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COURSES OF READING AND STUDY
COURSES
OF
READING AND STUDY
IN THE
NEW INTERNATIONAL
ENCYCLOPEDIA
EDITORS:
DANIEL COIT GILMAN, LL.D.
HARRY THURSTON PECK, Ph.D., L.H.D.
FRANK MOORE COLBY, M.A.
NEW YORK
DODD, MEAD & COMPANY
1905
Copyright, 1904,
BY
DoDD, Mead & Company
Prksswork bv
Tub Univfusitv Pkbss, Cambridcb, U. S. A
preface
THE purpose of the present volume, as its name suggests, is to offer help-
towards self-instruction in the various arts and sciences, utilizing the-
New International Encychpadia as a general text-book. There is little-
need to emphasize in this place the role of popular educator played by
a work like the Encyclopa-dia. This has been long recognized ; and, from a mere
work of reference consulted at odd moments for fragments of information, the
modern Encyclopaedia has become in thousands of homes a source of common
culture, the basis of a thorough training in the principles and facts of History,
Law, Literature, the Fine Arts, Religion, Biology, Engineering, Physics, Chemistry,
or Agriculture. Especially where access to large libraries is difficult or impossible,
its value is apparent. In every department of human knowledge, it speaks with a
copiousness unequalled in the average text-book and a degree of authority attain-
able only when every department, and subdivision of a department, is covered by
an acknowledged specialist in the field.
A glance at any chapter in the book will show the method pursued. The aim
has been to make every chapter a complete summary of the subject with which it
deals by arranging the material as the reader or student would find it arranged in
a systematic treatise on the subject. The amount of text in each chapter has
necessarily been reduced to a minimum, only so much being given as is essential to
trace the connection between the successive groups of titles. But, when it is con-
sidered that every title in every group represents from two or three hundred to
fifteen thousand words of text, the completeness of treatment will be realized.
Within the chapter the material has been divided and subdivided in such a
manner as to facilitate study on special topics. If the reader, for instance, desii-es
to make himself particularly well acquainted with a cei-tain period in American
History, he need but turn to the proper section in Chapter I., where the subject of
American Histoi-y is outlined in five sub-headings with as many groups of titles ;
and at the end of the section on American History he will find a list of authorities
in whose works he may carry on supplementary reading to any extent. In the
same manner, a person interested in the ceremonial or hymnology or clerical vest-
ments of the Roman Catholic Church will find these topics treated in related
groups of titles as a section in the chapter on Religion. Under Chemistry one
may study the entire subject, carefully outlined for such a purpose, or may con-
centrate on the acids or the salts or the fats. In every chapter, the technical
exposition is supplemented by comprehensive lists of biography wherein the histori-
cal aspect of the subject finds complete treatment.
In quoting titles in the lists, the form given is that, of course, which appears
in the Encyclopaedia; as. Cruelty to Children, PREVENTroN of; or, MACHiXEKy,
Economic Effects of. Where reference is made to a long article, the particular
section is indicated; as, "See section The Renaissance under Sculiture,'" in which
case, the reader will turn to Sculpture in the Encyclopaedia. In the biographical
iv PREFACE
titles, the full Christian name, or the corresponding initials, is given as a rule; as
Adams, Samuel ; Adams, H., Kipling. The alphabetic arrangement of titles in
the Encyclopadia makes reference to volume and page obviously superfluous.
It is in its orderly marshalling of the material contained in the Encyclopaedia
that we believe the value of this book consists. It is quite unlikely that the
average reader, left to his own guidance, will plan his course in such a manner as
to produce the fullest results with the least waste of time. Where the subject is
unfamiliar, he is as apt at the start to hit upon the middle of it as upon the
beginning, and, in passing from article to article, there is always the danger of
his missing the logical sequence of topics. A mere index would here be useless.
What is necessary is a carefully planned outline that shall lead the reader, step by
step, from elementary principles to the most specialized treatment. Such a guide
this Outline aims to be.
The preparation of this volume, cairied on under the supervision of the
Editors, has been in the direct charge of Mr. Simeox SxHUNsici', of the staff of
the New Intematkmal Eiicyclopwdia.
—The Editoks.
Contents!
chapter page
1. History 1
2. Law and Political Science 40
3. The Social Sciences 53
4. Anthropology 62
5. Religion 68
6. Education 85
7. Philosophy and Psychology 90
8. Language and Literature 99
9. The Fine Arts — Architecture 122
10. The Fine Arts — Sculpture and Painting 132
11. The Minor Arts 144
12. Music 148
13. JNIathematics 154
14. Astronomy 159
15. Physics ^ 163
16. Chemistry 170
17. Geology 178
18. Meteorology 189
19. Geography 192
20. Botany 196
21. Agriculture^ Horticulture, and Forestry .... 211
22. Zoology 220
23. INIanufactures and Engineering 232
24. Military and Naval Science 246
25. Medicine 260
26. Games and Sports 274
Qlljapt^r L l^fetnrg
HISTORY, which we may define as the record of man's life on earth
and the sum of his acliicvcments, would include in its hroadest
aspect the entire story of human development from Pala;olithic
man to the present day. As a matter of convenience, however,
in this book we shall leave the beginnings of associated human
life to be treated under the heading of Anthropology and Ethnology, where, too,
will be found the material for the stories of those peoples and tribes which to the
present day have remained without the pale of our civilization. Here we shall
take up the narrative at a point in time when we first catch a glimpse of the
nations whose culture, evolved during thousands of years, and passed on from
hand to hand, has become the heritage of the present day. The traditional
division into Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern history is followed, and in
accordance with custom the account begins with the nations of the Mesopotamian
region, and passes on through Persia and the empire of Alexander into Rome,
where also the course of Egyptian, Jewish, Phoenician, and Greek history, taken
up in turn, leads us. With Rome, Ancient liistory ends. India, China, and
Japan, though their history goes back to a past coeval with the period we call
ancient, are treated apart because of their far less intimate connection with the
civilization of Europe, wherein our interest is centered. Medieval history takes
up the story at the fall of Rome, traces the amalgamation of the old world with
the new, the growth of the Church, the rise of States, and the transition, through
inward development and outward contact with Asia and America, to modern
times. There European history becomes largely the story of nations and their
conflicts. One by one due treatment is accorded them, the field widening as
Australia, Africa, and Asia come within the scope of European interests. The
record ends with a section on the history of the United States outlined with
greater detail than the account of other lands.
First some conception of the methodology of historical writing and a bird's
■eye view of the history of the world may be useful, for which see :
History Africa
Asia America
Europe Australia
A. Aumnt l^tatnrg
1. Babylonia, Chald.«a, and As- the history of a Semitic nation, builders
SYRIA. of cities, the possessors of a great lit-
Archasological research has carried erature in clay, learned in mathematics
back the origins of Babylonian civiliza- and the heavens. Babylonia became
tion to a period antedating the fifth subject to a ruder nation of the north,
millenium b. c, and has reconstructed Assj'ria, which borrowed its civilization,
HISTORY
established a world empire, and made
way for Chaldaea, in turn to be suc-
ceeded by a Neo-Babylonian kingdom,
in turn to be succeeded by Persia
(?— B. c. 538) See:
(a) For the Land:
Mesopotamia
Euphrates
Tigris
Babylonia
Assyria
Accad
Shinar
Elam
(b) For the Cities:
Nippur
Babylon
Calah
Nineveh
Ur
Erech
Khorsabad
(c) For the Kings:
Sargon I
Hammurabi
Shalmaneser I
Tiglath-pilcser I
Asurnazirpal
Shalmaneser II
Tiglatli-pilcscr III
Sargon II
Sennacherib
Esarliaddon
Sardanapahis
Nabonassar
Nabopolassar
Nebuchadnezzar
Belshazzar
Cyrus
(d) For the People, Religion, and
Language:
Sumcrian Language
Chaldseans
Chaldians
Kassites
Baal
Merodach
Ishtar
Semitic Languages
Babylonian Art
Assyrian Art
Cuneiform Inscriptions
(f) For the Historians and Investi-
gators :
Botta, P. E.
Hilprecht, H. V.
Layard, A. H.
Oppcrt, J.
Place, V. •
Rawlinson, G.
Rawlinson, H. C.
Rassam, H.
Sacy, A. I.
Smith, G.
2. Egypt.
From Babylonia it is possible that
civilization may have passed into
Egypt, though the monuments may be
taken to assign as e.irly an antiquity
to the Egyptian civilization as to the
Babylonian. From primitive times
when the land was divided into two
sections, the Delta and the South, we
pass through many shadowy dynasties
of temple-building kings to a time of
subjugation by foreign invaders, of
conquests in Palestine and Asia IMinor,
of decline, and of reduction by the
Persians, by Alexander of Macedon,
and by Rome. A cheerful people, in-
fluenced greatly by their })ricsts, sub-
missive to their kings, worshiping
many gods and animals, they left be-
hind them massive structures of which
we have not yet the secret. Their
HISTORY
priests read tlie stars and knew
geometry, speculated on the soul, and
probably passed on to the Phoenicians
the alphabet which was to be ours.
(?— B. c. 30) See:
(a) For the Land:
Egypt
Nile
Delta
Nubia
Ethiopia
Libya
Suez Canal
(b) For the Cities and Monuments:
Memphis
Tanis
Thebes
Karnak
Luxor
Ramesseum
Pyramid
Rosctta Stone
(c) For the Kings:
Menes
Cheops
Chephren
Amenemhat
Usei-tesen
Amasis
Amcnophis
Thothmes
Hatasu
Rameses
Psammetichus
Necho
Amasis II
Ptolemy
Cleopatra
(d) For the People, Religion, Lan-
guage, and Culture:
Egypt
Hamites
Hyksos
Re
Horns
Osiris
Thoth
Athor
Ammon
Apis
Set
Isis
Nephthys
Anubis
Hieroglyphics
Egyptian Art
Egyptian Music
{e) For the Historians and Investi-
gators :
Egyptology
Brugsch, H. K.
Champollion, J. F.
Lenormant, C.
Lepsius, K. R.
Manetho
Mariette, A. E.
Maspcro, G. C. C.
Naville, E. H.
Petrie, W. M. F.
Poole, R. S.
Renouf, P.
Rouge, O. C. E.
Sayce, A. H.
Wilkinson, J. G.
3. Phcenicia and Asia Minor.
What is now Syria and part of Asia
Minor was in the earliest times debat-
able ground between Egypt and the
Mesopotamian monarchies. On the
Palestinian coast the Phoenicians, with
little territory, developed a splendid in-
dustry and commerce and in their ships
carried the seeds of Babylonian and
Egyptian civilization over the Medi-
terranean basin. Later, wlien the
HISTORY
Phoenicians were in their dechne, a
people known as the Hittites appear,
stout fighters who render a good ac-
count of themselves against the Assyr-
ians and Egyptians. Their homes
were in Nortliern Syria and in Eastern
Asia Minor, but about b. c. 700 they
disappeared, leaving little trace beliind
tliem. See :
(a) For the Phoenicians:
Phoenicia
Sidon
Tyre
Acre
Byblos
Cyprus
Crete
Carthage
Hiram
Melkarth
Astarte
Phoenician Art
Phoenician Language
Amarna Letters
(b) For the Hittites:
Hittites
Syria
Lycia
Plirygia
Cappadocia
Carchemish
Marash
Hamath
4. The Jews.
The Jews form the third in the
group of peoples lying between P^^gypt
and Babylonia and affected by the in-
fluence of both. The Plebrows, a
Semitic tribe of nomads, possibly of
Aramasan stock, after wandering
through the land of Canaan, enter
Egypt, arc there held in bondage, and,
hammered into a nation by persecution,
escape, conquering for themselves the
land of Canaan and passing thereby
from the nomad into the agricultural
stage. See :
Jews
Palestine
Semitic Languages
Abraham
Isaac
Jacob
Esau
Amarna Letters
Exodus
Moses
Aaron
Joshua
Canaan
Simeon
Judah
Levi
Gad
Naphtali
Issachar
Dan
Zebulun
Ephraim
Benjamin
Ruled by warrior leaders for a long
period, the people finally obtain a king,
but after a hundred years the nation
breaks into two, the northern, Israel,
falling to Assyria, the southern, Judah,
150 years later to Babylonia. The
Babylonian exiles return and re-
establish the Jewish state in the form
of a theocracy based on a purified
Yahwch worship. See:
Jews
Saul
David
Jerusalem
Solomon
HISTORY
Judah
Jeroboam
Joash
Abimclcch
Jehosaphat
Ahab
Josiah
Hezekiah
Samaritans
Babylonia
Nehemiah
Ezra
Cyrus
Philistines
Ammon
Moab
Edom
Galilee
Judges, Book of
Chronicles
Kings, Book of
The reestablished State passes from
the suzerainty of Persia to that
of Macedonia, the Seleucid kings of
Syria, and Rome, rising against whom,
Jerusalem is taken (a. d. 70), the
Temple destroyed, and the greater part
of the nation scattered over the Roman
world. The insurrection of Bar-
Cochba in the second century is the last
forcible assertion of the national spirit.
The Jews now enter upon their historic
role of wanderers, subject alternately
to persecution and favor at the hands
of rulers and peoples, and held together
as a folk by the Law and the Talmud.
See:
(o) Jews
Babylonish Captivity
Antiochus
Maccabees
Herod
Sadducees
Pharisees
Zealot
Titus
Messiah
Bar-Cochba
Spain
Crusades
Russia
Anti-Semitism
Zionist Movement
(b) For the Law, Language, Litera-
ture, and Science:
Bible
Talmud
Gemara
Mishna
Cabbala
Halacha
Haggada
Midrash
Maimonides
Zoar
Yiddish
(c) For the Historians:
Ewald, G. H.
Graetz, H.
Josephus, Flavius
Milman, H. H.
5. Persia.
In northeastern Iran, a people, the
Medians, shake off the yoke of Assyria
in the eighth century b. c. and soon
attain power over their former masters,
but fall themselves under the domi-
nation of the Persians and Cyrus, who
brings under his sway all of Meso-
potamia and Palestine. Under his
successors Persia becomes the greatest
empire of pre-Alexandrian times,
spreads to the Mediterranean, and enters
Egypt, but fights vainly against the
Greeks and is conquered by the young
HISTORY
hero of Macedon. The empire falls
apart, the heart of it, Persia proper,
passing in turn to the Parthians, Arabs,
Turks, Mongols, and Turks again, till
it remains what it is at the present day,
a piece in the game between England
and Russia in Asia. See :
(a) For the Land and the People:
Iran
Media
Persia
Asia Minor
Bactria
Parthia
Armenia
Susa
Perscpolis
Ctesiphon
Ecbatana
(b) For the Dynasties and Kings:
Achaemenidae
Seleucidae
Arsacidae
Sassanidae
Abbasides
Samani and Dilemi
Ghaznevides
Ghuri
Scljuks
Ast^'ages
Cyrus
Cambyscs
Darius
Xerxes
Artaxcrxes
Khosru
Hulaku Khan
Timur
Abbas i.
Nadir Sli.-ili
(c) For the Cullure:
Persian Art
Persian Language
Persian Literature
6. Greece.
The seeds of culture from Babylon,
Egypt, and Asia Minor, brought to
Greece by the Phoenicians, developed
there into a new civilization, the
highest in many respects the world has
as yet seen, European, and influencing
mightily the history of future ages.
The legendary accounts reflect probable
historical conditions in the tales of
heroes and gods. See:
Mj'thology
Danaiis
Cadmus
Hercules
Theseus
Jason
Argonauts
Trojan War
Agamemnon
Ulysses
Achilles
Greek history begins with a succes-
sion of great migrations from the main-
land eastward towards Asia Minor.
When authentic history begins, Greece
appears as an agglomeration of small
independent states, in a state of transi-
tion from the monarchical form of gov-
ernment into tyrannies, oligarchies, and
democracies. Sec :
(o) For the Land:
Greece
/Egean Sea
Asia Minor
Thcssaly
Boeotia
Epirus
Attica
Peloponnesus
HISTORY
Euboea
Lesbos
Chios
Ithaca
Pydnus
Olympus
Delos
(b) For the Cities:
Athens
Sparta
Thebes
Argos
Corinth
(c) For the People:
Pelasgians
Hellenes
Danal
Dorians
lonians
Cohans
Achaeans
(d) For the Men:
Lycurgus
Solon
Pisistratus
Clisthcnes
The Greeks come into conflict with
Persia, and a long successful struggle
against that power brings national
greatness. Democratic Athens first
takes the lead among the Greek city
states and for a half century plays a
brilliant part, then succumbs to Sparta,
which in turn falls before Thebes.
Disunion brings Greece under the
sway of Macedon, whose young king
conquers Persia and Egypt and
spreads tlie Hellenic culture in his new
realm. Greece proper, sinking in po-
litical importance, is ruled by Macedon
till it falls with Macedon into the
power of Rome. See:
Greece
Athens
Miltiades
Marathon
Thcmistocles
Salamis
Thermopylae
Aristides
Lconidas
Ephialtes
Pericles
Conon
Nicias
Sparta
Lysander
Agesilaus
Antalcidas
Pausanias
Thebes
Epaminondas
Pclopidas
Mantinea
Leuctra
Macedon
Philip n
Demosthenes
^schinos
Alexander the Great
Chsronea
Antipater
Demetrius Poliorcetes
/Etolian League
Achajan League
PhilopcEmen
Pydna
Cynoscephalse
In the Greek city states the problems
of democracy were well worked out, and
politics became an exact science. The
principles of democracy were carried
over the basin of the Mediterranean
and the Black Sea, wherever the Greeks,
the successors of the Phoenicians as
traders and colonizers, went. See:
HISTORY
(a) For Greek Government:
Monarchy
Tyrant
Democracy
Aristocracy
Despot
Ecclesia
Areopagus
Ostracism
Boule
Ephori
Archon
(b) For the Greek Colonies:
Ionia
jMitylene
Ephesus
Halicarnassus
Chalcidice
Colchis
Chersonesus
Cyrene
Sicily
Magna Gra;cia
Marseilles
Over all the Greek world the Hellenic
culture prevailed as in the home coun-
try. See :
Greek Language
Greek Literature
Greek Music
Greek Art
Greek Philosophy
The Greek religion passed from an
unrestrained polytheism into an antici-
pation of monotheism on the part of the
select few, into gross superstition on
the part of the many. In its ideals of
life Greek morality presented a vivid
contrast to the later Christian teach-
ings. See:
Olympus
Pantlieon
Jupiter
Juno
Apollo
Mercury
Vulcan
Ceres
Venus
Diana
Mars
IMinerva
Neptune
Pluto
Greek Religion
Greek Festivals
Games
Olympic Games
Mysteries
HetieriE
For the Historians:
Herodotus
Thucydides
Xenophon
Plutarch
Polybius
Dio Cassius
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
Arrianus
Theopompus
Curtius, E.
Finlay, G.
Grote, G.
]\Iahaffy, J. P.
Schliemann, H.
7. Rome.
Greek civilization was imposed on the
peoples of Europe, Northern Africa,
and Western Asia by the armies of
Rome, whose origin goes back to a
settlement of Latin outlaws and shep-
herds on one of the seven hills south of
the Tiber. A legendary kingdom
gives way, about tlie beginning of the
sixth century i). c, to a republican
HISTORY
9
form of government. A long contest
between privileged and non-privileged
classes results in the elaboration of a
splendidly efficient system of municipal
government. See :
(a) For the Land and the People:
Rome
Italy
Latium
Italic Languages
Latini
Etruria
Samnites
{b) For the Cities:
Rome
Alba Longa
Vcii
Tarentum
Capua
Naples
Brindisi
Pompeii
Herculaneum
(c) For the Kingship and the Strug-
gle between Classes :
Romulus
Numa Pompilius
Tarquinius
Comitia
Patrician
Plebeians
Consul
Tribune
Prsetor
Censor
JEdiles
Decemviri
Appius Claudius Crassus
Hortensius
Licinian Rogations
With her internal problems settled,
Rome enters upon a career of foreign
conquest and by means of her splendid
military art and unscrupulous diplom-
acy makes herself mistress of Latium,
of Italy, and, after a struggle with
Carthage, with Macedonia, and with
Sj'ria, of the Mediterranean basin.
Unchecked power, however, brings cor-
ruption within the State, republican
institutions tend to become empty
forms, factional strife breaks out, the
Senate rules for a while and then suc-
cumbs to the ambition of masterful
politicians ; in the conflict of parties the
Republic meets its end. See:
Gaul
Camillus
Pyrrhus
Carthage
Punic Wars
Hamilcar
Hasdrubal
Hannibal
Hispania
CanniE
Zama
Scipio
Macedonia
Antiochus
Gracchus
Agrarian Law
Jugurtha
Marius
Sulla
Pompeius
Mithridates
Cicero
Catiline
Cffisar
Cassius
Brutus
Crassus
Antonius
Cleopatra
Actium
10
HISTORY
The Roman Empire, establislied by
Augustus before the beginning of the
present era, attained its greatest ex-
tent in the early years of the second
century of that era and entered on its
decline towards the end of the same
century. At its height it embraced
within its limits the classic world.
Peace, excellent means of communica-
tion, and an unrivalled administrative
system brought the different parts of
the Empire close together and facili-
tated the spread of Greek culture and
later of Christianity. The decline of
the Empire, due to the decay of old
age and the onset of the barbarian
tribes of Northern Europe, is arrested
by the reforms of Diocletian and of his
successor Constantine the Great, who,
in the beginning of the fourth century,
makes Christianity the State religion.
See:
Augustus
Tiberius
Caligula
Claudius
Nero
Vespasian
Titus
Domitian
Trajan
Hadrian
Antoninus Pius
Aurelius
Commodus
Severus, Scptimius
Caracalla
Severus, Alexander
Aurcllanus
Diocletian
Praetorian Guard
Constantine the Great
Christianity
After Constantine tlic decline is pre-
cipitate. The ancient Roman prowess
is gone, and the defence of the Empire
is entrusted to barbarian mercenaries;
the task of government becomes too
iieavy for one man, and the Empire is
divided in two. The wave of barbarian
migration breaks with full force upon
the Western Empire, and the last em-
peror of Latin Rome is dethroned in
476. See:
Migration
Parthia
Julian
Theodosius *
Stilicho
Alaric
Attila
Huns
Goths
Vandals
Burgundians
Odoaccr
Ravenna
Honorius
Augustulus
Aetius
The Romans were preeminent for
their political genius ; their literature,
philosophy, and art were copies of the
Greek, and the general culture at the
time of the Empire's zenith was Hellen-
istic ; their gods, too, were largely bor-
rowed or adapted from the Greek
pantheon ; but in administration and
law they were unexampled innovators
and in these fields they influenced sub-
sequent European civilization mightily.
See:
(a) For the Religion:
Roman Religion
Jupiter
Janus
Mars
HISTORY
11
Quirinus
Vesta
Auguries
riamens
Lupercalia
Salii
(6) For the Language and Culture:
Italic Languages
Latin Language
Latin Literature
Roman Art
Philosophy
(c) For Administration and Law:
Civil Law
Justinian
Twelve Tables
Jus Gentium
Municipality
Papinianus
Paulus
Pandects
(d) For the Historians:
Ammianus Marcellinus
Appianus
Duruy, V.
Eutropius
Gibbon, E.
Ihne, W.
Lanciani, R.
Livy
Merivale, C.
Mommsen, T.
Niebuhr, B. G. |
Sallust
Suetonius
Tacitus
B, iii^lita^ual ^tstorg
1. The East Roman or Byzantine
Empire continued to exist for a
thousand years. Within the limits of
the Western Empire the Germanic tribes
settled as masters, and from their grad-
ual amalgamation with the conquered
Roman provincials date the beginnings
of the modern peoples of Europe.
The most powerful of the barbarian
kingdoms, that of the Franks, attained
imperial extension under Charles the
Great, wlio, by his alliance with the
Pope, established the connection be-
tween Empire and Church, which was
to become one of the most powerful
determinants of events in the Middle
Ages. See :
(o) For the Migrations:
Migration
Britannia
Angles
Saxons
Jutes
Gaul
Burgundians
Franks
Hispania
Suevi
Vandals
Italy
Goths
Theodoric
Lombards
Saracens
(b) For the East Roman Empire:
Byzantine Empire
Justinian
Belisarius
Narses
12
HISTORY
(c) For the Prankish Empire :
Clovis
Merovingians
Carolingians
Brunhilda
Fredegunda
Charles Martel
Pepin the Short
Donation of Pepin
Charles tlie Great
Papal States
Salic Law
2. On the death of Charles the Great
the Prankish Empire falls apart.
Two great kingdoms arise, France and
Germany. The Germans make their
power supreme in Central Europe and
in Italy, and a German king is crowned
Holy Roman Emperor, reviving the
connection between Church and State
established by Charles the Great. A
second Teuton stock, the Northmen, ap-
pear as conquerors in France, England,
Italy, and Russia. The growth of na-
tions proceeds rapidly, and from the
relations between conqueror and con-
quered develops Feudalism. The
young nations are brought into con-
flict with the growing power of the
Church, which, under the leadership of
the Bishop of Rome, seeks to raise the
ecclesiastical power above the secular.
The break-up of the MediiEval ages be-
gins with the Crusades. See:
(a) For the Growth of Nations:
Franks
Verdun, Treaty of
France
Neustria
Germany
Austrasia
Franconia
Swabia
Alcmanni
Otho the Great
Holy Roman Empire
Normans
Normandy
Varangians
England
William the Conqueror
Italy
Sicily
Guiscard
Russia
(6) For Mediaeval Society:
Feudalism
Feud
Livery
Homage
Knight
Chivalry
Esquire
Heraldry
Serf
Ordeal
Truce of God
Compurgation
(c) For the Struggle between Church
and State:
Gregory VII
Investiture
Hohenstaufcn
Guelphs and Ghibellines
Henry IV of Germany
Henry V of Germany
Papacy
Innocent III
Philip II of France
Philip IV of France
John of England
Henry II of England
Frederick I Burbarossa
Frederick II of Germany
((/) For the Crusades:
Crusades
HISTORY
13
Papacy
Hospitalers
Templars
Teutonic Knights
Peter the Hermit
Urban II
Godfrey de Bouillon
Bohemund
Tancred
Baldwin
Antioch
Richard I of England
Saladin
Venice
Dandolo
Louis IX of France
Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem
3. The Crusades were followed by a
great increase in the commerce of West-
ern Europe and the rise of an influen-
tial burgher class, with whose aid the
kings succeeded in making themselves
independent of the feudal nobility.
With the growth of centralized king-
doms the power of the Papacy declines.
Contact with the East and the ancient
world stimulated the European mind,
and the Revival of Learning, the suc-
cession of great geographical and
astronomical discoveries, and the inven-
tion of gunpoAvder and printing hasten
the transition from the jNIiddle Ages to
modern times. The uniformity of
European society, characteristic of the
Middle Ages, is broken up by the
Reformation. See :
(fl) For Commerce, Discoveries, and
Inventions :
Hanseatic League
Gunpowder
Printing
Copernicus
Columbus
Gama, Vasco da
Venice
Genoa
Henry the Navigator
Africa
America
{b) For the Decline of the Papacy :
Boniface VIII
Avignon
Schism, Great
Constance, Council of
Basel, Council of
(f) For the Revival of Learning and
the Renaissance:
Petrarch
Bracciolini
Guarino
Poliziano
Lorenzo de' Medici
Erasmus
Colet
Grocyn
Linacre
More, Thomas
Reuchlin
Hutten, Ulrich von
Epistolas Obscurorum Virorum
Renaissance Art
(d) For the Reformation :
Reformation
Wiclif
Huss
Luther
Charles V
Augsburg Confession
Melanchthon
Schmalkaldic League
Zwingli
Calvin
Huguenots
Henry Mil of England
Wishart
Knox
14
HISTORY
Coun ter-Ref orniation
Trent, Council of
Thirty Years' War
For the Historians:
Creighton, M.
Denifle, F. H.
Emerton, E.
Fisher, G. P.
Fleury, Claude
Gieseler, J. K.
Hallam, H.
Harnack, Adolf
Hefele, K. J.
Lea, H. C.
Neander, J. A.
Pastor, L.
C. Mvitnn lltHtnr^
At the opening of the modern era the
process of State formation in Europe
had resulted in the establishment of
firmly centralized nations in England,
France, and Spain. Germany and
Italy, on the contrary, were disunited,
and destined so to remain till the later
years of the nineteenth century. The
conflicts of States and nationalities is
one of tlie great features of modern
times; till 16-18 religion is a fruitful
cause of external warfare and civil
strife; after 1648 wars are fought on
political and commercial grounds.
The disappearance of a common Church
and of Latin as the common veliicle of
communication among the higher
classes tended to intensify the differ-
entiation of national characteristics.
The burgher class, which had begun to
assert itself in the period after the Cru-
sades, rose to full recognition in the life
of the State and in turn was forced to
render recognition, after the French
Revolution, to the lowest classes in the
State, artisans and peasants. The
Church loses control over the tem])ora]
affairs of its members, and even in the
spiritual field its authority is subor-
dinated to that of the State. Life takes
on a predominantly secular tinge ; sci-
ence broadens the intellectual liorizon.
and conmierce and colonization bring
the non-European part of the Eastern
Hemisphere within the sphere of Euro-
pean influence. The history of modern
times is best studied in the history of
the various nations.
1. England.
The Britannia of the Romans is
overrun in the age of migrations by
Teutonic tribes from Jutland and the
northwest of Germany, who, receiving
a new infusion of kindred blood from
the Danes, are conquered in the eleventh
century by a more remote kinsfolk, the
Normans — Gallicized Teutons from
France. Saxons and Normans are
blended into one before 14<00, by which
time a constitutional system of govern-
ment, worked out in the course of long
conflicts between rulers and subjects, is
in force, based on tlie supreme legisla-
tive authority of a Parliament, rcpre-
si'nting the different estates. Wales
and Ireland have been subdued, and
Scotland has ceased to be a dangerous
rival. Feudalism, never so strong in
England as on the Continent, is prac-
tically destroyed during the Wars of
the Roses in the fifteeiitli century, and
the modern era may be dated from the
accession of the Tudors in 1485. See:
HISTORY
15
England
Britannia
Anglo-Saxons
Heptarchy
Alfred
Edward the Confessor
Canute
Harold
Witcnagemot
William the Conqueror
Hastings, Battle of
Hereward
Domesday Book
William II
Henry I
Stephen
Plantagenet
Henry II
Becket
Ireland
English Pale
Richard I
John
Magna Charta
Oxford, Provisions of
Montfort, Simon de
Edward I
Parliament
Wales
Llewellyn ap Griffith
Scotland
Wallace
Bruce
Bannockburn
Edward II
Mortimer, Roger de
Edward III
Hundred Years' War
Crecy
Poitiers
Black Death
Richard II
Tyler's Rebellion
Ball, John
Wiclif
Provisors, Statute of
Pra'inunirc
Mortmain, Statutes of
Lancaster, House of
Henry IV
Agincourt
Henry VI
York, House of
Margaret of Anjou
Cade, Jack
Roses, Wars of the
Edward IV
Warwick, Earl of
RicJiard III
Tudor
Under the Tudors the power of Par-
liament greatly declined. The Refor-
mation, initiated by Henry VIII, soon
spread beyond the limits the King would
set to it, and England became Protes-
tant. Under Elizabeth it was forced
to contend against Spain, the champion
of Catholicism. With the defeat of
Spain, England enters on her career as
ruler of the seas and begins the work of
founding a new English speaking na-
tion across the Atlantic. The death of
Elizabeth, the last of the Tudors, gives
England and Scotland a common sov-
its
gn. A revived Parliament asserts
rights successfully against the
absolutism of the Stuarts, dethrones
them, recalls them, and drives them as
enemies of Protestantism once more
from the throne, bestowing the crown
upon a prince of Dutch blood. The
crowns of England and Scotland are
united. On the Continent, England
takes a leading part in the overthrow
of Louis XIV of France and comes out
of the struggle more powerful than
ever upon the seas. See :
Henry VII
16
HISTORY
Parliament
Star Chamber
Benevolence
Henry VIII
Boleyn, Anne
Wolsey, Cardinal
Cromwell, Thomas
Reformation
Cranmer
Edward VI
Mary I
Ridley
Latimer
Elizabeth
Supremacy
Mary Stuart
Burleigh
Walsingham
Leicester
Essex
Armada
Drake
Howard
Stuart
James I
Charles I
Petition of Rights
Ship-Money
Strafford, Earl of
Laud
Long Parliament
Grand Remonstrance
Five Members
Pym
Eliot
Hampden
Cromwell, Oliver
Vane, Henry
Blake
Fairfax
Ireton
Scotland
Covenants
Prcsbytcrianism
Montrose, Earl of
Charles II
Clarendon, Earl of
Cabal
Test Acts
Gates, Titus
Shaftesbury, Earl of
James II
Halifax, Earl of
William HI
Mary II
Anne
Succession Wars (Spanish)
Utrecht, Treaty of
Marlborough, Duke of
Bolingbroke
Harley
Sacheverell
With the accession of the House of
Hanover, the supremacy of Parliament
is firmly established ; cabinet govern-
ment is developed, and the rule of party
is the order — by the Whigs, roughly
speaking, to the French Revolution, by
the Tories to 1832, by the two or their
successors since then, in comparatively
rapid alternation. France is defeated
and deprived of her Indian and Ameri-
can possessions, but almost immediately
England suffers an irreparable loss in
the defection of the thirteen colonies.
Partial compensation, however, is found
in India, where English adventurers
build up a new empire. After the
French Revolution and tlie Napoleonic
Wars, comes strifol)ct ween the advocates
of reaction and the rising forces of
democracy, stimulated by the great in-
dustrial revolution. The latter win in
1832, and the subsequent history of
England is one of democratic progress
witiiin, of conquest and commercial ex-
pansion abroad. See :
HISTORY
17
Great Britain
Whig and Tory
George I
Cabinet
South Sea Company
Walpole, Robert
George II
Newcastle, Duke of
Chatham, Earl of
Seven Years' War
Bute, Earl of
George III
Grenville
Townshend
Wilkes, John
North, Lord
Fox, Charles James
Pitt, William
Burke, Edmund
Sheridan, R. B.
Trafalgar
Nelson
Wellington
Peninsular War
Canning
India
Clive
Hastings, Warren
Wellesley, Marquis
Cornwallis, Lord
Dupleix
George IV
William IV
Pcterloo ]\Iassacre
Combination
Trade Unions
Russel, Lord John
Grey, Earl
Victoria
Com Laws
Peel, Robert
Cobden, John
Bright, John
Palmerston, Lord
Derby, Earl
Disraeli
Gladstone
Salisbury, Earl of
Rosebery, Earl of
Chamberlain, Joseph
Balfour, Arthur
Campbell-Banncrman
Vernon-Harcourt
Morley, John
Ireland
Tyrconnel
Stewart, Robert
Grattan
Roman Catholic Emancipation
O'Connell, Daniel
Irish Land Laws
Land League
Parnell, Charles Stewart
Home Rule
Australia
Australian Federation
Transvaal
South African War
Kruger, S. J. P.
Joubert, P.
De la Rey, J. H.
De Wet, C.
Pretorius, M. W.
Rhodes, Cecil
Canada
For the Historians:
Clarendon, Lord
Dicey, A. V.
Elphinstone, M.
Freeman, E. A.
Froudc, J. A.
FyfFe, C. A.
Gairdner, J.
Gardiner, S. R.
Geoffrey of Monmouth
Gildas
Giraldus de Barri
18
HISTORY
Gneist, R.
Green, J. R.
Gi'oss, C.
Hallam, H.
Holinshed, R.
Kinglake, A. W.
Kingsford, W-
Lappenberg, J. ^I.
Lecky, W. E. H.
Lingard, J.
Macaulay, T. B.
McCarthy, Justin
Maitland, F. W.
Napier, W. F. P.
Palgrave, F.
Paris, Matthew
Pauli, R.
Rose, J. H.
Seebohm, F.
Seeley, J. R.
Stanhope, Earl
Stubbs, W.
Turner, Sharon
Walpole, Spencer
Wilham of Mahnesbury
2. France.
Upon the dissolution of the Prankish
Empire in the ninth century, descend-
ants of Charles the Great continue to
rule over the land of the Western
Franks with a population predom-
inantly Celtic and a language derived
from the Latin. This is the begin-
ning of France. The weak Caro-
lingian.s are replaced by the energetic
house of Capet, under which tlie unifi-
cation of the country is carried on by
sudi able rulers as Piiilip II. Louis IX,
and Philip IV. The Hundred Years'
War is disastrous to tlie kingdom, but
its recovery is rapid under Charles VII
and his son, Louis XI, who leave the
power of the crown firmly established.
Religious wars in the sixteenth century
become a factor for anarchy, but
feudalism is definitely crushed by
Richelieu, and absolutism is established
by Louis XIV, under whom France is
for fifty years the overweening power
in Europe. Absolutism breaks down
under Louis XIV's unworthy successors,
and the entire ancient fabric of society
is swept away by the French Revolu-
tion. See :
France
Brittany
Normandy
Burgundy
Flanders
Aquitania
Anjou
Navarre
Franks
Carolingians
Verdun, Treaty of
Capetian Dynasty
Louis VII
Philip II, Augustus
Louis IX
Philip IV, the Fair
Valois, House of
Hundred Years' War
Crecy
Poitiers
John II
Jacquerie
Charles VI
Agincourt
I)u Guesclin
Dunois
Joan of Arc
Charles VII
Louis XI
diaries the Bold
Charles VIII
HISTORY
19
Louis XII
Francis I
Henry II
Huguenots
Catliarine de' IMedici
Guise
Conde
Coligny
Bartholomew's, Massacre of Saint
Charles IX
Henry III
Politiques
Henry IV
Nantes, Edict of
Sully, Duke de
Louis XIII
Richelieu
Westphalia, Peace of
]\Iazarin
Maintenon, Marquise de
Louis XIV
Fronde
Parlement
Colbert
Louvois
Turenne
Vendome, Duke de
Luxembourg, Duke of
Villars
Camisards
Succession Wars
Orleans, Philippe, Duke of
Dubois
Louis XV
Seven Years' War
Pompadour, Marquise de
Du Barry, Countess
Louis XVI
Turgot
Necker
Farmers-General
States-General
The abolition of feudalism by the
French National Assembly is followed
by the overthrow of the monarchy.
Assailed by the rulers of Europe,
France retaliates, and its conquering
armies carry the gospel of democracy
over the Continent. Under Napoleon,
France dominates Europe until, de-
feated by a rising of the European
peoples, it is compelled to take back its
Bourbon kings. Reaction struggles
with the advancing ideals of political
and social revolution, and the country
witnesses within the century the over-
throw of three dynasties and the estab-
lishment of two republics. Under
Napoleon III, France regains for a
brief period its ascendency in Euro-
pean politics, but suffers overwhelming
defeat at the hands of a new-created
Germany. Her latest history has to
do with the slow grounding of repub-
lican principles and the adjustment of
relations between Church and State.
See:
French Revolution
Assembly, National
Mirabeau
Marie Antoinette
Bastille
National Guard
Lafayette
Bailly
Jacobins
Feuillants
Cordeliers
Barnave
Petion
Pillnitz
Valmy
Jemappes
Dumouriez
Convention, National
Girondists
Brissot
20
HISTORY
Roland de la Platiere
Vergniaud
Montagnardes
]\Iarat
Danton
Billaud-Varennes
Carnot
Callot d'Herbois
Robespierre
Saint-Just
Couthon
Vendee
Reign of Terror
Hebert
Jourdan
Pichegru
Moreau
Barras
Directory
Sicyes
Talleyrand
Consulate
Josephine
Napoleon I
Berthier
Massena
Ney
Murat
Davout
Junot
Marinont
Lanncs
Soult
Suchet
Victor
Bcaubarnais
Bessiercs
Continental System
Code Napoleon
Concordat
Waterloo
Louis XVIII
Charles X
Louis Philippe
Guizot
Thiers
Ledru-RoUin
Blanc, Louis
Cavaignac
Napoleon III
Crimean War
Maximilian of Austria
Franco-German War
Bazaine
Commune
Favre, Jules
Gambetta
Mac]Mahon
Grevy
Ferry
Carnot
Boulanger
Casimir-Perier
Faure
Loubet
Dreyfus, Alfred
Waldeck -Rousseau
Delcasse
For the Historians:
Cheruel, P. A.
Duruy, V.
Froissart, J.
Geoffre}' of Villehardouin
Guizot, F. P. G.
Hamel, L. E.
Hanotaux, G.
Houssayc, H.
Joinville, Jean
Lanfrcy, P.
Lavisse, E.
Luchaire, A.
Martin, H.
Michaud, J.
Michclet, J.
Mignet, F. A. M.
Montalenibert, C. F.
HISTORY
21
Quinet, E.
Sorel, A.
Stephens, H. M.
Sybel, H.
Thierry, Amedee
Thierry, Augustin
Thou, J. A. de
3. Germany.
German history, like the history of
France, may be dated from the dissolu-
tion of the Prankish Empire. Unlike
France, Germany knew no unity until
the very latest times. The establish-
ment of the Holy Roman Empire in the
tenth century connected the political
fortunes of Germany with those of Italy
and the Papacy, and the history of the
empire is but the history of the sep-
arate states within the empire. After
1273, the imperial dignity is held, as a
rule, by members of the house of Haps-
burg, and the imperial interests become
more and more Austrian. Disunion is
fostered by the Reformation and per-
petuated by the Thirty Years' War.
In the eighteenth century, Prussia en-
ters into competition with Austria for
leadership in the empire, which, after
existing for more than eight hundred
years, is dissolved by Napoleon in 1805.
The quarrel between Prussia and Aus-
tria is fought out in the nineteenth
century, and the former triumphs. A
new German Empire is formed, differ-
ing from the Holy Roman Empire in its
national character, and, as the strongest
military power on the Continent, occu-
pies a leading place in the European
system. See :
Germany
Prussia
Bavaria
Saxony
Wiirttemberg
Hanover
Baden
Verdun, Treaty of
Franconia
Swabia
Lorraine
Otho I
Holy Roman Empire
Henry II
Conrad II
Henry IV
Investiture
Gregory VII
Hohenstaufen
Guelphs and Ghibellines
Frederick I, Barbarossa
Henry VI
Frederick II
Hapsburg
Rudolph I
Austria-Hungary
Charles IV
Golden Bull
Electors
Sigismund
Maximilian I
Aulic Council
Imperial Chamber
Reformation
Charles V
Passau, Treaty of
Bohemia
Thirty Years' War
Leopold I
Charles VI
Pragmatic Sanction
Frederick William I
Frederick II
Maria Theresa
Succession Wars (^Austrian)
Seven Years' War
Francis II of Austria
22
HISTORY
Frederick William III
Stein
Scharnhorst
Bliicher
Gneiscnau
Leipzig, Battles of
Waterloo
Vienna, Congress of
Metternich
Burschenschaft
Zollverein
Frankfort, Council of
Frederick William IV
Seven Weeks' War ,
Bismarck
Moltke
North German Confederation
William I
Kulturkampf
Triple Alliance
William II
Caprivi
Hohenlohe
Biilow
For the Historians:
Dahlmann, F. C.
Dahn, F.
Droysen, J. G.
Dijmmler, E.
Erdmannsdorffer, B.
GfriJrcr, A. F.
Giesebrecht, F. W. B.
Hiiusser, L.
Janssen, J.
Lamprccht, K.
IManrcnhrcrhcr, W.
IMiiller, Johannes
Onckcn, W.
Rankc, L.
Raumer, F. L.
Sybcl, H.
Trcitschkc, II.
4. Austria-Hungary.
Austria-Hungary is a political unit
merely and in no sense a national State,
and its history is largely that of the
several states that compose it. The re-
lationship to European affairs result-
ing from the close connection between
the house of Austria and the Holy Ro-
man Empire, for five centuries, is best
traced under Germany, which see.
Here, the internal affairs alone will be
touched upon, and the history may be
summed up in the history of a family,
the Hapsburgs, that, starting with
small territorial possessions in the Swa-
bian mountains, brought under its sway
by conquest or marriage the heart of
Central Eui'ope, from the Carpathians
to the Alps and from the Vistula to the
Danube and the Adriatic Sea. See:
(a) For Austria:
Austria-Hungary
Bohemia
Dalmatia
Styria
Moravia
Galicia
Tyrol
Carinthia
Carniola
Babcnberg
Ottokar II
Hapsburg
Rudolph I
Albert II
Maximilian I
Charles V
Ferdinand I
Maximilian II
Ferdinand II
Tliirty Years' War
Succession Wars (Spanish)
Eugene, Prince
HISTORY
23
Joseph II
Leopold II
Campo-Formio
Luneville
Pressburg
Vienna, Congress of
Mcttcrnich
Francis II
Francis Joseph
Windischgratz
Radetzky
Lombardy
Seven Weeks' War
Ausgleich
Triple Alliance
(b) For Hungary:
Hungary
Arpad
Bathory
Louis I
Sigismund
Hunyady, Janos
Mattliias Corvinus
Louis II
Mohacs
Zapolya
Tokolyi
John HI, Sobieski
Rakoczy
Deak, Fcrencz
Batthyanyi
Kossuth
Bern
Dcmbinski
Gorgey
Meszaros
Klapka
Haj-nau
(b) For the Historians:
Arneth, A. R.
Fessler, I. A.
Gindely, A.
Hormayr, J.
Krones, F.
Mailath, J.
Zeissberg, H.
Wolf, Adam
6. The Iberian Peninsula.
One of the riches c regions of the Ro-
man Empire, Hispania, was wrested
from the Romans by successive waves of
barbarian invaders in the fifth century
of our era. The Christian Gothic king-
dom was overthrown by the Arabs, who
developed in the peninsula a civiliza-
tion that was long the highest in Eu-
rope. The remnants of the Christian
inhabitants rallied in the northern
mountains and a slow but steady process
of reconquest was begun, hastened by
the dissolution of the Arab Caliphate,
retarded by strife among the various
Christian kingdoms, completed before
the end of the fifteenth century, when
the greater part of the peninsula had
been brought under one crown. Portu-
gal alone preserved its independence of
Castile. Enriched by the wealth of a
newly discovered world and her Low-
land possessions, Spain, in the sixteenth
century, plays the leading role in
European affairs and then enters on a
course of political and economic de-
cline which has continued to the pres-
ent day. Portugal and Great Britain
have been friends since the beginning
of the eighteenth century. See:
(a) For Spain :
Spain
Iberians
Phoenicia
Carthage
Hispania
Lusitania
24
HISTORY
Goths
Suevi
Roderick
Moors
Tarik
Ommiads
Cordova
Mohammedan Art
Navarre
Asturias
Leon
Castile
Aragon
Ahnoravides
Ahnohades
Granada
Boabdil
Ferdinand V of Castile
Isabella I
Ximenes
Inquisition
Cortes
Fuero
Padilla, Juan
Alcantara
Calatrava
Gonsalvo de Cordova
Philip II
Armada
Philip III
Philip IV
Charles II
Succession Wars (Spanish)
Alberoni
Farncse
Charles IV
Godoy
Peniiistilar War
Ferdinand VII
Carlos, Don
Maria Christina
Isabella II
Espartero
Narvacz
Prim
O'Donnell
Castelar
Serrano
Amadeus I
Alfonso XII
Canovas del Castillo
Sagasta
Silvela
Spanish-American War
(b) For Portugal:
Portugal
Alfonso I
Diniz
John I
Henry the Navigator
Alfonso V
IVIanuel the Great
Gama, A'asco da
Almeida
All)uqucrque
John III
Braganza, House of
Methuen Treaty
Pombal
Peninsular War
Miguel, Dom
Pedro, Dom
Saldanha
Charles I
Brazil
(c) For the Historians, see:
Coxe, W.
Gayangos
Lafuente, M.
Llorente, J. A.
IMariana, J. ^
Prcscott, W. H.
Robertson, W.
