illii mi M' Mm \M: / r> :,:., .ilTY OF :aufornia SAN 0IE6O COURSES OF READING AND STUDY COURSES OF READING AND STUDY IN THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA EDITORS: DANIEL COIT GILMAN, LL.D. HARRY THURSTON PECK, Ph.D., L.H.D. FRANK MOORE COLBY, M.A. NEW YORK DODD, MEAD & COMPANY 1905 Copyright, 1904, BY DoDD, Mead & Company Prksswork bv Tub Univfusitv Pkbss, Cambridcb, U. S. A preface THE purpose of the present volume, as its name suggests, is to offer help- towards self-instruction in the various arts and sciences, utilizing the- New International Encychpadia as a general text-book. There is little- need to emphasize in this place the role of popular educator played by a work like the Encyclopa-dia. This has been long recognized ; and, from a mere work of reference consulted at odd moments for fragments of information, the modern Encyclopaedia has become in thousands of homes a source of common culture, the basis of a thorough training in the principles and facts of History, Law, Literature, the Fine Arts, Religion, Biology, Engineering, Physics, Chemistry, or Agriculture. Especially where access to large libraries is difficult or impossible, its value is apparent. In every department of human knowledge, it speaks with a copiousness unequalled in the average text-book and a degree of authority attain- able only when every department, and subdivision of a department, is covered by an acknowledged specialist in the field. A glance at any chapter in the book will show the method pursued. The aim has been to make every chapter a complete summary of the subject with which it deals by arranging the material as the reader or student would find it arranged in a systematic treatise on the subject. The amount of text in each chapter has necessarily been reduced to a minimum, only so much being given as is essential to trace the connection between the successive groups of titles. But, when it is con- sidered that every title in every group represents from two or three hundred to fifteen thousand words of text, the completeness of treatment will be realized. Within the chapter the material has been divided and subdivided in such a manner as to facilitate study on special topics. If the reader, for instance, desii-es to make himself particularly well acquainted with a cei-tain period in American History, he need but turn to the proper section in Chapter I., where the subject of American Histoi-y is outlined in five sub-headings with as many groups of titles ; and at the end of the section on American History he will find a list of authorities in whose works he may carry on supplementary reading to any extent. In the same manner, a person interested in the ceremonial or hymnology or clerical vest- ments of the Roman Catholic Church will find these topics treated in related groups of titles as a section in the chapter on Religion. Under Chemistry one may study the entire subject, carefully outlined for such a purpose, or may con- centrate on the acids or the salts or the fats. In every chapter, the technical exposition is supplemented by comprehensive lists of biography wherein the histori- cal aspect of the subject finds complete treatment. In quoting titles in the lists, the form given is that, of course, which appears in the Encyclopaedia; as. Cruelty to Children, PREVENTroN of; or, MACHiXEKy, Economic Effects of. Where reference is made to a long article, the particular section is indicated; as, "See section The Renaissance under Sculiture,'" in which case, the reader will turn to Sculpture in the Encyclopaedia. In the biographical iv PREFACE titles, the full Christian name, or the corresponding initials, is given as a rule; as Adams, Samuel ; Adams, H., Kipling. The alphabetic arrangement of titles in the Encyclopadia makes reference to volume and page obviously superfluous. It is in its orderly marshalling of the material contained in the Encyclopaedia that we believe the value of this book consists. It is quite unlikely that the average reader, left to his own guidance, will plan his course in such a manner as to produce the fullest results with the least waste of time. Where the subject is unfamiliar, he is as apt at the start to hit upon the middle of it as upon the beginning, and, in passing from article to article, there is always the danger of his missing the logical sequence of topics. A mere index would here be useless. What is necessary is a carefully planned outline that shall lead the reader, step by step, from elementary principles to the most specialized treatment. Such a guide this Outline aims to be. The preparation of this volume, cairied on under the supervision of the Editors, has been in the direct charge of Mr. Simeox SxHUNsici', of the staff of the New Intematkmal Eiicyclopwdia. —The Editoks. Contents! chapter page 1. History 1 2. Law and Political Science 40 3. The Social Sciences 53 4. Anthropology 62 5. Religion 68 6. Education 85 7. Philosophy and Psychology 90 8. Language and Literature 99 9. The Fine Arts — Architecture 122 10. The Fine Arts — Sculpture and Painting 132 11. The Minor Arts 144 12. Music 148 13. JNIathematics 154 14. Astronomy 159 15. Physics ^ 163 16. Chemistry 170 17. Geology 178 18. Meteorology 189 19. Geography 192 20. Botany 196 21. Agriculture^ Horticulture, and Forestry .... 211 22. Zoology 220 23. INIanufactures and Engineering 232 24. Military and Naval Science 246 25. Medicine 260 26. Games and Sports 274 Qlljapt^r L l^fetnrg HISTORY, which we may define as the record of man's life on earth and the sum of his acliicvcments, would include in its hroadest aspect the entire story of human development from Pala;olithic man to the present day. As a matter of convenience, however, in this book we shall leave the beginnings of associated human life to be treated under the heading of Anthropology and Ethnology, where, too, will be found the material for the stories of those peoples and tribes which to the present day have remained without the pale of our civilization. Here we shall take up the narrative at a point in time when we first catch a glimpse of the nations whose culture, evolved during thousands of years, and passed on from hand to hand, has become the heritage of the present day. The traditional division into Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern history is followed, and in accordance with custom the account begins with the nations of the Mesopotamian region, and passes on through Persia and the empire of Alexander into Rome, where also the course of Egyptian, Jewish, Phoenician, and Greek history, taken up in turn, leads us. With Rome, Ancient liistory ends. India, China, and Japan, though their history goes back to a past coeval with the period we call ancient, are treated apart because of their far less intimate connection with the civilization of Europe, wherein our interest is centered. Medieval history takes up the story at the fall of Rome, traces the amalgamation of the old world with the new, the growth of the Church, the rise of States, and the transition, through inward development and outward contact with Asia and America, to modern times. There European history becomes largely the story of nations and their conflicts. One by one due treatment is accorded them, the field widening as Australia, Africa, and Asia come within the scope of European interests. The record ends with a section on the history of the United States outlined with greater detail than the account of other lands. First some conception of the methodology of historical writing and a bird's ■eye view of the history of the world may be useful, for which see : History Africa Asia America Europe Australia A. Aumnt l^tatnrg 1. Babylonia, Chald.«a, and As- the history of a Semitic nation, builders SYRIA. of cities, the possessors of a great lit- Archasological research has carried erature in clay, learned in mathematics back the origins of Babylonian civiliza- and the heavens. Babylonia became tion to a period antedating the fifth subject to a ruder nation of the north, millenium b. c, and has reconstructed Assj'ria, which borrowed its civilization, HISTORY established a world empire, and made way for Chaldaea, in turn to be suc- ceeded by a Neo-Babylonian kingdom, in turn to be succeeded by Persia (?— B. c. 538) See: (a) For the Land: Mesopotamia Euphrates Tigris Babylonia Assyria Accad Shinar Elam (b) For the Cities: Nippur Babylon Calah Nineveh Ur Erech Khorsabad (c) For the Kings: Sargon I Hammurabi Shalmaneser I Tiglath-pilcser I Asurnazirpal Shalmaneser II Tiglatli-pilcscr III Sargon II Sennacherib Esarliaddon Sardanapahis Nabonassar Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar Belshazzar Cyrus (d) For the People, Religion, and Language: Sumcrian Language Chaldseans Chaldians Kassites Baal Merodach Ishtar Semitic Languages Babylonian Art Assyrian Art Cuneiform Inscriptions (f) For the Historians and Investi- gators : Botta, P. E. Hilprecht, H. V. Layard, A. H. Oppcrt, J. Place, V. • Rawlinson, G. Rawlinson, H. C. Rassam, H. Sacy, A. I. Smith, G. 2. Egypt. From Babylonia it is possible that civilization may have passed into Egypt, though the monuments may be taken to assign as e.irly an antiquity to the Egyptian civilization as to the Babylonian. From primitive times when the land was divided into two sections, the Delta and the South, we pass through many shadowy dynasties of temple-building kings to a time of subjugation by foreign invaders, of conquests in Palestine and Asia IMinor, of decline, and of reduction by the Persians, by Alexander of Macedon, and by Rome. A cheerful people, in- fluenced greatly by their })ricsts, sub- missive to their kings, worshiping many gods and animals, they left be- hind them massive structures of which we have not yet the secret. Their HISTORY priests read tlie stars and knew geometry, speculated on the soul, and probably passed on to the Phoenicians the alphabet which was to be ours. (?— B. c. 30) See: (a) For the Land: Egypt Nile Delta Nubia Ethiopia Libya Suez Canal (b) For the Cities and Monuments: Memphis Tanis Thebes Karnak Luxor Ramesseum Pyramid Rosctta Stone (c) For the Kings: Menes Cheops Chephren Amenemhat Usei-tesen Amasis Amcnophis Thothmes Hatasu Rameses Psammetichus Necho Amasis II Ptolemy Cleopatra (d) For the People, Religion, Lan- guage, and Culture: Egypt Hamites Hyksos Re Horns Osiris Thoth Athor Ammon Apis Set Isis Nephthys Anubis Hieroglyphics Egyptian Art Egyptian Music {e) For the Historians and Investi- gators : Egyptology Brugsch, H. K. Champollion, J. F. Lenormant, C. Lepsius, K. R. Manetho Mariette, A. E. Maspcro, G. C. C. Naville, E. H. Petrie, W. M. F. Poole, R. S. Renouf, P. Rouge, O. C. E. Sayce, A. H. Wilkinson, J. G. 3. Phcenicia and Asia Minor. What is now Syria and part of Asia Minor was in the earliest times debat- able ground between Egypt and the Mesopotamian monarchies. On the Palestinian coast the Phoenicians, with little territory, developed a splendid in- dustry and commerce and in their ships carried the seeds of Babylonian and Egyptian civilization over the Medi- terranean basin. Later, wlien the HISTORY Phoenicians were in their dechne, a people known as the Hittites appear, stout fighters who render a good ac- count of themselves against the Assyr- ians and Egyptians. Their homes were in Nortliern Syria and in Eastern Asia Minor, but about b. c. 700 they disappeared, leaving little trace beliind tliem. See : (a) For the Phoenicians: Phoenicia Sidon Tyre Acre Byblos Cyprus Crete Carthage Hiram Melkarth Astarte Phoenician Art Phoenician Language Amarna Letters (b) For the Hittites: Hittites Syria Lycia Plirygia Cappadocia Carchemish Marash Hamath 4. The Jews. The Jews form the third in the group of peoples lying between P^^gypt and Babylonia and affected by the in- fluence of both. The Plebrows, a Semitic tribe of nomads, possibly of Aramasan stock, after wandering through the land of Canaan, enter Egypt, arc there held in bondage, and, hammered into a nation by persecution, escape, conquering for themselves the land of Canaan and passing thereby from the nomad into the agricultural stage. See : Jews Palestine Semitic Languages Abraham Isaac Jacob Esau Amarna Letters Exodus Moses Aaron Joshua Canaan Simeon Judah Levi Gad Naphtali Issachar Dan Zebulun Ephraim Benjamin Ruled by warrior leaders for a long period, the people finally obtain a king, but after a hundred years the nation breaks into two, the northern, Israel, falling to Assyria, the southern, Judah, 150 years later to Babylonia. The Babylonian exiles return and re- establish the Jewish state in the form of a theocracy based on a purified Yahwch worship. See: Jews Saul David Jerusalem Solomon HISTORY Judah Jeroboam Joash Abimclcch Jehosaphat Ahab Josiah Hezekiah Samaritans Babylonia Nehemiah Ezra Cyrus Philistines Ammon Moab Edom Galilee Judges, Book of Chronicles Kings, Book of The reestablished State passes from the suzerainty of Persia to that of Macedonia, the Seleucid kings of Syria, and Rome, rising against whom, Jerusalem is taken (a. d. 70), the Temple destroyed, and the greater part of the nation scattered over the Roman world. The insurrection of Bar- Cochba in the second century is the last forcible assertion of the national spirit. The Jews now enter upon their historic role of wanderers, subject alternately to persecution and favor at the hands of rulers and peoples, and held together as a folk by the Law and the Talmud. See: (o) Jews Babylonish Captivity Antiochus Maccabees Herod Sadducees Pharisees Zealot Titus Messiah Bar-Cochba Spain Crusades Russia Anti-Semitism Zionist Movement (b) For the Law, Language, Litera- ture, and Science: Bible Talmud Gemara Mishna Cabbala Halacha Haggada Midrash Maimonides Zoar Yiddish (c) For the Historians: Ewald, G. H. Graetz, H. Josephus, Flavius Milman, H. H. 5. Persia. In northeastern Iran, a people, the Medians, shake off the yoke of Assyria in the eighth century b. c. and soon attain power over their former masters, but fall themselves under the domi- nation of the Persians and Cyrus, who brings under his sway all of Meso- potamia and Palestine. Under his successors Persia becomes the greatest empire of pre-Alexandrian times, spreads to the Mediterranean, and enters Egypt, but fights vainly against the Greeks and is conquered by the young HISTORY hero of Macedon. The empire falls apart, the heart of it, Persia proper, passing in turn to the Parthians, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, and Turks again, till it remains what it is at the present day, a piece in the game between England and Russia in Asia. See : (a) For the Land and the People: Iran Media Persia Asia Minor Bactria Parthia Armenia Susa Perscpolis Ctesiphon Ecbatana (b) For the Dynasties and Kings: Achaemenidae Seleucidae Arsacidae Sassanidae Abbasides Samani and Dilemi Ghaznevides Ghuri Scljuks Ast^'ages Cyrus Cambyscs Darius Xerxes Artaxcrxes Khosru Hulaku Khan Timur Abbas i. Nadir Sli.-ili (c) For the Cullure: Persian Art Persian Language Persian Literature 6. Greece. The seeds of culture from Babylon, Egypt, and Asia Minor, brought to Greece by the Phoenicians, developed there into a new civilization, the highest in many respects the world has as yet seen, European, and influencing mightily the history of future ages. The legendary accounts reflect probable historical conditions in the tales of heroes and gods. See: Mj'thology Danaiis Cadmus Hercules Theseus Jason Argonauts Trojan War Agamemnon Ulysses Achilles Greek history begins with a succes- sion of great migrations from the main- land eastward towards Asia Minor. When authentic history begins, Greece appears as an agglomeration of small independent states, in a state of transi- tion from the monarchical form of gov- ernment into tyrannies, oligarchies, and democracies. Sec : (o) For the Land: Greece /Egean Sea Asia Minor Thcssaly Boeotia Epirus Attica Peloponnesus HISTORY Euboea Lesbos Chios Ithaca Pydnus Olympus Delos (b) For the Cities: Athens Sparta Thebes Argos Corinth (c) For the People: Pelasgians Hellenes Danal Dorians lonians Cohans Achaeans (d) For the Men: Lycurgus Solon Pisistratus Clisthcnes The Greeks come into conflict with Persia, and a long successful struggle against that power brings national greatness. Democratic Athens first takes the lead among the Greek city states and for a half century plays a brilliant part, then succumbs to Sparta, which in turn falls before Thebes. Disunion brings Greece under the sway of Macedon, whose young king conquers Persia and Egypt and spreads tlie Hellenic culture in his new realm. Greece proper, sinking in po- litical importance, is ruled by Macedon till it falls with Macedon into the power of Rome. See: Greece Athens Miltiades Marathon Thcmistocles Salamis Thermopylae Aristides Lconidas Ephialtes Pericles Conon Nicias Sparta Lysander Agesilaus Antalcidas Pausanias Thebes Epaminondas Pclopidas Mantinea Leuctra Macedon Philip n Demosthenes ^schinos Alexander the Great Chsronea Antipater Demetrius Poliorcetes /Etolian League Achajan League PhilopcEmen Pydna Cynoscephalse In the Greek city states the problems of democracy were well worked out, and politics became an exact science. The principles of democracy were carried over the basin of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, wherever the Greeks, the successors of the Phoenicians as traders and colonizers, went. See: HISTORY (a) For Greek Government: Monarchy Tyrant Democracy Aristocracy Despot Ecclesia Areopagus Ostracism Boule Ephori Archon (b) For the Greek Colonies: Ionia jMitylene Ephesus Halicarnassus Chalcidice Colchis Chersonesus Cyrene Sicily Magna Gra;cia Marseilles Over all the Greek world the Hellenic culture prevailed as in the home coun- try. See : Greek Language Greek Literature Greek Music Greek Art Greek Philosophy The Greek religion passed from an unrestrained polytheism into an antici- pation of monotheism on the part of the select few, into gross superstition on the part of the many. In its ideals of life Greek morality presented a vivid contrast to the later Christian teach- ings. See: Olympus Pantlieon Jupiter Juno Apollo Mercury Vulcan Ceres Venus Diana Mars IMinerva Neptune Pluto Greek Religion Greek Festivals Games Olympic Games Mysteries HetieriE For the Historians: Herodotus Thucydides Xenophon Plutarch Polybius Dio Cassius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Arrianus Theopompus Curtius, E. Finlay, G. Grote, G. ]\Iahaffy, J. P. Schliemann, H. 7. Rome. Greek civilization was imposed on the peoples of Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia by the armies of Rome, whose origin goes back to a settlement of Latin outlaws and shep- herds on one of the seven hills south of the Tiber. A legendary kingdom gives way, about tlie beginning of the sixth century i). c, to a republican HISTORY 9 form of government. A long contest between privileged and non-privileged classes results in the elaboration of a splendidly efficient system of municipal government. See : (a) For the Land and the People: Rome Italy Latium Italic Languages Latini Etruria Samnites {b) For the Cities: Rome Alba Longa Vcii Tarentum Capua Naples Brindisi Pompeii Herculaneum (c) For the Kingship and the Strug- gle between Classes : Romulus Numa Pompilius Tarquinius Comitia Patrician Plebeians Consul Tribune Prsetor Censor JEdiles Decemviri Appius Claudius Crassus Hortensius Licinian Rogations With her internal problems settled, Rome enters upon a career of foreign conquest and by means of her splendid military art and unscrupulous diplom- acy makes herself mistress of Latium, of Italy, and, after a struggle with Carthage, with Macedonia, and with Sj'ria, of the Mediterranean basin. Unchecked power, however, brings cor- ruption within the State, republican institutions tend to become empty forms, factional strife breaks out, the Senate rules for a while and then suc- cumbs to the ambition of masterful politicians ; in the conflict of parties the Republic meets its end. See: Gaul Camillus Pyrrhus Carthage Punic Wars Hamilcar Hasdrubal Hannibal Hispania CanniE Zama Scipio Macedonia Antiochus Gracchus Agrarian Law Jugurtha Marius Sulla Pompeius Mithridates Cicero Catiline Cffisar Cassius Brutus Crassus Antonius Cleopatra Actium 10 HISTORY The Roman Empire, establislied by Augustus before the beginning of the present era, attained its greatest ex- tent in the early years of the second century of that era and entered on its decline towards the end of the same century. At its height it embraced within its limits the classic world. Peace, excellent means of communica- tion, and an unrivalled administrative system brought the different parts of the Empire close together and facili- tated the spread of Greek culture and later of Christianity. The decline of the Empire, due to the decay of old age and the onset of the barbarian tribes of Northern Europe, is arrested by the reforms of Diocletian and of his successor Constantine the Great, who, in the beginning of the fourth century, makes Christianity the State religion. See: Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Vespasian Titus Domitian Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Aurelius Commodus Severus, Scptimius Caracalla Severus, Alexander Aurcllanus Diocletian Praetorian Guard Constantine the Great Christianity After Constantine tlic decline is pre- cipitate. The ancient Roman prowess is gone, and the defence of the Empire is entrusted to barbarian mercenaries; the task of government becomes too iieavy for one man, and the Empire is divided in two. The wave of barbarian migration breaks with full force upon the Western Empire, and the last em- peror of Latin Rome is dethroned in 476. See: Migration Parthia Julian Theodosius * Stilicho Alaric Attila Huns Goths Vandals Burgundians Odoaccr Ravenna Honorius Augustulus Aetius The Romans were preeminent for their political genius ; their literature, philosophy, and art were copies of the Greek, and the general culture at the time of the Empire's zenith was Hellen- istic ; their gods, too, were largely bor- rowed or adapted from the Greek pantheon ; but in administration and law they were unexampled innovators and in these fields they influenced sub- sequent European civilization mightily. See: (a) For the Religion: Roman Religion Jupiter Janus Mars HISTORY 11 Quirinus Vesta Auguries riamens Lupercalia Salii (6) For the Language and Culture: Italic Languages Latin Language Latin Literature Roman Art Philosophy (c) For Administration and Law: Civil Law Justinian Twelve Tables Jus Gentium Municipality Papinianus Paulus Pandects (d) For the Historians: Ammianus Marcellinus Appianus Duruy, V. Eutropius Gibbon, E. Ihne, W. Lanciani, R. Livy Merivale, C. Mommsen, T. Niebuhr, B. G. | Sallust Suetonius Tacitus B, iii^lita^ual ^tstorg 1. The East Roman or Byzantine Empire continued to exist for a thousand years. Within the limits of the Western Empire the Germanic tribes settled as masters, and from their grad- ual amalgamation with the conquered Roman provincials date the beginnings of the modern peoples of Europe. The most powerful of the barbarian kingdoms, that of the Franks, attained imperial extension under Charles the Great, wlio, by his alliance with the Pope, established the connection be- tween Empire and Church, which was to become one of the most powerful determinants of events in the Middle Ages. See : (o) For the Migrations: Migration Britannia Angles Saxons Jutes Gaul Burgundians Franks Hispania Suevi Vandals Italy Goths Theodoric Lombards Saracens (b) For the East Roman Empire: Byzantine Empire Justinian Belisarius Narses 12 HISTORY (c) For the Prankish Empire : Clovis Merovingians Carolingians Brunhilda Fredegunda Charles Martel Pepin the Short Donation of Pepin Charles tlie Great Papal States Salic Law 2. On the death of Charles the Great the Prankish Empire falls apart. Two great kingdoms arise, France and Germany. The Germans make their power supreme in Central Europe and in Italy, and a German king is crowned Holy Roman Emperor, reviving the connection between Church and State established by Charles the Great. A second Teuton stock, the Northmen, ap- pear as conquerors in France, England, Italy, and Russia. The growth of na- tions proceeds rapidly, and from the relations between conqueror and con- quered develops Feudalism. The young nations are brought into con- flict with the growing power of the Church, which, under the leadership of the Bishop of Rome, seeks to raise the ecclesiastical power above the secular. The break-up of the MediiEval ages be- gins with the Crusades. See: (a) For the Growth of Nations: Franks Verdun, Treaty of France Neustria Germany Austrasia Franconia Swabia Alcmanni Otho the Great Holy Roman Empire Normans Normandy Varangians England William the Conqueror Italy Sicily Guiscard Russia (6) For Mediaeval Society: Feudalism Feud Livery Homage Knight Chivalry Esquire Heraldry Serf Ordeal Truce of God Compurgation (c) For the Struggle between Church and State: Gregory VII Investiture Hohenstaufcn Guelphs and Ghibellines Henry IV of Germany Henry V of Germany Papacy Innocent III Philip II of France Philip IV of France John of England Henry II of England Frederick I Burbarossa Frederick II of Germany ((/) For the Crusades: Crusades HISTORY 13 Papacy Hospitalers Templars Teutonic Knights Peter the Hermit Urban II Godfrey de Bouillon Bohemund Tancred Baldwin Antioch Richard I of England Saladin Venice Dandolo Louis IX of France Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 3. The Crusades were followed by a great increase in the commerce of West- ern Europe and the rise of an influen- tial burgher class, with whose aid the kings succeeded in making themselves independent of the feudal nobility. With the growth of centralized king- doms the power of the Papacy declines. Contact with the East and the ancient world stimulated the European mind, and the Revival of Learning, the suc- cession of great geographical and astronomical discoveries, and the inven- tion of gunpoAvder and printing hasten the transition from the jNIiddle Ages to modern times. The uniformity of European society, characteristic of the Middle Ages, is broken up by the Reformation. See : (fl) For Commerce, Discoveries, and Inventions : Hanseatic League Gunpowder Printing Copernicus Columbus Gama, Vasco da Venice Genoa Henry the Navigator Africa America {b) For the Decline of the Papacy : Boniface VIII Avignon Schism, Great Constance, Council of Basel, Council of (f) For the Revival of Learning and the Renaissance: Petrarch Bracciolini Guarino Poliziano Lorenzo de' Medici Erasmus Colet Grocyn Linacre More, Thomas Reuchlin Hutten, Ulrich von Epistolas Obscurorum Virorum Renaissance Art (d) For the Reformation : Reformation Wiclif Huss Luther Charles V Augsburg Confession Melanchthon Schmalkaldic League Zwingli Calvin Huguenots Henry Mil of England Wishart Knox 14 HISTORY Coun ter-Ref orniation Trent, Council of Thirty Years' War For the Historians: Creighton, M. Denifle, F. H. Emerton, E. Fisher, G. P. Fleury, Claude Gieseler, J. K. Hallam, H. Harnack, Adolf Hefele, K. J. Lea, H. C. Neander, J. A. Pastor, L. C. Mvitnn lltHtnr^ At the opening of the modern era the process of State formation in Europe had resulted in the establishment of firmly centralized nations in England, France, and Spain. Germany and Italy, on the contrary, were disunited, and destined so to remain till the later years of the nineteenth century. The conflicts of States and nationalities is one of tlie great features of modern times; till 16-18 religion is a fruitful cause of external warfare and civil strife; after 1648 wars are fought on political and commercial grounds. The disappearance of a common Church and of Latin as the common veliicle of communication among the higher classes tended to intensify the differ- entiation of national characteristics. The burgher class, which had begun to assert itself in the period after the Cru- sades, rose to full recognition in the life of the State and in turn was forced to render recognition, after the French Revolution, to the lowest classes in the State, artisans and peasants. The Church loses control over the tem])ora] affairs of its members, and even in the spiritual field its authority is subor- dinated to that of the State. Life takes on a predominantly secular tinge ; sci- ence broadens the intellectual liorizon. and conmierce and colonization bring the non-European part of the Eastern Hemisphere within the sphere of Euro- pean influence. The history of modern times is best studied in the history of the various nations. 1. England. The Britannia of the Romans is overrun in the age of migrations by Teutonic tribes from Jutland and the northwest of Germany, who, receiving a new infusion of kindred blood from the Danes, are conquered in the eleventh century by a more remote kinsfolk, the Normans — Gallicized Teutons from France. Saxons and Normans are blended into one before 14<00, by which time a constitutional system of govern- ment, worked out in the course of long conflicts between rulers and subjects, is in force, based on tlie supreme legisla- tive authority of a Parliament, rcpre- si'nting the different estates. Wales and Ireland have been subdued, and Scotland has ceased to be a dangerous rival. Feudalism, never so strong in England as on the Continent, is prac- tically destroyed during the Wars of the Roses in the fifteeiitli century, and the modern era may be dated from the accession of the Tudors in 1485. See: HISTORY 15 England Britannia Anglo-Saxons Heptarchy Alfred Edward the Confessor Canute Harold Witcnagemot William the Conqueror Hastings, Battle of Hereward Domesday Book William II Henry I Stephen Plantagenet Henry II Becket Ireland English Pale Richard I John Magna Charta Oxford, Provisions of Montfort, Simon de Edward I Parliament Wales Llewellyn ap Griffith Scotland Wallace Bruce Bannockburn Edward II Mortimer, Roger de Edward III Hundred Years' War Crecy Poitiers Black Death Richard II Tyler's Rebellion Ball, John Wiclif Provisors, Statute of Pra'inunirc Mortmain, Statutes of Lancaster, House of Henry IV Agincourt Henry VI York, House of Margaret of Anjou Cade, Jack Roses, Wars of the Edward IV Warwick, Earl of RicJiard III Tudor Under the Tudors the power of Par- liament greatly declined. The Refor- mation, initiated by Henry VIII, soon spread beyond the limits the King would set to it, and England became Protes- tant. Under Elizabeth it was forced to contend against Spain, the champion of Catholicism. With the defeat of Spain, England enters on her career as ruler of the seas and begins the work of founding a new English speaking na- tion across the Atlantic. The death of Elizabeth, the last of the Tudors, gives England and Scotland a common sov- its gn. A revived Parliament asserts rights successfully against the absolutism of the Stuarts, dethrones them, recalls them, and drives them as enemies of Protestantism once more from the throne, bestowing the crown upon a prince of Dutch blood. The crowns of England and Scotland are united. On the Continent, England takes a leading part in the overthrow of Louis XIV of France and comes out of the struggle more powerful than ever upon the seas. See : Henry VII 16 HISTORY Parliament Star Chamber Benevolence Henry VIII Boleyn, Anne Wolsey, Cardinal Cromwell, Thomas Reformation Cranmer Edward VI Mary I Ridley Latimer Elizabeth Supremacy Mary Stuart Burleigh Walsingham Leicester Essex Armada Drake Howard Stuart James I Charles I Petition of Rights Ship-Money Strafford, Earl of Laud Long Parliament Grand Remonstrance Five Members Pym Eliot Hampden Cromwell, Oliver Vane, Henry Blake Fairfax Ireton Scotland Covenants Prcsbytcrianism Montrose, Earl of Charles II Clarendon, Earl of Cabal Test Acts Gates, Titus Shaftesbury, Earl of James II Halifax, Earl of William HI Mary II Anne Succession Wars (Spanish) Utrecht, Treaty of Marlborough, Duke of Bolingbroke Harley Sacheverell With the accession of the House of Hanover, the supremacy of Parliament is firmly established ; cabinet govern- ment is developed, and the rule of party is the order — by the Whigs, roughly speaking, to the French Revolution, by the Tories to 1832, by the two or their successors since then, in comparatively rapid alternation. France is defeated and deprived of her Indian and Ameri- can possessions, but almost immediately England suffers an irreparable loss in the defection of the thirteen colonies. Partial compensation, however, is found in India, where English adventurers build up a new empire. After the French Revolution and tlie Napoleonic Wars, comes strifol)ct ween the advocates of reaction and the rising forces of democracy, stimulated by the great in- dustrial revolution. The latter win in 1832, and the subsequent history of England is one of democratic progress witiiin, of conquest and commercial ex- pansion abroad. See : HISTORY 17 Great Britain Whig and Tory George I Cabinet South Sea Company Walpole, Robert George II Newcastle, Duke of Chatham, Earl of Seven Years' War Bute, Earl of George III Grenville Townshend Wilkes, John North, Lord Fox, Charles James Pitt, William Burke, Edmund Sheridan, R. B. Trafalgar Nelson Wellington Peninsular War Canning India Clive Hastings, Warren Wellesley, Marquis Cornwallis, Lord Dupleix George IV William IV Pcterloo ]\Iassacre Combination Trade Unions Russel, Lord John Grey, Earl Victoria Com Laws Peel, Robert Cobden, John Bright, John Palmerston, Lord Derby, Earl Disraeli Gladstone Salisbury, Earl of Rosebery, Earl of Chamberlain, Joseph Balfour, Arthur Campbell-Banncrman Vernon-Harcourt Morley, John Ireland Tyrconnel Stewart, Robert Grattan Roman Catholic Emancipation O'Connell, Daniel