in- formation in relation to these mat- ters; and the consideration of all claims for indemnity for lost regis- tered, insured, and C. O. D. mail. Classification. The general con- trol of all business relating to the classification of domestic mail mat- ter and the rates of postage thereon, including the determination of the admissibility of publications to the second class of mail matter, their right to continue in that class, and the instruction of postmasters rela- tive thereto ; also the use of penalty envelopes, the franking privilege, and the limit of weight and size of mail matter. Postal Savings. The conduct and management of the administrative office of the postal savings system at Washington; the selection and designation of post offices as postal savings depository offices and the supervision of the business trans- acted at such offices ; the manage- ment and investment of postal sav- ings funds as the agent of the board of trustees; and the administrative examination of accounts of post- masters and other fiscal agents of the system. FOURTH ASSISTANT POSTMASTER GENERAL This bureau embraces the Divi- sion of Rural Mails, with horse- drawn and motor vehicle service, and the star route service, the Divi- sion of Equipment and Supplies, and Village Delivery. All requests for rural service, star route service or extensions of service, the appoint- ment and discipline of rural car- riers, and the preparation of all ad- vertisements inviting proposals for star routes, and making awards and contracts, making rural delivery maps and distributing parcel post maps and guides, and all supplies which postmasters need in the con- duct of postal business, including office appliances of every descrip- tion, and all correspondence' relating thereto, belong to the duties of this office. The manufacturing enterprises of the Post Office Department, consist- ing of the mail bag repair shop and the lock shop, are also under the direction of the Fourth Assistant. All repairs, and the manufacture of new sacks and pouches when neces- sity requires, the manufacture of all locks and repair of same, and all mechanical devices used in the Rail- way Mail Service and post offices, which can be furnished from the lock shop, as well as new mechan- ical designs and improvements for the service, are included. The ex- perimental and research work con- nected with such manufacturing en- terprises, made necessary to meet new and changing conditions, deter- mining the needs of the service as to style and character of equipment, and assure economy in expenditures, is directly under the personal super- vision and control of the head of this bureau. CHAPTEK X. DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY* SECRETARY OF THE NAVY THE Secretary of the Navy per- forms such duties as the Presi- dent of the United States, who is Commander in Chief, may assign him, and has the general superin- tendence of construction, manning, armament, equipment, and employ- ment of vessels of war. ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE NAVY The Assistant Secretary of the Navy performs such duties as may be prescribed by the Secretary of the Navy or required by law. CHIEF CLERK The chief clerk has general charge of the records and correspondence of the Secretary's office, and per- forms such other duties as may be assigned to him by the Secretary of the Navy. OFFICE OF NAVAL OPERATIONS The Office of Naval Operations was established by Act of Con- gress of March 3, 1915. That act provided that the Chief of Naval Operations should be selected from an officer of the line of the Navy not below the rank of captain and that while holding this position he should have the rank, title and emol- uments of a rear admiral. The act of August 29, 1916, provides that while so serving the Chief of Naval Operations shall have the rank and title of admiral, to take rank next after the admiral of the Navy and shall receive the pay of $10,000 per annum and no allowances. He is appointed for a period of four years. The Chief of Naval Operations is charged, under the direction of the Secretary of the Navy, with the op- erations of the fleet and with the preparation and readiness of plans for its use in war. This includes the direction of the Naval War Col- lege, the Office of Naval Intelligence, inspections, gunnery exercises and engineering performances, the oper- ation of the radio service and of other systems of communication, the operations of the aeronautic service, of mines and mining, of the naval districts, Naval Militia, and of the Coast Guard when operating with the Navy ; the direction of all strat- egic and tactical matters, organiza- tion, maneuvers, target practice, drills and exercises, and of the train- ing of the fleet for war; and the preparation, revision and enforce- ment of all tactics, drill books, sig- nal codes and cipher codes. The orders issued by the Chief of Naval Operations in the performance of his duties are considered as eman- ating from the Secretary of the Navy and have full force and effect as such. *There is a special chapter on "The New Navy," page 281. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 527 The Chief of Naval Operations from time to time witnesses the op- erations of the fleet as an observer. He has two principal senior as- sistants, officers not below the grade of captain, one as assistant for oper- ations and the other as assistant for material. He is ex-officio a member of the General Board. COMMUNICATIONS OFFICE The Communications Office under the direction of the Chief of Naval Operations handles all the dispatch work of the Navy Department (radio, telegraph, cable, and tele- phone). A commissioned officer is on watch in the Communications Of- fice at all times, night and day, and is responsible for the routing, coding, and decoding of all dis- patches. He is responsible for the proper delivery of all received of- ficial dispatches. The Assistant Communications Of- ficer on watch keeps himself in- formed of the general and special situations in order that he may thor- oughly understand the bearing of dispatches received outside of de- partmental hours, and he is respon- sible that dispatches of importance requiring immediate action are com- municated as soon as possible to the proper officer. The Arlington Radio Station is operated from this office. OFFICE OF NAVAL INTELLIGENCE The Office of Naval Intelligence is charged with the collection and dissemination of such technical in- formation at home and abroad as will be useful to the Chief of Naval Operations and to the various bur- eaus of the Navy Department in the formulation of plans for war and in the development of personnel and materiel. OFFICE OF GUNNERY EXERCISES AND ENGINEERING PERFORMANCES The Office of Gunnery Exercises and Engineering performances is charged with the duties, under the Chief of Naval Operations, of formu- lating the rules for all forms of gunnery exercises and steaming per- formances ; computing, compiling, and publishing in confidential form the results and records of these com- petitions; the award of prizes, trophies, and commendatory letters in connection therewith, these com- petitions being the means to the end; i. e., battle efficiency. NAVAL COMMUNICATION SERVICE The Office of Director of Naval Communications is established under the Chief of Naval Operations. The Director of Naval Communications is charged with matters pertaining to the operation of naval radio sta- tions ashore, and in addition is charged with the duties in connec- tion with and is responsible for the efficient handling of all telegraph, telephone and cable and generally all dispatch work between the Navy Department and the fleet, and throughout the naval service out- side the fleet. In his administration of the foregoing he has general charge of the operation, organiza- tion, and administration of the Com- munication Service. He co-operates with officials designated by the Sec- retary of Commerce in reference to location of proposed commercial sta- tions, the licensing of operators, the control of the operation of commer- cial stations under the law, and the assignment of wave lengths for use by commercial stations which will comply with the law and thereby prevent possible interference with the organization and opera- tion of the Naval Communication Service. 528 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES DIVISION OF NAVAL MILITIA AFFAIRS Since the passage of the Naval Militia Act of February 16, 1914, the activities of the Naval Militia insofar as they concern the Fed- eral Government have come under the Navy Department. All duties in connection with the instruction and training of the Naval Militia and of vessels loaned for their use are un- der the control of the Chief of Naval Operations. This part of the activ- ities of the office of the Chief of Operations is directly in the hands of the Division of Naval Militia Af- fairs. This division is, in effect, a complete Navy Department for the Naval Militia insofar as the Fed- eral Government is concerned. The Naval Militia Act of February 16, 1914, provided that the Secretary of the Navy is authorized to so organ- ize, arm, uniform, equip, and train the Naval Militia that it may be eligible to be called forth by the President of the United States to serve the United States in the event of war, actual or threatened, with any foreign nation. In consequence of this act the Secretary of the Navy has denned the units, the number and rank of officers, and the number and rates of petty officers and en- listed men of all Naval Militia or- ganizations. The Division of Naval Militia Affairs has laid down a standard of professional and physi- cal examinations for all grades and ranks in the Naval Militia in order that such officers and men may be mustered into service without fur- ther appointment, enlistment or ex- amination. The division also has control of regulations and contracts under which vessels of the Navy are loaned to the Naval Militia for their train- ing and instruction. Officers are ap- pointed to make annual inspections of Naval Militia organisation. Rules and regulations covering the details of training have also been laid down by the division to cover instruction for the Naval Militia given by in- spector-instructors, officers of the regular Navy detailed for this spe- cific duty. The division also con- ducts cruises for instruction of the Naval Militia on vessels of the reg- ular Navy, vessels loaned to the State, aeronautic encampments and Marine Corps encampments. All mat- ters pertaining to the Naval Militia under existing laws and regulations come within the jurisdiction of the Division of Naval Militia Affairs. The records of officers and men, cruises and all like duties of the Naval Militia are kept in the D. N. M. A. In the event of the mustering into the Federal service of the Naval Militia for active duty the division from its records of officers and men would recommend the detail of such officers and men and their orders would be based on such recommenda- tions. BUREAU OF NAVIGATION