6. Italy.
The fall of the Western Empire was
followed by a struggle between the
HISTORY
25
Goths and the Byzantines for tlie posses-
sion of Italy. The latter held the south
while the north passed from the Goths
to the Lombards and the Franks. Con-
stituted with Germany into a shadowy
Holy Roman Empire, Italy enters upon
a period of utter disunion with the Pa-
pal power established in the centre of
the peninsula, the north parceled out
into independent principalities and re-
publics, the south ruled by Normans,
Saracens, French, and Spaniards. The
Italian cities rise to great prosperity
after the Crusades and become the cra-
dle of the Renaissance. The state of
political disintegration continues till the
later part of the nineteenth century
and Italy suffers from internal strife
and foreign domination, Spain and
Austria playing the master in the
greater part of the peninsula. Union
comes to the country from the house of
Savoy, whose power, spreading over
Sardinia and Piedmont, after a contest
with Austria, the Papacy, and Spain,
spreads over the entire peninsula.
Early Italian history is best studied in
the story of separate states and cele-
brated families. See:
Rome
Venice
Florence
Milan
Genoa
Pisa
Lucca
Verona
Bologna
Ravenna
Ferrara
Naples
Papal States
Two Sicilies, Kingdom of
Sicily
Foscari
Falieri
IVIalatesta
Medici
Visconti
Colonna
Orsini
Este
Borgia
Theodoric the Great
Belisarius
Narses
Lombards
Saracens
Normans
Guiscard
Crusade
Reniassance
Charles VIII of France
Sforza
Condottieri
Louis XII of France
Ferdinand V of Spain
Julius II (Pope)
Savoy
Napoleon I
SuvarofF
Nelson
Murat
Carbonari
Holy Alliance
Victor Emmanuel I
Charles Albert
Mazzini
Young Italy
Radctzky
Manin
Cavour
Garibaldi
Victor Emmanuel II
Villafranca
Lamoriciere
RattazzI
Ricasoli
26
HISTORY
Crispi
Rudini
Depretis
Humbert I
Victor Emmanuel III
Mafia
Camorra
For the Historians :
Amari, M.
Balbo, C.
Botta, C. G.
Burckhardt, J.
Cantii, C.
Cibrario, G. A.
Farini, L. C.
Gallenga, A.
Gregorovius, F.
Hodgkin, T.
La Farina, G.
Liudprand
Muratori, L. A.
Paulus Diaconus
Reumont, A.
Sarpi, P.
Sismondi, J. C.
Symonds, J. A.
7. The Slav Empire.
The Slav inhabitants of the plains
south of tlie Finnish lakes received in
the ninth century a ruler of Scandina-
vian stock, whose successors extended
their sway to the southern rivers. The
Byzantine civilization and religion arc
introduced. The unity of the country
<lisaj)pears after the tentli century, and
its independence is swept away in tlie
thirteenth by Mongol inv/idcrs from
the east. Tlio power of the Mongols
breaks up in the fifteenth century and
a new empire is created by the grand
princes of Moscow, whose rule is stead-
ily extended to the south and west at
the expense of Poland and the Baltic
powers. Peter I brings Russia within
the sphere of European politics and
gains for his country a predominant
place among the northern powers.
With the Baltic reached, Russia turns
once more to the soutli and driving the
Turks before her, she reaches the Black
Sea and seeks to press into the Balkan
peninsula. The jealousy of the pow-
ers halts her progress and her advance
assumes a new direction — eastward and
southward in Asia, where the begin-
nings of her power had been made in
the sixteenth century. In her attack
on the integrity of the Chinese Empire,
she finds a formidable rival in Japan.
Internally, after Peter's time, a strug-
gle goes on between the Eastern and
Western civilization, which, at the be-
ginning of the twentieth century, finds
Russia still a despotism. Poland, at
one time the greatest power in central
Europe, fell tiirough disunion and its
territory was absorbed by Austria,
Prussia, and, to the largest extent, by
Russia. See:
(a) For Russia:
Russia
Slavs
Varangians
Rurik
Novgorod
Kiev
Vladimir
Tchcrnigov
JJatu Klian
Alexander Ncvski
Moscow
Kiptchak
Ivan III, tlie Great
Ivan IV, tlie Terrible
GodunofF, Boris
Demetrius
HISTORY
27
RoinanofF, House of
Peter I, the Great
Streltsi
Charles XII of Sweden
Anna Ivanovna
Dolgoruki
Golitzin
Biron
Anna Karlovna
Ehzabeth Petrovna
Catharine II
Poland
Armed Neutrality
Paul I
Alexander I
Tilsit
Holy Alliance
Nicholas I
Crimean War
Alexander II
Serf
Nihilism
Russo-Turkish War
Berlin, Congress of
Loris-Melikoff
Alexander III
IgnatiefF
Anti-Semitism
Nicholas II
Finland
Siberia
Manchuria
Chinese Empire
Port Arthur
Vladivostock
Kuropatkin
(b) For Poland:
Poland
Lithuania
Teutonic Knights
Casimir III, the Great
Jagellons
Casimir IV
Sigismund the Great
Ukraine
Cossacks
Chmielnicki
Cossacks
Thorn
John III, Sobieski
Succession Wars (Polish)
Stanislas Leszczynski
Augustus II
Catharine II
Kosciuszko
Chlopicki
Bem
Dembmski
Panslavism
AksakofF, I. S.
For tlie Historians :
(a) Bcstuzheff-Ryuniin, K. N.
Bruckner, A.
Karamzin, N. M.
KostomarofF, N. I.
Pogodin, M. P.
Rambaud, A. N.
SoloviefF
(b) Chodzko, L. J.
Lelewel, J.
Niemcewicz, J. U.
8. The Balkan Peninsula.
The Byzantine Empire, successor to
the Roman Empire in the eastern ]\Icd-
iterranean, after a thousand years' ex-
istence, fell before the Turks, whose
power, spreading northward beyond the
Danube, extended over Hungar}' and
threatened the Austrian dominions.
The rapid decline of the Turks begins
with the eighteenth century and has
continued to the present day, resulting
in the restriction of the Ottoman power
to but a fraction of its once vast terri-
tories. Russia and Austria have stead-
28
HISTORY
ily pressed the Turkish power back-
ward, and only the jealousy of the
Western powers, England primarily,
has preserved the integrity of the Em-
pire. Part of the territory wrested
from Turkey has been erected into in-
dependent Christian States. The en-
deavor of the Christian population, still
subject to Turkey, to attain their in-
dependence, constitutes at the present
time a perpetual menace to the govern
ment of the Sultan and the peace of
Europe. See :
(a) Turkey
Eastern Question
Othnian
Amurath I
Janizaries
Bajazet I
Amurath II
Mohammed II
Sclim I
Solyman
Lepanto
Kiuprili
Kara Mustapha
Eugene, Prince
Mahmud II
Mehemet AH
Crimean War
Abd ul-Aziz
Abd ul-Hamid
Russo-Turkish War
Berlin, Congress of
Greece
Crete
Armenia
Albania
All Pasha
Macedonia
(h) Greece
Hetscrae
Coray
Ypsilanti
Mavrocordatos
Miaulis
Kanaris
Bozzaris
Kolokotronis
Capo d'Istria
Navarino
Otto I
George I
Trikoupis
Delyannis
(c) Servia
Czerny George
Obrenovitch
Alexander Karageorgevitch
Milan I
Natalie
Ristic
Alexander I
Peter I, Karageorgevitch
Skupshtina
(rf) Bulgaria
Bulgars
Russo-Turkish War
Alexander I
Ferdinand I
StambulofF
(e) Rumania
Moldavia
Wallachia
Kantemir
Hospodar
Fanariots
Ypsilanti
Ghika
Russo-Turkish War
Jews
(f) Bosnia
(g) Herzegovina
(h) Montenegro
HISTORY
29
8. The Minor Nations of Eueope.
(a) Denmark
Margaret
Christian VII
Schleswig-Holstein
Frederick VI
(h) Sweden
Finland
Eric
ICalmar
Sture
Gustavus Vasa
Charles IX
Gustavus Adolphus
Oxenstierna
Christina
Charles XII
Gustavus III
Caps and Hats
Charles XIV, John
(c) Norway
Normans
Harald Haarfagr
Iceland
Haakon
Denmark
(f7) Netherlands
Burgundy
Granvella
IMargaret of Parma
William the Silent
Egmont
Hoorne
Alva
Farnese, Alexander
Barneveldt
Maurice of Nassau
Dort, Synod of
De Witt
Stadtholder
William III
Louis XIV
(c) Belgium
Flanders
Brabant
Walloons
Netherlands
Ostcnd Company
Frere-Orban
Rogier
(/■) Switzerland
Helvetii
Alemannia
Burgundy
Hapsburg
Tell, William
Morgarten
Sempach
Winkelried
Morat
Zurich
Hofer, Andreas
Sondcrbund
For the Historians :
Blok, P. J. (Dutch)
Fryxell, A. (Swedish)
Geijer, E. (Swedish)
Juste, T. (Belgian)
Merle D'Aubigne ( Swiss )
Motley, J. L. (Dutch)
10. South America and Mexico.
Beginning with Mexico in 1519, the
great regions of Central and South
America were rapidly brought under
Spanish rule. Portugal, however, lield
sway in Brazil, and in Guiana small
portions fell to other European nations.
The harsh Spanish rule led to bitter
but unsuccessful uprisings among the
Indian tribes of Peru and Chile. The
first quarter of the nineteenth century
witnessed the successful revolt of the
Spanish dependencies, aided in their
struggle by the decidedly friendly at-
30
HISTORY
titude of Great Britain and the United
States, of whom the latter now assumes
the role, largely, of protector over the
newly established republics. A decided
inaptitude for self-government is
evinced by these, and chronic disorder
checks national development. Chile,
Argentina, and Jlexico are, however,
prominent exceptions. Brazil, after
living tranquilly as a colony of Portu-
gal and an independent empire, enters
upon the troubled career of republican
politics towards the end of the nine-
teenth century. The influence of the
United States in South America be-
comes an important factor with the re-
sumption of the work of building the
Panama Canal. See:
Mexico
Toltec
Aztec
Mexican Archeology
Montezuma
Cortes
Mendoza, Antonio de
Hidalgo, Miguel
Morelos
Iturbide
Guerrero, Vicente
Bustamente
Santa Anna
Texas
Mexican War
Comonfort
Juarez
Miramon
Almonte
Maximilian
Lerdo de Tcjada
Diaz, Porfirio
Central America
Guatemala
Nicaragua
Honduras
Salvador
Costa Rica
Morazan
Carrera, Rafael
Walker, William
Peru
Peruvian Antiquities
Huayna Capac
Pizarro, Francisco
Pizarro, Gonzalo
Almagro
San Martin, Jose de
Prado, M. I.
Bolivia
Chile
Araucania
Valdivia, Pedro de
Carrera, Jose Miguel de
O'Higgins, Bernardo
San Martin, Jose de
Balmaceda, Jose IManucl
Argentina
Rosas, Juan IManuel
Urquiza, Justo Jose
Mitre, Bartolome
Sarmicnto, Domingo F.
Uruguay
Gauchos
Artigas, Fernando Jose
Flores, Venancio
Paraguay
Guarani
Francia, Jose Caspar
Lopez, Francisco Solano
Colombia
Ecuador
Venezuela
Miranda, F.
Bolivar, Simon
Pacz, Jose Antonio
Brazil
Pedro I
Pedro II
Fonseca, Deodoro da
HISTORY
31
For tlie Historians and Investigators,
see:
Ixtlilxochitl
Prescott
Bancroft, H. H.
Bandolier, A. F. A.
Charnay, C. J. D.
Squier, E. G.
Markhani, C. R.
Vicuiia-Mackcnna, Benjamin
11. The Far East.
(1) India. The history of India
may be divided into three periods, tliat
of the early Hindu domination, the
period of IMohammedan rule, and the
period of European supremacy. See :
(a) For the Peoples :
India
Indian Peoples
Aryan
Dravidians
Tamils
Telugus
Kanarcse
Malayalim
(&) For the History:
India
Bimbisara
Sandrocottus
Ghaznivides
Timur
Baber
Akbar
Shah Jehan
Aurungzebe
Nadir Shah
Ahmed Shah
Gama, Vasco da
Albuquerque
Almeida
Pondicherry
Goa
Dupleix
CHve
East India Company
Hastings, Warren
Cornwallis, Lord
Wellesley, Marquis of
Nana Sahib
For tlic Religions of India, see Chapter
on Religion.
(2) China. China presents the
spectacle of a nation which, having
attained a high degree of civilization
at a time when Europe was still barbar-
ian, has been content to remain quies-
cent while the world has moved forward.
In spite of its vast latent strength, it
seems destined to become the prey of
European ambitions, unless the example
of its kindred nation, Japan, should
lead it to recognize the civilization of
the West, and to observe the preponder-
ant role that should be its own in the
Orient. See :
Chinese Empire
Chinese Language and Literature
Chinese Music
Fuh-hi
She Hwang-Ti
Han
Genghis Khan
Kuhlai Khan
Ta Ts'ing
K'ang-hi
Hung-siu-ts'cuen
Gordon, Charles George
Li Hung Chang
Kwang-Sii
Far Eastern Question
For the Philosophy and Religions of
China, see Chapter on Religion.
(3) Japan. Among the nations of
the East, Japan stands forth as an
amazing exception to Eastern immobil-
32
HISTORY
ity. The political balance in the Pa-
cific has been quite upset by the ap-
pearance of this new power, which, in
less than four decades, has passed from
feudalism and Oriental seclusion to a
constitutional government and the skil-
ful utilization of the sciences and wis-
dom of the West. Japan's triumph
over China in 1894-95 first marked
strength ; its magnificent struggle
against Russian aggression in China
raised the possibility of a quite unex-
pected development in the relations be-
tween Europeans and Mongolians in
the Far East. See :
Japan
Japanese Art
Japanese Language
Japanese Literature
Jimmu Tenno
Taira
Samurai
Minamoto
Fu j iwara
Yoritomo
Ashikaga
Daimio • <
Nobunaga
Hide3'oshi
lyeyasu
Tokugawa
lyemitsu
Perry, M. C.
Keiki
iVIutsuhito
Arisugawa
II Kamon no Kami
Itagaki, Taisiikc
Ito, Hirobumi
Iwakura, Tomomi
Okubo, Toshimichi
Okuma, Shigcnobu
Soyeshima 'I'aneomi
Yamagata Aritomo
See also :
Nichiren
Arai Hakuseki (1657—)
Motoori Norinaya (1730 — )
Hokusai (1760—)
Fukuzawa, Yukichi
Kido, Takayoshi
For the Authorities. See:
Abeel, D.
Beal, S.
Biot, E. C.
Grifl^s, W. E.
Hirth, F.
Julien, S. A.
Legge, J.
Morrison, R.
12. The United States.
Norse explorations in North America,
about the year 1000, led to no result,
and Europe, before the time of Colum-
bus, had no knowledge of a world be-
yond the Atlantic. The discover}', in
1492, was followed by a period of ex-
ploration, in which Spanish, French,
English, and Dutch participated. Set-
tlement follows, and poverty and relig-
ious persecution in Great Britain
stretches a chain of English speaking
colonies along the eastern coast of what
is now the United States. Swedes and
Dutch give way in time, and with Spain
restricted to Florida, England enters
into a struggle for possession of tlie in-
terior with France, whose rule has mean-
while been cxtoiided over the basins of
the St. Lawrence, tlie ^Mississippi, and
the Great Lakes. England triumphs,
and brings under her authority the dis-
puted territory east of the Mississippi.
See:
(a) The Discoverers :
Ericson
HISTORY
33
Vinland
Madog
Columbus
Vespucius
Cabot
Cortereal
Verrazano
Ponce de Leon
Ayllon
Narvaez
Nunez Cabefa
De Soto
Coronado
Drake
Frobisher
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey
Gosnold
Smith, John
Norumbega
Cai'tier
Champlain
Hudson
Nicollet
Joliet
Marquette
La Salle
Hennepin
Tonty
Lewis, Meriwether
Clark, William
Pike
Long, S. H.
Bonneville
Catlin
Whitney, J. D.
Haj'den
Powell, J. W.
(b) The Settlers:
See under the names of the thirteen
original colonies ; also :
London Company
Plymouth Companjj
Jamestown
,(0
Yeardley
Berkeley
Bacon
Bradford, William
Standisji
Endccott
Winthrop
Minuit, Peter
Kieft
Stuyvesant
Hooker, T.
Davenport, J.
Williams, Roger
Hutchinson, Anne
Baltimore, Barons of
Claiborne
Friends
Penn
Oglethorpe
For the Struggle with the French :
King William's War
Queen Anne's War
King George's War
French and Indian War
Pepperel, William
Louisburg
Albany Convention
Braddock
Amherst
Abercromby
Loudoun
Wolfe, James
Montcalm
Pontiac
Paris, Treaties of
England's triumph over France is
followed almost immediately by the
irreparable loss of the thirteen col-
onies. The injustice of Parliamentary^
taxation stirs the colonists to resistance,
and the memory of their triumph over
the French lends them courage for the
struggle. See :
34
HISTORY
(a) The Pre- revolutionary Period:
Navigation Laws
Assistance, Writ of
Otis, James
Stamp Act
Sons of Liberty
Boston Massacre
Boston Tea Party
Boston Port Bill
Quebec Act
Adams, Samuel
Hancock, John
(6) The Revolution: (1) The Battles:
Lexington
Concord
Bunker Hill
Long Island
Trenton
Princeton
Brandywine
Germantown
Oriskany
Bennington
Saratoga
Monmouth
Camden
Cowpens
Guilford Court House
Eutaw Springs
Yorktown
(2)
The ]\Ien :
Warren
Putnam
Washington
Montgomery
Arnold
Lee, Charles
Gates
Greene
Conway
Stark
Plerkimer
Morgan
IMarion
Sumter
Pickens
Lee, Richard Henry
Jones, Paul
Wayne, Anthony
Clark, George Rogers
Lafayette
Rochambcau
Grasse, Count de
Steuben
Kalb, Baron de
Kosciuszko
Pulaski
Howe, Lord
Clinton
Burgoyne
Cornwallis
Tarleton
Jefferson
Franklin, B.
Livingston, R. R.
Deane, Silas
Sherman, Roger
Morris, Robert
Declaration of Independence
The thirteen colonies, having vindi-
cated their independence in a protracted
war, are impelled for the defence of
their now won liberties^ and the further-
ance of their common welfare, to organ-
ize themselves into a federal republic
with a written constitution, in nature
essentially a compromise between the
ideas of local liberty and efficiency of
the central authority. The Liberator
of the nation is also its first executive.
His death is followed by a struggle be-
tween the two constitutional principles.
The advocates of " strict construction "
triumph, and, in the person of Thomas
Jefferson, the Republican-Democratic
Party assumes power to hold it unin-
terruptedly for forty years. The
HISTORY
35
boundaries of the Union are extended
by the admission of new States, and the
national territory is enormously in-
creased by the acquisition of Louisiana
and Florida. Party differences disap-
pear, for a while, after a second war
with Great Britain, but a new cause
of dissension appears in the form of the
slavery question, which replaces consti-
tutional politics by sectional. See :
(a) The Formation of the Union:
Constitution of the United States
Shays's Rebellion
Hamilton
Madison
Jay
Pinckney, C. C.
Wilson, James
Randolph, Edmund
Paterson, William
Henry, Patrick
Northwest Territory
(b) The Era of Party Strife:
Federalists
Anti-federalists
Federalist, The
Gallatin, A.
Marshall, John
Burr
Genet
Jay Treaty
Whiskey Rebellion
X. Y. Z. Correspondence
Alien and Sedition Laws
Virginia and Kentucky Resolu-
tions
Louisiana Purchase
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Continental System
Orders in Council
Embargo
Chesapeake, The
Constitution, The
Erie, Battle of Lake
Thames, Battle of the
Chippewa
Lundy's Lane
New Orleans, Battle of
Tippecanoe
Hull, Isaac
Hull, William
Lawrence
Perry
Macdonough
Hartford Convention
Cushing, Caleb
Ghent, Treaty of
Missouri Compromise
Monroe, James
Monroe Doctrine
The Democratic Party in the course
of time did not fail to adopt many of
the principles of the old Federalists,
among them notably the national en-
couragement of internal improvements
and the creation of a Government bank.
The tendency on the part of a faction
to lay* stress on these functions of the
Government led to the dissolution of the
Democratic Party. The Whigs now
appear, historically the successors of
the Federalists and the predecessors of
the Republican Party. The hierarchic
succession of pi-esidents ends in 1828,
and the Western Democracy triumphs
in the person of Andrew Jackson. Sec-
tional feeling, fostered by growing
economic diff^erences between North and
South, is intensified by the rise in the
North of an outspoken spirit of oppo-
sition to the institution of slavery.
The two political parties for a time
eagerly ignore the issue, and Southern
statesmen, armed with the threat of a
disruption of the Union, succeed in
coercing the conservatives in the North.
36
HISTORY
Territorial expansion, however, forces
the slavery question into the fore-
ground ; the Whig Party, unwilling
directly to challenge the issue, is suc-
ceeded by the Republican Party, which
will. The Democratic Party is broken
in two. With the triumph of the anti-
slavery party in I860, the South
secedes from the Union. See :
(o) The Formation of Parties and the
Rise of the Slavery Question:
Democratic Party
Adams, John Quincy
Crawford, William
Jackson, Andrew
Caucus
Whig Party
Clay, Henry
Cumberland Road
Tariff
Nullification
McDuffie
Calhoun, Jolm C.
Haync, Robert
Webster
Abolitionists
Garrison, William Lloyd
Phillips, Wendell
Lovejoy, Elijah
Lundy, Benjamin
Van Buren
Marcy, W. L.
Harrison, William Henry
Tyler
Wcbster-Ashburton Treaty
Nortlieast Boundary Dispute
Polk
Texas
Houston, Samuel
Oregon
Northwest Boundary Dispute
Mexican War
Wilniot Proviso
Scott, Winficld
Taylor, Zachary
Fillmore
Cass
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
{b) The Final Struggle over Slavery:
Free Soil Party
Compromise Measures of 1850
Fugitive Slave Law
Seward
Sumner '
Davis, Jefferson
Underground Railroad
Pierce, Franklin
Kansas-Nebraska Bill
Popular Sovereignty
Thayer, Eli
Republican Party
Douglas, Stephen A.
Taney, Roger
Dred Scott Case
Buchanan, James
Brown, John
Lincoln, Abraham
Breckinridge, J. C.
Bell, John
Constitutioual Union Party
(c) The Civil War:
Civil War in America
Confederate States of America
Stephens, Alexander
Benjamin, Judah P.
Toombs, Robert
1. The Battles:
I. In the East:
P^oi-t Sumter
Big Bethel
Bull Run
Ball's Bluff
Williamsburg
Seven Pines
Mechanicsville
HISTORY
37
Gaines's Mill
Savage's Station
Frazier's Farm
Malvern Hill
Bull Run (second)
Antietam
Fredericksburg
Chancellorsville
Gettysburg
II. In the West:
Wilson's Creek
Paducah
Belmont
Fort Henry and Fort Donclson
Pea Ridge
Shiloh
Corinth
luka
Island No. 10
New Orleans
Perryville
Stone River
Vicksburg
Chickamauga
Chattanooga
Mobile Bay
III. The Final Campaigns:
Dalton
Kenesaw Mountain
Nashville
Fort McAllister
Bentonville
Wilderness
Spottsj'lvania Court House
Cold Harbor
Monocacy
Winchester
Cedar Creek
Five Forks
Petersburg
Appomatox Court House
2. The Men:
Grant
Sherman
Sheridan
McCIellan
Meade
Thomas
Burnside
Halleck
Hooker
Rosecrans
Buell
Hancock
Pope
Lyon
Foote
Farragut
Lee
Jackson
Johnston
Johnston
Longstreet
Beauregard
Bragg
Hood
Early
(d) Emancipation Declaration
Draft Riots
Four years of civil war established
the principle that the United States,
once perhaps a federation, is now a
nation. Slavery is abolished and a par-
tisan Congress, under the stress of cir-
cumstances, gives the ballot to the lib-
erated bondsmen. Reconstructed, the
Southern States devote themselves to the
task of rebuilding their wasted fortunes
on old ruins and new conditions. The
South recognizes the lesson of the war
in its bearing on the nature of our
Government, but refuses to recognize
the capacity for political and social
equality in the negro, and in the last
38
HISTORY
years of the nineteenth century enters
upon a deliberate policy of negro dis-
franchisement through State legisla-
tion. In the North and West, the era is
one of extraordinary material growth,
and political questions of the time
are largely economic — currency, tariff,
labor, and monopoly. With the ac-
quisition of the Spanish possessions in
the Pacific, and the assumption of the
task of building the intcroceanic Pan-
ama Canal, the United States begins its
career as a world power. See :
(a) The Restored Union:
Johnson, Andrew
Reconstruction
Freedmen's Bureau
Carpet Baggers
Ku-Klux Klan
Knights of the Golden Circle
Force Bill
Tenure of Office Act
Stanton
Chase, S. P.
Stevens, T.
(fa) Period of Republican Ascendency :
Grant
Hayes
Garfield
Arthur
Credit IMobilicr of America
Star Route Frauds
Whisky Ring
Electoral Commission
Tilden
Cleveland
Harrison, Benjamin
McKinley, Wm.
Roosevelt, T.
Blaine, J. G.
Reed, T. B.
(c) Finance and Tariff:
Money
Coinage
Bimetallism
Greenbacks
Greeley, H.
Bland."^ R. P.
Bryan, W. J.
Tariff
Free Trade
Protection
((/) Industrial History:
Grange
Populist Party
Farmer's Alliance
Labor Organizations
Arbitration
Strikes and Lockouts
Trusts
Interstate Commerce Act
Centennial Exhibition
World's Columbian Exposition
Pan-American Exposition
Saint Louis World's Fair
Trans-Mississippi Exposition
{e) Territorial Expansion :
Alaska
Hawaiian Islands
Porto Rico
Philippine Islands
Spanish-American War
Sampson
Schley
Dewey
Lawton
Wheeler
Aguinaldo
Rizal
(f) Foreign Relations:
Ala!)amu Claims
Washington, Treaty of
Virginius Massacre
Venezuela
Bering Sea Controversy
HISTORY
39
Special Topics in United States
History.
A. Indian Affairs:
Indians
Tecumseh
Cherokee
Creeks
Seminole
Osceola
Black Hawk
Red Jacket
Sioux
Sitting Bull
Custer
Modoc
Apache
Geronimo
B. Minor Political Parties and Party
Terms :
Party Names
Liberty Party
American Party
Anti-Monopoly Party
Anti-Rentism
Barnburners
Blue Light
Bushwhacker
Copperheads
Conscience Whigs
Doughface
Hunkers
Loco-foco
Protective Association, American
Quids
Stalwarts
Tammany Hall
Anti-Masons
Albany Regency
Essex Junto
Mugwump
Readj usters
For the Historians:
Adams, H.
Adams, H. B.
Bancroft, G.
Bancroft, H. H.
Brodhead, J. R.
Bryce, James
Burgess, J. W.
Coffin, C. C.
Curtis, G. T.
Dodge, T.
Doyle, J. A.
Fiske, J.
Frothingham, R.
Gayarre, C.
Harrisse, H.
Hart, A. B.
Higginson, T. W.
Hildreth, R.
Hoist, H. E.
Johnston, A.
Lodge, H. C.
Lossing, B.
McMaster, J. B.
Palfrey, J. G.
Parkman, F.
Peter ^Martyr
Rhodes, J. F.
Robinson, J. H.
Ropes, J. C.
Shea, J. G.
Sloane, W. I\I.
Sparks, J.
Thorpe, F. N.
Thwaites, R. G.
Wilson, W.
Winsor, J.
Qllfapt^r 2* Ham wxh Pnlittral ^txmtt
NATIONAL or IMunicipal law is commonly divided into two gen-
eral classifications, Substantive Law, and Adjective or Remedial
Law. Substantive Law prescribes and defines the normal rela-
tions of social and political life, that is, legal rights, obligations,
and privileges, as distinguished from violations of the normal,
legal order. (See Substantive Law.) Adjective or Remedial Law deals with
abnormal conditions, such as crimes, and with the methods of enforcement of
legal rights. Both of these classifications are severally divided into Public
Law, and Private Law. The title. Public Law, is applied to those subjects which
have to do with the relations of individuals to the various branches of govern-
ment. Private Law includes the rules governing the relations of individuals to
each other, and their rights in and over property. While, for some pur-
poses, Substantive and Remedial Law are so closely connected tliat a complete
knowledge of one is not possible without an acquaintance with the other, yet, in
general, it may be said that, for practical purposes, the average layman is con-
cerned chiefly with the rules of Substantive Law, except, perhaps. Public Reme-
dial Law — the Law of Crimes. For example, it is quite necessary that a person
in business be somewhat familiar with the ordinary principles of the Law of
Contracts, but it is not necessary that he should know how to proceed in law to
obtain redress for the breach of a contract.
International Law is distinguished from Municipal Law, in that the former
deals with the relations of nations with each other, and sucli rules of law as will
be recognized by nations in dealing with the citizens of each other, while the
latter deals with the relations of one nation to its citizens, and the relations of
the citizens with each other. International Law is administered, generally, in the
various courts of each nation when applicable, but the refusal of a nation to
recognize any of its principles could only be met bj' a declaration of war on the
part of the aggrieved nation or nations, whereas the sovereign power of a
nation sanctions and enforces Municipal or National Law. Therefore, to avoid
confusion, topics in International Law are placed in a separate classification.
For a General Discussion of the Nature and Purposes of Law, see :
Law Municipal Law
Jurisprudence Mercantile Law
Substantive Law Military Law
International Law
A. ^ubritmtttiti^ Slam
classifications, CoNSTiTrTioNAL and
I. Public Substantive Law. Adminmstkative Law. Constitutional
This branch of substantive law is law deals with tlic nature and powers of
commonly dividid into two general the Government, and correlativcly with
■10
LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
41
tlie riglits and privileges of citizens
with reference to the Government. The
name, Administrative Law, is applied
to that portion which controls and regu-
lates the enforcement of tjie will of the
Government, as expressed by constitu-
tions, statutes, etc.
1. Constitutional Law:
Constitution
Constitutional Law
Constitution of the LTnited States
Magna Charta
Amendment
Federal Government
Police Power
Veto
Eminent Domain
Bill of Rights
Civil Rights Bill
Bill of Attainder
Sovereignty
State
Ex post facto
Retroactive
Due Process of Law
Congress
Legislature
Legislation
Conflict of Laws
Act
Act of Parliament
Repeal
Citizen
Alien
Naturalization
Allegiance
Domicile
Alien and Sedition Acts
Expatriation
Expulsion
Liberty of Individual
Liberty, Religious
Emancipation
Reprieve
Territories
Consolidation Acts
Restraint of Trade
Interstate Commerce Act
Granger Cases
Concurrent Jurisdiction
Original Package
Income Tax
Inheritance Tax
Dartmouth College Case
Slaughtcr-House Cases
Dred Scott Case
Fugitive Slave Law
Homestead Laws
Poor Laws
Tenure of Office Act
Legal Tender Cases
Debt, Public
Convention
Election
Vote
Fishing Laws
Franchise
2. Administrative Law:
Administrative Law
Executive Department
State, Department of
Diplomacy
High Commission
Commission
Commissioner
jMunicipality
Municipal Government
Municipal Law
Municipal Ownership
Municipal Reform Acts
Civil Administration
Court
Supreme Court of U. S.
Courts, Military
Court Baron
Court of Session
42
LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
County Court
Common Bench
Probate Court
Petty Sessions
District Court
Sheriff's Court
Ecclesiastical Court
King's Bench
Cassation, Court of
Claims, Court of
Instance, Court of
Inns of Chancery
Inns of Court
Ordinance
Bj'-law
Charter
Building Acts
Cemetery Laws
Factor's Acts
Intoxicating Liquors
Grand Jury
Justice, Lord
Sheriff
Justice of the Peace
Marshal
Coroner
Assessors
Auditor
Alderman
Attorney-General
Surrogate
Judge-Advocate
Judge
Referee
Justice
Justice, Department of
Justice of the Peace
Appointment
II. Private Substantive Law
For convenience this portion of the
substantive law is divided into two clas-
sific'utions, the Law of Persons and the
Law of Property.
1. Law of Persons:
In law, both natural persons and
those creations of the law, such as cor-
porations, known as legal entities, or
juristic persons, are classed together in
the Law of Persons, as the same gen-
eral principles apply to them. Under
the title Natural Persons, are
grouped titles dealing with the pecu-
liar privileges and disabilities of
married women, infants, and persons
of unsound mind. Topics dealing
with the family relation are for con-
venience grouped together.
(a) Natural Persons:
I. Persons Exercising Incomplete or
Special Rights:
Infant
Minor
Legitimacy
Apprentice
Disability
. Married Women
Feme Covcrte
Coverture
Insanity
Lucid Interval
Capacity
(h) Fu,mihj Relations:
Husband and Wife
Settlement
Marriage
Divorce
Alimony
Adultery
Se])aration
Aban(Ii)nnient
Paraphernalia
Community of Property
Pin-]\Ion('y
Separate Estate
LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
43
Parent and Child
Adoption
Bastard
Ancestor
Affinity
Consanguinity
Domicile
Guardian
(c) Juristic Persons:
Company
Corporation
Ultra Vires
De Facto
Charitable Trusts
Ecclesiastical Corporation
Joint Stock Company
Limited Companies
Limited Liability
Regulated Companies
Stock Company
Dividend
Director
Trust
2. Law ok Property:
The term property includes every-
thing that is the subject of possession
and ownership, whether tangible or in-
tangible. The various kinds of proper-
ty are naturally divided into two classi-
fications, Real and Personal. Real
Property includes lands, tenements,
and hereditaments, and interests therein.
Subjects dealing with the disposition
and incumbrance of real property inter
vivos are also placed under this title.
Personal Property includes all movable
objects of property, commonly known
aS) chattels, and such claims, obligations,
and rights of action as are the subject
of transfer. Topics treating of the
transfer of property, both real and per-
sonal, by will or descent, are classed un-
der the title. Succession and Inheri-
tance.
(a) Real Property :
i. Nature of Real Property :
Real Property
Real Estate
Hereditament
Tenement
IMines and Mining
Feudalism
Fee
Fief
Feud
Feu
Accession
ii. Sj'stems of Tenure:
Tenure
Seisin
Manor
Socage
Frankalmoigne
Gavelkind
Ground- Annual
Demesne
Ancient Demesne
Borough English
Burgage Tenure
Tenant Right
Community of Property
Mortmain
Subinfeudation
Sergeant}'
Landlord and Tenant
Attornment
Lease
Leasehold
Common, Tenancy' in
Tenancy at SufFei'ance
Tenancy at Will
Rent
Occupancy
Mining Claim
44
LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Life Estate
Conditional Fee
Remainder
Reversion
Freehold
Dower
Curtesy
Entrj', Right of
Entirety
Equity of Redemption
Equitable Estate
Riparian Rights
Rivers, Navigable and Non-navi-
gable
Inclosures of Commons
Use and Occupation
License
Pew Rights
iii. Transfer and Incumbrance of Real
Property :
Alienation
Encumbrance
Bargain and Sale
Conveyance
Conveyancing
Land Transfer, Reform in
Abstract of Title
Search of Title
Deed
Habendum
Restrictive Covenants
Conditional Limitation
Quit Claim
Lease and Release
Demise
Executory Devise
Shifting Use
Entail
Shelley's Case, Rule in
Enrollment
Power of Appointment
Power
Ejectment
Eviction
Adverse Possession
Common Assurance
Elegit, Estate by
Jointure
Escrow
Settled Estate
Tax Sale
Tax Title
Cloud on Title
Perpetuity
Prescription
Quit Rent
Office Found
Partition
INIortgage
jMerger
Tacking of Mortgages
Mechanic's Lien
Servitude
Easement
Equitable Easement
Incorporeal
Equitable Mortgage
Building Loans
Donis Conditionalibus
Domesday Book
Recording Acts
Recording of Deeds
Torrens S^'stcm
Title, Registration of
Title Insurance
(b) Personal Property:
i. Possession :
Chattel
Movables
Confusion
Treasure-Trove
Chose in Action
Fixtures
Emblements
Est ray
Good-Will
LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
45
Oysters, Law as to
Wreck
ii. Patents, Patent Law:
Letters Patent
Trademark
Trade-name
Copyright
Literary Property
Invention
Caveat
iii. Contracts, Obligations, and Intan-
gible Property Rights :
Contract
Obligation
Covenant
Consideration
Rescission
Discharge
Breach
Subrogation
Abrogation
Suretyship
Pledge
Reward
Guaranty
Gift
Claim
Debt
Creditor
Commercial Law
Debtor
Payment
Chose in Action
Accord and Satisfaction
Assignment
Donation
Joint Ownership
Sale
Bill of Sale
Auction
Market Overt
Caveat Emptor
Delivery
Condition and Conditional
Vendor's Lien
Lien
Bailment
Carrier, Common
Baggage
Bill of Lading
Forwarding
Consignment
Stoppage in Transitu
Joint Adventure
Freight
Negotiable Instruments
Negotiable Paper
Promissory Note
Check
Bill of Exchange
Bank-Bills
Exchequer Bills
Bought and Sold Notes
Specialty
Bond
Stock
Coupon
Credit, Letter of
Warehouse Receipt
Bottonn'y Bond
Guaranty
Indorsement
Dishonor
Exchange
Interest
Agent
Factor
Partnership
Mercantile Agent
Mercantile Agency
Master and Servant
Joint Liability
Insurance
Life Insurance
Accident Insurance
Wager Policy
46
LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Account
Deposit
Voucher
Receipt
Seal
Notary Public
Acknowledgment
Debenture
(c) Succession and Inheritance :
Decedent
Estate
Inheritance
Intestacy
Distribution
Succession ab Intestato
Surveyorship
Primogeniture
Inventory
Administration
Will
Testament
Appraisement
Legacy
Residuary Legacy
Ademption
Advancement
Codicil
Share
Beneficiary
Per Stirpes
Devise
Personal Representative
Executor
Undue Influence
Deathbed, Law of
Heir
Heirloom
Accumulations
Lapse
Posthumous Ciiild
B. iSi^mfbtal IGaui
I. Public Remedial Law.
This portion of the Adjective, or Re-
medial, Law deals with crimes, the pen-
alties therefor, and the method of prose-
cution of accused persons by tlie State.
We shall first take up tiiose topics which
define particular crimes, under botli
statutes and the common law, and then
those which deal with the prosecution
and punishment of crimes. See:
Adjective Law
1. Crimes, Misdemeanors, etc.:
Crime
Criminology
Criminal Law
Jlisdcmeanor
Accessory
Accomplice
Infamy
Felony
Barratry
Blackmail
Blasphemy
Body-Snatching
Bribery
By-Bidding
Burglary
Embezzlement
Robbery
Stolen Goods
Receiving Stolen Goods
Assault and Battery
Security
Security of Person
Manslaughter
Homicide
Murder
Malpractice
Consent
LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
47
Infanticide
Arson
Smuggling
Counterfeiting
Subornation of Perjury
Compounding of Felony
Suicide
Misprision
Treason
Overt Act
Malicious Mischief
Extortion
Forgery
Sunday
Gambling
o
Disturbance
Eavesdropping
Embracery
Engrossing
Forestalling
Monopoly
Harboring"
Champerty
Concealment
Corrupt Practices
Simony
Piracy
Policy
Fornication
Rape
Incest
Rescue
Riot
Abortion
False Pretenses
Common Scold
Sumptuary Laws
Trading Stamps
Habitual Drunkard
Criminal Procedure and Punish-
ment of Crimes:
Criminal Procedure
Arrest
Arraignment
Search
Bench Warrant
Search Warrant
Writ
Attainder
Autrefois Acquit
Benefit of Clergy
Capital Punishment
Charge and Specification
Commitment
Corporal Punishment
Corruption of Blood
Fine
Forfeiture
Hard Labor
Information
Informer
Justification
Ordeal
Outlawry
Civil Death
Peine Forte et Dure
Penalty
Posse Comitatus
Nolle Prosequi
Prisoner
Prosecution
Prosecutor
Voir Dire
Punishment
Self Defense
Sentence
State's Evidence
State Trials
Ne Exeat
Torture
Extradition
Locus Delicti
f
II. Private Remedial Law.
This division of Remedial Law in-
cludes the law of Torts and Civil
Practice and Procedure. Torts are
48
LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
wrongs other than those arising out of
contract, for which the injured party
has a riecht of action. A tort action is
not assignable and is not strictly a
property right, and, therefore, the law
of torts is properly considered remedial
law. Under the title, Civil Practice
and Procedure, are grouped all topics
dealing with the enforcement of civil
rights of action of a private nature.
1. ToKTS, OR Civil Wrongs.
Conversion
Trespass
Trover
Fraud
Fraudulent Conveyance
Infringement
Slander of Title
Defamation
Slander
Libel
Contribution
Intimidation
Accident
Injury
Misrepresentation
Nonfeasance
Nuisance
Negligence
Malfeasance
False Imprisonment
Malicious Prosecution
Mayhem
Pollution of Watercourses
Criminal Conversation
Employer's Liability
Fellow-Servants
2. Civil Practice and Procedure.
In English jurisprudence, three dis-
tinct systems of procedure, correspond-
ing and adapted to distinct systems of
jurisprudence, were developed respect-
ively by the courts of common law, the
courts of chancery, and the courts of
admiralty. The common law procedure
is much older than the procedure in
either equity or admiralty, as practiced
by the English courts, the curia regis, —
which was the forerunner of the Eng-
lish Courts of Exchequer, Common
Pleas, and King's Bench, in which the
common law procedure was developed, —
having been established in the early
part of the twelfth century. Procedure
in equity is much simpler than pro-
cedure at common law. Its essential
characteristics are based on the fact
that the sole power of that court is to
command things to be done, and not
directly to transfer or otherwise affect
the rights of litigants. Procedure in
admiralty was founded upon the Roman
law and corresponds in many particu-
lai's to the equity system. The embar-
rassment experienced as a consequence
of the technical character of the com-
mon law procedure has led to many
reforms by legislation.
Action
Limitation of Actions
Civil Action
Civil Procedure
Forms of Action
Admii-alty Law
Equity
Procedure
Practice
Pleading
Process
Code
Code Napoleon
Service of Papers and Process
Next Friend
Parties
Name
Plea
LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
49
Common Counts
Common Forms
Common Plcca
Common Recovery
Debt, Action of
Detinue
Assumpsit
Foreclosure
Replevin
Bill in Equity
Real Action
Civil Death
Claim
Lawyer
Attorney
Advocate
Barrister
Counselor
Solicitor
Disbarment
Client
PlaintifF
Defendant
Respondent
Joinder
Writ
Declaration
Confession and Avoidance
Answer
General Issue
Verification
Demurrer
Disclaimer
Defense
Forma Pauperis, In
Cross-Bill
Confession of Judgment
Case
Chambers
Chancery
Cestui que Trust
Cestui que Use
Master in Chancery
Citation
Month
Attachment
Foreign Attachment
Letters Rogatory
Lis Pendens
Oath
Notary Public
Precept
Discovery, Bill of
Cognovit
Cognizance
Color
Subpcena
Recoupment
Ex Parte
Distringas
Garnishment
Entry, Writ of
Quia Timet
Qui Tarn Action
Interrogatories
Affidavit
Bill of Particulars
Certiorari
Habeas Corpus
Habeas Corpus Act
Inquiry, Writ of
Inquisition
In Personam
In Rem
Interpretation
Interpleader
Injunction
Prohibition
Special Proceeding
Specific Performance
Trustee Process
Warrant
Quo Warranto
Intervention
Invoice
Bill of Peace
Acknowledgment
Civil Damage Acts
50 LAW AND
POLITICAL SCIENCE
Forcible Entry and Detainer
Proof
District Attorney
Handwriting
Hilary Term
Testimony
Oyer and Terminer
Privilege
Venue
Privileged Communication
Judicature Acts
Laches
Jurisdiction
Dictum
Judge
Precedent
Jury
Res Ad judicata
Challenge
Presumption
Judge Advocate
Declaration or Affirmation
Oyer
Alteration
Stay
Access
Stare Decisis
Ambiguity
Damages
Argument
Day
Verdict
Marshalling
Special Verdict
Trial
Scotch Verdict
Mistrial
Judgment
Nonsuit
Award
Incident
Appeal
Judicial Notice
Bill of Costs
Evidence
Taxation of Costs
Exception
Bill of Exceptions
Circumstantial Evidence
Execution
Burden of Proof
Supersedeas
Condonation
Exemption
Admission
Sequestration
Examination
Distress
Cross Examination
Equitable Assets
Witness
Receiver
Expert
Winding Up of Company
C. dlttt^ntatimtal Ham
The subjects or persons of Interna-
tional Law arc independent sovereign
States or nations. The community con-
stituting such State is permanently es-
tablished for a political end, is pos-
sessed of a defined territory, and is
independent of external control. If
one or more of these elements be lack-
ing, the community is not a State in the
sense of International Law. Individ-
uals choose their associates, and States
likewise determine whetiier and when
they wish to maintain relations with a
newcomer. A fundamental proposition
of International Law is the ocjuality
of States, of which Chief Justice Mar-
LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
51
shall said : " No principle of general
law is more universally acknowledged
than the perfect equality of nations.
Russia and Geneva have equal rights.
It results from this equality that no
one can rightfully impose a rule on
another." Sec :
Treaty
Treaty Rights
Diplomacy
Diplomatic Agents
Envoy
Embassy
Ambassador
Neutrality
Enemy
Embargo
Blockade
Contraband
Mare Clausum
High Seas
Territorial Waters
Seashore
Tide Waters
Bering Sea Controversy
Extraterritoriality
Prescription
Privateering
Piracy
Award
Convoy
Extradition
Foreign Judgment
Foreign Law
War
Truce
Acts of Hostility
Comity of Nations-
Mainprize
Navigation, Freedom of
Navigation Laws
Recaptui'e
Retaliation
Rules of the Road
Salvage
Seamen, Laws Relating to
D. ^\sX\^x^ aub iHtsrrllauii
1. Agrarian Law:
Anglo-Saxon Law
Customary Law
Common Law
Civil Law
Civil Church Law
Twelve Tables
Salic Law
Scotch Law
Spanish Law
Oleron, Laws of
Law ]Merchant
2. Parliamentary Law:
Revised Statutes
Medical Jurisprudence
Maxims
Legal Education
3. The following are a few of the
names in the ranks of jurists, law3'ers,
and publicists of all time :
Austin, John
Betts, S. R.
Binnej', Horace
Black, J. S.
Blackstone, William
Bluntschli, J. K.
Bodin, J.
Bracton, Henry de
Brougham, Lord
Campbell, John
Choatc, Rufus
Coke, Edward
52
LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Cooley, T. M.
Curtis, G. T.
Ellsworth, Oliver
Erskine, Lord
Fearne, Chas.
Feucrbach, P. J. A.
Field, D. D.
Field, S. J.
Filangieri, G.
Fortescue, John
Gans, E.
Glanvill
Grotius, Hugo
Hale, IVIatthew
Holt, John
Janet, Paul
Jeffreys, Lord
Johnson, Reverdy
Kent, James
Laboulaye, E. L.
Lamar, L. Q. C.
Lanadell, C. C.
Lieber, Francis
Livingston, Edward
Lowell, A. L.
Maine, Henry
Mansfield, Earl
Marshall, John
Montesquieu, C.
Moore, J. B.
Pardessus, J. M.
Parsons, Theophilus
Plowden, E.
Pollock, F.
Portahs, J. E. M.
Pufendorf, S.
Savigny, F. K.
Smith, Goldwin
Stephen, J. F.
Story, J.
Taney, R. B.
Tocqueville, A. C.
Wharton, F.
Woolscy, T. D.