Irish Land Laws Land League Parnell, Charles Stewart Home Rule Australia Australian Federation Transvaal South African War Kruger, S. J. P. Joubert, P. De la Rey, J. H. De Wet, C. Pretorius, M. W. Rhodes, Cecil Canada For the Historians: Clarendon, Lord Dicey, A. V. Elphinstone, M. Freeman, E. A. Froudc, J. A. FyfFe, C. A. Gairdner, J. Gardiner, S. R. Geoffrey of Monmouth Gildas Giraldus de Barri 18 HISTORY Gneist, R. Green, J. R. Gi'oss, C. Hallam, H. Holinshed, R. Kinglake, A. W. Kingsford, W- Lappenberg, J. ^I. Lecky, W. E. H. Lingard, J. Macaulay, T. B. McCarthy, Justin Maitland, F. W. Napier, W. F. P. Palgrave, F. Paris, Matthew Pauli, R. Rose, J. H. Seebohm, F. Seeley, J. R. Stanhope, Earl Stubbs, W. Turner, Sharon Walpole, Spencer Wilham of Mahnesbury 2. France. Upon the dissolution of the Prankish Empire in the ninth century, descend- ants of Charles the Great continue to rule over the land of the Western Franks with a population predom- inantly Celtic and a language derived from the Latin. This is the begin- ning of France. The weak Caro- lingian.s are replaced by the energetic house of Capet, under which tlie unifi- cation of the country is carried on by sudi able rulers as Piiilip II. Louis IX, and Philip IV. The Hundred Years' War is disastrous to tlie kingdom, but its recovery is rapid under Charles VII and his son, Louis XI, who leave the power of the crown firmly established. Religious wars in the sixteenth century become a factor for anarchy, but feudalism is definitely crushed by Richelieu, and absolutism is established by Louis XIV, under whom France is for fifty years the overweening power in Europe. Absolutism breaks down under Louis XIV's unworthy successors, and the entire ancient fabric of society is swept away by the French Revolu- tion. See : France Brittany Normandy Burgundy Flanders Aquitania Anjou Navarre Franks Carolingians Verdun, Treaty of Capetian Dynasty Louis VII Philip II, Augustus Louis IX Philip IV, the Fair Valois, House of Hundred Years' War Crecy Poitiers John II Jacquerie Charles VI Agincourt I)u Guesclin Dunois Joan of Arc Charles VII Louis XI diaries the Bold Charles VIII HISTORY 19 Louis XII Francis I Henry II Huguenots Catliarine de' IMedici Guise Conde Coligny Bartholomew's, Massacre of Saint Charles IX Henry III Politiques Henry IV Nantes, Edict of Sully, Duke de Louis XIII Richelieu Westphalia, Peace of ]\Iazarin Maintenon, Marquise de Louis XIV Fronde Parlement Colbert Louvois Turenne Vendome, Duke de Luxembourg, Duke of Villars Camisards Succession Wars Orleans, Philippe, Duke of Dubois Louis XV Seven Years' War Pompadour, Marquise de Du Barry, Countess Louis XVI Turgot Necker Farmers-General States-General The abolition of feudalism by the French National Assembly is followed by the overthrow of the monarchy. Assailed by the rulers of Europe, France retaliates, and its conquering armies carry the gospel of democracy over the Continent. Under Napoleon, France dominates Europe until, de- feated by a rising of the European peoples, it is compelled to take back its Bourbon kings. Reaction struggles with the advancing ideals of political and social revolution, and the country witnesses within the century the over- throw of three dynasties and the estab- lishment of two republics. Under Napoleon III, France regains for a brief period its ascendency in Euro- pean politics, but suffers overwhelming defeat at the hands of a new-created Germany. Her latest history has to do with the slow grounding of repub- lican principles and the adjustment of relations between Church and State. See: French Revolution Assembly, National Mirabeau Marie Antoinette Bastille National Guard Lafayette Bailly Jacobins Feuillants Cordeliers Barnave Petion Pillnitz Valmy Jemappes Dumouriez Convention, National Girondists Brissot 20 HISTORY Roland de la Platiere Vergniaud Montagnardes ]\Iarat Danton Billaud-Varennes Carnot Callot d'Herbois Robespierre Saint-Just Couthon Vendee Reign of Terror Hebert Jourdan Pichegru Moreau Barras Directory Sicyes Talleyrand Consulate Josephine Napoleon I Berthier Massena Ney Murat Davout Junot Marinont Lanncs Soult Suchet Victor Bcaubarnais Bessiercs Continental System Code Napoleon Concordat Waterloo Louis XVIII Charles X Louis Philippe Guizot Thiers Ledru-RoUin Blanc, Louis Cavaignac Napoleon III Crimean War Maximilian of Austria Franco-German War Bazaine Commune Favre, Jules Gambetta Mac]Mahon Grevy Ferry Carnot Boulanger Casimir-Perier Faure Loubet Dreyfus, Alfred Waldeck -Rousseau Delcasse For the Historians: Cheruel, P. A. Duruy, V. Froissart, J. Geoffre}' of Villehardouin Guizot, F. P. G. Hamel, L. E. Hanotaux, G. Houssayc, H. Joinville, Jean Lanfrcy, P. Lavisse, E. Luchaire, A. Martin, H. Michaud, J. Michclet, J. Mignet, F. A. M. Montalenibert, C. F. HISTORY 21 Quinet, E. Sorel, A. Stephens, H. M. Sybel, H. Thierry, Amedee Thierry, Augustin Thou, J. A. de 3. Germany. German history, like the history of France, may be dated from the dissolu- tion of the Prankish Empire. Unlike France, Germany knew no unity until the very latest times. The establish- ment of the Holy Roman Empire in the tenth century connected the political fortunes of Germany with those of Italy and the Papacy, and the history of the empire is but the history of the sep- arate states within the empire. After 1273, the imperial dignity is held, as a rule, by members of the house of Haps- burg, and the imperial interests become more and more Austrian. Disunion is fostered by the Reformation and per- petuated by the Thirty Years' War. In the eighteenth century, Prussia en- ters into competition with Austria for leadership in the empire, which, after existing for more than eight hundred years, is dissolved by Napoleon in 1805. The quarrel between Prussia and Aus- tria is fought out in the nineteenth century, and the former triumphs. A new German Empire is formed, differ- ing from the Holy Roman Empire in its national character, and, as the strongest military power on the Continent, occu- pies a leading place in the European system. See : Germany Prussia Bavaria Saxony Wiirttemberg Hanover Baden Verdun, Treaty of Franconia Swabia Lorraine Otho I Holy Roman Empire Henry II Conrad II Henry IV Investiture Gregory VII Hohenstaufen Guelphs and Ghibellines Frederick I, Barbarossa Henry VI Frederick II Hapsburg Rudolph I Austria-Hungary Charles IV Golden Bull Electors Sigismund Maximilian I Aulic Council Imperial Chamber Reformation Charles V Passau, Treaty of Bohemia Thirty Years' War Leopold I Charles VI Pragmatic Sanction Frederick William I Frederick II Maria Theresa Succession Wars (^Austrian) Seven Years' War Francis II of Austria 22 HISTORY Frederick William III Stein Scharnhorst Bliicher Gneiscnau Leipzig, Battles of Waterloo Vienna, Congress of Metternich Burschenschaft Zollverein Frankfort, Council of Frederick William IV Seven Weeks' War , Bismarck Moltke North German Confederation William I Kulturkampf Triple Alliance William II Caprivi Hohenlohe Biilow For the Historians: Dahlmann, F. C. Dahn, F. Droysen, J. G. Dijmmler, E. Erdmannsdorffer, B. GfriJrcr, A. F. Giesebrecht, F. W. B. Hiiusser, L. Janssen, J. Lamprccht, K. IManrcnhrcrhcr, W. IMiiller, Johannes Onckcn, W. Rankc, L. Raumer, F. L. Sybcl, H. Trcitschkc, II. 4. Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary is a political unit merely and in no sense a national State, and its history is largely that of the several states that compose it. The re- lationship to European affairs result- ing from the close connection between the house of Austria and the Holy Ro- man Empire, for five centuries, is best traced under Germany, which see. Here, the internal affairs alone will be touched upon, and the history may be summed up in the history of a family, the Hapsburgs, that, starting with small territorial possessions in the Swa- bian mountains, brought under its sway by conquest or marriage the heart of Central Eui'ope, from the Carpathians to the Alps and from the Vistula to the Danube and the Adriatic Sea. See: (a) For Austria: Austria-Hungary Bohemia Dalmatia Styria Moravia Galicia Tyrol Carinthia Carniola Babcnberg Ottokar II Hapsburg Rudolph I Albert II Maximilian I Charles V Ferdinand I Maximilian II Ferdinand II Tliirty Years' War Succession Wars (Spanish) Eugene, Prince HISTORY 23 Joseph II Leopold II Campo-Formio Luneville Pressburg Vienna, Congress of Mcttcrnich Francis II Francis Joseph Windischgratz Radetzky Lombardy Seven Weeks' War Ausgleich Triple Alliance (b) For Hungary: Hungary Arpad Bathory Louis I Sigismund Hunyady, Janos Mattliias Corvinus Louis II Mohacs Zapolya Tokolyi John HI, Sobieski Rakoczy Deak, Fcrencz Batthyanyi Kossuth Bern Dcmbinski Gorgey Meszaros Klapka Haj-nau (b) For the Historians: Arneth, A. R. Fessler, I. A. Gindely, A. Hormayr, J. Krones, F. Mailath, J. Zeissberg, H. Wolf, Adam 6. The Iberian Peninsula. One of the riches c regions of the Ro- man Empire, Hispania, was wrested from the Romans by successive waves of barbarian invaders in the fifth century of our era. The Christian Gothic king- dom was overthrown by the Arabs, who developed in the peninsula a civiliza- tion that was long the highest in Eu- rope. The remnants of the Christian inhabitants rallied in the northern mountains and a slow but steady process of reconquest was begun, hastened by the dissolution of the Arab Caliphate, retarded by strife among the various Christian kingdoms, completed before the end of the fifteenth century, when the greater part of the peninsula had been brought under one crown. Portu- gal alone preserved its independence of Castile. Enriched by the wealth of a newly discovered world and her Low- land possessions, Spain, in the sixteenth century, plays the leading role in European affairs and then enters on a course of political and economic de- cline which has continued to the pres- ent day. Portugal and Great Britain have been friends since the beginning of the eighteenth century. See: (a) For Spain : Spain Iberians Phoenicia Carthage Hispania Lusitania 24 HISTORY Goths Suevi Roderick Moors Tarik Ommiads Cordova Mohammedan Art Navarre Asturias Leon Castile Aragon Ahnoravides Ahnohades Granada Boabdil Ferdinand V of Castile Isabella I Ximenes Inquisition Cortes Fuero Padilla, Juan Alcantara Calatrava Gonsalvo de Cordova Philip II Armada Philip III Philip IV Charles II Succession Wars (Spanish) Alberoni Farncse Charles IV Godoy Peniiistilar War Ferdinand VII Carlos, Don Maria Christina Isabella II Espartero Narvacz Prim O'Donnell Castelar Serrano Amadeus I Alfonso XII Canovas del Castillo Sagasta Silvela Spanish-American War (b) For Portugal: Portugal Alfonso I Diniz John I Henry the Navigator Alfonso V IVIanuel the Great Gama, A'asco da Almeida All)uqucrque John III Braganza, House of Methuen Treaty Pombal Peninsular War Miguel, Dom Pedro, Dom Saldanha Charles I Brazil (c) For the Historians, see: Coxe, W. Gayangos Lafuente, M. Llorente, J. A. IMariana, J. ^ Prcscott, W. H. Robertson, W. 6. Italy. The fall of the Western Empire was followed by a struggle between the HISTORY 25 Goths and the Byzantines for tlie posses- sion of Italy. The latter held the south while the north passed from the Goths to the Lombards and the Franks. Con- stituted with Germany into a shadowy Holy Roman Empire, Italy enters upon a period of utter disunion with the Pa- pal power established in the centre of the peninsula, the north parceled out into independent principalities and re- publics, the south ruled by Normans, Saracens, French, and Spaniards. The Italian cities rise to great prosperity after the Crusades and become the cra- dle of the Renaissance. The state of political disintegration continues till the later part of the nineteenth century and Italy suffers from internal strife and foreign domination, Spain and Austria playing the master in the greater part of the peninsula. Union comes to the country from the house of Savoy, whose power, spreading over Sardinia and Piedmont, after a contest with Austria, the Papacy, and Spain, spreads over the entire peninsula. Early Italian history is best studied in the story of separate states and cele- brated families. See: Rome Venice Florence Milan Genoa Pisa Lucca Verona Bologna Ravenna Ferrara Naples Papal States Two Sicilies, Kingdom of Sicily Foscari Falieri IVIalatesta Medici Visconti Colonna Orsini Este Borgia Theodoric the Great Belisarius Narses Lombards Saracens Normans Guiscard Crusade Reniassance Charles VIII of France Sforza Condottieri Louis XII of France Ferdinand V of Spain Julius II (Pope) Savoy Napoleon I SuvarofF Nelson Murat Carbonari Holy Alliance Victor Emmanuel I Charles Albert Mazzini Young Italy Radctzky Manin Cavour Garibaldi Victor Emmanuel II Villafranca Lamoriciere RattazzI Ricasoli 26 HISTORY Crispi Rudini Depretis Humbert I Victor Emmanuel III Mafia Camorra For the Historians : Amari, M. Balbo, C. Botta, C. G. Burckhardt, J. Cantii, C. Cibrario, G. A. Farini, L. C. Gallenga, A. Gregorovius, F. Hodgkin, T. La Farina, G. Liudprand Muratori, L. A. Paulus Diaconus Reumont, A. Sarpi, P. Sismondi, J. C. Symonds, J. A. 7. The Slav Empire. The Slav inhabitants of the plains south of tlie Finnish lakes received in the ninth century a ruler of Scandina- vian stock, whose successors extended their sway to the southern rivers. The Byzantine civilization and religion arc introduced. The unity of the country iterature Portuguese Literature Portusuese-Brazilian Literature LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 103 Romance Literatures Rumanian Language and Litera- ture Russian Literature Scottish Language and Literature Spanish Literature Spanish-American Literature Swedish Language and Literature Syriac Language and Literature Turkish Language and Literature Yiddfsh II. The Literary Forms. The broadest subdivision in literature ac- cording to form is that into prose and poetry ; and, though it is often very difficult to differentiate one from the other in fact, and always hard to de- scribe the distinction between them in theory, the common definitions of prose as the oi'dinary mode of speech and poetry as speech figurative, cadenced, and cast within certain compara- tively rigid forms, may be followed safely enough for practical pur- poses. Either, taken in itself, may be subdivided into forms of narrower con- notation, such as essay and novel under prose, epic and l^'ric under poetry. Here, however, appears the inconsis- tency already mentioned as inherent in literary classification ; for the earliest scientific essays of the Greeks were •written in verse, while Walt Whitman's lyric spirit finds expression in a medi- um closely akin to Ruskin's fervid prose. Again, the drama is probably nowadays regarded as a prose form, though as a matter of fact the world's greatest plays bear the poetic form. Poetry, then, if we exclude the drama, embraces the two subdivisions of the epic and the lyric. In the history of literary development, poetry precedes prose, and of the two poetic forms the epic, as a rule, antedates the lyric. 1. Epic Poetry. The epic may be defined as a lengthy narrative in verse, dealing with a subject of great magnitude in character, national or descriptive of a great movement. A distinction may be made between the epic which is the spontaneous expres- sion of national life, constructed at an early period in national development out of pre-existing minor poetic forms, and the artificial epic of a more ad- vanced cultural stage, which is the work of a single mind and in consequence purposive in its nature rather than spontaneous. Mention should also be made of the mock or beast epic, in nature largely satirical. See Epic Poetry; and, for the great epics and epic poets of the world's literature, the following titles : Sanskrit : IVIahabharata Ramayana Purana Persian : Firdausi Shah Namah Rust am Greek: Homer Age of Epic Poetry (under Greek Literature) Cyclic Poets Latin : Vergil Ji^neas Lucan Silius Italicus Statius French: Chansons de geste 104 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Roland Aymon Ogier the Dane Spanish : Ercilla y Zuniga Gekman : Nibelungenlied Klopstock Italian : Dante Boiardo Ariosto Tasso Portuguese: CaniOes Norse : Edda Saga Finnish : Kalevala English : Beowulf Milton The Beast Epic: Batrachomyomachia Reynard the Fox 2. The Lyric. Lyric poetry, as the expression of personal feeling, is the most subjective of all literary forms. Originally written to be sung, the lyric has remained the nearest ap- proacii in literature to absolute music. Its scope is as wide as human emo- tion, broadening in the course of its development with the expansion of human sympathies. Its formal varia- tions are numerous. See: Lyric Poetry Versification Sonnet Ode Ballade Rondeau Madrigal Canzone Macaronic Verse Rhyme Lyric poetry attained great perfec- tion in ancient Greece, though its field was narrower than that of modern poetry for comparative lack of the nature element, which, with us, is so conspicuous a feature of lyric expres- sion. The Roman genius was, on the whole, unfavorable to the fostering of the lyric spirit. In the East, Persia produced a succession of poets of great excellence. See, for the great names in the realm of lyric poetry: Sanskrit: Kalidasa Persian : Nizami Omar Khaj'yam Sadi Hafiz Jami Latin : Catullus Tibullus Horace Ovid Propertius Ausonius Prudeiitius Greek: Alcman Callinus Archilochus Tyrtaeus Siinonides Solon LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 105 Alcaeus Sappho Anacreon Theognis Hipponax Pindar Bacchylides Timotheus Theocritus Bion Moschus Herondas The lyric poetry of the Middle Ages was largely ecclesiastical, the Latin hymns of the period being especially marked by extraordinary ef- fects of rhyme. The court singers of France and Germany, however, fos- tered the love theme assiduously. With the Revival of Learning came a great impetus to the poetic expression of secular emotions, Italy being the first to feel the impulse of the new move- ment. Lyricism languished during the domination of classical ideals in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies, but, freed from the bond of ar- tificiality, entered upon an unprece- dented development towards the end of the latter century. See: Hymnology Troubadours Trouvere Minnesinger Meistersinger Goliardic Literature Romanticism ; and for tiie lyric poets of Western Eu- rope: French : Marie de France Meung, Jean de ViUon Malherbe Pleiade Ronsard Grasset Chenier, Andre Marie Chenier, Marie Joseph Beranger Lamartine Delavigne Hugo Musset Gautier Leconte de Lisle Baudelaire Heredia, Jose Sully-Prudhomme Coppee Verlaine Mallarme Regnier, H. Rimbaud, J. A. Provencal: Roumanille Jasmin Mistral, F. Gras, Felix Felibi'ige Italian : Cavalcanti, Guido Cino da Pistoja Dante Petrarch Colonna, Vittoria Guarini Marini Chiabrera Metastasio Bondi, Clemcnte Foscolo, Ugo Leopardi Monti, V. Alcardi Giusti, Giuseppe 106 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE CarduccI Graf, A. Spanish : Lopez de Ayala, Pedro Santillana Carcilasso de la Vega Leon, Luis de Figueroa, Francisco de Argensola Mendoza, Diego Hurtado de Gongora y Argotc Zorrilla y Moral Iriarte y Oroposa Lista y Aragon Melendez Valdes Espronceda Portuguese: Ferreira, A. Gomes de Amorim German : Walther von der Vogelwelde Sachs, Hans Fleming, Paul Opitz Burger Kleist, E. C. Goethe Schiller Schlcgel, A. W. Arndt Novalis Chamisso Uhland Korner EichcndorfF Heine Riickcrt Frciligrath Bodcnstcdt Schcffel Auerspcrg Hamorling Ambrosius, Johanna Dutch: Marnix Vondel Bilderdijk Kate, J. J. ten Flemish : Maerlant Bijns Conscience, H. The lyric poetry of Northern and Eastern Europe is recent in origin, going back no further than the eighteenth century. It has, as a rule, been under the influence of the great literary movements of the West, but, though largely mimetic in form, has been made the expression of an intense national consciousness. See: Swedish : Bellman Tegner Atterbom Runeberg Snoilsky Danish : Heibcrg, J. L. Evald Riciiardt Norwegian : Weliiavcn Wcrgeland Hungarian: Kisfaludy Arany Petofi Erdelyi Russian : Dcrzhavin Pushkin KoltsofF Ijermontoff Slicftchenko Nekrasoff LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 107 Polish : Naruszewicz Karpinski Mickicwicz Kniaznin Slowacki Krasfnski Pol Asnyck The origins of the English lyric poetry may be traced back, if it be so desired, to early Anglo-Saxon times. The continuous history begins with Chaucer. Some of the most beautiful lyrics of the language are embodied in the works of the Elizabethan dram- atists, after wjiom, and jMilton, the art declines and hardens until revived by Burns and Wordsworth. English lyric in the nineteenth century lias covered the field of human sympathies, from Blake's unseen world to Tennyson's studies in evolution and Kipling's in machine construction. See: English : Caedmon Ormulum Layamon Lydgate, John Minot, Laurence Barbour, John Gower Chaucer Sackville Shakespeare Jonson Milton Ramsay, Allan Donne Herrick Herbert Waller Crashaw Cowley Vaughan Gay Savage, Richard Chatterton Shenstone Young, Edward Thomson Gray Collins Cowper Blake Bums Hogg Wordsworth Lander ]\Ioore Keats Shelley Praed Proctor, B. W. FitzGerald Tennyson Browning Clough Arnold, Matthew Ingelow, Jean Patmore Rossetti, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Christina Morris Arnold, Edwin Aytoun, W. E. Swinburne Massey, G. Henley Watson, W. Kipling MejTiell, A. C. Sharp, W. American : Freneau Barlow, Joel 108 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Key Halleck Bryant Drake Emerson Whittier Longfellow Holmes Poe Lowell Hoffman, C. F. Whitman Cary, Alice and Phoebe Timrod Howe, Julia Ward Stedman Aldrich Lanier O'Reilly, J. B. Field, Eugene Riley Miller, Joaquin Gilder, R. W. 3. The Drama. The Drama has been placed high among mimetic forms, because of tlie contribution it lays on the otiier arts, thus combining within itself their several qualities. Action and character are the subject matter. The means are bodily motion, which gives tlie sculptor's effect ; language, wlilch is the instrinnent of the poet ; music, and scenery, and costume, to which painting and architecture give their share. The origins of the drama arc to be found, most probably, in early religious ceremonial. Festivals marked by singing and dancing, the latter more or less symbolic in character, are common to peoples in a primitive stage; and the line of progress is along the development of the action and tiie spoken dialogue, at the expense of the chant, to complete secularization of the drama. The principles of the drama as propounded by Aristotle have re- mained for the most part the same ; the mechanical technique has varied widely from original conditions. See: Drama Theatre Stage Chorus Act Ballet Burlesque Farce Interlude Masque Vaudeville Pantomime Puppet Atellanae ]\Iime Prologue Epilogue Greek drama had its origin in the worsliip of Dionj'sus. Witii ^Eschj'lus, tragedy is profoundly religious, and the actor's speeches arc still subordi- nated to the clioruses ; Sophocles strengthened the element of action ; Euripides thoroughly humanized trag- edy. Attic comedy was fierce in per- sonal satire and unbridled in speech. The Latin drama was sedulously mod- eled on the Greek. The origin of the Sanskrit drama is disputed, some deriv- ing it from the Greek, others assigning it an independent development. See, for writers and plays : Sanskrit: Sudraka Kalidasa Bliavabimti Sakuntala Mricchakatika LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 109 Greek: jEschylus Phrynichus Sophocles Euripides . Aristophanes Agathon Epicharmus Eupolis Menander Latin : Plautus Terence Seneca In Medieval times, practically the only species of dramatic performance was the religious spectacles of the Church, in which the purpose was di- dactic. See: Miracle Play; Mor- ality ; Interlude ; Passion Play. Out of the religious performances of the Middle Ages the modern drama developed. In France, which served as a model to the Continent, an elabor- ate system of rules was built up, sup- posedly bringing the drama into con- formity with the standards of the classic age. The classic ideals, with their restriction of human emotions to kings and nobles, were overthrown on the Continent in the first half of the nineteenth century, since when the scope of tlio drama has been widened to embrace the entire complex of so- ciety. Like the novel, the drama of the latest days has become largely purposive. See, for the writers : French: Mairet Regnard Corneille Racine Moliere Marivaux Chenier, M. J. Crebillon Beaumarchais Scribe Vigny Hugo Legouve Labiche Ponsard Augier Dumas Pailleron Meilhac Halevy Sardou Rostand Maeterlinck Richepin, J. Comedie Fran9aise Italian : Trissino Maffei Goldoni Gozzi Alfieri ]\IanzonI Giacometti Annunzio Spanish : Encina Vega Carpio Calderon de la Barca Moreto y Cabana Moratin, Lcandro Fernandez Gil y Zarate Lopez de Ayala, Adelardo • Hartzenbusch, J. E. Echegaray Breton de los Herreros Portuguese : Sa de Miranda Almeida-Garrett 110 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE The primacy in Continental drama, so long iield by the French, may be said to be disputed at the present day by the Teutons and the Slavs, more par- ticularly the Scandinavian branch of the Teutons. See: German : Lessing Goethe Schiller Kotzebue Grillparzer Laube Gutzkow Anzengruber Heyse Sudermann Hauptmann Lindau, P. Hartleben Fulda Swedish : Almqvist Strindberg Danish : Holberg Oehlenschlager Norwegian : Ibsen Bjornson Russian : SumarakofF GriboyedofF Gogol Ostrovski Zagoskin, M. N. Tolstoy, Aloxoi Tolstoy, LyofF Gorky Polish : Frcdro Kniaznin Hungarian: Kisfaludy, Karoly Katona Szigligeti While Continental Europe was en- slaved by the rigid formulas of the classicists, in England the Romantic drama flourished from the beginning. The Elizabethan age is the golden age of the drama of the world. Following the Elizabethans came the decline, ar- rested partially by the talent of Dryden and Congreve during tiie Restoration, and of Goldsmith and Sheridan in the later part of the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth century, England brought forth no dramatic writer of conspicuous genius. See: English: Udall Norton Sackville Kyd Lodge Peele Marston Greene Marlowe Siiakespeare Nash Dekker Middleton Jonson Massingcr Beaumont and Fletcher Ford Webster Davenant Dryden Wycherley Otway Congreve Farquhar Goldsmith LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 111 Colman, the Elder Sheridan Cohnan, the Younger Fitzball, Edward Knowles, J. S. Beddoes, T. L. Taylor, Tom Robertson, T. W. Sims, G. R. Boucicault Pincro Jones, H. A. Shaw, George Bernard Phillips, Stephen Barrie, J. M. American : Dunlap, William Payne, John Howard Brougham, John Boker Sargent, Epes Carleton, Henry Guy Howard, Bronson Campbell, Bartley Thompson, Denman Harrigan, Edward De Mille, Henry Belasco, David Fitch, William Clyde A partial list of the more note- worthy actors, of all times and all na- tions, is as follows : Anderson, Mary A. Archer, Belle Arnould, Sophie Arthur, Julia Bancroft, Mary E. W. Barrett, Wilson Barry, Elizabeth Barry, Spranger Bates, Blanche Bellamy, George Anne Bernhardt, Sarah Bctterton, Thomas Betty, W. H. W. Booth, Agnes Booth, Barton Booth, Edwin Booth, Junius Brutus Bracegirdle, Anne Burbage, Richard Campbell, Beatrice Clarke, J. S. Clive, Catherine Coghlan, Charles Coghlan, Rose Coquelin, B. C. Crane, W. H. Cushman, Charlotte Davenport, E. L. Davenport, Fanny Dejazet, P. V. Devrient, L. Drew Duse Farren, Elizabeth Fisher, Charles Fiske, Minnie M. Florence, W. J. Forbes-Robertson, J. Forrest, Edwin Garrick, David Gilbert, J. G. GiUette, W. H. Goodwin, N. C. Haase, F. Hackett, James H. Hading, Jane Hare, John Haworth, Joseph Heme, James A. Irving, Henry Janauschek, Fanny Jordan, Dorothy Kean, Edmund Kean, C. J. Kemble, Chas. 112 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Kemble, Frances Anne Kemble, John Pliilip Kendal, Mr. Kendal, Mrs. Lecouvreur, Adrienne Lemaitre, A. L. JMcCulIough, J. E. Macklin, C'Jiarles IMacready, W. C. Mansfield, Richard Mathews, Charles Mathews, C. J. Modjeska, H. Morris, Clara ]Mounet-Sully Oldfield, Anne Payne, J. H. Placide, H. Rachel, :\Ille. Rehan, Ada Re jane, IMnie. Ristori, A. Robson, Stuart Roscius Russell, Sol Smith Salvini, A. Salvini, T. Siddons, Sarah Sonncnthal, A. Sothern, E. H. Stoddart, J. H. Thompson, Dcnman Tree, Beerbohm Vestris, Mme. Wallack, J. L. Wallack, J. W. Willard, E. S. Woffinf^ton, Margaret Wyndham, Charles 4. The Novel. The novel, at present the most flexible of literary forms, though of recent date in its present character, traces back to early and multiple sources. The beast tale, common to all nations, the narrative of adventure, and the story of things supernatural, were the precursors of the novel. The love element becomes pronounced in the old Greek romances and assumes primary importance in the romances of the Middle Ages. The romance, it may be broadly put, passed into the novel, when the tale began to assume the character of a picture of contemporary life, a development to be assigned to the sixteenth century. See the article Novel. The geat monuments and figures of pre-modern story-telling are the fol- lowing : Sanskbit : Dandin Subandhu Bana Arabic : . Arabian Nights Greek and Roman: Heliodorus Ephesiaca Daphnis and Chloe Apuleius Apollonius of Tyre Petronius In Mcdia?val times, the romance flourished, combining in itself elements of tlic epic, the beast fable, and the tale of adventure and of love. Materials were largely drawn from ancient his- tory, and the stories gathered around great figures of antiquity and the early Middle Ages. See: Romance Fabliaux Gesta Romanorum Alexander, Legend of Charlomagne Cycle of Romances LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 113 Chrestien de Troyes Wace Roman de la Rose Perceval Tristram Lancelot of the Lake Malory Grail, The Holy Merlin Chaucer Morte d' Arthur Euphues Amadis of Gaul Romance lacked characterization and reality. With the appearance of tales embodying observation of real types and description of manners, the novel as it is to-day begins. The origin is generally placed in Spain, where the rise of the picaresque tale marks the first step in character de- lineation. The subsequent develop- ment is rapid to present conditions, when the novel has become the all em- bracing term for all prose fiction, realistic, romantic, adventurous, or di- dactic. See for the writers : French: Scudery, Madeleine de Lafayette, Marie Madeleine de Scarron Lesage Voltaire Genlis, Countess de Prevost d'Exiles Saint-Pierre Stendhal Balzac Hugo Dumas, the Elder Sue Erckmann-Chatrian Kock, Paul de Sand, George Merimee, P. Flaubert Goncourt Fcuillet Theuriet Daudet Loti, Pierre Zola Bourget Margueritte, P, Prevost, E. M. Italian : Boccaccio Manzoni Aniicis Fogazzaro, A. Verga, G. Annunzio, Gabriele d' Farina, S. Serao, Matilda Spanish : Cervantes Aleman Valera y Alcala Gallano Galdos Palacio Valdes Alar con Pereda Pardo Bazan German : Goethe Fouque Gutzkow Eichendorff Alexis, W. HaufF Laube Auerbach Reuter, Fritz Tieck, L. Freytag Storm, Theodor 114 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE SchefFel Gerstiicker Spielhagen Anzengruber Dahn Heyse Ebers Kirschner, Lola Swedish : Rydberg JBremer, Frederika Danish : Blicher Drachmann N0RWEGL\N : Bjornson Lie Kielland Hungarian: Jokai Eotvos Russian : Gontcharoffi Pisemski Gogol TurgeniefF Dostoyevski Tolstoy Korolenko Gorky TchekhofF Polish : Kraszcwski Sicnkiewicz Orzcszkowa Defoe began the line of great Eng- lish novelists with what is still the greatest story of adventure in our literature. The realistic novel was carried to a high degree of perfection by Fielding. Manners were acutely studied by a succession of women writers, who bridged the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Barren practically of the drama, the latter century found expression in the novel to as fully great an extent as in lyric poetry. See: English : Belin, Afra Defoe Sterne Smollet Fielding Richardson Inchbald, Elizabeth Simpson Godwin Buraey, Frances Radcliffe, Ann Edgeworth, Maria Scott Austen, Jane Porter, Jane Peacock, Thomas Love Lover, Samuel Borrow Lever, Charles Bulwer-Lytton Gaskell, Elizabeth James, G. P. R. Thackeray Marryat, Frederick Dickens Reade Trollope Kingslcy, Charles P^liot, George Bronte, (Charlotte, Emily, Anne) Collins, Wilkie Blackmore Oliphant, iNIargaret Meredith, George Morris, William Du Maurier Black, William * LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 115 Hardy, Thomas Stevenson, Robert Louis Russell, W. C. Ward, Mrs. Humphry Moore, George Hawkins, Anthony Hope Kipling, Rudyard Conrad, Joseph Gissing, George Hewlett, Maurice Quiller-Couch, A. T. Wells, H. G. Fiction has been more successfully cultivated in America than any other form of letters. The nineteenth cen- tury produced in that realm a master romancer, Cooper, two master short- story writers, Hawthorne and Poe, and at least two talented exponents of modern realism, James and Howells, of whom the latter has depicted national character with remarkable success. See: Brown, Charles Brockden Cooper Poe Hawthorne Hale, E. E. Howells Harte, Bret James, Henry Cable, George Washington Fawcett, Edgar Grant, Robert Jackson, H. H. Melville, Herman Tourgee, A. W. Wilkins, Mary Allen James Lane Page, Thomas Nelson Garland, Hamlin Stockton, Frank R. Norris, Frank 5. Criticism and Essay. 