The duties of the Bureau of Navi- gation comprise the issue, record and enforcement of the orders of the secretary to the individual officers of the Navy ; the training and educa- tion of line officers and of enlisted men (except of the Hospital Corps) at schools and stations and in ves- sels maintained for that purpose ; the upkeep and operation of the Naval Academy, of technical schools for line officers, of the apprentice- seamen establishments, of schools for the technical education of en- listed men, and of the naval home at Philadelphia, Pa. ; the upkeep and the payment of the operating ex- penses of the Naval War College; the enlistment, assignment to duty, and discharge of enlisted persons. (2) It has under its direction all rendezvous and receiving ships, and provides transportation for all en- listed persons under its cognizance. (3) It establishes the comple- ments of all ships in commission. (4) It keeps the records of service of all officers and men, and prepares v DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 529 an annual Navy Register for pub- lication, embodying therein data as to fleets, squadrons, and ships, which shall be furnished by the Chief of Naval Operations. To the end that it may be able to carry out the provisions of this paragraph, all communications to or from ships in commission relating to the personnel of such ships are forwarded through this bureau, whatever their origin may be. (5) It is charged with all matters pertaining to applications for ap- pointments and commissions in the Navy, and with the preparation of such appointments and commissions for signature. (6) It is charged with the prepar- ation, revision, and enforcement of all regulations governing uniform, and with the distribution of all or- ders and regulations of a general or circular character. (7) Questions of naval discipline, rewards, and punishments are sub- mitted by this bureau for the action of the Secretary of the Navy. The records of all general courts-martial and courts of inquiry involving the personnel of the Navy before final action are referred to this bureau for comment as to disciplinary fea- tures. (8) It receives and brings to the attention of the Secretary of the Navy all applications from officers for duty or leave. (9) It receives all reports of ser- vice performed by individual officers or men. (10) It is charged with the en- forcement of regulations and instruc- tions regarding naval ceremonies and naval etiquette. (11) It shall be charged with the upkeep and operation of the Hydro- graphic Office, the Naval Observa- tory, Nautical Almanac, and Com- pass offices; with all that relates to the supply of ships with navigational outfits, including instruments, and with the maintenance and repair of the same; with the collection of foreign surveys, and with the publi- cation and supply of charts, sailing directions, and nautical works, and the dissemination of nautical, hydro- graphic, and meteorological informa- tion to the Navy and mercantile marine. It shall also have charge of all ocean and lake surveys, and ships' and crews' libraries; it shall defray the expenses of pilotage of all ships in commission. (12) It shall be charged with the formation of the Naval Reserve and with all matters relating thereto. UNITED STATES NAVAL OBSERVATORY Including the Nautical Almanac Otfice DOME OF OBSERVATORY Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C. The Naval Observatory furnishes the United States east of the Rocky Mountains with the standard time at noon, seventy-fifth merid- ian time, each day, both by tele- graph and radio, while the chronom- eter and time station at the Navy Yard, Mare Island, California, does the same for the country west of the Rockies. Through the Navy Radio Station the Observatory furnishes vessels navigating the north Atlantic 1 Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico the standard time twice each day, at noon and 10 P. M., and these radio time sig- nals are becoming increasingly used, 530 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES THE MAIN BUILDING OF THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY, WASHINGTON, D. C. by persons having receiving wireless sets throughout the country, in pref- erence to the telegraphic signals. Navigators, surveyors and astron- omers are kept supplied with the po- sitions of the heavenly bodies in a form for practical use through the American Ephemeris and Nautical TRANSMITTING CLOCKS, CHRONOGRAPHS AND SWITCHBOARDS USED IN THE U. S, NAVAL OBSERVATORY IN SENDING OUT THE TIME TO THE COUNTRY DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 531 Almanac, and the American Nauti- cal Almanac through the Nautical Almanac Office, which is a depart- ment of the Naval Observatory. In order to assist in furnishing data to keep the Almanac and Eph- emeris up to the highest attainable standard of accuracy continuous fundamental observations of the heavenly bodies are kept up at the Observatory. When a mariner, a surveyor or an THE BUREAU OF The duties of the Bureau of Yards and Docks comprise all that relate to the design and construc- tion of public works of the Navy, such as dry docks, marine rail- ways, building ways, harbor works, quay walls, piers, wharves, slips, dredging, landings, floating and sta- astronomer wishes to find his astron- omical position on the globe he does it by observations of the heavenly bodies, using the Nautical Almanac and a comparison of his local time with that of the Observatory. The Naval Observatory also super- vises the supplying of the vessels of the Navy and the Naval Air Service with all the instruments used for navigating them, which are numer- ous and interesting. YARDS AND DOCKS vehicles, horses, teams, subsistence, and necessary operators and team- sters in the navy yards. It pro- vides clerks for the office of the com- mandant, the captain of the yard, and public" works officer. In general the work of the bureau is carried out by commissioned offi- COMPARING DECK CLOCKS TOR WAR VESSELS tionary cranes, power plants, coal- ing plants, heating, lighting, tele- phone, water, sewer and railroad systems; roads, walks and grounds; bridges, radio towers, hospitals and all buildings for whatever purpose needed, under the Navy and Marine Corps. It has charge of all means of transportation, such as derricks, shears, locomotives, locomotive cranes, cars, motor trucks, and all cers of the Corps of Civil Engineers, United States Navy, whose major duties comprise the construction, re- pair and maintenance of the public works and utilities of the Navy. During the comparatively recent upbuilding of shore establishments of the Navy, large masonry dry docks have been completed at the navy yards, New York, Norfolk, Philadelphia and Charleston on the 632 OUR COUNTRI AND ITS RESOURCES east coast, and at Mare Island and Puget Sound on the west coast. In addition a 1,000-foot dry dock is now under construction at the Naval Station, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This dock when completed is estimated to cost approximately $4,986,500. To provide an entrance channel from the sea to the site of the dock and the naval station, extensive dredging operations were necessary, over $3,- 000,000 having been expended for this purpose under a single contract. During the last ten years there have been expended under the cognizance of this bureau approximately $70,- 500,000. The bureau is justly proud of its record in connection with the con- struction and operation of the cen- tral power plants at the various navy yards, these central plants hav- ing been provided for by act of Con- gress in 1904, in order to avoid the great waste in connection with the operation of many separate plants at each yard. Fourteen such cen- tral power plants have been con- structed and equipped with the most modern apparatus. To give an idea as to their magnitude it may be stated that these plants produced during the fiscal year 1915 a total of approximately 50,000,000 kilowatt hours of electric power, 6,000,000,000 cubic feet of compressed air, and 3,000,000,000 pounds of steam. The rapid increase in the use- of fuel oil as a source of power for ships has led to the construction of extensive fuel oil storage plants, some seven plants having been com- pleted, with many others contem- plated. The present capacity of these plants is approximately 30,- 000,000 gallons of oil, which will probably be increased to 150,000,000 gallons. These plants are equipped with powerful pumps capable of de- livering heavy oils from tanks to ships at the high rate of 1,000 gal- lons per minute. The tanks are equipped with automatically con- trolled fire systems, which provide in case of fire a blanket of inert gas in the form of foam over the surface of the oil. The bureau has had charge of the design and construction of radio towers and other public works con- nected with the development of the high power radio stations of the Navy. The location of these sta- tions is shown on the Military-Naval Map. The first of these stations to be completed was that at Arlington, Virginia. Others have followed at Colon and Balboa on the Isthmus; Chicago, Illinois ; Chelsea, Massachu- setts ; Washington, D. C. ; Key West, Florida ; New Orleans, Louisiana ; Point Isabel, Texas; Guantanamo, Cuba ; Cordova, Alaska ; Keyport, Washington; San Diego, California; Pearl Harbor, Hawaii" Island of Guam; Cavite, P. I. The stations in Hawaii have been in telephonic communication by wireless with the radio station at Arlington, Virginia. This bureau has designed and con- structed practically all of the im- portant graving docks in the United States. Most of these docks have been built by and for the Navy. It has, by arrangements made between the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the Navy Department, designed and is supervising the construction of the State Graving Docks in Bos- ton. It will also give general super- vision to the graving dock to be constructed by the Union Iron Works in San Francisco, California. A member of the Corps of Civil Engineers of the Navy has been connected with the construction of the Panama Canal as Commissioner and also Engineer of Terminal Con- struction. This bureau has been represented by one of its officers on the International Board of Consult- ing Engineers. BUREAU OF ORDNANCE The Bureau of Ordnance of the Navy Department is charged with the design and manufacture of all guns, gun carriages, ammunition, DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 533 mines, torpedoes, and explosives used by the Navy Department. It has under its cognizance the Gun Factory at Washington, D. C., the Naval Proving Ground at Indian Head, Md., and the Tor- pedo Station at Newport, R. I., besides all of the magazines and ammunition depots pertaining to the Navy. The duties of the Bureau of Ord- nance comprise all that relates to the upkeep, repair and operation of the torpedo station, naval proving ground, and magazines on shore, to the manufacture of offensive and defensive arms and apparatus (in- cluding