QII|apt^r 3. ®I|^ i^nrml BtimttB
SOCIAL science presents a theoretical and a practical aspect, of which
the latter, at tlie present time, is the more important. Speculation
I on the origins of social life, the evolution of social institutions, and
the nature of existing social bonds has been rich in theories, diverse
in view, but casting light on all the course of human development.
Society has been variously regarded as an aggregate, an organization, or an
organism, and accordingly as it has been regarded its rights and duties as
against the individual have been outlined. The influence of the collective body
and the collective mind on the body and mind of the individual forms one of the
most fascinating topics of sociology, fascinating because of the close connection
that may be established between individual and social progress. But as yet
scarcely sufficient material has been collected to make social theory strictly
scientific, and the greater interest, probably, attaches to what has been called the
practical aspect of social science, the study, namely, of contemporary social con-
ditions and the problems which they create. Thus it would not be far from the
truth to call practical sociology, social pathology, for as a matter of fact the
attention of the working sociologist is directed, in greater part, to the study of
the ills of the social body, a study of those individuals and classes of individuals
whose presence in the midst of society is a burden or a source of danger to society
or the cause of misery to themselves. In tliis respect social science deals with
the helpless and the vicious and is largely coincident with humanitarianism.
Theoretical sociology is most closely allied to Anthropology and History, going
to the latter for its evolutionary data and to the former for origins. Practical
sociology depends very largely on statistics.
A. ^crifllnQij
I. The methods and theories of so- of the sociologist, such as the Family,
ciology are treated at length under IMarriagc, the Tribe, etc., will be found
that heading, supplemented Ijy minor in the chapter on Anthropology and
articles on subsidiary topics. This Kthnolog}'.
article, therefore, should be made the
starting point on reading. See: II- 1- Taking human aggregates as
its subject matter, practical sciology
Sociology ^j,^^^.^ ^j,g greatest uses from statistics.
Man, Science of The gathering of statistical data is be-
Anthropo-geography ^^^ initiated wherever governments
Acchmatization j^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^i,^j ^^ ^^^^^^ ^,^^ ^^^^^
Environment ^^^ ^,^^^^ ^^^j^j enunciations pre-
''^ vail their scope is constantly being
A discussion of various social insti- widened. The study of population is
tutions which form part of the data now well advanced. See :
53
54
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Demography
Census
Population
Vital Statistics
Births, Registration of
Illiteracj'
Immigration
Emigration
Naturalization
Suicide
Statistics
2. " Dependents, Defectives, De-
linquents," adequately describes the
subjects dealt with by the social
pathologists. In this immensely broad
field, private efforts co-operate with
State activity, the former thi-ough in-
vestigations and advocacy largely, the
latter through remedial legislation and
the use of State resources. For a
study of the dependent and defective
classes, see:
Dependents, Defectives, Delinquents
Social Debtor Classes
Pauperism
Poor Laws
Poor Rate
Casual Poor ,
IMendicancy
Tramp
Workhouse
Almshouse
Charities
Charities and Correction, National
Conference of
Cliarity Organization Society
Brinkcrhoff, Roeliff
Elberfeld System
Blind, Education of the
Howe, S. G.
Deaf Mute (Institutions)
Gallaudet, E. M.
Insane Asylum
Bedlam
Degeneracy
Jukes, The
3. Of dependent classes, children,
naturally, absorb a large share of the
attention of the sociologist and the
charity woi'ker. The mission here is
not one of relief only, but of redemp-
tion, and successful effort in this field
discounts future dangers to society.
See:
Dependent Children
Foundling Hospital
Creche
Marbeau, J. B.
Infant School
Ragged Schools
Rauhes Haus
George Junior Republic
Parks and Playgrounds
Juvenile Offenders
Children, Societies for
Cruelty to Children, Prevention of
Children's Aid Society
4. Suflicient reason exists for
speaking of a criminal class to make
Criminology an independent branch
of investigation with something of the
methodology of a science. The de-
linquent, the criminal, is regarded as
at war with society. The causes that
have changed tlie coiu'se of nature in
him and made him anti-social may be
heredity or cnviromncnt or Ixitli. The
prevention and punisliment of crime
and the possible reformation of the
criminal form the subject matter of
the "science." See:
Criminology
Lombroso, Ccsare
Bertillon System
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
55
Punishment
Corporal Punishment
Flogging
Penology
Capital Punishment
Prisons
Convict
Convict Labor
Clinton State Prison
Newgate
Fleet Prison
Millbank Prison
Bicetre
Conciergcrie
Transportation, Penal
Botany Bay
Bagnes
Recidivists
Reformatories
Elmira Reformatory
Brockway, Z. R.
Ticket of Leave
Mettray
Beccaria, C. B.
Howard, John
Round, W. M.
Fliedner, T.
Fry, Elizabeth
Prison Association of the LTnited
States
5. The vices of individuals, as well
as of classes, affect the welfare of the
body politic, (a) The standard of
personal purity is rising with the
general heightening in moral tone,
(b) The evils resulting from the abuse
of liquor have led to one of tlie most
notable movements of the nineteenth
century. See :
{a) Family
Marriage
Celibacy
Illegitimacy
Bastard
Prostitution
(b) Intoxication
Temperance
Prohibition
Local Option
Gotiienburg System
Abstinence Societies
Mathew, T.
Loyal Temperance League
Woman's Christian Temperance
Union
World's Woman's Christian Tem-
perance Union
6. The problem of remedying so-
cial evil has drawn the attention of
men in all ages, and thinkers have been
fond of busying themselves with tlie
construction of ideal forms of society
since the days of Plato. ]\Iore than
philosophers' dreams, however, are the
great social movements of modem
times, whose aim is the reorganization
of society on a different basis than that
of the present — private property.
(a) For the literary Utopias, see:
Plato (The Republic)
Campanella (The City of the
Sun)
INIore, Thomas (Utopia)
Harrington, James (Oceana)
Bellamy, Edward (Looking
Backward )
(b) For Communism, see:
Communism
Communistic Societies
Shakers
Owen, Robert
Harmonists
New Harmony
Cabet, Etienne
Icarians
56
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Brook Farm
Hopedale
Oneida Community
Zoar Comniunity
Koreshan Ecclesia
Amana
Noyes, J. H.
Perfectionists
(c) For Socialism, see:
Socialism
Collectivism
Fourierism
Nationalism
National Workshops
Saint-Simon, C. H.
Fourier, F. M. C.
Rodbertus, J.
Enfantin, B. P.
Bazard, A.
Considerant, V. P.
Babcuf, F. N.
Proudhon, P. J.
Blanc, J. J. I.
Marx, Karl
Lassalle, F.
Engels, F.
Internationale
Weitling, W.
Liebknecht, W.
Bebel, F. A.
Vollmar, G. H.
Bernstein, E.
Malon, B.
Godin, J. B. A.
James, E. J.
Millerand, A.
Gronlund, Lawrence
Morris, VVm.
Hyndman, H. M.
Fabian Society
Nicuwcnhuis, D.
(d) For Anarchism, see:
Anarchist
Bakunin, M.
Most, Johann
Nihilism
Michel, Louise
(e) For quasi-socialistic movements,
see:
(a) jMunicipal Ownership
Single Tax
George, Henry
(b) Cooperation
Rochdale Pioneers
Consumers' League
Profit Sharing
Leclaire, E. J.
7. Socialism is heterodox in exalt-
ing the State over the individual, yet
there is rapidly growing recognition
of the right of the State to intervene
for the protection of the working
classes, and to assume functions tend-
ing to furtiier their welfare. See:
Factory Inspection
Labor Legislation
Child Labor
Sweating System
Lodging-Houses
Housing Problem
Tenement House Problem
Bath Houses, Municipal
Postal Savings Banks
Old Age Pensions
Vacant Lot Farming
8. A recent development of social
work is the settlement house established
in the congested district of great cities
to act as a centre of phj'sical and
moral uplifting. See:
Social Settlements
People's Palace
Toynheo, Arnold
Hull House
Addams, Jane
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
57
Boys' Clubs
Fresh-Air Work
See also: Salvation Army; Booth,
Charles ; Pullman ; Krupp Foundries,
Social Work at.
9. For a problem specifically Amer-
ican, see:
Negro in America
Negro Education
Hampton Normal and Agricultural
Institute
Tuskegee Normal and Industrial
Institute
Washington, Booker T.
Societies in the narrow sense, asso-
ciations, that is, of individuals, for the
attainment of a common aim, have
always existed, illustrating in the
miniature the gregarious nature of
man. Their purpose may be various,
social, political, religious, educational,
or protective. See for types of each:
Societies
Club
Benefit Societies
Friendly Society
Building and Loan Associations
Secret Associations
Burschenschaft
Carbonari
Fenian Society
Patriotic Societies
Orders
Templars, Knights
Hospitalers
Brotherhoods, Religious
Jesuits
Societies for Ethical Culture
Fraternities, American College
Academy
Institute of France
Royal Society
Historical Associations, American
Masons, Free
Odd Fellows, Independent Order of
Pythias, Knights of
Elks, Benevolent and Protective
Order of
Hibernians, Ancient Order of
10. A partial list only of writers
and investigators in sociology would
include :
Althusius, Johannes
Amnion, Otto
Barth, Paul
Buckle, Henry T.
Fairbanks, Arthur
Folks, Homer
Giddings, F. H.
Gumplowicz, Ludwig
Henderson, C. R.
Kidd, Benjamin
Le Bon, G.
Le Play, P.
Lloyd, Henry D.
Schaffle, A.
Schulze-Delitzsch, H.
Stuckcnbcrg, J.
Tarde, G.
Ward, Lester F.
Webb, Sidney
Wines, F. H.
Worms, Rene
B. Pnltttral iErnnnmii
Political Economy has been briefly planation of the peculiar sense in
defined as the science of wealth, but which the term wealth is emplo3'ed.
this definition requires a further ex- Wealth has been defined as the bodj' of
58
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
things that have value, but here again
value in the economic sense has a nar-
rower meaning than in ordinary use.
Value, in economic discussion, usually
means power in exchange, that is, the
power of a commodity to command
other commodities in exchange. Such
attempts at brief definition, however,
are not satisfactoi'y, since each pri-
mary concept of the science is itself
the text for long discussion. The best
introduction to the subject will be
found in the article. Political Econ-
omy, which outlines clearly the content
or scope, the relation of political
economy to other brandies of study,
and the methods of investigation or
arrangement that it employ's.
I. The fundamental principles
should then be studied by reference
to the following articles :
Wealth
Production
Labor
Division of Labor
Wages
Standard of Living
Capital
Interest
Usury
Rent
Single Tax
Metayer
Profit
Monopoly
Speculation
Consumption
Value
The history of economic tliought
should bo studied next. In ancient
and mcdiicval times ])olitical economy
was not marked off from otiier l)ranches
of learning, and no attempt was made
to study it systematically. From the
historical paragraphs in the article,
Political Economy, it will be seen
that to the Greek and Roman phi-
losophers, as well as to tiie media?val
churchmen the laws of trade were of
interest mainly in their moral bearings.
Even in the eigliteenth century, when
some of its principles were understood,
and something like a systematic study
was attempted, its scope and import-
ance were not realized. It was re-
garded as a branch of statecraft. Not
private wealth, but the best means of
increasing financial power of the state
was the main object of investigation.
For an account of the various systems
of economic thought, and the contri-
butions of individual economists, see
the following :
IMercantilism
Physiocrats
Laissez-Faire
Manchester School
Free Trade
Quesnay, F.
Smith, Adam
Ricardo, D.
Malthus, T. R.
Thiinen, J. H. von
Say, J. B.'
Carey, H. C.
Bastiat, F.
Mill, J. S.
Cairnes, J.
Jevons, W. S.
Walker, F. A.
Marshall, Alfred
Boehm von Bawerk, E.
Clark, J. B.
Wagner, Adolf
Schmollcr, G.
Menger, K.
Nicholson, J. S.
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
59
Patten, S. N.
Obviously the study of past eco-
nomic conditions is essential to an
undcrstandin<if of the present. On the
general subject of Industrial Evolu-
tion consult the following:
Manufactures
House Industry
Mir
Guild
Hanscatic League
Merchants Adventurers
Mercantilism
Physiocrats
Industrial Revolution
Factories
(See United States, Great
Britain, Germany, etc., for eco-
nomic evolution of those coun-
tries.)
II. Reading the above topics in
the order given will have supplied the
theoretical and historical basis for the
study of actual conditions, practical
questions, and proposed measures of
reform, which are arranged logically
in the following lists :
1. Trade AND Transportation :
Commerce
Barter
Chamber of Commerce
Imports and Exports
International Trade
Balance of Trade
Stock Exchange
Crisis, Economic
Speculation
Transportation
Railways
Interstate Commerce Act
Municipal Ownership
See also statistics of Commerce and
Railways under the various countries,
as United States, Great Britain,
Chile, etc.
2. Labor and Capital:
Trade Unions
Labor Organizations
Knights of Labor
Labor, American Federation of
Railway Brotherhoods
Typographical Union of North
America
Letter-Carriers, National Associa-
tion of
Metal Trades Association
Miners, Western Federation of
Mine Workers of America
Labor Representation Committee
Strikes and Lockouts
Industrial Arbitration and Concilia-
tion
Eight- Hour Day
Standard of Living
Union Label
Boycotting
Labor Problems
Labor Colonies
Labor Congresses
Industrial Revolution
Sweating System
Employment Bureau
Labor Exchanges
Labor, Bureaus of .
Employer's Liability
3. Governmental Regulation and
Encouragement of Commerce
and Industry:
Protection
Customs Duties
Tariff
Drawback
Warehousing System
Mercantilism
60
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Hamilton, Alexander
List, Friedrich
Balance of Trade
Com Laws
Anti-Corn-Law League
Cobden Club
Reciprocity
Shipping Subsidies
Coasting Trade
Interstate Commerce Act
Monopoly
Trusts
4. Money and Credit :
Money
Precious IMetals
Foreign Money
Numismatics
Index Numbers
Tabular Standard
Bimetallism
Latin Union
Monetary Conferences
Monetary Commission
Gresham, Sir Thomas
Grcsham's Law
Greenbacks
Currency
Greenback Party
Specie Payments, Suspension and
Resumption of
Fiat Money
Credit
Bank, Banking
Clearing-Housc
Trust Companies
Bill of Exchange
Credit Foncicr
Mortgage Banks
Land Banks
5. Taxation and Finance;
Finance
Tax, Taxation
Debt, Public
Repudiation
Tariff
Customs Duties
Excise
Internal Revenue System
Budget
Income Tax
Land Tax
Special Assessment
Single Tax
See also sections on Finance under
the various countries, as United
States, Great Britain, Brazil, etc.
6. Insurance and Savings Institu-
tions :
Insurance
Life Insurance
Fraternal Insurance
Friendly Societies
Workingmcn's Insurance
Tontine
Undervvriter
Annuity
Savings Banks
Post Office Savings Bank
Trust Companies
Building and Loan Associations
7. Among prominent economists
in addition to those already named in
the lists, are the following :
Adams, H. C.
Atkinson, Edward
Bagehot, Walter
Bastahlc, C. F.
Bastiat, F.
Chevalier, M.
Ely, R. T.
Faucher, J.
Fawcctt, Henry
Ferraris, C. F.
Garnicr, J. C.
Jenks, J. W.
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 61
Laughlin, J. L. Seligman, E. R. A.
Leroy-Beaulieu, P. P. Senior, N. W.
Levasseur, E. Soetbecr, A.
Levi, L. Sumner, W. G.
Loria, A. Taussig, F. W.
McCulloch, J. R. Wright, C. D.
Oncken, August
Rau, K. H. 8. For Economic and Social Re-
Roscher, W. form Movements, see section 6 of
Say, L. the preceding division (Sociology).
Qlljapt^r 4. Anttfrnpnlngji
TAKEN in its broadest signification, Anthropology, the science of
i\Ian, would include within its scope all the sciences and arts as
dealing with particular phases only of the history of human life
on earth. Physiology, Psychology, Philosophy, Linguistics
and Literature would then be proper fields of stud}- for the
anthropologist, as to a large extent they are. But the field of human knowl-
edge is so broad, and the scope of every particular science in fact so exten-
sive, that in the nature of things no single mind can at the present day carry on
the work of scientific investigation in moi'e than a limited field of inquiry. Prac-
tically, therefore, anthropology, with its allied science of ethnology, has become
the study of a man as a zoological genus, and secondly, the study of the origins of
culture as deduced from ancient remains and the testimony afforded by surviving
savage races whose life has as yet undergone no such differentiation as to put it
beyond the study of a single mind. Among them are sought the germs of
present institutions and beliefs, which are followed up until they become the
things of which history takes cognizance. Primitive life, then, is largely the
subject of anthropology which deals also with survivals of primitive modes of life
and methods of thought in our own times. Thus the topic of Folklore and
Customs falls fairly within its field. See:
Man, Science of
Anthropology
Ethnography
1. The study of human anatomy
and physiology is of primary import-
ance in the science of man. On the
basis of morphological and physi-
ological peculiarities, various classi-
fications of mankind have been made,
and our knowledge of prehistoric man
is largely a matter of skulls and thigh
bones. The measurement of the hu-
man body has become a science in
itself. See :
Somatology
Craniometry
Skin
Mongolian Spots
Anthropometry
Melanism and Albinism
ILiir
Giants
Dwarf
Skull
2. Remains of prehistoric man have
been found in both hemispheres, but
most plentifully in Europe. Ingenious
comparative studies allow us to arrive
at a fair conception of the physical
characteristics of the earliest inhabi-
tants of the world. See :
Barrow
Mound-Builders
Megalithic Monuments
Dolmen
Avebury
Stonchengc
Spy
Chellcan
Cro-Magnon
Furfooz Ilace
Ilallstatt Epoch
Madeleine, La
62
ANTHROPOLOGY
63
Mousterian Epoch
Neanderthal ]Maii
Lansing Man
Kitchen-Midden
3. For the great (hvisions of man-
kind determined on the basis of phys-
ical characteristics and geographical
distribution. See:
Caucasian Race
Europe, Peoples of
]\Iediterrancan Race
Mongolian Race
Negro
Indian Peoples
Malayan Peoples
Melanesians
Indians, American,
Mixed Races
4. On the question of the origin of
mankind there has been much disputa-
tion among anthropologists with little
positive results. See:
Evolution
Pithecanthropus
5. ]\Ian has nowhere been found
in complete isolation. From the first
he appears as the social being with his
life conditioned by the co-existence of
others of his kind. Co-existence
meant likeness of thought and exper-
ience and the necessity of intercom-
munication. Our interest, therefore,
turns to language. Sec :
Language
Philology
Gesture Language
Sign Language
Writing
Hieroglyphics
Cuneiform Inscriptions
Wampum
6. In common with the animals
man is early engaged in a struggle for
the material needs of existence, with
greater needs to satisfy, however, than
the animals, and consequently with
growing resources.
(n) The desire for food is the primal
motive in life. See :
Cannibalism
Geophagy
Cookery
Pottery
(b) According to the nature of the
phj'sical conditions amidst
which he dwelt, man found
shelter for himself. See :
Tent
Wigwam
Cave-Dwellcrs
Cliff-Dweller
Mesa
Earth Lodge
Lake Dwellings
Arcliieology, American
Casa Grande
Oaxaca, Ruins of
Palenque
Nomad
Gypsies
(c) Dress, it is well established, came
from no need of protecting
the body, but had its origin
in ornament. Sec :
Dress
Tattooing
Headdress
Hairdressing
7. IMan entered upon a rapid
course of development when, in his
search for sustenance and shelter, he
began the use of tools. See :
(a) For . Implements :
Flint Implements
64
ANTHROPOLOGY
Celt
Stone Age
Bronze, Age of
Archaeology, American
Calumet
(6) For Weapons:
Arrow
Blowgun
Tomahawk
Boomerang
Scalping
For the beginnings of the agricultural
stage, see :
Agriculture
Plow
Domestic Animals
8. The religion of primitive man is
essentially the belief in a universally
animated world, a world of spirits, to
combat and placate whom is the busi-
ness of his life. See:
Man, Science of
Superstition
Religion, Comparative
Magic
Necromancy
Legerdemain
■ Oracle
Nature-Worship
Fire-Worshlp
Phallicism
Fetishism
Shamanism
Amulet
Manitou
Demonology
Demoniac
Satanism
Voodoo
Ghosts
Fast
Sacrifice
9. Birth and death are naturally
portentous phenomena to the primitive
mind, and are marked, death especially,
by various ceremonies. In case of
death the rites connect themselves with
the belief in existence beyond the grave.
See:
Couvade
Circumcision
Teknonymy
Infanticide
Mortuary Customs
Burial
Cist-burial
Suttee
Coffin
10. The origin of the family rela-
tion is a subject of much controversy;
but it seems to be well established that
preceding the present organization of
the family under the authority of the
father and conditioned by the element
of property, mankind passed through
a stage in which the family centered
around the mother, in whom authority
was vested, and from whom descent
was traced. See :
Marriage
Matriarchate
Partriarchate
Polygamy
Polyandry
Leviratc Marriage
Clan
Tribe
Totemism
Caste
Exogamy
Miscegenation
Slavery
n. Primitive morality is utilitar-
ian and narrow in the scope of its ap-
plication : right and justice as such
ANTHROPOLOGY
65
do not exist ; beneficence to fellow
members of a group, hostility to all
others, is the rule. With time only
the field of beneficence widens to tribe,
nation, and mankind. Primitive law
is summed up in custom. See:
Law
Custom
Taboo
12. Energy not directed towards
the direct satisfaction of material
wants finds expression among savages
in games and sports. Add to the
pleasure derived from active exercise
the desire to afford pleasure to others,
having its roots in the social nature of
man, and we have the beginnings of
the arts. Esthetics, modern re-
search goes to show, had its origin in
play. See :
Art, Primitive
^Esthetics
Swastika
Festivals
Dancing
Corroboree
Sun Dance
Snake Dance
Music
Areois
Potlatch
13. The survival of primitive
thought in custom, legend, superstition,
and common practices shows how con-
tinuous is the line of development from
the mental life of primitive man to our
own. For the entire subject of folk
lore, see :
Folklore
Nursery Lore
Nursery Rhymes
Superstition
Magic
Witchcraft
Incantation
Vampire
Werwolf
Griffin
Dragon
Unicorn
Mermaid
Fairy
Morgan, the Fay
Avalon
Goblins
Oberon
Puck
Robin Goodfcllow
Baring-Gould, S.
14!. The data of anthropology have
been collected from many sources, and
the outline of the principles of the
science may be filled in with concrete
detail, by referring to the many de-
scriptive articles on the primitive peo-
ples. Of the most interesting primi-
tive groups for the anthropologists, a
partial list would be the following:
(a) For America, see Indians,
American, an elaborate study
which may be carried into
great detail by following out
the cross references to every
tribe of North, Central, and
South America. See also Es-
kimo.
(b) For Asia:
Aeta ; also Philippine Islands
Aino
Andamanese (under Andamans)
Sundanese (under Sunda Islands)
Dyak
Gonds
Gurkhas
Khonds
66
ANTHROPOLOGY
Karens
Mois
Miao-Tse
Shans
Thai
Todas
Veddas
Baluchis (under Baluchistan)
Bhil
Bedouin
Kurds
Buriats •
Giliaks
Kahnucks
Golds
Kirghiz
Koriaks
Ossetes
Tchuktchi
Tchuvashes
Tatars
Ugrians
Uzbeks
Yakuts
Yukagirs
Malayan Peoples
Polynesians
Melanesians
Micronesians
Negritos
(c) For Africa:
Akka
Bantu
Bejas
Berber
Kabyles
Bushmen
Hottentots
Kafirs
Dinka
Fellah
Masai
Hausa (under Hausa States)
Niam Niam
Somali
Yolof
Yoruba
Zulus (under Zululand)
(d) For Australasia:
Australians (under Australia)
Maoris
Tasmanians (under Tasmania)
{e) For Europe:
Europe, Peoples of
Basque Race
Gypsies
Lapps (under Lapland)
15. A partial list of well-known
anthropologists woiiid include the fol-
lowing names :
Andre, R.
Bandelier, A. F. A.
Bastian, A.
Beauchamp, W. M.
Berendt, K. H.
Boas, F.
Brinton, D. G.
Broca, P.
Catlin, G.
Gushing, F. H.
Faidherbe, L. L. C.
Flower, W. H.
Fritsch, G. T.
Furncss, W. H.
Gatschet, A. S.
Hale, H.
Hartmann, R.
Hodge, F. W.
Holmes, W. H.
Kanitz, F. P.
Lubbuck, J.
McGce, W J
McLennan, J. F.
Mallery, G.
Mantegazza, P.
ANTHROPOLOGY
67
Mason, O. T.
Mooney, J.
Morgan, Jacques de
Morgan, L. H.
Mortillct, L. L.
Pilling, J. C.
Powell, J. W.
Prichard, J. C.
Putnam, F. W.
Quartrefages, J. L. A.
Ranke, J.
Ratzcl, F.
Reinach, S.
Ripley, W. Z.
Schoolcraft, H. R.
Sergi, G.
Smith, Buckingham
Squier, E. G.
Topinard, P.
Tylor, E. B.
Ujfalvy, C. E.
Olijapto 5. S^ltgtcn
OF THE numerous classifications of religion, none of which is free
k from many serious objections, we may adopt as the most practical
' that which divides creeds into monotheistic and non-monotheistic;
and though here, too, we are confronted by the difficulty that
certain faiths are neither one nor the other, completely, we may
apply the former term to the three great religions of Judaism, Christianity, and
Jlohammedanism, and classify under the second heading all beliefs whatsoever,
from primitive animism through the various national mythologies to the great
moral and philosophic systems of the East. The starting point should be the
comprehensive article on Religion, Comparative. The subject may be then
pursued through such general articles as Belief, Worship, Rite, Prayer, Sac-
KiFiCE, Priest, etc. Additional titles, in great number, will naturally suggest
themselves to the reader. The field, indeed, is extensive and touches intimately
on the domains of Anthropology, Psychology, Philosophy, and History. This
will be found especially true in the religions of the East, where philosophy and
mythology or religion are practically one.
1. The beginnings of religion, as
studied in the beliefs of primitive races,
will be found treated in the chapter on
Anthropology, where appear such
titles as
Man, Science of
Nature-Worship
Fetishism, etc.
The subject is carried on in the spe-
cial articles dealing with individual
tribes and nations, of which a list
appears in the same chapter.
2. The religions and mythologies of
the Mesopotamian nations, Egypt,
Greece, and Rome are discussed in the
chapter on History, in the various sec-
tions devoted to those countries. The
intimate connection of the religions and
the political life in the ancient world
has made this division seem desirable.
3. The mythology of the Scandi-
navian and Teutonic races differs from
that of Greece in its pervading atmos-
phere of gloom and the foreboding
of fate. The northern divinities lack
the joyous grace and humanity of the
Olympian pantheon, and the powers of
darkness, cold, and death play a far
more consj^icuous part. See :
]\Iythology
Polytheism
Scandinavian and Teutonic Myth-
ology
Edda
Aesir
Asgard
Rifriist
Yggdrasil
Miinir
Norns
Odin
Tyr
Thor
Bragi
G8
RELIGION
69
Balder
Loki
Freyja and Frigga
RagnariJk
Fenrir
Walhalla
Hel
Niflheim
4. We leave pure polytheism in
passing to the great religions of India.
Myth-worship, there, evolves with time
into complex systems of mythology
modified by abstruse philosophical
speculation.
(a) Brahmanism.
The religious system known as
Brahmanism may go back to the sec-
ond millcnium before the Christian era,
and comprises the mass of beliefs and
institutions originated or elaborated
from a primitive nature-worship, by
the Brahmans, who, from a very early
period, have constituted the dominant
class among the Hindus. It is essen-
tially a legislative system, with a vast
and minutely outlined ceremonial.
See:
Brahmanism
Aryan
Veda
Brahmana
Upanishad
Manu
Brahma
Varuna
Agni
Indra
Ushas
Maruts
Pitris
Sankhya
Nyaya
Vedanta
Mahabharata
Ramayana
Vishnu
Siva
Krishna
Purfina
Tantra
Vaishnavas
Saivas
Sjiktas
Parvati
Kali
Lakshml
Hanumfin
Gancsa
Sraddha
Caste
Henotheism
See also:
Sikhs
(b) Buddhism.
Buddhism antedates Christianity in
its origin, and its adherents are second
in number only to those of the Chris-
tian faith. Taking its rise in Hindu-
stan, it has spread over China, Indo-
China, Japan, Tibet, and the plains
of Northern and Central Asia. In
that continent, its mission as a bearer
of civilization and morality has been
not unlike the role played by Chris-
tianity in Europe and America. See:
Buddhism
Gautama Buddlia
Pitaka
Asoka
Metempsychosis
Karma
Nirvana
Sravaka
Shin-Shu
Bonze
70
RELIGION
For a Variant of Buddhism, see
Lamaism
And, for an Allied Creed, see
Jainism
See also Brahmanism, above.
5. ZOROASTRIANISM.
In tlie great religion of Iran, we
may find the earliest traces of primi-
tive Aryan belief. Zoroastrianism is
important for the influence it exer-
cised on Judaism and Christianity, to
wliicli it contributed the great dual-
istic principle of tlie conflict between
good and evil. See:
Zoroastrianism
Zoroaster
Avesta
Gat has
Pahlavi Language and Literature
Magi
Parsis
Gliebers
Ormazd
Ahriman
Mithras
Asmodeus
Saoshyant
6. The prevailing religion in China
and Japan is Buddhism. The native
religious systems of China are in
reality moral philosophies. In Japan,
however, we find a peculiarly national
religion, influenced to some extent by
Chinese and Buddliistic elements. See:
(a)
Confucius
Mencius
Chu-Hi
(b)
Taoism
Lao-tse
(c)
Shint5
Kobo Daishi
Fox-deity
B. Mmwtl^nBtu Srltgtnna
I. Judaism.
The history of the Jewish people,
who claimed to be the nation specially
favored of the One God, and the sole
depository of His revelation, will be
largely found in the historical chapter
of this book ; but licre a few further
indications may be given of some
of their peculiar institutions. Their
worship, in its earlier form, is described
under Tabernacle, then under Tem-
ple, and in a special section of
the article Sacrifice, and a still later
development is treated under Syna-
gogue.
Special observances at particular
seasons are treated under:
Passover
Purim
Atonement, Day of
Pentecost
Dedication Feast
Weeks, Feast of
Tabernacles, Feast of
Sabbath
Jubilee, Year of
On their sacred writings, besides the
articles on each book of the Old Testa-
ment, see:
Talmud
T/irgum
Midrash
Gemara
Mishna
The functionaries of their religion
and justice come under:
RELIGION
71
Priest
High Priest
Levitc
Scribe
Rabbi
Sanhedrin
Other characteristic customs and
usages :
Circumcision
Tithes
Unction
Proselyte
Urim and Thummim
Phylactery
The sects and parties which devel-
oped in course of time among the race
are detailed under Jewish Sects, and
specially in the following articles :
Pharisees
Sadducees
Essenes
Chasidim
Frank, Jacob
II. Chkistianity.
1. Foundations. The history of
Christianity is so diversified, and so
intimately bound up with the develop-
ment of European civilization, that a
large amount of space is necessarily
accorded to it. The most convenient
division will begin with the founda-
tions, including under that head the
articles centring around its Founder
and the history and worthies of the
first few centuries of the Christian era,
before Europe was submerged in the
chaos which resulted from the bar-
barian invasions. See :
Christianity
Creeds and Confessions
Fundamentals of Christian Doctrine
Development of Doctrine
God
Jesus Christ
Incarnation
Hypostatic Union
Atonement
Intercession, Doctrine of
Resurrection
Miracles
Holy Ghost
Filioque
Trinity, Doctrine of the
Nicene Creed
Prayer
Providence
Predestination
Foreknowledge and Foreordination
Sin
Original Sin
Besides the article under the title
EscHATOLOGY, scvcral others which
follow deal with the problems which
have so exercised the mind of man as
to his ultimate destination after the
short period of life in this world. See :
Immortality
Judgment, Final
Millennium
Second Advent of Christ
Apocalyptic Literature
Antichrist
Annihilationism
Heaven
Beatific Vision
Hell
Probation after Death
Purgatory
Limbus
The following articles deal with the
organizations by whose means the re-
ligion of Christ was spread throughout
the world, and with early records of
its faith and practice:
Church
72
RELIGION
Council
Synod
Missions, Christian
Apostle
Doctors of the Church
Fathers of the Church
Persecutions of the Christians
Lapsed
Catechumens
Disciplina Arcani
Agapffi
Teaching of the Twelve Apostles
Apostolic Constitutions
Apostolic Fathers
Jerusalem, Councils of
NiciEa, Councils of
Constantinople, Councils of
Ephesus, Councils of
Council of Chalcedon (under Chal-
cedon)
For the great figures of the period
of foundation and dissemination, see:
Mary
Joseph
John the Baptist
Peter
Paul
John
James *
Philip
Bartholomew
Thomas
Andrew
Jude
Barnabas
Mattiiias
Mark
Luke
Mary Magdalene
Timothy
Titus
Stephen
Justin Martyr
Ignatius
Irenseus
Polycarp
Agnes
Agatha
Alban
Apollos
Athanasius
Arius
Augustine
Barbara
Basil
Boniface
Cassianus, Johannes
Cecilia
Chrysostom
Cyprianus
Cyril of Alexandria
Cyril of Jerusalem
Denis
Dionysius
Ephraem
Epiphanius
Eusebius
Fclicitas
Fortunatus, Venantius
Gregory of Nazianzus
Gregory of Nyssa
Gregory Thaumaturgus
Gregory of Tours
Hilary
Hippolytus
Hosius
Isidore of Seville
Jerome
Lawrence
Martin of Tours
Patrick
Prudentius, Aurelius Clemens
Theodore of Mopsuestia
2. Early Sects and Heresies,
No sooner had the Christian Church
been fully organized and entered upon
its mission of converting, tiinn tlic
infinite diversity of human minds im-
RELIGION
73
pcllcd different men to emphasize dis-
proportionately some one aspect of the
faitli which all at first hold in common.
This was especially the case during the
first three centuries, while Christianity
had its chief stronghold in the East,
the speculative and dialectical minds of
whose people were naturally inclined to
minute questions of abstract theology.
The heresies which took their rise in
the West were of a more practical
kind, dealing, like Montanism, with the
severity of discipline, or, like Pelagian-
ism, with the freedom of the human
will. Those who wish to trace the
abstruse questions which threatened to
divide the Church even before it had
emerged from the shadow of persecu-
tion, may consult especially the follow-
ing articles :
Adiaphorists
Adoptian Controversy
Arius
Aetius
AgnoctiE
Alogians
ApolHnaris
Celsus
Cerdonians
Cerinthus
Docets
Donatists
Dositheans
Ebionites
Elkcsaites
Eutyches
Gnosticism
Hesychasts
Iconoclasm
Macedonians
Manichffism
Monarchians
Monophysites
Monothelitism
Montanus
Nestorians
Nicolaitans
Novatian
Origen
Patripassianism
Paulicians
Pelagianism
Sabcllius
Scmi-pelagianism
Valentinians
Vigilius
3. Traditional Christianity.
The latter history of Christianity may
be most conveniently divided into two
main heads — according as the various
Christian bodies have adhered, to a
greater or less extent, to the older
usages or beliefs, or have broken away
from them, and evolved new ones of
their own. Of these two divisions, the
former is inevitably much the larger,
covering a much greater extent of time
and a wider range of subjects. The
naturally unchanging East has been
less affected by the currents of thought,
and the many practical problems, which
have introduced many changes or de-
velopments in the western world. The
articles Papacy, which traces the his-
tory of the central see of Christendom,
down to the Council of Trent; Roman
Catholic Church, which includes the
subsequent history of the churches in
communion witli it ; and Gallican
Church, give a large part of the gen-
eral institutional development ; and the
biographies of nearly all the Popes,
contain valuable indications of the
policy which has at different periods
guided the larger part of Christendom.
The article. Church History, con-
tains an account of the principal
74
RELIGION
writers who have narrated tliis develop-
ment ; and the following articles con-
tain detailed information on all the
more important points.
(a) For Church Organization, see :
Patriarch
Metropolitan
Archbishop
Bishop
Titular Bishops
Suffragan
Apostolic Succession
Orders, Holy
Cardinal
Conclave
Legate
Priest
Rector
Vicar
Vicar-General
Archdeacon
Cathedral
Dean
Chapter
Rural Dean
Deacon
Subdeacon
Acolytes
Reader
Exorcist
Ostiarius
Tonsure
Council
Encyclical Letters
Bull"
In Coena Domini
Unigenitus
Brief, Papal
Church Discipline
Excommunication
Dispensation
Indulgence
Inquisition
Congregation
Propaganda
Index
Commandments of the Church
Celibacy
(b) Christianity had scarcely been
organized before a definite form of
worship was adopted, and this became
more and more fixed and uniform in
its details as time went on. A great
many matters of interest are contained
in the history of these liturgical forms,
which will be found fully given under
numerous titles. See:
Worship
Liturgy
Mozarabic Liturgy
Mass
Requiem
Introit
Kyrie Eleison
Gloria in Excelsis
Collect
Epistle
Gradual
Sequence
Gospel
Offertory
Secret
Missal
Pontifical
Ritual
Processional
Canonical Hours
Breviary
Lesson
Te Deum
Magnificat
Nunc Dimittis
Miserere *
Dc Profundis
Ave Maria
Angelus Domini
RELIGION
75
Hymnology
Dies IriE
Pange Lingua
Tantuin Ergo
Veni Creator Spiritus
Litany
Benediction
Rosary of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Tenebrae
(c) Under Costume, Ecci-esiasti-
CAL, a full account will be found of the
historical development of ecclesiastical
vestments and their use at the present
day in various parts of Christendom.
A number of other articles also give
details as to specific vestments and arti-
cles used in divine worship. See:
Tiara
Pallium
Mitre
Crosier
Stole
Maniple
Surplice
Flabellum
Altar
Tabernacle
Incense
Censer
Cross
Chalice
Corporal
Agnus Dei
{d) The Christian religion, at least
in its ancient and traditional form, is
essentially a sacramental one. In
other words, it provides for the two-
fold nature of man — body and soul —
by using outward and visible signs
to convey inward and spiritual grace.
A large number of important subjects,
accordingly, fall under the heading
Sacrament. See :
Sacrament
Baptism
Clinic Baptism
Heretic Baptism
Sponsors
Confirmation «
Lord's Supper
Transubstantiation
Viaticum
Penance
Confession
Absolution
Orders, Holy
Marriage
Extreme Unction
Sacramentals
Holy Water
Scapular
Jubilee
Pilgrim
Stations
Image-Worship
Foot-Washing
(e) Very early in the history of
the Christian Church, special observ-
ances began to be connected with cer-
tain days — weekly, and annual com-
memorations of events in the life of
its Founder, and anniversaries of the
chief worthies who adorned its history.
These are treated under:
Sunday
Friday
Festivals
Fast
Christmas
Epiphany
Candlemas
Annunciation
Ash-Wednesday
Lent
Holy Week
Maundy Thursday
76
RELIGION
Good Friday
Easter
Ascension Day
Pentecost
Trinity Sunday
Corpus Christi ■*
Assumption of the Virgin Mary
All-Soul's Day
Ember-Days
Angel
Michael
Gabriel
Saint
Martyr
Canonization
Beatification
Advocatus DiaboH
Acta Sanctorum
(f ) It is scarcely necessary to enu-
merate the separate books of the Bible,
on which every organization of Chris-
tians professes to base its creed. Under
each of their titles, the history and
purport of every book may be studied,
as well as the most approved conclu-
sions of the most recent scientific criti-
cism. Questions relating to the Bible
as a whole are discussed at great length
in the main article Bible; and refer-
ence may be made to the following sub-
sidiary titles:
Inspiration
Revelation
Canon
Biblical Criticism
Textual Criticism
Tiibingen School
Concordance
Apocrypha
Bible Society
Bible, Restrictions upon the Read-
ing of
Bible, Curious Editions of
4. The IMonastic Life. As the
civilized world, under the later Roman
empire, grew more and more corrupt,
the feeling gained ground that the
surest way to escape from the wrath
to come was to flee into the desert, and
by prayer and mortification to avert
the divine displeasure. The monastic
life, therefore, considered as the most
perfect carrying out of the counsels
of Christ, took firm root in the Church.
General details of its spirit and or-
ganization will be found under :
Monasticism
Asceticism
Vow
Monastery
Laura
Hermit
Recluse
Pillar Saint
Abbey
Abbot
Canon
Brothers, Lay
Brotherhoods, Religious
Tertiary
]Monastic Art
The earlier monastic ideal was that
of absolute separation from the world,
considered as an inherently wicked
place; and all the older orders,
though frequently of the greatest
service to society and civilization
by their preservation of learning,
and b}' their diligent labors in
agriculture and the like, approach
more or less tlie type known as clois-
tered orders. Of these the principal
ones follow in chronological seciuence,
with their founders, where these have
separate articles:
Antony
RELIGION
77
Paul
Basilian Monks
Augustinians
Benedictines
Benedict
Cluniacs
Camaldolites
Carthusians
Bruno
Chartreuse, La Grande
Charterhouse
Cistercians
Bernard
Prcmonstratensians
Gilbertines
Beguines
Carmelites
Servites
Celestines
Brigittines
Bridget
Ursulines
Angela Merici
Trappists
Ranee, Armand de
As modem society gradually be-
caine organized on more stable foun-
dations, and men whose temperaments
and habits were peaceful could be safe
under its protection, another type
came forward, whose fundamental
idea was not retirement from the
world, but an effort to sanctify it, by
mingling more or less with it. Under
the head of what may be called mis-
sionary communities, the following
are to be noted:
Sisterhoods
Trinitarians
Franciscans
Francis of Assisi
Clares, Poor
Clare
Dominicans
Dominic
Minimitcs
Francis of Paola
Barnabites
Theatines
Capuchins
Jesuits
Ignatius of Loyola
Oratory, Congregation of the
Philip Neri
Oblates
Borromeo, Carlo
Piarists
Visitation, Sisters of the
Francis de Sales
Chantal, Jeanne Franfoise
Lazarists
Vincent de Paul
Sulpicians
Olier, Jean Jacques
Brothers and Sisters of Charity
Brothers of the Christian Schools
La Salle, Jean Baptiste de
Passionists
Paul of the Cross
Redemptorists
Liguori, Alfonse IMaria di
Sacred Heart, Ladies of the
Mercy, Fathers of
Paulists
5. Medi.eval Period. The relig-
ious aspect of the Middle Ages will be
found represented in nearly every arti-
cle in the foregoing section ; but cer-
tain others may be added which give
an account of significant developments
taking place within this period. Thus
we have the formal organization of a
whole logical system of dogmatic the-
ology and philosophy (see Scholasti-
cism), and of a parallel system of
ethics or moral theology (see Casu-
istry). The story of the Crusades
is of great importance, supplemented
78
RELIGION
under Jerusalem by the history of the
kingdom and patriarchate there estab-
lished. The crucial controversies be-
tween Church and State which per-
sisted througliout the Middle Ages
are treated under Investiture and
Regalia as well as under Papacy.
(See also in the chapter on history
the section dealing with the MediiEval
Ages.) Under Schism, Western, we
may follow the division within the
Church caused by the pretensions of
rival popes. The efforts made to se-
cure unity of faith and discipline
appear under:
Lateran Councils
Basel, Council of
Ferrara-Florence, Council of
Pisa, Council of
Lyons, Councils of
Inquisition
Torquemada
The story of those who in this period
broke away from that unity is told
under :
Cathari
FraticcUians
Albigenses
Waldenses
Brothers and Sisters of the Free
Spirit
Apostolic Brethren
Lollard
Abelard
Bcrcngarius of Tours
Gottschalk
Wiclif
Other topics of special mediicval
interest are :
Joan, Pope
Feast of Fools
Biblia Pauperum
Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals
Fulda, ]\Ionastery of
Saint Gall
Monte Cassino
The great names in the theolog}',
philosophy, and mysticism of the
Medianal Ages include:
Adalbert
Ailly, Pierre d'
Albert, Count of Bollstadt
Alexander of Hales
Ansclm
Aquinas, Thomas
Becket, Thomas a
Bede
Bonaventura
Catharine of Siena (under Catha-
rine)
Clemanges, Nicolas de
Columba
Damiani, Pietro
Duns Scotus
Dunstan
Eadmer
Erigena, Johannes Scotus
Joachim of Floris
Kempis, Thomas a
Lan franc
Lully, Raymond
Malachy
Occam, William of
Peter Lombard
Peter the Hermit
Rabanus Maurus
Savonarola, Girolamo
Tauler, Johann
Teresa, St.
Wadding, Luke
William of Saint-Amour
William of Wykcham
6. The Reformation Period. A
special section may well bo devoted to
the period of lun'cst and disruption
commonly known as the Reformation.
RELIGION
79
All over Europe there was a movement,
more or less general and permanent
according to local circumstances, to-
wards throwing off the authority of the
Pope, simplifying faith and worship,
and returning to what were assumed to
be primitive beliefs and usages. See:
Reformation
Counter-Reformation
Utraquists
Communion in Both Kinds
Brethren, Bohemian
Augsburg Confession
Interim
Concord, Book of
Corpus Doctrina;
Magdeburg Centuries
Epistolas Obscurorum Virorum
Antinomianism
Bartholomew's, Massacre of Saint
Dort, Synod of
Reformed Churches
Trent, Council of
For the Men of this Period, see :
Albert (of Magdeburg)
Baronius, Caesar
Bellarmine
Beza, Theodore
Bonner, Edmund
Bucer, Martin
Bugenhagen, .Tohann
Cajetan, Thomas
Campion, Edmund
Calvin, John
Canisius, Pctrus
Cano, Melchior
Colet, John
Eck, Johann ]\Iaier von
Erasmus, Dcsiderius
Erastus, Thomas
Faber, Jacques
Fisher, John
Hamilton, Patrick
Hooper, John
Hutten, Ulrich von
Luther, Martin
Melanchthon, Philip
More, Thomas
Q^colampadius, Johannes
Philip the Magnanimous
Reuchlin, Johann
Sarpi, Paolo
Tetzel, Johann
Vcrmigli, Pietro Martire
Wishart, George
Zwingli, Ulrich
7. Before proceeding to a review of
the Reformed Churches of modern
times, the history of Eastern Chris-
tianity, separate from that of the
Roman Catholic Church since 1054,
may be studied under the following
titles :
Greek Church
Filioque
Quinisext
Photius
Lucaris
Nikon
Raskolniki
Dukhobortsy
Molokani
Skoptsy
Stundists
8. Modern Reformed Churches.
(a) Anglican. The article under
the title, Anglican Communion, ex-,
plains the extent and relations of the
various churches in communion with
the Church of England, which repre-
sent characteristically the more con-
servative elements in the religion of
the English-speaking races. Though
as organizations they owe their origin
to the great upheaval of the sixteenth
centurv, their doctrine and usages are
80
RELIGION
largely in harmony with those which
prevailed before the Reformation, and
wiU be found treated in many in-
stances under titles wliich include the
ancient and modern Roman Catholic
belief or practice. The following ar-
ticles, however, may be consulted for
specifically Anglican points:
England, Church of
Ireland, Cliurch of
Episcopal Church
Articles, The Thirty-nine
Prayer-Book
Homily
Lambeth Conference
Churcli Congress
Supremacy, Royal
Ecclesiastical Commissioners.