1. The principles underlying artistic endeavor have been discussed since early Greek times, and may be divided into two classes, the universal laws of artistic expression, which have always been accepted, and the minor theories, more limited in scope and applying generally to individual arts, which never have been accepted by all, and never will be. Plato first studied in a thorough manner the relations of art to reahty. Aristotle's Poetics laid down the principles that have under- gone no essential change since his time. On the other hand, the blending of the classic spirit with the Teutonic, and the subsequent rise of chivalry and ro- mance, produced differences of opinion regarding subject, scope, and manner that are in full force at the present day. See : Criticism Realism and Naturalism Romanticism Impi'essionist School of Painting Decadents Symbolists 2. Criticism in the beginning found expression in both prose and verse ; the modern tendency has been decidedly towards prose, though there is not wanting a Pope's Essay on Criticism to continue the succession from Hor- ace's Ars Poetica. The usual form, then, in which criticism at present finds expression is the Essay. See: Essay, and for the writers: Greek: Plato Aristotle Plutarch Longinus 116 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Latin : Cicero Horace Seneca the Elder Varro Pliny Quintilian Feench : Montaigne Saint-Evremond Corneille Boileau Voltaire Diderot Bayle Taine Cousin Lamartine Sainte-Beuve Michelet Sarcey France, Anatole Faguet, Eniile Brunetiere Lemaitre, Jules Rod, Edouard Italian : Dante Boccaccio Poliziano Vida Scaligcr, J. C. Carducci, (Jiosue De Sanctis, F. Ancona, Alessandro d' Gubcmatis, A. German: Rouchlin Winc'kclmann Gottsched Herder Lcssing Schiller Schlegel, Friedrich Grimm Schercr, W. Menzel Bahr, HciTiiann Nordau, Max Dutch: Erasmus Danish : Rafn Brandes Russian : Byelinski PisarefF English : Ascham Sidney Bacon, Francis Drj'den Steele Addison Swift Johnson Pope Jeffrey Coleridge Wordsworth Lamb Hazlitt Wilson, John De Quincey Hunt, J. H. Leigh Carlyle Ruskin Arnold, Matthew Rossetti, W. M. Stevenson, Robert Louis Pater, W. ^ Syiiionds, J. A. Saintsbury, George Stephen, Leslie Birroll, Augustine Arciicr, William LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 117 Le Gallienne, Richard Symons, A. American : Irving Emerson Ticknor, G. Lowell Fuller, Sarah Margaret Griswold, Rufus Curtis, G. W. Whipple White, Richard Grant Hutton, Laurence Mabie, Hamilton Winter, William 6- Moralists, Satirists, and Humor- ists. The study of human character and conduct has at all times received the attention of great minds, and wliat may be called ethical literature forms a very important part of the literature of the world. Near to constructive moralists, like Epictetus or Carlyle, stands the satirist, whose mission it is to combat the evil of degenerate times. The contemplation of the petty faults and incongruities of human character and action, so portrayed as to arouse laughter without arousing deep emo- tion of any kind, has always been a universal source of amusement. See: Greek and Roman: Aristophanes Lucian Epictetus Ennius Lucilius Horace Juvenal Martial Persius Lucan Tacitus Petronius Aurelius, Marcus Boethius French : Rabelais Menippee La Bruyere La Rochefoucauld Pascal Lcsage Voltaire Chamfort, S. R. Italian : Jacopone da Todi Aretino Spanish : Quevedo y Villegas German : Fischart, Johannes Brant Hutten, Ulrich von EpistolfE Obscurorum Virorum Grimmelshausen Rabener Lichtenberg Wieland Tieck Richter, Johann Paul Reuter, Fritz Dutch : Erasmus Marnix RussuN : Kantemir Shtchedrin Nekrasoff English : Langland (Piers Plowman) Skelton Bunyan Butler 118 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Dryden Pope Swift Junius, Letters of Arbuthnot Byron Carlyle Smith, Sydney Thackeray Dickens Calverle}' Gilbert, W. S. Mallock, W. H. Lear, Edward Jerome, Jerome K. Guthrie, T. A. Scotch: Dunbar Barclay American: Ward, Nathaniel Franklin Irving Lowell Holmes Smith, Seba Clemens Leland, C. G. Locke, D. R. Browne, C. F. Bunncr, H. C. Shaw, H. W. Stockton, F. R. Nye, E. W. Dunne, Finlcy Peter 7. Oratory. The art 'of eloquent persuasion is found among all primitive peoples where social bonds have become of some importance. Oratory attains its full- est development in the Greek democra- cies, where the citizen was called upon to take so considerable a sliare in the public life. The political and juristic genius of the Roman was likewise fa- vorable to the development of the art. Pulpit eloquence had some of its great- est masters among the early Fathers of the Church, which has never been want- ing in masterly exponents of its doc- trines. A gi'eat period in the history of orator}' was the age of the French Revolution, when, contemporaneously in England too, a succession of great orators lent lustre to the reign of George III. In the United States, the revolutionary period, and the period of rapid national growth, produced a bril- liant series of orators, culminating in the classic triad. Clay, Webster, and Calhoun. At present oratory may b'e considered a declining art, especially as related to secular affairs ; and, though its power over the multitude may still be felt in electoral campaigns, its influence in legislative bodies has largely passed away. See Oratory; and, for the great orators of all ages: Greek : Pericles Gorgias Isocrates Lj'sias Andocides Isaeus .(Eschines Demosthenes Athanasius Chrysostom Basil the Great Roman : (^ato of Utica Hortensius Cicoro Ambrose LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 119 French: Bossuet Bourdaloue Massillon Fenelon IMirabeau Barnave Vcrgniaud Guadet Daiiton Robespierre Royer-Collard Constant de Rebecque Lamartine Laeordaii'e Thiers Gambetta Italian : Mazzini Spanish : Castelar Hungarian : Kgssuth English : Taylor, Jeremy Baxter, Richard Whiteficld ]\Iansfield Burke Pitt, the Elder Pitt, the Younger Fox, C. J. Sheridan, R. B. Erskine, Lord Canning Bright, John Gladstone Drunimond, Henry Spurgeon, C. H. Irish : Curran Grattan O'Conncll Emmet American : Otis, James Henry, Patrick Lee, Richard Henry Ames, Fisher Channing, W. E. Randolph, John Wirt, William Benton Clay Webster Calhoun Hayne Everett Choate, Rufus Seward, W. H. Sumner, Charles Stephens, Alexander Beecher, H. W. Douglas, Stephen A. Evarts, W. M. Edmunds, George Conkling, Roscoe Ingersoll, Robert Brooks, Phillips Reed, Thomas B. Bryan, William Jennings 8. The Fable. Probably it was the inhabitants of India who first ascribed human wisdom and language to animals. From India the fable passed westward, and, begin- ning with the Greek ^sop, we find practically the same scheme and con- tents in all European fabulists. See : India : Pancatantra Bidpai Arabian : Lokman 120 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Gkeek : ^sop Latin : Phaedrus French : La Fontaine Perrault Florian Laboulaye Russian: KrylofF German : Hagedorn Gellert Lessing Grimm Norwegian : Asbjomsen Moe Danish : Andersen English : Gay Harris, Joel Chandler 9. Personal Literature. This name maj' be applied to such productions as diaries, memoirs, letters, and " confessions " of distinguished men and women, or men and women whose experiences in life have been ex- traordinary. Written, it may be pre- sumed, for the purpose of self-expres- sion, they are valuable indexes of character, motives, and causes. See: Letters in Literature Aurelius, Marcus: Meditations Augustine : Confessions Sevigne, Marquise de Saint-Simon : Memoires Rousseau : Confessions Senancour : Obermann Amiel Selden : Table Talk Pepys Evelyn Walpole, Horace Chesterfield 10. Journalism. The press, which must be regarded as an important element in the literary life of any nation, may be studied un- der the following heads : Periodical Literature Journalism, College Newspaper Punch Figaro Times, The Printing A partial list of noteworthy names in journalism is as follows: About, Edmond Blowitz, Henri Georges Bonner, Robert Bowles, Samuel Creelman, James Curtis, W. E. Dana, C. A. Field, Kate Forbes, Archibald Godkin, E. L. Greeley, Horace Halstead, Murat Kennan, George Laboucherc, Henry Lemon, Mark Mcdill, Joseph Norman, Henry Pulitzer, Joseph Raymond, H. J. Rcid, Whitelaw Rochefort, Henri Russell, W. H. Sala, G. A. H. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 121 Saltus, Edgar Smalley, G. W. Stanley, H. M. Stead, W. T. Steevens, G. W. Taylor, Bayard TraJll, H. D. Villicrs, F. Weed, Thurlow White, Horace Wilkinson, H. S. Young, J. R. 11. Miscellaneous Titles. Manuscript Manuscripts, Illumination of Papyrus Palimpsest Paleography Codex Coster Gutenberg Fust Elzevir Manutius Foulis Encyclopa?dia Dictionary Larousse Brockhaus Copyright Literary Property (dljaplfr a. ®I)P 3xm Arts (Arrljtterturr) THE study of the fine arts may be approached from one of three different points of view. The first of these is the historical, in which the student desires to obtain a comprehensive view of the art of a nation or of an entire period, its general characteristics and development. Another is the artistic, in which knowledge of a particular art or of some of its aspects is desired. A third is the biographical, in which the interest centres about an individual artist. To meet the first point of view, the Xerc International Encyclopa'dia contains general articles treating the architecture, sculpture, painting, and minor arts of certain nations and periods. These general articles may best be divided into two groups : those treating the art of Oriental nations, whose artistic devlopment is remotely or not at all concerned with the general European evolution ; and those dealing with the great periods of artistic development participated in by the Occident in general. This division obviates the necessity for general articles on the art of separate European coun- tries, as, for instance, French art, which will be found treated under Roman-- EsauE, Gothic, and Renaissance Art, and in the general articles Aechitec- TUHE, Sculpture, Painting. The artist's point of view is represented by general articles on Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture, and by articles on the various schools, and on technical terms and pi-ocesses. The biographical side is fully dealt with in the lives of all the principal artists. The art museums are usually described under the titles of the cities in which they are situated: but a few are of sufficient importance to require separate articles. The principal schools of design are described in the general article upon that subject and in special articles on the more Important schools. The description of celebrated representations in painting and sculpture is usually given in the biography' of the artist who produced them. The article Mythology in Aet gives a general treatment of such representations in Classic Art, which arc further treated under the names of the subjects represented, as Jupiter, Hercules, Achilles. The article Iconography similarly treats Christian Art, and there are special articles on a number of important themes of artistic treatment, such as Christ in Art and Madonna. A, (^nuvixi Arttrbs I. Introductory: Assyrian Art ^j.j; Jewisli Art Art, Primitive Phoenician Art /Esthetics IMohammedan Art Persian Art II. OhientalArt: Indian Art I^gyptian Art Chinese Art Babylonian Art Japanese Art 122 ARCHITECTURE 123 III. European Development: Greek Art Etruria Roman Art Christian Art Byzantine Art Monastic Ai-t Romanesque Art Lombard Art Gothic Art Renaissance Art IV. Art Museums, Societies, and Schools: Design, Schools of Ecole des Beaux-Arts National Academy of Design Society of American Artists Royal Academy of Arts Saint Luke, Academy of British Museum Louvre Luxembourg Palace Pitti Palace Uffizi B. Kxt\}\XttXmt In its widest sense, Architecture in- cludes any kind of construction; but, in the New International Encyclopaedia, the term is usually restricted to build- ing which attains the dignity of art. Purely technical and utilitarian phases of architecture are treated under 'Building, Masonry, and similar titles. (See the chapter on Manufactur(?fe and Engineering.) The three prin- cipal varieties of architecture are civil, religious, and military ; and under these heads, in the following lists, will be found their chief subdivisions. A few of these call for more detailed treatment of the component parts, and these are best enumerated below in connection with that style under which they were principally devel- oped ; as, for instance. Temple under Greek Architecture, Church under Early Christian, Monastery and Castle under Romanesque. Most celebrated works of architecture are treated in the articles on those cities in which they are situated; but a number of buildings of especial interest are treated separately, and in the following scheme of .study, such buildings are enumerated under the different styles of architecture of which they are repre- sentative. For example, Parthenon, Erechtheum, etc., appear under Greek Architecture, Notre Dame de Paris and Westminster Abbey under Gothic. I. Civil Architecture : Municipal Architecture Forum Palace Fountain Villa Mausoleum Theatre Amphitheatre Circus Bath Town Hall Arch, Triumphal Aqueduct Bridge II. Religious Architecture: Temple 124 ARCHITECTURE Church Cathedral Monastery Orator}' Baptistery III. Military Architecture : Acropohs Citadel Castle Camp Fortification IV. Technical Terms. A large number of architectural terms deserve special treatment. Some of these, which are general in their ap- plication, are enumerated below, while others, the application of wliich is re- stricted to a particular style, are enu- merated under that style ; as, for exam- ple, Mosque under Mohammedan. See: Arabesque Arcade Arch Balcony Balustrade Bay Window Belfry Ceiling Colonnade Column Cupola Dome Door Doorway Fafade Floor Gateway Hall Molding Ornament Panel Pendentive Perspective Pilaster Pillar Porch Portal Roof Spire Tracery Window V. Historic Styles axd Biography. Architecture is tlie most ancient and, perhaps, the most important of the fine arts. In most artistic developments, both painting and sculpture have been subordinate to it. Its historical treat- ment, therefore, forms an extensive and important part of the general depart- ment of architecture in the Encyclo- paedia. A general historical sketch of its development, from tiie most ancienttimes to the present, is given in the article AcHiTECTURE. This should be supple- mented by the copious articles on the great historic styles, with the biograph- ical additions given in the following list. Our treatment will outline the salient features of the different styles, beginning with those Oriental nations whose architecture lies remote from the European development — such as China, India, and Japan. We then proceed to those ancient nations, like Babylonia and Egypt, which materially influenced the Greek architecture. P^rom Greek arcliitecturc, is descended the Roman, and from the Roman, the Mediicval and Renaissance styles, and finally tiic ar- chitecture of the present day. 1. India. The architecture of India begins with the Buddhist style (u. c. 300-a. d. ARCHITECTURE 125 700), whose buildings are of three classes: stupa or tope (a mound en- closing a relic) ; rock temples (chai- tyas) ; and monasteries (viharas). The Neo-Brahmanic style (beginning a. d. 700) comprises many varieties, includ- ing the so-called Jaina and Dravidian. It developed the architectural detail, the over-rich ornamentation, the pago- das and gopuras of the South. The Mohammedan architecture of India, being little related to these styles, is test treated under Mohammedak Art. See: Indian Art Tope Vihara Ellora Vija^-anagara Boro Buddor Elephanta Mohammedan Art ■2. China and Japan. The most characteristic feature of Chinese architecture, which begins in the first century b. c, after the advent of Buddhism, is the tiled roof of tent- like form. Others are the pagoda, the pail-loo (a monumental gateway), and elaborately colored surface decoration. Japanese architecture, which begins with the seventh century a. d., is even less massive. It makes more of timber construction, and spends more upon roof effects than the Chinese. See: Chinese Art Japanese Art Pagoda S. Babylonia and Assyria. The first historic people to develop architecture were the Babylonians, as early as b. c. 6000. Their building material was brick, and they were the first to construct vaults and arches. Their most important buildings were the temples, which were stepped pyra- mids of great height, brilliantly col- ored with glazed tiles. Their city walls were of amazing height and thickness. Assyrian architecture was derived from the Babylonian, but was more sec- ular in character, the chief buildings being the royal palaces, in which it per- fected decorative relief sculpture of a high order. See : (a) Babylonian Art Babylon Babel, Tower of Nippur Erech Ur (b) Assyrian Art Nineveh Nimrud Khorsabad Koyunjik 4. Persia, Phcenicia, Judea. The Babylonian-Assyrian influence was determinative for the architecture of the Hittites, and for the utilitarian art of the Pha?nicians, who built for Solomon the Temple at Jerusalem. Ancient Persian architecture shows a mingling of Babylonian with Egyptian and Greek influences ; but, under the Parthian and Sassanian dynasties, it reverted to purer Oriental types. See : Hittites PhcEnician Art Jewish Art Temple at Jerusalem Persian Art Ecbatana Susa 126 ARCHITECTURE Pasargadae Firuzabad 5. Egypt. The architectural monuments of the Old Empire (b. c. 5000-3000), the pyramids, mastabas, and such temples as exist — are works of building rather than art. Egyptian temple architec- ture originated with the Middle Empire (b. c. 3000-2100), and, after a disas- trous interruption under the Shepherd Kings, attained its highest development during the New Empire (till a. d. 32^). Some, like Abu-Simbel, were rock-cut temples ; others, like Deir-el- Bahri, were partly constructed. The Ramesseum was a sepulchral temple ; the chief structural masterpieces are at Karnak, Luxor, Edfu, and Phila?. Im- portant temples continued to be built under the Greek (Denderah, Philas) and Roman domination. For a descrip- tion of the temples consult the section Architecture, under Egyptian Art. It represents the first attempt at a large column interior in architectural his- tory. See : Egyptian Art Pyramid Mastaba Medum Luxor Thebes Karnak Edfu Elephantine Abu-Simbel Deir-el-Bahri Ramesseum Medinet Habu Denderah Phite Beni-Hassan 6. Greece. The Mycensean architecture in Greek lands, sometimes known, as the ^Egean style, is described under Archaeology, and in the articles on the principal sites of this culture. From the main hall of the Mycena?an palace was evolved that marvelous structural masterpiece, the Greek Temple, the final type of which appears in the seventh century b. c. For a description of this temple, which is the central figure of Greek architec- ture, consult Greek Art. The origin and development of the two principal styles of temple architecture, Doric and Ionic, are treated under Architec- ture and Arch.eoi.ogy. The earliest examples of the Doric are in Sicily and Southern Italy, and it attained perfec- tion during the fifth century, in build- ings like the Parthenon and Theseum at Athens, and in the temples of Pfes- tum. The Ionic order was increasingly used in the fourth century b. c, as at jVIiletus and Ephesus, the Corinthian being as yet used for small monuments only. The Hellenistic age saw a great development of architecture of a pri- vate, civil, and sepulchral character, like the stoa, propylasa, theatre, odeon, and mausoleum. (a) General Titles: Cyclopjean Architecture Archa'ology Greek Art Temple Doric Order Ionic Order Corinthian Order Column Fluting Entablature Base ARCHITECTURE 127 Pediment Frieze Cornice Acanthus Pjestuni Agrigentum Selinus Segesta Parthenon Theseum Erectheum Phigalia Miletus Diana, Temple of Tecs Magnesia (6) Civil Architecture: Propylaea Stoa Colonnade Stadium Theatre Mausoleum Choragic Monument (c) Biography : Ictinus Callicrates Mnesicles 7. Rome. For a general view of Roman archi- tecture, the student is referred to Ro- man Art. The early architecture of Rome is practically Etruscan, and to this people the Romans owe their knowl- edge of vaulting and the arch. At the close of the republican epoch, they adopted Greek orders, evincing special preference for the Corinthian, whicli they developed into an independent or- der, and from which they evolved the so-called composite. These forms were decoratively used as adjuncts of con- struction. The principal works of Ro- man architecture were but great civil structures, like the fora, triumphal arches, amphitheatres, therma?, aque- ducts, and the like. The highest de- velopment was during the first 150 years of the empire, after which came the decline. See: (a) Etruria (section on Art) Cloaca Roman Art Aqueduct Tabularium Forum Trajan, Forum of Basilica Pantheon Theatre Amphitheatre Arch, Triumphal Trajan, Arch of Titus, Arch of Constantine, Arch of Septimius Severus, Arch of Antonine Column Caracalla, Baths of Diocletian, Baths of Tivoli Pompeii Herculanffium Baalbek Palmyra (t)) Biography: Apollodorus 8. Early Christian. Early Christian architecture is an adaptation of the declining Roman to the needs of Christian worship. The requirement was a large interior for many worshipers, resulting in tlie de- velopment of the basilical construction, which became typical for church build- 128 ARCHITECTURE ing. The component parts of the ba- silica are discussed in the articles under the heading of Basilical Construction. The article Church gives the general development of the church building. To this is added a list of other terms of ecclesiastical architecture. (a) Basilical Construction: Basilica Apse Transept Atrium Nave Altar Choir Confessional (b) Church, etc.: Church Catacombs Chancel Chapel Crypt Font Reredos Sacristy 9. Byzantine. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, the Byzantines developed the domical construction, inventing the pendentives to support the dome. By- zantine architecture was also character- ized by rich mosaic decoration. Its great masterpieces are the Church of Saint Sophia at Constantinople and Saint Mark's at Venice. It prevailed throughout the Eastern Empire until its destruction by the Turks ; in South- em Italy, Sicily, Venice, and Ravenna; in Armenia, the Balkans, and wherever else the Greek Church prevailed. Rus- sian architecture is a development of the Byzantine. Sec: Byzantine Art Mosaic Dome Pendentive Saint Sophia Saint Mark's Church Anthemius (of Tralles) 10. Mohammedan. Coincident with the Mohammedan conquests, a style of architecture arose based upon the Byzantine and Persian. Its golden age began with the tenth century, and the final types were at- tained in the eleventh. The ultimate type of the mosque was built on the court-plan, with painted arches, highly colored geometrical ornament, and dome vaulting. The principal schools were the ]\Ioorish (Spain), Egyptian, Syr- ian, and Persian, the influence of the last named extending even to India. All these are described in Mohammedan Art, besides which there are articles upon the most prominent features of Mohammedan architecture. See: Mohammedan Art Mosque Minaret Tekiye Bazar Caravanserai Alhambra Taj Mahal 11. Romanesque (a. d. 800-1200). In Middle and Western Europe, Early Christian architecture was suc- ceeded by the Romanesque, which was pre-eminently the art of the monastic orders and of feudalism. Among its innovations were the cruciform plan, the developed crypt, and the incorpora- tion of bcll-towcrs witii the church building. But the principal achieve- ARCHITECTURE 129 ment of Romanosque architecture was the perfection of vaulting, — the dome and tunnel vault in Southern France, and the groined vault in Lombardy, the Rhinelands, Normandy, and England. It thus led the way to the development of the pointed arch and Gothic archi- tecture. The basis of the study of Ro- manesque architecture should be the appropriate section of Romanesque Art. See: Romanesque Art Lombard Art Norman Architecture Vault Crypt Bell-Tower Castle Keep Bailey Tower Bastion Barbican Wartburg Monastery Cloister Chapter-house Dormitory 12. Gothic. Gothic architecture is the develop- ment of Romanesque groined vaulting. By means of the pointed arch, the most characteristic feature of the system, the vertical thrust is concentrated in pow- erful piers, the horizontal on flying buttresses, permitting light walls with enormous glass windows and an infinite wealth of statuary and tracery. Gothic architecture originated in France in the twelfth century, and there it also at- tained its most perfect development in the thirteenth, declining into the Flam- boyant style of the fifteenth century. Spanish Gothic of the thirteenth cen- tury is second only to the French, though later debased by too much orna- ment. In England, a peculiarly na- tional style arose, which should be studied under the headings by which three varieties are usually known. Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. At its best, the German Gothic is noted for its beauti- ful tracery and spires. In Italy, the Gothic style is purely decorative, and it produced a charming style of civic buildings, especially in Tuscany and Venice. The basis of study should be the article, Gothic Architecture, supplemented by the articles on special churches, and the descriptions in the articles on the cities, a few of which are appended. See: (a) Gothic Architecture Vault Flamboyant Eai'ly English Decorated Style Perpendicular Fan-Tracery A'aulting Notre Dame de Paris Sainte Chapelle Westminster Abbey Santa Croce (b) Cathedral Cities: Rheims Amiens Burgos Lincoln Salisbury York Canterbury Winchester Cologne Strassburg Nuremburg 130 ARCHITECTURE Freiburg Milan Florence Siena Orvieto (c) Biography : Montreuil, Pierre de William of Wykeham Erwin Arnolf o di Cambio 13. Renaissance., (a) Italy. Renaissance architecture is the adaptation of classical forms, as they sursivcd in Roman remains, to the architectural needs of the day. The Early Renaissance (fifteenth century) originated in the works of Brunelleschi at Florence, whence it was introduced into the rest of Italy. Its work was decorative in character, the construc- tive side being rather developed by the Roman school, headed by Bramante. The tendency was increasingly towards the formal classicism evinced in the works of Palladio and Yignola. As a reaction, came the freer but exagger- ated Barocco of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The basis of study should be the section Architec- ture, under Renaissance Art. (i) Prominent Buildings: Certosa Doge's Palace Pitti Palace Lante Villa Giulia Villa Saint Peter's Church (ii) Biograjihy: Brunelleschi, Filippo Michclozzi, Michelozzo Alberti, Leone Battista Giuliano da Majano Laurana, Luciano da Sangallo Bramante, Donato d'Agnolo Peruzzi, Baldassare Sansovino, Jacopo Michelangelo Vignola, Giacomo Barozzo da ' Palladio, Andrea Serlio, Sebastiano Scamozzi, Vincenzo Fontana, Domenico Maderna, Carlo Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo Borromini, Francesco Ammanati, Bartolommeo Longhena, Baldassare (b) Other Countries. Outside of Italy, the most important development of Renaissance architec- ture was the French. Its most original type was the medi.-eval castle trans- formed into the palace of the Renais- sance. There was constant influence from Italy, but the later French Ba- rocco is superior to the Italian. In Germany, the Gothic elements survived late, and materially influenced the in- coming Renaissance. A similar devel- opment occurred in other European countries. Spain made use of much elaborate decorative detail. The Ren- aissance appeared latest of all in Eng- land in the seventeenth century. A kind of Palladian High Renaissance, adopted by Inigo Jones, and developed by Wren, retained a purifying influ- ence during the eighteenth century, un- til the advent of classic revival. (i) France: Palace Chambiges, Martin ARCHITECTURE 131 BuUant, Jean De I'Ormc, Philibert Lescot, Pierre Brosse, Salomon de Mansart Fontainebleau Louvre Tuileries Luxembourg Palace (ii) Great Britain: Jones, Inigo Wren, Sir Christopher Van Brugh, Sir John Hawksmoor, Nicholas Chambers, Sir William Nash, Sir John Dance, George Saint Paul's Cathedral Whitehall 14. Nineteenth Century. The reaction against the exagger- ated styles of the eighteenth century ■was an imitation of classical forms. In France, Roman forms were predomi- nant in the great structures of the Re- public and first Empire; but, in Eng- land and Germany, Greek forms were more closely followed. About 1830, came the Gothic revival, which attained especial development in England, in such buildings as the Houses of Parlia- ment and numberless churches. The present tendency is towards Renais- sance forms and greater freedom from tradition. The tasteful colonial architecture of the United States followed English models, but the early republic adopted the classic revival (Capitol). The period of the Civil War (till 1870) was singularly unfruitful ; but between 1870 and 1880 there was a revival of the artistic spirit. The problem of the artistic treatment of the skyscraper with the steel-frame construction is as yet unsolved ; but constant improvement is being made. The basis of study should be the section on the Nineteenth. Century. (a) France: Soufflot, Jacques Germain Percier, Charles Fontaine, P. F. L. Viollet-le-Duc Visconti, L. T. J. Gamier, J. L. C. (6) Germany and Austria: Gartner, Friedrich von Schinkel, Karl Friedrich Klenze, Leo von Hansen, Thcophilus von Semper, Gottfried (c) Great Britain: Soane, Sir John Smirkc, Sir Robert Pugin, Augustus Pugin, Augustus N. M. Wyatt, Sir Jlatthew D. Fergusson, James Scott, Sir George Gilbert Street, George Edmund Barry, Sir Charles Waterhouse, Alfred Paxton, Sir Joseph Parliament, Houses of (d) United States : Latrobe, Benjamin Henry Bulfinch, Charles Walter, Thomas Ustick Renwick, James Upjohn, Richard Hunt, Richard IMorris Richardson, H. H. jNlcKim, Charles F. Qlljapter in. ®I)P Jtttp Arts (^rulpturp ani» fainting) (Read general introduction at the opening of preceding chapter.) v4, g>rul^tur? The stud}- of sculpture centres about the general article on that subject. In this article will be found sections on the technical processes and materials, especially tlie modern, and on the dif- ferent forms of sculpture, and a sketch of the history' of sculpture, containing a description of the characteristics and the development of the different schools, as revealed in their principal artists. The study of the technical forms and processes of sculpture should be supple- mented by the special articles enumer- ated below ; that of the history by tliosc on the different schools and epochs of art, and above all by the biographies of the artists, some of which are enumerated in the following para- graphs. I. Branches and Technique of Sculpture. Carving Chasing Founding Bell Relief Sculpture Bronze Chryselephantine Goldsmith's Work Terra Cotta Ivory Metal Work Wood-carving Stucco II. Greek and Roman ScuLrxuRE. The sculpture of Oriental countries is decorative in character, and therefore best considered in connection with their architecture, under the titles of the division Oriental Art, in the introduc- tory section of the preceding chapter. Among the Greeks, sculpture first at- tained the dignity of an independent art, and achieved the highest perfection in the world's history. The study of the separate epochs of Greek sculpture should be based upon the articles Arch.eology and Greek Art. Its rude beginnings date from the seventh century b. c. The emancipation was gradual, but, by the end of the archaic period (b. c. 480), the sculptor had attained freedom, and could create heads of the highest charm. The Attic period (480-323), during which the chief art centre was at Athens, wit- nessed the highest development of Greek art. It is ushered in by a period of transition (till about 4.50), in which archaic reminiscences are still in evi- dence; but great progress was made towards complete mastery of technique. The last half of the fifth century, the age of Phidias, is the golden age of Greek art. The greatest technical knowledge was subordinated to idealism and self restraint, and to the utmost nobility of concc])tion. 