torpedoes and armor), all ammunition and war explosives. It requires for or manufactures all ma- chinery, apparatus, equipment, ma- terial and supplies required by or for use with the above. It determines the interior dimen- sions of revolving turrets and their requirements as regards rotation. As the work proceeds it inspects the installation of the permanent fixtures of the armament and its accessories on board ship, and the method of stowing, handling, and transporting ammunition and tor- pedoes, all of which work must be performed to its satisfaction. It designs and constructs all turret ammunition hoists, determines the requirements of all ammunition hoists and the method of con- struction of armories and ammu- nition rooms on shipboard, and, in conjunction with the Bureau of Construction and Repair, determines upon their location and that of all ammunition hoists outside of tur- rets. It installs all parts of the armament and its accessories which are not permanently attached to any portion of the structure of the hull, excepting turret guns, turret mounts, and ammunition hoists, and such other mounts as require simul- taneous structural work in connec- tion with installation or removal. It confers with the Bureau of Con- struction and Repair respecting the arrangements for centering the tur- rets and the character of the roller paths and their supports. It has cognizance of all electrically operated ammunition hoists, ram- mers and gun-elevating gear which are in turrets; of electric training and elevating gear for gun mounts not in turrets; of electrically opera- ted air compressors for charging tor- pedoes ; and of all range finders and battle order and range transmitters and indicators. BUREAU OF CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR The head of this Bureau is the Chief Constructor, who is an offi- cer of the Construction Corps of the Navy and is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate for a four-year term. By the authority of statute law orders issued by him in regard to the work of this bureau have the same force and effect as though issued by the Secretary of the Navy. The Chief Constructor is respon- sible for the general designs of all vessels of the Navy and for incor- porating therein the military char- acteristics approved by the Secre- tary of the Navy and for making the necessary provision in the de- sign and in the completed ship for the propelling machinery, ordnance and other items under the cognizance of other bureaus of the Navy De- partment. He is responsible for the detail design and construction of ships' hulls, their strength and stability, hull auxiliaries, fittings and equipage. In connection with the same parts he is charged with their inspection in ships building by private contract, with their construc- tion in ships building in navy yards, with their repair in ships in com- mission, with their maintenance and preservation in ships out of com- mission, and wHh the preparation of specifications ror and the inspection of all material necessary for these various purposes. 534 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES In the execution of these duties he is responsible for the proper ex- penditure of all appropriations made by Congress for these purposes. BUREAU OF STEAM ENGINEERING The Bureau of Steam Engineer- ing is charged with the responsi- bility for the design, the construc- tion, and the maintenance in good condition of the propelling machin- ery of vessels of the Navy ; of their electric light and power equipment, except of motors installed by other bureaus; of radio stations and their equipment on shore and of the radio equipment afloat ; of heating and re- frigerating apparatus; of distilling apparatus; of the interior communi- cation system, comprising tele- phones, call bells, etc., and of elec- tric signaling apparatus; of aero- plane motors, motors for small boats, and for all steam connections in the ship. In carrying out this work it has indirect control of the shops of the machinery division in navy yards and has supervision and control of the Engineering Experiment Station at Annapolis, the Aeronautic Motor Laboratory at Washington and of laboratories for other purposes in navy yards, and of the fuel oil test- ing plant at Philadelphia. It has cognizance of the entire system of interior communications. It is specifically charged with the design, supply, installation, main- tenance, and repair of all means of interior and exterior electric signal communications (except range find- ers and battle-order and range trans- mitters and indicators), and of all electrical appliances of whatsoever nature on board naval vessels, ex- cept motors and their controlling apparatus used to operate the ma- chinery belonging to other bureaus. It has charge of the design, manu- facture, installation, maintenance, repair, and operation of wireless telegraph outfits on board ship and of wireless telegraph outfits and stations on shore. (See "Radio Service," p. 528.) It has charge of the design, manu- facture, installation, maintenance, repair, and operation of aeroplane motors and propellers and their attachments. It has supervision and control of the Engineering Experiment Station. It designs the various shops at navy yards and stations where its own work is executed, so far as their internal arrangements are con- cerned. BUREAU OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY The Medical Department of the Navy has charge of the well-being in health and disease of the per- sonnel of the Navy and Marine Corps, .numbering now over 100,000. Not only is sickness cared for, hospital or sick-bay treatment pro- vided, necessary operative measures undertaken, but also those in sound health are safeguarded in life and limb as far as modern science can avail. To this end Surgeon General W. C. Braisted has under him a Medical Corps authorized up to a total of over 600, a Dental Corps, a Nurse Corps, and a Hospital Corps of an authorized strength of over 3,000. In addition he has available for call Medical and Dental Reserve Corps composed of physicians and dentists in civil life who have patriotically offered their services in case of na- tional emergency. These forces are directed by the Surgeon General, as head of the Bu- reau of Medicine and Surgery. He has charge of the upkeep and opera- tion of all naval hospitals, number- ing at present eighteen, situated not only within the continental limits of the United States, but also in our insular possessions. He has under consideration all questions concern- ing the health, the hygiene, and sani- tation of the service, ashore and DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 535 U. S. NAVAL MEDICAL SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. afloat. One or more medical officers are carried on all ships operating singly, and on flagships of destroyer and submarine flotillas. The Medical Corps in addition un- dertakes all physical examinations for the service at the many recruit- ing stations throughout the coun- try, and on board ships and at naval stations and yards. It passes pro- fessionally upon all applicants for enlistment or promotion in the Hos- pital Corps, and educates and super- vises the members of this corps dur- ing the entire tenure of service. To this end two excellent Hospital Corps Training Schools have been established, one at Newport, R. I., the other at San Francisco, Cal. The Surgeon General assigns, through the Bureau of Navigation, all of the personnel under his charge to their respective duties, keeping himself constantly in touch with all specially qualified in vari- ous professional lines. He also has charge of the upkeep and operations of the three Naval Medical Supply Depots (Brooklyn, Mare Island and Canacao), medical laboratories, dis- pensaries, and technical schools for the Medical and Hospital Corps. The Naval Medical School, in connection with the Naval Hospital, Washing- OPERATING BOOM OF THE U. S. HOSPITAL SHIP "SOLACE" 536 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES HOISTING A PATIENT ON BOARD THE "SOLACE" ton, D. C., provides most valuable post-graduate courses, and labora- tory facilities for research and in- vestigation. One of the most valuable assets of the Medical Department is the Hospital Ship "Solace," attached to the Atlantic Fleet, and even more so will be the magnificent new hos- pital ship authorized by the Sixty- fourth Congress. In addition to the many above en- umerated duties and responsibilities, the Surgeon General requisitions for all supplies, medicines, instruments, etc., used in the Medical Department of the Navy, and he has control of the preparation, reception, storage, care, custody, transfer, and issue of all supplies of every kind used in the Medical Department for its own purposes. And lastly, the numerous gallant activities on foreign shores which have made the name of the U. S. Marine Corps justly famous, are al- ways attended by their quotas of efficient, self-sacrificing, and heroic members of the Medical and Hospi- tal Corps of the U. S. Navy. BUREAU OF SUPPLIES AND ACCOUNTS The duties of the Bureau of Sup- plies and Accounts comprise all that pertains to the purchase, re- ceipt, care, issue and accounting for all supplies and materials for the Navy, which include provisions, clothing, coal, oil and general sup- plies; the preparation of standard specifications for all supplies; the shipment thereof, including trans- portation of coal and fuel oil and the location of the sources of supply. They also comprise the audit of property returns ; audit and payment of vouchers under contract ; payment of traveling expenses, gratuity claims and allotments made by of- ficers and enlisted men, and pay- ments to the Naval Reserve ; the recording of expenditures of money under the several appropriations and the distribution of costs to the vari- ous activities of the Naval estafr lishment. This bureau also admin isters the Commissary Department of the Navy and is responsible for procuring and issuing all food sup- plies to the enlisted men; it like* wise operates the two naval clothing factories where articles of uniform and clothing are manufactured for the men. HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE* The Hydrographic Office carries and navigational data from mar- on marine surveying in foreign iners, professional publications, Gov waters ; gathers hydrographic ernment officials, etc., at home and *The work of this office is of such importance that a special illustrated chapter dealing in part with this subject will be found on page 129. DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 537 abroad; prepares, prints, and issues navigational charts of foreign wa- ters to the Navy and other public services and sells them to the mer- chant marine and the public; sim- ilarly with regard to books of sail- ing directions for foreign waters and manuals and tables for navigators, except that their printing is done at the Government Printing Office. OFFICE OF THE JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL The act of March 2, 1865, au- thorized the President to appoint an officer in the Navy Department to be called "the Solicitor and Naval Judge Advocate General." The appointee pursuant to this act was carried on the Navy Regis- ter until 1870 when the Depart- ment of Justice was established. The act establishing the Department of Justice (June 22, 1870) provided that "the Solicitor and Naval Judge Advocate General, who shall here- after be known as the Naval Solici- tor," should be transferred to the Department of Justice. The incum- bent's name was then dropped from the Navy Register and placed upon the rolls of the Department of Jus- tice. At his death in 1878 he was succeeded by an Acting Judge Ad- vocate General, whose office was in the Navy Department until June 8, 1880, when the office of the Judge Advocate General of the Navy, as a part of the Department of the Navy, was established. The duties of the Judge Advocate General of the Navy are set forth in detail in the United States Navy Regulations, 1913, as follows: "The duties of the Judge Advocate General of the Navy shall be to re- vise and report upon the legal fea- tures of and have recorded the pro- c e e d i n g s of all courts-martial, courts of inquiry, boards of investi- gation, inquest, and boards for the examination of officers for retire- ment and promotion in the naval service; to prepare charges and specifications for courts-martial, and the necessary orders convening courts-martial in cases where such courts are ordered by the Secretary of the Navy; to prepare court-mar- tial orders promulgating the final action of the reviewing authority in court-martial cases; to prepare the necessary orders convening courts of inquiry in cases where such courts are ordered by the Secretary of the Navy, and boards for the examina- tion of officers for promotion and re- tirement, and for the examination of candidates for appointment as com- missioned officers in the Navy other than midshipmen, and to conduct all official correspondence relating to such courts and boards. "It is also the duty of the Judge Advocate General to examine and report upon all questions relating to rank and precedence, to promotions and retirements, and to the validity of the proceedings in court-martial cases, all matters relating to the supervision and control of naval prisons and prisoners [disciplinary ships and detentioners] ; the removal of the mark of desertion; the cor- rection of records of service and reporting thereupon in the Regular or Volunteer Navy; certification of discharge in true name; pardons; bills and resolutions introduced in Congress relating to the personnel and referred to the department for report, and the drafting and inter- pretation of statutes relating to the personnel; references to the Comp- troller of the Treasury with regard to pay and allowances of the per- sonnel ; questions involving points of law concerning the personnel; pro- ceedings in the civil courts in all cases concerning the personnel as such; and to conduct the corre- spondence respecting the foregoing duties, including the preparation for submission to the Attorney General of all questions relating to subjects coming under his own cognizance which the Secretary of the Navy may direct to be so referred." The study of International Law 538 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES has also recently been assigned to the office of the Judge Advocate General, and he is required to ex- amine and report, upon questions of international law. Because of the present European conflict and the strained relations between this country and Mexico, many intricate questions of present moment have arisen, such as the interference with American mail, removal of ex-en- listed men of the naval service from American ships, attempts by bellig- erent ships to board naval auxiliar- ies, the exercise of visit and search by them in territorial waters, etc. The subjects of the treatment of prisoners of war, while under the jurisdiction of the Navy Depart- ment, and of belligerent ships and individuals interned in this country, and the formulation of regulations to cover same, have also been assigned by regulation to this office. BOARD OF INSPECTION AND SURVEY The Board of Inspection and Sur- vey is charged, under specific di- rections in each case, with con- ducting preliminary and final ac- ceptance trials of all naval vessels as they come from the w r orks of the builders; with the survey and inspection of all naval vessels in service at least every three years and at such other times as condi- tions render such inspections neces- sary or desirable; with the inspec- tions of motorboats for coast defense and patrol purposes. A section of the Board of Inspection and Sur- vey, working with certain Army of- ficers, constitutes a Board for the Inspection of Merchant Auxiliaries. The board operates both directly and through sub-boards. OFFICE OF THE SOLICITOR The duties of the Solicitor com- prise and relate to examination and report upon questions of law, includ- ing the drafting and interpretation of statutes, and matters submitted to the accounting officers not relat- ing to the personnel ; preparation of advertisements, proposals, and con- tracts ; insurance ; patents ; the suf- ficiency of official, contract, and other bonds and guaranties ; pro- ceedings in the civil courts by or against the Government or its offi- cers in cases relating to material and not concerning the personnel as such; claims by or against the Gov- ernment ; questions submitted to the Attorney General, except such as are under the cognizance of the Judge Advocate General; bills and con- gressional resolutions and inquiries not relating to the personnel and not elsewhere assigned ; the search- ing of titles, purchase, sale, trans- fer, and other questions affecting lands and buildings pertaining to the Navy; the care and preservation of all muniments of title to land ac- quired for naval uses ; and the cor- respondence respecting the foregoing duties ; and rendering opinion upon any matter or question of law re- ferred to him by the Secretary or Assistant Secretary. MAJOR GENERAL COMMANDANT OF THE MARINE CORPS The Major General Commandant of the Marine Corps is responsible to the Secretary of the Navy for the general efficiency and discipline of the corps; makes such distribution of officers and men. for duty at the several shore stations as shall ap- pear to him to be most advantageous for the interests of the service ; fur- nishes detachments for vessels of the Navy according to the author- ized scale of allowance: issues or- ders for the movement of officers and troops, and such other orders and instructions for their guidance as may be necessary; arid has charge and exercises general super- vision and control of the recruiting service of the corps, and of the necessary expenses thereof, includ- ing the establishment of recruiting stations. CHAPTER XI. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR THE Secretary of the Interior is charged with the supervision of public business relating to pat- ents for inventions, pensions and bounty lands, the public lands and surveys, the Indians, education, the Geological Survey, the Reclamation Service, the Bureau of Mines, na- tional parks, distribution of appro- priations for agricultural and me- chanical colleges in the States and Territories and certain hospitals and eleemosynary institutions in the Dis- trict of Columbia. By authority of the President the Secretary of the Interior has general supervision over the work of completing the survey of routes for railroads in the Terri- tory of Alaska. He also exercises certain other powers and duties in relation to the Territories of the United States. FIRST ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR In the absence of the Secretary the First Assistant Secretary be- comes Acting Secretary. He is espe- cially charged with supervision of the business of the General Land Office, including cases appealed to the Secretary of the Interior from decisions of that bureau involving public lands ; applications for ease- ments or rights of way for reser- voirs, ditches, railroads, telephone and power-transmission lines ; selec- tions of public lands under grants made by Congress to aid in the con- struction of railroads and wagon roads, for reclamation, and for the benefit of educational and other pub- lic institutions, etc. Indian affairs affecting the disposal of the public domain are under his supervision. He considers proposed legislation pertaining to matters under his ad- ministration. From time to time duties in connection with the affairs of other bureaus of the department are assigned to him. ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR The Assistant Secretary has gen- eral supervision over all matters concerning the Indian Office (except those which relate to the work of the General Land Office and are for- warded through that office), the Pat- ent Office, the Bureau of Mines, the Pension Office (including appeals from the decisions of the Commis- sioner of Pensions), the execution of contracts and the approval of vouchers covering expenditures of money for the eleemosynary insti- tutions under the Department of the Interior in the District of Columbia (including Saint Elizabeth's Hospi- tal, formerly the Government Hospi- tal for the Insane), and various miscellaneous matters over which the department has jurisdiction. He also considers proposed legislation pertaining to the department. Copyright by Muun & Co., Inc. 540 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ASSISTANT TO THE SECRETARY This officer is charged with the general supervision of matters re- lating to the eleemosynary institu- tions under the Department of the Interior in the District of Columbia, the Bureau of Education, the na- tional parks, national monuments, and the Territories. CHIEF CLERK As the chief executive officer of the department and the administra- tive head of the Office of the Secre- tary the chief clerk has supervision over the clerks and other employees of the department (including the watch, mechanical and labor forces), enforces the general regulations of the department, and is superintend- ent of the several buildings occu- pied by the department. He also supervises the classification and compilation of all estimates of ap- propriations. The detailed work re- lating to eleemosynary institutions in the District of Columbia under the Department of the Interior, the office of the returns clerk, and mis- cellaneous matters is done in his office. During the absence of the Secretary and Assistant Secretaries he may be designated by the Secre- tary to sign official papers and documents. COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS The Commissioner of Patents is charged with the administration of the patent laws, and supervision of all matters relating to the granting of letters patent for inventions, and the registration of trade-marks. He is by statute made the tribunal of last resort in the Patent Office, and has