Vestry
Warden, Church
Parish
Parish Clerk
Lay Reader
Advertisements of Elizabeth
Martin Marprelate Controversy
Savoy Conference
Nonjurors
Nonconformists
Dissenters
Act of Uniformity
Oxford Movement
Gorhani Controversy
Ecclesiastical Titles Assumption
Act
Ritualism
Queen Anne's Rounty
Christian Knowledge, Society
for Promoting
Church Temperance Society
Brotherhood of Saint Andrew
Daughters of the King
Bampton Lectures
Ilulsean Lectures
Among the prominent names in the
history of the Church of England in
Great Britain appear:
Cranmer, Thomas
Ridley, Nicholas
Latimer, Hugh
Hooker, Richard
Laud, William
Andrewes, Lancelot
Hall, Joseph
Ken, Thomas
Leighton, Robert
Taylor, Jeremy
Sanderson, R.
Whitgift, J.
Tillotson, John
Wake, William
Atterbury, Francis
Warburton, William
Simeon, Charles
Romaine, W.
Pusey, Edward Bouverie
Keble, John
Rose, Hugh James
Forbes, Alexander P.
Liddon, Henry Parry
Maurice, Frederick Denison
Arnold, Thomas
Robertson, Frederick W.
Milman, Henry Hart
Jowett, Benjamin
Stanley, Arthur Pcnrhyn
Wilbcrforco, Samuel
Trench, Richard Chenevix
Vaughan, Charles J.
Wordsworth, Charles
Wordsworth, Christopher
Benson, Edward While
Lightfoot, Josej)h Barber
Westcott, Brooke Foss
Thorold, Anthony Wilson
Stubbs, William
Bright, William
RELIGION
81
Tait, Archibald Campbell
Temple, Frederick
Of the Church in America the lead-
ing representatives have been :
Seabury, Samuel
White, William
Hobart, John Henry
Provoost, Samuel
Hopkins, John Henry
Muhlenberg, William Augustus
Tyng, Stephen H.
Whittingham, William Rollin-
son
Williams, John
Whipple, Henry B.
Potter, Horatio
Potter, Alonzo
Potter, Henry Codman
Brooks, Phillips
Newton, Richard Hebcr
Dix, Morgan
(b) Presbyterian:
Presbyterianism
Elder
Moderator
Synod
Assembly of Divines
Perth, Five Articles of
Cameronians
Covenants, The
Infralapsarian
Alexander, Archibald
Alexander, J. A.
Babcock, M. D.
Baird, C. W.
Briggs, C. A.
Burrell, D. J.
Calamy, Edmund
Cameron, J.
Chalmers, Thomas
Cuyler, T. L.
Geddes, J.
Green, W. H.
Hall, John
Hodge, C.
Knox, John
Melville, Andrew
Parkhurst, C. H.
Patton, F. L.
Paxton, J. R.
Prentiss, G. L.
Prime, S. I.
Robinson, C. S.
Shields, C. W.
Talmage, T. DeWitt
Tennent, Gilbert
Watson, John
Witherspoon, J.
(c) Methodist:
Methodism
Itinerancy
Experience Meeting
Camp-Meeting
Epworth League
Wesley, John
Wesley, Charles
Whitefield, George
Coke, Thomas
Huntingdon, Selima Hastings
Asbury, Francis
Clarke, Adam
Emory, John
Fowler, C. H.
Haven, E. O.
Haven, Gilbert
Hurlbut, J. L.
Hurst, John F.
Moore, D. H.
Moore, Henry
Newman, J. P.
Ouseley, G.
Punshon, W. M.
Sankey, Ira D.
Strong, James
Taylor, W.
Tefft, B. F.
82
RELIGION
Townley, James
Townsend, L. T.
Vincent, J. H.
Walden, J. M.
Warren, H. W.
Watson, R.
Wise, Daniel
((7) CONGREGATIONALIST :
Congregationalism
Puritans
'* Separatists
Browne, Robert
Robinson, John
Cotton, John
Mather, Richard
Hooker, Thomas
Edwards, Jonathan
Hopkins, Samuel
Bellamy, Joseph
Dwight, Timothy
Abbott, Lyman
Bartlett, S. C.
Bcecher, Henry Ward
Beecher, Lyman
Bissel, E. C.
Bushnell, H.
Dexter, H. M.
Finney, C. G.
Gladden, W.
Park, E. A.
Parker, Joseph
Phelps, Austin
Storrs, R. S.
Taylor, N. W.
(e) Baptist:
Baptists
Baptism
Baptism, Infant
Anabaptists
Miinzer, T.
John of Leyden
IVIonnonitf's
River Brethren
Burrage, H. S.
Conant, T. J.
Hall, R.
Lorimer, G. C.
Peters, M. C.
Ripley, H. J.
Robinson, E. G.
Spurgeon, C. H.
Vedder, H. C.
Wayland, F.
(f) Lutheran :
Lutheranism
Reformation, The Protestant
Lutlier
Melanchthon
Augsburg Confession
Grecnwald, Emanuel
Mulilenberg, H. M.
Mulilenberg, J. P. G.
Seiss, J. A.
Stuckenberg, J. H. W.
,(g) Dutch Reformed:
Reformed Churcli in America
Belgic Confession
Heidelberg Catechism (under
Catechism)
Dort, Synod of
Classis
Ferris, I.
Riddle, M. B.
(7i) Quaker or Friends:
Friends
Fox, George
Penn, William
Hicks, Elias
Gurney, J. J.
Wilbur, John
(i) Unitarian:
Unitarianism
Arius
Socinus
Servetus, Michael
RELIGION
83
Biddle, John
Priestley, Joseph
Allen, J. H.
Chadwick, J. W.
Channing, W. E.
Collyer, Robert
Freeman, James
Frothingham, O. B.
Hill, Thomas
Parker, Theodore
Savage, M. J.
Ware, Henry
(j) Universalist :
Universalism
Relly, James
Murray, John
Winchester, Elhanan
Ballou, Hosea
Hanaford, Phebe A.
(k) Mormon :
Mormons
Smith, Joseph
Pratt, Orson
Pratt, P. P.
Rigdon, S.
Taylor, John
Woodruff, W.
Young, Brigham
(1) Other Denominations:
Adventists
Miller, William
Christian Catholic Church
Christian Science
Eddy, Mary Baker Glover
Evangelical Alliance
German Baptist Brethren
German Evangelical Protestant
Church
German Evangelical Synod of
North America
Institutional Church
Moravians
Brethren, Bohemian
Huss, John
Comenius, J. A.
Zinzendorf, Nikolaus
Reformed Church in the Unit-
ed States.
United Brethren in Christ
Otterbein, P. W.
Evangelical Association
III. Mohammedanism.
The history of Islam is closely con-
nected with the history of the nations
which adopted it as their creed. This
was due to the injunction laid by Mo-
hammed on his followers to spread his
teachings by the sword, a policy which
made the extension of Mohammedan-
ism largely coincident with conquest.
The political aspect of Moslem his-
tory may, therefore, bo best studied
under the names of Mohammedan na-
tions, dynasties, and rulers, such as
Abbassides, Ommiads, Seljuks, Tur-
key, Arabia, etc. Here only are
given the leading titles dealing with
the religious development and present
character of the faith.
For the Rise of Islam, see:
Mohammed
Mohammedanism
Mohammedan Sects
Islam
Mecca
Medina
Hejira
Ayeshah
For the successors of Mohammed
and early conquerors who spread the
gospel of Islam in Asia, Africa, and
Europe, see:
Caliph
Abu-Bekr
Omar
84
RELIGION
OHiman
Ali
Ommiads
Khalid
Musa ibn Noseyr
Amr ibn al-Asi
Tarik
Idrisites
Fatimites
Almoravides
Almohades
For the tenets and practices of the
faith, in addition to the titles already
quoted, see:
Koran
Sunna
Hadith
Kaaba
Hajj
Hajji
Fast
Ramadan
Beiram
Muharram
Kiblah
Houri
Jinn
Iblis
Imam
Mufti
Muezzin
Ulema
Madrasah
Marabouts
Mosque
For Sects and Parties, see:
Sunnites
Shiites
Hasan and Hosein
Mahdi
Ansaries
Druses
Hakim ibn Allah
Mutazalites
Wahabis ^
Dervish
Babism
Sufiism
Senussi
For Mohammedan Theologians:
Hani f ah
Ghazali
Ollfapter 0- Siuraton
THE study of the science of education is peculiarly related to the
study of the growth and development of the intellectual, moral,
and spiritual life of the human race. Every department of
knowledge is necessarily in some way connected with the science-
of education. Most of the great thinkers of all ages have con-
tributed to the literature of the science, and consequently many names must be-
included in our list of educators which appear, as well, in some other field. As
part of some one philosophical system or another, education goes back to early
times, but its history as an independent science, separated from philosophy or
theology, is quite recent. Its problems, too, have grown immeasurably more com-
plex with the progress of democratic ideals and the widening of its sphere of
interest. More even than national defense, the fostering of public education has.
come to be the great function of the modern State; and, though differences of
opinion prevail as to how far this obligation extends in practice, in all progressive
countries there is no class of men whom the government, in one way or another,
does not attempt to supply with the means of education.
There are three sides from which students may appi'oach the study of the
science: the historical, the psychological, and the pedagogical.
The History of education is outlined in the Article Education, which traces
its development from the dawn of civilization to the present day. A more
detailed study of the subject may be systematically pursued in the following
lists of articles. The subject is usually divided into four periods: Pre-Christian
(including the Oriental and the Classical types), Early Christian, Mediaeval,
and Modern.
I. The Pre-Christian Period. they strove to attain their ideals, are
(a) The several types of Oriental discussed under the following heads:
education are discussed in the following hopiiists
articles : Socrates
Plato
Confucius Aristotle
Buddhism Xenophon
Caste Cyropa?dia
Jews Sparta
Talmud Games
Rabbi Plutarch
Mohanimedanism Quintilian
Ulema
Mufti
II. The Early Christl\n Period.
Madrasah The part played by the early Chris-
tian Fathers in the furtherance of edu-
(b) The aims of Greek and Roman cation and the estabhshment of schools
educators, and the methods by which will be found under :
85
86
EDUCATION
Catechumens
Catechetical Schools
Chrysostom
Basil the Great
Clement of Alexandria
Origen
Theodore of Mopsuestia
For the struggle between the pagan
and early Christian educators, see :
Tertullian
Augustine
These bring the student up to the
Mediaeval period.
III. The Medieval Period.
In the series of articles dealing with
this period, the student will find an
account of the efforts made by
the Church to promulgate education
throughout Christendom, and will be
led up to the modern movement, which
properly co-extends with the movement
that led up to and through the Refor-
mation. See :
Monasticism
Benedictines
Arts, Liberal
Quadrivium
Trivium
Scholasticism
Charles the Great
Alcuin
Alfred the Great
Abelard
Chivalry
University
IV. The Modern Period.
Educational progress was hastened
and turned into varying channels by
the revival of the old learning. The
Reformation initiated the separation of
education from theology, and, by
breaking up tlie unit of European cul-
ture, gave rise to national systems of
education and the use of the national
vernaculars as the medium of instruc-
tion. For the early educational re-
formers, see :
Renaissance
Humanism
Dante
Petrarch
Boccaccio
Poggio Bracciolini
Pico della Mirandola
Poliziano
Reuchlin
Erasmus
Budfpus
Scaliger, J. J.
Scaliger, J. C.
Casaubon, I.
Hardouin, J.
Reformation, The Protestant
Luther
Melanchthon
Sturm, Johannes
Ascham, Roger
Rabelais
Montaigne
Bacon, Francis
Induction
Ratichius
Comcnius
Orbis Pic'tus
The efforts of the Catholic Church
to countinict the effects of the Refor-
mation may be studied in the following
articles :
Ignatius of Loyola
.Jesuits
Ratio Studiorum
Jansenism
Port-Royal-dcs-Champs
For the activity of the Church in
supj)lying education to the very young,
see:
EDUCATION
87
La Salic, Jean Baptiste de
Brothers of the Christian Schools
For writers who contributed to the
advancement of the science of educa-
tion, see :
Milton, John
Locke, John
Fenelon, Fran9ois
The realistic movement in education
begins with Francke, and the Real-
schule had its inception in his efforts.
The movement culminates in the
thorough sweeping away of old meth-
ods and ideas in education, fore-
shadowed in Rousseau's protest in his
Emile. See :
Francke, A. H.
Rousseau
Emile
Basedow
Pestalozzi
Girard, J. B.
Jacotot
Frobel
Kindergarten
Herbart
Mann, Horace
Spencer, Herbert
Arnold, Thomas
Bell, Andrew
Lancaster, Joseph
The systems of education prevalent
in Europe and America are treated
with great minuteness in the article on
National Education, Systems of.
The subject is further amplified in the
sections on Education of the articles
on the various countries of the world,
wherein the statistical side is empha-
sized. The various phases of State
activity receive full attention in the
following articles:
Schools
Public Schools
Common Schools
Evening Schools
Secondary Schools
High Schools
Grammar Schools
Gymnasia
Realschule
Women, Education of
Industrial Schools
Vacation School
Education, Colonial
V. Pedagogy.
Pedagogy is that branch of the sci-
ence of education which deals with the
methods and means of carrying out ed-
ucational ideas. The old and the new
educational methods receive compre-
hensive treatment in the article Peda-
gogy', which is amply supplemented by
the following articles :
Nature-Study
Child Psychology
Object Teaching
Kindergarten
Physical Training
Manual Training
Normal School
Technical Education
Professional Education
Theological Education
IVIedical Education
Legal Education
Agricultural Education
Seminar
Privat-Docent
Reading
Spelling
Shorthand
VI. Educational Institutions.
The growth of colleges and univer-
sities in Europe and America is treated
from the general standpoint in the
88
EDUCATION
article on University. This is sup-
plemented by separate accounts of all
of the important colleges and universi-
ties in the world. The list of Ameri-
can colleges and universities is espe-
cially complete; to such an extent,
indeed, that mention may be made of
only a few of the most prominent.
See:
University
College
Colleges, American
Curriculum
Elective Courses
Degree
Diploma
Examination
Fellowship
University Extension
Harvard University
Yale University
Princeton University
Columbia University
Pennsylvania, University of
Brown University
Cornell University
Johns Hopkins University
Clark University
Chicago University
Leland Stanford Junior University
Catholic University of America
Amherst College
Bowdoin College
Dartmouth College
William and ]\Iary College
Williams College
Girard College
Carnegie Institution
The State universities have all been
written up in detail.
For a group of women's colleges in
the United States, see:
Barnard College
Bryn Mawr College
Mount Holyoke College
Radcliffe College
Smith College
Vassar College
Wellesley College
Woman's College of Baltimore
In this connection see also:
Collegiate Education of Women
Coeducation
For English universities and schools,
see:
Oxford University
Rhodes Scholarships
Cambridge, University of
London University
Girton College
Newnham College
Eton College
Rugby School
Harrow School
Shrewsbury School
Winchester College
Fagging
For the greatest of European univer-
sities, either in present importance or
historically, see :
Paris, University of
Berlin, Universitj' of
Vienna, University of
Madrid, University of
Munich, University of
Moscow, University of
Leipzig, University of
Edinburgh, University of
Heidelberg, University of
Bologna, University of
Padua, University of
Salerno, School of
Coinibra, University of
SiilaTnanca, University of
Montpellier, University of
Prague, University of
EDUCATION
89
A partial list of prominent edu-
cators of the present day includes:
Adams, C. K.
Ames, J. B.
Andrews, E. B.
Angell, J. B.
Barnard, F. A. P.
Barnard, Henry
Bascom, J.
Butler, N. M.
Do Garmo, C.
Drisler, Henry
Eliot, C. W.
Gilderslceve, B. L.
Oilman, D. C.
Hadley, A. T.
Hadley, James
Hall, G. S.
Harkness, A.
Harper, W. R.
Harris, W. T.
Hill, D. J.
James, E. J.
Jebb, R. C.
Jordan, D. S.
Jowett, B.
Low, Seth
Lyon, Mary
McCosh, J.
Pattison, Mark
Patton, F. L.
Quick, R. H.
Schurman, J. G.
Wendell, Barrett
Wheeler, B. I.
White, A. D.
Whitney, W. D.
For classes of institutions that
have become centres for the spread of
popular education, see :
(o) Libraries:
New York Public Library
Book
Alexandrian Library
Bodleian Library
British Museum
Bibliotheque Nationale
Library of Congress
(b) Museum
7. f ijtt0B0pl}g anil f Bgrljnlngg
THOUGH great diversity exists as to the meaning and scope of the
term Pliilosopliy, two definitions may be given as representative.
The more modern view regards philosophy as the sum of all scien-
tific knowledge, or the systcmatization of results obtained in the
individual sciences ; the historical and more prevalent view looks
upon philosophy as the search for the ultimate nature and meaning of the uni-
verse, and especially of human life. Embracing at one time the totality of
scientific knowledge, the field of philosophy has steadily grown narrower with the
erection of independent sciences, until at the present day it includes the studies
of metaphysics, logic, ethics, and a?sthetics. Psychology is the latest branch of
investigation to achieve its emancipation from philosophy, whose methods, his-
torically, have been quite different from those that prevail in the scientific world
to-day.
1. 1. The problems of philosophy
are best studied, perhaps, historically.
A brief summary, however, in neces-
sarily technical language, will serve to
present the main outlines of the sub-
ject in the form in which they have
appeared to thinkers of different ages.
Generally, then, the problems of phi-
losophy are divided into three classes:
those which deal with the ultimate na-
ture of the universe, grouped under the
headino; Metaphysics ; those which
deal with the forms of human knowl-
edge and its relation to reality, known
as epistemology, or the theory of
knowledge; and those dealing with hu-
man conduct, included in the science of
ethics. Sec:
Philosophy
Metaphysics
Knowledge, Theory of
Ethics
2. The inquiry into the nature of
reality takes on two forms : that con-
cerned with the ultimate nature of
things, and that dealing with the con-
nection between things, or the archi-
tectural plan of the universe.
90
(rt) For the First, see:
Ontology
Dualism
Monism
Materialism
Mechanism
Idealism
{h) For the Second, see:
Atomism
Theism
Transcendentalism
Pantheism
Body and Mind
Parallelism
Mind-stuff Theory
Substance
Form
Causality
Time
Space
Teleology
Infinite
Absolute
3. In connection with our knowledge
of the universe, two questions arise:
(a) Taking the conglomeration of
ideas we call knowledge, is there an
outside Reality corresponding to them.
PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
91
or are they lluality itself; and (b) are
these ideas in origin the result of ex-
perience, or are they independent of
experience? See:
{a) Realism
Idealism
Skepticism
(b) Empiricism
Rationalism
A priori
Dialectic
Category
Induction
Deduction
II. 1. The history of European
philosophy begins with the Greeks, in
whom, however, strong Oriental influ-
ences are traceable. Their earliest phi-
losophy was a nature philosophy, and
its two great problems were those of
Being and Becoming. See:
Greek Philosophy
Thales
Anaximander
Anaximenes
Eleatic School
Xenophanes
Parmenides
Zeno (the Eleatic)
Gorgias
Heraclitus
Pythagoras
Pythagoreanism
Neo-Pythagoreanism
Archytas
Metempsychosis
Empedocles
Anaxagoras
Atomism
Leucippus
Democritus
2. In the second period, the main in-
terest of philosophy becomes anthro-
pological or ethical, the tendency
being most fully apparent in the fig-
ure of the great teacher Socrates,
from whom descend the great schools
of the Hellenistic world, Platonists,
Stoics, Hedonists, Cynics. Plato and
Aristotle by their genius moulded
almost the channels in which philo-
sophic thought was to flow in the fu-
ture. Greek philosophy, toward its
end, exerted a powerful influence on
Christianity. See :
Sophists
Protagoras
Socrates
Hedonism
Cyrenaic School
Aristippus
Hegesias
Epicurus
Epicureanism
Lucretius
Stoics
Zeno (the Stoic)
Cleanthes
Chrysippus
Seneca
Epictetus
Aurelius, Marcus
Cynics
Antisthenes
Diogenes
Euclid (of Mcgara)
Plato
Academy
Arcesilaus
New- Academy
Carneades
Aristotle
Peripatetic Philosophy
Pyrrho
^■Enesidemus
Sextus Empiricus
Skepticism
92
PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
Neo-Platonism
Philo JucL-eus
Ammonius
Plotinus
Porphyrius
laniblichus
Proclus
Boethius
Anima Mundi
Logos
Eclecticism
Cicero
3. From the Platonic philosophy, as
contained in the writings of the Chris-
tian Fathers, media;val philosophy
developed into the system known as
Scholasticism, which in its fullest de-
velopment, however, became Aristotel-
ian, through the influence of the Ara-
bian philosophers. Philosophy became
the handmaiden of theology, and it
supported the mysteries of the Chris-
tian faith by means of a subtle dia-
lectic. The downfall of scholasticism
began with the fourteenth century,
and was hastened by the Revival of
Learning. See :
Scholasticism
Augustine (of Hippo)
Erigena
Rabanus Maurus
Peter Lombard
Realism
Anselm of Canterbury
Guillaumo dc Champcaux
Nominalism
Roscelinus
Durandus
Occam, William of
Buridan, Jean
Ailly, Pierre d'
Concept
Abclard
Averroes
Avicenna
Albert of Bollstadt
Alexander of Hales
Vincent of Beauvais
Aquinas, Thomas
Duns Scotus
Sucirez, Francisco
Mysticism
Hugo of St. Victor
Bernard of Clairvaux
Bonaventura, St.
Eckhardt
Tauler
Kempis
Bohme
Quietism
Molinos
Bacon, Roger
Lully, Raymond
Cusa, Nikolas
Renaissance
The Revival of Learning brought
about a temporary revival of the classic
philosophies, but these served only to
bridge over the chasm between the an-
cient thought and the modern philoso-
phy, whose beginning dates from the
establishment of Empiricism by Bacon
and Rationalism by Descartes. The
subjects of Substance and Causality
now assume leading importance. Car-
tesian rationalism ends in dogmatism
on the Continent ; empiricism ends in
skepticism in England. See:
Bruno, Giordano
Campanclla, T.
Gassendi
Rationalism
Descartes
IMalcbranche
Occasionalism
Spinoza
Pantlicism
Leibnitz
PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
93
Prcestablishcd Harmony
Monad
Wolff, Christian
Baumgartcn, A. G.
Eberhard, J. A.
Mendelssohn, Moses
Vico, G. B. '
Empiricism
Hobbcs, Thomas
Locke, John
Sensationalism
Clarke, Samuel
Butler, Joseph
Paley, William
Berkeley, George
Cambridge Platonists
Cudworth, Ralph
More, Henry
Hume, David
Charron, Pierre
Toland, John
Hartley, David
Priestley, Joseph
Condillac
La Mettrie
Diderot
D'Alembert
Helvetius
Holbach
Cabanis, J. P. G.
Genovesi, A.
Enlightenment, Philosophy of the
Common Sense, Philosophy of
Reid, Thomas
Beattie, James
Stewart, Dugald
Hamilton, William
The critical philosophy of Kant
sought to mediate between Rational-
ism and Empiricism by assigning to
either its proper function in the men-
tal life ; and, though Kantianism was
followed by the rise of great rational-
istic systems in Germany, in which the
balance was overthrown anew, the
teachings of the Konigsberg philoso-
pher have shown the greater vitality
as being in consonance with the spirit
of the growing sciences. Reaction
against unrestrained idealism led to
Positivism, in which philosophy be-
comes a correlation of sciences. Ma-
terialism, after a brief popularity,
seems to have passed away forever.
See:
Kant
Herder
Jacobi, F. H.
Hamann, J. G.
Krause, K. C. F.
Reinhold, C. E.
Rosenkranz, K.
Erdmann, J. E.
Trendelenburg
Zeller, E.
Ulrici, H.
Fischer, Kuno
For the important systems that
arose after Kant, see:
Fichte, J. G.
Fichte, I. H.
Schelling
Hegel
Feuerbach, L. A.
Green, T. H.
And for a philosophy of will that
has exercised a profound influence on
modern thought:
Schopenhauer
Pessimism
Hartmann, Karl Robert
Materialism was fostered by the doc-
trine of evolution and the Darwinian
discoveries. See:
Moleschott, J.
Biichner, F. L.
Vogt, Karl
Haeckel, E.
94
PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
For the neo-Kantianism of the
latest scientific thought, see:
Lange, F. A.
Cohen, Herman
Du Bois-Reymond, E. H.
Helmholtz
Virchow
Wundt
Renan
Taine
For systematic attempts at reconcil-
ing philosophy and religion, see:
Schleicmiacher
Ritter, Heinrich
Rosmini-Serbati
Gioberti
For philosopliics that have been
made the basis of important pedagogi-
cal psychologies, see :
Hcrbart
Fliigel, O.
Beneke
Lotze
Fechner
Paulsen, Friedrich
Spiritualism had influential expo-
nents in France in the beginning of the
nineteenth century. See:
Royer-Collard
Cousin, Victor
Maine de Brian
Jouff'roy, T. S.
Psychical Research
Myers, F. W. H.
Spiritualism found its reaction In
the epoch-making work of Comte.
See:
Positivism
Agnosticism
Comte
Littre
Mill, J. S.
Spencer, Herbert
Lewes, G. H.
Harrison, Frederic
Laas, E.
Riehl, A.
For philosophic thought in America,
see:
Edwards, Jonathan
Trascendentalism
Emerson, R. W.
Ripley, G.
Alcott, A. B.
Channing, W. E.
Thoreau, H.
McCosh, J.
Harris, W. T.
Royce, J.
Ladd, G. T.
Dewey, J.
Every well-rounded philosophical
system has its logic, ethics, and
SBsthetics, and strictly speaking these
cannot be divorced from the discussions
of purely metaphysical problems.
Nevertheless, as important sub-
divisions of pliilosophy, they have
received an amount of attention that
give them independent consideration.
A. The problems of human con-
duct are discussed minutely in the gen-
eral article on Ethics, and further dif-
ferentiated in subsidiary articles. See:
Ethics
Will
Free Will
Casuistry
Chance
Fatalism
Determinism
Indiffcrentism
Egoism
Altruism
Energisni
PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
95
EudcTinonism
Intuitionism
Categorical Imperative
Utilitarianism
Hutchcson
Bentham, J.
Austin, J.
Mill, J. S.
Nietzsche, F.
Stephen, Leslie
Sidgwick, H.
Martineau, J.
Green, T. H.
Caird, E.
Alexander, Samuel
Fouillee
Sinmiel, G.
B. The formal rules of thought as
outlined by Aristotle have received
modifications at the hands of both
rationalists and empiricists, the in-
fluence of the latter being, however,
the more pronounced on the develop-
ment of the science. See:
Logic
Knowledge, Theory of
Induction
Deduction
Argument
Syllogism
Analysis
Synthesis
Abstraction
Hypothesis
Judgment
Definition
Division
Percept
Concept
Connotation
Denotation
Obversion
Opposition
Comparison
Analogy
Identity, Law of
Fallacy
Dilemma
Mill J. S.
Jevons
Whately, R.
C. The separate science of aesthet-
ics dates only from the eighteenth cen-
tury. Its latest development has been
along experimental and anthropologi-
cal lines. See:
JSsthetics
^Esthetics, Experimental
Baumgarten, A. G.
Lessing, G. E.
Shaftesbury, third Earl of
Hogarth
Bain
Bosanquet
Santayana, George
D. The psychology of the present
differs from earlier investigations of
the human mind in its application of a
more rigorous scientific method. It as-
sumes no metaphysical substratum for
mental life, but is content to take con-
sciousness as its ultimate fact and to
study its forms and manifestations.
Though the science is to be dated only
from the latter half of the nineteenth
century, it has already been found
necessary to divide the field of investi-
gation for the purpose of the more
effective study of the mind of the adult,
the child, and the abnormal individual,
and the collective mind of the crowd.
The method of psychology is ulti-
mately introspective, but it is intro-
spection carefully pursued and cor-
rected by the standard of the scientific
average. For classification and meth-
ods, see:
Psychology
96
PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
Individual Psychology
Genetic Psychology
Child Psychology
Social Psychology
Folk-Psychology
Insanity
Psychology, Experimental
Psychological Apparatus
Psychophysics
Introspection
Phrenology
With consciousness as the basis for
analysis, psychology finds as its ulti-
mate fact (fl) a complete independence
of mind and body; (b) that the primi-
tive element of mental life is sensation,
and sensations depend on bodily pro-
cesses set in motion by external stimuli.
Sensations are classified according to
the organs whose stimulation they ac-
company. For consciousness, see:
(a) Mind
Elements, Conscious
Mental Process
Self
Sel f -Consciousness
Unity of Consciousness
Double Consciousness
Sleep
Dreaming
Hypnotism
Autosuggestion
Somniinibulism
Consciousness
Noetic Consciousness
Meaning
Body and Mind
Subconsciousness
Subliminal Consciousness
Cerebration, Unconscious
(t) For Sensation, sec:
Sensation
Sensorium
Intensity of Sensation
Extension
Duration
Quality
Discrimination, Sensible
Contrast
Reaction
Weber's Law
Limen
Relativity, Law of
(c) For a Classification of Sensations,
see:
Vision
Visual Sensation
Blind Spot
After-images
Illusion
Mirage
Hallucination
Clairvoyance
Apparition
Color
Saturation
Color-Blindness
Audition
Clang-Tint
Colored Hearing
Fusion
Smell
Taste
Touch
Cutaneous Sensations
Static Sense
Muscle Sense
Muscle-Reading
Pain
Fatigue
Common Sensation
Organic Sensations
From simple sensations are built up
the higher intellectual processes (per-
ception, idea, association of ideas,
etc.). A corresponding clement lias
PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
97
been brought forward to form the sub-
stratum of our Linotional life, and has
been denominated Affection. From a
combination of sensational and affec-
tive elements arise the various pro-
cesses classified under the general
designation, Will. It is thus that the
new psychology improves upon the
threefold division of Intellect, Reason,
and Will in the older psychology.
See:
Affection
Conation
Attention
Effort
Interest
Tendency
Disposition
Faculty
Mental Constitution
{a) For the Complex Sensational Pro-
cesses :
Perception
Idea
Movement, Perception of
Locality, Perception of
Distance, Perception of
Figure
Rhythm
Melody
Association of Ideas
Retention
Reproduction of Ideas
IMemory
Apperception
Recognition
Familiarity
Apprehension
Imagination
Judgment
Ratiocination
Understanding
Abstraction
Intellect
(6) For the Affective or Emotional
Processes :
Feeling
Emotion
Mood
Temperament
Mental Constitution
Sentiment
Sympathy
Antipathy
Fear
Anger
Belief
Expectation
Expression
Laughter
Language
Gesture
(c) For the Will Processes:
Will
Action
Instinct
Impulse
Desire
Habit
Practice
In the field of psychological investi-
gation, Germany holds the first rank.
Excellent work has been done in
France, especially in the field of abnor-
mal psychology, and in England and
America, where German thought has
blended with the native empiricism.
See:
(a) Weber, E. H.
Fechner, G. T.
Helmholtz, H.
Her in g, E.
Flechsig, P. E.
Stumpf, K.
Miiller, G. E.
98
PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
Wundt, W.
(b) Bain, Alexander
Romanes, G. J.
Galton, F.
Stout, G. F.
Sully, James
(c) Binet, A.
Charcot, J. M.
Ribot, T. A.
(d) James, William
Ladd, G. T.
Miinsterbcrg, H.
Dewey, John
Titchener, E. B.
Baldwin, J. ^I.
Hall, G. S.
Ollfapt^r B. ICattguag^ an& ICtt^ratur^
THE tracing of the mutual relations of the various languages of the-
world, and the study of their similarities and differences, is the
task of the science of comparative philology. The phonetic, or
mechanical side, the inflectional, or constructive, and the syntactic,
or psychological aspect, arc the three factors which combine to
form human speech. See :
A. IGaitguagf
1. Philology.
Semasiology
Philology
Slang
Grammar
Metaphor
Dialect
Prosody
Phonetics
Rhyme
Accent
Assonance
Phonetic Law
Alphabet
Grimm's T.aw
Inscriptions
Verner's Law
Paleography
Etymology
Runes
Etymology, Figures of
Spelling
Grassman's Law
Spelling Reform
Inflection
Rhetoric
Declension
Pronunciation
Comparison
Nouns
2. For a classification of langu
Name
in related groups, see:
Gender
Adjective
(a) For the Monosyllabic Type-
Pronoun
Chinese Language
Article
Adverb
(b) For the Agglutinative Type
Preposition
African Languages
Conjunction
Egyptian (under Egypt)
Interjection
Coptic (under Copts)
Verb
Ural-Altaic
Participle
Finnish Language
Conjugation
Turkish Language
Reduplication
Japanese Language
Ablaut
Dravidians
Umlaut
Tamils'
Syntax, Figures of
Telugus
Sentence
Phihppine Languages
99
100
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
(c) For the Polysynthetk Type (In-
corporating):
American Indian (under In-
dians, American) :
(d) For the Inflectional Type:
Semitic Languages
Cuneiform Inscriptions
Aramaic
Syriac Language
Samaritan Language
Moabitish Language (under
Moabite Stone)
Arabic Language
Inflectional also are:
(i) The Languages of India:
Sanskrit
Pali
Prakrit
Assamese (under Assam)
Bengali
Ceylon ese (under Ceylon)
Gujarat!
Hindustani
Kashmiri
Maldive
Marathl
Naipali
Panjabi
Sindhi
Uriya
(ii) The Iranian Languages:
Iranian Languages
Old Persian
Avcsta
Pahlavi
Persian
Afghan
Baluchi
Kurdish
Ossetic
(iii) Armenian
(iv) Albanian
(v) Mediterranean Languages :
Greek
Italic Languages
Latin
Italian
Spanish
Catalan
French
Proven9al
Rumanian
(vi) The Teutonic Languages:
Teutonic Languages
Gothic
Icelandic
Norwegian
Swedish
Dutch
German
Plattdeutsch
Frisian
Flemish
Pennsylvania Dutch
Anglo-Saxon
English
Americanisms
Pidgin-English
(vii) The Celtic Languages:
Celtic Languages
Cornish
(viii) The Balto-Slavic Languages:
Old Prussian
Lettic
Lithuanian
(ix) The Slavic Languages:
Slavic Languages
Old Church Slavic
Polish
Russian
See also:
Universal Language
Esperanto
N'oiajjiik
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
101
3. For tlie great names in the field
of comparative philology, see:
Ascoli, G. I.
Bartsch, K. F.
Becker, K. F.
Bopp, F.
Bosworth, J.
Brugmann, F. K.
Dclbriick, B.
Fick, A.
Gabelenz, H. C.
Grimm, J. L. K.
Grundtvig, S. H.
Knudsen, K.
Kiilbing, E.
Magnussen, A.
Norccn, A. G.
Paul, H.
Pott, A. F.
Rafn, C. C.
Rask, R. K.
Schlegel, F.
Schlcgcl, A.
Schleicher, A.
Schmidt, J.
Steinthal, H.
Sweet, H.
Taylor, W.
Tookc, J. H.
Verner, K. A.
Vigfusson, G.
Webster, Noah
B. ICitfratitr?
Literature, which is the expres-
sion, more or less permanent, in
language, of human thought and
emotions, would include in its widest
sense every written record of man's
activity, the university man's disserta-
tion on the Coleoptera no less than
Shelley's " Ode to the Skylark." Such a
wide connotation of the term would ren-
der any classification within reasonable
space limits impossible, and in the
present chapter the matter has been
restricted to the treatment of what we
ordinarily call Belles-lettres. The
great works in history and the various
fields of science and philosophy will be
accounted for in the chapters with the
subject matter of which they are more
intimately connected. A more consid-
erable difficulty than that of settling
limits to the scope of the term literature
is that of determining a reasonably
fixed standard of classification, owing
to the twofold aspect under which
every literary monument presents itself
— as form or matter. Taking, for
instance, any specific department of
literature, such as satire, we find that
our satirist may be, as regards form,
a lyrist, novelist, essayist, or dramatic
writer. The man we call poet may,
in the same manner, have turned the
poetic form to the uses of comedy or
of the lyric spirit. Again, commonly,
a literary artist will have attained
eminence in different categories of
literature, as the drama, say, criticism,
and poetry, and the necessity arises of
partially and often arbitrarily char-
acterizing such a man. A certain
measure of violence is, therefore, un-
avoidable when the attempt is made to
cast any great literary figure into a
rigidly labeled department ; but there
is sufficient justification for the scheme
in the fact that, as a rule, the great
literary figure does stand out pre-
eminently in one department of the art,
102
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
and, remembering that the line of
division is by no means rigid, we may
classify him accordingly.
The historical study of literature
may be pursued in two ways. There is
the vertical order, as it may be called,
in which we take up the national liter-
atures one by one, a method of study in
which the various literary genres are
considered at the same time, and where-
in the formal side is naturally subor-
dinated to the investigation of the
development of national character as
revealed in the national literature.
There is also what may be called the
horizontal order, where our attention
is confined to one kind of literature at
a time, whose development is traced
from the beginning to the present day,
across national boundaries, the process
essentially being one of thematic unity,
as compared with the preceding method
of national unity. Either method has
its advantages, and the material in the
New International Encyclopadia has
been so treated as to lend itself to either
form of study ; but, whereas the student
or reader who would devote himself to
the study of national literatures may
be left to his own resources in view of
the obvious classification followed, the
need for guidance is apparent in the
second. Emphasis, therefore, in the
present chapter is laid on the formal
development of the literary form, tlic
underlying princ'i])le being the belief
that the larger number of students are
apt to turn to a specialized subject,
like the Iiistory of the novel or the epic,
rather than to the exj)anded story of
an entire national literature.
I. The National Litekatures.
American Literature
Arabic Language and Literature
Armenian Language and Literature
Australian Literature
Bengali Language and Literature
Breton Literature
Canadian Literature
Catalan Language and Literature
Chinese Language and Literature
Cuban Literature
Czech Literature
Danish Language and Literature
Dutch Literature
Egyptian Language and Literature
(under Egypt)
English Literature
Finnish Language and Literature
Flemisli Language and Literature
French Literature
Frisian Language and Literature
German Literature
Greek Literature
Hindustani Language and Litera-
ture
Hungarian Literature
Icelandic Literature
Iranian Languages and Literatures
Irish Literature
Italian Literature
Japanese Literature
Jewish Language and Literature
(under Jews)
Latin Literature
Lettic Language and Literature
Lithuanian Language and Litera-
ture
Mexican Literature
Norwegian Literature
Old Church Slavic Language and
Literature
Pahlavi Language and Literature
Persian Literature
Polish l>iterature
Portuguese Literature
Portusuese-Brazilian Literature
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
103
Romance Literatures
Rumanian Language and Litera-
ture
Russian Literature
Scottish Language and Literature
Spanish Literature
Spanish-American Literature
Swedish Language and Literature
Syriac Language and Literature
Turkish Language and Literature
Yiddfsh
II. The Literary Forms. The
broadest subdivision in literature ac-
cording to form is that into prose and
poetry ; and, though it is often very
difficult to differentiate one from the
other in fact, and always hard to de-
scribe the distinction between them in
theory, the common definitions of prose
as the oi'dinary mode of speech and
poetry as speech figurative, cadenced,
and cast within certain compara-
tively rigid forms, may be followed
safely enough for practical pur-
poses. Either, taken in itself, may be
subdivided into forms of narrower con-
notation, such as essay and novel under
prose, epic and l^'ric under poetry.
Here, however, appears the inconsis-
tency already mentioned as inherent in
literary classification ; for the earliest
scientific essays of the Greeks were
•written in verse, while Walt Whitman's
lyric spirit finds expression in a medi-
um closely akin to Ruskin's fervid
prose. Again, the drama is probably
nowadays regarded as a prose form,
though as a matter of fact the world's
greatest plays bear the poetic form.
Poetry, then, if we exclude the drama,
embraces the two subdivisions of the
epic and the lyric. In the history of
literary development, poetry precedes
prose, and of the two poetic forms
the epic, as a rule, antedates the lyric.
1. Epic Poetry. The epic may
be defined as a lengthy narrative in
verse, dealing with a subject of great
magnitude in character, national or
descriptive of a great movement. A
distinction may be made between the
epic which is the spontaneous expres-
sion of national life, constructed at an
early period in national development
out of pre-existing minor poetic forms,
and the artificial epic of a more ad-
vanced cultural stage, which is the work
of a single mind and in consequence
purposive in its nature rather than
spontaneous. Mention should also be
made of the mock or beast epic, in
nature largely satirical. See Epic
Poetry; and, for the great epics and
epic poets of the world's literature, the
following titles :
Sanskrit :
IVIahabharata
Ramayana
Purana
Persian :
Firdausi
Shah Namah
Rust am
Greek:
Homer
Age of Epic Poetry (under Greek
Literature)
Cyclic Poets
Latin :
Vergil
Ji^neas
Lucan
Silius Italicus
Statius
French:
Chansons de geste
104
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Roland
Aymon
Ogier the Dane
Spanish :
Ercilla y Zuniga
Gekman :
Nibelungenlied
Klopstock
Italian :
Dante
Boiardo
Ariosto
Tasso
Portuguese:
CaniOes
Norse :
Edda
Saga
Finnish :
Kalevala
English :
Beowulf
Milton
The Beast Epic:
Batrachomyomachia
Reynard the Fox
2. The Lyric. Lyric poetry, as
the expression of personal feeling, is
the most subjective of all literary
forms. Originally written to be sung,
the lyric has remained the nearest ap-
proacii in literature to absolute music.
Its scope is as wide as human emo-
tion, broadening in the course of its
development with the expansion of
human sympathies. Its formal varia-
tions are numerous. See:
Lyric Poetry
Versification
Sonnet
Ode
Ballade
Rondeau
Madrigal
Canzone
Macaronic Verse
Rhyme
Lyric poetry attained great perfec-
tion in ancient Greece, though its field
was narrower than that of modern
poetry for comparative lack of the
nature element, which, with us, is so
conspicuous a feature of lyric expres-
sion. The Roman genius was, on the
whole, unfavorable to the fostering of
the lyric spirit. In the East, Persia
produced a succession of poets of great
excellence. See, for the great names
in the realm of lyric poetry:
Sanskrit:
Kalidasa
Persian :
Nizami
Omar Khaj'yam
Sadi
Hafiz
Jami
Latin :
Catullus
Tibullus
Horace
Ovid
Propertius
Ausonius
Prudeiitius
Greek:
Alcman
Callinus
Archilochus
Tyrtaeus
Siinonides
Solon
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
105
Alcaeus
Sappho
Anacreon
Theognis
Hipponax
Pindar
Bacchylides
Timotheus
Theocritus
Bion
Moschus
Herondas
The lyric poetry of the Middle
Ages was largely ecclesiastical, the
Latin hymns of the period being
especially marked by extraordinary ef-
fects of rhyme. The court singers of
France and Germany, however, fos-
tered the love theme assiduously. With
the Revival of Learning came a great
impetus to the poetic expression of
secular emotions, Italy being the first
to feel the impulse of the new move-
ment. Lyricism languished during
the domination of classical ideals in
the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies, but, freed from the bond of ar-
tificiality, entered upon an unprece-
dented development towards the end
of the latter century. See:
Hymnology
Troubadours
Trouvere
Minnesinger
Meistersinger
Goliardic Literature
Romanticism ;
and for tiie lyric poets of Western Eu-
rope:
French :
Marie de France
Meung, Jean de
ViUon
Malherbe
Pleiade
Ronsard
Grasset
Chenier, Andre Marie
Chenier, Marie Joseph
Beranger
Lamartine
Delavigne
Hugo
Musset
Gautier
Leconte de Lisle
Baudelaire
Heredia, Jose
Sully-Prudhomme
Coppee
Verlaine
Mallarme
Regnier, H.
Rimbaud, J. A.
Provencal:
Roumanille
Jasmin
Mistral, F.
Gras, Felix
Felibi'ige
Italian :
Cavalcanti, Guido
Cino da Pistoja
Dante
Petrarch
Colonna, Vittoria
Guarini
Marini
Chiabrera
Metastasio
Bondi, Clemcnte
Foscolo, Ugo
Leopardi
Monti, V.
Alcardi
Giusti, Giuseppe
106
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
CarduccI
Graf, A.
Spanish :
Lopez de Ayala, Pedro
Santillana
Carcilasso de la Vega
Leon, Luis de
Figueroa, Francisco de
Argensola
Mendoza, Diego Hurtado de
Gongora y Argotc
Zorrilla y Moral
Iriarte y Oroposa
Lista y Aragon
Melendez Valdes
Espronceda
Portuguese:
Ferreira, A.
Gomes de Amorim
German :
Walther von der Vogelwelde
Sachs, Hans
Fleming, Paul
Opitz
Burger
Kleist, E. C.
Goethe
Schiller
Schlcgel, A. W.
Arndt
Novalis
Chamisso
Uhland
Korner
EichcndorfF
Heine
Riickcrt
Frciligrath
Bodcnstcdt
Schcffel
Auerspcrg
Hamorling
Ambrosius, Johanna
Dutch:
Marnix
Vondel
Bilderdijk
Kate, J. J. ten
Flemish :
Maerlant
Bijns
Conscience, H.
The lyric poetry of Northern and
Eastern Europe is recent in origin,
going back no further than the
eighteenth century. It has, as a rule,
been under the influence of the great
literary movements of the West, but,
though largely mimetic in form, has
been made the expression of an intense
national consciousness. See:
Swedish :
Bellman
Tegner
Atterbom
Runeberg
Snoilsky
Danish :
Heibcrg, J. L.
Evald
Riciiardt
Norwegian :
Weliiavcn
Wcrgeland
Hungarian:
Kisfaludy
Arany
Petofi
Erdelyi
Russian :
Dcrzhavin
Pushkin
KoltsofF
Ijermontoff
Slicftchenko
Nekrasoff
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
107
Polish :
Naruszewicz
Karpinski
Mickicwicz
Kniaznin
Slowacki
Krasfnski
Pol
Asnyck
The origins of the English lyric
poetry may be traced back, if it be so
desired, to early Anglo-Saxon times.
The continuous history begins with
Chaucer. Some of the most beautiful
lyrics of the language are embodied
in the works of the Elizabethan dram-
atists, after wjiom, and jMilton, the art
declines and hardens until revived by
Burns and Wordsworth. English lyric
in the nineteenth century lias covered
the field of human sympathies, from
Blake's unseen world to Tennyson's
studies in evolution and Kipling's in
machine construction. See:
English :
Caedmon
Ormulum
Layamon
Lydgate, John
Minot, Laurence
Barbour, John
Gower
Chaucer
Sackville
Shakespeare
Jonson
Milton
Ramsay, Allan
Donne
Herrick
Herbert
Waller
Crashaw
Cowley
Vaughan
Gay
Savage, Richard
Chatterton
Shenstone
Young, Edward
Thomson
Gray
Collins
Cowper
Blake
Bums
Hogg
Wordsworth
Lander
]\Ioore
Keats
Shelley
Praed
Proctor, B. W.
FitzGerald
Tennyson
Browning
Clough
Arnold, Matthew
Ingelow, Jean
Patmore
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel
Rossetti, Christina
Morris
Arnold, Edwin
Aytoun, W. E.
Swinburne
Massey, G.
Henley
Watson, W.
Kipling
MejTiell, A. C.
Sharp, W.
American :
Freneau
Barlow, Joel
108
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Key
Halleck
Bryant
Drake
Emerson
Whittier
Longfellow
Holmes
Poe
Lowell
Hoffman, C. F.
Whitman
Cary, Alice and Phoebe
Timrod
Howe, Julia Ward
Stedman
Aldrich
Lanier
O'Reilly, J. B.
Field, Eugene
Riley
Miller, Joaquin
Gilder, R. W.
3. The Drama. The Drama has
been placed high among mimetic forms,
because of tlie contribution it lays on
the otiier arts, thus combining within
itself their several qualities. Action
and character are the subject matter.