'J^lie age of Praxiteles and Scopas, though still ideal, was more realistic and interested in individual traits and features. It succeeded especially well in portraiture, and attained the highest mastery of t('chni(iue. During the Hellenistic age (323-1 4G), the centres of art passed J 32 SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 133 from Greece to Asia and Egypt, to Pergamus, Rhodes, and Alexandria. Art came more into the service of indi- viduals, and, notwithstanding the high- est technical skill, it sought rather sen- sational or trivial subjects. Roman sculpture is, for the most part, copied from the Greek, and shows little origi- nality except in a fine realistic rendition of portraiture, and in pictorial relief- sculpture. See : 1. The Archaic Period: Archeology Greek Art Antenor 9.. The Attic Period: /Eginetan Sculptures Calamis Pythagoras of Rhcgium Myron Discobolus Phidias Elgin ]\Iarbles Polyclitus Agoracrltus Cresilas Pfeonius Cephisodotus Praxiteles Demetrius Scopas Mausoleum Marsyas 3. The Hellenistic Period: Lysippus Pergamon Apollo Belvidere Venus of Milo Laocoon 4. The Roman Sculpture: Section Sculpture under Roman Art Venus of Medici III. Medleval Sculpture. The decorative sculpture of the Mid- dle Ages can best be studied in connec- tion with the architecture of the period, under the titles of the medi.x'val epochs mentioned in the preceding chapter. The history of modern sculpture be- gins with the Italian revival of the thir- teenth century. Niccola Pisano found his models in the antique, but his son Giovanni reverted to the Gothic, and this naturalistic, dramatic style pre- vailed in Italy. The Pisan School was the mother of those of Florence and Siena. The former was superior in technique and composition, the latter was rather picturesque and narrative in character. During the entire Mid- dle Ages, and to some extent during the Renaissance, the usages of Church worship furnished abundant oppor- tunity for the sculptor's art. Sue : 1. First Revival in Italy (under Sculpture) Christian Art Byzantine Art Romanesque Art Gothic Art Antelami, Benedetto Pisano, Niccola Pisano, Giovanni Arnolfo di Cambio Andrea di Ugolino Orcagna, Andrea 2. Ecclesiastical Sculpture: Altar Pulpit Ambo Cross Reliquary Chalice Tomb 134 SCULPTURE AND PAINTING IV. The Renaissance. The Renaissance opened a new world in sculpture. The sources of inspira- tion were the study of nature and of the antique, as it survived in ancient statues. The chief characteristic of the Early Renaissance is a healthy naturalism. It attained a high per- fection, in relief as in statuary, and excelled equally in hronzc, marble, and terra cotta. The centre of the art was Florence, and the dominant figure of the fifteenth century, although one amid a brilliant array of artists was Donatello. The school of Siena was more sentimental in feeling and elabor- ate in decoration ; those of Lombardy and Venice were luxuriant in decora- tion, the former being more vigorous in form. The High Renaissance in Italy is characterized by a deeper study of the antique and a more universal style ; but these qualities afterward de- generated into a mannered imitation of the great masters. Florence again produced the greatest masters, notably Michelangelo, whose art dominated the following two centuries. The sculpture of France in the fif- teenth century was at first influenced by that of Flanders, but the native style soon became transformed by Ital- ian grace and beauty. Even the Baroque of the seventeenth century was somewhat restrained by a certain national grace. In the eighteenth, exaggerated form gave place to more delicate treatment, and a fine, healthy realism ultimately prevailed. In Ger- many, Gothic forms lingered through- out the fifteenth century, and, when during the sixteenth, the Italian influ- ence arrived, it was less important than in other countries. It was confined to the South; in the North, Netherland- ish influence pi'evailed. A native natu- ralistic art dominated the Netherlands during the fifteenth century, but, in the seventeenth, the Italian Baroque en- tered, and, in the eighteenth, sculpture declined. A similar development oc- curred in Spain, save that there was a realistic reaction in the seventeenth century. England imported her sculp- tors from the Netherlands and from Ital}'. See Section The Renaissance, under Sculpture. 1. Italy: (fl) Florence: Ghibcrti, Lorenzo Donatello Michclozzi Robbia, Luca della Vcrrocchio, Andrea del Pollaiuolo, Antonio Desiderio da Settignano Benedetto da Maiano Mino da Fiesole Sansovino, Andrea Torrigiano, Piet'-o Michelangelo Cellini, Benvonuto Bandlnelli, Baccio Ammanati, Bartolommeo {b) Other Cities: Jaco])o della Qnercia Mazzoni, Guido Solari, Cristoforo I^ombardi, Pietro Sansovino, Jacoj)o Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo Algardi, Alessandro 2. France: Goujon, Jean Pilon, Germain Co^'sevox, Antoine Bouchardon, Edme SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 135 Puget, Pierre Ginardon, Fi'anfois Pajou, Augustin Houdon, Jean Antoine 8. Germany: Wohlgemuth, Michel Stoss, Veit Vischer, Peter Riemenschncider, Tilman Schliiter, Andreas Donner, Raphael 4. Other European Countries: Sluter, Claux Duquesnoy, Fran9ois Quellinus, Artus Montanes, Martinez Cano, Alonzo Gibbons, Grinling V. Modern Sculpture. The reaction upon the extrava- gances of Baroque sculpture, at the close of the eighteenth century, took the form of a return to classic simplic- ity, and the antique was imitated more closely than ever before. In France, this classicism was followed by a Romantic tendency, corresponding to a similar movement in painting, and by a more important naturalistic reaction. In the second half of the nineteenth century, classicism and naturalism ran parallel, with an increasing influence of the latter, which now prevails. Eng- land had a similar classical period, and a subsequent transition to naturalism ; but since 1870, a great change, both in conception and treatment, has come over English sculpture through the ef- fort of great English painters and the French influence. The German reac- tion against classicism resulted in the historical school of Berlin, whose work tended toward naturalism, and in the romantic school of Munich; not until the end of the nineteenth century did naturalism prevail. In other Euro- pean countries, the development has been similar to that general evolution described above. After some ineffec- tual early attempts, America also liad its classical school, with a number of important artists. Since the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the tendency has been entirely naturalistic, and an array of talent has appeared which compares favorably with that of any other country. See : 1. France: Pradier, James Preault, Auguste Rude, Fran9ois Barye, Antoine Louis Cain, Auguste Nicolas Bartholdi, Frederic Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste Fremiet, Emmanuel Dalou, Jules Rodin, Auguste Gilbert, F. A. G. 2. England: Flaxman, John Westmacott, Richard Gibson, John Stevens, Alfred Foley, John Henry Woolner, Thomas Watts, George Frederick Thornycroft, Hamo Ford, Edward Onslow 3. Germany: Dannecker, Johann Heinrich Schadow, Johann Gottfried Ranch, Christian Tieck, Friedrich Drake, Friedrich Hahnel, Ernst 136 SCULPTURE AND PAINTING Rietschel, Ernst Schilling, Johannes Schwanthalcr, Ludwig Begas, Reinhold Stuck, Franz Klinger, Max Zumbusch, Kaspar Tilgner, Viktor Strasser, Arthur 4. Other European Countries: Canova, Antonio Tenerani, Pietro Marchcsi, Pompeo Dupre, Giovanni Sergei, Johan Tobias Thorwaklsen, Bertel Sinding, Stefan 5. United States: Greenough, Horatio Powers, Hiram Rusk, Wilham Crawford, Thomas Palmer, Erastus Story, William Wetmore Rogers, Randolph Rogers, John Rinehart, William Henry Hosmer, Harriet Brown, Henry Kirke Ward, J. Q. A. Keyser, Ephraim Warner, Olin Levi Saint Gaudens, Augustus French, Daniel Chester Macmonnies, Frederick Niehaus, Charles Henry Partridge, William Ordway Bartlett, Paul Roberts, Howard Barnard, George Grey B. JPatutturj A series of special articles treats the technical side of painting, the different varieties, the painter's implements, and the qualities by which a picture should be judged. The history of the dif- ferent schools is comprehensively de- scribed under Painting. This article should form the basis of the study of any given school ; it should, however, be supplemented by the articles on separate schools and the biographies of the artists, of which only the principal arc contained in the following lists. The technique and history of the analo- gous arts of mosaic, glass painting, and decoration are treated at length. I. Technique and Allied Arts. 1. Technical Processes: Fresco Tempera Water-Color Painting Encaustic Painting Stereochromy Pastel Genre Painting Portraiture Landscape Still Life Canvas Easel Jlahlstick Ground Painter's Colors Drawing Line Perspective Chiaroscuro Color Composition Proportion SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 137 2. Analogous Arts: Mosaic Stained Glass Decorative Art Sgraffito II. Greek Painting. The decorative painting of Oriental countries is treated under the different titles of the subdivision Oriental Art, in the introductory section of the pre- ceding chapter. Greek painting was the first to rise to the dignity of an independent art. The transition from the painting of the old IMycenaean decorations, showing considerable tech- nical skill and a high power of inven- tion, to that of the fifth century b. c. can be studied only in vase-painting (see Vase). In the fifth and fourth centuries b. c, Greek painting at- tained its highest development. The older Attic School, with Polygnotus as its founder and Athens as a centre, brought the art to a high state of devel- opment in the years following the Per- sian wars. Its decorative work was practically great, colored, outline drawings, noble in composition and expression. Perspective and shading were discovered by Agatharchus of Samos, a scene painter, and applied to panel-painting by Apollodorus of Athens. In the later fifth century, flourished the Ionian School of Zeuxis and Parrhasius, which substituted realism for the old idealism and excelled in delicate drawing and chiaroscuro. In the early fourth century, the centre of painting shifted to Sicyon, where systematic drawing and chiaroscuro were further developed,and the process of encaustic painting was invented. The Theban-Attic School (second half of the fourth century) was devoted to impassioned subjects, like battle pieces, and even to genre, and the highest technical perfection was achieved by the younger Ionian School in the per- sons of Apelles and Protogenes. In the Hellenistic age, painting increased the range of its expression, including even the landscape, but it declined in all the artistic qualities. The decora- tive and less important painting of the Roman epoch is treated under Roman Art. See: 1. General References: Section Ancient Painting under Painting Greek Art Roman Art Vase 2. Greek Painters : Polygnotus Micon Agatharchus Apollodorus Zeuxis Parrhasius Pamphilus Pausias Apelles Protogenes III. ]\Iedleval Period. The origins of Mediaeval painting were conditioned by the Mosaic style, as it prevailed in Early Christian and Byzantine art. Its growth was de- pendent upon the development of archi- tecture in Church worship, and it con- sequently remained decorative. At the end of the Gothic period, the eman- cipation of painting began in Italy, 138 SCULPTURE AND PAINTING and individual artists arose. At Flor- ence and Siena, there were important schools whose teclinical knowledge and achievements made possible the Renais- sance. See : Mosaic Christian Art Byzantine Art Romanesque Art Gotliic Art Florentine School of Painting Sienese School of Painting Cimabue Giotto Gaddi, Taddeo Orcagna, Andrea Aretino, Spinello Duccio di Boninsegna Martini, Simone Lorenzetti Angclico, Fra Gentile da Fabriano IV. The Renaissance. The Renaissance was a return to na- ture rather tlian to antique art, al- though the antique exercised a marked influence in Italy, where Renaissance art attained its highest development and whence its influence radiated throughout Europe. The Florentine Scliool produced tlie greatest number of important artists, achieving highest re- sults in every quality of painting but color, in wliich tlie Venetians excelled, as did the Umbrians in religious senti- ment. In Nortliem Europe, tlie Renais- sance, entirely naturalistic in cliarac- ter, first appeared in Flanders, whence its influence extended to TTollaiid and Germany. Later, the Italian influence transformed for the worse the art of the Netherlands, but aided to produce a national school in Germany. See: lta]^J. (a) General Titles : Renaissance Art Section The Renaissance under Painting Florentine School of Painting Umbrian School of Painting Bolognese School of Painting Ferrarese School of Painting Venetian School of Painting (b) Biography: (i) Florence: Masilino da Panicale Masaccio Lippi, Filippo and Filippino Botticelli, Alessandro Gozzoli, Benozzo Pollaiuolo, Antonio Verrocchio, Andrea Ghirlandajo, Domenico Vinci, Leonardo da Michelangelo Bartolommeo, Fra Sarto, Andrea del (ii) Umbria: Francesca, Piero della Forli, ]\Ielozzo da Santi, Giovanni Signorelli, Luca Perugino, Pietro Pinturicchio Rapliael (iii) Nortliern Italy: Squarcione, Francesco IVIantcgna, Andrea Costa, Lorenzo Francia, Francesco Viti, Timoteo Dosso Uossi Garofalo Corrcggio Sodoma SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 139 Sol.'iri, Andrea Luini, Bernardino Ferrari, Gaudenzio (iv) Venice: Crivclli, Carlo Antonello da Messina Bellini, Gentile Bellini, Giovanni Giorgione Carpaccio, Vittore Lotto, Lorenzo Titian Bonifazio Veronese Tintoretto Veronese, Paolo Pordenone Moretto da Brescia Moroni, Gianibattista (v) Rome: Sebastiano del Piombo Volterra, Danicle da Penni, Gianfrancesco 2. The Netherlands: Netherlands Schools of Painting Eyck, Huybrecht and Jan van Weyden, Rogier van der Bouts, Dirk IMemling, Hans David, Gheeradt Massys, Quinten Mabuse, Jan Lucas van Leyden 3. Germany: Lochner, Stephan Schongauer, jMartin Wohlgemuth, Michel Diirer, Albrecht Burckmair, Hans Cranach, Lucas Holbein the Elder Holbein the Younger Griinewald, Matthias Baldung, Hans V. Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. The seventeenth century saw the rise of the Eclectic and Naturalist schools in Italy, and of a courtly art, based upon the classic, in France, whose art- ists in Italy also perfected the heroic landscape. In Spain, a great national art Jng matic reading be interrupted at some individual compounds, such as would 170 CHEMISTRY 171 be acquired if, following the usual or- der of chemical studies in schools, the course" should be commenced by a peru- sal of the descriptive articles on the elements and their principal inorganic compounds. 1. Fundamental Principles and Phenomena. Chemistry Analysis, Chemical Atomic Weights Avogadro's Rule IMoleculcs Periodic Law Spectrum Analysis Reaction, Chemical Decomposition Dissociation Catalytic Action Nascent State Combustion Spontaneous Combustion 2. Cakbon Compounds. The compounds of carbon, number- ing roughly 100,000, form the sub- ject of organic chemistry, one of the most extensive and important branches of modern chemical science. In this branch, the atomic and other theories have found a field for some of their most useful applications ; and it is, therefoi'c, advisable to acquire some knowledge of it at an early stage in chemical reading. The following is a list of the principal articles dealing with this branch: Carbon Compounds Stereo-Chemistry Hydrocarbons Alcohols iMercaptans Ethers Aldehj'des Ketones Acids Amines Amides Ureas Carbohydrates Phenols Diazo-Compounds Organo-Metallic Bodies Alkaloids 3. PHYsici\.L Chemistry. Within recent 3'ears, physical chem- istry has attained a degree of impor- tance which makes some knowledge of it indispensable, not only to the pro- fessional chemist, but also to the physi- cist, physiologist, botanist, engineer, — in fact to all those engaged in work of any of the pure and applied sciences. It is believed that this justified the in- troduction in the Encyclopaedia of a somewhat extensive, though popular, treatment of the subject. Following is a list of the principal articles, in the order in which it would seem advisable to read them: Avogadro's Rule Boiling-Point Freezing-Point Melting-Point Freezing INIixtures Solution Dissociation Diffusion Colloids Reaction, Chemical Thermo-Cheniistry Electro-Chemistry, General Photo-Chemistry Gases (introductory section) Critical Point Evaporation 172 CHEMISTRY Distillation Sublimation Radioactivity 4. History of Chemistey. The history of a great science, if studied after some knowledge of the principles and problems of the science has been acquired, has in itself a fas- cination for almost every mind. But, in the case of chemistry, many authori- ties liave maintained that a knowledge of the history is not merely interest- ing, but absolutely indispensable to a thorough understanding of the science itself. In the Encyclopaedia, a simple presentation of the development of chemical thought, and the gradual elimination of past errors of principle and method, will be found in the gen- eral article Chemistry. Further his- torical information will be found in the article Alchemy, in the articles on physical chemistry, in those describing the elements and many chemical com- pounds, and especially in the biogra- phies of celebrated chemists. Follow- ing is a list of some of the best-known names in the history of chemistry : Helmont, J. B. van Bechcr, J. J. Stahl, G. E. Black, J. Priestley, J. Cavendish, H. Lavoisier, A. L. Klaproth, M. II. Dalton, J. Wollaston, W. H. Berzelius, J. J. Davy, H. Berthollet, C. Bergman, T. 0. Avogadro, A. Gay-Lussac, J. L. INIitscherlich, E. Liebig, J. Wohler, F. Chevreul, M. E. Dumas, J. B. Laurent, A. Gerhardt, K. F. Gmelin, L. Sainte-Claire Deville, H. E. Cannizzaro, S. Graham, T. Kolbe, H. Bunsen, R. W. Roscoe, H. E. Berthelot, P. E. M. Wurtz, C. A. Hofmann, A. W. Regnault, H. V. Pasteur, L. ]Mendcleeff, D. Schorlemmer, C. Baeyer, A. Fischer, E. Hoff, J. H. van't Ostwald, W. Nernst, W. Arrhenius, S. Crookes, W. Dewar, J. 5. The Chemical Elements. The articles on the chemical elements will be found to contain descriptions, not only of the elements themselves, but also of their principal compounds, so that each article forms a chapter of inorganic chemistry. Following is a list of some of the principal articles in a recognized order of arrangement : Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Carbon CHEMISTRY 173 Clilorine LiuM, Neon, Krypton, and Xenon, Bromine and of the radioactive elements, in- Iodine cluding Radium, Polonium, Actin- Fluorine ium, and Thorium, will be found in Sodium their proper places. A list of the ele- Potassium ments, with their chemical symbols and Lithium atomic weights, will be found in the Magnesium article Atomic Weights. Calcium Strontium 6. Compounds Occurring in Living Barium Organisms. Zinc Physiological chemistry deals with Cadmium the individual compounds forming the Mercury chemical ingredients of the materials Boron of which living organisms and their Aluminium products (e. g., milk) are made up. Silicon A knowledge of the chemical and Tin physical properties of those compounds Lead is indispensable in the study of chem- Zirconium ical physiology, and hence of physi- Thorium ology in general. The following is a Phosphorus list of the more important physiologi- Arsenic cal compounds described under their Antimony names in the Encycloptedia : Bismuth Albumen Sulphur Allantoin Selenium Carbohydrates Tellurium Cellulose Cliromium Carnin Molybdenum Casein Tungsten Cerebrin Uranium Chitin Manganese Cystin Iron Elastin Cobalt Fats Nickel Fibrin Platinum Gelatin Palladium Globulins Copper Glycogen Silver Guanin Gold Xanthin Articles on the rest of the elements, Hypoxanthin including the newly found constitu- Inosite ents of the atmosphere, Argon, He- Keratin 174 CHEMISTRY Kreatin Kreatinin Legumin Leucin Ossein Proteins Starch Syntonin Taurin Urea Uric Acid Hfematin Hemoglobin 7. Other Important Articles on Chemical Subjects. (a) Metallic Alloys: Alloy Amalgam Babbitt Metal Brass Britannia Metal Bronze Fusible Metal German Silver Phosphor-Bronze Pewter Pinchbeck Platiniridium Spence's Metal (b) Bases: The inorganic bases, i. e., metallic oxides and hydroxides, arc mostly de- scribed in connection with the metallic elements. Important special articles are: Ammonia Lime Soda The articles on organic bases in- clude : ATiiines Ethylamine Trimethylamine Aniline Pyridine Quinoline Alkaloids Ptomaines The article Alkaloids contains a list of the important members of this class of substances, with their princi- pal characteristics. More extensive descriptions are given in the special articles on all the more important al- kaloids. (c) Acids: All the more important acids are de- scribed in special articles under their names. Many acids of secondary im- portance are mentioned in connection with their characteristic elements. Fol- lowing is a partial list of important ar- ticles on acids : i. General: Acids Phenols ii. Inorganic: Sulphuric Acid Hydrochloric Acid Nitric Acid Sulphuretcd Hj'drogcn Phosphoric Acid Hydrobromic Acid Hydriodic Acid Hydrofluoric Acid Chloric Acid Perchloric Acid Hypochlorous Acid Nitrous Acid Hyponitrous Acid Phospliorous Acid Hypophosphorous Acid Manganic and Permanganic Acids CHEMISTRY 175 iii. Organic : Acetic Acid Benzoic Acid Butyric Acid Caproic, Caprylic, and Capric Acids Carbolic Acid Carbonic-Acid Gas Cinnamic Acid Citric Acid Cyanic Acid Cyanuric Acid Formic Acid Fumaric and Maleic Acids Gallic Acid Glycin Hippuric Acid Hydrocyanic Acid Hydroferricyanic Acid Hydroferrocyanic Acid Lactic Acid Laurie Acid Malic Acid Margaric Acid Meconic Acid Myristic Acid CEnanthylic Acid Oleic Acid Oxalic Acid Palmitic Acid Picric Acid Stearic Acid Succinic Acid Tannic Acid Tartaric Acid Uric Acid Valeric Acid An important " homologous series " of acids, included in this list, is consti- tuted by the following so-called " fatty acids " : Formic Acetic Butyric Valeric Caproic Caprylic Capric Senanthylic Laurie Myristic Palmitic Margaric Stearic Allied to the last-named is oleic acid. The acid anhydrides are mostly mentioned in connection with the metalloid elements. (d) Salts: Salts are mostly described in con- nection with either the acids or the bases combined in them. The follow- ing are a few special articles on salts: Alum Borax Cream of Tartar Epsom Salt Glauber's Salt Iodides Rochelle Salt Ichthyol Saltpetre Soda Bases, acids, and salts constitute to- gether the so-called " electrolytes." Their peculiar behavior in aqueous solutions has led to the formulation of the now well-known theory of elec- trolytic dissociation, which may be found treated in the articles Solution, Dissociation, and Acids. (e) Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons Methane 176 CHEMISTRY Ethane Propane Butane and Isobutane Ethylene Acetylene Benzene Naphthalene Anthracene Further information concerning hy- drocarbons may be found in articles on such products as oils (volatile), paraffin, ozokerite, petroleum, benzine, rubber, gutta-percha, gas (illuminat- ing and natural), etc. (f) Other important compounds: Water Hydrogen Dioxide Ozone Alcohol IMethyl Alcohol Glycerin Mannite Aldehyde Chloral Acetone Almonds, Volatile Oil of Acrolein Acetone Ether Chloroform Iodoform Nitro-Benzcne Carbides Calcium Carbide Carbon Disulphide Carbonic Oxide Cyanogen is) Pigments, Dyestuffs, and Allied Subjects: Paints Mineral Colors Vegetable Colors Dyeing Coal-Tar Colors Tar Coal-Tar Indigo Alizarin Purpurin Aurin Rosolic Acid Archil Arnotto Carmine Flavin Henna Indian Yellow Lac Dye (under Lac) Litmus Orcin Orcein Logwood Murexid Phenicin Quercitron Green Brunswick Green Turkey Red Cinnabar Blue Indigo Lampblack White Lead A list of the widely used coal-tar colors ("aniline dve-stufFs "), with their principal characteristics, will be found in the article Coal-Tar Colors. (/i) Waxes, Fats, Oils, and Soap: Waxes Beeswax Spermaceti Fats Palmitin Stearin Olein CHEMISTRY 177 Oils Almonds, Expressed Oil of Almonds, Volatile Oil of Canada Balsam Castor Oil Cod-Liver Oil Croton Oil Garlic, Oil of Grass-Oil Gurjiin Balsam Lemon Oil Menthol Petroleum Turpentine Wintergreen, Oil of Soap All the tj-pical waxes and oils are •described in the general articles under these names. Paraffin, which is some- times spoken of as " paraffin wax," is described in an article under its own name. (j) Gums and Resins: Gums Resins Amber Ammoniac Anime Arabin Copal Bassora Gum Bdellium Catechu Dragon's Blood Gambir Gamboge Gum Arabic (under Gums) Kino Mucilage Olibanum Podophyllin Rosin Sandarac Scammony Camphor, which is sometimes spoken of as " gum camphor," is described under its own name. " British gum," a substitute for gum arable, is de- scribed under Dextrin. (j) Explosives: See chapter on Military and Naval Science . ik) Wafers: Water Ice Distilled Water Aerated Waters Carbonated or Acidulous Waters Chalybeate Waters Mineral Waters Selters Water ApoUinaris Water Qlliapt^r ir^ ^Mbgij WHEN we turn our attention to the solid crust of the earth, several questions naturally arise: Of what materials is it composed? How are these materials arranged? How was this arrangement brought about? The answers to these questions give a clue to the divisions into which geological science naturally falls. The first question is answered by a study of the various kinds of rocks. This is the science of Petrography or Petrology. The answer to the second question is given by Struc- tural Geology. But we find that one form of structure, stratification, is so widespread and complex that its study forms a separate division, Stratigraphical Geology, sometimes also called Historical Geology, because it is this part of geology that deals with the history of the earth. Finally, the study of the forces at work in the formation of the crust is Dynamic Geology. This division, however, should be studied before Structural Geology, because the latter will be better understood after the causes of the various structures are known. There are two other aspects of geolog}', which take the point of view of animate nature. One is Economic Geology, which deals with those parts of the earth's crust that can be made useful to man. The other is Paleontological Geology, the study of the organic remains, which, besides revealing the history of life on the globe, furnish a valuable guide in the identification and classification of strata. We shall now guide the reader to the articles bearing on these divisions of the science. For the general article, see Geology . A, Prtroln^y For general articles on this subject, Stauroscope see: For the various classes of rocks, see: Geognosy Plutonic Rocks Petrology Igneous Rocks Crystallography Aqueous Rocks Mineralogy Metamorphic Rocks Lithogencsis Crystalline Rocks Cementation Clastic Rocks Petrographic Province Calcareous Rocks Rock Calcareous Tufa Cleavage Argillaceous Rocks Dichroism Arenaceous Rocks Isomorphism Rcsichial Rocks Morphotropism yEolian Accumulations Conoscope TufF Goniometer Lava 178 GEOLOGY 179 For the more important specific kinds of rocks, sec : 1. Stratified or Foliated Crystal- line Rocks: Limestone Marble Dolomite Gypsum Hematite Limonite Flint Slate Quartzite Itacolumite Pyroxenite Hornblendite Eclogite Soapstone Pcridotite Mica Schist Gneiss 2. Massive Crystalline Rocks : Granite Porphyry Fclsite Rhyolite Syenite Trachyte Phonollte Pitchstone Obsidian Pcarlite Diorite Diabase Melaphyre Andesite Greenstone Basalt Gabbro Serpentine 3. Clastic (Fragmental) Rocks: (a) Arenaceous: Soil Sand Gravel Conglomerate . Breccia Sandstone Graywackc (h) Argillaceous: Clay Fuller's Earth Slate Boulder Clay Shale Loam Loess (c) Volcanic: TufF Basalt (d) Rocks of Organic Origin: Coral Limestone Chalk Marl Diatomaccous Earth Guano Peat Lignite Coal Peat Petroleum Asphalt Graphite Bog-Iron Ore Clay Ironstone 180 GEOLOGY B. ignamti: ^^^^lln5lJ For the larger movements of earth's crust, see: Refrigeration of the Earth Elevation and Subsidence Cataclysm Catastrophism Fault For volcanic action, see : Volcano Crater Geyser the Earthquake Seismograph For changes in the crust due to ex- ternal and various causes, see: Erosion Aqueous Rocks Stratification Glacier Glacial Period Lithogcnesis Metamorphism Petrifaction C. f'tntrtural (^rnlngij The larger and more general forms of geologic structure are discussed in the articles: Crust of the Earth Stratification Formation Bed Conformity Unconformity Within this general structure arc found various minor structures, gener- ally caused by some form of intrusion. See: Concretionary Structure Geodes Laccolite Batholite Dike Ore Deposits Lode The various lines of division between and within these structures arc described in the articles: Fault Joints Slickensides Lamination Foliation Cleavage For the distortion and inclination of tlie strata, see: Mountain Anticline Syncline IVIonocline Dip Diastrophism - Strike Clinometer The general articles on Stratig- raphy have already been given. This division will concern itself only with the articles describing the various strata and groups of strata, and, with them, the various ages in the history of the eartli. GEOLOGY 181 Z). i'trattgraplitral O^^nlnrjii I. The main systems or areas into which the whole series of strata and the liistory of the eartli fall are de- scribed under: Archaean System Pre-cambrian Formations Paleozoic Mesozoic Era Ccnozoic Tertiary System Quaternary II. The systems and periods into which the above are divided are de- scribed in the following articles: 1. Archaan System: Algonkian System Laurentian System 2. Paleozoic System: Cambrian System Ordovitian Silurian System Devonian System Old Red Sandstone Carboniferous System Permian System New Red Sandstone Red Sandstone 3. The Mesozoic System: Triassic System Jurassic System Cretaceous System 4. The Tertiary System: Eocene Epoch Oligocene Epoch Miocene Epoch Pliocene Epoch 5. The Quaternary System: Glacial Period Pleistocene Period Recent Period III. The local developments, or minor divisions, of the systems men- tioned are only in a few cases identical over large areas, and have accordingly received different names in the differ- ent continents. 1. For names and description of the minor divisions in the various countries of Europe, see the following articles: (a) Silurian: Caradoc Sandstone Wenlock Group (6) Devonian: Goniatites Spirifer (c) Carboniferous: Millstone Grit Mountain Limestone (d) Triassic: Bunter Muschelkalk Keuper Rha?tic Beds (^) Jurassic: Liassic Series Oolite Oxford Clay Solenhofen Lithographic Stone Purbeck Beds (/") Cretaceous: Greensand Wealden Formation Gault Cenomanian Maestricht Beds (g) Eocene: London Clay 182 GEOLOGY Paris Basin ' Bagshot Beds Nummulites Calcaire Grossier (a) Miocene: Molasse 2. For the minor divisions in Amer- ica, see : (a) Cambrian: Potsdam Sandstone (b) Silurian: Calciferous Trenton Series Niagara Series Salina Stage Clinton Stage Medina Series Lower Helderberg Oriskan}' Stage (f) Devonian: Corniferous Series Chemung Group Catskill Group ((f) Carboniferous: Mississippian Series Pottsville Conglomerate Burlington Limestone Permian System (f) Cretaceous: Dakota Stage Niobrara Stage Laramie Stage (f) Quaternary {in all conti- nents) : Alluvium Drift Glacial Period E. JPak0ut0l0gtral ^^nlorjg Paleontology is the study of the na- ture and distribution of the forms of organic beings imbedded in the rocks of the earth's crust. Viewed from the point of view of biology, it is a part of zoology and botany ; but it is so inti- mately connected with the study of the rocks themselves that it may properly be considered a part of geology. The general articles on the subject are: Paleontology Paleobotany Fossil Fossilifcrous Rocks Contemporaneity Homotaxy Ichnology Fossil Forests From a Ijiological point of view, the proper method of classifying fossil forms would naturally follow the same principles that guide the classification of living plants and animals. But in studying paleontology as a part of geology, the geological classification is preferable; indeed, the two systems would, to a certain extent, coincide. We shall, therefore, refer the reader to the characteristic fossils of each geological epoch. Most of the larger classes and orders of fossil forms arc still repre- sented by living species, and general discussions of these classes will be found in tlie articles given in the chapters on Botany and Zoology. 