appellate jurisdiction in the trial of interference cases, of the patentability of inventions, and of registration of trade-marks. THE UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C, DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 541 THE PATENT OFFICE* The duties of the Patent Office or its functions with respect to the inventor* may be classified un- der a few heads. Each of these is of great importance and it is thought that the simplicity of the classification may aid somewhat in understanding fully just what the Patent Office does for an inventor. In the first place, it is the keeper of records, maintaining as it does in well classified form the patents is- much of these records as may be desired by the public. The registration of trade-marks and labels and the granting of pat- ents for designs also come within the duties of the Patent Office^ as well as the recordation of assign- ments and other instruments in writ- ing affecting the title to patents. It also maintains among its rec- ords the pending applications for patents, which are not open to pub- INTERIOR VIEW OF THE PATENT OFFICE sued by the United States, and also the patents issued by numerous foreign nations which issue Let- ters Patent for inventions. Inci- dentally, it permits the inspection of these records by inventors or those acting for them and also furnishes certified and uncertified copies of so lie inspection except to the appli- cant or those acting by his authority, and forfeited and abandoned appli- cations which, like the pending ap- plications, are not open to public inspection. The Patent Office also examines patent applications and determines ""There is a special historical chapter on the Patent Office, page 199. 542 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES the propriety of issuing patents on the same, this procedure including appeals within the Patent Office from the Primary Examiners to the Board of Examiners-in-Chief, thence to the Commissioner and thence to the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia, the Commissioner in appeals to the court being repre- sented usually by one of his law examiners. The Patent Office also includes the court of first resort in interference cases, that is to say, cases wherein two or more inventors are claiming the same patentable subject matter, and it is for the Patent Office to decide whether patent shall issue to the applicant whom it may be deter- mined was first to make the inven- tion. This procedure also contem- plates appeals to the Board of Examiners-in-Chief and thence to the Commissioner and to the Court of Appeals. It is believed that under the fore- going heads all of the functions of the Patent Office can be classified. The course of a patent application through the Patent Office is ordi- narily a simple one. The applica- tion, including the petition, specifica- tion and oath and drawing and the first Government fee of $15, being deposited with the Financial Clerk, the application papers and drawings find their way to the application room and draftsmen's room, and when the application is found in proper form is forwarded by the chief of the application room to the Primary Examiner in whose class the particular invention is found to belong. The application is then ex- amined in the order of its filing in such Examiner's division, and if it be found in condition for allowance, or when it is so found, it is trans- mitted to the Issue Division, which issues a circular of allowance. Then if the second Government fee of $20 be paid into the Patent Office within six months from the date of allow- ance of the application, the patent will in a .few weeks issue and be forwarded to the applicant or his attorney. If objections are found to the application either in form or in substance, considerable time is in- volved in many cases in adjusting these matters to bring the applica- tion into condition for allowance or for final rejection. The Primary Examiner, through one of his assistants, considers the application in the first instance, and if it is found allowable by the Pri- mary Examiner, either in first form or as amended, the case passes to the Issue Division without consider- ation by those higher in authority. On the other hand, if objections re- lating to form are found these may be reviewed by petition to the Com- missioner direct. If the objections go to the merits, such for instance as a rejection on the ground .that the invention is not new in view of any particular reference cited, appeal may be taken to the Board of Examiners-in-Chief. 'A petition relating to form involves no Gov- ernment fee, while a petition affect- ing the merits and going to the Board of Examiners-in-Chief calls for a Government fee of $10. Such is the course of a patent application when actually filed. To aid inventors and their attor neys in determining the probable novelty of any particular invention, the Patent Office maintains a Search Room containing the U. S. patents classified according to the official practice and arranged in suitable stacks or racks so that if the inven- tion be, for instance, a Nut Lock, the searcher may secure the bundle containing patents for such devices, or if it be a dynamo or a telephone, he can secure the bundle having the particular character of such devices to which the invention he is search- ing relates. The Patent Office is not a bureau of information and does not un- dertake to answer miscellaneous in- quiries relative to patents, nor to express any opinion in advance of the filing of a formal application for patent as to the patentability of any particular invention. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 543 COMMISSIONER OF PENSIONS The Pension Bureau, which is said to be the largest bureau in the Government service, and the only bureau which occupies a build- ing erected for its especial use, is the active agency through which there was paid out last year one There are now on the pension roll about four hundred thousand males and three hundred thousand widows. Death is making sad havoc among their numbers. Last year there died, of Civil War soldiers, 34,252; and of widows, 19,957. THE PENSION OFFICE hundred and sixty millions of dol- lars of pensions to more than seven hundred thousand pensioners. At times some magazine article complains of the amount of pensions, but it will be noticed by those who have knowledge of the recent allow- ances in Canada, Australia and Great Britain, that the amount paid to an individual here is less than that now paid in other countries. The modern tendency is to care more for the private soldier. This is justified by two viewpoints one is that he is the most valuable com- ponent part of an army and should be kept efficient and encouraged both by good care of him and of his family. The other reason is humanity, which now pays more re- gard to the humbler member as a unit of society. Besides the Commissioner, there are 1,200 employees transacting the necessary business of the Pension Bureau. Applications are not so numerous as formerly, yet there were more than sixty-five thousand received during last year, and 68,549 new certificates were issued. The total cost of administration was only 1 per cent of the pensions paid out, which is lower than ever before. It is believed that, under the present administration, the pension laws have been faithfully executed in an efficient and economic manner. Every beneficiary has been given that to which the law entitled him. An additional pension of $10 per month has been allowed to soldiers and sailors holding medals of honor. The Act of September 8, 1916, in- creases from $12 to $20 per month 544 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES the widows of Mexican and Civil War soldiers who are seventy years of age, or who were married to the soldier during the period of his serv- ice. That act also makes pension- able widows of Civil War soldiers who married prior to June 27, 1905, and certain remarried widows. Formerly payment to the pen- sioner was delayed, but now the check is delivered to him on the exact date when due. Recently methods have been much simpli- fied. The expense of executing vouchers has been eliminated a saving to the soldiers themselves of many thousands of dollars and they are no longer required to ex- hibit their certificates each time of indorsement of the check. COMMISSIONER OF INDIAN AFFAIRS The Commissioner of Indian Af- Alaska), their education, lands, fairs has charge of the Indian tribes moneys, schools, purchase of sup- of the United States (exclusive of plies, and general welfare. COMMISSIONER The Commissioner of Education collects statistics and general in- formation showing the condition and progress of education, issues an an- nual report, a bulletin in several numbers annually, and miscella- neous publications; has charge of OF EDUCATION the schools for the education of native children in Alaska ; super- vises the reindeer industry in Alas- ka, and administers the endowment fund for the support of colleges for the benefit of agriculture and me- chanic arts. See page 255. UNITED STATES RECLAMATION SERVICE 1 UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY* GENERAL LAND OFFICE The General Land Office is the oldest and in many respects the largest and most important Bureau of the Department of the Interior; it has jurisdiction over all mat- ters pertaining to the survey and disposition of the public lands of the United States, exclusive of lands in the insular possessions; also, in point of number of cases and values involved, the General Land Office, in the determination of questions with respect to title to public lands, exercises judicial func- tions of vast importance. Its inter- nal organization consists of the Washington office, the local United States land offices, the offices of Sur- veyors General, the field surveying organization and the field service organization, making a total of about one hundred and twenty-five branch offices and headquarters, principally in the Western States. This bureau employs altogether about sixteen hundred people. Con- trary to popular belief the business of this department has not decreased in recent years, and, owing to new legislation and change of govern- mental policies, its work is. increas- ingly complicated and exacting. NATIONAL BUREAU OF MINES The National Bureau of Mines, tive July 1, 1910. under the Department of the In- terior, was created by act of Con- gress, approved May 16 and effec- This act was amended by an act, effective Feb- ruary 25, 1913, which provides that the Bureau of Mines is to be a "The work of the United States Reclamation Service and of the United States Geological Survey is of such importance that special chapters on these subjects are given in the first part of the book. See pages 87 and 119. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 545 bureau of mining, metallurgy and mineral technology, and that the duty of the bureau shall be to con- duct scientific and technologic in- vestigations concerning mining, and the preparation, treatment and utilization of mineral substances with a view to improving health conditions and increasing safety, efficiency and economic development, and conserving resources through the prevention of waste in the mining, quarrying, metallurgical and other mineral industries ; to inquire into the economic conditions affect- ing these industries; to investigate explosives and peat; and on behalf of the Government to investigate the mineral fuels and unfinished mineral products belonging to, or for the use of, the United States, with a view to their most efficient mining, prep- aration, treatment and use; and to disseminate information concerning these subjects. The act further pro- vides that no member of the bureau shall have any. personal or private interest in any mine or the products of any mine under investigation, or shall accept employment from any private party for services in the ex- amination of any mine or private mineral property, or issue any report as to the valuation or the manage- ment of any mine or other private mineral property. This provision, however, does not apply to the tem- porary employment in a consulting capacity of experts whose principal practice is outside of the bureau. Another section of the act directs that a reasonable fee covering neces- sary expenses shall be charged by the bureau in making tests other than those for the Government of the United States or State govern- ments. The inquiries and investigations being carried on by the bureau un- der the provisions of this act cover a wide variety of subjects and are too numerous to mention here. The chief experiment station of the bu- reau is in Pittsburgh, Pa. Work re- lating to the causes and prevention of mine explosions, to which the bu- reau has given special attention, and other mining problems, includes laboratory tests, the examination of mines and experiments in an experi- mental mine near Pittsburgh under conditions simulating those of com- mercial operations. In order to carry on investiga- tions and educational work for greater safety in mining, the Bureau of Mines has six mine-rescue sta- tions situated in different mining regions of the country, and also operates eight mine-rescue cars and two rescue trucks. These cars and trucks, manned by trained crews, are constantly ready to give aid, when requested by State officials, at a mine disaster. The cars move from point to point in the regions in which they are stationed, and the crews demonstrate safe methods of mining and the use of rescue apparatus and first-aid appliances. An act of Congress, approved March 3, 1915, authorizes the estab- lishment and maintenance under the Bureau of Mines of ten mining ex- periment and seven mine safety sta- tions (mine rescue cars), in addi- tion to those already established, not more than three of each class of stations to be established in any one year. It is expected that through these stations the safety work of the bureau will be made more effective, and that the investigations for in- creasing efficiency in the handling and utilization of mineral resources will be enlarged and extended. Copyright by Munn & Co. How Five People Can Live on $8.03 a Week Actual Supply for a Week of Meat, Groceries, Bread, Etc. Flgureis supplied by Dep't of Health, New York, Nov. 17, 1916 THE BALANCED RATION CHAPTEK XII. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE* SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE THE Secretary of Agriculture is supervision and control over the af charged with the work of pro- fairs of the department and formu- moting agriculture in its broad- lates and establishes the general est sense. He exercises general policies to be pursued. ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE The Assistant Secretary of Agri- assists in the general supervision of culture becomes Acting Secretary in the work of the department at all the absence of the Secretary and times. CHIEF CLERK The chief clerk has general super- buildings, etc. He is responsible for vision of clerks and employees ; of the enforcement of the general regu- the records and correspondence of lations of the department and is the Secretary's office; and of ex- custodian of the buildings occupied penditures from appropriations for by the department in the city of miscellaneous expenses, rent of Washington. SOLICITOR The solicitor is charged by law department, conducts its legal work, (act of May 26, 1910) with the direc- and represents it in all legal mat- tion of the legal work of the depart- ters. He approves, in advance of ment. Accordingly, he acts as legal issue, all orders and regulations adviser to the Secretary and the promulgated by the Secretary under heads of the several branches of the statutory authority. OFFICE OF FARM MANAGEMENT This office studies the details of types of farming prevailing in the farm practice. Its main object is various sections of the country are to improve farm practice by intro- being studied in a number of locali- ducing better business methods and ties, and a detailed study of farm by applying the principles of sci- economics and business principles is ence wherever they are known. The being made. "There is a special chapter on "Agriculture," page 37. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 548 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES APPOINTMENT CLERK The appointment clerk prepares ence with the Civil Service Commis- all papers connected with appoint- sion. He is the custodian of oaths inents, transfers, promotions, reduc- of office and personal reports. He tions, details, furloughs, and remov- has the custody and use of the . als, and has charge of correspond- department seal. SUPPLY DIVISION The chief of the supply division poses of property turned in by the purchases and distributes stationery various offices when it is of no fur- and miscellaneous supplies and dis- ther use to them. OFFICE OF EXHIBITS The office of exhibits handles the the department in preparing exposi- correspontfence of the department tion material ; ships, installs, and relative to exhibits at fairs and ex- cares for such exhibits ; and investi- positions of various kinds; co-oper- gates methods of displaying them to ates with the several branches of best advantage. OFFICE OF INFORMATION The office of information is estab- from oral statements of specialists, lished to secure the widest possible Material so disseminated is set forth circulation for the discoveries and in such form as to attract attentiot recommendations of the scientists and lead to the adoption of the and field workers of the department, methods recommended. A Weekly It gives out to the public press facts News Letter to Crop Correspondents taken from publications and also is published. FOREST APPEALS This officer investigates for the from decisions of the Forest Service Secretary of Agriculture appeals and reports to the Secretary. UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU By C. F. MARVIN CHIEF U. S. WEATHER BUREAU THE history of the Weather ings; the display of weather, frost Bureau as an organization be- and flood signals for the benefit of gins with the passage of the agriculture, commerce and naviga- act of Congress, approved February tion; the gaging and reporting of 9, 1870, which authorized and re- rivers; the maintenance and opera- quired the Secretary of War to pro- tion of seacoast telegraph lines and vide for the taking of meteorological the collection and transmission of observations throughout the United marine intelligence for the benefit States and for giving telegraphic of commerce and navigation ; the re- notice on the Takes and seacoast of porting of temperature and rainfall the approach of storms. Since its conditions for the cotton interests, establishment the scope of its work and the taking of such meteorologi- has been gradually extended until cal observations as may be neces- now its functions as defined by law sary to establish and record the cli- embrace the forecasting of the matic conditions of the United weather ; the issue of storm warn- States, or are essential for the prop- DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 549 er execution of the foregoing duties. From the date of its organization until July 1, 1891, the weather ser- vice was conducted as a branch of the Signal Corps, under the direc- tion of the Chief Signal Officer of the Army, but on the date mentioned it was transferred to the Depart- ments of Agriculture and made a bu- reau of that Department, under its present designation. The Weather Bureau is probably best known to the general public sphere. The results of the twice- daily observations are immediately telegraphed to the Central Office at Washington, D. C., where they are charted for study and interpretation by experts trained to forecast weath- er conditions which may be expected to prevail during the following thirty-six to forty-eight hours. From these data the forecaster, by com- parison with preceding reports, is able to trace the paths of storm areas from the time of their appear- CENTRAL OFFICE OF THE U. S. WEATHER BUREAU, WASHINGTON, D, C. through the exercise of its principal and most important function, the is- sue of the daily weather forecasts. These forecasts are based upon simultaneous observations of local weather conditions taken daily at 8 A. M. and 8 P. M., 75th meridian time, at about two hundred regular observing stations scattered through- out the United States and the West Indies, and upon similar reports re- ceived daily from various points in other parts of the northern hemi- ance to the moment of observation, and approximately determine and forecast tl^eir subsequent courses and the resultant weather conditions. Forecast centers have also been established at Chicago, 111.; New Orleans, La. ; Denver, Colo. ; San Francisco, Cal. ; and Portland, Ore. Within two hours after the morning observations have been taken the forecasts are telegraphed from the forecast centers to about 1,700 prin- cipal distributing points, whence 550 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES they are further disseminated by telegraph, telephone and mail. The forecasts reach nearly 100,000 ad- dresses daily by mail, the greater part being delivered early in the day, and none later, as a rule, than 6 P. M. of the day of issue, and are available to more than 5,000,000 tel- ephone subscribers within an hour of the time of issue. This system of forecast distribution is wholly un- der the supervision and mainly at the expense of the Government, and is in addition to and distinct from the distribution effected through the press associations and the daily newspapers. The rural free mail de- livery system and rural telephone lines are also being utilized to bring within the benefits of this system a large number of farming com- munities. A careful comparison of the forecasts with the weather con- ditions occurring over the regions and during the periods covered shows that approximately ninety per cent of the forecasts are veri- fied. The daily weather maps, based on the