The means are bodily motion, which
gives tlie sculptor's effect ; language,
wlilch is the instrinnent of the poet ;
music, and scenery, and costume, to
which painting and architecture give
their share. The origins of the drama
arc to be found, most probably, in early
religious ceremonial. Festivals marked
by singing and dancing, the latter
more or less symbolic in character, are
common to peoples in a primitive stage;
and the line of progress is along the
development of the action and tiie
spoken dialogue, at the expense of the
chant, to complete secularization of the
drama. The principles of the drama
as propounded by Aristotle have re-
mained for the most part the same ;
the mechanical technique has varied
widely from original conditions. See:
Drama
Theatre
Stage
Chorus
Act
Ballet
Burlesque
Farce
Interlude
Masque
Vaudeville
Pantomime
Puppet
Atellanae
]\Iime
Prologue
Epilogue
Greek drama had its origin in the
worsliip of Dionj'sus. Witii ^Eschj'lus,
tragedy is profoundly religious, and
the actor's speeches arc still subordi-
nated to the clioruses ; Sophocles
strengthened the element of action ;
Euripides thoroughly humanized trag-
edy. Attic comedy was fierce in per-
sonal satire and unbridled in speech.
The Latin drama was sedulously mod-
eled on the Greek. The origin of the
Sanskrit drama is disputed, some deriv-
ing it from the Greek, others assigning
it an independent development. See,
for writers and plays :
Sanskrit:
Sudraka
Kalidasa
Bliavabimti
Sakuntala
Mricchakatika
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
109
Greek:
jEschylus
Phrynichus
Sophocles
Euripides
. Aristophanes
Agathon
Epicharmus
Eupolis
Menander
Latin :
Plautus
Terence
Seneca
In Medieval times, practically the
only species of dramatic performance
was the religious spectacles of the
Church, in which the purpose was di-
dactic. See: Miracle Play; Mor-
ality ; Interlude ; Passion Play.
Out of the religious performances of
the Middle Ages the modern drama
developed. In France, which served
as a model to the Continent, an elabor-
ate system of rules was built up, sup-
posedly bringing the drama into con-
formity with the standards of the
classic age. The classic ideals, with
their restriction of human emotions to
kings and nobles, were overthrown on
the Continent in the first half of the
nineteenth century, since when the
scope of tlio drama has been widened
to embrace the entire complex of so-
ciety. Like the novel, the drama of
the latest days has become largely
purposive. See, for the writers :
French:
Mairet
Regnard
Corneille
Racine
Moliere
Marivaux
Chenier, M. J.
Crebillon
Beaumarchais
Scribe
Vigny
Hugo
Legouve
Labiche
Ponsard
Augier
Dumas
Pailleron
Meilhac
Halevy
Sardou
Rostand
Maeterlinck
Richepin, J.
Comedie Fran9aise
Italian :
Trissino
Maffei
Goldoni
Gozzi
Alfieri
]\IanzonI
Giacometti
Annunzio
Spanish :
Encina
Vega Carpio
Calderon de la Barca
Moreto y Cabana
Moratin, Lcandro Fernandez
Gil y Zarate
Lopez de Ayala, Adelardo
• Hartzenbusch, J. E.
Echegaray
Breton de los Herreros
Portuguese :
Sa de Miranda
Almeida-Garrett
110
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
The primacy in Continental drama,
so long iield by the French, may be said
to be disputed at the present day by
the Teutons and the Slavs, more par-
ticularly the Scandinavian branch of
the Teutons. See:
German :
Lessing
Goethe
Schiller
Kotzebue
Grillparzer
Laube
Gutzkow
Anzengruber
Heyse
Sudermann
Hauptmann
Lindau, P.
Hartleben
Fulda
Swedish :
Almqvist
Strindberg
Danish :
Holberg
Oehlenschlager
Norwegian :
Ibsen
Bjornson
Russian :
SumarakofF
GriboyedofF
Gogol
Ostrovski
Zagoskin, M. N.
Tolstoy, Aloxoi
Tolstoy, LyofF
Gorky
Polish :
Frcdro
Kniaznin
Hungarian:
Kisfaludy, Karoly
Katona
Szigligeti
While Continental Europe was en-
slaved by the rigid formulas of the
classicists, in England the Romantic
drama flourished from the beginning.
The Elizabethan age is the golden age
of the drama of the world. Following
the Elizabethans came the decline, ar-
rested partially by the talent of Dryden
and Congreve during tiie Restoration,
and of Goldsmith and Sheridan in the
later part of the eighteenth century.
In the nineteenth century, England
brought forth no dramatic writer of
conspicuous genius. See:
English:
Udall
Norton
Sackville
Kyd
Lodge
Peele
Marston
Greene
Marlowe
Siiakespeare
Nash
Dekker
Middleton
Jonson
Massingcr
Beaumont and Fletcher
Ford
Webster
Davenant
Dryden
Wycherley
Otway
Congreve
Farquhar
Goldsmith
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
111
Colman, the Elder
Sheridan
Cohnan, the Younger
Fitzball, Edward
Knowles, J. S.
Beddoes, T. L.
Taylor, Tom
Robertson, T. W.
Sims, G. R.
Boucicault
Pincro
Jones, H. A.
Shaw, George Bernard
Phillips, Stephen
Barrie, J. M.
American :
Dunlap, William
Payne, John Howard
Brougham, John
Boker
Sargent, Epes
Carleton, Henry Guy
Howard, Bronson
Campbell, Bartley
Thompson, Denman
Harrigan, Edward
De Mille, Henry
Belasco, David
Fitch, William Clyde
A partial list of the more note-
worthy actors, of all times and all na-
tions, is as follows :
Anderson, Mary A.
Archer, Belle
Arnould, Sophie
Arthur, Julia
Bancroft, Mary E. W.
Barrett, Wilson
Barry, Elizabeth
Barry, Spranger
Bates, Blanche
Bellamy, George Anne
Bernhardt, Sarah
Bctterton, Thomas
Betty, W. H. W.
Booth, Agnes
Booth, Barton
Booth, Edwin
Booth, Junius Brutus
Bracegirdle, Anne
Burbage, Richard
Campbell, Beatrice
Clarke, J. S.
Clive, Catherine
Coghlan, Charles
Coghlan, Rose
Coquelin, B. C.
Crane, W. H.
Cushman, Charlotte
Davenport, E. L.
Davenport, Fanny
Dejazet, P. V.
Devrient, L.
Drew
Duse
Farren, Elizabeth
Fisher, Charles
Fiske, Minnie M.
Florence, W. J.
Forbes-Robertson, J.
Forrest, Edwin
Garrick, David
Gilbert, J. G.
GiUette, W. H.
Goodwin, N. C.
Haase, F.
Hackett, James H.
Hading, Jane
Hare, John
Haworth, Joseph
Heme, James A.
Irving, Henry
Janauschek, Fanny
Jordan, Dorothy
Kean, Edmund
Kean, C. J.
Kemble, Chas.
112
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Kemble, Frances Anne
Kemble, John Pliilip
Kendal, Mr.
Kendal, Mrs.
Lecouvreur, Adrienne
Lemaitre, A. L.
JMcCulIough, J. E.
Macklin, C'Jiarles
IMacready, W. C.
Mansfield, Richard
Mathews, Charles
Mathews, C. J.
Modjeska, H.
Morris, Clara
]Mounet-Sully
Oldfield, Anne
Payne, J. H.
Placide, H.
Rachel, :\Ille.
Rehan, Ada
Re jane, IMnie.
Ristori, A.
Robson, Stuart
Roscius
Russell, Sol Smith
Salvini, A.
Salvini, T.
Siddons, Sarah
Sonncnthal, A.
Sothern, E. H.
Stoddart, J. H.
Thompson, Dcnman
Tree, Beerbohm
Vestris, Mme.
Wallack, J. L.
Wallack, J. W.
Willard, E. S.
Woffinf^ton, Margaret
Wyndham, Charles
4. The Novel. The novel, at
present the most flexible of literary
forms, though of recent date in its
present character, traces back to early
and multiple sources. The beast tale,
common to all nations, the narrative
of adventure, and the story of things
supernatural, were the precursors of
the novel. The love element becomes
pronounced in the old Greek romances
and assumes primary importance in the
romances of the Middle Ages. The
romance, it may be broadly put, passed
into the novel, when the tale began to
assume the character of a picture of
contemporary life, a development to be
assigned to the sixteenth century.
See the article Novel.
The geat monuments and figures of
pre-modern story-telling are the fol-
lowing :
Sanskbit :
Dandin
Subandhu
Bana
Arabic : .
Arabian Nights
Greek and Roman:
Heliodorus
Ephesiaca
Daphnis and Chloe
Apuleius
Apollonius of Tyre
Petronius
In Mcdia?val times, the romance
flourished, combining in itself elements
of tlic epic, the beast fable, and the tale
of adventure and of love. Materials
were largely drawn from ancient his-
tory, and the stories gathered around
great figures of antiquity and the early
Middle Ages. See:
Romance
Fabliaux
Gesta Romanorum
Alexander, Legend of
Charlomagne Cycle of Romances
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
113
Chrestien de Troyes
Wace
Roman de la Rose
Perceval
Tristram
Lancelot of the Lake
Malory
Grail, The Holy
Merlin
Chaucer
Morte d' Arthur
Euphues
Amadis of Gaul
Romance lacked characterization
and reality. With the appearance of
tales embodying observation of real
types and description of manners, the
novel as it is to-day begins. The
origin is generally placed in Spain,
where the rise of the picaresque tale
marks the first step in character de-
lineation. The subsequent develop-
ment is rapid to present conditions,
when the novel has become the all em-
bracing term for all prose fiction,
realistic, romantic, adventurous, or di-
dactic. See for the writers :
French:
Scudery, Madeleine de
Lafayette, Marie Madeleine de
Scarron
Lesage
Voltaire
Genlis, Countess de
Prevost d'Exiles
Saint-Pierre
Stendhal
Balzac
Hugo
Dumas, the Elder
Sue
Erckmann-Chatrian
Kock, Paul de
Sand, George
Merimee, P.
Flaubert
Goncourt
Fcuillet
Theuriet
Daudet
Loti, Pierre
Zola
Bourget
Margueritte, P,
Prevost, E. M.
Italian :
Boccaccio
Manzoni
Aniicis
Fogazzaro, A.
Verga, G.
Annunzio, Gabriele d'
Farina, S.
Serao, Matilda
Spanish :
Cervantes
Aleman
Valera y Alcala Gallano
Galdos
Palacio Valdes
Alar con
Pereda
Pardo Bazan
German :
Goethe
Fouque
Gutzkow
Eichendorff
Alexis, W.
HaufF
Laube
Auerbach
Reuter, Fritz
Tieck, L.
Freytag
Storm, Theodor
114
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
SchefFel
Gerstiicker
Spielhagen
Anzengruber
Dahn
Heyse
Ebers
Kirschner, Lola
Swedish :
Rydberg
JBremer, Frederika
Danish :
Blicher
Drachmann
N0RWEGL\N :
Bjornson
Lie
Kielland
Hungarian:
Jokai
Eotvos
Russian :
Gontcharoffi
Pisemski
Gogol
TurgeniefF
Dostoyevski
Tolstoy
Korolenko
Gorky
TchekhofF
Polish :
Kraszcwski
Sicnkiewicz
Orzcszkowa
Defoe began the line of great Eng-
lish novelists with what is still the
greatest story of adventure in our
literature. The realistic novel was
carried to a high degree of perfection
by Fielding. Manners were acutely
studied by a succession of women
writers, who bridged the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries. Barren
practically of the drama, the latter
century found expression in the novel
to as fully great an extent as in lyric
poetry. See:
English :
Belin, Afra
Defoe
Sterne
Smollet
Fielding
Richardson
Inchbald, Elizabeth Simpson
Godwin
Buraey, Frances
Radcliffe, Ann
Edgeworth, Maria
Scott
Austen, Jane
Porter, Jane
Peacock, Thomas Love
Lover, Samuel
Borrow
Lever, Charles
Bulwer-Lytton
Gaskell, Elizabeth
James, G. P. R.
Thackeray
Marryat, Frederick
Dickens
Reade
Trollope
Kingslcy, Charles
P^liot, George
Bronte, (Charlotte, Emily, Anne)
Collins, Wilkie
Blackmore
Oliphant, iNIargaret
Meredith, George
Morris, William
Du Maurier
Black, William
*
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
115
Hardy, Thomas
Stevenson, Robert Louis
Russell, W. C.
Ward, Mrs. Humphry
Moore, George
Hawkins, Anthony Hope
Kipling, Rudyard
Conrad, Joseph
Gissing, George
Hewlett, Maurice
Quiller-Couch, A. T.
Wells, H. G.
Fiction has been more successfully
cultivated in America than any other
form of letters. The nineteenth cen-
tury produced in that realm a master
romancer, Cooper, two master short-
story writers, Hawthorne and Poe, and
at least two talented exponents of
modern realism, James and Howells, of
whom the latter has depicted national
character with remarkable success.
See:
Brown, Charles Brockden
Cooper
Poe
Hawthorne
Hale, E. E.
Howells
Harte, Bret
James, Henry
Cable, George Washington
Fawcett, Edgar
Grant, Robert
Jackson, H. H.
Melville, Herman
Tourgee, A. W.
Wilkins, Mary
Allen James Lane
Page, Thomas Nelson
Garland, Hamlin
Stockton, Frank R.
Norris, Frank
5. Criticism and Essay.
1. The principles underlying artistic
endeavor have been discussed since
early Greek times, and may be divided
into two classes, the universal laws of
artistic expression, which have always
been accepted, and the minor theories,
more limited in scope and applying
generally to individual arts, which
never have been accepted by all, and
never will be. Plato first studied in a
thorough manner the relations of art
to reahty. Aristotle's Poetics laid
down the principles that have under-
gone no essential change since his time.
On the other hand, the blending of the
classic spirit with the Teutonic, and the
subsequent rise of chivalry and ro-
mance, produced differences of opinion
regarding subject, scope, and manner
that are in full force at the present
day. See :
Criticism
Realism and Naturalism
Romanticism
Impi'essionist School of Painting
Decadents
Symbolists
2. Criticism in the beginning found
expression in both prose and verse ; the
modern tendency has been decidedly
towards prose, though there is not
wanting a Pope's Essay on Criticism
to continue the succession from Hor-
ace's Ars Poetica. The usual form,
then, in which criticism at present finds
expression is the Essay. See: Essay,
and for the writers:
Greek:
Plato
Aristotle
Plutarch
Longinus
116
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Latin :
Cicero
Horace
Seneca the Elder
Varro
Pliny
Quintilian
Feench :
Montaigne
Saint-Evremond
Corneille
Boileau
Voltaire
Diderot
Bayle
Taine
Cousin
Lamartine
Sainte-Beuve
Michelet
Sarcey
France, Anatole
Faguet, Eniile
Brunetiere
Lemaitre, Jules
Rod, Edouard
Italian :
Dante
Boccaccio
Poliziano
Vida
Scaligcr, J. C.
Carducci, (Jiosue
De Sanctis, F.
Ancona, Alessandro d'
Gubcmatis, A.
German:
Rouchlin
Winc'kclmann
Gottsched
Herder
Lcssing
Schiller
Schlegel, Friedrich
Grimm
Schercr, W.
Menzel
Bahr, HciTiiann
Nordau, Max
Dutch:
Erasmus
Danish :
Rafn
Brandes
Russian :
Byelinski
PisarefF
English :
Ascham
Sidney
Bacon, Francis
Drj'den
Steele
Addison
Swift
Johnson
Pope
Jeffrey
Coleridge
Wordsworth
Lamb
Hazlitt
Wilson, John
De Quincey
Hunt, J. H. Leigh
Carlyle
Ruskin
Arnold, Matthew
Rossetti, W. M.
Stevenson, Robert Louis
Pater, W. ^
Syiiionds, J. A.
Saintsbury, George
Stephen, Leslie
Birroll, Augustine
Arciicr, William
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
117
Le Gallienne, Richard
Symons, A.
American :
Irving
Emerson
Ticknor, G.
Lowell
Fuller, Sarah Margaret
Griswold, Rufus
Curtis, G. W.
Whipple
White, Richard Grant
Hutton, Laurence
Mabie, Hamilton
Winter, William
6- Moralists, Satirists, and Humor-
ists.
The study of human character and
conduct has at all times received the
attention of great minds, and wliat
may be called ethical literature forms
a very important part of the literature
of the world. Near to constructive
moralists, like Epictetus or Carlyle,
stands the satirist, whose mission it is
to combat the evil of degenerate times.
The contemplation of the petty faults
and incongruities of human character
and action, so portrayed as to arouse
laughter without arousing deep emo-
tion of any kind, has always been a
universal source of amusement. See:
Greek and Roman:
Aristophanes
Lucian
Epictetus
Ennius
Lucilius
Horace
Juvenal
Martial
Persius
Lucan
Tacitus
Petronius
Aurelius, Marcus
Boethius
French :
Rabelais
Menippee
La Bruyere
La Rochefoucauld
Pascal
Lcsage
Voltaire
Chamfort, S. R.
Italian :
Jacopone da Todi
Aretino
Spanish :
Quevedo y Villegas
German :
Fischart, Johannes
Brant
Hutten, Ulrich von
EpistolfE Obscurorum Virorum
Grimmelshausen
Rabener
Lichtenberg
Wieland
Tieck
Richter, Johann Paul
Reuter, Fritz
Dutch :
Erasmus
Marnix
RussuN :
Kantemir
Shtchedrin
Nekrasoff
English :
Langland (Piers Plowman)
Skelton
Bunyan
Butler
118
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Dryden
Pope
Swift
Junius, Letters of
Arbuthnot
Byron
Carlyle
Smith, Sydney
Thackeray
Dickens
Calverle}'
Gilbert, W. S.
Mallock, W. H.
Lear, Edward
Jerome, Jerome K.
Guthrie, T. A.
Scotch:
Dunbar
Barclay
American:
Ward, Nathaniel
Franklin
Irving
Lowell
Holmes
Smith, Seba
Clemens
Leland, C. G.
Locke, D. R.
Browne, C. F.
Bunncr, H. C.
Shaw, H. W.
Stockton, F. R.
Nye, E. W.
Dunne, Finlcy Peter
7. Oratory.
The art 'of eloquent persuasion is
found among all primitive peoples
where social bonds have become of some
importance. Oratory attains its full-
est development in the Greek democra-
cies, where the citizen was called upon
to take so considerable a sliare in the
public life. The political and juristic
genius of the Roman was likewise fa-
vorable to the development of the art.
Pulpit eloquence had some of its great-
est masters among the early Fathers of
the Church, which has never been want-
ing in masterly exponents of its doc-
trines. A gi'eat period in the history of
orator}' was the age of the French
Revolution, when, contemporaneously
in England too, a succession of great
orators lent lustre to the reign of
George III. In the United States, the
revolutionary period, and the period of
rapid national growth, produced a bril-
liant series of orators, culminating in
the classic triad. Clay, Webster, and
Calhoun. At present oratory may b'e
considered a declining art, especially
as related to secular affairs ; and,
though its power over the multitude
may still be felt in electoral campaigns,
its influence in legislative bodies has
largely passed away. See Oratory;
and, for the great orators of all
ages:
Greek :
Pericles
Gorgias
Isocrates
Lj'sias
Andocides
Isaeus
.(Eschines
Demosthenes
Athanasius
Chrysostom
Basil the Great
Roman :
(^ato of Utica
Hortensius
Cicoro
Ambrose
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
119
French:
Bossuet
Bourdaloue
Massillon
Fenelon
IMirabeau
Barnave
Vcrgniaud
Guadet
Daiiton
Robespierre
Royer-Collard
Constant de Rebecque
Lamartine
Laeordaii'e
Thiers
Gambetta
Italian :
Mazzini
Spanish :
Castelar
Hungarian :
Kgssuth
English :
Taylor, Jeremy
Baxter, Richard
Whiteficld
]\Iansfield
Burke
Pitt, the Elder
Pitt, the Younger
Fox, C. J.
Sheridan, R. B.
Erskine, Lord
Canning
Bright, John
Gladstone
Drunimond, Henry
Spurgeon, C. H.
Irish :
Curran
Grattan
O'Conncll
Emmet
American :
Otis, James
Henry, Patrick
Lee, Richard Henry
Ames, Fisher
Channing, W. E.
Randolph, John
Wirt, William
Benton
Clay
Webster
Calhoun
Hayne
Everett
Choate, Rufus
Seward, W. H.
Sumner, Charles
Stephens, Alexander
Beecher, H. W.
Douglas, Stephen A.
Evarts, W. M.
Edmunds, George
Conkling, Roscoe
Ingersoll, Robert
Brooks, Phillips
Reed, Thomas B.
Bryan, William Jennings
8. The Fable.
Probably it was the inhabitants of
India who first ascribed human wisdom
and language to animals. From India
the fable passed westward, and, begin-
ning with the Greek ^sop, we find
practically the same scheme and con-
tents in all European fabulists. See :
India :
Pancatantra
Bidpai
Arabian :
Lokman
120
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Gkeek :
^sop
Latin :
Phaedrus
French :
La Fontaine
Perrault
Florian
Laboulaye
Russian:
KrylofF
German :
Hagedorn
Gellert
Lessing
Grimm
Norwegian :
Asbjomsen
Moe
Danish :
Andersen
English :
Gay
Harris, Joel Chandler
9. Personal Literature.
This name maj' be applied to such
productions as diaries, memoirs, letters,
and " confessions " of distinguished
men and women, or men and women
whose experiences in life have been ex-
traordinary. Written, it may be pre-
sumed, for the purpose of self-expres-
sion, they are valuable indexes of
character, motives, and causes. See:
Letters in Literature
Aurelius, Marcus: Meditations
Augustine : Confessions
Sevigne, Marquise de
Saint-Simon : Memoires
Rousseau : Confessions
Senancour : Obermann
Amiel
Selden : Table Talk
Pepys
Evelyn
Walpole, Horace
Chesterfield
10. Journalism.
The press, which must be regarded
as an important element in the literary
life of any nation, may be studied un-
der the following heads :
Periodical Literature
Journalism, College
Newspaper
Punch
Figaro
Times, The
Printing
A partial list of noteworthy names in
journalism is as follows:
About, Edmond
Blowitz, Henri Georges
Bonner, Robert
Bowles, Samuel
Creelman, James
Curtis, W. E.
Dana, C. A.
Field, Kate
Forbes, Archibald
Godkin, E. L.
Greeley, Horace
Halstead, Murat
Kennan, George
Laboucherc, Henry
Lemon, Mark
Mcdill, Joseph
Norman, Henry
Pulitzer, Joseph
Raymond, H. J.
Rcid, Whitelaw
Rochefort, Henri
Russell, W. H.
Sala, G. A. H.
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
121
Saltus, Edgar
Smalley, G. W.
Stanley, H. M.
Stead, W. T.
Steevens, G. W.
Taylor, Bayard
TraJll, H. D.
Villicrs, F.
Weed, Thurlow
White, Horace
Wilkinson, H. S.
Young, J. R.
11. Miscellaneous Titles.
Manuscript
Manuscripts, Illumination of
Papyrus
Palimpsest
Paleography
Codex
Coster
Gutenberg
Fust
Elzevir
Manutius
Foulis
Encyclopa?dia
Dictionary
Larousse
Brockhaus
Copyright
Literary Property
(dljaplfr a. ®I)P 3xm Arts
(Arrljtterturr)
THE study of the fine arts may be approached from one of three
different points of view. The first of these is the historical, in
which the student desires to obtain a comprehensive view of the
art of a nation or of an entire period, its general characteristics
and development. Another is the artistic, in which knowledge of
a particular art or of some of its aspects is desired. A third is the biographical,
in which the interest centres about an individual artist. To meet the first point
of view, the Xerc International Encyclopa'dia contains general articles treating
the architecture, sculpture, painting, and minor arts of certain nations and periods.
These general articles may best be divided into two groups : those treating the art
of Oriental nations, whose artistic devlopment is remotely or not at all concerned
with the general European evolution ; and those dealing with the great periods of
artistic development participated in by the Occident in general. This division
obviates the necessity for general articles on the art of separate European coun-
tries, as, for instance, French art, which will be found treated under Roman--
EsauE, Gothic, and Renaissance Art, and in the general articles Aechitec-
TUHE, Sculpture, Painting. The artist's point of view is represented by
general articles on Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture, and by articles on the
various schools, and on technical terms and pi-ocesses. The biographical side is
fully dealt with in the lives of all the principal artists. The art museums are
usually described under the titles of the cities in which they are situated: but a
few are of sufficient importance to require separate articles. The principal
schools of design are described in the general article upon that subject and in
special articles on the more Important schools. The description of celebrated
representations in painting and sculpture is usually given in the biography' of
the artist who produced them. The article Mythology in Aet gives a general
treatment of such representations in Classic Art, which arc further treated under
the names of the subjects represented, as Jupiter, Hercules, Achilles. The
article Iconography similarly treats Christian Art, and there are special articles
on a number of important themes of artistic treatment, such as Christ in Art and
Madonna.
A, (^nuvixi Arttrbs
I. Introductory: Assyrian Art
^j.j; Jewisli Art
Art, Primitive Phoenician Art
/Esthetics IMohammedan Art
Persian Art
II. OhientalArt: Indian Art
I^gyptian Art Chinese Art
Babylonian Art Japanese Art
122
ARCHITECTURE
123
III. European Development:
Greek Art
Etruria
Roman Art
Christian Art
Byzantine Art
Monastic Ai-t
Romanesque Art
Lombard Art
Gothic Art
Renaissance Art
IV. Art Museums, Societies, and
Schools:
Design, Schools of
Ecole des Beaux-Arts
National Academy of Design
Society of American Artists
Royal Academy of Arts
Saint Luke, Academy of
British Museum
Louvre
Luxembourg Palace
Pitti Palace
Uffizi
B. Kxt\}\XttXmt
In its widest sense, Architecture in-
cludes any kind of construction; but, in
the New International Encyclopaedia,
the term is usually restricted to build-
ing which attains the dignity of art.
Purely technical and utilitarian phases
of architecture are treated under
'Building, Masonry, and similar titles.
(See the chapter on Manufactur(?fe
and Engineering.) The three prin-
cipal varieties of architecture are civil,
religious, and military ; and under
these heads, in the following lists,
will be found their chief subdivisions.
A few of these call for more detailed
treatment of the component parts,
and these are best enumerated below
in connection with that style under
which they were principally devel-
oped ; as, for instance. Temple
under Greek Architecture, Church
under Early Christian, Monastery
and Castle under Romanesque. Most
celebrated works of architecture are
treated in the articles on those cities in
which they are situated; but a number
of buildings of especial interest are
treated separately, and in the following
scheme of .study, such buildings are
enumerated under the different styles of
architecture of which they are repre-
sentative. For example, Parthenon,
Erechtheum, etc., appear under
Greek Architecture, Notre Dame de
Paris and Westminster Abbey under
Gothic.
I. Civil Architecture :
Municipal Architecture
Forum
Palace
Fountain
Villa
Mausoleum
Theatre
Amphitheatre
Circus
Bath
Town Hall
Arch, Triumphal
Aqueduct
Bridge
II. Religious Architecture:
Temple
124
ARCHITECTURE
Church
Cathedral
Monastery
Orator}'
Baptistery
III. Military Architecture :
Acropohs
Citadel
Castle
Camp
Fortification
IV. Technical Terms.
A large number of architectural
terms deserve special treatment. Some
of these, which are general in their ap-
plication, are enumerated below, while
others, the application of wliich is re-
stricted to a particular style, are enu-
merated under that style ; as, for exam-
ple, Mosque under Mohammedan.
See:
Arabesque
Arcade
Arch
Balcony
Balustrade
Bay Window
Belfry
Ceiling
Colonnade
Column
Cupola
Dome
Door
Doorway
Fafade
Floor
Gateway
Hall
Molding
Ornament
Panel
Pendentive
Perspective
Pilaster
Pillar
Porch
Portal
Roof
Spire
Tracery
Window
V. Historic Styles axd Biography.
Architecture is tlie most ancient and,
perhaps, the most important of the fine
arts. In most artistic developments,
both painting and sculpture have been
subordinate to it. Its historical treat-
ment, therefore, forms an extensive and
important part of the general depart-
ment of architecture in the Encyclo-
paedia. A general historical sketch of its
development, from tiie most ancienttimes
to the present, is given in the article
AcHiTECTURE. This should be supple-
mented by the copious articles on the
great historic styles, with the biograph-
ical additions given in the following
list. Our treatment will outline the
salient features of the different styles,
beginning with those Oriental nations
whose architecture lies remote from the
European development — such as China,
India, and Japan. We then proceed to
those ancient nations, like Babylonia
and Egypt, which materially influenced
the Greek architecture. P^rom Greek
arcliitecturc, is descended the Roman,
and from the Roman, the Mediicval and
Renaissance styles, and finally tiic ar-
chitecture of the present day.
1. India.
The architecture of India begins with
the Buddhist style (u. c. 300-a. d.
ARCHITECTURE
125
700), whose buildings are of three
classes: stupa or tope (a mound en-
closing a relic) ; rock temples (chai-
tyas) ; and monasteries (viharas). The
Neo-Brahmanic style (beginning a. d.
700) comprises many varieties, includ-
ing the so-called Jaina and Dravidian.
It developed the architectural detail,
the over-rich ornamentation, the pago-
das and gopuras of the South. The
Mohammedan architecture of India,
being little related to these styles, is
test treated under Mohammedak Art.
See:
Indian Art
Tope
Vihara
Ellora
Vija^-anagara
Boro Buddor
Elephanta
Mohammedan Art
■2. China and Japan.
The most characteristic feature of
Chinese architecture, which begins in
the first century b. c, after the advent
of Buddhism, is the tiled roof of tent-
like form. Others are the pagoda, the
pail-loo (a monumental gateway), and
elaborately colored surface decoration.
Japanese architecture, which begins
with the seventh century a. d., is even
less massive. It makes more of timber
construction, and spends more upon
roof effects than the Chinese. See:
Chinese Art
Japanese Art
Pagoda
S. Babylonia and Assyria.
The first historic people to develop
architecture were the Babylonians, as
early as b. c. 6000. Their building
material was brick, and they were the
first to construct vaults and arches.
Their most important buildings were
the temples, which were stepped pyra-
mids of great height, brilliantly col-
ored with glazed tiles. Their city walls
were of amazing height and thickness.
Assyrian architecture was derived
from the Babylonian, but was more sec-
ular in character, the chief buildings
being the royal palaces, in which it per-
fected decorative relief sculpture of a
high order. See :
(a) Babylonian Art
Babylon
Babel, Tower of
Nippur
Erech
Ur
(b) Assyrian Art
Nineveh
Nimrud
Khorsabad
Koyunjik
4. Persia, Phcenicia, Judea.
The Babylonian-Assyrian influence
was determinative for the architecture
of the Hittites, and for the utilitarian
art of the Pha?nicians, who built for
Solomon the Temple at Jerusalem.
Ancient Persian architecture shows a
mingling of Babylonian with Egyptian
and Greek influences ; but, under the
Parthian and Sassanian dynasties, it
reverted to purer Oriental types. See :
Hittites
PhcEnician Art
Jewish Art
Temple at Jerusalem
Persian Art
Ecbatana
Susa
126
ARCHITECTURE
Pasargadae
Firuzabad
5. Egypt.
The architectural monuments of the
Old Empire (b. c. 5000-3000), the
pyramids, mastabas, and such temples
as exist — are works of building rather
than art. Egyptian temple architec-
ture originated with the Middle Empire
(b. c. 3000-2100), and, after a disas-
trous interruption under the Shepherd
Kings, attained its highest development
during the New Empire (till a. d.
32^). Some, like Abu-Simbel, were
rock-cut temples ; others, like Deir-el-
Bahri, were partly constructed. The
Ramesseum was a sepulchral temple ;
the chief structural masterpieces are at
Karnak, Luxor, Edfu, and Phila?. Im-
portant temples continued to be built
under the Greek (Denderah, Philas)
and Roman domination. For a descrip-
tion of the temples consult the section
Architecture, under Egyptian Art. It
represents the first attempt at a large
column interior in architectural his-
tory. See :
Egyptian Art
Pyramid
Mastaba
Medum
Luxor
Thebes
Karnak
Edfu
Elephantine
Abu-Simbel
Deir-el-Bahri
Ramesseum
Medinet Habu
Denderah
Phite
Beni-Hassan
6. Greece.
The Mycensean architecture in Greek
lands, sometimes known, as the ^Egean
style, is described under Archaeology,
and in the articles on the principal sites
of this culture. From the main hall of
the Mycena?an palace was evolved that
marvelous structural masterpiece, the
Greek Temple, the final type of which
appears in the seventh century b. c.
For a description of this temple, which
is the central figure of Greek architec-
ture, consult Greek Art. The origin
and development of the two principal
styles of temple architecture, Doric
and Ionic, are treated under Architec-
ture and Arch.eoi.ogy. The earliest
examples of the Doric are in Sicily and
Southern Italy, and it attained perfec-
tion during the fifth century, in build-
ings like the Parthenon and Theseum
at Athens, and in the temples of Pfes-
tum. The Ionic order was increasingly
used in the fourth century b. c, as at
jVIiletus and Ephesus, the Corinthian
being as yet used for small monuments
only. The Hellenistic age saw a great
development of architecture of a pri-
vate, civil, and sepulchral character,
like the stoa, propylasa, theatre, odeon,
and mausoleum.
(a) General Titles:
Cyclopjean Architecture
Archa'ology
Greek Art
Temple
Doric Order
Ionic Order
Corinthian Order
Column
Fluting
Entablature
Base
ARCHITECTURE
127
Pediment
Frieze
Cornice
Acanthus
Pjestuni
Agrigentum
Selinus
Segesta
Parthenon
Theseum
Erectheum
Phigalia
Miletus
Diana, Temple of
Tecs
Magnesia
(6) Civil Architecture:
Propylaea
Stoa
Colonnade
Stadium
Theatre
Mausoleum
Choragic Monument
(c) Biography :
Ictinus
Callicrates
Mnesicles
7. Rome.
For a general view of Roman archi-
tecture, the student is referred to Ro-
man Art. The early architecture of
Rome is practically Etruscan, and to
this people the Romans owe their knowl-
edge of vaulting and the arch. At the
close of the republican epoch, they
adopted Greek orders, evincing special
preference for the Corinthian, whicli
they developed into an independent or-
der, and from which they evolved the
so-called composite. These forms were
decoratively used as adjuncts of con-
struction. The principal works of Ro-
man architecture were but great civil
structures, like the fora, triumphal
arches, amphitheatres, therma?, aque-
ducts, and the like. The highest de-
velopment was during the first 150
years of the empire, after which came
the decline. See:
(a) Etruria (section on Art)
Cloaca
Roman Art
Aqueduct
Tabularium
Forum
Trajan, Forum of
Basilica
Pantheon
Theatre
Amphitheatre
Arch, Triumphal
Trajan, Arch of
Titus, Arch of
Constantine, Arch of
Septimius Severus, Arch of
Antonine Column
Caracalla, Baths of
Diocletian, Baths of
Tivoli
Pompeii
Herculanffium
Baalbek
Palmyra
(t)) Biography:
Apollodorus
8. Early Christian.
Early Christian architecture is an
adaptation of the declining Roman to
the needs of Christian worship. The
requirement was a large interior for
many worshipers, resulting in tlie de-
velopment of the basilical construction,
which became typical for church build-
128
ARCHITECTURE
ing. The component parts of the ba-
silica are discussed in the articles under
the heading of Basilical Construction.
The article Church gives the general
development of the church building.
To this is added a list of other terms
of ecclesiastical architecture.
(a) Basilical Construction:
Basilica
Apse
Transept
Atrium
Nave
Altar
Choir
Confessional
(b) Church, etc.:
Church
Catacombs
Chancel
Chapel
Crypt
Font
Reredos
Sacristy
9. Byzantine.
In the eastern half of the Roman
Empire, the Byzantines developed the
domical construction, inventing the
pendentives to support the dome. By-
zantine architecture was also character-
ized by rich mosaic decoration. Its
great masterpieces are the Church of
Saint Sophia at Constantinople and
Saint Mark's at Venice. It prevailed
throughout the Eastern Empire until
its destruction by the Turks ; in South-
em Italy, Sicily, Venice, and Ravenna;
in Armenia, the Balkans, and wherever
else the Greek Church prevailed. Rus-
sian architecture is a development of
the Byzantine. Sec:
Byzantine Art
Mosaic
Dome
Pendentive
Saint Sophia
Saint Mark's Church
Anthemius (of Tralles)
10. Mohammedan.
Coincident with the Mohammedan
conquests, a style of architecture arose
based upon the Byzantine and Persian.
Its golden age began with the tenth
century, and the final types were at-
tained in the eleventh. The ultimate
type of the mosque was built on the
court-plan, with painted arches, highly
colored geometrical ornament, and dome
vaulting. The principal schools were
the ]\Ioorish (Spain), Egyptian, Syr-
ian, and Persian, the influence of the
last named extending even to India. All
these are described in Mohammedan
Art, besides which there are articles
upon the most prominent features of
Mohammedan architecture. See:
Mohammedan Art
Mosque
Minaret
Tekiye
Bazar
Caravanserai
Alhambra
Taj Mahal
11. Romanesque (a. d. 800-1200).
In Middle and Western Europe,
Early Christian architecture was suc-
ceeded by the Romanesque, which was
pre-eminently the art of the monastic
orders and of feudalism. Among its
innovations were the cruciform plan,
the developed crypt, and the incorpora-
tion of bcll-towcrs witii the church
building. But the principal achieve-
ARCHITECTURE
129
ment of Romanosque architecture was
the perfection of vaulting, — the dome
and tunnel vault in Southern France,
and the groined vault in Lombardy, the
Rhinelands, Normandy, and England.
It thus led the way to the development
of the pointed arch and Gothic archi-
tecture. The basis of the study of Ro-
manesque architecture should be the
appropriate section of Romanesque
Art. See:
Romanesque Art
Lombard Art
Norman Architecture
Vault
Crypt
Bell-Tower
Castle
Keep
Bailey
Tower
Bastion
Barbican
Wartburg
Monastery
Cloister
Chapter-house
Dormitory
12. Gothic.
Gothic architecture is the develop-
ment of Romanesque groined vaulting.
By means of the pointed arch, the most
characteristic feature of the system, the
vertical thrust is concentrated in pow-
erful piers, the horizontal on flying
buttresses, permitting light walls with
enormous glass windows and an infinite
wealth of statuary and tracery. Gothic
architecture originated in France in the
twelfth century, and there it also at-
tained its most perfect development in
the thirteenth, declining into the Flam-
boyant style of the fifteenth century.
Spanish Gothic of the thirteenth cen-
tury is second only to the French,
though later debased by too much orna-
ment. In England, a peculiarly na-
tional style arose, which should be
studied under the headings by which
three varieties are usually known.
Early English, Decorated, and
Perpendicular. At its best, the
German Gothic is noted for its beauti-
ful tracery and spires. In Italy, the
Gothic style is purely decorative, and
it produced a charming style of civic
buildings, especially in Tuscany and
Venice. The basis of study should be
the article, Gothic Architecture,
supplemented by the articles on special
churches, and the descriptions in the
articles on the cities, a few of which
are appended. See:
(a) Gothic Architecture
Vault
Flamboyant
Eai'ly English
Decorated Style
Perpendicular
Fan-Tracery A'aulting
Notre Dame de Paris
Sainte Chapelle
Westminster Abbey
Santa Croce
(b) Cathedral Cities:
Rheims
Amiens
Burgos
Lincoln
Salisbury
York
Canterbury
Winchester
Cologne
Strassburg
Nuremburg
130
ARCHITECTURE
Freiburg
Milan
Florence
Siena
Orvieto
(c) Biography :
Montreuil, Pierre de
William of Wykeham
Erwin
Arnolf o di Cambio
13. Renaissance.,
(a) Italy.
Renaissance architecture is the
adaptation of classical forms, as they
sursivcd in Roman remains, to the
architectural needs of the day. The
Early Renaissance (fifteenth century)
originated in the works of Brunelleschi
at Florence, whence it was introduced
into the rest of Italy. Its work was
decorative in character, the construc-
tive side being rather developed by the
Roman school, headed by Bramante.
The tendency was increasingly towards
the formal classicism evinced in the
works of Palladio and Yignola. As a
reaction, came the freer but exagger-
ated Barocco of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. The basis of
study should be the section Architec-
ture, under Renaissance Art.
(i) Prominent Buildings:
Certosa
Doge's Palace
Pitti Palace
Lante Villa
Giulia Villa
Saint Peter's Church
(ii) Biograjihy:
Brunelleschi, Filippo
Michclozzi, Michelozzo
Alberti, Leone Battista
Giuliano da Majano
Laurana, Luciano da
Sangallo
Bramante, Donato d'Agnolo
Peruzzi, Baldassare
Sansovino, Jacopo
Michelangelo
Vignola, Giacomo Barozzo da
' Palladio, Andrea
Serlio, Sebastiano
Scamozzi, Vincenzo
Fontana, Domenico
Maderna, Carlo
Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo
Borromini, Francesco
Ammanati, Bartolommeo
Longhena, Baldassare
(b) Other Countries.
Outside of Italy, the most important
development of Renaissance architec-
ture was the French. Its most original
type was the medi.-eval castle trans-
formed into the palace of the Renais-
sance. There was constant influence
from Italy, but the later French Ba-
rocco is superior to the Italian. In
Germany, the Gothic elements survived
late, and materially influenced the in-
coming Renaissance. A similar devel-
opment occurred in other European
countries. Spain made use of much
elaborate decorative detail. The Ren-
aissance appeared latest of all in Eng-
land in the seventeenth century. A
kind of Palladian High Renaissance,
adopted by Inigo Jones, and developed
by Wren, retained a purifying influ-
ence during the eighteenth century, un-
til the advent of classic revival.
(i) France:
Palace
Chambiges, Martin
ARCHITECTURE
131
BuUant, Jean
De I'Ormc, Philibert
Lescot, Pierre
Brosse, Salomon de
Mansart
Fontainebleau
Louvre
Tuileries
Luxembourg Palace
(ii) Great Britain:
Jones, Inigo
Wren, Sir Christopher
Van Brugh, Sir John
Hawksmoor, Nicholas
Chambers, Sir William
Nash, Sir John
Dance, George
Saint Paul's Cathedral
Whitehall
14. Nineteenth Century.
The reaction against the exagger-
ated styles of the eighteenth century
■was an imitation of classical forms. In
France, Roman forms were predomi-
nant in the great structures of the Re-
public and first Empire; but, in Eng-
land and Germany, Greek forms were
more closely followed. About 1830,
came the Gothic revival, which attained
especial development in England, in
such buildings as the Houses of Parlia-
ment and numberless churches. The
present tendency is towards Renais-
sance forms and greater freedom from
tradition.
The tasteful colonial architecture of
the United States followed English
models, but the early republic adopted
the classic revival (Capitol). The
period of the Civil War (till 1870)
was singularly unfruitful ; but between
1870 and 1880 there was a revival of
the artistic spirit. The problem of
the artistic treatment of the skyscraper
with the steel-frame construction is as
yet unsolved ; but constant improvement
is being made. The basis of study
should be the section on the Nineteenth.
Century.
(a) France:
Soufflot, Jacques Germain
Percier, Charles
Fontaine, P. F. L.
Viollet-le-Duc
Visconti, L. T. J.
Gamier, J. L. C.
(6) Germany and Austria:
Gartner, Friedrich von
Schinkel, Karl Friedrich
Klenze, Leo von
Hansen, Thcophilus von
Semper, Gottfried
(c) Great Britain:
Soane, Sir John
Smirkc, Sir Robert
Pugin, Augustus
Pugin, Augustus N. M.
Wyatt, Sir Jlatthew D.
Fergusson, James
Scott, Sir George Gilbert
Street, George Edmund
Barry, Sir Charles
Waterhouse, Alfred
Paxton, Sir Joseph
Parliament, Houses of
(d) United States :
Latrobe, Benjamin Henry
Bulfinch, Charles
Walter, Thomas Ustick
Renwick, James
Upjohn, Richard
Hunt, Richard IMorris
Richardson, H. H.
jNlcKim, Charles F.
Qlljapter in. ®I)P Jtttp Arts
(^rulpturp ani» fainting)
(Read general introduction at the opening of preceding chapter.)
v4, g>rul^tur?
The stud}- of sculpture centres about
the general article on that subject. In
this article will be found sections on
the technical processes and materials,
especially tlie modern, and on the dif-
ferent forms of sculpture, and a sketch
of the history' of sculpture, containing
a description of the characteristics and
the development of the different schools,
as revealed in their principal artists.
The study of the technical forms and
processes of sculpture should be supple-
mented by the special articles enumer-
ated below ; that of the history by tliosc
on the different schools and epochs of
art, and above all by the biographies
of the artists, some of which are
enumerated in the following para-
graphs.
I. Branches and Technique of
Sculpture.
Carving
Chasing
Founding
Bell
Relief Sculpture
Bronze
Chryselephantine
Goldsmith's Work
Terra Cotta
Ivory
Metal Work
Wood-carving
Stucco
II. Greek and Roman ScuLrxuRE.
The sculpture of Oriental countries
is decorative in character, and therefore
best considered in connection with their
architecture, under the titles of the
division Oriental Art, in the introduc-
tory section of the preceding chapter.
Among the Greeks, sculpture first at-
tained the dignity of an independent
art, and achieved the highest perfection
in the world's history. The study of
the separate epochs of Greek sculpture
should be based upon the articles
Arch.eology and Greek Art. Its
rude beginnings date from the seventh
century b. c. The emancipation was
gradual, but, by the end of the archaic
period (b. c. 480), the sculptor had
attained freedom, and could create
heads of the highest charm. The
Attic period (480-323), during which
the chief art centre was at Athens, wit-
nessed the highest development of
Greek art. It is ushered in by a period
of transition (till about 4.50), in which
archaic reminiscences are still in evi-
dence; but great progress was made
towards complete mastery of technique.
The last half of the fifth century, the
age of Phidias, is the golden age of
Greek art. The greatest technical
knowledge was subordinated to idealism
and self restraint, and to the utmost
nobility of concc])tion. 'J^lie age of
Praxiteles and Scopas, though still
ideal, was more realistic and interested
in individual traits and features. It
succeeded especially well in portraiture,
and attained the highest mastery of
t('chni(iue. During the Hellenistic age
(323-1 4G), the centres of art passed
J 32
SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
133
from Greece to Asia and Egypt, to
Pergamus, Rhodes, and Alexandria.
Art came more into the service of indi-
viduals, and, notwithstanding the high-
est technical skill, it sought rather sen-
sational or trivial subjects. Roman
sculpture is, for the most part, copied
from the Greek, and shows little origi-
nality except in a fine realistic rendition
of portraiture, and in pictorial relief-
sculpture. See :
1. The Archaic Period:
Archeology
Greek Art
Antenor
9.. The Attic Period:
/Eginetan Sculptures
Calamis
Pythagoras of Rhcgium
Myron
Discobolus
Phidias
Elgin ]\Iarbles
Polyclitus
Agoracrltus
Cresilas
Pfeonius
Cephisodotus
Praxiteles
Demetrius
Scopas
Mausoleum
Marsyas
3. The Hellenistic Period:
Lysippus
Pergamon
Apollo Belvidere
Venus of Milo
Laocoon
4. The Roman Sculpture:
Section Sculpture under Roman
Art
Venus of Medici
III. Medleval Sculpture.
The decorative sculpture of the Mid-
dle Ages can best be studied in connec-
tion with the architecture of the period,
under the titles of the medi.x'val epochs
mentioned in the preceding chapter.