1. The only fossil found in the Aroti.san System is described in the article: Eozoon GEOLOGY 183 2. Cambrl\n Fossils: (a) Plants: Oldhamia (b) Animals: Protospongia Dictyoiiema Agnostus Paradoxides Trilobita Lingula Obolella Belleroplion Hyolithes Nautiloidea Orthoceras 3. Silurian Fossils : (a) Invertebrates: Brachiospongia Sti'omatopora GraptoHte Favosites Olenus Chonetes Asaphus Polyzoa Fenestella Atrypa Orthis Spirifer Pentanierus Pteropoda Tentaculites (b) Fishes: Pteraspis Cyathaspis 4. Devonian Fossils: (a) Invertebrates: Monograptus Atrypa Cj'athophyllum Phacops Ammonoidea Plcurotomaria Murchisonia Clymenia Goniatites Bactrites Hcliophyllum (b) Fishes: Holoptychius Osteolepis Dipterus Coccosteus Dinichthys Cephalaspis Chirolepis 5. Carboniferous Fossils: (a) Plants: Neuropteris Calamites Asterophyllites Annularia Lepidodendron Sigillaria Stigmai'ia Cordaites Carpolith Trigonocarpus (b) Invertebrates: Fusulina Chonetes Productus Proetus Eurypterus (c) Fishes: Megalichthys Cestraciont (d) Reptiles: Stegocephalia 6. Permian Fossils: (a) Fishes: Palaeoniscus 184 GEOLOGY (6) Reptiles: Rhynchocephalia 7. Triassic Fossils: (a) Plants: Equisetum Cycadaceas (b) Invertebrates: Terebratula Ceratites Ammonites (c) Reptiles: Mastodonsaurus Theromorpha Dinosauria Anchisaurus Labyriiithodon Dicynodon (d) Mammals: Microlcstes Microconodon 8. JuKASsic Fossils: (a) Invertebrates: Gryphtea Trigonia Belemnites (b) Fishes: Chondrosteus Hybodus (c) Reptiles: Tcleosaurus Ichthyosaurus Plcsiosaurus Pterodactyl Dimor])hodon Diplodocus Megalosaurus Brontosaurus Stegosaurus Titanosaurus Cynognathus Baptanodon Camptosaurus Ceratosaurus (d) Birds: Archffiopteryx (^) Mammals: Ctenacodon 9. Cretaceoi's Fossils: (a) Invertebrates: Foraminifera Globigerina Ventriculites Hippurites Radiolites Inoceramus {b) Reptiles: Chelonia Iguanodon Mosasauria Elasniosaurus Hadrosaurus (c) Birds: Bird, Fossil Hesperornis Ichthyornis 10. Eocene Fossils: (a) Invertebrates: Nummulites (6) Reptiles: Zcuglodon (c) Mammals: Coryphodon Hyracotherium Horse, Fossil Palaeotherium Anchitheriuni Anoplotherium Lophiodon Crcodonta 11. Miocene Fossils: (fl) Mammals: Mastodon GEOLOGY 185 Dinothcrium Helladothcrium Machasrodus Elotheriuin Halitlierium Hyracodon Oreodon Titanotherium 12. Pliocene Fossils: (a) Plant: Diemonelix (6) Mammals: Sivatherium Hipparion Sabre-Toothed Tiger 13. QUATEENAKY FoSSILS : (a) Birds: ^pyornis Moa (b) Mammals: Elasmotherium Megatherium Glyptodon Diprotodon Mammotli Pithecanthropus F. lEroitnmtr ^fnlorjg Tliis branch of geology is the study of all those materials in the crust of the earth which can be made useful to man, and of their modes of occurrence. Most of these materials are used in the form in which they exist in nature, or are subjected only to a more or less me- chanical process of purification. There is, however, a large class of ci'ust ma- terials which are of little or no value in their natural state, but wliicli con- tain valuable elements that have to be separated by chemical analysis. These materials are called ores, and in practi- cally all cases the valuable element which they contain is a metal. Indeed, the term ore has been extended to all rocks containing metals, even where the mixture is only mechanical. The met- als, unless found in the native state, and other artificial products, are not subjects of Economic Geology, but are treated under Chemistry and Manufac- tures and Engineering. Likewise, the methods of extracting useful materials from the earth's crust are dealt with under ^Mining and ^Metallurgy, Eco- nomic Geology taking cognizance only of their modes of occurrence in the crust. I. The modes of occurrence of the larger rock masses have already been referred to under Petrology and Struc- tural Geology ; the occurrence of the other non-metallic substances will be described in the articles on each specific substance. It is, therefore, only neces- sary to give as introductory articles those which describe the occurrence of ores. See : Ore Ore Deposits Gangue Footwall Hanging Wall Pinch Dike Lode II. The Metallifekous Ores: 1. Iron Ores: Limonite 186 GEOLOGY Hematite Magnetite Siderite Franklinite Bog-Iron Ore Pjrite Pea Ore 2. Gold 3. Platinum 4. Silver Ores: Silver Pyrargerite Cerargyrite Proustite Stcphanite 5. Copper Ores: Chalcopyrite Cuprite Malachite 6. Lead Ores: Galena Anglesite Cerusite Pyromorphite 7. Zinc Ores: Blende Willemite Zincite Calamine 8. Mercury Ore: Cinnabar 9. Manganese Ore: Pyrolusite 10. Aluminum Ores: Cryolite Bauxite 11. Tin Ores: Tin Cassiterite 12. Nickel Ore: Millerite 13. Antimony Ore: Stibnite III. The Carbon Minerals : 1. Coal Anthracite Bituminous Coal Jet Lignite Boghead Coal Peat 2. Petroleum Gas, Natural 3. Asphalt Bitumen Albertite Grahamite Gilsonite Maltha 4. Ozocerite Asphaltic Coal Mineral Tallow 5. Graphite IV. Building Materials: Building-Stone Granite Sandstone Limestone Freestone Marble Onyx Marble Flagstone Caithness Flagstone Slate Bath Stone Caen Stone Brownstone Puzzuolana V. Soils, Clays, Fertilizers, Waters : 1. Ilunms Soil AND GEOLOGY 187 Loam Loess 2. Clay Potter's Clay Fire-Clay Pipe-Clay Brick-Clay Kaolin 3. Gypsum Apatite Phosphorite Marl Guano 4. Mineral Waters Spring Artesian Wells VI. Salts: Salt Bay Salt Borax VIL Precious Stones: Diamond Corundum Quartz Emerald Ruby Beryl Chrysoberyl Sapphire Aquamarine Tourmaline Amethyst Opal Alabaster Chalcedony Carnelian Sardonyx Aragonite Agate Jasper Chrysolite Turquoise Topaz Garnet Rhodonite Chrysocolla Catlinite VIII. Abrasives: Abrasives Grindstone Buhrstone Oil-Stone Novaculite Emery Corundum Carborundum Diatomaceous Earth Tripolite IX. Pigments: Mineral Paints Graphite Ochre Umber Burnt Sienna Chalk Crayon Black Chalk X. Minerals Used in Various Arts: Lithographic Stone Solenhofen Lithographic Stone Talc Soapstone Mica Feldspar Fluorite Sulphur Asbestic Asbestos Magnesite Fuller's Earth 188 GEOLOGY G, ltfl0rapl)tfa at lEmtttntt O^fBlngijEitfi Buckknd, W. Conybeare, W. D. Cope, E. D. Dana, J. D. Dawson, G. M. Dawson, Sir J. W. De la Beche, Sir H. T. Eli de Beaumont, Jean Baptiste Emmons, E. Forbes, J. D. Geikie, Sir Archibald Hall, Sir James Hayden, F. V. Hitchcock, E. Hutton, J. Lapham, I. A. Lea, I. Le Conte, J. Lyell, Sir C. Marcou, J. Marsh, O. C. Miller, H. Murchison, Sir R. I. Newberry, J. S. Overweg, A. Owen, D. D. Phillips, J. Powell, J. W. Ramsay, Sir A. C. Saussure, H. B. de Sedgwick, A. Silliman, B. Smith, W. Stevenson, J. J, Strickland, H. E. Unger, F. Werner, A. G. Whitney, J. D. Winchell, A. Woodward, S. P. Qltjapter IB* iirtwrntog^ METEOROLOGY is the study of the atmospliere, its static condi- tions and appearances, and tiie changes and movements of all kinds which take place in it. The two principal constituents of tlio atmosphere are the air and the moisture in various forms which the air holds in suspension. Weather and climate are prin- cipally determined by the conditions under which these two constituents exist, at any particular time or habitually. The static conditions of the air which mainly affect the weather are its temperature and its pressure ; its movements come under the general term wind. The moisture of the atmosphere, unlike the bulk of the air, is continually changing its identity. It is raised from surface waters by evaporation, held for a time in suspension under various forms, and then returned to the earth's surface by various modes of precipitation. Besides these two sets of phenomena, the electrical conditions of the atmosphere form an important element of the weather. Other causes sometimes bring about peculiar or unusual weather conditions, and, aside from weather in its strict sense, meteorology takes cognizance of the peculiar optical appearances which the atmosphere presents. These considerations, together with the fact that the practical aspects and practical rather than theoretical investigations hold, perhaps, a more prominent place in meteorology than in other natural sciences, serve to indicate the main divisions of the subject. A considerable number of instruments are used in meteorological investigations, and the articles describing these will be referred to in connection with the appropriate subdivision. I. General Prixciples of the Sci- ence. See: Meteorology Atmosphere Polarization of Skylight Dust Climate Weather II. Temperature and Pressure. 1. The theory and investigation of temperature and its causes arc treated under : Temperature, Terrestrial Cold Wave Frost Snow Line Actinometry Thermometry Seasons 2. The instruments used in measur- ing temperature and radiation are de- scribed under: Thermometer Actinometer Actinograph Radiometer Pyrheliomcter 3. For atmospheric pressure and the instruments used in measuring it, see : Barometer IIL Winds. 1. There are certain general forms of wind movements recognized without reference to localities. See: Wind Storm Whirlwind 189 190 METEOROLOGY Waterspout Gale 2. On the other hand, in certain parts of the world peculiar local conditions produce winds which have received local names. See : Doldrums Calm Latitudes Blizzard Chinook Etesian Winds Harmattan Mistral Sirocco Monsoon Simoom Typhoon Equinoctial Storm 3. For the instruments and methods used in measuring or observing the winds, see : Anemometer Anemograph Anemoscope * Beaufort Scale IV. Evaporation and Precipitation. 1. See the general article: Evaporation 2. The various forms in which mois- ture is held suspended are described under : Humidity Haze Fog Cloud 3. For the various forms of precipi- tation, see: Dew Hoar Frost (under Frost) Rain Cloudburst Snow Hail 4. For the instruments used in meas- uring or observing the moisture of the atmosphere, see: Hygrometer Drosometer Nephoscope Rain Gauge V. Electrical Conditions Affect- ing the Weather. See: Atmospheric Electricity Lightning Lightning, Accidents from Lightning, Protection from VI. Peculiar or Unusual Weather Conditions are Described in THE Articles: Dust Dark Day Black Rain Blood-Rain Indian Summer Vn. Other Phenomena of the At- mosphere Belong Mainly to Optical Appearances or Elec- trical Displays. See: Rainbow Fog-Bow Halo Anthelia Scintillation Fata Morgana Mirage Aurora Borcalis Elmo's Fire, Saint Castor and Pollux VHI. Practical Investigations in Meteorology are Generally Conducted hy Government Bu- reaus. Sec: Weather Bureau Signal Corps, U. S. Army METEOROLOGY 191 These bureaus Wcarn the public by a system of signals. See: Storm and Weather Signals And in this connection also: Fog-Signals They also issue daily weather maps. See: Isothermal Lines Isobarometric Linos Isabnormal Lines Isanomalous Lines IX. For Biographies of the Most Prominent Meteorologists, see : Abbe, Cleveland Espy, James Pollard Fonvielle, Wilfrid de QII]apt^r 19. (Srograpltg GEOGRAPHY is the description of the surface of the earth in all its aspects. Just as the surface is the place where the atmosphere r meets the lithosphere and hydrosphere, so do the sciences of IMeteorology and Geology meet in that of Geography, and the last to a certain extent encroaches upon the fields of the other two. That is, Geography includes a regional study of the upper layers of the earth's crust, and a regional study of the atmosphere, or the climatic conditions prevail- ing on the various parts of the surface. Geographj' also includes the study of tiie hydrosphere, or oceans, the configuration of their shores and bottoms, and the phenomena that take place in them. The whole subj ect may be broadly divided into three main branches : Mathematical Geography, which deals with the form, dimensions, and position of the earth, and the methods of its delineation ; Physical Geography, which is a general discussion of the various natural features of the earth's surface; and Political, Regional, or Descriptive Geography, which gives detailed and specific descriptions of the separate parts of the earth's surface, generally as its human inhabitants have divided it among themselves. This branch also describes the human inhabitants themselves, all their varied activities, and all the artificial changes which they have made, and the structures which they have built on the earth. I. General. See: Chart Earth G'°be Pp|g Coast and Geodetic Survey Equator, Terrestrial Geodesy Meridian Latitude and Longitude III. Terrestrl^l Magnetism. See : Degree of Latitude Magnetism, Terrestrial Degree of Longitude Declination Tropics I>'P Geography Isoclinal II. Methods of Delineation. See: Isogenic Lines Map Isodynamic Lines Under this head will be given the or climatic causes. The articles on the articles describing geographical fea- causes themselves are referred to under turcs that arc due to various geological Geology and Meteorology. At the 192 GEOGRAPHY 193 end of each subdivision are given the articles on the most remarkable ex- amples of the features discussed. I. General Article: Physiography II. Oceanography: Oceanography Ocean Deep-Sea Exploration Abysmal Accumulations Oceanic Deposits Ocean Currents Tides Bore Shore Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean III. General Land Forms : Continent Island Mountain Valley Plain Plateau Basin IV. Hydrography: Hydrography River Divide Waterfall Inundation Flood-Plain Delta Bar Lake Floating Islands V. Geographical Features Due to ^loVEMENTS OF THE EaRTh's Crust : Beaches, Raised Estuary Fiord Coastal Plain Great Rift ^'alley VT. Features Due to Volcanic Action: Volcano Crater Geyser Dike Laccolite Vesuvius Etna (.Etna) Krakatoa Pelee, Mont Hecla Mauna Loa Kilauea Soufriere, La Popocatepetl Yellowstone National Park Palisades Giant's Causeway StafFa yil. Features Due to Erosion: Erosion Piedmont Plain Bad Lands ChfF Talus River Terraces (under Terrace) Canon Mesa Sink Hole Cave Karst Delaware Water Gap Colorado River Niagara River and Falls Victoria Falls Mammoth Cave Lurav Cave 194 GEOGRAPHY Natural Bridge Yosemite Valley VIII. Features Due to Glacial Action : Glacier Moraine Iceberg (under Ice) Avalanche Drumlin Eskers Giants' Kettles Rocking Stones Mer de Glace Gorner Glacier IX. Features Due to Wind Action : Dune Medano Musical Sand X. Features Due to Peculiar Soil OR Climatic Conditions : Desert Prairie Savannas Steppe Tundra Downs Llanos Pampas Karroo Sahara Gobi XI. Features Due to the Action OF Anuials : Coral Island Atoll Barrier Reef C. Pultttral 0r S^ginnal C^^ograplig Lack of space forbids anything like an enumeration of even the more im- portant articles describing the various parts of the earth and their inhabi- tants. The bulk of minor gazetteer articles arc, of course, intended only for incidental reference, when information about a particular locality happens to be desired. Nevertheless, it would be possible to plan a very instructive and interesting course of systematic reading in descriptive goograpliy. One way would obviously be to read first the articles on the larger divisions of the earth, Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Australia, Arctic Re- gion, and Antarctic Region, and, in the latter connection, the article on Polar Research. These articles give, besides, a general geographic and eth- nographic description, and a history of exploration and discoveries from ancient to recent times. TMiey also refer to the separate divisions of the larger land areas, and, by reference to the articles on these divisions, the reader will be carried successively into nar- rower and narrower fields with more and more detailed description. The story of explorations and dis- coveries, and of the science of geog- raphy, may be carried further by means of the following names and titles, which include sucli names as do not ap- pear in some other connections in this book : Polar Research Andrce, S. A. Baker, S. W. Barth, II. GEOGRAPHY 195 Behaim, M. Borchgrevink, C. E. Brazza, P. Bruce, J. Burckhardt, J. L. Burton, R. F. Chancellor, R. Cook, James Flinders, M. Franklin, J. Gray, R. Greely, A. W. Hakluyt, R. Hall, C. F. Hcdin, Sven Johnston, H. H. Kane, E. K. Kiepert, H. Kingsley, M. H. Kohl, J. G. La Hontan, A. L. Lander, R. L. Laperouse, J. F. Livingstone, David Lockwood, J. B. McClure, R. J. Major, R. H. Malte-Brun, K, Markham, C. R. Nansen, F. Nordenskjold, N. A. Park, Mungo Parry, W. E. Peary, R. E. Polo, Marco Przhevalski, N. M. Ratzel, F. Ravenstein, E. G. Reclus, E. Rennel, J. Ritter, K. Rohlfs, G. Ross, James C. Ross, John Speke, J. H. Stanley, H. M. Sturt, C. Sverdrup, O. Wellman, W. ■ Wilkes, Charles Still another method of carrying on the study of geography would be to study the maps, and, wherever a partic- ular region found there excites the reader's curiosity, turn to the appropri- ate article. JMany other ways will suggest themselves, according to the individual's tastes, inclination, or re- quirements, and it will be found that an encyclopaedia is the best means of gain- ing, not only a minute knowledge of any particular locality on tlie earth's surface, but also a broad perspective view of the whole field of human activ- ity. For the gazetteer articles are not to be regarded merely as dealing with topics in geography. Taking any of the articles on the various countries of the globe, as the United States, or Japan, such article may be made to supply detailed information on what- ever topic may be the subject of study or reading: Zoology, Geology-, Sta- tistics, Finance, Education, Industry, or Transportation. The geograplii- cal articles in the Encyclopa?dia are, for practical purposes, undoubtedly the most valuable in the New International Encyclopedia. To quote these articles and the accompanying maps would be to encumber the book with enormous lists of names, which the reader may be trusted readily to select for him- self. Cljapter 20. lotaug BOTANY is the science tliat deals with plants in all their aspects, — their origin and development, nature, structure, life processes, classification, and distribution. The nature and origin of plants will be discussed in the general articles given below. All consid- erations of the form and structure of individual plants may be broadly classed under the general term Structural Botany, or Plant Anat- omy. The study of the processes which constitute the life of a plant and the conditions which affect those processes is called Physiology. These two branches of the science are sometimes united under the term General Botany, as distinct from Specific or Systematic Botany, also called Taxonomy, which deals with the classification and description of the various kinds of plants. A somewhat recently established brancli of the science is that of Ecology, which deals with the distribution of plants in general. Another branch represents the practical aspects of botany by a particular investigation of the plants which can be made to enter into human economy. This is Economic Botany, the science which has the closest bearing on the arts of agriculture and horticulture. For a general discussion of botanical science, see: Botany Biology Evolution Heredity For General Methods of Botanical Investigation, see: Botanical Laboratories (under Lab- oratory) Botanic Garden Herbarium Index Kewensis A. ^trurtural Sntang This subject deals with the form and structure of individual plants, of the plant body as a whole, of its separate limbs and organs, of the various tis- sues of which these are composed, and of the minute structures of the cells which compose the tissues. The study of the individual cell has recently re- ceived so much attention that it has been elevated from a branch of Histology, which deals with the microscopic nature of tissues, to the separate science of Cytology. The study of the varying types of organs has been called Mor- phology, and this branch may be divided into the morphology of the sterile or vegetative organs and the morphology of the reproductive organs. For Genci'al Articles on Structural Botany, see: Vegetable Tissue Anatomy of Plants Growth (in Plants) Morphology I. Cytology. A description of the general structure and contents of the cell is given in the articles: Cytology 19G BOTANY 197 Cell (in Plants) Intercellular System Protoplasm Nucleus Osmosis Plasmoljsis Movement Rotation For the composition of the cell wall, see : Cellulose Lignin Lignification Micellar Theory For the structure of the nucleus, see : Nucleolus Linin Chromatin Chromosome Centrosome For the cytoplasm, see: Microsome Plastids The protoplasmic contents include a considerable variety of coloring matter. See : Color in Plants Chromoplast Chromatophore Endociirome Chloroplast Anthocyan Chlorophyll Leucoplasts Elaioplasts Erythrophyll Etiolin Etiolation Carotin Cyanophyll Phycoerythrin Phycophaein Pyrenoid Besides the protoplasm the cell often contains crystals and other bodies. See: Raphides • Aleurone Inulin Starch Finally the various constituents of the sap, digestive ferments, and secre- tions : Sap Sugar Glucose Enzyme Diastase Cytase Lipase Invertase Oxidase Pectase Zymase Latex The mechanics of cell division are de- scribed under: jVIechanics of Development Fission Mitosis Karyokinesis Blepharoplast II. Histology. A general discus- sion of plant tissues is given in the article Histology, section on Histol- ogy of Plants. Tissues are variously classified. Ac- cording to their general nature, the two most important kinds are de- scribed under: Parenchyma Collenchynia In higher plants, the tissues are gen- 198 BOTANY erally differentiated into three main systems. See : Pith Wood Cortex The general articles on woody tissue are: Alburnum Duramen iVascular Tissue Conducting Tissue Mechanical Tissue Mestome Plerome Fpr the special structure of wood, see : Fibrovascular Bundle Fibre Phloem Bast Hadrome Leptome Tylosis Trachete (under Anatomy of Plants) Tracheid Sieve Vessels Cambium Pericycle Medullary Ray The various tissues found in the cor- tex are described in the articles : Meristcm E])idcrmis Cuticle Endodcrmis Hypodermis Periblcm Dermatogen Bark Cork Piicllodcrm Pliellogen Other special forms of tissue are: Aerenchyma Pahsade Cells MesophyU III. Morphology of the Vegeta- tive Organs. For the general forms of plant bodies, see: Tiiallus Herb Siu'ubs Tree Juvenile Forms Some of the special forms or organs of fungi are described under: Hypha Mycelium • Plasmodium Pileus Higher plants are generally differ- entiated into stem, root, and leaves, all of which may carr}' minor organs or appendages. See : Stem Root Leaf For special forms of stems, see: Tuber Corm Internode Fasciation Phylloclad For their mode of branching: Branching Moiiopodial Branching Dichotomy For the forms and appearance of leaves, see: Frond Pinnule Phyllodes BOTANY 199 Petiole Venation Variegation Anisophylly Heterophylly For their arrangement in the bud, see: Leaf-Buds (under Bud) The forms and appendages of the roots are described in the articles: Root Rhizoids Root Tubercles For the organs of respiration and exudation, see: The Aerating System (under Anat- omy of Plants) Stomata Lenticels Hydathode For the organs of support and sim- ilar use, see : Tendril Haustoria Other appendages of plants are de- scribed under: Trichome Gland Cilia of Plants Bloom IV. Morphology of the Repro- DucTiviE Organs. The vast majority of plants produce at certain periods of their life-history two sets of reproductive organs, the sexual and the asexual ; and, in all plants above the alga and fungi, these follow each other regularly in alter- nate generations. (See the general articles on sexual processes referred to under Physiology.) In this section, only those articles will be given which describe the sexual and asexual repro- ductive organs. These organs are present in some form throughout large classes of plants. Special morjjhology will be discussed under the appropriate heads in Systematic Botany. Asexual reproduction is effected by spores and by vegetative off-shoots. For the latter, see : Bud Geinm£E Bulb For the organs of spore-reproduc- tion, see: Spore Intine Homospory Heterospory Microspore Megaspore Sporangium Microsporangium Megasporangium Sporophyll Microsporophyll Megasporophyll The organs of sexual reproduction are: Gamete Generative Cell Oosphere Sperm Antheridium Archegonium Oogonium Paraphyses Oospore In the higher plants (Spermato- phytes), the two sets of reproductive organs, sexual and asexual, are enclosed together in the flower. See: Flower Seed Fruit 200 BOTANY For the various modes in wliich flowers are arranged on the plant, see: Inflorescence Panicle Cyme Corymb Ament Disk The parts of a flower are described in the articles : Involucre Calyx Pappus Corolla Petal Ligule Nectary Pistil Ovary Carpel Ovule Placenta Stamen Anther Pollen Epigyny Hypogyny Perigyny The articles on the seed are: Seed Endosperm Perisperm Ovule Nucellus Embryo Suspensor Cotyledon Hypocotyl For the various kinds of fruits, see: Achene Berry Capsule Caryopsis Drupe Drupelet Follicle Glume Legume Nut Pome B. Ptptubrjil Physiology is the science which deals with all the processes that constitute the life of an individual plant, the con- ditions, both internal and external, which affect plant life, and all the phenomena attending such processes and conditions. Just as we distinguish between vegetative and reproductive organs of a plant, so we may also dis- tinguish between vegetative and repro- ductive life processes; and the former may be divided into the regular and constant processes, which maintain the life of a plant, and the more occa- sional responses to stimuli. Abnormal and pathological conditions also come within the scope of physiology. Sec Physiology of Plants. I. In all perfect plants, there is a series of regular mechanical processes by wiiich raw food material is brought to the digestive organs in the form of gases from the atmosjihcre, or of min- erals dissolved in water from the soil ; by other processes the digested food is carried to places of storage or growing BOTANY 201 points, and the waste products are ex- pelled from the sj'stem. See: Respiration (in plants) Aeration Absorption (in plants) Transpiration Potometcr Imbibition Osmosis Turgor Root Pressure Conduction Storage Excretion Secretion (vegetable) II. The phenomena of digestion and growth are described in the articles : Digestion in Plants Food of Plants Nutrition (in plants) Mycorrhiza Photosynthesis Etiolation Metabolism Katabolism Anabolism Fermentation Assimilation Regeneration Parasite, Plant Saprophyte "^ Carnivorous Plants Insectivorous Plants Energy of Plants Growth (in plants) Auxanometer Enzymes Chloroplasts Carotin EtioHn The various movements which plants are capable of are described under: Movement Moving Plant Motor Organ Locomotion Nutation (in plants) Plants are also capable of reacting to a great variety of stimuli. See: Irritability Stimulus Tropism Phototaxis Heliotropism Photoepinasty Apheliotropism Paraheliotropism Nyctotropic Sleep of Plants Geotropism in Plants Apogeotropism Diageotropism Hydrotropism Aphydrotropism Aerotropism Rheotropism Thermotropism Chemotaxis Chemotropism Electrotaxis Electrotropism Traumatropism Sensitive Plant Hyponasty Epinasty Clinostat Tendril Lianas Reproductive processes may be di- vided into those which take place within the individual plant, and those which are affected by the relation of the in- dividual plant to its environment. The latter are referred to under Ecology (see C below), while only the former are described in the following articles: Reproduction (in plants) Vegetative Propagation 202 BOTANY Sex in Plants (under Sex) Conjugation Rejuvenescence Isogamy Apogamy Parthenogenesis Vivipary Fertilization Germination Alternation of Generations Gametophyte Sporophyte A discussion of the abnormal and pathological in plant life is given in the articles : Teratology Monstrosity Malformation Abortion in Plants (under Abor- tion) Vestigial Structures Concrescence Galls C. lErnlogg Ecology is the science that deals "with the relation of a plant to its envi- ronment. This relation may be that of sexual intercourse, relation to the soil, situation, climate, moisture conditions, relation to other plants and to animals, and any other external conditions that affect the situation of a plant, its growth, or the length of its life, either in the individual or in the species or race. Ecology is thus the study of the distribution of plants in the broadest sense. See : Ecology Distribution of Plants Bionomics Floristics Dysteleology Adaptation Epharmony 1. The relations of the reproductive functions of a plant to the environ- ment arc discussed in the articles: Pollination Cross-Fertilization Hybrid Dispersal The special arrangements which affect cross-pollination are described under : Cleistogamy Allogamy Geitonogamjr Monoecism Dioecism Dichogamy Entomophilous Plant Anemophilous Plants Hydrophilous For the relation of plants to the soil, see : Humus Plants Lime Plants "' Clay-Plants Nitrophilous Plants Halophytc Dune Vegetation Rock Plants Epiphj'te For the relation of plants to general localities, sec: Autochthonous Endcmism Naturalization Migration of Plants BOTANY 203 and, to specific situations: Mountain Plants Alpine Plant ClifF-Plants Beach Plants Ruderal Plants Hylophytes Benthos Enalids Plankton For the relation of a plant to mois- ture and climate, see : Hydrophytes Hygrophytes Mesophyte 'Amphibious Plants Xerophytes Desert Vegetation Arctic Plants (under Arctic Re- gion) ^ Acclimatization Phenology The relation of a plant to other plants, and to animals, may be con- sidered under two aspects : (a) There is often a close sympa- thetic relation between individual plants, and between an individual plant and animals. See: Symbiosis Endophyte Epiphyte Parasite, Plant Obligate Plants Faculative Plant Entomophilous Plant Myrmecophytes Phycomycetes (6) There is also a general relation due to soil, climate, struggle for ex- istence, etc., between large numbers of individuals growing together and con- , stituting what are known as plant so- ■ cieties. See : Distribution of Plants Form Formation Forest Jungle Thicket Grasslands Savannas Steppe Prairie Llanos Pampas Meadow Tundra Swamp Mangrove Swamp Cypress Swamps The nature of plant societies is also largely affected by the vegetative du- ration of its members. See: Duration Annuals Biennials Perennials Mstiyal Vernal Grass Deciduous Plants Evergreen Geophyte D. #pt?mattr Ictang This branch of the science of Botany comprises the classification of plants, the description of every known species and of the larger divisions — genera, families, orders, classes, etc. — into which all species are grouped. Sys- 204 BOTANY tematic Botany also includes the study of the relationships between the various groups and species of plants, and of their geographical distribution. It is obviously impossible here to refer to all the articles on even the more important genera; but, as the representative gen- era of each order are referred to in the article on the order, it is sufficient to give only the latter and the higher groups. For a general article on sys- tematic botany, see Taxonomy. Tlie whole vegetable kingdom is gen- erally divided into four sub-kingdoms. See: Thallophytes Brj'ophytes Pteridophytes Spermatophytes I. The Thallophytes are divided into two parallel series. See: Algfe Fungi 1. The Algae are generally grouped into four classes. See : Cyanophyceae Chlorophyceae Pliicophyceae RhodophycefE 2. For the main divisions of the Fungi, see: Myxomycetes Schizomycetes Ustilaginales Phycoinycetes Ascomycetes Urcdinales Basidioniycetes Lichens II. The Bryophytes arc grouped in two main divisions. See: Hepatica; Musci III. The living Pteridophytes fall into three main groups, the last two of which are generally called " the higher fern." See : Fern Equisetum Lycopodiales IV. The Spermatophytes, or seed- plants, form the bulk of the vegetation which covers the earth. They are di- vided into two classes. See: Gymnosperms Angiosperms 1. The living Gymnosperms are grouped into four orders. See: Coniferas Cycadaceffi Gnctaceae Ginkgo 2. The Angiosperms consist of numerous orders, which fall into two natural sub-classes. See : Monocotyledons Dicotyledons (a) The principal oi'dcrs of Mon- ocotyledons are described un- der: Pandanaceae Typha Gramineas Cyperaceae Palm Arum Bromeliaceae Liliace.-D Smilaccffi Amarj'llidaceaj Dioscorcacene Iridacca; MusacwE Zingiberaccx Orchid BOTANY 205 (fo) Tlie following are the most important orders of Dicotyle- dons, arranged in their order of relationship. Important genera of orders not separately de- scribed are inserted in their proper places. Archichlamydece : Mainly Apetalous. Chiefly Trees : Piperacese Juglandaceae Willow Poplar Birch Alder Cupuliferae Moraceae Urticacese Elm Chiefly Weeds: Polygonaceffi Chenopodiaceas Amarantaceas Mesembryaceffi Caryophyllaceae Mainly Polypetalous. Butter- cup Types : Nympha'aceae Magnolia Ranunculaceae Berberidacese Lauraceje Poppy Types : Papaveraceas Fumariaceae Cruciferse Insectivorous Plants : Sarracenia Sundew Rose Tj^ies : Saxifrage Plane Rosacea; Leguminosse Geranium Types : Geranium Zygophyllaceae Polygala Euphorbiaceas Maple Types : Burseraceffi Anacardiaceas Holly Maple Sapindaceas Horse-Chestnut Buckthorn Types : Rhamnacese Vitaceae Mallow Types: Tiliacese Malvacea2 Violet Types : Ternstroemiaceae Violaceae Cactus Type: Cactus Myrtle Types : Lythraceas Myrtacere Carrot Types: Umbelliferffi Dogwood Sympetalct : Heath Types : Ericacese Huckleberry Primrose Type: Primulaceae Ebony Types : Sapotaceffi Ebony 206 BOTANY ■Gentian Types: Loganiaceas Gentianaceae Apocynaceae Asclepiadaceae Phlox Types : Convolvulaceae Polemoniaceae Boraginaceas Labiate Solanaceas Scrophulariaceae Bignonia Madder Types : Rubiaeeae Caprifoliaceje Bell-Flower Types : Cucurbitaceae Campanulacese Composite E. &o«nmtr Sntattg In its naiTow sense, viewed as a strictly botanical science, economic bot- any is the study of those plants which are, or can be, used for some purpose in human economy. If we inquire fur- ther into the methods by which these plants are made available, we enter upon the fields of agriculture, pharmacy, me- chanical arts, etc. By the above defini- tion, economic botany includes a study of the common cultivated plants, such as the cereals, but, to avoid repeti- tion, the cultivated plants are re- ferred to only in the chapter on Agri- culture, Horticulture, and Forestry. We shall therefore confine ourselves here to the articles describing the im- portant wild, or not commonly culti- vated, economic plants, classified ac- cording to their uses. I. Plants Used for Food: Adansonia Areca Banana Brazilnuts Breadfruit Tree Butter-Tree Caryocar Caryota Cashew Nut Cherimoyer Cocco Cocoanut Euryale Fungi, Edible Granadilla Grass-Tree Hog-Plum Iceland Moss Jubfsa Mammee Apple Maple Melicocca Mushroom Nelumbo Palmyra Palm Prickly Pear Reindeer IMoss Sago Tamarind Ti Walnut Water-Chestnut II. Pl.