data contained in the morning telegraphic reports, are issued as soon as practicable after these re- ports are received. On these maps the salient features of the current weather conditions throughout the country are graphically represented, accompanied by a synopsis of these conditions; in addition to which complete reports from all the ob- serving stations are presented in tab- ulated form. In order that all sec- tions of the country may receive weather data, maps or bulletins con- taining the data in tabulated form, are issued from about one hundred of the larger stations. The ocean meteorological service aims to collect, through the co-opera- tion of vessel masters and others, meteorological observations at sea. The recent development in the art of radio-telegraphy has made possible the transmission of meteorological observations made by ships at sea to shore stations, thence by land lines to a central meteorological service. The Weather Bureau has organized a system of meteorological observations on vessels navigating the coastal waters of the middle and South Atlantic States, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, the primary object being to gain infor- mation of sub-tropical storms which occasionally traverse the waters above named. Distribution of weath- MARVIN ELECTRICAL SUNSHINE RECORDER er information, forecasts, arid warn- ings is made daily by radio service through the co-operation of the radio service of the United States Navy. Although the two hundred regu- lar observing stations, each repre- senting about 16,000 square miles of territory, furnish sufficient data upon which to base the various fore- casts, observations at many inter- mediate points are necessary before DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 551 the climatology of the United States can be properly studied. This need has given rise to the establishment of an important and interesting fea- ture of the Weather Bureau in its Climatological Service. This service is divided into forty-four local sec- tions, each, as a rule, covering a single State, and having for its cen- ter a regular observing station. These centers collect temperature and rainfall observations from more than 4,000 co-operative stations and publish these data in the form of monthly reports which are given a widespread distribution. During the growing season (from April to September, inclusive) each section also receives mail reports from nu- merous correspondents (aggregating for all sections about 7,500) con- cerning the effects of the weather upon crops and farming operations, these reports being used to compile data for weekly bulletins. During the same season the Central Office at Washington issues a National Weather and Crop Bulletin contain- ing a series of charts graphically illustrating current and normal con- ditions of temperature and rainfall for the entire country, a general summary of the .weather, and brief reports on the condition of the crops for each State. Throughout the cot- ton, corn, wheat, sugar and rice pro- ducing sections designated centers receive telegraphic reports of rain- fall and daily extremes of tempera- ture from nearby points for publi- cation in bulletin form, each local center receiving condensed reports from all others. By the assistance of several thou- sand co-operative observers, many of whom have maintained local records for long periods, the Weather Bu- reau endeavors to collect special lo- cal data and thus perfect the records that are needed for the study of the relation between climate and agri- culture, forestry, water resources, and other kindred subjects. The re- sults of these observations appear in detail in monthly and annual re- ports published at the respective sec- tion centers. A division of the bureau, known as the Division of Agricultural Meteorology, has for its lines of work the application of meteorology to the needs and interests of agri- culture ; conducting studies of mete- orological and climatic conditions in their relation to agriculture and the growth and yield of crops ; conduct- ing investigations of the effect of THERMOMETER SHELTER AND RAIN GAGE (Outfit of a "Co-operative Observer") weather and climate upon plant growth; determination of the dis- tribution of frost warnings and fore- casts to special agricultural inte- rests ; conducting studies for the pro- tection of crops and orchards from frosts, and distributing information as to the effect of the weather and climate on crops, through the medi- um of the National Weather and Crop Bulletin and other publications. Among the publications of the Weather Bureau, the following are worthy of special notice : 552 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES MARVIN METEOROGRAPH SENT ALOFT WITH A KITE FOR TTPPER-AIR INVESTIGATIONS The Monthly Weather Review, which has been published regularly since January, 1873, and which con- tains elaborate meteorological tables and charts showing the weather con- ditions for the month over the United States and neighboring coun- tries. The reports of the sections of the Climate and Crop Service, showing in detail the climatic conditions of the month. The Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin, which gives in detail the weather conditions that have pre- vailed throughout the country dur- ing the week and its effects upon the crops. The occasional bulletins, now num- bering about seventy, containing the larger reports made by the experts of the service. The library of the Weather Bu- reau contains about 32,000 books and pamphlets, consisting principally of technical books on meteorology and allied sciences, and of published climatological data from all parts of the world. It is available to all Weather Bureau officials and to stu- dents of meteorology generally, who either consult it personally or through correspondence. In addition to its general card catalogue, it keeps up to date a catalogue of the meteorological contents of the prin- cipal scientific serials of the world. The Annual Report of the Chief of Bureau presents a full summary of climatic data for the United States. The apparatus used at Weather Bureau stations for recording weath- er conditions is largely the result of improvements devised by the In- strument Division, to which is In- trusted the care of all standards. The kites, meteorographs, self-regis- tering instruments, and other forms of apparatus devised by the Weather Bureau are favorably known throughout the world. The Bureau has a force of scien- tists and trained employees engaged in research work in connection with upper air conditions and solar radia- tion and investigations in seismol- ogy. The extent to which the work of the Weather Bureau, in the collec- tion and publication of data and the issue of weather forecasts and warn- ings, affects the daily life of the people and becomes a factor in their various avocations and business en- terprises, already very great, is in- creasing yearly. The uses made of the daily fore- casts are so numerous and well known as to call for no remark, but the value to the manifold business interests of the country of the pub- lication of weather data and the dissemination of warnings of excep- tionally severe and injurious weath- er conditions, such as storms and hurricanes, cold waves, frosts, floods, heavy rains and snows, is not so generally understood. Of the warn- ings mentioned, those of storms and hurricanes, issued for the benefit of marine interests, are the most im- portant and pecuniarily .valuable. Storm warnings are displayed at nearly 300 points along the Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf coasts and the shores of the Great Lakes, including every port and harbor of any con- siderable importance; and so nearly perfect has this service become that scarcely a storm of marked danger to maritime interests has occurred DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 553 Photo Harris & Ewing FOBECASTING THE WEATHER AT THE WEATHER BUREAU, WASHINGTON, D. C. for years for which ample warnings have not been issued from twelve to twenty-four hours in advance. The sailings of the immense number of vessels engaged in our ocean and lake traffic are largely determined by these warnings, and those dis- played for a single hurricane are known to have detained in port on our Atlantic coast vessels valued, with their cargoes, at over $30,- 000,000. The warnings of those sudden and destructive temperature changes known as cold waves are probably next in importance. These warnings, which are issued from twenty-four to thirty-six hours in advance, are disseminated throughout the threat- ened regions by means of flags dis- played on regular Weather Bureau and sub-display stations, by tele- graph, telephone, and mail service to all places receiving daily forecasts, and to a large number of special addresses in addition. The beneficial results of these warnings are mani- fold. Precautions are taken for the safeguarding of personal comfort and health, and the protection from freezing of produce of all kinds, steam and water pipes, hot house plants, and flowers. Railroads regu- late the size and movement of their freight trains, ice men prepare for harvesting, and many plans for busi- ness and pleasure are made on the expectation of the conditions fore- cast. The warnings issued in Janu- ary, 1896, for a single cold wave of exceptional severity and extent, re- sulted, according to reports, in the saving of over $3,500,000 in the pro- tection of property from injury or destruction. The warnings of frost and freez- ing weather are also of immense value, particularly to the fruit, sugar, tobacco, cranberry and mar- ket gardening interests. The early truck raising industry, so extensive- ly carried on in the regions border- 554 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES WEATHER BUREAU STATION OP THE "OBSERVATORY" TYPE AT PEORIA ing on the Gulf and South Atlantic coasts, and in Florida, and which has increased so greatly in the last few years, is largely dependent for its success on the co-operation of the Weather Bureau in this particu- lar, and the growers of citrus and other fruits liable to injury by frosts or freezing weather have in- vested large sums in tents, screens, heating, smudging, and irrigating ap- paratus for the protection of their groves and orchards, which they put into use when notified by the bureau of the expected occurrence of in- juriously low temperatures. The commerce of our rivers is greatly aided and lives and property in regions subject to overflow are protected by the publication of the river stages and the issue of river and flood forecasts based on reports received from about five hundred special river and rainfall stations. On the occasion of the flood of 1897 in the lower Mississippi Valley live stock and other movable property to the estimated value of about $15,000,000 was removed from the inundated regions prioi to the flood, as a result of the warnings by the bureau a week in advance of its occurrence. In the raisin-growing districts of California rain forecasts