The history of modern sculpture be-
gins with the Italian revival of the thir-
teenth century. Niccola Pisano found
his models in the antique, but his son
Giovanni reverted to the Gothic, and
this naturalistic, dramatic style pre-
vailed in Italy. The Pisan School was
the mother of those of Florence and
Siena. The former was superior in
technique and composition, the latter
was rather picturesque and narrative
in character. During the entire Mid-
dle Ages, and to some extent during
the Renaissance, the usages of Church
worship furnished abundant oppor-
tunity for the sculptor's art. Sue :
1. First Revival in Italy (under
Sculpture)
Christian Art
Byzantine Art
Romanesque Art
Gothic Art
Antelami, Benedetto
Pisano, Niccola
Pisano, Giovanni
Arnolfo di Cambio
Andrea di Ugolino
Orcagna, Andrea
2. Ecclesiastical Sculpture:
Altar
Pulpit
Ambo
Cross
Reliquary
Chalice
Tomb
134
SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
IV. The Renaissance.
The Renaissance opened a new world
in sculpture. The sources of inspira-
tion were the study of nature and of
the antique, as it survived in ancient
statues. The chief characteristic of
the Early Renaissance is a healthy
naturalism. It attained a high per-
fection, in relief as in statuary, and
excelled equally in hronzc, marble, and
terra cotta. The centre of the art was
Florence, and the dominant figure of
the fifteenth century, although one
amid a brilliant array of artists was
Donatello. The school of Siena was
more sentimental in feeling and elabor-
ate in decoration ; those of Lombardy
and Venice were luxuriant in decora-
tion, the former being more vigorous
in form. The High Renaissance in
Italy is characterized by a deeper study
of the antique and a more universal
style ; but these qualities afterward de-
generated into a mannered imitation
of the great masters. Florence again
produced the greatest masters, notably
Michelangelo, whose art dominated
the following two centuries.
The sculpture of France in the fif-
teenth century was at first influenced
by that of Flanders, but the native
style soon became transformed by Ital-
ian grace and beauty. Even the
Baroque of the seventeenth century was
somewhat restrained by a certain
national grace. In the eighteenth,
exaggerated form gave place to more
delicate treatment, and a fine, healthy
realism ultimately prevailed. In Ger-
many, Gothic forms lingered through-
out the fifteenth century, and, when
during the sixteenth, the Italian influ-
ence arrived, it was less important than
in other countries. It was confined to
the South; in the North, Netherland-
ish influence pi'evailed. A native natu-
ralistic art dominated the Netherlands
during the fifteenth century, but, in the
seventeenth, the Italian Baroque en-
tered, and, in the eighteenth, sculpture
declined. A similar development oc-
curred in Spain, save that there was a
realistic reaction in the seventeenth
century. England imported her sculp-
tors from the Netherlands and from
Ital}'. See Section The Renaissance,
under Sculpture.
1. Italy:
(fl) Florence:
Ghibcrti, Lorenzo
Donatello
Michclozzi
Robbia, Luca della
Vcrrocchio, Andrea del
Pollaiuolo, Antonio
Desiderio da Settignano
Benedetto da Maiano
Mino da Fiesole
Sansovino, Andrea
Torrigiano, Piet'-o
Michelangelo
Cellini, Benvonuto
Bandlnelli, Baccio
Ammanati, Bartolommeo
{b) Other Cities:
Jaco])o della Qnercia
Mazzoni, Guido
Solari, Cristoforo
I^ombardi, Pietro
Sansovino, Jacoj)o
Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo
Algardi, Alessandro
2. France:
Goujon, Jean
Pilon, Germain
Co^'sevox, Antoine
Bouchardon, Edme
SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
135
Puget, Pierre
Ginardon, Fi'anfois
Pajou, Augustin
Houdon, Jean Antoine
8. Germany:
Wohlgemuth, Michel
Stoss, Veit
Vischer, Peter
Riemenschncider, Tilman
Schliiter, Andreas
Donner, Raphael
4. Other European Countries:
Sluter, Claux
Duquesnoy, Fran9ois
Quellinus, Artus
Montanes, Martinez
Cano, Alonzo
Gibbons, Grinling
V. Modern Sculpture.
The reaction upon the extrava-
gances of Baroque sculpture, at the
close of the eighteenth century, took
the form of a return to classic simplic-
ity, and the antique was imitated more
closely than ever before. In France,
this classicism was followed by a
Romantic tendency, corresponding to
a similar movement in painting, and by
a more important naturalistic reaction.
In the second half of the nineteenth
century, classicism and naturalism ran
parallel, with an increasing influence of
the latter, which now prevails. Eng-
land had a similar classical period, and
a subsequent transition to naturalism ;
but since 1870, a great change, both in
conception and treatment, has come
over English sculpture through the ef-
fort of great English painters and the
French influence. The German reac-
tion against classicism resulted in the
historical school of Berlin, whose work
tended toward naturalism, and in the
romantic school of Munich; not until
the end of the nineteenth century did
naturalism prevail. In other Euro-
pean countries, the development has
been similar to that general evolution
described above. After some ineffec-
tual early attempts, America also liad
its classical school, with a number of
important artists. Since the last
quarter of the nineteenth century, the
tendency has been entirely naturalistic,
and an array of talent has appeared
which compares favorably with that of
any other country. See :
1. France:
Pradier, James
Preault, Auguste
Rude, Fran9ois
Barye, Antoine Louis
Cain, Auguste Nicolas
Bartholdi, Frederic
Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste
Fremiet, Emmanuel
Dalou, Jules
Rodin, Auguste
Gilbert, F. A. G.
2. England:
Flaxman, John
Westmacott, Richard
Gibson, John
Stevens, Alfred
Foley, John Henry
Woolner, Thomas
Watts, George Frederick
Thornycroft, Hamo
Ford, Edward Onslow
3. Germany:
Dannecker, Johann Heinrich
Schadow, Johann Gottfried
Ranch, Christian
Tieck, Friedrich
Drake, Friedrich
Hahnel, Ernst
136
SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
Rietschel, Ernst
Schilling, Johannes
Schwanthalcr, Ludwig
Begas, Reinhold
Stuck, Franz
Klinger, Max
Zumbusch, Kaspar
Tilgner, Viktor
Strasser, Arthur
4. Other European Countries:
Canova, Antonio
Tenerani, Pietro
Marchcsi, Pompeo
Dupre, Giovanni
Sergei, Johan Tobias
Thorwaklsen, Bertel
Sinding, Stefan
5. United States:
Greenough, Horatio
Powers, Hiram
Rusk, Wilham
Crawford, Thomas
Palmer, Erastus
Story, William Wetmore
Rogers, Randolph
Rogers, John
Rinehart, William Henry
Hosmer, Harriet
Brown, Henry Kirke
Ward, J. Q. A.
Keyser, Ephraim
Warner, Olin Levi
Saint Gaudens, Augustus
French, Daniel Chester
Macmonnies, Frederick
Niehaus, Charles Henry
Partridge, William Ordway
Bartlett, Paul
Roberts, Howard
Barnard, George Grey
B. JPatutturj
A series of special articles treats the
technical side of painting, the different
varieties, the painter's implements, and
the qualities by which a picture should
be judged. The history of the dif-
ferent schools is comprehensively de-
scribed under Painting. This article
should form the basis of the study of
any given school ; it should, however,
be supplemented by the articles on
separate schools and the biographies of
the artists, of which only the principal
arc contained in the following lists.
The technique and history of the analo-
gous arts of mosaic, glass painting,
and decoration are treated at length.
I. Technique and Allied Arts.
1. Technical Processes:
Fresco
Tempera
Water-Color Painting
Encaustic Painting
Stereochromy
Pastel
Genre Painting
Portraiture
Landscape
Still Life
Canvas
Easel
Jlahlstick
Ground
Painter's Colors
Drawing
Line
Perspective
Chiaroscuro
Color
Composition
Proportion
SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
137
2. Analogous Arts:
Mosaic
Stained Glass
Decorative Art
Sgraffito
II. Greek Painting.
The decorative painting of Oriental
countries is treated under the different
titles of the subdivision Oriental Art,
in the introductory section of the pre-
ceding chapter. Greek painting was
the first to rise to the dignity of an
independent art. The transition from
the painting of the old IMycenaean
decorations, showing considerable tech-
nical skill and a high power of inven-
tion, to that of the fifth century b. c.
can be studied only in vase-painting
(see Vase). In the fifth and fourth
centuries b. c, Greek painting at-
tained its highest development. The
older Attic School, with Polygnotus as
its founder and Athens as a centre,
brought the art to a high state of devel-
opment in the years following the Per-
sian wars. Its decorative work was
practically great, colored, outline
drawings, noble in composition and
expression. Perspective and shading
were discovered by Agatharchus of
Samos, a scene painter, and applied to
panel-painting by Apollodorus of
Athens. In the later fifth century,
flourished the Ionian School of Zeuxis
and Parrhasius, which substituted
realism for the old idealism and excelled
in delicate drawing and chiaroscuro.
In the early fourth century, the centre
of painting shifted to Sicyon, where
systematic drawing and chiaroscuro
were further developed,and the process
of encaustic painting was invented.
The Theban-Attic School (second half
of the fourth century) was devoted to
impassioned subjects, like battle pieces,
and even to genre, and the highest
technical perfection was achieved by
the younger Ionian School in the per-
sons of Apelles and Protogenes. In
the Hellenistic age, painting increased
the range of its expression, including
even the landscape, but it declined in
all the artistic qualities. The decora-
tive and less important painting of the
Roman epoch is treated under Roman
Art. See:
1. General References:
Section Ancient Painting under
Painting
Greek Art
Roman Art
Vase
2. Greek Painters :
Polygnotus
Micon
Agatharchus
Apollodorus
Zeuxis
Parrhasius
Pamphilus
Pausias
Apelles
Protogenes
III. ]\Iedleval Period.
The origins of Mediaeval painting
were conditioned by the Mosaic style,
as it prevailed in Early Christian and
Byzantine art. Its growth was de-
pendent upon the development of archi-
tecture in Church worship, and it con-
sequently remained decorative. At
the end of the Gothic period, the eman-
cipation of painting began in Italy,
138
SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
and individual artists arose. At Flor-
ence and Siena, there were important
schools whose teclinical knowledge and
achievements made possible the Renais-
sance. See :
Mosaic
Christian Art
Byzantine Art
Romanesque Art
Gotliic Art
Florentine School of Painting
Sienese School of Painting
Cimabue
Giotto
Gaddi, Taddeo
Orcagna, Andrea
Aretino, Spinello
Duccio di Boninsegna
Martini, Simone
Lorenzetti
Angclico, Fra
Gentile da Fabriano
IV. The Renaissance.
The Renaissance was a return to na-
ture rather tlian to antique art, al-
though the antique exercised a marked
influence in Italy, where Renaissance
art attained its highest development
and whence its influence radiated
throughout Europe. The Florentine
Scliool produced tlie greatest number of
important artists, achieving highest re-
sults in every quality of painting but
color, in wliich tlie Venetians excelled,
as did the Umbrians in religious senti-
ment. In Nortliem Europe, tlie Renais-
sance, entirely naturalistic in cliarac-
ter, first appeared in Flanders, whence
its influence extended to TTollaiid and
Germany. Later, the Italian influence
transformed for the worse the art of
the Netherlands, but aided to produce a
national school in Germany. See:
lta]^J.
(a) General Titles :
Renaissance Art
Section The Renaissance under
Painting
Florentine School of Painting
Umbrian School of Painting
Bolognese School of Painting
Ferrarese School of Painting
Venetian School of Painting
(b) Biography:
(i) Florence:
Masilino da Panicale
Masaccio
Lippi, Filippo and Filippino
Botticelli, Alessandro
Gozzoli, Benozzo
Pollaiuolo, Antonio
Verrocchio, Andrea
Ghirlandajo, Domenico
Vinci, Leonardo da
Michelangelo
Bartolommeo, Fra
Sarto, Andrea del
(ii) Umbria:
Francesca, Piero della
Forli, ]\Ielozzo da
Santi, Giovanni
Signorelli, Luca
Perugino, Pietro
Pinturicchio
Rapliael
(iii) Nortliern Italy:
Squarcione, Francesco
IVIantcgna, Andrea
Costa, Lorenzo
Francia, Francesco
Viti, Timoteo
Dosso Uossi
Garofalo
Corrcggio
Sodoma
SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
139
Sol.'iri, Andrea
Luini, Bernardino
Ferrari, Gaudenzio
(iv) Venice:
Crivclli, Carlo
Antonello da Messina
Bellini, Gentile
Bellini, Giovanni
Giorgione
Carpaccio, Vittore
Lotto, Lorenzo
Titian
Bonifazio Veronese
Tintoretto
Veronese, Paolo
Pordenone
Moretto da Brescia
Moroni, Gianibattista
(v) Rome:
Sebastiano del Piombo
Volterra, Danicle da
Penni, Gianfrancesco
2. The Netherlands:
Netherlands Schools of Painting
Eyck, Huybrecht and Jan van
Weyden, Rogier van der
Bouts, Dirk
IMemling, Hans
David, Gheeradt
Massys, Quinten
Mabuse, Jan
Lucas van Leyden
3. Germany:
Lochner, Stephan
Schongauer, jMartin
Wohlgemuth, Michel
Diirer, Albrecht
Burckmair, Hans
Cranach, Lucas
Holbein the Elder
Holbein the Younger
Griinewald, Matthias
Baldung, Hans
V. Seventeenth and Eighteenth
Centuries.
The seventeenth century saw the rise
of the Eclectic and Naturalist schools
in Italy, and of a courtly art, based
upon the classic, in France, whose art-
ists in Italy also perfected the heroic
landscape. In Spain, a great national
art <arose, combining Catholic devotion
with a trenchant realism. The Flem-
ish School was also realistic, but more
influenced by Italy, and less religious in
character. In Holland, a highly de-
veloped national I'ealism, practically
uninfluenced from without, found ex-
pression in panels of portrait, genre,
landscape, animal, and still life. The
eighteenth century witnessed an after
development of the courtly painting in
France, and the rise in England of a
bourgeoise art, showing a curious ad-
mixture of Eclectic Italian influence
with realism, and foreshadowing that of
the nineteenth century. See Section
Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
in the article on Painting.
1. Italy:
Bologncse School of Painting
CarraccI
Domenichino
Reni, Guido
Guercino
Dolci, Carlo
Caravaggio
Ribera, Jusepe de
Rosa, Salvator
Giordano, Luca
Tiepolo
Canaletto
2. France:
Cousin, Jean
Poussin, Nicolas
Poussin, Gaspar
140
SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
Gelee, Claude
Lebrun, Charles
Mignard, Pierre
Watteau, Antoine
Fragonard, Jean Honore
Vernet
Champagne, Philippe de
Greuze, Jean Baptiste
3. Sp(n7i:
Pacheco
Herrera the Elder
Valazquez
Coello, Claudio
Zurbaran
Cano, Alonzo
Murillo
Goya y Lucientes
4. Flanders:
Oost, Jakob van
Rubens
Van Dyck
Jordaens
Snyders, Frans
Fyt, Jan
Teniers the Younger
Bramver, Adrian
5. Holland:
Hals, Frans
Rembrandt
Flinck, Govaert
Heist, Bartholomcus
Ostade, Adriaen van
Steen, Jan
Dou, Gerard
Netscher, Ivaspar
Ncor, Aart van der
Terborch, Gerard
Ruysdacl, Jacob
Hobbema, ]\Ieindert
Everdiiigeii, Allart van
Potter, Paulus
Veldc, Adriaen van de
Cuyp, Albert
Backhuysen, Ludolf
Velde, Willem van de, the
Younger
Heem, Jan de
Huysum, Jan van
Ruysch, Rachel
Weenix, Jan
Hondecoeter, Melcliior
6. England:
Kneller, Sir Godfrey
Hogarth, William
Reynolds, Joshua
Gainsborough, Thomas
Romney, George
Wilson, Richard
IMorland, George
VI. Modern Painting.
1. France.
During the nineteenth century, the
hegemon}' of Europe in the fine arts
belonged to France. The Rococo art
of the ancient regime was succeeded in
the last part of the eighteenth century
by Classicism, which found the chief
beauty of painting in form, as revealed
in ancient sculpture. The reaction
upon Classicism was Romanticism, as
established in the third decade of the
nineteenth century. It used painting
as an expression of the ai'tist's emo-
tional nature, and placed the chief
emphasis upon color and natural truth.
The Barbison School represents the
emotional impulse of Romanticism, as
applied to landscape, animal painting,
and peasant subjects. The third great
factor in French painting is Realism,
as established by Courbet in the
forties. It advocated the abolition of
academic law and sentiment, and the
exact presentation of natural truth.
Then came the Impressionists (1874),
so called from a tendency to render
SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
141
nioincntary impressions, who souglit,
above all, to paint effects of light. In
recent years, a new idealism lias availed
itself of the technical achievements
of its immediate predecessors. See:
(a ) Classicists :
David, Jacques Louis
Girodet-Ti'ioson
Prudhon, Pierre
Gros, Antoine Jean
Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique
i(6) Romanticists:
Gericault, Jean Louis
Delacroix, Eugene
Delaroche, Paul
Scheffer, Ary
Decamps, Alexandre Gabriel
Fromcntin, Eugene
Vernct, Horace
(c) Barbison School:
Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille
Rousseau, Theodore
Dupre, Jules
Diaz de La Pena
Daubigny, Charles Fran9ois
Cazin, Jean Charles
Millet, Jean Francois
Breton, Jules Adolphe
Troyon, Constant
Bonheur, Rosa
(d) Realists:
Courbet, Gustave
Bonnat, Leon
Meissonier, Ernest
^(c) Impressionists, etc.:
Manet, Edouard
Monet, Claude
Degas, Hilairo Germain
Monticclli, Adolphe
RafFaelli, Jean Francois
Moreau, Gustave
(/■) Various Schools:
Flandrin, Jean Llippolyte
Bougucreau, Guillaume Adolphe
Gerome, Jean Leon
Duran, Carolus
Constant, Benjamin
Neuville, Alphonse Marie de
Detaille, Edouard
Chavannes, Puvis de
2. Germany.
In Germany, the reaction against
Classicism took the form of an imitation
of Italian masters of tlie fifteenth cen-
tury. The advocates of this tendency,
the so-called Nazarenes, speedily dif-
ferentiated. Cornelius founded the
Munich School of mural decoration,
which practiced the so-called cartoon
style, in which color was entirely neg-
lected ; the same tendency was repre-
sented by the School of Diisscldorf.
About 1850, a great change was ef-
fected by French and Belgian colorists ;
and since 1870, Realism and Impres-
sionism have found entrance. See:
(rt) Pre-Raphaelites :
Diisseldorf School of Paintins
IMengs, Raphael
Carstens, Asmus Jakob
Overbeck, Johann Friedrlch
Cornelius, Peter von
Kaulbach, Wilhelm von
Rethel, Alfred
Schwind, IMoritz von
Lessing, Karl Friedrich
Prcller, Friedrich
Rottmann, Karl
Feuerbach, Anselm
Bocklin, Arnold
Piloty, Karl
IMakart, Hans
142
SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
Max, Gabriel
Defregger, Franz von
Griitzner, Eduard
Menzel, Adolf
Lenbach, Franz
Liebcrmann, Max
Klinger, Max
3. Great Britain.
In the first half of the nineteenth
century, the English followed their
own eighteenth-century models in por-
traiture, and painted historical pictures
of an academic order. At the same
time, Constable originated the modern
landscape, which the Barbison school
adopted. A reaction against the aca-
demic came about through the Pre-
Raphaelitcs, who introduced spiritual
and realistic elements. Though there
has of late been French influence, Brit-
ish art has remained national. See:
Racburn, Sir Henry
Lawrence, Sir Thomas
Hay don, Benjamin Robert
Eastlake, Sir Charles
Blake, William
Wilkie, David
Mulrcady, William
Constable, John
Cox, David
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel
Hunt, William Holman
Burne-Jonos, Sir Edward
Millais, Sir .John Everett
Crane, Walter
Watts, George Frederick
Herkomer, Hubert
4. Other Countries.
In other European countries, the de-
velopment through the Classical, Ro-
mantic, and Naturalistic stages was not
dissimilar to tliose already described.
All have profited by French technical
methods, and are, to a greater or less
extent, swayed by Realistic tendencies.
See:
Israels, Josef
Mesdag, Hendrik Willem
Mauve, Anton
Wappers, Gustave
Wiertz, Antoine Joseph
Alma-Tadema, Lawrence
Stevens, Alfred
Munkacsy, Michael
Fortuny y Carbo
Segantini, Giovanni
Vereshtchagin, Vassili
5. United States.
During the Colonial period and im-
mediately after the Revolution, British
influences prevailed in the United
States, with an inclination to follow the
Italians in larger subjects. An in-
digenous art began with the self-taught
Hudson River School, about 1825.
Then came the foreign influence, and,
since 1875, French methods have been
quite generally adopted, the natural
characteristics revealing themselves in
choice of subject and conceptions,
(a) Early Period:
West, Benjamin
Copley, John Singleton
Truiiibull, John
Stuart, Gilbert
Allston, Washington
Peale, Rembrandt
Sully, Thomas
{h) Middle Period:
Cole, Thomas
Kcnsett, Jolui Frederick
Church, Frederick Edwin
Bierstadt, Albert
Moran, Thomas
Harding, Chester
Inman, Henry
SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
143
Huntington, Daniel
Mount, William Sidney
Leutze, Emanuel
Hicks, Thomas
Fuller, George
Hunt, William Morris
(c) Third Period:
Johnson, Eastman
Vedder, Elihu
La Farge, John
Homer, Winslow
Inness, George
Wyant, A. H.
Martin, Homer D.
Chase, William Mcrritt
Cox, Kenyon
Blashfield, Edwin H.
Twachtman, John Henry
Robinson, Theodore
Whistler, James Abbott McNeil
Abbey, Edwin A.
Sargent, John Singer
Harrison, (Thomas) Alexander
Olljajtter n. El\t Mxmt Arts
A. Eitgrauiiig
Engraving is the art of producing
on a hard surface, such as stone, metal,
or wood, incised or reHef designs.
These may be for purposes of decor-
ation, as in the case of engraved
bronzes and silverware, or for stamping
a soft substance, as seal rings. But
engravings are usually made for the
purpose of printing upon paper, and
it is this variety with which we are
chiefly concerned.
Printing is done either from incised
designs to which the ink is applied, or
from relief designs, which thus produce
the image. In the first process, metal
plates, usually of copper, are used ; the
principal varieties are Line-Engraving
and Etching, to which may be added
Dry Point, ^lanicre Criblec, and Stip-
ple. The chief form of Engraving in
relief is Wood-Engraving ; and there
are mixed processes, like Aquatint, Mez-
zotint, and Soft-Ground Etching.
The trial impressions upon paper are
called the proofs, and the final result
the print. The article Engraving
contains a general sketch of the subject.
See also:
Line-Engraving
Etching
Dry Point
IManiere Criblee
Stipple
Wood-Engraving
Afjuatinta
.Mezzotint
Soft-Ground Etching
T. Line Engraving.
Line-Engraving is done with the
burin, usually upon a copper plate. It
originated simultaneously in Italy and
Germany during the early fifteenth cen-
tury, probably with the goldsmiths,
from the custom of printing trial im-
pressions of niello plates. (See
Niello.) The earliest line-engravings
are mere outline drawings without light
or shade. In the early sixteenth cen-
tury, the art culminated in the works of
Albrccht Diirer in Germany, Lucas van
Leyden in Holland, and INIarcantonio
Raimondi in Italy. During the seven-
teenth century, especially under Louis
XIV, France was predominant. But
artists devoted themselves increasingly
to the reproduction of great jDaintings
instead of original designs. For tliis
reason, the art has gradually sunk into
disuse, its place being taken by photo-
grapliic processes. See:
Linc-Engravinef
Burin
Niello
1. Italy:
Finigucrra, Toniaso
Jacopo dei Barbari
Mantegna, Andrea
Raimondi, IMarcantonio
Carracci, Agostino
Morghen, Raffaello
Piranesi, Giambattista
2. Germany; Netherlands:
Schongauer, Martin
Diirer, Albreclit
Lucas van Leyden
Beham, Hans Sebald
Beham, Bartliel
Vorsternian, Lucas
Chodowiccki, Daniel
144
THE MINOR ARTS
145
S. England:
Strange, Sir Robert
Vcrtue, George
4. France:
Bosse, Abraham
Nanteuil, Robert
Masson, Antoinc
Audran, Gerard
Cochin, Charles Nicolas
Forster, Francois
Henriquel-Dupont, Louis Pierre
Gaillard, Claude Ferdinand
II. Etching.
In etching, the plate is covered with
the ground, usually a varnish, into
which the design is scratched with an
etching-needle. The plate is then im-
mersed in an acid, which eats the design
into the metal. The finishing touches
are often done by the dry-point process,
a simple scratching of the plate with-
out the use of ground or acid.
Etching upon steel armor, etc., was
practiced in the Middle Ages. Diirer
was one of the first to use etching for
printing purposes, and the art reached
its highest development in Holland dur-
ing the seventeenth century. Many
eminent painters practiced it, among
whom was the greatest etcher of all
times, Rembrandt. Next to Holland,
etching was principally cultivated in
France, beginning with Claude Lor-
rain's landscapes. The art found a
revival in the nineteenth century, es-
pecially in France, where many of the
principal painters have used the etch-
ing-needle. In other countries, as in
England, Germany, and the United
States, it has also attained high im-
portance. It would be impossible to
cite the biographies of all the important
painters who have practiced etching.
1. Netherlands:
Lucas van Leyden
Vclde, Esaias van de
Rembrandt
Ruysdael, Jacob
Van Dyck, Anthony
2. France:
Gclee, Claude
Flameng, Leopold
Raj on, Paul
RafFaelli, Jean Franfois
Meryon, Charles
Legros, Alphonse
Tissot, James
Helleu, Paul
3. Germany:
Unger, William
Klinger, Max
Thoma, Hans
Licbermann, Max
4. England:
Geddcs, Andrew
Wilkie, Sir David
Turner, J. M. W.
Hamcrton, Philip Gilbert
Haden, Francis Seymour
Mcnpes, Mortimer
5. United States:
Whistler, James Abbott McNeil
Pennell, Joseph
III. Wood-Engraving.
In Wood-Engraving, the design is
drawn directly upon the block, and all
the wood is cut away except the design,
which remains in relief. The process
is of peculiar importance because it can
be used in connection with printing
from movable types.
Crude outline prints from wood-cuts
146
THE MINOR ARTS
were common in Southern Germany
and the Netherlands in the early fif-
teenth century. The art received an
impetus from the invention of print-
ing, and the early wood-engraving at-
tained its most perfect development
during the following century in the
works of Albrecht Diirer and Hans
Holbein in Germany. It was intro-
duced by German artists Into Italy,
where it never became thoroughly ac-
climatized; though chiaroscuro at-
tained a high degree of proficiency.
(See paragraph Chiaroscuro under
Wood-Engeaving.) It flourished in
the Netherlands and in France, with
Jean Cousin in the sixteenth century,
and the Papillon family in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth.
Modern wood-engraving is done on
the cross-grain of boxwood, and with
a graver instead of the knife. The
design is cut away instead of being left
in relief, appearing in white lines. The
father of the art was Thomas Bewick
(died in 1828). His pupils rivaled
the line-engravers as book illustrators,
some imitating line-engraving. In
England, the art has declined, the pub-
lic preferring the more accurate pho-
tographic processes. Present German
wood-engraving is, generally speaking,
precise and careful in execution ; but
the French school has attained the
highest artistic perfection.
Before the Civil War, America pro-
duced several wood-engravers of high
rank, whose work resembled contempo-
rary British. But after 1870, in con-
nection with the popular magazines, a
school arose which reproduced the ef-
fect of painting, drawings, etc., with
• remarkable fidelity, and used the tech-
nical proficiency acquired to render
portraits and landscapes. Since the
perfection of the photographic pro-
cesses, wood-engravers have returned
to more legitimate practice, thanks
largely to the efforts of Linton. At
the head of the American school stands
Timothy Cole. See:
1. Germany:
Diirer, Albrecht
Burckmair, Hans
Schauffelein, Hans
Holbein the Younger
Liitzelburger, Hans
Cranach, Lucas
Altdorfer, Albrecht
Beham, Hans Sebald
Aldegrever, Heinrich
Baldung, Hans
Menzel, Adolf
Richter, Ludwig
2. France:
Cousin, Jean
Charpcnticr, Fran9ois
Johannot, Charles
Johannot, Tony
Grandville
Gavarni
Dore, Gustave
3. Italy:
Carpi, Ugo da
Andreani, Andrea
4. England:
Bewick, Thomas
Blake, William
Linton, William James
5. United States:
Cole, TImotliy
Jucngling, Frederick
Kruell, Gustav
Durand, Ashcr Brown
Smillie, James I).
Danforth, Moseley Isaac
THE MINOR ARTS
147
IV. LiTHOGEAPHY.
In lithographic processes, the design
^ is drawn with crayon or fatty ink upon
a porous stone or metal, possessing the
property of retaining fatty substances
and water to the evaporating point.
The remainder of the stone is moistened
with water. A roller covered with fatty
printing ink will retain only the de-
sign, being repelled by the moist por-
tions. Lithography was invented in
1798, by Aloys Senefelder at Munich.
Since the invention of the power press,
it has become a world-wide industry.
See:
Lithography
Senefelder, Aloys
V. Photo-Engraving.
This is a mechanical process in
which the plates are prepared from a
photographic negative by means of the
action of light upon gelatine and other
substances. It may be intaglio, in
which the French name photogravure
is used, or relief. The finishing touches
are done by hand. The half-tone pro-
cess, now generally used for purposes
of illustration, is done on plates of
ruled lines of extreme fineness. See
Photo-Engraving.
VI. Illustration.
The article Illustration treats the
decoration and illustration of books,
and its history from the Egyptian
papyri to the modern newspaper. This
should be supplemented by Manu-
scripts, Illumination of, treating
especially the Middle Ages and Renais-
sance. With the invention of print-
ing, wood-engraving {q. v.) became the
principal means of illustration. Since
1850, photo-engravings have been in-
creasingly used, and, in recent years,
colored illustrations, some of great
beauty, are being produced, especially
by the great magazines. The article
Caricature describes in detail the im-
portant influence of that factor of
illustration. The principal illustra-
tors are enumerated under Wood-En-
graving. a brief list of caricaturists
is subjoined.
1. France:
Callot, Jacques
Daumicr, Honore
Gavarni
Monnier, Henri
Cham
2. England:
Hogarth, William
Gilray, James
Cruikshank, George
Cruikshank, Isaac
Doyle, John
Doyle, Richard
Leech, John
Du Maurier, George
Tenniel, Sir John
3. United States:
Gibson, Charles Dana
Opper, Frederick Burr
Nast, Thomas
(dliaptpr 12. Mmu
To appreciate music requires merely a receptive temperament.
Obviously, the more one understands of the technique whereby
certain harmonious results are produced, the greater will be the
enjoyment of those results. But, irrespective of the critical inter-
est in music, its first appeal must be, and is, to the imagination
and the emotions. The layman in the audience is not thrilled by the cold, techni-
cal fact that the violinist, yonder on the stage, is producing that wonderfully
soft, birdlike note by the infinitesimal, even pressure of his little finger on the
highest possible note of the A string. The musicians, the violinists, the critics,
realize the j^ears of study that have contributed to the production of that perfect
note, and their admiration is greater, but their enjoyment of the emotional result
is no more keen, than that of the musical proselyte beside them.
This theory, which is based on actualities, finds its logical expression in the
system that has been adopted in outlining the department of Music in the New
International EncyclopcEdia. There is, first, a synopsis of the articles which
would interest the general reader by giving an historical and appreciative resume
of music as an art. The second subdivision is more especially for the student, or
for the reader who desires to master the technique and science of music, in order
that he may " see with an understanding eye " and hear with a critical nicety of
discrimination.
1. Introductory.
Music
Music, Schools of Composition '
Sacred Music
Opera (with the accompanying
lists of operas)
Oratorio (with the accompany-
ing list of oratorios)
Instrumental Music
Musical Instruments (with cross
references to individual arti-
cles or instruments, under
their own names)
Orchestra
Score
Band
Band, Military
Organ
Pianoforte
Violin
Singing
148
Dancing (with cross references
to separate articles)
Historical.
Folk-Music
Egyptian Music
Hindu Music
Chinese Music
Japanese ]\Iusic
Hebrew Music
Greek Music
Magyar ]\Iusic
Arabian IMusic
Scandinavian Music
Slavonic iNIusie
Spanish Music
Janizary Music
Celtic IMusic
Scotch Music
Indian Music
Negro Melodies
Mcistcrsingcr
MUSIC
149
Minnesinger
Form
Troubadours
Fugue
Trouvere
Glee
Waits
Humoreske
Ambrosian Chant
Imitation
Gregorian Chant
Introduction
•
Hymnology
Legend
National Hymns
Leitmotiv
Lied
3. Musical Organizations, etc.
Liedform
Guilds, Musical (under Guild)
Musical Drama
Conservatory
Nocturne
Conductor
Offertory
Precentor
Overture
Musical Festival
Passion
Gesellschaft der Osterreichischen
Pasticcio
Musikfreunde
Postlude
Gewandhaus-Concerte
Pot-pourri
Leeds Musical Festival
Prelude
Choral Societies
Programme Music
Philharmonic Societies
Quartet
Pittsburg Orchestra
Recitative
Societe des Concerts du Conser-
Requiem
vatoire
Rhapsody
Sons of the Clergy Musical Fes-
Rondo
tival
Scherzo
Chicago Orchestra
Serenade
Three Choirs Festival
Singspiel
Tonkiinstler-Societat
Solo
Bethlehem, Musical or Bach Fes-
Sonata
tival
Song
Worcester Musical Festival
Suite
Symphony
4. The Art-Forms.
Trio
Canon
Cantata
Catch
Chamber Music
Chant
Chorale
Concerto
Cyclical Forms
Duet
Fantasia
5. Defixitioxs and Descriptions op
Terms and Processes Used in
the Interpretation of Music.
Musical Dictation
Beat
Baton
Rest
Tempo
Temperament
150
MUSIC
Time
Rhythm
Syncoj^ation
Expression
Musical Notation
]\Iodulation
Intonation
Fingering
Position
Touch
Phrase
Phrasing
Slide
Swell
Register
Voicing
Augmentation
Movement
Passing Notes
Quaver
Tremolo
Trill
Treble
Bass
Neumes
Value
Clang Tint, Explanation of
Finger-board
Keyboard
Clavichord
Janko Keyboard
Harpsichord
Spinet
Manual
Metronome
Pedul
String
Virginal
Transposing Instruments
Valves in Musical Iiislruments
(under Valve)
Voice
Sec also Piano, Organ, Singing,
and Musical Instruments.
6. Miscellaneous and Technical
Articles.
The reader who has followed the
course outlined in the earlier subdi-
visions, will find that the followins ar-
tides are mainly specialized statements
of general principles with which he is
already familiar :
Harmony :
Ant i phony
Bar
Cadence
Cantus Firmus
Chord
Chromatic
Clef
Coda
Complement
Consonance
Degree
Diatonic Scale
Diazeutic Tone
Discord
Dissonance
Dominant
Figured Bass
Finale
Flat
Four-part Writing
Frets
Fundamental Note
Grace-notes
Guidonian Hand
Harmonics
Homophony
Imitation
Improvisation
Incidentals
Instrumentation
Interval
Invention
Inversion
Key
Key-note
MUSIC
151
Leading Tone
Leading of A'oiccs
Leger-Lines
Major
Measure
Mediant
Melody
Meloplaste
Melos
Mensurable Music
]\Ietre
Minor
Mixed Cadence
Modes
Monody
Motion
Motive
Natural
Nuances
Numerical Notation
Octave
Organ-Point
Organum
Paraphrase
Part
Part-book
Part-music
Passage
Passing Notes
Pitch
Plain Chant
Polyphony
Preparation
Principal
Progression
Reed
Relationship
Scale
Semitone
Sequence
Sharp
Solmization
Subdominant
Suspension
Tablaturc
Theme
Tierce
Tonality
Tone
Tonic
Tonic Sol-fa
Touch
Transcription
Transposition
Triad
Triplet
Typical Phrase
Unison
Variation
Biography.
A selected list of the world's great
composers would include the following
names :
Adam, A. C.
Agricola, M.
Allegri, G.
Anerio, F.
Animuccia, G.
Arcadelt, J.
Arne, T. A.
Auber, D. F. E.
Bach, J. S.
Bach, K. P.
Balfe, M. W.
Barnby, J.
Beethoven, L.
Bellini, V.
Benedict, J.
Bennett, W. S.
Berlioz, H.
Bizet, G.
Boieldieu, F. A.
Brahms, J.
Bull, J.
Bononcini, G. B.
Buxtehude, D.
Caccini, G.
152
MUSIC
Cambert, R.
Carissimi, G.
Cavalieri, E.
Cherubini, IM. L.
Chopin, F. F.
Cimarosa, D.
Clementi, M.
Corelli, A.
Couperin, F.
David, F. C.
Depres, J.
Donizetti, G.
Durante, F.
Dvorak, A.
Festa, C.
Field, J.
Flotow, F.
Franz, R.
Frescobaldi, G.
Froberger, J. J.
Gabrieli, A.
Gabrieli, G.
Gade, N. W.
Gibbons, O.
Glinka, M. I.
Gluck, C. W.
Gosscc, F. J.
Goudimel, C.
Gounod, C. F.
Graun, K. H.
Gretry, A. E. M.
Hadley, H. K.
Halevy, J. F.
Handel, G. F.
Haydn, J.
Herold, L. J. F.
Hiller, J. A.
Hofhaimer, P.
Humfrey, P.
Hiinimel, J. N.
Isaak, H.
Isouard, N.
.ToniiiK'lli, N.
Keiser, R.
Kiel, F.
Lasso, Orlando di
Leo, L.
Leoncavallo, R.
Le Sueur, J. F.
Liszt, F.
Logroscino, N.
Lortzing, G. A.
Lully, J. B.
McDowell, E. A.
Marschner, H.
Mascagni, P.
Massenet, J. E. F.
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, F.
Meyerbeer, G.
Monteverde, C.
Morley, T.
Mozart, W. A.
Nanini, G. M.
Offenbach, J,
Okegliem
Pachelbel, J.
Paisiello, G.
Palestrina, G. P.
Pergolesc, G. B.
Piccini, N.
Ponchielli, A.
Porpora, N. A.
PrJitorius, M.
Purcell, H.
Raff, J.
Ranieau, J. P.
Rossini, G. A.
Rubinstein, A.
Sacchini, A. ]\I.
Saint-Saens, C C.
Scarlatti, A.
Schubert, F.
Sclunnann, R.
Schiitz, H.
Smctana, F.
Spohr, L.
Spontini, G. L.
Strauss, J.
MUSIC
153
Strauss, R.
Sullivan, A. S.
Suppe, F.
Tartini, G.
Thomas, A.
Tschaikowsky, P. I.
Verdi, G.
Viotti, G. B. •*
Wagner, R.
Wallace, W. V.
Weber, K. M.
Willaert, A.
Zingarelli, N. A.
Note — The names of famous operas,
oratorios, symphonies, dances,
and national hymns have been
omitted from tlie above classi-
fication. In the majority of
cases, they will bo found under
their own proper titles, al-
though brief mention of them
would also be found in the gen-
eral articles Opera, Oratorio,
Symphony, and National
Hymns. The same is true of
the scores of musical instru-
ments and musical directions
whose names will be found un-
der the general articles Musi-
cal Instruments and Tempo.
Ollfapt^r 13- iiatlj^matirB
ROUGHLY defined, mathematics is the science of forms and number.
A few of the definitions given by eminent mathematicians are
found in the general article IMathematics, which is, therefore, a
J suitable introduction to the subject. The article gives a condensed
history of mathematics, from earliest times to the present, together
-with a logical classification of the various branches of mathematics.
Mathematical science naturally falls into two main subdivisions: Pure
Mathematics and Applied Mathematics. With this division as a basis, various
classifications have been attempted. The best classification for the purpose of
systematic reading is the one usually followed in the school curriculum, or in the
text-books. In accordance with this, we may subdivide Elementary IMathematics
into the following branches :
Arithmetic
Algebra
Geometry
Trigonometry
Analytic Geometry
Calculus
1. Arithmetic involves three
phases: The conception of number,
the representation of number by sym-
bols, and the principles and methods of
computation. A general discussion of
these phases, together with their his-
tory, is given in the article Arithme-
tic, which, therefore, should be read as
an introduction to this branch.
A more modern phase of arithmetic
is computation by calculating ma-
chines. This process has already to a
large extent replaced those by hand,
and seems to be destined to do so en-
tirely in a future not far distant.
The general articles bearing on tliis
branch may be conveniently read in the
following order:
(«) Principles and Metlwds of Com-
putation:
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
154
Division
Arithmetic Signs
Fraction
Involution and Evolution
Proportion
Checking in Arithmetic
Calculating Machines
Slide Rule
{b) Symbols, Representation, and
Scales:
Symbols
Numerals
Decimal System
Scales of Notation
(c) Theory of Numbers:
Number
Irrational Number
Complex Number
The detailed history of these topics
is given separately in each article.
2. Algebra is universal arithmetic,
and has many features in common with
arithmetic. The fundamental ojiera-
tions arc tlie same, with tlio exception
that algebra takes uj) the more general
case. Tile limitations of algebra are
brought out in the general article Al-
CF.HRA, where also a history of this
branch is given. Since algebra and
MATHEMATICS
155
arithmetic are so closely related, the
fundamental operations are best treated
together, and so the general articles
bearing on the fundamental operations
in algebra have been given under arith-
metic. Those belonging almost exclu-
sively to algebra are best taken up in
the following order:
Coefficient
Factor
Exponent
Associative Law
Polynomial
Negative Quantity
Binomial
Binomial Coefficients
Binomial Tlicorcm
Remainder Tlieorem
Equation
Elimination
Substitution
Diophantine Analysis
Series
False Position, Rule of
Cubic Equation
Biquadratic Equations
Permutations and Combinations
Probability
Determinants
Logarithms
Analysis
3. Geometry is the science of form,
and geometric concepts arise from the
consideration of forms of objects just
as numerical concepts arise from con-
sidering a collection of objects. Ge-
ometry is independent of algebra, and
may be studied before or after algebra,
but preferably after. The physical
scientist considers only the space we
live in, while the mathematician con-
siders all possible spaces. Accordingly,
we have many different kinds of geom-
etry, A general classification and dis-
cussion of the several geometries is
given in the article Geometry. Al-
though algebra and geometry are inde-
pendent, a correspondence may be set
up between them. This is brought out
in the article Correspondence. The
general articles are best read in the
following order:
Euclid
Axiom
Theorem
Corollary
Angle
Arithmetic and Geometric Signs
Equiangular
Congruence
Duality
Construction
Locus
Triangle
Circle
Quadrilateral
Polygon
Circumscribed and Inscribed Figures
Contact
Perimeter
Transversal
Antiparallels
Concurrence and Collinearity
Maxima and Minima
Similarity
Symmetry
Plane
Octahedron
Polyhedron
Projective Geometry
Projection
Homology
Perspective
Isopcrimetric Figures
Calculating Machines
Slide Rule
Engineering Instruments
Surveying
156
MATHEMATICS
Planimeter
Mensuration
Protractor
Vernier
Quadrature
Weights and Measures
Duplication of Cube (under Cube)
Quadrature of Circle (under Quad-
rature)
Trisection of an Angle
4. Trigonometry in elementary
mathematics deals with the study of
triangles, the measurement of their
sides, angles, and areas. This is, how-
ever, only a part of the general sub-
ject. Under the article Trigonom-
etry, almost a whole text-b'ook treat-
ment is given, together with a short
history of the subject from earliest
times. As an inti-oduction, read the
article Logarithms. An elementary
knowledge of algebra and geometry is,
however, necessary before the study of
trigonometry can be taken up.
5. Analytic Geometry is the
application of algebra to geometry,
and the combination of the two is the
most powerful tool of the modern math-
ematician. iVIore general results may
be deduced, and better classification
effected, by means of analysis. In the
general article Analytic Geome-
try, the aim and general method of
procedure is given, together with a
short history of tlie subject. The other
articles may be conveniently read in
the following order:
Coordinates
Graphic Method
Curve
Analysis
Cartesians
Parameter
Locus
Contact
Normal
Tangent
Conic Sections
Circle
Pole and Polar
Parabola
Ellipse
Hyperbola
Surface
Cone
Conoid
Spheroid
Generation
Higher Plane Curves:
In these, are included all transcen-
dental and all algebrajc curves above
the second order. As an introduction,
read the article Curve. Some of the
most important ones are:
Cardioid
Catenary
Cissoid
Conchoid
Curve of Sines
Cycloid
Logarithmic Curve
Spiral
Lemniscate
Loxodrome
Witch
6. Calculi's. This term usually
refers to Differential and Integral Cal-
culus. Differential Calculus deals
with tlie relation between indefinitely
small (juantities or infinitesimals, and
is of great service when the quantities
*under consideration arc constantly
changing. The problem of Integral
Calculus is the inverse of that of Dif-
ferential Calculus. Integral Calculus
also deals with the application of
calculus to mechanics and geometry.
MATHEMATICS
157
In the general article Calculus, the
methods and applications of calculus
are illustrated by the solution of prac-
tical problems. As a historical intro-
duction, read :
Indivisibles (under Cavalieri)
Fluxions
The general article Calculus,
should also be preceded by :
Analysis
Limits, Theory of
Infinity and the Infinitesimal
and followed by:
Maclaurin's Theorem (under Mac-
laurin)
Curve
Osculation
Quadrature
Differential Equations (under Equa-
tion)
7. Higher jMathematics is a col-
lective term for all branches of mathe-
matics that follow calculus. Most of
these branches are based on calculus,
but some, like the theory of numbers
and group theory, are independent of
calculus. The following articles will
furnish an introduction to some of the
branches of higher mathematics:
Forms
Functions
Modern Geometry (under Geome-
try)
Non-Euclidean Geometry (under
Geometry )
Quaternions
Substitution
Theory of Numbers (under Num-
ber)
8. Applied Mathematics deals
with the application of mathematics to
related sciences, like Mechanics, Astron-
omy, Physics, etc. See these depart-
ments in this work.
9. Biography. Mathematical
knowledge dates back to tiic Egyptian
and Babylonian civilizations, but the
real development begins in Greece.
This was chiefly in the realms of geom-
etry. Later it iiclincd toward arith-
metic. The Romans did nothing for
mathematics, and the Arabs very little
more than to translate and preserve the
Greek learning. Through them it was
introduced into the cloisters in Europe
during the Middle Ages. The modern
period in the history of mathematics
begins with Descarte's invention of an-
alytical geometry. The following is a
list of the most eminent mathemati-
cians, arranged according to their
nationality or period:
(a) Greek:
Thales
Pythagoras
Aristotle
Plato
Euclid
Archimedes
Apollonius of Perga
Hero of Alexandria
Ptolemy
Diophantus
Pappus
(b) Arab:
Al-Khuwarizmi
Al-Battani
Mohammed Ben Mohammed Ben
Yahaya
(c) Hindu:
Aryabhatta
Brahmagupta
Bhaskara
(d) Persian:
Omar Khayyam
158
MATHEMATICS
(e) From the revival of Mathematics
in Europe to the middle of the
17th century:
Gerbert [under Sylvester (Pope)]
Fibonacci
Peuerbach
Regioniontanus
Paccioli
Tartaglia
Cardan
Viete
Napier
(f) From the middle of the 17th cen-
tury to the present time:
Descartes
Des argues
Cavalieri
Pascal
Fermat
Wallis
Leibnitz
Newton
Bernoulli, Jakob
Bernoulli, Johann
Bernoulli, Niclaus
Bernoulli, Daniel
Maclaurin
Taylor
Euler
D'Alembert
Monge
Laplace
Lagrange
Legendre
Fourier
Gauss
Poisson
Poncelet
Chasles
Steiner
Cauchy
Mobius
Lobachevsky
Bol3'ai
Abel
Dirichlet
Hamilton
Jacoby
Pliicker
Grassmann
Galois
Cayley
Eisenstein
Weierstrass
Riemann
Smith, H. J. S.