\nts User in Preparing Bev- erages : Beverage Plants Agave Assai BOTANY 207 III. IV. Ava Camwood Buriti Palm Chay Root Carrageen Fustic Elder Henna Mate Indigo Palmyra Palm Logwood Sloe IMarking-Nut Woodruff Walnut Weld . Plants Used as Condiment or Yam IN Confectionery: Zamia Flavoring Plants Anise VI. Plants Yielding Gums, Wax, Caper Oils, etc.: Cardamom Butea Cinnamon Calophyllum Coriander Canarium Gaultheria Candleberry Ginger Candle-Nut Guinea Pepper Carnauba Palm Jujube Cashew Nut Juniper Dammar Laurel Elaeococca Licorice Fir Marjoram Grass-Tree Marsh-Mallow Mastic Mint Mesquite Tree Pepper Oil Palm Plants Used in Perfumery: Pine Boswellia Tallow Tree Lemon-Grass VII. Plants Yielding Fibre : Lignum Rhodium Lily of the Valley Agave Aloe Musk Plant Myrrh Patchouli Astrocaryum Attalea Bromelia Vetiver Broom Plants Yielding Pigments: Butea Alkanet Carnauba Palm Aloe Caryota Brazil Wood Chamasrops Buckthorn Corchorus Butea Crotalaria 208 BOTANY Eriodenron Giant Lily Gomuti Mauritia Neilgherry Nettle Ootrum Piassaba Yucca VIII. Plants Used for Timber and Cabinet Wood: Ash Butternut Calophyllum Cedar Chittagong Wood Cypress Dacrydium Dalbergia Elm Eucalyptus Fir Gmelina Greenheart Guaiacum Hemlock-Tree Hornbeam Ilex Lancewood Lime-Tree Mammee Apple Maple Oak Palmetto Palmyra Palm Pine Plane Podocarpus Spruce Tamarind Teak Toon Tulip Tree Walnut IX. Plants Used for Ornamental Cabinet Woods : Aloes Wood Ebony Holly Kiaboucca Letterwood Palmyra Wood Rosewood Sandalwood Satinwood X. Plants Supplying Various Primi- tive Needs: Bottle-Gourd Bussu Palm Calabash-Tree Daphne Nipa Palmyra Palm Papyrus Rattan XI. Plants Used Directly in In- dustrial Arts: Carludovica Palmata Divi-Divi Ice-Plant Ivory, Vegetable Myrobalan Oak Rattan XII. Medicinal Plants : Aconite Acorns Adansonia Agrimony Akce Allamanda Aloe Alum Root Angelica Angostura Bark Aristolochia Arnica BOTAXY 209 Asarabacca Andromeda Belladonna Belladonna Bittersweet Bittersweet Broom Bitterwood Butterfly-Weed Calabar Bean Cajeput Cherry-Laurel Calabar Bean Cocculus Indicus Carrageen Colchicum Cascarilla Fungi, Edible and Poisonous Cassia Hemlock Centaury Henbane Choke-Cherry Kalmia Cinchona Laburnum Cissampelos Manchineel Coca Nightshade Croton Poison Oak Cubebs Stramonium Dill Sumach Dock Tanghin Dogbane Upas Elder Erigeron XIV. Biographies of Eminent Bot- Ergot anists : Eucalyptus Adanson, M. Feverwort Barton, W. P. C. Gentian Bauhin, J. Geum Bentham, G. Guaiacum Bigelow, J. Horehound Bonnier, G. Houseleek Boussingault, J. B. J. D. Ipecacuanha Braun, A. Jalap Brongniart, A. T. Licorice Browni, R. Mint Brunfels, 0. IMyrrh Chapman, A. W. Poppy Cohn, F. J. Strychnos Darlington, W. Witch-Hazel De Candolle, A. L. P. P. Zanthoxylum Desfontaines, R. L. Eichler, A. W. XIII. Poisonous Plants : Engler, H. G. A. Poisonous Plants Endlicher, S. L. Abrus Gray, Asa Amanita Grew, N. 210 BOTANY Hellriegel, H. Hooker, Sir J. D. Hooker, Sir W. J. Jackson, B. D. Jussieu Ledebour, K. F. de Lenne, P. J. Lindley, J. Link, H. F. Linnseus, Carolus Michaux, A. Moll], H. von Morong, Thomas Muhlenberg, G. H. E. Necs von Esenbeck, C. G. Nuttall, T. Persoon, C. H. PfefFer, W. Plumier, Charles Rafinesque, C. S. Sachs, J. von Saussure, N. T. de Schleiden, M. J. Schultze, M. S. Schweinitz, L. D. von Sullivant, W. S. Thunberg, K. P. Thurber, George Torrey, J. Tournefort, J. P. de Unger, F. Watson, S. dliapt^r 21. Agnniltur^, ttt. THE systematic and artificial cultivation of plants for the purpose of supplying human necessities or luxuries constitutes the arts of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Forestry, or the cultivation of the field, the garden, and the forest. The distinctions between these three arts, however, are not so definite as one might suppose, and the apportionment among tiicni of the articles dealing with plant culture will be more or less arbitrary. Thus Forestry and Horticulture meet in the arts of Arboriculture and Landscape Gardening. The products of Horticulture are, as a rule, luxuries rather than necessities ; but the raising of vegetables for the table, although they are almost necessary articles of food, is generally treated under Horticulture rather than under Agriculture. The latter term is best con- fined to the cultivation on a large scale of products used extensively in human economy, and this distinction will be the basis for the followipg divisions of the whole subject. A. K^nmitnn Agriculture, as its name implies, is the cultivation of the field, mainly for the purpose of providing a regular supply of organic food, both plant and animal. This indicates the two main divisions of farming, namely, the rais- ing of food plants and the raising of animals. The former is, perhaps, the more complex process, requiring a more elaborate equipment of tools and ma- chinery. It involves the selection and preparation of the soil, the sowing of the seed, the care of the growing crop, the prevention and cure of crop dis- eases, and the harvesting, manipula- tion, and disposition of the crop when ripe. The raising of animals involves their selection and breeding, the feed- ing and care of the animals, attention to the numerous diseases to which they are subject, and the manipulation and disposition of animal products, includ- ing the art of dairying. In connection with both branches of agriculture, there is the general management of the farm and its equipment. For a history of the development of agriculture in the various countries, see the article. Agri- culture. I. For the general articles on the farm and its equipment, see: Farm Buildings Barn Fence Implements, Agricultural II. The preparation of the soil re- quires, first, the selection of a soil suited for the crop, and often its artificial fertilization ; and, second, its tillage and irrigation. For the selection of soil, see : Soil Humus Alkali Soils Chernozem Gumbo Soil Fallow Waste Lands Rotation of Crops For fertilization and fertilizers, see: Chemistry, Agricultural 211 212 AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY Fertilizers Manures and Manuring Green Manuring Nitrification Sewage Farming Soil Amendments Fish Manures Bone Fertilizers Guano Marl Compost Gypsum Poudrette Ammonite Lupine Thomas Slag The processes of tillage are described under : Tillage Cultivator Plow, Plowing For the irrigation and drainage of the soil, see : Irrigation Drainage Ditch Mulch Warping Lysimeter When the soil has been prepared and tilled, the seed is sown. See : Seed Testing Broadcasting Drill Harrow When the crop is ripe, it is harvested and prepared for the market. Sec: Harvest and Harvesting Reapers, Reaping Threshing Iliunmelcr Fan, or Fanner III. The principal crops which are the subjects of agriculture are, of course, the food plants, and of these the most important are the cereals. Other plants, however, aside from those which are the subjects of horticulture, are also regularly cultivated, such as forage plants (see under Stock-Rais- ing below), and plants used for fibre and various other purposes. For the principal cereals, see: Cereals Barley Buckwheat Maize Millet Oat Rice Rye Wheat Other food crops are : Artichoke Artichoke, Jerusalem Bean Beet Cassava Cowpea Dolichos Gourd Lentil Pea Potato Pumpkin Sago Soy Bean Sugar Beet Sugar-Cane Sweet Potato (For vegetables and fruits, sec under section on Horticulture.) Plants cultivated for fibre arc: Bu'limcriu Cotton AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY 213 Flax Hemp Hemp, Bowstring Hemp, Manila Hemp, Sisal Hemp, Sunn Ramie Tobacco is also an important agri- cultural crop. See article Tobacco. IV. The care of the growi crop is of sufficient importance to liave sep- arate treatment, and the study and treatment of plant diseases is a science by itself. The principal cause of plant diseases are insects and fungi, and almost every kind of crop has its specific insect pests. These are all de- scribed in separate articles following the articles on the crops, under such titles as Cotton Insects, Rice In- sects, etc., and, therefore, need not be enumerated here. The general arti- cles on plant diseases and their treat- ment, and on diseases common to several crops are: Diseases of Plants Fungicides Insecticides Insect Powder Mildew Blight Botrytis Canker Chlorosis Damping Off Dodder Dry Rot Ergot Gummosis Rust Smuts The special diseases which affect particular crops are treated in the ar- ticles on the separate crops, but a few are described in separate articles. See : Bunt Cornstalk Disease Crown-Gall Ear Cockles Clubroot Oidium Some of the common weeds with which the farmer and gardener have to contend are described in the articles : Weed Atriplex Burdock Chickweed Chufa Cockle Chenopodium Orache Pigweed Tare V. The raising of live-stock is the second great department of agricul- ture, and involves the selection of the animals, their breeding and general care, a supply of the proper feed stuffs ; attention to diseases, which con- stitutes the practice of veterinary med- icine; and the preparation of the animal products for the market. The most important animals raised as live-stock are described in the articles : Horse Cattle Mule Sheep Goat Hog Poultry Fowl Duck Goose 214 AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY Turkey Pigeon Bee For the breeding and general care of the animals, see: Breeds and Breeding Incubator Horseshoeing Hoof Dehorning Feeding Farm Animals Soiling, Soiling Crops Bee-Keeping Feeding stuffs may be divided into two general classes, natural or grow- ing forage plants and the more or less artificially prepared feeds. The forage plants may again be divided into grasses and those that are not grasses, the latter being largely legu- minous plants. See: Feeding Stuffs Pasture Meadow For forage grasses, see: Grasses Agropyron Andropogon Bermuda Grass Blue Grass Brome Grass Buffalo-Grass Canary-Grass Crab-Grass Gama Grass Manna-Grass Meadow Grass Millet Oat Grass Orchard Grass Redtop Grass Rye-Grass Sorghum Teosinte Timothy Grass The principal forage plants other than grasses are: Alfalfa Burnet Chufa Clover Cowpea Fescue Lupine Mangel- Wurzel Medick Melilot Mesquite Tree Rape Sainfoin Serradella Soy Bean Sulla Trefoil Vetch For the most important prepared feeds, see: Brewers' Grains Gluten Meal Hay Linseed j\Ieal JNIalt Sprouts Silage Wliey Farm animals are subject to numer- ous serious diseases, and the investiga- tion and treatment of these constitute the profession of veterinary medicine. A convenient subdivision of animal diseases is according to the kinds of animals which tliey affect, since, with a few exceptions, each disease is either peculiar to, or chiefly prevalent in, a particular species. Several of these given under cattle diseases, however. AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY 215 may also affect horses or sheep, and vice versa. (a) The general articles on the sub- ject and those dealing with diseases common to sevci'al kinds of live-stock are: Veterinary Medicine Diseases of Animals Abortion in Animals (under Abortion) Colic in Animals Ergotism Mange Tuberculosis (in animals) (6) For diseases primarily affect- ing the horse, see : Anthrax Bighcad Canker Curb Fistula Founder Glanders Heaves Hoof Influenza in Animals Meningitis Navicular Disease Poll-Evil Roaring Strangles Thrush (c) For diseases of cattle, see: Actinomycosis Blackleg Bloat Cattle Plague Fardel-bound Foot-and-Mouth Disease Joint-Ill IMalignant Catarrh Mammitis Milk Fever Pleuropneumonia Red Water Texas Fever (d) For diseases of sheep, sec : Agalactia Bloat Braxy Fardel-bound Gid Icterohsematuria Liver-Rot Lung-Worms Nodular Disease (f) For a disease of hogs, see: Hog Cholera (/■) For diseases of poultry and bees, see: Blackhead Gapes Roup Foul Brood VI. In the preparation of animal products for the mai'ket, one of the most elaborate, as well as important, departments is that of Dairying. This industry involves the supply of milk and cream, and the manufacture of butter and cheese. For a general article on the subject and articles on the processes of manufacture, and the machinery and equipment of the dairy, see: Dairying Milking Machine Aerator Creamery Separator Butter-Making Churn Butter-Worker Butter-Color Cheese-Making 216 AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY Cheese Factory Rennet For the principal dairy products, see: Milk Skim Milk Casein Cream Butter Cheese Buttermilk Milk Sugar (under Sugars) Ghee Kephir Koumiss Whey VII. Other more or less direct prod- ucts of agriculture and stock raising, and the methods of their disposal, are described under: jMarket and Marketing Flour Farina Semolina Food Bread Sugar Honey Glucose IMeat Pork Leather Wool See also Poultry and Egg and the articles there referred to. VIII. Since the patriarchal stage. Agriculture has been regarded as the most important of human industries, and is the one which has especially re- ceived direct and official attention from the governments of civilized nations. There are also at present numerous educational institutions, and private or semi-public associations for the ad- vancement of the industry. See: Agriculture, U. S. Department of Agricultural Experiment Stations Agricultural Education Farmers' Institute Agricultural Association Grange IX. For biographies of eminent ag- riculturists, see : Atwater, W. O. Brewer, W. H. Colman, N. J. Goessman, C. A. Goodcll, H. H. Harris, J. Hatch, W. H. Hellricgel, H. Hilgard, E. W. Holdcfleiss, F. W. Johnson, S. W. Judd, O. Lawes, J. B. Thacr, A. D. True, A. C. Youatt, W. Young, A. B. %mX\m{X\\xt anb 3tiXtBXx\} Horticulture is the art of producing plants which are valued for their agreeable properties rather than as necessities for human comfort. The horticultural methods of breeding, propagating, and cultivating plants differ essentially from the agricultural method In that great attention is paid to the individual plant, while in agri- culture attention is given to the crop AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY 217 as a whole, in which the individual is lost. The subjects and products of horticulture are flowers, ornamental shrubs and trees, fruit trees, plants used as condiments, vegetables for the table, when considei'ed merely as acces- sories to the more substantial articles of food, and all other plants treated by horticultural methods. Horticulture also concerns itself with the laying out of gardens, and in this field of its activity it merges into landscape gardening and forestry. The latter, however, is a purely eco- nomic art and is not a branch of hor- ticulture. It is included in this section because it is not yet a highly complex art and is, therefore, treated in a few general articles. For the general arti- cles on Horticulture and Forestry, see: Horticulture Floriculture Landscape Gardening Arboriculture Forestry Afforestation I. The buildings and equipments used by the horticulturist are described in the articles: Greenhouse Hothouse Conservatory Frame Espalier Hoe One of the principal aims of horti- culture is to develop particularly de- sirable varieties of plants and to main- tain them true to the stock. For this purpose, special methods of breeding and propagation are necessary. See: Plant-Breeding Nursery Budding Cutting Grafting Layering Caprification Special methods are also necessary in raising tlie young plants to ma- turity and securing the desired quali- ties in the matured product. See: Forcing Bottom Heat Electro-culture of Plants Pruning Cordon Blanching For the most important plants cul- tivated in greenhouses, see : Greenhouse Plants Abutilon Achimenes Banksia Carnation Fuchsia Gardenia Gladiolus Hyacinth Jerusalem Cherry Mignonette Oleander Passion-Flower Pelargonium Vanda II. The principal articles on gar- dens, ornamental shrubs, and garden plants are: Lawn Hedge Ampelopsis Azalea Canna Centaurea Chrysanthemum 218 AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY Convolvulus Cosmos Cotoneaster Cowslip Dahlia Eschscholtzia Heliotrope Hibiscus Hollyhock Hyacinth Hydrangea Ivy Jasmine Jonquil Laburnum .^ Larkspur Laurustinus Lavender Libocedrus Lilac Lily Lily of the Valley Mignonette Narcissus Peony Petunia Phlox Pink Polyanthus Poppy Rose Star of Bethlehem Sunflower Sweet Pea Thrift Tropjeolum Trumpet Flower Tuberose Tulip Wallflower Wistaria in. For tlio principal articles on fruit trees and fruit culture, see: Fruit, Cultivated Orchard Apple Apricot Banana Blackberry Butternut Calville Cherimoyer Chestnut Cranberry Currant Custard-Apple Date Dewberry Earthnut Fig Gooseberry Grape Hazelnut Huckleberry Kumquat Lemon Lime Litchi Loquat Mango Melon Mulberry Muskmelon Olive Orange Peach Peanut Pear Persimmon Pineapple Plum Pomegranate Quince Raspberry Strawberry Walnut Watermelon AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY 219 For table vegetables, see : W'getables Herbs, Culinary Salad Plants Asparagus Brussels Sprouts Cabbage Carrot Cauliflower Celery Corn-Salad Cress Cucumber Egg Plant Endive Garlic Kale Kohl-rabi Leek Lettuce Mushroom Onion Parsley Parsnip Radish Rhubarb Salsify Spinach Squash Tomato Truffle Turnip V. For tlic principal plants culti- vated for their flavoring qualities, see: 'Flavoring Plants Allspice Almond Capsicum Caraway Chicory Chive Cinnamon Citron Cloves Fennel Hop Horseradish Mace Mustard Nutmeg Pepper Pistacia Thyme Vanilla VI. The section on horticulture should also include reference to the articles on the well known beverage plants, and on some of the more direct products of horticulture. See: Coff'ee Tea Cacao Wine Cider Prune Raisins VII. For biographies of eminent horticulturists and foresters, see: Bailey, L. H. Burbank, L. Downing, A. J. Downing, C. Duhamel du Monceau Henderson, P. Hess, R. Heyer, G. Heyer, K. J. HoVey, C. M. Kenrick, W. Koristka, K. von Landreth, D. Lodeman, E. Longworth, N. Loudon, J. C. Lyon, T. T. Manning, R. See also Horticultukai. Societies. OII|itpt^r 22. 200l0gg E^'ERY topic of importance in Natural History, especially as repre- sented in America, is contained in the pages of the New Interna- tional Encyclopadia, which thus may justly be called a complete text-book of zoology. The outline of our knowledge of animal life thus furnished is supplemented, in respect to each part of it, by references to special books, museum collections, and other sources of knowledge where the student may find the minute details and investigations interesting and necessary to the specialist, but superfluous to a general reader. The material contained in the Encyclopttdia is thus equally useful to the deep and to the super- ficial inquirer ; for the specialist in one department of science needs to have at hand general information, at least, as to other departments. Zoology has two aspects: (a) that of its observed facts; and (b) that of the principles involved : phenomena and deductions ; condition and theory. The foremost or basic part is a knowledge of the facts of the animal world, namely : Form and Structure; Reproduction, Embryology and Growth; Habit; Instinct; Distribution, past and present ; Relationship, of animals to one another, and to their environment. From these have been deduced the facts of the Classification and Evolution of forms. Structure. Cephalization The reader who seeks to take the Metamerism topics dealing with Form and Struc- Integument ture in order may read the following Horn articles : Hoof Biology Nail ]\Iorphology Teeth Animal Hair Protoplasm Feather Cell Pterylosis Amoeba Scales Embryology Pigment Anatomy Metachrosis Bone Chromatophore Skeleton ; and the more particular Melanism accounts of its component parts, Touch a- as Skui>i>, Hand, Shoulder- Taste .JOINT, etc. Smell Muscular System Eye Circubdory System Ear Alimentary System The structure of various animals. Excretory System as characteristic of groups, is given in Respiratory System such gciural articles as: Nervous System and Brain Aniblypoda 220 ZOOLOGY 221 Ammonites Amphibia Annulata Arachnida Archa'optcryx Bat Beetle Bird Bovidae Butterflies and Moths Braehiopoda Camehdas Canida? Carnivora Cephalopoda Cestoda Chordata Coelenterata Coral Crinoidea Crustacea Deer Dinosauria Dipnoi Echinodermata Elasmobranchii Electric Fish Felida2 Fish Fly Fringillidas Frog Ganoidei Gastropoda Holothurian Horse, Evolution of the (under Horse, Fossil) Hydrozoa Hymcnoptera Infusoria Insect Mammalia Marsupialia Medusa Mollusca Ophiuroidea Prototheria Protozoa Pterodactyl Pteropoda Reptile Rodentia Sirenia Snake Tui-tle Ungulata Vertebrata For the most part, the articles re- ferred to contain, incidentally or cited in the appended Bibliography, the names of investigators identified with these particular subjects. In the great majority of cases the biography of each of these men is to be found in its alphabetical position in the Encyclo- psedia ; and an earnest reader will turn to it, and so acquaint himself with the man by whose learning he is profiting. Reproduction and Growth. Animals continue to exist by repro- ducing their kind after various methods, and each individual passes through a more or less complicated series of changes from its beginning to its ma- turity, collectively known as its life- history, or autogeny. An orderly study of this essential phase of animal life may be conducted by reading the ar- ticles mentioned below, with the lesser ones indicated by cross-references : Reproduction Spontaneous Generation Egg Spermatozoon Gemmule Sex Embryology 222 ZOOLOGY Foetus Epigenesis Mitosis Parthenogenesis Alternation of Generations Biogenesis Cross-fertilization JVIetaniorpliosis Larva Pupa Metabolism Growth Regeneration Heredity Pangenesis Prepotency Telegony Hermaphroditism (under Sex) Breeds and Breeding Hybridity Nidification Habits. The habits of animals constitute the principal feature of what may be called Descriptive Zoology — that is, accounts of a species or a group of species placed under the vernacular name. This policy has been adopted, rather than that of putting descrip- tions under technical names, for greater convenience of reference, as well as to avoid that attitude of pedantry which made the earlier encyclopa'dias often ridiculous. The majority of readers would turn more naturally to Hokse than to " Equida' " or to Bi.acksnake than to " Zamcnis." The teclmical characteristics of many of the larger groups, lacking any English appella- tive, are given under their term in classification, as Protozoa, Bovid.?;, and the like, or sometimes under the name of the special science dealing with them, as Ichthyology, Oeni- THOLOGY. Habits of animals, then, may be learned from the descriptive articles generally, the principal of which are given below: Agate Shell Agouti Albatross Alewife Alligator Anaconda Ani Ant Antelope Ant-lion Aoudad Apteryx Armadillo Ass Auk Aurochs Axolotl Aye-aye Baboon Badger Bandicoot Bank swallow Barn-owl Barn-swallow Bass Bat Bear Beaver Bedbug Bee Bighorn Bird of Paradise Bison Bittern Blackl)ird Blacksnake Bluebird Bluefish Boa ZOOLOGY 223 Bobolink Bollworm Bookworm Bot Bower-bird Brant Buffalo-bird Bug Bulbul Bumblebee Bunting Bushmaster Bustard Buttcrfish Butterflies Buzzard Caddis-fly Camel Capercaillie Capybara Caribou Carp Carpenter Bee Cat Cattle Cave Animals Cavy Chameleon Chamois Chinch-bug Cicada Civet Clam Clothes-moth Cockatoo Cockroach Cod Codling Moth Condor Copperhead Cowbird Coyote Crab Cricket Crocodile Crow Cuckoo Curlew Death Adder Deathwatch Deer Devilfish Dingo Dodo Dog Dove Dragon-fly Duck Duckbill Dugong Duiker Eagle Earthworm Eel Eider Elephant Electric Fish Ermine Falcon Fer-de-lance Firefly Fish-hawk Flamingo Flea Flesh-fly Fly Fly-catcher Flying Squirrel Fox Frog Gall-insects Gannet Garefowl Gazelle Gibbon Gipsy jMoth GirafFe Gnat 224 ZOOLOGY Goat Goldfinch Goose Gopher Gorilla Goshawk Grayling Grebe Grouse Guanaco Gull Halibut Hare Hawk Hedgehog Hermit Crab Heron Herring Hessian Fly Hippopotamus Hognose Homing Pigeon Hornbill Horse Hound House-fly Humming-bird Hyena Ibex Ibis Iguana Jackal Jackdaw Jaguar Jay Jelly-fish Jungle Fowl Kangaroo Katydid King-bird Kingfish Kingfisher Kraken Lace-bug Lamprey Land Tortoise Leech Lemming Lemur Leopard Lion Lizard Llama Lobster Lory Louse Lungfish Mackerel Mallard Mammalia Mammoth Manatee Man-eater Shark Marsh Hawk Marten Maskinonge Mastodon Menhaden Mole Monkey Moose Mosquito Moth Mound-bird Mouse Mule Deer IMungoos Musk Ox Muskrat Narwhal Nest Nightingale Nightjar Nurse-frog Nutria Opossum Orang-utan Oriole ZOOLOGY 225 Ostrich Sardine Otter Sawfish Owl Scale Insect Oyster Scorpion Palolo Worm Sea-anemone Parrakeet Sea-bass Parrot Sea-horse Partridge Seal Peacock Sea-otter Pheasant Sea-urchin Pigeon Shark Pipa Sheep Pipefish Sheepshcad Plant-bug Shore-birds Plover Shrew Polecat Shrike Pompano Shrimp Porcupine Silkworm Porpoise Skunk Potato Insects Skylark Prairie Dog Sloth Ptarmigan Smelt Puma Snail Python Snake Quagga Snipe Quail Spaniel Quinnat Salmon Sparrow Rabbit Spider Raccoon Sponge Rail Sporozoa Rat Squid Rattlesnake Squirrel Raven Starfish Ray Stickleback Rhinoceros Stork Road-runner Sturgeon Robin Sunfish Rocky IMountain White Goat Swallow Roe Deer Swan Rook Swift Sable Swine Salamander Tailor-bird Salmon Tanager Sandpiper Tapeworm 226 ZOOLOGY Tapir Tarantula Tautog Termite Terrapin Terrier Thread-worms Thrush Tick Tiger Tiger-hunting Tilefish Titmouse Toad Toucan Tree-frog Trogon Trout Tsetse-fly Turbot Turkey Turtle Umbrella-bird Vampire Veery Viper Virco Viscacha Vulture Walrus Wapiti Warbler Wasp Watcrsnake Water-tlirush Wax-insect Weakfish Weasel Weaver-bird Weevil Whale Wliippoorwill Wildcat Wolf Woodpecker Wood-rat Worm Wren Yak Zebra Mind in Animals. The intelligence and mental processes of animals are subjects to which much attention has been paid recently, and facts bearing upon them are eagerly sought. Information may be gained from man}' descriptive articles ; and some of the conclusions of students will be found in the following : Ant Nervous System, Evolution of the Habit Social Insects (under Insect) Orientation DiSTRIBrTION OF AnIMALS. Everyone is aware that different parts of the earth's surface have different faunas, and that this con- dition apparently remains permanent, except when, by means of civilization or commerce, certain animals ai'e en- abled to spread beyond their natural habitat, and even become cosmopolitan, as have rats, house-mice, the Euro- pean house-sparrow, and a large num- ber of plant-feeding insects. Nor- mally one fauna does not enlarge or diminish at the expense of another, and, for the most part, species of ani- mals, as of plants, are restricted to a comparatively small range and set of climatic conditions. The local faunas, both on the land and in the sea, have been examined, and their boundaries well ascertained. It has been found, however, that groups of related faunas ZOOLOGY 227 exist side by side, which may be com- posed into large divisions called " sub- regions," and these into a few still larger ones called " regions." The natural barriers which are set to the dispersion of animals, and the finding of the actual boundaries of the faunal districts, form the outlines of the highly interesting study of the geo- graphical distribution of animal life, past and present. To acquaint him- self with this science, the reader should peruse the following co-related articles : Distribution of Animals Fauna Ethiopian Region Paleotropical Region Holarctic Region Nearctic Region Oriental Region Palearctic Region Deep-sea Exploration Pelagic Animals Plankton See also the names of the various subregions, as New Zealand Sub- KEGiON, Malagasy Subregion, etc. ; the paragraphs on Fauna under the names of the various continents and countries, as America, Australia, Brazil, and the like ; and, for the dis- tribution of animals in past ages, Paleontology and Extinction of Species. Relationship. The relationship of animals toward others, and to the environment of each individual, species, or group, forms a feature of far-reaching importance and of great interest in zoology, and the study of the facts involved has been set apart as a science under the name of Bionomics. Much relating to it will be found in the descriptive articles cited under Habits and elsewhere, but special consideration is given under the succeeding heads : Bionomics Cave Animals Environment Estivation Flowers and Insects Hibernation Social Insects (under Insect) Natural Selection Orientation Parasite Symbiosis Tropism The relations between man and the lower animals are mainly those of war- fare or service. Animals are in the way of his operations or dangerous to him, and must be got rid of, or supply him with flesh, or hide, or fur, or some other desirable thing, which can be ob- tained, in most cases, only by killing them ; or they attract him to the chase and to such sports as angling and shooting. Hence, many are sought only to be killed, and some species have been entirely exterminated. On the other hand, his agricultural opera- tions have encouraged the spread and development of some, as various insects, rats, etc., in a remarkable way. A third class has been utilized by domestication and turned to his service and benefit. Some articles of special moment in the Encyclopasdia dealing with this sport- ing and economic aspect of natural his- tory are these: Acclimatization Angling Buffalo Caee-Birds 228 ZOOLOGY Domestic Animals (and the various kinds, as Camel, Cat, Dog, Horse, Sheep, Fowl, etc.) Extinct Animals Falconry Fish as Food Fish Culture Fisheries Fishing Fur and the Fur Trade Game Laws Game Preserve Insects, Propagation of Disease by Introduced Species (especially of injurious insects, such as those described under Bollworm, Cut- worm, Chinch-bug, Pear Insects, etc.) Mosquito Oyster Pearl Prairie Dog Rabbit Seal Silkworm Taxidermy Methods of Study. The methods of study in natural his- tory arc described to some extent in the articles : Deep-sea Exploration Laboratory Microscope Morj)hology Nature-Study Psychological Apparatus Zoological Garden Zoological Station Classification of Animals. Turning now from the methods and facts of observation and experiment to the philosophical deductions, — the prin- ciples and theories drawn from these facts, — the reader will first need to at- tend to the subject of classification, which has been slowly developed through a long series of errors and lim- itations and gradually corrected in the brightening light of growing knowl- edge. The history of this search for the true, because natural, classification may be found in the articles Anatomy, Classification of Animals, and Zoology, with the names of the men who from time to time notably ad- vanced taxonomy, and whose biog- raphies may be read. No real success was achieved until the modern convic- tion was arrived at, that the key to the problem of classification was to be found in community of descent, and that any true classification must follow the perception of genetic relationship — descent from a common ancestor. This is the basis of modem classifica- tion, and what we have approaches perfection in just the degree that the phylogeny of each group is rightly apprehended. As a result of the con- stant increase of knowledge, the ar- rangement of this group and that is constantly being modified and presum- ably always improved. From time to time, these amendments are gathered up and critically combined into a general scheme. The latest such scheme of classification of the whole animal king- dom, which is authoritative and at the same time generally accessible, is that contained in Parker and Haskell's Text-book of Zoology/, and this has been followed in respect to the general outline in this Encyclopa'dia, insuring uniformity. For further details, con- sult: Classification of Animals Phylogeny ZOOLOGY 229 Variation Type Zoology For the classification of separate groups, see their titles, as Ccelenter- ATA, Crustacea, Mollusca, Echino- DEEMATA, etC. Zoology and Evolution. The philosophical part of zoology has been developed since man began to observe the ways of nature, and has produced a vast body of " laws," doc- trine, and speculation, the history of which is sketched in such general arti- cles as Anatomy, Zoology, Evolu- tion, etc., and the biographies of the great thinkers cited should be read in connection witli their themes. Science has constantly tended to separate itself from metaphysics, and to use its hy- pothesis merely as a means for furtlicr investigation of phenomena. The out- come has been the formulation and general acceptance of a theory of uni- versal development from the simple to the complex, from the homogeneous to the specialized ; and Organic Evolution or the Doctrine of Descent is the ap- plication of the general principle to the history and phenomena of living things. A reader who wishes to ac- quire a knowledge of these views of nature may do so by reading in con- secutive order the articles named below : Biology Evolution Ontogeny Phylogeny Darwin Natural Selection Lamarck (biography) Lamarckism Growth Heredity Hybridity Guided by these articles and the cross-references to be found in them, he may pursue the subject under other fruitful titles, such as : Botany Cross-fertilization Degeneration as a Factor in Evolu- tion Embryology Environment Flowers and Insects Isolation Kinetogenesis Longevity iVIechanics of Development Mimicry Neo-Darwinism Neo-Lamarckisni Otter Sheep Pollination Polymorphism Protective Coloration Recognition Marks Regeneration Reversion Senescence Sex Sexual Selection Sport LTse-Inheritance Variation Warning Coloration Weismannism Biography. Onh' a name or two has been quoted in the preceding analysis of the science of zoology. The investigators in the field have been numerous, and the fol- lowing list should be regarded as se- lected rather than complete. See : Agassiz, L. 230 ZOOLOGY Audubon, J. J. Baer, K. E. Baird, S. F. Balfour, F. M. Barry, M. Bates, H. W. Beecher, C. E. Bennett, J. H. Bichat, M. F. X. Blunienbach, J. F. Bory de Saint Vincent, J. B. Buffon, G. L. L. Burmeister, H. Camper, P. Carus, K. G. Castolnau, F. Clark, H. J. Cope, E. D. Coste, J. V. Cuvier, G. L. C. Dana, J. D. Darwin, C. Davenport, C. B. Degeer, K. Dohrn, A. Du Bois-Rcymond, E. H. Dujardin, F. Eimer, T. Eschsclioltz, J. F. Fleming, J. Flourens, M. J. P. Forel, A. Galton, F. Gay, C. Gegenbaur, K. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, E. Gcsncr, K. Goode, G. B. Gould, A. A. Gould, J. Graaf, R. de Green, S. Hacckcl, E. Hallcr, A. Harvey, W. Hertwig, O. Hertwig, R. Huber, F. Humboldt, A. Hunter, J. Hux%, T. H. Hyatt, A. Jordan, D. S. Kolliker, A. Lamarck, J. B. Lang, A. Lankester, E. R. Le Conte, L. Le Conte, J. E. Le Conte, J. L. Leeuwenhoek, A. Leidy, J. Lesueur, C. A. Leuckart, R. Levaillant, F. Leydig, F. Linna?us, C. Loeb, J. Lubbock, J. Lyonnet, P. RLalpighi, M. Marsli, O. C. Milne-Edwards, H. Mivart, St. George Miiller, J. ]\Iuller, J. F. T. Orbigny, A. D. d' Osborn, H. F. Owen. Uicliard Packard, A. S. Pallas, P. S. Perty, J. A. M. Ray, J. Hoaumur, R. A. F. Rcimurus, H. S. Romanes, G. J. Ross, A. M. Roux, W. ZOOLOGY 231 Schleiden, M. J. Schultze, M. S. Schwann, T. Sedgwick, W. T. Semper, K. Siebold, K. T. E. Spallanzani, L. Spencer, H. Swammcrdam, J. Tschudi, J. J. Vries, H. de Wagner, M. Wallace, A. R. Weisniann, A. Wilson, A. Wyman, J. 23. ilanufartur^B ani lEngtu^^rtttg THE development of manufacturing industries has resulted from more efficient economic organization, and from the perfection of technological processes involving the application of scientific dis- coveries and knowledge. Accordingly, the most profitable method of study is first to consider the development of manufactures in general from the economic standpoint, and especially of the Factory System, where concentration permits of manufacture in increagcd quantities at diminished expense. This will be found treated in the articles on Factories and Machin- ery, Economic Effects of, in which is traced the growth of manufacturing in general. For specific industries, reference should be made to the separate articles, as the historical and statistical development of any given industry is best con- sidered by itself, on account of the important relation that it bears to practical questions of material, processes, and the like. Tliis brings us straightway to the leading question how things are made, which it is an important function of an encyclop<'edia to answer. In this is involved the gathering and prepai'ation of the raw material, the manufacture, the finishing, and the chstribution, or utiliza- tion, of the finished product. There are prepared below a number of lists of subjects, more or less cognate, dealing with manufacturing industries and their products, and, by carefully observing the cross-references, a complete idea of the more important processes may be gained. A. mattitfarturtitg Jprnrrssrs Food and Manufacture of Food Stuffs, etc. An important field of manufacturing operations is that concerned with the preparation of food stuff's, both in the factory and on a less extensive scale in the home. Cookery; Food, Preser- vation of ; Slaughter Houses ; and Packing Industry are titles that sug- gest the wide range of subjects that may be grouped under such a head. The following list indicates appropri- ate titles: Meat Slaughter Houses Packing Industry Food, Preservation of Digester Extract of Meat Ham Lard Tallow Pemican Jerked Beef Cookery Wlieat Flour Baking Bread Biscuit Baking Powder Butter Cheese Guarana Macaroni Sugar Sardine 232 MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING 233 Gelatin Confectionery Chocolate Cocoa Butter Chewing Gum Macaroon Condiments Pickles Chutnee Curry Powder Olive Oil Fermented and Distilled LiaroRS. The manufacture of Beer, Wine, and Liquors involves many interesting processes in chemical technology. A convenient beginning may be made by considering the history of fermented and distilled liquors, and the extent to which they are manufactured and con- sumed. Then, taking up the general properties of beer, wine, and distilled liquors, a classification of these bever- ages can be made, and the essential features of their production learned. Further details appi'opriate to the manufacture are discussed under Brewing, Still, Bottling and Bot- tling Machinery, while questions in- volving the chemistry of the subject are treated under Fermentation, Dis- tillation, and Alcohol. The physi- ological effects of alcohol are not only interesting, but instructive, and are properly considered in connection with the manufacture of alcoholic bever- ages. For a comprehensive study of the whole subject, the following arti- cles should be consulted : Liquors, Fermented and Distilled, Statistics and History of Alcohol Alcoholometry Hydrometer Alcohol, Physiological and Poison- ous Action of Fermentation Brewing Beer Wine Currant Wine Distilled Liquors, or Ardent Spirits Distillation Brandy Apple Brandy Rum Whisky Fusel Oil Geneva Gin Liqueur Absinthe Benedictine Chartreuse Cura^oa Kirsch Kiimmel Maraschino Ratafia Noyau Bishop Cider Berlin Spirit Bottling and Bottling Machinery Fibres and Textiles. The subject of fibres and textiles is one of novel scope and, for its proper comprehension, requires first the con- sideration of the fibres themselves and how they are produced and prepared for manufacture. The chief fibres are : Cotton Flax Hemp Jute Linen Hemp, Manila 234 MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING Noils Ramie Shoddy Silk Organzine Floss Silk Wool and Worsted Coir With these must be included Silk, Aetificial ; and Cotton, Artificial, whose use is increasing with improved processes. See also Silk, Vegetable ; and Silkworm. It is next advisable to consider the processes by which the fibres are pre- pared for spinning and weaving. These processes are discussed in the following articles : Cotton-Gin Heckle Carding Spinning Yarn Textile manufacturing comprises in- dustries of many diverse characters, which employ complicated machinery. As thev have a certain amount of simi- larity, and bear some relation to each other, the processes of making the vari- ous fabrics may first be considered to- gether. The first step is the designing of the fabric, in which the weaves, pat- terns, and designs are made on the Loom. This naturally involves the dis- cussion of Weaving, which should ex- plain the fundamental weaves and the methods by which patterns are pro- duced. Therefore, in this connection, the following articles slioidd be con- sulted : Textile Manufacturing Textile Designing Weaving Loom Heddle Bobbin Crocheting and knitting differ essen- tially from weaving and, whether per- formed by hand or machine, are the means of producing garments and other useful articles. The following titles in- dicate the articles to be consulted on these subjects : Crochet Knitting Hosiery Either the yarn or the finished fabric may be dyed, or the latter may be printed, in order to impart colored designs to it. In either case, com- plex and interesting processes arc in- volved, which are described in the list below : Dyeing Coal-Tar Colors Vegetable Colors Indigo Turkey Red Textile Printing Beetling Calendering Bleaching Blcaching-Powder Embroidery The finished textile fabrics are al- most infinite in their variety. It is pos- sible to select the more important and tiie representatives of the leading classes and study them in detail. Such a list arranged alphabetical!}' is as follows : Art Square Bandana Barege Batiste - Blanket Bobl)inet MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING 235 Bolting-Cloth Bombazine Brocade Brocatel Brussels Lace Buckram Bunting Cambric Camel's Hair Camlet Canvas Carpet Cassimere Chenille Chintz Corduroy Crape Cretonne Crinoline Damask Diaper Dimity Dornick Drugget Duck Felt Flannel Floor-Cloth Fustian Galloon Gauze Gingham Grass Cloth Gunny Haircloth Huckaback Kersey Lace Linen Matting Mercerized Cotton Mohair Moire Moleskin Muslin Nankeen Cloth Nets Oilcloth Pina Cloth Plush Poplin Rugs Satin Silk Taffeta Tapestry Tarlatan Tweed Velvet Leather and Leather Manufac- tures. The various processes for the manu- facture of Leather are described under that title, and the finished products, such as boots, shoes, saddlery, etc., in which independent industries partici- pate, are appropriately grouped by themselves. For leather and leather goods, the following list is recom- mended : Leather Bark Tanning (under Leather) Buckskin Glove Buff Leather Cordovan Shagreen Chamois Leather Cloth Saddlery Boot Shoes Blacking Carriages and Other Vehicles. From the primitive ox-cart to the 236 MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING modern automobile is a long step, and it includes the development of many vehi- cles for pleasure and more direct use- fulness. These are represented in the following list: Cart Chariot Carriage Coach Driving Coupe Hansom Cab Wagonette Buckboard Phaeton Ambulance Bicycle Automobile Porcelain axd Pottery. There are few more interesting stud- ies than that of porcelain and pottery, and, if the processes are traced from the production of the clay until the fin- ished piece emerges from the kiln after the final firing, the reader will be well repaid. For this purpose the following articles are recommended: Pottery Porcelain Clay_ Kaolin Biscuit Kiln Annealing Ceramic Enamel Bow China Burmese Ware Vase Cracklin Stoneware (under Delft) Delft Ware Eggslicll China Faience Jasper Ware Majolica Terra Cotta Glass. Few materials are more extensively emploj-ed in the arts than glass, and in scientific work and in decoration it also holds an important place. For the es- sential features of its manufacture, the general article should be consulted, while the subordinate topics, as listed below, should be read in this connec- tion: Glass Flint Glass Crown Glass Iridescent Glass Water-Glass Wire Glass (under Glass) Bottle Carboy Prince Rupert's Drops Bologna Vial Lens Mirror Lorraine Glass Stained Glass Gems, Imitation Horology. The construction of A'arious instru- ments for keeping time is a science of considerable antiquity, and its various departments may he studied with profit. A convenient arrangement of titles is given below: Horology Clock Watch Clepsydra Dial Hour-Glass MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING 237 Balance Escapement Fusee Pendulum Isochronism Chronoscope Chronograph Time, Standard Time Signals Printing, Typography, Engraving, Paper, etc. The development of the art of print- ing has brought about many connect- ed processes and industries. These are concerned with the impression on paper of letters or designs in one form or an- other, or the provision of the apparatus and machinerj' to do this, as well as the material to receive the impression. An arrangement of such subjects is as follows : Printing Case Type Founding Typesetting ]\Iachines Electrotyping (under Electro-Chem- istry, Industrial) Bank-Notes, Manufacture of Engraving Photo-Engraving Three-Color Process Lithography Ink India Ink Graphotype Paper Parchment Parchment, Vegetable Cardboard Bristol Board Cartridge-Paper Calendering Bookbinding Envelope Pen Pencil Typewriters Copying Machines Sealing-Wax Ruling Machine Miscellaneous Industries and Prod- ucts. Bead Bell Blacking Bristles Brush and Broom Button Candle Celluloid Coal-Tar Coke Comb Cooperage Cork Corset Cosmetics Doll Embossing Excelsior Fan Flowers, Artificial Gems, Imitation and Artificial Gilding Gimp Glove Glue Gold Lace Grease Gutta-Percha Ivory Ivory, Vegetable Japanning Jewelry Lac Lacquer-Work Lapidary Work 238 MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING Laundry INIachinery Linoleum Lumber Industry Mangle ]\Iatches Needle Ormolu Papier-lNIache Pen Pencil Perfumery Petrolatuii] Pin Poppy-seed Oil Pyrotechny Rope Rubber Sawdust Sewing jNIachine Silkworm Gut Straw ^Manufactures Tableware, Silver-Plated Tobacco Pipe Varnish Voting ^Machine Metallurgy. Under the A'arious metals, will be found articles dealing not only with their occurrence and general proper- ties, but also with their mining and metallurgy. Such articles are included in the following list : Iron Copper Gold Silver Nickel Zinc Platinum Lead Tin Antimony Manganese Mercury Aluminium Cobalt Tungsten Looking, however, at methods of mining and metallurgy, there are gen- eral articles which have reference to the more common metals and the methods of producing and refining them. These articles are as follows: Mining Assaying Metallurgy Crucible Ore Dressing Refining of Metals Electro-Chemistry Although considerable material on metal working is given under the metals themselves, there are certain processes which can be described in special arti- cles. These include the following: Founding Forge, Forging Anvil Weldinff Tempering Steel Annealing Dies and Die-Sinking Damaskeening Brazing Rolling Mill Grinding and Crushing Machinery Mint Draw-Plate Electro-Plating Metal-Working IMachinery For many purposes, alloys are more useful than simple metals. These are discussed under their own heads, as well ns in a collective article, while other preparations of metal as Galvanizkd Iron and Steel Wool are also MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING 239 treated. A list of such articles is as dered, and there are a number of ar- follows : Alloy Brass Bronze Pinchbeck Solder Flux Galvanized Iron Steel Wool The ornamental working of metals into small objects is also to be consid- ticles which treat the subject from the artistic as well as the practical side. These titles include: Jewelry Plate, Sheffield Tableware, Silver-Plated Gold-Beating Gold-Beater's Skin Repousee Enamel Embossins B. OInnstntrttan Building and Building Materials. The materials used in building em- brace natural and artificial substances which are specially wrought for the purpose. Whether we start with the lumber from the forest or the stone of the quarry, we find that there are a number of processes which have to be gone through before the material is finally disposed of in its appointed place. Considering first the materials for building, together with their sources, the following list has been con- structed : Building-Stone Quarry, Quarrying Stone Cutting and Dressing Stone, Artificial Clay Brick Mortar Kiln Cement Terra Cotta Tile Gypsum Lumber Industry Strength of Materials For a study of the process of Building, the article under that title will furnish an adequate idea. The separate branches, however, require more extensive treatment, as the fol- lowing topics will suggest : Building Foundation Masonry Fireproof Construction Heating and Ventilation Plumbing Elevator Paper-Hangings Painting Gas, Illuminating Electric Lighting For certain forms of building, such as Apartment Houses and Hotels, somewhat different equipment is re- quired, and these are discussed under their own heads. For building opera- tions in general, there are a number of minor topics that require a separate treatment. These may be included in the following list: Centring 240 MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING Chimney Door Window Framing Column Girder Beam Brace Roof Gutter Lightning, Protection from Lock Alarm Fire-E scape Calcimine Heating and Ventilation C. iEttgtn^^rtng The constantly broadening field of engineering endeavor has resulted in dividing the work, so that to-day an engineer adopts but a comparatively small field for his own activity. Under Engineer and Engineering, will be found a description of the modern divisions of engineering work and the qualifications of the men that follow each branch. In civil engineering, first may be mentioned the surveyor. Surveying. Surveying involves the measurement of distances and areas and the delinea- tion of the territory examined. It is carried on in different ways, depending on the extent and character of the coun- try under survey. The following shows the general division of topics : Surveying Coast and Geodetic Survey Geological Survey Geodesy Triangulation Hydrography Dredge Sound, Sounding Photographic Surveying Altimctry Hypsometry Leveling Offset Map Engineering Instruments Theodolite Plane-Table Stadia Telemeter Yernier Sextant Compass, Solar Planimeter Range-Findcr Aneroid Heliograph Odometer Railways. After a general review of the subject of Railways, particular parts require somewhat fuller treatment, involving, as they do, engineering and other fea- tures of a unique character. For this purpose, the following list is supplied: Railways Street Railway Electric Railways Ship Railway Locomotive Com pressed- Air Locomotive Tunnel Bridge Cantilever MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING 241 Viaduct Culvert Gauge Frog, Railway Fish Plate Block-Signal System Air Brake Buffer, Buffing Apparatus Bumping Posts Snow-Plow River and Harbor Improvements. Various important works to aid maritime commerce consist in the erec- tion of numerous harbor and river im- provements. These are of a permanent character and require special engineer- inff. Such works are described in the list below: Lighthouse Buoy Jetty Breakwater Embankments Dike Harbor Levee Dock Pile Excavating Machinery Blasting Caisson Masonry Retaining Walls Quay Canals. When canals are carried across an isthmus, as the Suez or the Panama, they may take on many of the essential characteristics of harbor improve- ments ; yet such works show consider- able variation, and, when ordinary in- land canals or those in connection with an irrigation system are considered, the methods of construction are quite dif- ferent. Tlie following list suggests a line of topics that could with profit be consulted : Canal Panama Canal Nicaragua Canal Suez Canal Trans-Isthmian Canal Ship Railway Waterworks and Hydraulic Engin- eering. The use of water practically involves a separate department of engineering, but one in contact at many points with civil, sanitary, mechanical, and electri- cal engineering. It is necessary first to consider Water Supply, or the sources of water, then its storage, trans- mission, purification, distribution, and ' final consumption, and also various de- vices that are employed in these differ- ent stages. The material on this subject in the New International En- cyclopadia is represented in the follow- ing list: Water Supply Hydrography Well-Sinking Artesian Wells Dams and Reservoirs Hydrostatics Hydrodynamics Current-]Meter Weir Irrigation Pipe Water Purification Water-Works Pumps and Pumping Machinery Valve Water Power Filter and Filtration 242 MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING Accumulators Hydraulic Ram Water Wheel Turbine Hydraulic Press Archimedes' Screw Danaide Hydraulic Pressure Engine Water jNIeters Hydraulic Elevator (under Ele- vator) Sanitary Science. Under ihis somewhat comprehensive title, may be included such schemes as tend to improve and safeguard the health of mankind. See : Hygiene Health, Boards of Sanitary Commission Quarantine Water Supply Water Purification Plumbing Sewage Disposal Sewerage Drainage Catch-Drains Heating and Ventilation Bath-Houses, Municipal Slaughter Houses Burial Cemetery Cremation of the Dead Health Association, American Public Municipal Engineering. The various applications of engi- neering knowledge to a large city result in the solving of many problems, such as water supply, transportation, the provision of Parks and Playgrounds for the masses, etc. These subjects, grouped from this point of view, will be found in tlic following list: Road Street Boulevard Road and Street Machinery Asphalt Pavement Subways Water-Works Parks and Playgrounds Landscape Gardening Recreation Piers Bath-Houses, IMunicipal Garbage and Refuse Disposal See also preceding section on Sani- tary Science. Fire Protection. The surest fire protection is Fire- proof CoxsTBUCTioN for buildings. Safes and Safe Deposit Vaults for valuables, and the use of Incom- bustible Fabrics. When these safe- guards are unavailing, however, recourse must be had to the various apparatus for fighting fire, such as the Fire-Engine, Fire-Extinguisher, etc. See: Fireproof Construction Safes and Safe Deposit Vaults Fi reproofing Incombustible Fabrics Fire-Alarm Fire Protection, Municipal Fire-Engine Fire-Extinguisher Mechanical Engineering. For raising and transporting mate- rials, and for carrying on otiier impor- tant operations, many interesting me- chanical devices arc constructed. The Cahlevvay, Telpherage, Derrick, and Traveling Sidewalk arc typical of the former class, while Grinding and MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING 243 Crushing Machinery and Air Com- pressor may be cited as divisions of the many branches of meclianical en- gineering. A list of such subjects as are not already cited under other heads includes : Derrick Crane Cableway Telpherage Ropeway Traveling Sidewalk Elevator Air Compressor Blowing-Machines Pneumatic Dispatch Power, Transmission of Dynamometer Brake Air Brake Lubricants Wood-Working Machinery Mechanical Devices. In the construction of machinery, there are cei'tain elementary parts that enter into its design. These serve such purposes as changing the direction of a motion, increasing or reducing speed, or permitting its control in any desired way. See : Mechanical Powers Axle Shafting Wheel and Axle Lever Pulley Crank Cam Eccentric Winch Windlass Inclined Plane Wedcre Toggle Joint Screw Endless Screw Belt Gear-Wheel Gearing Couple Prime Movers. For the generation of power, there are a number of sources to be consid- ered. Heat, Steam, Electricity, Water Power, Wind, etc., are all treated in their proper places, but under this head may conveniently be included articles describing the means for trans- forming energy into mechanical power available for a thousand and one dif- ferent purposes. See: Caloric Engine Compresscd-Air Engine Compressed-Air Locomotive Gas-Engines Fireless Engine Steam Engine Steam Turbine Water Wheel Windmill Hydraulic Ram Hydraulic Press Hydraulic Pressure Engine Dynamo-Electric ]Machinery Mechanical Powers Steam and Steam Engine. Commencing with a consideration of the properties of steam, any discussion soon reaches the Steam Engine and its various parts and its applications. Such will be found in the classification given below : Steam JEolipile Steam Engine Locomotive 244 MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING Steam Navigation Steam Turbine Pumps and Pumping Machinery Eccentric Crank Fly-Wlieel Governor Valve Injector Indicator Safety Valve Condenser Horse-Power Electrical Engineering. In Electrical Engineering, we may include the generation and distribution of electric current, also its use for light and power, and the methods by whicli it is transmitted to considerable dis- tance. The subject is treated in the following articles : Dynamo-Electric Machinery Armature Cable, Electric Transformer Transmission of Power Electric Lighting Electric Heater Electric Railways Electro-Chemistry Storage Battery Electrolysis Welding Liglitning-Arresters Electric Fuze (under Fuze) For a discussion of the plienomena of the electric current, see the compre- hensive section on Electricity in the chapter on Physics. Tools. Many and varied tools have been and are used by the mechanic, which are dis- cussed in the articles dealing with the various industries. Certain groups and individual tools, however, demand con- sideration. Thus, Metal and Wood- Working Machinery include many important tools, the chief types of which it is desirable to under- stand. Pneumatic Tools have resulted in considerable saving of labor and are of increasing im- portance. INIany tools, such as the file, hammer, and axe, still survive and are not yet replaced by macliinerj^. The list in alphabetical order is as fol- lows: Axe Boring Machinery Calipers Cutlery Drill File Hammer Jack Marling Spike Mandril Metal-Working Machinery Micrometer Plane Pneumatic Tools Sand-Blast Sandpaper Saw Sawmill Screw Wood-Working Macliinery TELKGUArH and TELEPHONE. The transmission of intelligence is constantly being acconijilishcd more effectively and by a greater variety of methods, specialization iiaving its play here as in other branches of apj)b"cd eicctricitv. The following articles MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING 245 may be recommended as supplying a complete idea of the history and devel- opment of these important processes : Telegraph Signaling and Telegraphing, Mili- tary Lightning- Arresters Telautograph Telegraphy, Submarine Atlantic Telegraph Wireless Telegraphy Telephone 24. iitlttarg mxh Natial Btinut A S the purpose of an amiy or any military organization is to carry on, /^k or at least be prepared to carry on, war, either of defense or of / ^k offense, as effectively as possible, a study of the topic War, to Y ^^^ ascertain under what circumstances recourse is had to the court of arms and under what conditions the laws and usages of nations demand that war shall be waged, makes a fitting beginning for reading in this field. Then, coming to the actual operations of war, we find that thej' must be planned according to the principles of Strategy and executed along lines worked out in systems of Tactics. Accordingly, then, a suitable grouping of allied subjects is as follows: A. KnxmB War Strategy Tactics, Military Tactics, Naval Attack Assault Fire Battle Engagement Skirmish Invasion Blockade Fortifications, Attack and Defense of Siege Sap Bombardment Coast Defense Manoeuvres Evolutions, Military Demonstration Marching Manual of Arms A Cheval Position Ambuscade Ambush Debouching Echelon Enfilade Feint Point d'Appui Retreat Base of Operations Advance Guard Cavalry Screen Outposts Picket Patrol Guard IVIain Guard Rear Guard Flank Reconnaissance Prisoner Contraband of War Organization. To carry out, however, any scheme of strategy and tactics involves an army whose effectiveness depends upon its or- ganization. In the organization of an army, the Infantry, Cavalry, and Artillery, or Line, must be consid- ered. These are its prime essentials, together with its Engineers, Medical Department, Commissariat, Depart- ment of the Qfartermaster, Signal Coups, Bureau of Military Justice, or Judge Advocate's Department, its Pay Corps, General Staff, and the varl- 246 MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE 247 ous other bureaus and departments upon the efficiency of which tlie suc- cessful organization and operation of a military body depend. Looking at military organization from the point of view of the units of which an army is made up, we may start with the Corps, and gradually proceed from one command to an inferior one, learning the function of each and its relation to the common whole. Rank AND Command is the keystone of mili- tary organization. Over each body of men there must be an appropriate officer, and to learn his duties it is but necessary to consult the article on this subject. In addition to officers, there may be certain subordinate individuals who have peculiar or individual func- tions to perform ; these too are best described under their own heads. The accompanying lists suggest the re- lation of many of these topics. Dealing first with the division which may be headed Armies and Army Or- ganization, we find large and ade- quate treatment, the historical side here as well as elsewhere in the Encyclopaedia being considered. The first group deals with the divisions of military or- ganization, the second, entitled Rank and Command, with the individuals of all ranks that form an army. See : (a) Antiies and Army Organization: Army Organization Armies Corps Division • Brigade Regiment Battalion Squadron Company Battery Platoon Detachment Artillery Artillery Corps Artillery Train Cavalry Infantry Mounted Infantry Engineer Corps Medical Department, United States Army Medical Department, United States Navy Ambulance Hospital Corps Signal Corps General Staff Staff Military Police Band, iMilitary Pioneer Sharpshooter Color-Guard Reserve Cadre Contingent Column Militia Landwehr War, Department of Horse Guards Life Guards United States Army (under United States) (b) Rank and Command: Field-Marshal General Lieutenant-General Major-General Brigadier-General Colonel Lieutenant-Colonel 248 MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE Major Captain Lieutenant Cadet, ^Military Cadet, Naval Adj utant-General Adjutant Aide-de-Camp Commissary Quartermaster Paymaster Surgeon, Military Inspector-General Chaplain Contract Surgeon Commander-in-Chief Commandant Field Officer Ensign Cornet Non-Commissioncd Officer Color-Sergeant Drum Major Sergeant Corporal Gunner Artificer Drummer Orderly Private Bombardier Sentinel Military Engineering. To the military engineer, is assigned many problems connected with the ex- istence and operation of an army. He has to provide for its protection in both peace and war, which involves the construction of suitable barracks, camps, and fortifications, both tempo- rary and permanent, and is besides re- quired to study and delineate the coun- try in which tiie troops live or operate. Naturally, the chief division to be made in the topics relating to this subject is Fortification, involving the con- struction of more or less permanent works, and Field Engineering, deal- ing with those of a more temporary character. See : Engineering, Military Fortification Battery Bastion Berm Blockhouse Caponiere Casemate Coast Defense Embrasure Epaulement Traverse Stockade Enceinte Frontier, Military Trench, Military Escarp Gallery Magazine Martcllo Tower Orillon Abatis Bill-Hook Blindage Barricade Cheveaux-de-Frise Fascines Gabion Approaches Parallels Siege and Siege Works Demolition Breach Camp Encampment Bridges and Docks, Military Mines and Mining, Military MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE 249 Redoubt Retrenchment Revetment Redan Forts of the United States. With a description of the principles of Fortification and MiHtary Encamp- ments, or posts, may properly be in- cluded a description of such military posts of the United States as are of importance for one reason or another. These are included in the following list, and the articles give information as to their location, garrison, general char- acteristics, etc. Fort Adams Fort Bliss Fort Canby Fort Caswell Fort Clark Fort Columbus Fort D. A. Russell Fort Douglas Fort Du Pont Fort Ethan Allen Fort Getty Fort Grant Fort Greble J^ort Hamilton Fort Hancock Fort Howard Fort Keough Fort Leavenworth Fort Logan Fort McHenry Fort McPherson Fort Meade Fort Monroe Fort iMorgan Fort Myer Fort Porter Fort Preble Fort Riley Fort Robinson Fort Sam Houston Fort Schuyler Fort Sheridan Fort Snelling Fort Stevens Fort Strong Fort Terry Fort Thomas Fort Totten Fort Trumbull Fort Wadsworth Fort Walla Walla Fort Warren Fort Washington Fort Wayne Fort Yellowstone Columbus Barracks Jefferson Barracks Madison Barracks Plattsburg Barracks Presidio (San Francisco) San Diego Barracks Vancouver BaiTacks Washington Barracks Oednance and Gunnery. To carry on warfare, many weapons and resources have been placed at the disposal of the soldier. Such titles as Artillery, Ordnance, Explosives, Gunpowder, Projectiles, Small Arms, naturally suggest themselves as principal topics. With them may be grouped the underlying science as em- bodied in Ballistics and Gunnery, to- gether with the other topics contained in the following list : (a) Artillery: Coast Artillery Field Artillery Horse Artillery Mountain Artillery 250 MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE Siege Gun Guns, Naval Rapid-fire Guns Machine Gun Mitrailleuse Gardner Gun Mortar Howitzer Air Gun Pneumatic Gun Submarine Gun Ordnance Ordnance Establishments Cannon Jacket Bore Calibre Artillery Carriages Gun-Carriage Limber Caisson Small Arms Carbine Chassepot Arquebus Bayonet Pistol Revolver Target and Target Practice Sword (b) Projectiles: Ammunition Grapc-Sliot Case-Shot Canister Carcass Grenade Bomb Shrapnel Rocket Cartridge Torpedo (c) Explosives: Gunpowder Smokeless Powder Dynamite Nitroglycerin Atlas Powder Cordite Lyddite Maximite Picric Acid Dualine Fulminates Fulminate of ]Mcrcury Fulminate of Silver Pyrotechny Primer Fuze Greek Fire Charge Matches {d) Gunnery: Ballistics Range Range-Finder Aim Charge Plongee Ricochet Target and Target Practice Target Practice, Naval Proving Ground Loading-Tray (e) Historic Cannon: Coehoorn Columbiad Demi-Cannon Demi-Culvcrin Falcon Jingal Mitrailleuse Uniform and Euuitment. Closely connected with the soldier's MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE 251 and sailor's weapons are his Uniform and Equipment, the various insignia often being matters of considerable in- terest and curiosity to the layman. [With these subjects, we may include allied topics as follows : Military Insignia Uniforms, Military and Naval Aiguilette Bandolier Busby Canteen Cartouch Chevrons Epaulet Facings Good Conduct Badges Haversack Helmet Kepi Khaki Kit Knapsack Spur Sword Military Cekemonies. As a witness of various military cere- monies or other formalities, the layman comes in contact with certain other as- pects of army and navy life. The more important of these will be treated under their respective heads. See the following : Salutes Feu-de-Joie Dress Ship Escort Review Inspection Parade Muster Flags. Flags of one kind or another, by rea- son of tlieir histories and tradition and their special uses at the present time, play an important part in military and naval affairs. Besides being the em- blem of the nation, they may also per- tain to various organizations or individuals, as the colors of a regiment or the flag of an admiral. These will be understood on reference to the fol- lowing articles, many of which are illustrated by colored plates: Flag Ensign Colors Guidon Standard Pennant Jack Union Jack Flag of Truce Signaling and Telegraphing Historic and Special IMilitary Or- ganizations. Military organizations in the past, as well as in the present, have been formed either for special purposes or under special auspices, or as independ- ent commands. Some of the more fam- ous classes of soldiers and historic military organizations are those in- cluded in the following list! Artillery Compan}', Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company, Honorable Bashi-Bazouks Beefeater Bersaglieri Black Watch Cameronians Carbineers Chasseurs Cohort Coldstream Guards 252 MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE Colonial Corps Cossacks Cuirassier Dragoons (under Cavalry) Equestrian Order Fencible Foot Guards Francs-Tireurs Fusiliers Green Mountain Boys Grenadier Grenadier Guards Guard Guerrillas Guide Gurkhas Highlanders Honved Horse Guards Household Troops Hussars Janizaries Lancer Landsturm Landwehr Legion Life Guards Mamelukes Minute Men Mobiles, Corps of National Guard Phalanx Rangers, Mounted Rifleman Rough Riders Association Scots Greys Sepoy Sikhs Spahis Strcltsi Trainbands Voltigeurs Yeomanry Yeomen of the Guard Zouaves Military Law. For the government of the army there are certain statutes and regula- tions. International law in many of its aspects touches on the acts of armies in the field. Accordingly, a grouping of certain topics allied, tiiough not nec- essarily