are of great value. The raisin crop while growing is extremely susceptible to injury from rain, and the warnings enable the producers to protect the fruit by stacking and covering the trays. The accuracy of the rain fore- casts for this region and the system for their distribution have been such that practically no loss from this cause has occurred for years. Shippers of perishable produce and goods liable to injury by heat or cold are guided largely by the weather reports in making ship- ments and in directing their move- ments while on the road. Large dealers in produce, by careful atten- tion to the daily reports and the weekly crop bulletins, inform them- selves as to the regions where con- ditions most favorable for certain crops have occurred, and are thus enabled to judge of the probable sup- ply and purchase to advantage. Con- structors of waterworks, bridges, culverts, and sewers consult the rain- fall records to ascertain the maxi- mum water flow they will have to allow for. Architects of iron and steel structures and tall buildings study the records of maximum and minimum temperatures and wind velocity, in order to estimate the contraction and expansion and amount of wind pressure their build- ings must be prepared to withstand. From the information as to clima- tic conditions made known through the reports, invalids and tourists are enabled to select the locations best suited to their health and pleasure, and manufacturers and agricultur- ists the regions best adapted for the carrying on of their particular in- dustries. By the recent expansion of STREET WEATHER MAP, ATLANTIC CITY, N, J, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 555 the system of snowfall observations throughout the mountain regions ad- jacent to the Great Plains, it has been made possible to forecast the probable flow in the rivers of the arid regions, a factor of great im- portance in irrigation. The records of the bureau are of frequent use as evidence in courts of law, for which purpose they have been de- cided competent evidence by the Su- preme Court of the United States. The conduct of the regular sta- tions of observations outside of Washington requires the constant services of about six hundred, and the business of the Central Office at Washington of about two hundred employees. The annual disburse- ments of the bureau amount to about $1,600,000. The numerous offices of the bureau throughout the country are always open during business hours and the public are cordially invited to visit them and avail themselves of the information contained in the records there on file. BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY The Bureau of Animal Industry has charge of the work of the de- partment relating to the live-stock industry. In general it deals with the investigation, control, and eradi- cation of diseases of animals, the in- spection and quarantine of live stock, the inspection of meat and meat food products, and with animal husbandry and dairying. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY The Bureau of Plant Industry stu- dies plant life -in all its delations to agriculture. The scientific work of the bureau is divided into twenty- seven distinct groups, over each of which is placed a scientifically trained officer, who reports directly to the chief and assistant chief of the bureau. The work of the bureau is conducted on the project plan, the investigations under each of the offices being arranged by group pro- jects consisting of closely related lines of work, which group of projects are still further divided into projects. THE WORK OF THE FOREST SERVICE 1 The Forest Service is charged with the administration and pro- tection of the 152 National forests. These forests comprise over 155 million acres of land, have an esti- mated stand of 600 billion board feet of timber, supply range for 14 million head of livestock, and contain water power valued at about $200,000,000. In addition to caring for the National forests, the Forest Service conducts investigations of improved methods of utilizing and marketing all classes of forest prod- ucts ; carries on studies to determine possible uses for wood waste, and co-operates with private individuals and corporations in solving prob- lems relative to the use of wood in general. Under the provisions of the Weeks Law, the Forest Service examines lands in the Southern Ap- palachian and White Mountain re- gions which are offered for sale to the Government and protects and ad- ministers such lands after their pur- chase, in addition to co-operating with various States in forest fire protection. Finally, information in regard to the relation of forests to the general welfare is collected and disseminated. "This subject is so important that a special illustrate^ chapter will be foun4 Inaugural Procession 450 Indian Population ^ Industrial Preparedness 245 Insurance, War Risk 504 Intensive Agriculture a Interior, Department of the . . . 539 Internal Revenue, Commission ot. . 4b Interstate Commerce Commission.. 5 Inventors, Hired ^4 Iron Ore and Iron ^u Iron Ore, Chromic |* Iron World's Production of loJ Irrigation (See Reclamation) Isochronic Distances of the World . . 34b Jupiter Justice, Department of. Jute 436 213 K Knit Goods 213 Kodak, Autographic Patent 206 Labor, Department of Labor Statistics, Bureau of Land and Sea, Profiles of Land Office, General Languages of the World Laths Laundries Lead, WorldV 'Production of Leather Industry Legislative Halls Library of Congress Libraries y Lighthouses, Bureau of 135, Lightning Lightships Lime Limestone Production Lincoln Highway Linoleum Live Stock Livingstone Lobsters :: Y Locks, Panama .* 110,111, Locomotive, Powdered Coal Burning Locomotives Lumber Cut Lumber Production M Machine Guns 29 * Magnesite *%* Mail Cars ^X Maine, Ensign of the. ** Males and Females, Proportion of. 30 572 574 6, 7 544 25 77 222 182 197 219 455 261 260 566 418 138 195 196 106 214 60 5 71 113 151 147 76 77 Manganese ...,.....,..... Manufactures Maps, Geologic Marble Production Mars Maxim, Sir Hiram Meat Packing Median Point Medicine and Surgery, Bureau of.. Men of Progress Metallic Products, Miscellaneous . . . Metals, Scrap Meteors Mica Mileage, Railway, of the U. S Military Aviation Military Bureaus Military Establishment Militia, Peace Strength of 280, Milk, Condensed Milky Way Mineral Industry of the U. S Mineral Paints Mines, Bureau of 191, 193, Mining Accidents Mint, Director of the Minting of Coins Mirage Money, Destruction of Old Money in Circulation Money, Uncle Sam's Monuments, National ' Moon 434, Motion Pictures in the Making Motorcycles Moving Picture Studio, First Moving Pictures Under Water Mules and Horses Mussel N National Museum National Parks, Our Nation, Heart of the Natural Gas Naturalization Nauen Wireless Station Naval Consulting Board Naval Officers Navigation, Bureau of 528, Navy, Cost of Navy, Department of the. Navy, Enlisted Men Navy Expenditures Navy, The New Navy Increase Since 1903 Navy, Secretary of the Naval Observatory Navy, Vessels of Nebulae Negro Population Newspaper Plant, Railway Nickel Non-Metallic Products Notes Issued and Redeemed m 211 120 196 436 208 61 22 534 201 184 186 437 196 146 375 511 282 289 213 430 177 196 544 195 496 313 421 292 294 293 101 438 399 217 409 398 60 72 576 95 449 188 574 393 276 276 567 269 526 272 270 263 263 526 529 266 429 26 157 184 188 .296 Oats 4 Occupations "*.f5 Oilcloth . 214 Oils, Vegetable, World's Production of 18 ' INDEX 59? Ore Handling, Mechanical 244 Organization of Government 478 Organs 222 Paints and Varnishes 220 Paints, Mineral 190 Panama Canal 109 Panama Canal Zone 345 Pan-American Union 591 Paper 219 Parcel Post 162 Parks, National, Our 95 Passenger Service, Railway. ... 152, 154 Patent, Early 200 Patent Office 199, 540, 541 Patents Increasing 202 Peaches . . 54 Peary, Admiral 8 Peas 56 Pension Office 543 Petroleum 185, 187, 188 Philippine Islands 335 Phonographs 222 Phosphate Rock 192 Pianos 222 Pipe, Cast Iron 217 Planets 433 Plant Industry 555 Platinum 178 Poles 80 Pollock 70 Ponce de Leon 3 Population of the U. S ]9 Population of the World 23 Population, Center of 20, 22 Porto Rico 34 1 Portuguese Possessions 13 Possessions, Our Non-Contiguous... 327 Postmaster General 522 Postage Stamps, Making 171 Postal Savings 165 Postal Service 161 Post Office Department 522 Post Office Expenditures 168 Potash 192 Potatoes 45 Pottery Products 190 Powder, Naval 278 Power Development, Reclamation.. 91 Precious Stones, World's Production of 195, 197 Precipitation 421 Preparedness, Commercial and In- dustrial 245 President, Letter from the 172 President, The 405 Printing and Publishing 220 Printing Office, Government 582 Progress of Geographical Discovery. 11 Pulp, Wood 219 Purchases Made by U. S 240 Quarry Industry 196 Quicksilver 184 R Races of TJ. S 24 Races of the World 27 Radium 184 Railroads of the U. S 145 Railway Mail Railway Wireless Realm of the Air, The Reclamation Service Records, Aircraf i, Religions of the World Resources, National Revenue, Protection of . Rice ...'. Roads, Good and Bad Roads, Public, Office of. . Rolling Mills Roosevelt Dam Rosin Rubber Goods Rubber, World's Production of. Rural Free Delivery... Rye 50, Safety First Train Salt Samoan Islands . Sand I.'.;*. Sandstone Production Saturn 432, School Enrollment Scouting Aeroplanes Seal Fisheries Seal of the U. S Seaplanes Seasons, March of the Senate Chamber Sheep Sheep Raising Regions . Sleet Shipbuilding Shipping Board Ship Registry Act Ship Wireless Stations. . . Silk Silver ...!... Silver Production, World's.. Skins and Hides Sky Line, New York's . . . Slate Slaughtering and Meat Packing.. Small Arms, Military Smithsonian Institution Smudge Pots Smuggling Soap Soapstone South Pole Expedition Standards, Bureau of Stamps . . Stamps, Manufacture of . . . Starch Star Maps 439, Stars "Star Spangled Banner" State, Department of Steamboat Inspection Service Steam Cars Steam Engineering, Bureau of Steel Works St. Elmo's Fire Stockholders, Railway Street Railways Suffrage, Woman's Sugar Sugar, World's Production of Sulphur , 166 387 411 87 378 31 173 321 212 103 559 215 93 221 221 48 164 45 147 194 344 196 190 437 255 376 71 480 380 414 456 65 59 421 217 248 248 389 214 178 179 64 33 196 212 289 575 58 325 221 196 10 565 162 304 222 445 427 351 479 569 217 534 215 418 150 158 32 58 57 194 69* OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Sulphuric Acid 194 Supreme Court 461 Surf Boat 141 Survey, Coast and Geodetic 127 Survey, Geological 117 Survey, Hydrographic 129 Surveying, Romance of 125 Surveys, Government 119 Swine 65 Sword Fish 70 Talc 190 Talking Machines 222 Tariff Commission 248 Tea, World's Production of 55 Teachers 258 Telegraphic Communications of the World 382 Telegraphy, Wireless 383 Telephony Without Wires 392 Telescopes 425 Territory, Acquisition of 21 Textiles 213 Thunderstorms 417 Tide Predictor 131 Tile and Brick 190 Tile Fish 72 Timber Cut by Species 79 Timber Regions of the World 7S Timber Supply 75 Tin 180 Tin and Terne Plate 217 Tin. World's Production of 197 Titanium 18