Sylvester
Clcbsch
Lie, Sophus
Olliapt^r 14. ABtr0n0mg
Astronomy is the science which treats of the heavenly bodies —
y^L the sun and moon, the planets and their satellites, comets and
/— ^k meteors, the stars and nebula. Astronomy is usually divided
A J^ into many branches ; these branches, however, are not distinct and
separate, but overlap in all directions, so that no convenience as
regards treatrnent is gained. The arrangement of the articles in the following
lists is not according to branches, but in accordance with the order in which they
may be conveniently read.
A general survey of astronomy, together with a short history, is given in
the general article Astronomy, which, therefore, forms a suitable introduction to
the subject. For a knowledge of a few of the elementary terms used in
astronomy, see :
Zenith
Horizon
Equator
Ecliptic
Pole
Azimuth
Altitude
Declination
Latitude and Longitude
Parallels
Meridian
Diurnal Motion
Culmination
1. Astronomical. Observations.
Astronomical observations are prin-
cipally of two kinds: To determine
distance, linear and angular ; and to
study the physical conditions of the
heavenly bodies.
(a) Instruments:
Telescope
Sextant
Transit Instrument
Meridian Circle
Equatorial
Zenith Telescope
Micrometer
Chronograph
Chronometer
Spectroscope
(b) Corrections to Astronomical Ob-
servations :
Depression
Parallax
Refraction
Twilight
Aberration
(c) Time:
The determination of time is one of
the most important problems in astron-
omy, and is effected by observing the
time of .transit across the meridian of
some celestial object. For the deter-
mination of time, read :
Transit Instrument
Sextant
Chronometer
Ephemeris
Equation of Time
Various ways of reckoning time have
been used in history. Some of the prin-
cipal ways used by the ancients, and
also those used at present, are given in
the following articles:
Period
Chronology
159
160
ASTROXOMY
Calendar
Hour
Week
Day
Month
Year
International Date Line
Prime Meridian Conference
Time Signals
Time, Standard
2, The Solar System.
The solar system consists of the sun
as a central body, around which re-
volve the planets with their satellites,
some periodic comets, and meteoric
swarms. In addition to these perma-
nent members, the system is occasion-
ally visited by other comets, wliich
move in parabolic orbits. As a histori-
cal inti-oduction, read:
Ptolemaic System
Copernican System
Of the members of the solar system,
the planetary system is of most imme-
diate interest to us, since our earth is a
member of this system. The sun and
the planets, with their satellites and
their interrelations, are treated in the
following articles :
Sun
Planets
Solar System
Planetoids
Satellites
Vulcan
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
very small in
great extent.
Eros
Moon
Gravitation
Parallax
Lunar Theory
Nutation
Perturbations
Precession
Tides
Latitude, Variation of
Seasons
Orbit
Elements
Eclipse
Comets are usually
mass, though this has
Tiiey move in very eccentric orbits
about the sun, and the planes of their
orbits present a great variety. The
constituent parts and physical charac-
teristics, the mass, the spectra, the
number, discoveries, the captive theor^y,
and origin of comets are treated in the
article Comet.
Meteors are masses of stone or iron,
which sometimes are seen to fall to the
earth from the sky. The circumstances
of the fall, the meteoric showers, the
probable cause, the matter, path, and
number of meteors are treated in the
articles :
Meteors
Aerolite
3. The Stars.
These bodies are usually called fixed
stars, owing to the idea of the ancients
that they were without motion. Tlie
fixity is, however, now disproved, and
observations with the spectroscope
show tiiat they are moving with veloci-
ties comparable to those of bodies be-
longing to tlie solar system. Owing to
ASTRONOMY
161
their immense distance, they appear,
however, to keep their relative posi-
tions and configurations unchanged.
This is only apparent, and there are
stars whose displacement amounts to
as much as 1" a year. In magnitude
and physical condition, the stars are
comparable with our sun, and many of
them greatly exceed our sun in bright-
ness and magnitude. The designation,
magnitude, nature, and number of
stars, the constellations, stellar paral-
lax, proper motion, spectra, photome-
try, variable stars, double and multiple
stars, binary stars, etc., are treated in
the following articles:
Star
Constellation
Culmination
Pole Star
Zodiac
Galaxy
Parallax
Astro-Photography
The Nebul.e are faintly shining
cloudlike patches of matter in the sky,
scattered among the stars. They are
supposed to be stars under formation.
The nature, forms, and magnitudes of
nebulfe, the spectra, distribution, dis-
tance, etc., are treated in the article
Nebula.
4. Astronomical Observatories
are buildings where the instruments
and machinery necessary for the obser-
vation of the heavenly bodies are kept.
The equipment, location, etc., of an ob-
servatory, together with a description
of some of the largest observatories in
the world, are treated in the following
articles :
Observatory
Lick Observatory
Naval Observatory
Pulkova Observatory
Yerkcs Observatory
5. Cosmogony deals with the the-
ory of operations by which the present
condition of the universe came about.
Various systems of cosmogony have
prevailed at different times. These are
given in the articles :
Cosmogony
Nebulas
6. Astrology deals with the sup-
posed influence of the heavenly bodies
upon human affairs and the drawing
up horoscopes. Astrology was the fore-
runner of astronomy, and for centuries
astronomical observations were made
mainly to supply data for astrology.
See Astrology.
7. Biography.
Observational astronomy dates back
to the Chinese and Chaldaeans, but the
first real attempt to explain the move-
ments of the heavenly bodies is due to
the Greeks. The ideas of the Greeks
held sway till Copernicus substi-
tuted a more harmonious system.
Gravitational astronomy begins with
Newton, who made it possible to ex-
plain the movements of the heavenly
bodies, while Galileo's invention of the
telescope gave a means of finding out
what they are in themselves. The fol-
lowing is a list of the most prominent
contributors to astronomy:
Hipparchus
Ptolemy
Brahe
Kepler
Galileo
Newton
Bradley
162
ASTRONOMY
Halley
Roemer
Cassini, Jacques
Cassini, G. D.
Flamsteed
Herschel, Sir William
Herschel, Sir J. F. W.
Laplace
Bessel
Bode
Delambre
Olbers
Piazzi
Pond
Bailey
Hansen
Struvc, F. G. W.
Encke
Leverrier
Adams, J. C.
Airy
Nichol
Rosse
Rutherford
Stnive, Otto
Galle
Huggins
Lockyer
Ollfapt^r 15. flfyatra
IN unclcrtciking systematic rca(lin<r in any particular science, it is well at
the outset to realize the province and limitations of tliat science, as tliey
have been determined and observed in the past by its devotees, and what,
if there have been changes, is tlie modern conception of the scope of the
particular department of knowledge so known. With this especial
object, the article on Physics has been written, and serves to introduce
the reader to the subject, as discussed in more detail under the broad subdivisions
of Acoustics, Electricity, Heat, Light, Mechanics, and Magnetism.
Taking up these subjects separately, we shall find in each case the general article
referred to, and such minor articles as are demanded.
1. Acoustics.
Dealing with theoretical questions,
the more important topics on the na-
ture and theory of sound are included
in the following list:
Acoustics
Section Origins under Music
Diatonic Scale
Phonetics
Resonance
Resonator
Node
For special purposes and investiga-
tion dealing with the production and
propagation of sound waves, there has
been devised much interesting appa-
ratus, certain forms of which, as the
telephone, phonograph, megaphone,
etc., have found their way into univer-
sal application. See:
Siren
Sp'eaking Trumpet
Megaphone
Ear-Trumpet
Audiometer
Audi phone
Acoumeter
Phonograph
Chladni Figures
Tuning-Fork
Organ
2. Electricity.
To supplement the general article
Electricity, it is desirable to consult
articles dealing with the generation of
the current, as Dynamo-Electric
Machinery, the Voltaic Cell, the
Dry Pile, Thermo-Electricity, and
also study the effects of Induction
and self induction. We can learn how
the magnetic strength of a solenoid is
influenced by the number of Ampere
Turns, and how the Capacity of a
Condenser may vary with changes of
conditions. As supplemental, then, to
the article on electricity, the following
articles may be cited:
(a) Fundamental Phenomena:
Current
Conductor
Resistance
Shunt
Electrostatics (under Electricity )
Condenser
Ampere Turns
Solenoid
Induction
Induced Electric Currents (un-
der Electricity)
Foucault Currents
(b) Electrical Units:
Electrical Units
163
164
PHYSICS
Ampere
Volt
Ohm
Henry
Farad
Coulomb
Watt
(c) Electrostatic Apparatus :
Electrophorus
Electrical Machine
Electroscope
Ley den Jar (under Condenser)
Barometric Light
Brush
Elmo's Fire, Saint
{d) Measuring Instruments:
Galvanometer
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Voltameter
Wheatstone's Bridge
Electrometer
Electric Meters
Induction Balance
(e) Discharge in Gases or in Vacuo:
Anode
Discharge through Gases (un-
der Electricity)
Geissler's Tubes
Crookcs Tube
X-Rays
(f) Electric Currents:
Galvanic Battery
Voltaic Cell or Battery
Dry Pile
Storage Battery
Thermo-Electricity
Tiiomson Effect
3. Heat.
Following the arrangement already
specified for the study of heat, refer-
ence should be made to Caloeimetuy
to ascertain how the amount of heat
possessed by various bodies is measured,
and to Thermometry to learn how tlie
temperature or degree of heat is deter-
mined. Thermodynamics enables us
to consider the relation between heat
and work. See:
Heat
Calorimetry
Thermometiy
Diathermancy
Regelation
Radiation
Thermodynamics
Spheroidal State
Of a more practical character, are
those articles involving the considera-
tion of methods and apparatus, such
as those which discuss the LiauEFAC-
TioN OF Gases and Freezing Mix-
tures. A list of this kind would in-
clude :
Crj'ophorus
Freezing Point
Freezing-Mixtures
Liquefaction of Gases
Melting-Point
Boiling-Point
Critical Point
Refrigeration
Zero
Thermometer
Pyrometer
Thermoscope
Microtasimeter
Radiometer
Bolometer
Hygrometer
Safety-Lamp
Radioactivity is a comparatively
new subject, but around an article on
that subject may be grouped sucli arti-
cles as Radium, Polonium, and Ura-
PHYSICS
165
NiiiM Rays, wliich deal with substances
that manifest this pecuhar property.
4. Magnetism.
Complete articles on Magnetism in
general and on Magnetism, Ter-
restrial, with charts, leave but little
to be said in addition. Diamagxetism
is a quality that needs further ex-
planation, wjiile Aclinic and Agonic
Lines are expounded in separate arti-
cles, as are Declination and Inclina-
tion. The instruments used in study-
ing magnetism, and especially the
ship's compass, with its important ad-
justments, are also the subjects of
further description. The articles that
may be consulted advantageously are:
Magnetism
Magnetism Terrestrial
Diamagnetism
Declination
Inclination
Magnetometer
Compass
Astatic Needle
Dipping-Needle
Declination Needle
Armature
5. Light.
In the study of optics, there are
numerous opportunities to branch off
from a general treatment and carry on
independent investigation in a particu-
lar field. Starting with the motion of
the ether, known as light, we are able
to study its Velocity and also the
intensity. For the latter, photometers
are employed, and the subject of Pho-
tometry presents a record of many
different instruments and methods. By
reason of its wave motion when Dif-
fraction and Interference take place
Princes are formed, and also there re-
sults the phenomenon known as colors
of thin plates. This principle of in-
terference is the basis of one process
of Color Photography; several pro-
cesses are described under that title.
In fact, numerous other examples could
be cited, but reference to the following
list will clearly indicate the extent of
the range of subjects:
(a) Light:
Light
Velocity of Light
Ether
Diffraction and Diffraction Grat-
ings •
Interference
Fringes
Colors of Thin Plates (under
Light)
Newton's Rings
Photometry
Reflection
Caustic
Refraction
Polarization
Prism
Dispersion
Color
Complementary Colors
Achromatism
Rainbow
Lens
Foci
Aberration, Chromatic
Aberration, Spherical
Spectroscopy
Fluorescence
Phosphorescence
Zeeman Effect
Mirage
Fata Morgana
(b) Optical Instruments:
Telescope
Opera Glass
166
PHYSICS
Field Glass
Object-Glass
Eyepiece
Field of View
Microscope
Solar Microscope
Brownian ^Movements
Camera Lucida
Camera Obscura
Aplanatic Lens
Spectroscope
Stereoscope
Magic Lantern
Kinetoscope
Dissolving Views
Diaphragm
Polariscope
Nicol Prism
Anah'zcr
Polar Clock
Kaleidoscope
Chromatrope
Zoetrope
Fluoroscope
Diaphanoscope
Cyanometcr
Dioptometcr
Magic ^lirror of Japan
(c) Photographic Processes:
Photograpliy
Photo-Chemistry
Negative
Ambrotypc
Daguerreotype Process
Copying
Color Photography
Photo-Engraving
Calotypo Proccess
Cyanotypc Process
Ferrotype
Fothcrgill Process
Photolitiiography (under Li
thograpliy)
Gelatin Process
6. Matter and Mechanics.
Under this head, we may include a
consideration of matter, including its
general properties and the theories ad-
vanced to explain it, as- well as the
questions concerned with the motion of
matter, and the methods and units em-
ployed to measure this motion. Con-
sidering the first subdivision, it is neces-
sary to concern ourselves with the
following titles :
Matter
Vortex
Molecules
Inertia
Porosity
Ductility
Elasticity
Flexure
Viscosity
Gases, General Pi'operties of
Effusion
Cohesion
Adhesion ,
The science of mechanics deals with
the motion of matter. After reading
the fundamental article ^Mechanics,
the reader will be prepared to appre-
ciate the associated articles as well as
those dealing with the various stages of
applied mechanics. Included in the
former class, are the following:
Mechanics
Dynamics
Kinetics
Kinematics
Statics
l\Ionient
IMomentum
Velocity
Acceleration
Force
Potential
PHYSICS
167
Central Forces
Couple
Energetics
Centre of Gravity
" " Gyration
" " Inertia
" " Oscillation
" " Percussion
" " Pressure
'Aerostatics
Aerodynamics
Pneumatics
Hydrostatics
Hydrodynamics
Vortex
Waves
Stability
Impact
Gravitation
Falling Bodies
Vector
Capillarity
Mechanical Powers
Inclined Plane
Lever
Wheel and Axle
Pulley
Pendulum
Projectiles, Motion of
In order to measure motion and its
effect, there are required systems of
units, and these are usually arranged
on such a basis that they are parts of
a symmetrical system, such as the C.
G. S. (Centimeter, Gramme, Second)
system. This matter is fully ex-
plained in the following articles:
C. G. S.
Mechanical Units
Dimensions
Dyne
Erg
Foot-Pound
Joule
Watt
Kilowatt
Horse-Power
For the measurement and study of
matter and its motion and other prop-
erties, numerous impoi-tant pieces of
physical apparatus have been devised.
Thus, to measure the pressure of the
atmosphere, or a gas, we have the Bar-
ometer and tiie Manometer. To re-
move the air from a vessel, the Air
Pump is applied. For the linear meas-
ures, we have scales constructed with
the Dividing Engine and compared
with standards on the Comparator.
Instruments of such nature are includ-
ed in the following list :
Air Pump
Barometer
Barometer, Water
Aneroid
Manometer
Magdeburg Hemispheres
Specific Gravity
Hydrometer
Joll}' Balance
Balance
Spring Balance
Weighing ^Machine
Torsion Balance
Weights and iMeasures
]\Ietric System
Dividing Engine
Comparator
Atwood's Machine
Barker's Mill
Hero's Fountain
7. Biographies of Physicists.
Some of the greatest achievements
in that branch of science which is now
known as Physics have been the work
of philosophers who have also accom-
plished much in other fields, and con-
168
PHYSICS
sequently it is impossible, particularly
in the case of ancient and medieval
scientists, to term them physicists, and
include them in such a list. Also, in
modern times, the work of the chemist,
of the engineer, of the meteorologist,
of the astronomer, and of other scien-
tific workers, closely approaches or ac-
tually transgresses the limits which the
physicist has set for himself. There-
fore, the following list does not in-
clude all the principal workers, but a
certain number who primarily are dis-
tinguished for their work in physics.
Abney, W. de W.
Amici, G. B.
Amontons, G.
Ampere, A. M.
Arago, D. F.
Archimedes
Atwood, George
Bache, Alex. D.
Bacon, Roger
Becquerel, A. C.
Becquerel, A. E.
Becquerel, A. H.
Bell, A. G.
Biot, Jean B.
Boyle, Robert
Brewster, Sir D.
Bunsen, R. W.
Cailletet, L. P.
Carhart, H. S.
Carnot, N. L. S.
Cavendish, H.
Chladni, E. F. F.
Cluusius, R. J. E.
Coulomb, C. A.
Dc la Rive, A. A.
DoUond, John
Dove, H. W.
Edison, T. A.
Ewing, J. A.
Fahrenheit, G. D.
Faraday, M.
Ferrari, G.
Fleming, J. A.
Forbes, J. D.
Foucault, J. B. L.
Fraunhofer, Joseph von
Fresnel, A. J.
Galvani, L.
Gauss, Iv. F.
Gay-Lussac, J. L.
Geissler, H.
Gilbert, W.
Glazebrook, R. T.
Gray, Elisha
Grove, Sir W. R.
Guericke, O. von
Haidinger, W. von
Halley, E.
Hauksbee, F.
Helmholtz, H. von
Henry, Joseph
Hero of Alexandria
Herschel, Sir W.
Hertz, H.
Hittorf, J. W.
HofF, J. H. van't
Holtz, W.
Hopkinson, J.
Hu^'gens, C.
Jenkin, H. C. F.
Jolly, P. von
Joule, J. P.
Katcr, H.
Kirchhoff, G. R.
Kohlrausch, F.
Kundt, A.
Laplace, P. S. de
Leslie, Sir J.
Lodge, Sir O. J.
IMagnus, H. G.
Mains, E. L.
Mariotte, E.
Mascart, E. E. N.
Maxwell, J. C.
PHYSICS
1G9
Mayer, A. M.
Maj^er, J. R.-von
Mendcnhall, T. C.
Michelson, A. A.
Morse, S. F. B.
Newton, Sir Isaac
Nichols, E. L.
Oersted, H. C.
Oiim, G. S.
Ostwald, W.
Papin, D.
Pictet, R.
Plateau, J. A. F.
Pupin, M. I.
Quincke, G. H.
Rankine, W. J. M.
Rayleigh, J. W. S.
Reaumur, R. A. F. de
Regnault, H. V.
Roentgen, W. K.
Rowland, H. A.
Ruhmkorff, H. D.
Sabine, Sir E.
Siemens, Sir W.
Somerville, Mary
Steinheil, K. A.
Stevin, S.
Stokes, Sir G. G.
Tait, P. G.
Tesla, N.
Thompson, S. P.
Thomson, J. J.
Thomson, William
Torricelli, E.
Trowbridge, J.
Tyndall, J.
Violle, J.
Volta, A.
Watt, J.
Weber, W.
Wheatstone, Sir Charles
Wiedemann, G.
Wilde, H.
Woodward, R. S.
Wroblewski, Z. F.
Young, T,
OII)apt^r Ifi. QHtrmtetrij
THE importance, for practically everj'body, of acquiring a knowledge
of chemistry hardly needs to be emphasized. Chemical facts and
principles are involved, to a considerable extent, in every science
and in every branch of industry, and chemical questions come up
often in nearly every sphere of human activitv'.
In the New International Encyclopad'M, the science and applications of
chemistry are treated in a large number of articles, many of which were written
so as to serve a double purpose : fii'st, to suppl}' information on their special
topics, without reference to chemical science as a whole, or to any other chemical
topic ; secondly, to form integral parts of an exposition of chemistry, for those
who may desire to use the Encyclopaedia for the acquisition of a general knowledge
of the subject. To serve the second purpose, they were written from a single
viewpoint — on the whole that of the German school of physical chemistry, now
all but universally recognized as the best founded and most fruitful mode of
viewing chemical phenomena. To serve the first purpose, which is all-important
in a work of reference, each article (with few unavoidable exceptions), besides
being written in very simple terms, is supplied with all the information that is
necessary to an understanding of the subject it treats, so that, in by far most
of the articles, no preliminary chemical knowledge is pre-supposed. But even
in those articles in which the assumption of some preliminary knowledge could not,
for obvious reasons, be avoided, no information was pre-supposed beyond what
may be readil_y found in the Encyclopa?dia itself. Furthermore, in most of the
articles, the more essential information is concentrated in the opening paragraphs,
the more technical and less essential in later parts of the article : so that glancing
over the first paragraph alone may be sufficient for many purposes. Of course,
if the end in view be the acquisition of a general systematic knowledge of
chemistry, the articles should be read entirely and carefully, the leading points
being very briefly noted down, so as to afford, at any time of the reading, a clear
retrospect over the ground covered.
For purposes of systematic study, the chemical articles in the Encyclojia'dia
may be grouped as follows: 1, Those dealing with general fundamental prin-
ciples ; 2, those dealing with the principal classes of carbon compounds ; 3, those
dealing with the theories of physical chemistry; 4, those articles, or sections of
articles, dealing with the history of chemistry; 5, articles on the chemical ele-
ments ; 6, articles on the principal compounds occurring in the living organism ;
7, articles on other substances, inorganic and organic, presenting either theo-
retical or practical interest.
The order of this classification is stage, a knowledge of at least some
based on the relative importance, to of the principles of chemistry ought
the general reader, of ])rinciplcs and to be much more valuable ihan a
facts. Siiould the course of syste- knowledge of some data concen>Jng
matic reading be interrupted at some individual compounds, such as would
170
CHEMISTRY
171
be acquired if, following the usual or-
der of chemical studies in schools, the
course" should be commenced by a peru-
sal of the descriptive articles on the
elements and their principal inorganic
compounds.
1. Fundamental Principles and
Phenomena.
Chemistry
Analysis, Chemical
Atomic Weights
Avogadro's Rule
IMoleculcs
Periodic Law
Spectrum Analysis
Reaction, Chemical
Decomposition
Dissociation
Catalytic Action
Nascent State
Combustion
Spontaneous Combustion
2. Cakbon Compounds.
The compounds of carbon, number-
ing roughly 100,000, form the sub-
ject of organic chemistry, one of the
most extensive and important branches
of modern chemical science. In this
branch, the atomic and other theories
have found a field for some of their
most useful applications ; and it is,
therefoi'c, advisable to acquire some
knowledge of it at an early stage in
chemical reading. The following is a
list of the principal articles dealing
with this branch:
Carbon Compounds
Stereo-Chemistry
Hydrocarbons
Alcohols
iMercaptans
Ethers
Aldehj'des
Ketones
Acids
Amines
Amides
Ureas
Carbohydrates
Phenols
Diazo-Compounds
Organo-Metallic Bodies
Alkaloids
3. PHYsici\.L Chemistry.
Within recent 3'ears, physical chem-
istry has attained a degree of impor-
tance which makes some knowledge of
it indispensable, not only to the pro-
fessional chemist, but also to the physi-
cist, physiologist, botanist, engineer, —
in fact to all those engaged in work of
any of the pure and applied sciences.
It is believed that this justified the in-
troduction in the Encyclopaedia of a
somewhat extensive, though popular,
treatment of the subject. Following
is a list of the principal articles, in the
order in which it would seem advisable
to read them:
Avogadro's Rule
Boiling-Point
Freezing-Point
Melting-Point
Freezing INIixtures
Solution
Dissociation
Diffusion
Colloids
Reaction, Chemical
Thermo-Cheniistry
Electro-Chemistry, General
Photo-Chemistry
Gases (introductory section)
Critical Point
Evaporation
172
CHEMISTRY
Distillation
Sublimation
Radioactivity
4. History of Chemistey.
The history of a great science, if
studied after some knowledge of the
principles and problems of the science
has been acquired, has in itself a fas-
cination for almost every mind. But,
in the case of chemistry, many authori-
ties liave maintained that a knowledge
of the history is not merely interest-
ing, but absolutely indispensable to a
thorough understanding of the science
itself. In the Encyclopaedia, a simple
presentation of the development of
chemical thought, and the gradual
elimination of past errors of principle
and method, will be found in the gen-
eral article Chemistry. Further his-
torical information will be found in the
article Alchemy, in the articles on
physical chemistry, in those describing
the elements and many chemical com-
pounds, and especially in the biogra-
phies of celebrated chemists. Follow-
ing is a list of some of the best-known
names in the history of chemistry :
Helmont, J. B. van
Bechcr, J. J.
Stahl, G. E.
Black, J.
Priestley, J.
Cavendish, H.
Lavoisier, A. L.
Klaproth, M. II.
Dalton, J.
Wollaston, W. H.
Berzelius, J. J.
Davy, H.
Berthollet, C.
Bergman, T. 0.
Avogadro, A.
Gay-Lussac, J. L.
INIitscherlich, E.
Liebig, J.
Wohler, F.
Chevreul, M. E.
Dumas, J. B.
Laurent, A.
Gerhardt, K. F.
Gmelin, L.
Sainte-Claire Deville, H. E.
Cannizzaro, S.
Graham, T.
Kolbe, H.
Bunsen, R. W.
Roscoe, H. E.
Berthelot, P. E. M.
Wurtz, C. A.
Hofmann, A. W.
Regnault, H. V.
Pasteur, L.
]Mendcleeff, D.
Schorlemmer, C.
Baeyer, A.
Fischer, E.
Hoff, J. H. van't
Ostwald, W.
Nernst, W.
Arrhenius, S.
Crookes, W.
Dewar, J.
5. The Chemical Elements.
The articles on the chemical elements
will be found to contain descriptions,
not only of the elements themselves,
but also of their principal compounds,
so that each article forms a chapter of
inorganic chemistry. Following is a
list of some of the principal articles in
a recognized order of arrangement :
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Carbon
CHEMISTRY 173
Clilorine
LiuM, Neon, Krypton, and Xenon,
Bromine
and of the radioactive elements, in-
Iodine
cluding Radium, Polonium, Actin-
Fluorine
ium, and Thorium, will be found in
Sodium
their proper places. A list of the ele-
Potassium
ments, with their chemical symbols and
Lithium
atomic weights, will be found in the
Magnesium
article Atomic Weights.
Calcium
Strontium
6. Compounds Occurring in Living
Barium
Organisms.
Zinc
Physiological chemistry deals with
Cadmium
the individual compounds forming the
Mercury
chemical ingredients of the materials
Boron
of which living organisms and their
Aluminium
products (e. g., milk) are made up.
Silicon
A knowledge of the chemical and
Tin
physical properties of those compounds
Lead
is indispensable in the study of chem-
Zirconium
ical physiology, and hence of physi-
Thorium
ology in general. The following is a
Phosphorus
list of the more important physiologi-
Arsenic
cal compounds described under their
Antimony
names in the Encycloptedia :
Bismuth
Albumen
Sulphur
Allantoin
Selenium
Carbohydrates
Tellurium
Cellulose
Cliromium
Carnin
Molybdenum
Casein
Tungsten
Cerebrin
Uranium
Chitin
Manganese
Cystin
Iron
Elastin
Cobalt
Fats
Nickel
Fibrin
Platinum
Gelatin
Palladium
Globulins
Copper
Glycogen
Silver
Guanin
Gold
Xanthin
Articles on the rest
of the elements,
Hypoxanthin
including the newly
found constitu-
Inosite
ents of the atmosphere, Argon, He-
Keratin
174
CHEMISTRY
Kreatin
Kreatinin
Legumin
Leucin
Ossein
Proteins
Starch
Syntonin
Taurin
Urea
Uric Acid
Hfematin
Hemoglobin
7. Other Important Articles on
Chemical Subjects.
(a) Metallic Alloys:
Alloy
Amalgam
Babbitt Metal
Brass
Britannia Metal
Bronze
Fusible Metal
German Silver
Phosphor-Bronze
Pewter
Pinchbeck
Platiniridium
Spence's Metal
(b) Bases:
The inorganic bases, i. e., metallic
oxides and hydroxides, arc mostly de-
scribed in connection with the metallic
elements. Important special articles
are:
Ammonia
Lime
Soda
The articles on organic bases in-
clude :
ATiiines
Ethylamine
Trimethylamine
Aniline
Pyridine
Quinoline
Alkaloids
Ptomaines
The article Alkaloids contains a
list of the important members of this
class of substances, with their princi-
pal characteristics. More extensive
descriptions are given in the special
articles on all the more important al-
kaloids.
(c) Acids:
All the more important acids are de-
scribed in special articles under their
names. Many acids of secondary im-
portance are mentioned in connection
with their characteristic elements. Fol-
lowing is a partial list of important ar-
ticles on acids :
i. General:
Acids
Phenols
ii. Inorganic:
Sulphuric Acid
Hydrochloric Acid
Nitric Acid
Sulphuretcd Hj'drogcn
Phosphoric Acid
Hydrobromic Acid
Hydriodic Acid
Hydrofluoric Acid
Chloric Acid
Perchloric Acid
Hypochlorous Acid
Nitrous Acid
Hyponitrous Acid
Phospliorous Acid
Hypophosphorous Acid
Manganic and Permanganic
Acids
CHEMISTRY
175
iii. Organic :
Acetic Acid
Benzoic Acid
Butyric Acid
Caproic, Caprylic, and Capric
Acids
Carbolic Acid
Carbonic-Acid Gas
Cinnamic Acid
Citric Acid
Cyanic Acid
Cyanuric Acid
Formic Acid
Fumaric and Maleic Acids
Gallic Acid
Glycin
Hippuric Acid
Hydrocyanic Acid
Hydroferricyanic Acid
Hydroferrocyanic Acid
Lactic Acid
Laurie Acid
Malic Acid
Margaric Acid
Meconic Acid
Myristic Acid
CEnanthylic Acid
Oleic Acid
Oxalic Acid
Palmitic Acid
Picric Acid
Stearic Acid
Succinic Acid
Tannic Acid
Tartaric Acid
Uric Acid
Valeric Acid
An important " homologous series "
of acids, included in this list, is consti-
tuted by the following so-called " fatty
acids " :
Formic
Acetic
Butyric
Valeric
Caproic
Caprylic
Capric
Senanthylic
Laurie
Myristic
Palmitic
Margaric
Stearic
Allied to the last-named is oleic
acid.
The acid anhydrides are mostly
mentioned in connection with the
metalloid elements.
(d) Salts:
Salts are mostly described in con-
nection with either the acids or the
bases combined in them. The follow-
ing are a few special articles on salts:
Alum
Borax
Cream of Tartar
Epsom Salt
Glauber's Salt
Iodides
Rochelle Salt
Ichthyol
Saltpetre
Soda
Bases, acids, and salts constitute to-
gether the so-called " electrolytes."
Their peculiar behavior in aqueous
solutions has led to the formulation
of the now well-known theory of elec-
trolytic dissociation, which may be
found treated in the articles Solution,
Dissociation, and Acids.
(e) Hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbons
Methane
176
CHEMISTRY
Ethane
Propane
Butane and Isobutane
Ethylene
Acetylene
Benzene
Naphthalene
Anthracene
Further information concerning hy-
drocarbons may be found in articles
on such products as oils (volatile),
paraffin, ozokerite, petroleum, benzine,
rubber, gutta-percha, gas (illuminat-
ing and natural), etc.
(f) Other important compounds:
Water
Hydrogen Dioxide
Ozone
Alcohol
IMethyl Alcohol
Glycerin
Mannite
Aldehyde
Chloral
Acetone
Almonds, Volatile Oil of
Acrolein
Acetone
Ether
Chloroform
Iodoform
Nitro-Benzcne
Carbides
Calcium Carbide
Carbon Disulphide
Carbonic Oxide
Cyanogen
is) Pigments, Dyestuffs, and Allied
Subjects:
Paints
Mineral Colors
Vegetable Colors
Dyeing
Coal-Tar Colors
Tar
Coal-Tar
Indigo
Alizarin
Purpurin
Aurin
Rosolic Acid
Archil
Arnotto
Carmine
Flavin
Henna
Indian Yellow
Lac Dye (under Lac)
Litmus
Orcin
Orcein
Logwood
Murexid
Phenicin
Quercitron
Green
Brunswick Green
Turkey Red
Cinnabar
Blue
Indigo
Lampblack
White Lead
A list of the widely used coal-tar
colors ("aniline dve-stufFs "), with
their principal characteristics, will be
found in the article Coal-Tar Colors.
(/i) Waxes, Fats, Oils, and Soap:
Waxes
Beeswax
Spermaceti
Fats
Palmitin
Stearin
Olein
CHEMISTRY
177
Oils
Almonds, Expressed Oil of
Almonds, Volatile Oil of
Canada Balsam
Castor Oil
Cod-Liver Oil
Croton Oil
Garlic, Oil of
Grass-Oil
Gurjiin Balsam
Lemon Oil
Menthol
Petroleum
Turpentine
Wintergreen, Oil of
Soap
All the tj-pical waxes and oils are
•described in the general articles under
these names. Paraffin, which is some-
times spoken of as " paraffin wax," is
described in an article under its own
name.
(j) Gums and Resins:
Gums
Resins
Amber
Ammoniac
Anime
Arabin
Copal
Bassora Gum
Bdellium
Catechu
Dragon's Blood
Gambir
Gamboge
Gum Arabic (under Gums)
Kino
Mucilage
Olibanum
Podophyllin
Rosin
Sandarac
Scammony
Camphor, which is sometimes spoken
of as " gum camphor," is described
under its own name. " British gum,"
a substitute for gum arable, is de-
scribed under Dextrin.
(j) Explosives:
See chapter on Military and Naval
Science .
ik) Wafers:
Water
Ice
Distilled Water
Aerated Waters
Carbonated or Acidulous Waters
Chalybeate Waters
Mineral Waters
Selters Water
ApoUinaris Water
Qlliapt^r ir^ ^Mbgij
WHEN we turn our attention to the solid crust of the earth,
several questions naturally arise: Of what materials is it
composed? How are these materials arranged? How
was this arrangement brought about? The answers to
these questions give a clue to the divisions into which
geological science naturally falls. The first question is answered by a
study of the various kinds of rocks. This is the science of Petrography
or Petrology. The answer to the second question is given by Struc-
tural Geology. But we find that one form of structure, stratification,
is so widespread and complex that its study forms a separate division,
Stratigraphical Geology, sometimes also called Historical Geology, because
it is this part of geology that deals with the history of the earth. Finally, the
study of the forces at work in the formation of the crust is Dynamic Geology.
This division, however, should be studied before Structural Geology, because
the latter will be better understood after the causes of the various structures are
known.
There are two other aspects of geolog}', which take the point of view of
animate nature. One is Economic Geology, which deals with those parts of the
earth's crust that can be made useful to man. The other is Paleontological
Geology, the study of the organic remains, which, besides revealing the history
of life on the globe, furnish a valuable guide in the identification and classification
of strata. We shall now guide the reader to the articles bearing on these divisions
of the science. For the general article, see Geology .
A, Prtroln^y
For general articles on this subject, Stauroscope
see: For the various classes of rocks, see:
Geognosy Plutonic Rocks
Petrology Igneous Rocks
Crystallography Aqueous Rocks
Mineralogy Metamorphic Rocks
Lithogencsis Crystalline Rocks
Cementation Clastic Rocks
Petrographic Province Calcareous Rocks
Rock Calcareous Tufa
Cleavage Argillaceous Rocks
Dichroism Arenaceous Rocks
Isomorphism Rcsichial Rocks
Morphotropism yEolian Accumulations
Conoscope TufF
Goniometer Lava
178
GEOLOGY
179
For the more important specific
kinds of rocks, sec :
1. Stratified or Foliated Crystal-
line Rocks:
Limestone
Marble
Dolomite
Gypsum
Hematite
Limonite
Flint
Slate
Quartzite
Itacolumite
Pyroxenite
Hornblendite
Eclogite
Soapstone
Pcridotite
Mica Schist
Gneiss
2. Massive Crystalline Rocks :
Granite
Porphyry
Fclsite
Rhyolite
Syenite
Trachyte
Phonollte
Pitchstone
Obsidian
Pcarlite
Diorite
Diabase
Melaphyre
Andesite
Greenstone
Basalt
Gabbro
Serpentine
3. Clastic (Fragmental) Rocks:
(a) Arenaceous:
Soil
Sand
Gravel
Conglomerate
. Breccia
Sandstone
Graywackc
(h) Argillaceous:
Clay
Fuller's Earth
Slate
Boulder Clay
Shale
Loam
Loess
(c) Volcanic:
TufF
Basalt
(d) Rocks of Organic Origin:
Coral
Limestone
Chalk
Marl
Diatomaccous Earth
Guano
Peat
Lignite
Coal
Peat
Petroleum
Asphalt
Graphite
Bog-Iron Ore
Clay Ironstone
180
GEOLOGY
B. ignamti: ^^^^lln5lJ
For the larger movements of
earth's crust, see:
Refrigeration of the Earth
Elevation and Subsidence
Cataclysm
Catastrophism
Fault
For volcanic action, see :
Volcano
Crater
Geyser
the Earthquake
Seismograph
For changes in the crust due to ex-
ternal and various causes, see:
Erosion
Aqueous Rocks
Stratification
Glacier
Glacial Period
Lithogcnesis
Metamorphism
Petrifaction
C. f'tntrtural (^rnlngij
The larger and more general forms
of geologic structure are discussed in
the articles:
Crust of the Earth
Stratification
Formation
Bed
Conformity
Unconformity
Within this general structure arc
found various minor structures, gener-
ally caused by some form of intrusion.
See:
Concretionary Structure
Geodes
Laccolite
Batholite
Dike
Ore Deposits
Lode
The various lines of division between
and within these structures arc described
in the articles:
Fault
Joints
Slickensides
Lamination
Foliation
Cleavage
For the distortion and inclination
of tlie strata, see:
Mountain
Anticline
Syncline
IVIonocline
Dip
Diastrophism -
Strike
Clinometer
The general articles on Stratig-
raphy have already been given. This
division will concern itself only with
the articles describing the various
strata and groups of strata, and, with
them, the various ages in the history of
the eartli.
GEOLOGY
181
Z). i'trattgraplitral O^^nlnrjii
I. The main systems or areas into
which the whole series of strata and
the liistory of the eartli fall are de-
scribed under:
Archaean System
Pre-cambrian Formations
Paleozoic
Mesozoic Era
Ccnozoic
Tertiary System
Quaternary
II. The systems and periods into
which the above are divided are de-
scribed in the following articles:
1. Archaan System:
Algonkian System
Laurentian System
2. Paleozoic System:
Cambrian System
Ordovitian
Silurian System
Devonian System
Old Red Sandstone
Carboniferous System
Permian System
New Red Sandstone
Red Sandstone
3. The Mesozoic System:
Triassic System
Jurassic System
Cretaceous System
4. The Tertiary System:
Eocene Epoch
Oligocene Epoch
Miocene Epoch
Pliocene Epoch
5. The Quaternary System:
Glacial Period
Pleistocene Period
Recent Period
III. The local developments, or
minor divisions, of the systems men-
tioned are only in a few cases identical
over large areas, and have accordingly
received different names in the differ-
ent continents.
1. For names and description of the
minor divisions in the various countries
of Europe, see the following articles:
(a) Silurian:
Caradoc Sandstone
Wenlock Group
(6) Devonian:
Goniatites
Spirifer
(c) Carboniferous:
Millstone Grit
Mountain Limestone
(d) Triassic:
Bunter
Muschelkalk
Keuper
Rha?tic Beds
(^) Jurassic:
Liassic Series
Oolite
Oxford Clay
Solenhofen Lithographic Stone
Purbeck Beds
(/") Cretaceous:
Greensand
Wealden Formation
Gault
Cenomanian
Maestricht Beds
(g) Eocene:
London Clay
182
GEOLOGY
Paris Basin '
Bagshot Beds
Nummulites
Calcaire Grossier
(a) Miocene:
Molasse
2. For the minor divisions in Amer-
ica, see :
(a) Cambrian:
Potsdam Sandstone
(b) Silurian:
Calciferous
Trenton Series
Niagara Series
Salina Stage
Clinton Stage
Medina Series
Lower Helderberg
Oriskan}' Stage
(f) Devonian:
Corniferous Series
Chemung Group
Catskill Group
((f) Carboniferous:
Mississippian Series
Pottsville Conglomerate
Burlington Limestone
Permian System
(f) Cretaceous:
Dakota Stage
Niobrara Stage
Laramie Stage
(f) Quaternary {in all conti-
nents) :
Alluvium
Drift
Glacial Period
E. JPak0ut0l0gtral ^^nlorjg
Paleontology is the study of the na-
ture and distribution of the forms of
organic beings imbedded in the rocks of
the earth's crust. Viewed from the
point of view of biology, it is a part
of zoology and botany ; but it is so inti-
mately connected with the study of the
rocks themselves that it may properly
be considered a part of geology. The
general articles on the subject are:
Paleontology
Paleobotany
Fossil
Fossilifcrous Rocks
Contemporaneity
Homotaxy
Ichnology
Fossil Forests
From a Ijiological point of view, the
proper method of classifying fossil
forms would naturally follow the same
principles that guide the classification
of living plants and animals. But in
studying paleontology as a part of
geology, the geological classification
is preferable; indeed, the two systems
would, to a certain extent, coincide. We
shall, therefore, refer the reader to the
characteristic fossils of each geological
epoch. Most of the larger classes and
orders of fossil forms arc still repre-
sented by living species, and general
discussions of these classes will be found
in tlie articles given in the chapters on
Botany and Zoology.
1. The only fossil found in the
Aroti.san System is described in the
article:
Eozoon
GEOLOGY
183
2. Cambrl\n Fossils:
(a) Plants:
Oldhamia
(b) Animals:
Protospongia
Dictyoiiema
Agnostus
Paradoxides
Trilobita
Lingula
Obolella
Belleroplion
Hyolithes
Nautiloidea
Orthoceras
3. Silurian Fossils :
(a) Invertebrates:
Brachiospongia
Sti'omatopora
GraptoHte
Favosites
Olenus
Chonetes
Asaphus
Polyzoa
Fenestella
Atrypa
Orthis
Spirifer
Pentanierus
Pteropoda
Tentaculites
(b) Fishes:
Pteraspis
Cyathaspis
4. Devonian Fossils:
(a) Invertebrates:
Monograptus
Atrypa
Cj'athophyllum
Phacops
Ammonoidea
Plcurotomaria
Murchisonia
Clymenia
Goniatites
Bactrites
Hcliophyllum
(b) Fishes:
Holoptychius
Osteolepis
Dipterus
Coccosteus
Dinichthys
Cephalaspis
Chirolepis
5. Carboniferous Fossils:
(a) Plants:
Neuropteris
Calamites
Asterophyllites
Annularia
Lepidodendron
Sigillaria
Stigmai'ia
Cordaites
Carpolith
Trigonocarpus
(b) Invertebrates:
Fusulina
Chonetes
Productus
Proetus
Eurypterus
(c) Fishes:
Megalichthys
Cestraciont
(d) Reptiles:
Stegocephalia
6. Permian Fossils:
(a) Fishes:
Palaeoniscus
184
GEOLOGY
(6) Reptiles:
Rhynchocephalia
7. Triassic Fossils:
(a) Plants:
Equisetum
Cycadaceas
(b) Invertebrates:
Terebratula
Ceratites
Ammonites
(c) Reptiles:
Mastodonsaurus
Theromorpha
Dinosauria
Anchisaurus
Labyriiithodon
Dicynodon
(d) Mammals:
Microlcstes
Microconodon
8. JuKASsic Fossils:
(a) Invertebrates:
Gryphtea
Trigonia
Belemnites
(b) Fishes:
Chondrosteus
Hybodus
(c) Reptiles:
Tcleosaurus
Ichthyosaurus
Plcsiosaurus
Pterodactyl
Dimor])hodon
Diplodocus
Megalosaurus
Brontosaurus
Stegosaurus
Titanosaurus
Cynognathus
Baptanodon
Camptosaurus
Ceratosaurus
(d) Birds:
Archffiopteryx
(^) Mammals:
Ctenacodon
9. Cretaceoi's Fossils:
(a) Invertebrates:
Foraminifera
Globigerina
Ventriculites
Hippurites
Radiolites
Inoceramus
{b) Reptiles:
Chelonia
Iguanodon
Mosasauria
Elasniosaurus
Hadrosaurus
(c) Birds:
Bird, Fossil
Hesperornis
Ichthyornis
10. Eocene Fossils:
(a) Invertebrates:
Nummulites
(6) Reptiles:
Zcuglodon
(c) Mammals:
Coryphodon
Hyracotherium
Horse, Fossil
Palaeotherium
Anchitheriuni
Anoplotherium
Lophiodon
Crcodonta
11. Miocene Fossils:
(fl) Mammals:
Mastodon
GEOLOGY
185
Dinothcrium
Helladothcrium
Machasrodus
Elotheriuin
Halitlierium
Hyracodon
Oreodon
Titanotherium
12. Pliocene Fossils:
(a) Plant:
Diemonelix
(6) Mammals:
Sivatherium
Hipparion
Sabre-Toothed Tiger
13. QUATEENAKY FoSSILS :
(a) Birds:
^pyornis
Moa
(b) Mammals:
Elasmotherium
Megatherium
Glyptodon
Diprotodon
Mammotli
Pithecanthropus
F. lEroitnmtr ^fnlorjg
Tliis branch of geology is the study
of all those materials in the crust of the
earth which can be made useful to man,
and of their modes of occurrence. Most
of these materials are used in the form
in which they exist in nature, or are
subjected only to a more or less me-
chanical process of purification. There
is, however, a large class of ci'ust ma-
terials which are of little or no value
in their natural state, but wliicli con-
tain valuable elements that have to be
separated by chemical analysis. These
materials are called ores, and in practi-
cally all cases the valuable element
which they contain is a metal. Indeed,
the term ore has been extended to all
rocks containing metals, even where the
mixture is only mechanical. The met-
als, unless found in the native state,
and other artificial products, are not
subjects of Economic Geology, but are
treated under Chemistry and Manufac-
tures and Engineering. Likewise, the
methods of extracting useful materials
from the earth's crust are dealt with
under ^Mining and ^Metallurgy, Eco-
nomic Geology taking cognizance only
of their modes of occurrence in the
crust.
I. The modes of occurrence of the
larger rock masses have already been
referred to under Petrology and Struc-
tural Geology ; the occurrence of the
other non-metallic substances will be
described in the articles on each specific
substance. It is, therefore, only neces-
sary to give as introductory articles
those which describe the occurrence of
ores. See :
Ore
Ore Deposits
Gangue
Footwall
Hanging Wall
Pinch
Dike
Lode
II. The Metallifekous Ores:
1. Iron Ores:
Limonite
186
GEOLOGY
Hematite
Magnetite
Siderite
Franklinite
Bog-Iron Ore
Pjrite
Pea Ore
2. Gold
3. Platinum
4. Silver Ores:
Silver
Pyrargerite
Cerargyrite
Proustite
Stcphanite
5. Copper Ores:
Chalcopyrite
Cuprite
Malachite
6. Lead Ores:
Galena
Anglesite
Cerusite
Pyromorphite
7. Zinc Ores:
Blende
Willemite
Zincite
Calamine
8. Mercury Ore:
Cinnabar
9. Manganese Ore:
Pyrolusite
10. Aluminum Ores:
Cryolite
Bauxite
11. Tin Ores:
Tin
Cassiterite
12. Nickel Ore:
Millerite
13. Antimony Ore:
Stibnite
III. The Carbon Minerals :
1. Coal
Anthracite
Bituminous Coal
Jet
Lignite
Boghead Coal
Peat
2. Petroleum
Gas, Natural
3. Asphalt
Bitumen
Albertite
Grahamite
Gilsonite
Maltha
4. Ozocerite
Asphaltic Coal
Mineral Tallow
5. Graphite
IV. Building Materials:
Building-Stone
Granite
Sandstone
Limestone
Freestone
Marble
Onyx Marble
Flagstone
Caithness Flagstone
Slate
Bath Stone
Caen Stone
Brownstone
Puzzuolana
V. Soils, Clays, Fertilizers,
Waters :
1. Ilunms
Soil
AND
GEOLOGY
187
Loam
Loess
2. Clay
Potter's Clay
Fire-Clay
Pipe-Clay
Brick-Clay
Kaolin
3. Gypsum
Apatite
Phosphorite
Marl
Guano
4. Mineral Waters
Spring
Artesian Wells
VI. Salts:
Salt
Bay Salt
Borax
VIL Precious Stones:
Diamond
Corundum
Quartz
Emerald
Ruby
Beryl
Chrysoberyl
Sapphire
Aquamarine
Tourmaline
Amethyst
Opal
Alabaster
Chalcedony
Carnelian
Sardonyx
Aragonite
Agate
Jasper
Chrysolite
Turquoise
Topaz
Garnet
Rhodonite
Chrysocolla
Catlinite
VIII. Abrasives:
Abrasives
Grindstone
Buhrstone
Oil-Stone
Novaculite
Emery
Corundum
Carborundum
Diatomaceous Earth
Tripolite
IX. Pigments:
Mineral Paints
Graphite
Ochre
Umber
Burnt Sienna
Chalk
Crayon
Black Chalk
X. Minerals Used in Various Arts:
Lithographic Stone
Solenhofen Lithographic Stone
Talc
Soapstone
Mica
Feldspar
Fluorite
Sulphur
Asbestic
Asbestos
Magnesite
Fuller's Earth
188
GEOLOGY
G, ltfl0rapl)tfa at lEmtttntt O^fBlngijEitfi
Buckknd, W.