logically connected, may be made as follows : Military Law Acts of Hostility Allegiance Armistice Articles of War Belligerent Blockade Booty Bounty Capitulation Cartel Cashiering Casus Belli Conscription Contraband of War Council of War Courts INIilitary Declaration of War Desertion Discliarge Judge- Advocate Judge-Advocate-General King's Regulations Martial Law Military Commissions Military Government Military Law Military Police Military Prison Neutrality Posse Comitatus Prisoner Privateering MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE 253 Prize Prize Courts Provost-Marshal Ransom Spy Truce War Military and Navai- Education. The professions of the soldier and sailor require from beginning to end continual training, and from Acad- emy to War College tiiere are many studies to be pursued. Grouping those topics referring to the education of the soldier and sailor, we have the fol- lowing list: Army Schools Artillery Schools Cadet, Military Cadet, Naval Cavalry and Light Artillery School Military Education Military Academy, U. S. General Service and Staff College Staff Colleges and Schools War College Naval Academy, U. S. Naval Schools of Instruction Naval Institute, U. S. Discipline Drill Drill Regulations MiSCELLANEOrS. Tlie food for the soldier and his ani- mals is discussed under Rations and Forage, and its mode of preparation under Field Cooking. The princi- pal Bugle and Trumpet Calls that summon him to his duties are given with the music notes, and tiic Drum and Fife, whicii supply the field music, are also treated. Methods of Re- cruitment in various countries, and also Retirement, should be studied, while the Pay and Allowances of the soldier must be considered in order to understand army conditions at home and abroad. An essential of modern military operations is the maintenance of communication between every part of an army and its base, or capital. This is the function of the Signal Corps, whose operations and apparatus are treated under Signaling and Telegraphing, Military. In the event of casualties, the Surgeon and the Medical Department, with its Hospital Corps, are called into re- quisition, protected as they are by the terms of tlie Geneva Convention. It is advantageous to learn the present conditions of Surgery, ]\Iilitary, and the peculiar problems that the military surgeon has to face, as well as his methods of operation. In this connec- tion, also, should be mentioned the work of the Red Cross, and the part it plays in alleviating suffering on the battle- field. Of importance, as in a small way reproducing some of the conditions of warfare, the War Game is worthy of consideration, as on its board may be worked out many interesting problems in strategy and tactics. No clearer distinction can be drawn for military purposes and those for in discussing vessels for navigating the commerce. Under Navies and Ship, seas than to consider separately those Armored, is given an historical de- 254 MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE scription of the former, while under Navigation and Steam Navigation the development of the latter is traced. As regards modern Shipbuilding, many of the features are the same for both classes of vessels, and a single article suffices, leaving the subjects of Armor Plate, Turret, and the like to be discussed separately. In the follow- ing lists, have been grouped in classes by themselves ships of war, merchant- men, or pleasure vessels, and small boats of many and varied designs and uses: (o) Warships: Warship Ship, Armored Cruiser , Gunboat Torpedo Boat Torpedo Boat, Submarine Hospital Ship Ram Guard-Ship Receiving Ship Galley Galliot Trireme Fire-Ship Floating Battery Frigate Monitor Mortar Vessel Corvette {b) Merchantmen: Ship Steam Navigation Clipper Bark Brig Schooner Sloop General Ship Composite Ships Lighter Whaleback Yacht Lugger Junk Grab Dhow Corsair Ketch Pinnace Pirogue Pram Great Eastern Launch, Launching Derelict Wreck (c) Boats: Lifeboat Life-Rafts Balsa Launch Whalcboat Long Boat Jolly-Boat Punt Cutter Catboat Canoe Catamaran Banca Ice-Breaking Steamer Barca Kayak Ferry Organization. Naval organization presents many of the same aspects as does that of an army. There nmst be the same respon- sibilities, the same gradations of Rank AND CoM^rAND, Line and Staff, Corps and Departments, and a specialization in duties on the part of both officers and men. In the merchant marine MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE 255 much the same system is observed, as safety of passengers and cargo depends upon disciphne and efficiency from master to crew. Therefore, with the ab- sence of the combative elements, the or- ganization is similar in many respects. This can be studied by reference to the articles listed below. In the first series, are given titles appropriate to naval organization itself, while in the second are the various individual offi- cers and men whose positions and duties must be considered. See: (a) Navies: Navies Tactics, Naval Marine Corps Engineer Corps, United States Navy Medical Department, United States Navy Equipment, Bureau of Hydrographic Office Navy, Department of the Revenue Cutter Service, United States Life-Saving Service Coast Guard Naval Reserve Crew Company, Ship's Complement Watch Division Landing Fore Billet Mess {b) Officers: Admiral Commodore Captain Commander Lieutenant-Commander Lieutenant Ensign Midshipman Cadet, Naval Clerk, Naval Commanding Officer Commandant Flag-Officer Executive Officer, United States Navy Surgeon, Military and Naval Paymaster Watch Officer Naval Constructors Provost-Marshal Pilot Coast Pilot Warrant Officer Gunner Master Master-at-Arms Mate Carpenter, Navy Boatswain Petty Officer Quartermaster Coxswain Naval Apprentice (under Ap- prentice) Landsman Boys, Ships' Shipbuilding and Naval Architec- ture. The design and construction of a vessel, especially one of modern type, involves the application of much study and practical engineering. Under SnirBUiLDiXG will be found a descrip- tion of the principal problems before the naval architect, and especially those arising from the substitution of iron and steel for wood as materials of construction, and the use of steam 256 MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE as a motive power in place of sails. The construction of a vessel of great cargo-carrying capacity, or, in the case of a war vessel, one of the maxi- mum offensive power, is important as influencing the final success of the craft when launclied. This involves the consideration of Tonnage, Displace- ment, Stability, Arjige Plate, Ar- mament, etc. These features and their relations one to another will be shown by consulting the titles in the following list: Ship Shipbuilding Navigation Steam Navigation Steam Engine Steam Turbine Buoyancy Stability Metacentre Resistance Displacement Tonnage Measurement of Ships for Ton- nage Lloyds Al" The various parts of a vessel are al- most infinite in number. The articles Shipbuilding, Steam Navigation, and Ship will tell of these various parts and describe how the skill of naval ai'chitect and shipbuilder unites them into one congruous whole. Such parts, however, often ])ossess distinct features and ciiaracteristics which need separate treatment, and these are included in tlic following list: Beak Bilge Beam Bottom Bow Bridge Bulkhead Bulwark Cockpit Companion Deck Figureliead Gangway Hawse Helm Hold Keel Keelson Paddle-WHieel Poop Screw Propeller To gain a good idea of the rigging of a ship and the names of masts, sails, etc., the best plan is to consult the plate accompanying the article Ship, where all the various parts of the rigging of a full-rigged ship are indicated and specified. There are various topics con- nected with sails and rigging that are described and their functions shown in brief articles. Such a list includes the following : Belay Boom Bowsprit Brace Brail Clip Hooks Crow's-Nest Gaff Halliards Jib Jury Lateen Sail Lug-Sail Mast Rigging Sail MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE 257 Spanker Sprit Stay Connected with the ship, but not fall- ing in any of the above classes, are many essentials such as the Anchor, the Binnacle, the Davit, etc. These adjuncts are specially designed for specific purposes, which the reader nat- urally desires to understand. The fol- lowing list includes some of the more important subjects in such a grouping: Anchor Ballast Batten Bells Binnacle Block Bridle Buoy Burton Cable Canvas Capstan Cat Cofferdam Controller Cordage Davit Fender Ground-Tackle Kedge Knotting and Splicing Lifeboat Life Buoy Life-Prescrvers Life-Rafts Life-Saving Guns and Rockets Life-Saving Service Lights Marling Spike Oakum Purchase Rope Tackle Wheel Winch Windlass Navigation. Navigation involves the conducting of a vessel from one port to another by making use of charts, the position of various heavenly bodies as determined by the navigator, and such other data as he can obtain by observation and calculation. In general this is con- tained in the article Navigation, but further details and explanations are given of incidental topics. The follow- ing list will be found by the reader suf- ficiently comprehensive : Navigation Latitude and Longitude Sailings Compass Reckoning Dead Reckoning Day's Work Departure Deviation Rhumb Line Meridian IMap Loxodrome Chart Coast Pilot Bowditch's Practical Navigator Almanac Ephemeris Pilot Chart Protractor Sextant Quadrant Vernier Seamanship. Seamanship may be distinguished 258 MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE from navigation as dealing with the actual practice, rather than the theory, involving the handling of vessels and the means taken to insure their safety. Thus, under this head, is dis- cussed such important subjects as the Rules of the Road, the use of the Log, Jacking, jibing, mooring, and the various manoeuvres and operations carried on at sea and in port. These hardly fall in a logical order, but the more important are contained in the following list : Tacking and Wearing Jibe Boxhauling Lee Leeway Moor, Mooring Log Log-Book Helm Steering Port Larboard Starboard Bearing Maritime Law. Vessels sailing on the high seas are governed by rules and usages which have given rise to a body of laws known as admiralty and maritime law. Furthermore, such vessels are required to observe the statutes of the countries whose flags they fly, and such formal- ities as are duly prescribed. Con- nected with such governmental regu- lations, are those of marine under- writers and insurance principles, form- ing a large department of maritime law. Interests at sea are also consid- ered by intcniational law, and prizes and privateering arc subjects which it must consider. A grouping of inter- esting topics in these more or less re- lated branches is as follows : International Law Admiralty Law Maritime Law Navigation Laws Navigation, Freedom of Ship's Papers Manifest Bill of Lading Clearance Bill of Health Charter-Party Cargo Freight Demurrage Admiralty, The Bounty Collisions of Vessels Bottomry Bond Respondentia Salvage Derelict Wharfage Jettison Barratry Quarantine JNIarine Insurance Lloyds Al Measurement of Sliips for Tonnage Tonnage Load-Line Marks of Vessels Privateering Prize Prize Courts Desertion As the sailor must make his base of operations on shore, it is proper to consider such subjects as Navy Yards, Docks, etc., where he may secure suppHes and protection. The MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE 259 following list indicates certain articles that will be of assistance in this respect : Navy Yard Dockyards, Royal Arsenal Reef Harbor Breakwater Dock Wharf Torpedo Station Qllfapt^r 25* iM^Jitrm^ THE dissemination of some medical knowledge among the laity is a matter of inestimable social importance. Popular ignorance on the subjects of hygiene, the prevention of disease, and the care of the sick, places many widespread evils sadly beyond the power of the medical profession. The average man's failure, moreover, to appreciate clearly the soundness of the principles and methods of medical science invites the appearance in tlie community of various mystical, or mystifying, quacks, claiming to know therapeutic methods of all but miraculous efficiency, and offering to sell medicines which, like the philosopher's stone once vainly sought by the alchemists, possess unlimited curative powers. Honest and valuable knowledge to-day has no secrets, and, notwithstanding, or rather because of, really considerable development, is professedly aware of its limitations. Perhaps, therefore, the clearest mark of the impostor or incompetent is the alleged posses- sion of secrets or of methods of universal applicability. Nor will the cunning theories, widely advertised in support of such allegations, appear at all reasonable to the man who has familiarized himself with the main principles and facts of scientific — that is, rational — medicine. The lists of articles presented in the following pages map out a complete course of systematic reading in medicine. A true understanding of tlie purely medical subjects, even in their elementary aspects, is possible only after the acquisition of some knowledge of the general biological sciences and of chemistry. Thus, human anatomy is best understood if studied in connection with compara- tive anatomy. Physiology is more or less obscure if studied without a prelim- inary knowledge of the general principles of chemistry and biology, and, again, human physiology should be studied in connection with the physiology of tlie lower animals. Even general botany presents a number of points of the highest interest to the student of human anatomy and physiology. Should the assiduous reader of the Encyclopaedia desire to familiarize himself with tlicse and cognate subjects, the present volume will readily afford the necessary guidance. We would especially call attention to the psychological articles on the special senses and faculties, without which the physiological functions of the brain and nervous system cannot be thoroughly understood. Further, a large number of chemico- physiological articles on special foods, and of articles on subjects of veterinary medicine, will be found listed in the chapter Agriculture, Horticulture, and Forestry, those articles having been prepared for the Encyclopa'dia by the food and veterinary experts of the United States Department of Agriculture. The classification of the medical subjects proper, on which the lists below are based, and the order of sequence of the subjects in the lists themselves, are tliose adopted by the best medical authorities, with slight modifications to suit the distribution of subject-matter in the Encyclopiedia. The only consid- erable deviations from general usage are in the case of anatomy and physiology, the two being somewhat closely interwoven in the Encyclopa'dia and therefore, here, too, arranged as one joint subject. The listed articles comprise a complete 260 MEDICINE 261 treatment of essentials. The reader desiring more detailed information on par- ticular bones, muscles, nerves, etc., will be guided to the special articles on such subjects by cross-references in the articles listed. The only lists in which the order of sequence of the topics is not according to some recognized system are those under " Symptoms and Morbid Conditions " (division. Pathology and Therapeutics) and "Diseases of the Skin" (divi- sion. Diseases of the Nose and Throat, Ear, Eye, Skin, and the Gcnito-Urinary System). The former list comprises those symptoms and morbid conditions that are common to more than one class of diseases and that could not, there- fore, be included in the somewhat rigidly classified lists preceding. On the other hand, the orders of sequence of skin diseases usually adopted in special medical works are practically useless. It was, therefore, deemed best in both cases to preserve the alphabetical order — for convenience of reference. The list of " Drugs " (division, Materia Medica) includes all the pharmacopceial prep- arations in frequent use. A number of rarer drugs may be found described in the articles on chemical subjects. The biographies of famous medical men are arranged in the order of his- torical sequence and, together with the articles listed under " History," form a complete presentation of the history of medicine — a truly fascinating subject. Interesting historical detail will also be found in the articles on all medical topics of any importance. The inclusion of such historical articles as Bath, Barber, Empiric, Derivation, Black Death, Plague, Inoculation, etc., would have swelled the lists unnecessarily. 1. Introductory Articles. Malpractice Medical Education Medicine Homoeopathy H. Anatomy and Physiology. Eclectic School of Medicine -, ^ , ^ ,• , _, . . „ 1. General Articles: Nurses, T. raining ot Chnic Anatomy Hospital Physiology Dispensary 2. Bones, Muscles, and Ligaments : Ambulance Bone Insane Asylum Cartilage Bedlam Marrow Gheel Periosteum Epileptic Colony Suture Vital Statistics Ossification Sanitary Laws Skeleton Health, Boards of Skull Contagious Diseases Spinal Column Hippocratic Oath Rib Medical Code Sternum 262 MEDICINE Muscle and Muscular Tissue Tendon Ligament Flesh Muscular Force Diaphragm Joint Shoulder-Joint Arm Hand Hip-Joint Thigh Knec-Joint Patella Leg Foot 3. Cavities: Skull Chest Abdomen Pelvis 4. Nervous St/stem and Brain: Nervous System and Brain Cerebro-Spinal Fluid Inhibition 5. Circulatory System: Circulation Heart Blood-Vcssels Artery Pulse Aorta Innominate Artery Carotid Artery Iliac Arteries Blood Blushing 6. Respiratory System: Respiration, Organs and Pro- cess of Pharynx Larynx > Voice Trachea Bronchus Asphyxia 7. Alimentary System: AUmentary System Digestion, Organs and Pro- cesses of Food Nutrition Teeth Pharynx Salivary Gland CEsophagus Stomach Pepsin Intestine Peristaltic Motion Pancreas Pancreatin Liver Bile Bi'unner's Glands Absorption Colon Cscum Vermiform Appendix Rectum Anus Faces 8. Genito-Urinary System: Puberty Menstruation Climacteric Year Reproduction Ovary Fallopian Tubes Uterus Vagina Bartholin's Glands Breast Kidney Ureter Bladder MEDICINE 263 Urethra , 12. Embryology: Urine Embryology, Human 9. Special Senses: Epigenesis Nose Embryo Eye Foetus Ear T'on CPU p 13. Physiological Subjects not in- Touch cluded Above: Chemistry, Physiological 10. Ductless Glands and Lymphatic Life, Mean Duration of Structures: Rigor Mortis Thyroid Gland Longevity Thymus Gland Metabolism Suprarenal Capsules Animal Heat Pituitary Body Temperature of the Body Spleen Sleep Tonsil Hypnoscope Lymphatic Sex Thoracic Duct Sensation Lacteal Secretion Chyle Vivisection Lymph Vegetarianism 11. Tissues: III. Hygiene and Prophylactic Histology Methods. Epithelium Hygiene Gland Sanitary Laws Skin Sanitary Science Hair Health Sweat Immunity Nail Quarantine Scalp Disinfectants Membrane Heating and Ventilation Mucous IVIembrane Water Supply Connective Tissue Water Purification Adipose Tissue Sewage Disposal Endothelium Food Serous Membrane Diet Pericardium Infants, Feeding of Pleura Wine Mesentery Sterilized Food Peritoneum Exercise Periosteum Physical Training Muscle and Muscular Tissue Bath Nervous System and Brain Vaccination 264 MEDICINE IV. Pathology and Thekapeutics. 1. General Articles: Pathology Therapeutics Disease Nosology Disease, Germ Theory of Distribution of Diseases Congenital Disease Degeneration Intennarriage Filth Disease Endemic Epidemic Infection Infectious Disease Insects, Propagation of Disease by Bacteria Microscopy, Clinical Toxin Virus Homoeopathy Eclectic School of Medicine Christian Science Osteopathy 2. Specific Infectious Diseases: Typhoid Fever Typhus Fever Relapsing Fever Smallpox Chicken Pox Scarlet Fever Measles Mumps Whooping Cough Influenza Dengue Meningitis Erysipelas Diphtheria Croup Septicaemia Pyaemia Cholera Yellow Fever Black Vomit Plague Dysentery Malaria and ]\Ialarial Fever Ague Jungle Fever Malignant Pustule Anthrax Intermittent Fever Remittent Fever Hydrophobia Tetanus Trismus Nascentium Syphilis Tuberculosis Scrofula Glanders Actinomycosis Febricula Malta Fever 3. Constitutional Diseases: Rheumatism Lumbago Gout Diabetes Rickets Scurvy Purpura Ha?mophilia Obesity 4. Diseases of the Alimentary Sys- tem: Mouth, Diseases of the Aphthae Pharyngitis Quinsy Qilsopliagiis Stomach, Diseases of the Gastritis Dyspepsia MEDICINE 265 Indigestion Enteritis Gastro-Enteritis Cholera Infantum Mesentery Liver, Diseases of the 5. Diseases of the Respiratory Sys- tem: Rhinitis Hay Fever Laryngitis Bronchitis Asthma Tuberculosis Pneumonia Pleurisy Hydrothorax 6. Diseases of the Circulatory Sys- tem: Heart, Diseases of the Pericarditis Endocarditis Myocarditis Palpitation Angina Pectoris Atheroma Arterio-Sclerosis 7. Diseases of the Blood and Duct- less Glands: Anaemia Chlorosis Leucocythaemia Goitre Cretinism Myxoedema Basedow's Disease Acromegaly Addison's Disease 8. Diseases of the Kidneys : Kidney, Diseases of the Bright's Disease Uraemia Diseases of the Nervous System and Brain: Neurology Nervous Disease Nervousness Paralysis Neuritis Sciatica Facial Paralysis Caisson Disease Myelitis Locomotor Ataxia Syringomyelia Brain, Diseases of the Aphasia Apoplexy Hemiplegia Hydrocephalus Paralysis Agitans Chorea Epilepsy Hystero-Epilepsy Migraine Neuralgia Facial Neuralgia Neurosis Occupation Neurosis Hysteria Sea-Sickness Neurasthenia Hypochondriasis Rest-Cure Acromegaly Stammering Nostalgia Fatuity Imbecility Idiocy Insanity Delirium Dipsomania Melancholia Mania Paranoia 266 MEDICINE Monomania Pyromania Kleptomania Homicidal Mania Puerperal Insanity Paresis Lucid Interval Imitative Insanity 10. Parasitic Diseases: Parasitic Diseases Worms Oxyuris Trichiniasis Sleeping-sickness Filaria Lumbricoid Tapeworm 11. Symptoms and Morbid Condi- tions : Albuminuria Amblyopia AmenorrliCEa Anosmia Aphonia Arcus Senilis Asthenopia Bedsores Breath, Offensive Cachexia Catalepsy Catarrh Colic Coma Congestion Constipation Convulsion Coughing Cramp Crisis Cyanosis Degeneration Diarrhoea Dropsy Ecchymosis Embolism Epistaxis Fainting Fatty Degeneration Fever Formication Haematuria Ha?mopt}'sis Headache Heat-Stroke Hectic Fever Hemiopia Hiccough HypersEsthesia Hypertrophy Insomnia Jaundice Knee-jerk Leucorrhoea Meningitis Muscffi Volitantes Nausea OEdema Osteomalacia Oxaluria Papule Pectoriloquy Petechia Pleurodynia Polydipsia Pulse Purpura Pyrosis Respiratory Sounds Senility Sitophobia Skin Disease Spasm Starvation Sweat Symptom Tenesmus Thirst MEDICINE 267 Tinnitus Aurium Urine, Incontinence of Vertigo Vomiting Waxy, or Amyloid Degeneration 12. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Methods and Instruments: Diagnosis Percussion Auscultation Stethoscope Dynamometer Axillary Thermometer Temperature of the Body X-Rays Microscopy, Clinical Laryngoscope Ophthalmoscope Therapeutics Diet Exercise Movement Cure Hydrotherapy Massage Rest-Cure Transfusion of Blood Venesection V. Surgery, Gynecology, and Ob- stetrics. 1. General Articles: Surgery Surgery, Military Obstetrics 2. General Surgical Pathology: Inflammation Suppuration Pus Abscess Boil Felon Carbuncle Ulcer Phagedena Sinus Fistula Necrosis Gangrene Caries Adhesion Cicatrization Bruise Wound Gunshot Wound Dissection Wounds Burns and Scalds Frostbite Tumor Cyst Hydatid Actinomycosis Adenitis Septicemia Pyaemia Shock 3. General Surgical Technique: Anaesthesia Antiseptic Acupressure Acupuncture Bleeding Drainage Tubes Ligature Suture Tourniquet ■ Puerperal Fever Abortion Forceps Embryotomy Csesarean, or Cssarian, Opera- tion 4. Pathology of Special Structures: Artery Aneurism Phlebitis Varicose Vein Thrombosis Embolism 268 MEDICINE Nerve-Stretching Fracture Callus Osteomyelitis Periostitis Splint Amputation Sprain Synovitis Arthritis Housemaid's Knee Ankylosis Dislocation Resection Wen Keloid Chapped Hands Bunion Corn Skin-Grafting 5. Orthopadic Surgery: Deformities Wry-Neck Pott's Disease Spine, Curvature of the Hip-Joint Knock-Knee Leg Valgus Varus Clubfoot Tenotomy Artificial Limbs 6. Regional Surgery, Including Gynecology : Encephalocele Concussion of the Brain Trephine, Trephining Rhinoplastic Operation Harelip Ranula Dentistry Laryngotomy Tracheotomy Choking Mammary Gland, Diseases of Rib, Fracture of the Pleurisy Empyema Peritonitis Gastrostomy Umbilical Hernia Hernia Truss Intussusception Laparotomy Vermiform Appendix Perityphlitis Ovary Nephrotomy Nephrectomy Calculus, or Stone Lithotrity Lithotomy Castration Rectum, Diseases of the Prolapsus Ani Piles Spina Bifida Uterus, Diseases of the Prolapsus Uteri 7. Obstetrics: Obstetrics Gestation Superfcetation and Superfecun- dation Placenta Caul Umbilical Cord Meconium Weaning Agalactia Electricity, Medical Uses of Compressed- Air Treatment Respiration, Artificial Resuscitation Stomach-Pump Cupping MEDICINE 269 Lcecliing Organotherapy Serum Therapy Antitoxin Tubercuhn Hypnotism Hypodermic Medication VI. Diseases of the Nose and Thkoat, Ear, Eye, Skin, and THE GeNITO-UkINARY SYS- TEM. 1. Diseases of the Nose and Throat: Rhinitis Epistaxis Ozena Polypus Throat, Affections of the Larynx, Diseases of the Laryngitis 2. Diseases of the Ear: Ear Deafness Cerumen Otitis Media Otorrlicea Otalgia S. Diseases of the Eye: Eye, Diseases of the Blindness Ectropion Entropion Stye Trichiasis Conjunctivitis Ophthalmia Blepharitis Cornea Leucoma Staphyloma Iritis Glaucoma Cataract Retinitis Nyctalopia Color-Blindncss Optic Neuritis Sight, Defects of Myopia Hyperopia Astigmatism Heterophoria Strabismus 4. Diseases of the Skin: Acarus Folliculorum Acne Alopecia Bromidrosis Corn Ecthyma Eczema Erythema Favus Hair Ichthyosis Impetigo Itch Leprosy Lichen Lupus Naevus Pemphigus Pityriasis Plica Prurigo Psoriasis Ringworm Rupia Seborrhoea Sycosis Tinea Vitiligo Wart Yaws 5. Diseases of the Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis Calculus, or Stone Extravasation 270 MEDICINE Prostate Gland GonorrhcEa Stricture Hydrocele Varicocele Syphilis Circumcision VII. Materia Medica. 1. General Articles: Materia Medica Pharmacopoeia Toxicology Prescription 2. Preparation of Drugs: Tincture Pill Liniment Lotion Plasters Infusion Extract Percolation Suppository Unguent Ointment Elixir 3. Classification of Drugs: Alterative Tonic Excitant Narcotics Sedatives Hypnotics Ana-sthetic Anodyne Antipyretic Febrifuge Expectorant Stimulants Gargle Emetics Anti-Emetic Bitters Antacids Carminatives Cholagogue Laxative Purgatives Cathartic Hydragogues Anthelmintic Diuretics Diaphoretics Anhidrotics Antispasmodic Astringents Demulcents Diluents Aphrodisiac Anaphrodisiacs Emmenagogues Oxytocics Irritant Rubefacients ^ Refrigerants Depilatories Disinfectants Poison Antidote 4. Drugs: Quinine Mercury, Medicinal uses of Iodine Iodides Bromides Arseftic Iron Colchicum Colchicine Salicylic Acid Salicylates, Medical Uses of the Salicin Sulphur, Medical Uses of Fern, Male Kamala Santonin Goa Powder ' MEDICINE 271 Chrysarobin Phosphorus Alcohol, Physiological and Poi- sonous Action of Absinthe Hashish Opium Laudanum Paregoric Dover's Powder Morphine Chloral Paraldehyde Hypnal Sulphonal Trional Urethane Hemlock Coniine Curari Chloroform Ether, or Di-Ethyl-Ether Nitrous Oxide Cocaine Digitalis Nux Vomica Strychnine Strophanthus Valerian Sparteine Aconite Hellebore Veratrine Tobacco Amyl Nitrite Nitroglycerin Belladonna Atropine Homatropine Sal Ammoniac Heroin Guaiacol Creosotol Calumba Sodium Lime, or Calcium Oxide Apomorphine Asafoetida Senna Cascara Sagrada Castor Oil Blue Pill Calomel Rhubarb Aloes Seidlitz Powders Rochelle Salt Epsom Salt Jalap Colocynth Elatcrium Elaterin Bismuth Lead Lunar Caustic Diuretin Copaiba Methylene Blue Salol Jaborandi Iodoform Carbolic Acid Sulphurous Acid Antipyrine Phenacetine Acetanilid Matzoon Cod-Liver Oil Lanolin Ichthyol VIII. History and Biography. 1. History: Medicine Homoeopathy Eclectic School of Medicine Anatomy Histology 272 MEDICINE Physiology Hygiene Pathology Disease, Germ Theory of Therapeutics Surgery Surgery, Military Obstetrics Dentistry 2. Biography: Hippocrates Galen, or Claudius Galenus Aretasus Avicenna Linacre, or Lynaker, Thomas Paracelsus Fracastoro, Girolamo Fallopio, or Fallopius, Gabriel Vesalius, Andreas Eustachio, Bartolommeo Pare, Ambroise Fabricius, or Fabrizio, Girolamo Harvey, William Sydenham, Thomas Pecquet, Jean Graaf , Regnicr de Willis, Thomas Malpighi, Marcello RadclifFe, John Leeuwenhoek, Antonius van Bocrhaave, Hermann Hoffmann, Fricdrich Sloane, Sir Hans Morgagni, Giovanni Battista Swieten, Gerard van Haller, Albrecht von Pott, Percival Brown, John Cullcn, William Hunter, John Perkins, Elisha Aucnbruggcr, von, or Aucn- brugg, Leopold Mesmer, Franz, or Friedrich- Anton Bell, John Jenner, Edward fiaillie, Matthew Pinel, Philippe Post, Wright Gall, Franz Joseph Soemmering, Samuel Thomas von Scarpa, Antonio Spurzheim, Johann Kaspar Hufeland, Christoph Wilhelm Physick, Philip Syng Broussais, Franfois Joseph Victor Ling, Pehr Henrik Esquirol, Jean Etienne Domi- nique Cooper, Sir Astley Paston Larrey, Dominique Jean Bell, Sir Charles Hahnemann, Samuel DiefFenbach, Johann Friedrich Wells, Horace Morton, Samuel George Priessnitz, Vincenz Beaumont, William Orfila, Matthieu Joseph Bona- venture Graves, Robert James Ennemoser, Joseph Magendie, Francois Warren, John Collins Amussat, Jean Zulema Hall, Marshall Bright, Richard Miiller, Johannes Forbes, Sir John Francis, John Wakefield Wagner, Rudolph Mott, Valentine Qiiain, Jones Lawrence, Sir William MEDICINE 273 Flourens, Marie Jean Pierre Goodsir, John Morton, William Thomas Green Syme, James Simpson, Sir James Young Parrish, Edward Holland, Sir Henry Winslow, Forbes (Benignus) Andral, Gabriel Rokitansky, Karl, Baron Bernard, Claude Peaslee, Edmund Randolph Long, Crawford W. Wood, George Bacon Taylor, Alfred Swaine Seguin, Edouard Onesimus Broca, Paul Sims, James Marion Parker, Willard Gross, Samuel D. Draper, John Christopher Post, Alfred Charles Flint, Austin Kneeland, Samuel Gray, John Perdue Quain, Richard Langenbeck, Bernhard Rudolph von Parker, Peter Sands, Henry Berton Ricord, Philippe Taylor, Isaac Ebenezer Owen, Sir Richard Earle, Pliny Mackenzie, Sir Morell Peters, John Charles Moleschott, Jacob Charcot, Jean Martin Brown-Sequard, Charles Edouard Pasteur, Louis Tuke, Daniel Hack Loomis, Alfred Lee Dubois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich Kneipp, Sebastian Lusk, William Thompson Quain, Sir Richard Hart, Ernest Abraham Pepper, William Seguin, Edward Constant Paget, Sir James Taylor, Charles Fayette Hammond, William Alexander Virchow, Rudolph Kussmaul, Adolph Thomas, Theodore Gaillard Davis, Nathan Smith Thompson, Sir Henry Esmarch, Johannes Friedrich August von Guernsey, Egbert Lister, Sir Joseph Emmet, Thomas Addis Mitchell, Silas Weir Jacobi, Abraham Turner, Sir William Recklinghausen, Friedrich von Flint, Austin, Jr. Smith, Andrew Heermance Sternberg, George Miller Carpenter, William Benjamin Hansen, Gerard Henrik Armauer Janeway, Edward Gamaliel King, Albert Freeman Africanus Wood, Horatio Curtis Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Baron Koch, Robert Laveran, Charles Louis Alphonse Morton, William James McBurney, Charles Trudeau, Edward Livingston Morselli, Enrico Agostino Spitzka, Edward Charles Lorenz, Adolph Starr, Moses Allen Horsley, Victor Alexander Haden Peterson, Frederick Manson, Patrick fflljapt^r 2fi. (BnmtB anh ^pnrts A LL peoples indulge in exercises of strength, of skill, of bodily and mental agility, or of fortune, and often these mimic the more serious pursuits of life, or consist in these very pursuits indulged in for pleasurable purposes only. 1. The capture and slaying of Canoe and Canoeing animals has remained a source of Yachting pleasure long after it has ceased to Houseboating be the chief business of life. See: (b) Skating (a) Shooting Ice Polo Archery Ice Yachting Trapping Curling Coursing (c) Snowshoeing Battue Skiing Tiger-hunting 4. Useful to man in labors, the horse Deer-stalking is his great companion in numerous Fox-hunting V sport :s. See: Falconry Horsemanship Game Laws Coaching Game Preserves Driving (b) Angling Trotting Bait-fishing Pacing Salmon-fishing Horse-racing Trolling Stud-book Trout-fishing Derby Day Fly-Casting Steeple chasing 2. The mimicry of war is also Polo found in contests between men or Hippodrome animals, or men and animals. See: 5. Of the instruments entering into Pugilism popi: liar games, the ball, in various Boxing shapes, is by far the most common and Wrestling the most widespread. See: Fencing Bowls Cock-fighting Baseball Bear-baiting Indoor Baseball Bull-fight Cricket 3. Water, both in its common state Golf and in the forms of ice and snow. fur- Croquet nishes many forms of sport to primi- Hockey tive and civilized man. See: La Crosse (a) Swimming Polo Rowing Football 274 GAMES AND SPORTS 275 Basketball Craps Handball (0 Roulette Pelota ' Racquets 7. For the great intellectual games Tennis par ( 2xcellcnce, see: Lawn Tennis Chess Court Tennis Checkers Ping-Pong and for cognate games: Billiards Backgammon Bagatelle Dominoes 6. In games of chance, the card and 8. Miscellaneous sports and games: the die in varying forms are univers- Cycling ally found. In the case of cards, how- Mountain Climbing ever, chance often plays the minor Coasting part and the game assumes a hi ighly Toboggan intellectual character. See: Shufflcboard (o) Cards Quoits Whist 9. The general subject is treated Bridge under : Pinochle Athletics Skat Gymnastics Ecarte Physical Culture Piquet Amateur Bezique Handicapping Cribbage Sports, Book of Euchre Games, Ancient Solitaire Gymkhana Poker Olympic Games Baccarat Pythian Games Rouge et Nolr Nemea Fan-tan Gladiator (b) Dice Circus Hazard Acrobat mm ^1^^^ '■^m It A \ >''• ■ i:'\')v*-K>- I ■■;■■ '