Conybeare, W. D.
Cope, E. D.
Dana, J. D.
Dawson, G. M.
Dawson, Sir J. W.
De la Beche, Sir H. T.
Eli de Beaumont, Jean Baptiste
Emmons, E.
Forbes, J. D.
Geikie, Sir Archibald
Hall, Sir James
Hayden, F. V.
Hitchcock, E.
Hutton, J.
Lapham, I. A.
Lea, I.
Le Conte, J.
Lyell, Sir C.
Marcou, J.
Marsh, O. C.
Miller, H.
Murchison, Sir R. I.
Newberry, J. S.
Overweg, A.
Owen, D. D.
Phillips, J.
Powell, J. W.
Ramsay, Sir A. C.
Saussure, H. B. de
Sedgwick, A.
Silliman, B.
Smith, W.
Stevenson, J. J,
Strickland, H. E.
Unger, F.
Werner, A. G.
Whitney, J. D.
Winchell, A.
Woodward, S. P.
Qltjapter IB* iirtwrntog^
METEOROLOGY is the study of the atmospliere, its static condi-
tions and appearances, and tiie changes and movements of all
kinds which take place in it. The two principal constituents of
tlio atmosphere are the air and the moisture in various forms
which the air holds in suspension. Weather and climate are prin-
cipally determined by the conditions under which these two constituents exist, at
any particular time or habitually. The static conditions of the air which mainly
affect the weather are its temperature and its pressure ; its movements come
under the general term wind. The moisture of the atmosphere, unlike the bulk
of the air, is continually changing its identity. It is raised from surface waters
by evaporation, held for a time in suspension under various forms, and then
returned to the earth's surface by various modes of precipitation.
Besides these two sets of phenomena, the electrical conditions of the
atmosphere form an important element of the weather. Other causes sometimes
bring about peculiar or unusual weather conditions, and, aside from weather in its
strict sense, meteorology takes cognizance of the peculiar optical appearances
which the atmosphere presents. These considerations, together with the fact
that the practical aspects and practical rather than theoretical investigations
hold, perhaps, a more prominent place in meteorology than in other natural
sciences, serve to indicate the main divisions of the subject. A considerable
number of instruments are used in meteorological investigations, and the articles
describing these will be referred to in connection with the appropriate subdivision.
I. General Prixciples of the Sci-
ence. See:
Meteorology
Atmosphere
Polarization of Skylight
Dust
Climate
Weather
II. Temperature and Pressure.
1. The theory and investigation of
temperature and its causes arc treated
under :
Temperature, Terrestrial
Cold Wave
Frost
Snow Line
Actinometry
Thermometry
Seasons
2. The instruments used in measur-
ing temperature and radiation are de-
scribed under:
Thermometer
Actinometer
Actinograph
Radiometer
Pyrheliomcter
3. For atmospheric pressure and the
instruments used in measuring it, see :
Barometer
IIL Winds.
1. There are certain general forms
of wind movements recognized without
reference to localities. See:
Wind
Storm
Whirlwind
189
190
METEOROLOGY
Waterspout
Gale
2. On the other hand, in certain parts
of the world peculiar local conditions
produce winds which have received local
names. See :
Doldrums
Calm Latitudes
Blizzard
Chinook
Etesian Winds
Harmattan
Mistral
Sirocco
Monsoon
Simoom
Typhoon
Equinoctial Storm
3. For the instruments and methods
used in measuring or observing the
winds, see :
Anemometer
Anemograph
Anemoscope *
Beaufort Scale
IV. Evaporation and Precipitation.
1. See the general article:
Evaporation
2. The various forms in which mois-
ture is held suspended are described
under :
Humidity
Haze
Fog
Cloud
3. For the various forms of precipi-
tation, see:
Dew
Hoar Frost (under Frost)
Rain
Cloudburst
Snow
Hail
4. For the instruments used in meas-
uring or observing the moisture of the
atmosphere, see:
Hygrometer
Drosometer
Nephoscope
Rain Gauge
V. Electrical Conditions Affect-
ing the Weather. See:
Atmospheric Electricity
Lightning
Lightning, Accidents from
Lightning, Protection from
VI. Peculiar or Unusual Weather
Conditions are Described in
THE Articles:
Dust
Dark Day
Black Rain
Blood-Rain
Indian Summer
Vn. Other Phenomena of the At-
mosphere Belong Mainly to
Optical Appearances or Elec-
trical Displays. See:
Rainbow
Fog-Bow
Halo
Anthelia
Scintillation
Fata Morgana
Mirage
Aurora Borcalis
Elmo's Fire, Saint
Castor and Pollux
VHI. Practical Investigations in
Meteorology are Generally
Conducted hy Government Bu-
reaus. Sec:
Weather Bureau
Signal Corps, U. S. Army
METEOROLOGY
191
These bureaus Wcarn the public by a
system of signals. See:
Storm and Weather Signals
And in this connection also:
Fog-Signals
They also issue daily weather maps.
See:
Isothermal Lines
Isobarometric Linos
Isabnormal Lines
Isanomalous Lines
IX. For Biographies of the Most
Prominent Meteorologists, see :
Abbe, Cleveland
Espy, James Pollard
Fonvielle, Wilfrid de
QII]apt^r 19. (Srograpltg
GEOGRAPHY is the description of the surface of the earth in all its
aspects. Just as the surface is the place where the atmosphere
r meets the lithosphere and hydrosphere, so do the sciences of
IMeteorology and Geology meet in that of Geography, and the
last to a certain extent encroaches upon the fields of the other two.
That is, Geography includes a regional study of the upper layers of the earth's
crust, and a regional study of the atmosphere, or the climatic conditions prevail-
ing on the various parts of the surface. Geographj' also includes the study of
tiie hydrosphere, or oceans, the configuration of their shores and bottoms, and the
phenomena that take place in them.
The whole subj ect may be broadly divided into three main branches :
Mathematical Geography, which deals with the form, dimensions, and position
of the earth, and the methods of its delineation ; Physical Geography, which is
a general discussion of the various natural features of the earth's surface; and
Political, Regional, or Descriptive Geography, which gives detailed and
specific descriptions of the separate parts of the earth's surface, generally as
its human inhabitants have divided it among themselves. This branch also
describes the human inhabitants themselves, all their varied activities, and all the
artificial changes which they have made, and the structures which they have
built on the earth.
I. General. See: Chart
Earth G'°be
Pp|g Coast and Geodetic Survey
Equator, Terrestrial Geodesy
Meridian
Latitude and Longitude
III. Terrestrl^l Magnetism. See :
Degree of Latitude Magnetism, Terrestrial
Degree of Longitude Declination
Tropics I>'P
Geography Isoclinal
II. Methods of Delineation. See: Isogenic Lines
Map Isodynamic Lines
Under this head will be given the or climatic causes. The articles on the
articles describing geographical fea- causes themselves are referred to under
turcs that arc due to various geological Geology and Meteorology. At the
192
GEOGRAPHY
193
end of each subdivision are given the
articles on the most remarkable ex-
amples of the features discussed.
I. General Article:
Physiography
II. Oceanography:
Oceanography
Ocean
Deep-Sea Exploration
Abysmal Accumulations
Oceanic Deposits
Ocean Currents
Tides
Bore
Shore
Atlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
III. General Land Forms :
Continent
Island
Mountain
Valley
Plain
Plateau
Basin
IV. Hydrography:
Hydrography
River
Divide
Waterfall
Inundation
Flood-Plain
Delta
Bar
Lake
Floating Islands
V. Geographical Features Due to
^loVEMENTS OF THE EaRTh's
Crust :
Beaches, Raised
Estuary
Fiord
Coastal Plain
Great Rift ^'alley
VT. Features Due to Volcanic
Action:
Volcano
Crater
Geyser
Dike
Laccolite
Vesuvius
Etna (.Etna)
Krakatoa
Pelee, Mont
Hecla
Mauna Loa
Kilauea
Soufriere, La
Popocatepetl
Yellowstone National Park
Palisades
Giant's Causeway
StafFa
yil. Features Due to Erosion:
Erosion
Piedmont Plain
Bad Lands
ChfF
Talus
River Terraces (under Terrace)
Canon
Mesa
Sink Hole
Cave
Karst
Delaware Water Gap
Colorado River
Niagara River and Falls
Victoria Falls
Mammoth Cave
Lurav Cave
194
GEOGRAPHY
Natural Bridge
Yosemite Valley
VIII. Features Due to Glacial
Action :
Glacier
Moraine
Iceberg (under Ice)
Avalanche
Drumlin
Eskers
Giants' Kettles
Rocking Stones
Mer de Glace
Gorner Glacier
IX. Features Due to Wind Action :
Dune
Medano
Musical Sand
X. Features Due to Peculiar Soil
OR Climatic Conditions :
Desert
Prairie
Savannas
Steppe
Tundra
Downs
Llanos
Pampas
Karroo
Sahara
Gobi
XI. Features Due to the Action
OF Anuials :
Coral Island
Atoll
Barrier Reef
C. Pultttral 0r S^ginnal C^^ograplig
Lack of space forbids anything like
an enumeration of even the more im-
portant articles describing the various
parts of the earth and their inhabi-
tants. The bulk of minor gazetteer
articles arc, of course, intended only for
incidental reference, when information
about a particular locality happens to
be desired. Nevertheless, it would be
possible to plan a very instructive and
interesting course of systematic reading
in descriptive goograpliy.
One way would obviously be to read
first the articles on the larger divisions
of the earth, Europe, Asia, Africa,
America, Australia, Arctic Re-
gion, and Antarctic Region, and, in
the latter connection, the article on
Polar Research. These articles give,
besides, a general geographic and eth-
nographic description, and a history
of exploration and discoveries from
ancient to recent times. TMiey also
refer to the separate divisions of the
larger land areas, and, by reference to
the articles on these divisions, the reader
will be carried successively into nar-
rower and narrower fields with more
and more detailed description.
The story of explorations and dis-
coveries, and of the science of geog-
raphy, may be carried further by
means of the following names and titles,
which include sucli names as do not ap-
pear in some other connections in this
book :
Polar Research
Andrce, S. A.
Baker, S. W.
Barth, II.
GEOGRAPHY
195
Behaim, M.
Borchgrevink, C. E.
Brazza, P.
Bruce, J.
Burckhardt, J. L.
Burton, R. F.
Chancellor, R.
Cook, James
Flinders, M.
Franklin, J.
Gray, R.
Greely, A. W.
Hakluyt, R.
Hall, C. F.
Hcdin, Sven
Johnston, H. H.
Kane, E. K.
Kiepert, H.
Kingsley, M. H.
Kohl, J. G.
La Hontan, A. L.
Lander, R. L.
Laperouse, J. F.
Livingstone, David
Lockwood, J. B.
McClure, R. J.
Major, R. H.
Malte-Brun, K,
Markham, C. R.
Nansen, F.
Nordenskjold, N. A.
Park, Mungo
Parry, W. E.
Peary, R. E.
Polo, Marco
Przhevalski, N. M.
Ratzel, F.
Ravenstein, E. G.
Reclus, E.
Rennel, J.
Ritter, K.
Rohlfs, G.
Ross, James C.
Ross, John
Speke, J. H.
Stanley, H. M.
Sturt, C.
Sverdrup, O.
Wellman, W. ■
Wilkes, Charles
Still another method of carrying on
the study of geography would be to
study the maps, and, wherever a partic-
ular region found there excites the
reader's curiosity, turn to the appropri-
ate article. JMany other ways will
suggest themselves, according to the
individual's tastes, inclination, or re-
quirements, and it will be found that an
encyclopaedia is the best means of gain-
ing, not only a minute knowledge of
any particular locality on tlie earth's
surface, but also a broad perspective
view of the whole field of human activ-
ity. For the gazetteer articles are not
to be regarded merely as dealing with
topics in geography. Taking any of
the articles on the various countries of
the globe, as the United States, or
Japan, such article may be made to
supply detailed information on what-
ever topic may be the subject of study
or reading: Zoology, Geology-, Sta-
tistics, Finance, Education, Industry,
or Transportation. The geograplii-
cal articles in the Encyclopa?dia are, for
practical purposes, undoubtedly the
most valuable in the New International
Encyclopedia. To quote these articles
and the accompanying maps would be
to encumber the book with enormous
lists of names, which the reader may
be trusted readily to select for him-
self.
Cljapter 20. lotaug
BOTANY is the science tliat deals with plants in all their aspects, —
their origin and development, nature, structure, life processes,
classification, and distribution. The nature and origin of plants
will be discussed in the general articles given below. All consid-
erations of the form and structure of individual plants may be
broadly classed under the general term Structural Botany, or Plant Anat-
omy. The study of the processes which constitute the life of a plant and the
conditions which affect those processes is called Physiology. These two branches
of the science are sometimes united under the term General Botany, as distinct
from Specific or Systematic Botany, also called Taxonomy, which deals with
the classification and description of the various kinds of plants. A somewhat
recently established brancli of the science is that of Ecology, which deals with
the distribution of plants in general. Another branch represents the practical
aspects of botany by a particular investigation of the plants which can be made
to enter into human economy. This is Economic Botany, the science which has
the closest bearing on the arts of agriculture and horticulture. For a general
discussion of botanical science, see:
Botany
Biology
Evolution
Heredity
For General Methods of Botanical
Investigation, see:
Botanical Laboratories (under Lab-
oratory)
Botanic Garden
Herbarium
Index Kewensis
A. ^trurtural Sntang
This subject deals with the form and
structure of individual plants, of the
plant body as a whole, of its separate
limbs and organs, of the various tis-
sues of which these are composed, and
of the minute structures of the cells
which compose the tissues. The study
of the individual cell has recently re-
ceived so much attention that it has been
elevated from a branch of Histology,
which deals with the microscopic nature
of tissues, to the separate science of
Cytology. The study of the varying
types of organs has been called Mor-
phology, and this branch may be
divided into the morphology of the
sterile or vegetative organs and the
morphology of the reproductive
organs.
For Genci'al Articles on Structural
Botany, see:
Vegetable Tissue
Anatomy of Plants
Growth (in Plants)
Morphology
I. Cytology. A description of the
general structure and contents of the
cell is given in the articles:
Cytology
19G
BOTANY
197
Cell (in Plants)
Intercellular System
Protoplasm
Nucleus
Osmosis
Plasmoljsis
Movement
Rotation
For the composition of the cell wall, see :
Cellulose
Lignin
Lignification
Micellar Theory
For the structure of the nucleus, see :
Nucleolus
Linin
Chromatin
Chromosome
Centrosome
For the cytoplasm, see:
Microsome
Plastids
The protoplasmic contents include
a considerable variety of coloring
matter. See :
Color in Plants
Chromoplast
Chromatophore
Endociirome
Chloroplast
Anthocyan
Chlorophyll
Leucoplasts
Elaioplasts
Erythrophyll
Etiolin
Etiolation
Carotin
Cyanophyll
Phycoerythrin
Phycophaein
Pyrenoid
Besides the protoplasm the cell often
contains crystals and other bodies.
See:
Raphides •
Aleurone
Inulin
Starch
Finally the various constituents of
the sap, digestive ferments, and secre-
tions :
Sap
Sugar
Glucose
Enzyme
Diastase
Cytase
Lipase
Invertase
Oxidase
Pectase
Zymase
Latex
The mechanics of cell division are de-
scribed under:
jVIechanics of Development
Fission
Mitosis
Karyokinesis
Blepharoplast
II. Histology. A general discus-
sion of plant tissues is given in the
article Histology, section on Histol-
ogy of Plants.
Tissues are variously classified. Ac-
cording to their general nature, the
two most important kinds are de-
scribed under:
Parenchyma
Collenchynia
In higher plants, the tissues are gen-
198
BOTANY
erally differentiated into three main
systems. See :
Pith
Wood
Cortex
The general articles on woody tissue
are:
Alburnum
Duramen
iVascular Tissue
Conducting Tissue
Mechanical Tissue
Mestome
Plerome
Fpr the special structure of wood, see :
Fibrovascular Bundle
Fibre
Phloem
Bast
Hadrome
Leptome
Tylosis
Trachete (under Anatomy of
Plants)
Tracheid
Sieve Vessels
Cambium
Pericycle
Medullary Ray
The various tissues found in the cor-
tex are described in the articles :
Meristcm
E])idcrmis
Cuticle
Endodcrmis
Hypodermis
Periblcm
Dermatogen
Bark
Cork
Piicllodcrm
Pliellogen
Other special forms of tissue are:
Aerenchyma
Pahsade Cells
MesophyU
III. Morphology of the Vegeta-
tive Organs.
For the general forms of plant
bodies, see:
Tiiallus
Herb
Siu'ubs
Tree
Juvenile Forms
Some of the special forms or organs
of fungi are described under:
Hypha
Mycelium •
Plasmodium
Pileus
Higher plants are generally differ-
entiated into stem, root, and leaves, all
of which may carr}' minor organs or
appendages. See :
Stem
Root
Leaf
For special forms of stems, see:
Tuber
Corm
Internode
Fasciation
Phylloclad
For their mode of branching:
Branching
Moiiopodial Branching
Dichotomy
For the forms and appearance of
leaves, see:
Frond
Pinnule
Phyllodes
BOTANY
199
Petiole
Venation
Variegation
Anisophylly
Heterophylly
For their arrangement in the bud,
see:
Leaf-Buds (under Bud)
The forms and appendages of the
roots are described in the articles:
Root
Rhizoids
Root Tubercles
For the organs of respiration and
exudation, see:
The Aerating System (under Anat-
omy of Plants)
Stomata
Lenticels
Hydathode
For the organs of support and sim-
ilar use, see :
Tendril
Haustoria
Other appendages of plants are de-
scribed under:
Trichome
Gland
Cilia of Plants
Bloom
IV. Morphology of the Repro-
DucTiviE Organs.
The vast majority of plants produce
at certain periods of their life-history
two sets of reproductive organs, the
sexual and the asexual ; and, in all
plants above the alga and fungi, these
follow each other regularly in alter-
nate generations. (See the general
articles on sexual processes referred to
under Physiology.) In this section,
only those articles will be given which
describe the sexual and asexual repro-
ductive organs. These organs are
present in some form throughout large
classes of plants. Special morjjhology
will be discussed under the appropriate
heads in Systematic Botany.
Asexual reproduction is effected by
spores and by vegetative off-shoots.
For the latter, see :
Bud
Geinm£E
Bulb
For the organs of spore-reproduc-
tion, see:
Spore
Intine
Homospory
Heterospory
Microspore
Megaspore
Sporangium
Microsporangium
Megasporangium
Sporophyll
Microsporophyll
Megasporophyll
The organs of sexual reproduction
are:
Gamete
Generative Cell
Oosphere
Sperm
Antheridium
Archegonium
Oogonium
Paraphyses
Oospore
In the higher plants (Spermato-
phytes), the two sets of reproductive
organs, sexual and asexual, are enclosed
together in the flower. See:
Flower
Seed
Fruit
200
BOTANY
For the various modes in wliich
flowers are arranged on the plant,
see:
Inflorescence
Panicle
Cyme
Corymb
Ament
Disk
The parts of a flower are described
in the articles :
Involucre
Calyx
Pappus
Corolla
Petal
Ligule
Nectary
Pistil
Ovary
Carpel
Ovule
Placenta
Stamen
Anther
Pollen
Epigyny
Hypogyny
Perigyny
The articles on the seed are:
Seed
Endosperm
Perisperm
Ovule
Nucellus
Embryo
Suspensor
Cotyledon
Hypocotyl
For the various kinds of fruits,
see:
Achene
Berry
Capsule
Caryopsis
Drupe
Drupelet
Follicle
Glume
Legume
Nut
Pome
B. Ptptubrjil
Physiology is the science which deals
with all the processes that constitute
the life of an individual plant, the con-
ditions, both internal and external,
which affect plant life, and all the
phenomena attending such processes
and conditions. Just as we distinguish
between vegetative and reproductive
organs of a plant, so we may also dis-
tinguish between vegetative and repro-
ductive life processes; and the former
may be divided into the regular and
constant processes, which maintain the
life of a plant, and the more occa-
sional responses to stimuli. Abnormal
and pathological conditions also come
within the scope of physiology. Sec
Physiology of Plants.
I. In all perfect plants, there is a
series of regular mechanical processes
by wiiich raw food material is brought
to the digestive organs in the form of
gases from the atmosjihcre, or of min-
erals dissolved in water from the soil ;
by other processes the digested food is
carried to places of storage or growing
BOTANY
201
points, and the waste products are ex-
pelled from the sj'stem. See:
Respiration (in plants)
Aeration
Absorption (in plants)
Transpiration
Potometcr
Imbibition
Osmosis
Turgor
Root Pressure
Conduction
Storage
Excretion
Secretion (vegetable)
II. The phenomena of digestion and
growth are described in the articles :
Digestion in Plants
Food of Plants
Nutrition (in plants)
Mycorrhiza
Photosynthesis
Etiolation
Metabolism
Katabolism
Anabolism
Fermentation
Assimilation
Regeneration
Parasite, Plant
Saprophyte "^
Carnivorous Plants
Insectivorous Plants
Energy of Plants
Growth (in plants)
Auxanometer
Enzymes
Chloroplasts
Carotin
EtioHn
The various movements which plants
are capable of are described under:
Movement
Moving Plant
Motor Organ
Locomotion
Nutation (in plants)
Plants are also capable of reacting to
a great variety of stimuli. See:
Irritability
Stimulus
Tropism
Phototaxis
Heliotropism
Photoepinasty
Apheliotropism
Paraheliotropism
Nyctotropic
Sleep of Plants
Geotropism in Plants
Apogeotropism
Diageotropism
Hydrotropism
Aphydrotropism
Aerotropism
Rheotropism
Thermotropism
Chemotaxis
Chemotropism
Electrotaxis
Electrotropism
Traumatropism
Sensitive Plant
Hyponasty
Epinasty
Clinostat
Tendril
Lianas
Reproductive processes may be di-
vided into those which take place within
the individual plant, and those which
are affected by the relation of the in-
dividual plant to its environment. The
latter are referred to under Ecology
(see C below), while only the former
are described in the following articles:
Reproduction (in plants)
Vegetative Propagation
202
BOTANY
Sex in Plants (under Sex)
Conjugation
Rejuvenescence
Isogamy
Apogamy
Parthenogenesis
Vivipary
Fertilization
Germination
Alternation of Generations
Gametophyte
Sporophyte
A discussion of the abnormal and
pathological in plant life is given in
the articles :
Teratology
Monstrosity
Malformation
Abortion in Plants (under Abor-
tion)
Vestigial Structures
Concrescence
Galls
C. lErnlogg
Ecology is the science that deals
"with the relation of a plant to its envi-
ronment. This relation may be that of
sexual intercourse, relation to the soil,
situation, climate, moisture conditions,
relation to other plants and to animals,
and any other external conditions that
affect the situation of a plant, its
growth, or the length of its life, either
in the individual or in the species or
race. Ecology is thus the study of the
distribution of plants in the broadest
sense. See :
Ecology
Distribution of Plants
Bionomics
Floristics
Dysteleology
Adaptation
Epharmony
1. The relations of the reproductive
functions of a plant to the environ-
ment arc discussed in the articles:
Pollination
Cross-Fertilization
Hybrid
Dispersal
The special arrangements which
affect cross-pollination are described
under :
Cleistogamy
Allogamy
Geitonogamjr
Monoecism
Dioecism
Dichogamy
Entomophilous Plant
Anemophilous Plants
Hydrophilous
For the relation of plants to the
soil, see :
Humus Plants
Lime Plants "'
Clay-Plants
Nitrophilous Plants
Halophytc
Dune Vegetation
Rock Plants
Epiphj'te
For the relation of plants to general
localities, sec:
Autochthonous
Endcmism
Naturalization
Migration of Plants
BOTANY
203
and, to specific situations:
Mountain Plants
Alpine Plant
ClifF-Plants
Beach Plants
Ruderal Plants
Hylophytes
Benthos
Enalids
Plankton
For the relation of a plant to mois-
ture and climate, see :
Hydrophytes
Hygrophytes
Mesophyte
'Amphibious Plants
Xerophytes
Desert Vegetation
Arctic Plants (under Arctic Re-
gion) ^
Acclimatization
Phenology
The relation of a plant to other
plants, and to animals, may be con-
sidered under two aspects :
(a) There is often a close sympa-
thetic relation between individual
plants, and between an individual
plant and animals. See:
Symbiosis
Endophyte
Epiphyte
Parasite, Plant
Obligate Plants
Faculative Plant
Entomophilous Plant
Myrmecophytes
Phycomycetes
(6) There is also a general relation
due to soil, climate, struggle for ex-
istence, etc., between large numbers of
individuals growing together and con- ,
stituting what are known as plant so- ■
cieties. See :
Distribution of Plants
Form
Formation
Forest
Jungle
Thicket
Grasslands
Savannas
Steppe
Prairie
Llanos
Pampas
Meadow
Tundra
Swamp
Mangrove Swamp
Cypress Swamps
The nature of plant societies is also
largely affected by the vegetative du-
ration of its members. See:
Duration
Annuals
Biennials
Perennials
Mstiyal
Vernal Grass
Deciduous Plants
Evergreen
Geophyte
D. #pt?mattr Ictang
This branch of the science of Botany
comprises the classification of plants,
the description of every known species
and of the larger divisions — genera,
families, orders, classes, etc. — into
which all species are grouped. Sys-
204
BOTANY
tematic Botany also includes the study
of the relationships between the various
groups and species of plants, and of
their geographical distribution. It is
obviously impossible here to refer to all
the articles on even the more important
genera; but, as the representative gen-
era of each order are referred to in
the article on the order, it is sufficient
to give only the latter and the higher
groups. For a general article on sys-
tematic botany, see Taxonomy.
Tlie whole vegetable kingdom is gen-
erally divided into four sub-kingdoms.
See:
Thallophytes
Brj'ophytes
Pteridophytes
Spermatophytes
I. The Thallophytes are divided into
two parallel series. See:
Algfe
Fungi
1. The Algae are generally grouped
into four classes. See :
Cyanophyceae
Chlorophyceae
Pliicophyceae
RhodophycefE
2. For the main divisions of the
Fungi, see:
Myxomycetes
Schizomycetes
Ustilaginales
Phycoinycetes
Ascomycetes
Urcdinales
Basidioniycetes
Lichens
II. The Bryophytes arc grouped in
two main divisions. See:
Hepatica;
Musci
III. The living Pteridophytes fall
into three main groups, the last two of
which are generally called " the higher
fern." See :
Fern
Equisetum
Lycopodiales
IV. The Spermatophytes, or seed-
plants, form the bulk of the vegetation
which covers the earth. They are di-
vided into two classes. See:
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
1. The living Gymnosperms are
grouped into four orders. See:
Coniferas
Cycadaceffi
Gnctaceae
Ginkgo
2. The Angiosperms consist of
numerous orders, which fall into two
natural sub-classes. See :
Monocotyledons
Dicotyledons
(a) The principal oi'dcrs of Mon-
ocotyledons are described un-
der:
Pandanaceae
Typha
Gramineas
Cyperaceae
Palm
Arum
Bromeliaceae
Liliace.-D
Smilaccffi
Amarj'llidaceaj
Dioscorcacene
Iridacca;
MusacwE
Zingiberaccx
Orchid
BOTANY
205
(fo) Tlie following are the most
important orders of Dicotyle-
dons, arranged in their order of
relationship. Important genera
of orders not separately de-
scribed are inserted in their
proper places.
Archichlamydece :
Mainly Apetalous. Chiefly
Trees :
Piperacese
Juglandaceae
Willow
Poplar
Birch
Alder
Cupuliferae
Moraceae
Urticacese
Elm
Chiefly Weeds:
Polygonaceffi
Chenopodiaceas
Amarantaceas
Mesembryaceffi
Caryophyllaceae
Mainly Polypetalous. Butter-
cup Types :
Nympha'aceae
Magnolia
Ranunculaceae
Berberidacese
Lauraceje
Poppy Types :
Papaveraceas
Fumariaceae
Cruciferse
Insectivorous Plants :
Sarracenia
Sundew
Rose Tj^ies :
Saxifrage
Plane
Rosacea;
Leguminosse
Geranium Types :
Geranium
Zygophyllaceae
Polygala
Euphorbiaceas
Maple Types :
Burseraceffi
Anacardiaceas
Holly
Maple
Sapindaceas
Horse-Chestnut
Buckthorn Types :
Rhamnacese
Vitaceae
Mallow Types:
Tiliacese
Malvacea2
Violet Types :
Ternstroemiaceae
Violaceae
Cactus Type:
Cactus
Myrtle Types :
Lythraceas
Myrtacere
Carrot Types:
Umbelliferffi
Dogwood
Sympetalct :
Heath Types :
Ericacese
Huckleberry
Primrose Type:
Primulaceae
Ebony Types :
Sapotaceffi
Ebony
206
BOTANY
■Gentian Types:
Loganiaceas
Gentianaceae
Apocynaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Phlox Types :
Convolvulaceae
Polemoniaceae
Boraginaceas
Labiate
Solanaceas
Scrophulariaceae
Bignonia
Madder Types :
Rubiaeeae
Caprifoliaceje
Bell-Flower Types :
Cucurbitaceae
Campanulacese
Composite
E. &o«nmtr Sntattg
In its naiTow sense, viewed as a
strictly botanical science, economic bot-
any is the study of those plants which
are, or can be, used for some purpose
in human economy. If we inquire fur-
ther into the methods by which these
plants are made available, we enter upon
the fields of agriculture, pharmacy, me-
chanical arts, etc. By the above defini-
tion, economic botany includes a study
of the common cultivated plants, such
as the cereals, but, to avoid repeti-
tion, the cultivated plants are re-
ferred to only in the chapter on Agri-
culture, Horticulture, and Forestry.
We shall therefore confine ourselves
here to the articles describing the im-
portant wild, or not commonly culti-
vated, economic plants, classified ac-
cording to their uses.
I. Plants Used for Food:
Adansonia
Areca
Banana
Brazilnuts
Breadfruit Tree
Butter-Tree
Caryocar
Caryota
Cashew Nut
Cherimoyer
Cocco
Cocoanut
Euryale
Fungi, Edible
Granadilla
Grass-Tree
Hog-Plum
Iceland Moss
Jubfsa
Mammee Apple
Maple
Melicocca
Mushroom
Nelumbo
Palmyra Palm
Prickly Pear
Reindeer IMoss
Sago
Tamarind
Ti
Walnut
Water-Chestnut
II. Pl.\nts User in Preparing Bev-
erages :
Beverage Plants
Agave
Assai
BOTANY
207
III.
IV.
Ava
Camwood
Buriti Palm
Chay Root
Carrageen
Fustic
Elder
Henna
Mate
Indigo
Palmyra Palm
Logwood
Sloe
IMarking-Nut
Woodruff
Walnut
Weld
. Plants Used as Condiment or
Yam
IN Confectionery:
Zamia
Flavoring Plants
Anise
VI. Plants Yielding Gums,
Wax,
Caper
Oils, etc.:
Cardamom
Butea
Cinnamon
Calophyllum
Coriander
Canarium
Gaultheria
Candleberry
Ginger
Candle-Nut
Guinea Pepper
Carnauba Palm
Jujube
Cashew Nut
Juniper
Dammar
Laurel
Elaeococca
Licorice
Fir
Marjoram
Grass-Tree
Marsh-Mallow
Mastic
Mint
Mesquite Tree
Pepper
Oil Palm
Plants Used in Perfumery:
Pine
Boswellia
Tallow Tree
Lemon-Grass
VII. Plants Yielding Fibre :
Lignum Rhodium
Lily of the Valley
Agave
Aloe
Musk Plant
Myrrh
Patchouli
Astrocaryum
Attalea
Bromelia
Vetiver
Broom
Plants Yielding Pigments:
Butea
Alkanet
Carnauba Palm
Aloe
Caryota
Brazil Wood
Chamasrops
Buckthorn
Corchorus
Butea
Crotalaria
208
BOTANY
Eriodenron
Giant Lily
Gomuti
Mauritia
Neilgherry Nettle
Ootrum
Piassaba
Yucca
VIII. Plants Used for Timber and
Cabinet Wood:
Ash
Butternut
Calophyllum
Cedar
Chittagong Wood
Cypress
Dacrydium
Dalbergia
Elm
Eucalyptus
Fir
Gmelina
Greenheart
Guaiacum
Hemlock-Tree
Hornbeam
Ilex
Lancewood
Lime-Tree
Mammee Apple
Maple
Oak
Palmetto
Palmyra Palm
Pine
Plane
Podocarpus
Spruce
Tamarind
Teak
Toon
Tulip Tree
Walnut
IX. Plants Used for Ornamental
Cabinet Woods :
Aloes Wood
Ebony
Holly
Kiaboucca
Letterwood
Palmyra Wood
Rosewood
Sandalwood
Satinwood
X. Plants Supplying Various Primi-
tive Needs:
Bottle-Gourd
Bussu Palm
Calabash-Tree
Daphne
Nipa
Palmyra Palm
Papyrus
Rattan
XI. Plants Used Directly in In-
dustrial Arts:
Carludovica Palmata
Divi-Divi
Ice-Plant
Ivory, Vegetable
Myrobalan
Oak
Rattan
XII. Medicinal Plants :
Aconite
Acorns
Adansonia
Agrimony
Akce
Allamanda
Aloe
Alum Root
Angelica
Angostura Bark
Aristolochia
Arnica
BOTAXY 209
Asarabacca
Andromeda
Belladonna
Belladonna
Bittersweet
Bittersweet
Broom
Bitterwood
Butterfly-Weed
Calabar Bean
Cajeput
Cherry-Laurel
Calabar Bean
Cocculus Indicus
Carrageen
Colchicum
Cascarilla
Fungi, Edible and Poisonous
Cassia
Hemlock
Centaury
Henbane
Choke-Cherry
Kalmia
Cinchona
Laburnum
Cissampelos
Manchineel
Coca
Nightshade
Croton
Poison Oak
Cubebs
Stramonium
Dill
Sumach
Dock
Tanghin
Dogbane
Upas
Elder
Erigeron
XIV. Biographies of Eminent Bot-
Ergot
anists :
Eucalyptus
Adanson, M.
Feverwort
Barton, W. P. C.
Gentian
Bauhin, J.
Geum
Bentham, G.
Guaiacum
Bigelow, J.
Horehound
Bonnier, G.
Houseleek
Boussingault, J. B. J. D.
Ipecacuanha
Braun, A.
Jalap
Brongniart, A. T.
Licorice
Browni, R.
Mint
Brunfels, 0.
IMyrrh
Chapman, A. W.
Poppy
Cohn, F. J.
Strychnos
Darlington, W.
Witch-Hazel
De Candolle, A. L. P. P.
Zanthoxylum
Desfontaines, R. L.
Eichler, A. W.
XIII. Poisonous Plants :
Engler, H. G. A.
Poisonous Plants
Endlicher, S. L.
Abrus
Gray, Asa
Amanita
Grew, N.
210
BOTANY
Hellriegel, H.
Hooker, Sir J. D.
Hooker, Sir W. J.
Jackson, B. D.
Jussieu
Ledebour, K. F. de
Lenne, P. J.
Lindley, J.
Link, H. F.
Linnseus, Carolus
Michaux, A.
Moll], H. von
Morong, Thomas
Muhlenberg, G. H. E.
Necs von Esenbeck, C. G.
Nuttall, T.
Persoon, C. H.
PfefFer, W.
Plumier, Charles
Rafinesque, C. S.
Sachs, J. von
Saussure, N. T. de
Schleiden, M. J.
Schultze, M. S.
Schweinitz, L. D. von
Sullivant, W. S.
Thunberg, K. P.
Thurber, George
Torrey, J.
Tournefort, J. P. de
Unger, F.
Watson, S.
dliapt^r 21. Agnniltur^, ttt.
THE systematic and artificial cultivation of plants for the purpose of
supplying human necessities or luxuries constitutes the arts of
Agriculture, Horticulture, and Forestry, or the cultivation of the
field, the garden, and the forest. The distinctions between these
three arts, however, are not so definite as one might suppose, and
the apportionment among tiicni of the articles dealing with plant culture will be
more or less arbitrary. Thus Forestry and Horticulture meet in the arts of
Arboriculture and Landscape Gardening. The products of Horticulture are,
as a rule, luxuries rather than necessities ; but the raising of vegetables for the
table, although they are almost necessary articles of food, is generally treated
under Horticulture rather than under Agriculture. The latter term is best con-
fined to the cultivation on a large scale of products used extensively in human
economy, and this distinction will be the basis for the followipg divisions of the
whole subject.
A. K^nmitnn
Agriculture, as its name implies, is
the cultivation of the field, mainly for
the purpose of providing a regular
supply of organic food, both plant and
animal. This indicates the two main
divisions of farming, namely, the rais-
ing of food plants and the raising of
animals. The former is, perhaps, the
more complex process, requiring a more
elaborate equipment of tools and ma-
chinery. It involves the selection and
preparation of the soil, the sowing of
the seed, the care of the growing crop,
the prevention and cure of crop dis-
eases, and the harvesting, manipula-
tion, and disposition of the crop when
ripe. The raising of animals involves
their selection and breeding, the feed-
ing and care of the animals, attention
to the numerous diseases to which they
are subject, and the manipulation and
disposition of animal products, includ-
ing the art of dairying. In connection
with both branches of agriculture, there
is the general management of the farm
and its equipment. For a history of
the development of agriculture in the
various countries, see the article. Agri-
culture.
I. For the general articles on the
farm and its equipment, see:
Farm Buildings
Barn
Fence
Implements, Agricultural
II. The preparation of the soil re-
quires, first, the selection of a soil suited
for the crop, and often its artificial
fertilization ; and, second, its tillage
and irrigation.
For the selection of soil, see :
Soil
Humus
Alkali Soils
Chernozem
Gumbo Soil
Fallow
Waste Lands
Rotation of Crops
For fertilization and fertilizers, see:
Chemistry, Agricultural
211
212 AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY
Fertilizers
Manures and Manuring
Green Manuring
Nitrification
Sewage Farming
Soil Amendments
Fish Manures
Bone Fertilizers
Guano
Marl
Compost
Gypsum
Poudrette
Ammonite
Lupine
Thomas Slag
The processes of tillage are described
under :
Tillage
Cultivator
Plow, Plowing
For the irrigation and drainage of
the soil, see :
Irrigation
Drainage
Ditch
Mulch
Warping
Lysimeter
When the soil has been prepared and
tilled, the seed is sown. See :
Seed Testing
Broadcasting
Drill
Harrow
When the crop is ripe, it is harvested
and prepared for the market. Sec:
Harvest and Harvesting
Reapers, Reaping
Threshing
Iliunmelcr
Fan, or Fanner
III. The principal crops which are
the subjects of agriculture are, of
course, the food plants, and of these
the most important are the cereals.
Other plants, however, aside from those
which are the subjects of horticulture,
are also regularly cultivated, such as
forage plants (see under Stock-Rais-
ing below), and plants used for fibre
and various other purposes.
For the principal cereals, see:
Cereals
Barley
Buckwheat
Maize
Millet
Oat
Rice
Rye
Wheat
Other food crops are :
Artichoke
Artichoke, Jerusalem
Bean
Beet
Cassava
Cowpea
Dolichos
Gourd
Lentil
Pea
Potato
Pumpkin
Sago
Soy Bean
Sugar Beet
Sugar-Cane
Sweet Potato
(For vegetables and fruits, sec under
section on Horticulture.)
Plants cultivated for fibre arc:
Bu'limcriu
Cotton
AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY 213
Flax
Hemp
Hemp, Bowstring
Hemp, Manila
Hemp, Sisal
Hemp, Sunn
Ramie
Tobacco is also an important agri-
cultural crop. See article Tobacco.
IV. The care of the
growi
crop
is of sufficient importance to liave sep-
arate treatment, and the study and
treatment of plant diseases is a science
by itself. The principal cause of
plant diseases are insects and fungi,
and almost every kind of crop has its
specific insect pests. These are all de-
scribed in separate articles following
the articles on the crops, under such
titles as Cotton Insects, Rice In-
sects, etc., and, therefore, need not
be enumerated here. The general arti-
cles on plant diseases and their treat-
ment, and on diseases common to
several crops are:
Diseases of Plants
Fungicides
Insecticides
Insect Powder
Mildew
Blight
Botrytis
Canker
Chlorosis
Damping Off
Dodder
Dry Rot
Ergot
Gummosis
Rust
Smuts
The special diseases which affect
particular crops are treated in the ar-
ticles on the separate crops, but a few
are described in separate articles. See :
Bunt
Cornstalk Disease
Crown-Gall
Ear Cockles
Clubroot
Oidium
Some of the common weeds with
which the farmer and gardener have
to contend are described in the articles :
Weed
Atriplex
Burdock
Chickweed
Chufa
Cockle
Chenopodium
Orache
Pigweed
Tare
V. The raising of live-stock is the
second great department of agricul-
ture, and involves the selection of the
animals, their breeding and general
care, a supply of the proper feed
stuffs ; attention to diseases, which con-
stitutes the practice of veterinary med-
icine; and the preparation of the
animal products for the market.
The most important animals raised
as live-stock are described in the
articles :
Horse
Cattle
Mule
Sheep
Goat
Hog
Poultry
Fowl
Duck
Goose
214 AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY
Turkey
Pigeon
Bee
For the breeding and general care
of the animals, see:
Breeds and Breeding
Incubator
Horseshoeing
Hoof
Dehorning
Feeding Farm Animals
Soiling, Soiling Crops
Bee-Keeping
Feeding stuffs may be divided into
two general classes, natural or grow-
ing forage plants and the more or
less artificially prepared feeds. The
forage plants may again be divided
into grasses and those that are not
grasses, the latter being largely legu-
minous plants. See:
Feeding Stuffs
Pasture
Meadow
For forage grasses, see:
Grasses
Agropyron
Andropogon
Bermuda Grass
Blue Grass
Brome Grass
Buffalo-Grass
Canary-Grass
Crab-Grass
Gama Grass
Manna-Grass
Meadow Grass
Millet
Oat Grass
Orchard Grass
Redtop Grass
Rye-Grass
Sorghum
Teosinte
Timothy Grass
The principal forage plants other
than grasses are:
Alfalfa
Burnet
Chufa
Clover
Cowpea
Fescue
Lupine
Mangel- Wurzel
Medick
Melilot
Mesquite Tree
Rape
Sainfoin
Serradella
Soy Bean
Sulla
Trefoil
Vetch
For the most important prepared
feeds, see:
Brewers' Grains
Gluten Meal
Hay
Linseed j\Ieal
JNIalt Sprouts
Silage
Wliey
Farm animals are subject to numer-
ous serious diseases, and the investiga-
tion and treatment of these constitute
the profession of veterinary medicine.
A convenient subdivision of animal
diseases is according to the kinds of
animals which tliey affect, since, with
a few exceptions, each disease is either
peculiar to, or chiefly prevalent in, a
particular species. Several of these
given under cattle diseases, however.
AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY 215
may also affect horses or sheep, and
vice versa.
(a) The general articles on the sub-
ject and those dealing with diseases
common to sevci'al kinds of live-stock
are:
Veterinary Medicine
Diseases of Animals
Abortion in Animals (under
Abortion)
Colic in Animals
Ergotism
Mange
Tuberculosis (in animals)
(6) For diseases primarily affect-
ing the horse, see :
Anthrax
Bighcad
Canker
Curb
Fistula
Founder
Glanders
Heaves
Hoof
Influenza in Animals
Meningitis
Navicular Disease
Poll-Evil
Roaring
Strangles
Thrush
(c) For diseases of cattle, see:
Actinomycosis
Blackleg
Bloat
Cattle Plague
Fardel-bound
Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Joint-Ill
IMalignant Catarrh
Mammitis
Milk Fever
Pleuropneumonia
Red Water
Texas Fever
(d) For diseases of sheep, sec :
Agalactia
Bloat
Braxy
Fardel-bound
Gid
Icterohsematuria
Liver-Rot
Lung-Worms
Nodular Disease
(f) For a disease of hogs, see:
Hog Cholera
(/■) For diseases of poultry and
bees, see:
Blackhead
Gapes
Roup
Foul Brood
VI. In the preparation of animal
products for the mai'ket, one of the
most elaborate, as well as important,
departments is that of Dairying.
This industry involves the supply of
milk and cream, and the manufacture
of butter and cheese. For a general
article on the subject and articles on
the processes of manufacture, and the
machinery and equipment of the dairy,
see:
Dairying
Milking Machine
Aerator
Creamery
Separator
Butter-Making
Churn
Butter-Worker
Butter-Color
Cheese-Making
216 AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY
Cheese Factory
Rennet
For the principal dairy products,
see:
Milk
Skim Milk
Casein
Cream
Butter
Cheese
Buttermilk
Milk Sugar (under Sugars)
Ghee
Kephir
Koumiss
Whey
VII. Other more or less direct prod-
ucts of agriculture and stock raising,
and the methods of their disposal, are
described under:
jMarket and Marketing
Flour
Farina
Semolina
Food
Bread
Sugar
Honey
Glucose
IMeat
Pork
Leather
Wool
See also Poultry and Egg and the
articles there referred to.
VIII. Since the patriarchal stage.
Agriculture has been regarded as the
most important of human industries,
and is the one which has especially re-
ceived direct and official attention from
the governments of civilized nations.
There are also at present numerous
educational institutions, and private
or semi-public associations for the ad-
vancement of the industry. See:
Agriculture, U. S. Department of
Agricultural Experiment Stations
Agricultural Education
Farmers' Institute
Agricultural Association
Grange
IX. For biographies of eminent ag-
riculturists, see :
Atwater, W. O.
Brewer, W. H.
Colman, N. J.
Goessman, C. A.
Goodcll, H. H.
Harris, J.
Hatch, W. H.
Hellricgel, H.
Hilgard, E. W.
Holdcfleiss, F. W.
Johnson, S. W.
Judd, O.
Lawes, J. B.
Thacr, A. D.
True, A. C.
Youatt, W.
Young, A.
B. %mX\m{X\\xt anb 3tiXtBXx\}
Horticulture is the art of producing
plants which are valued for their
agreeable properties rather than as
necessities for human comfort. The
horticultural methods of breeding,
propagating, and cultivating plants
differ essentially from the agricultural
method In that great attention is paid
to the individual plant, while in agri-
culture attention is given to the crop
AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY 217
as a whole, in which the individual is
lost. The subjects and products of
horticulture are flowers, ornamental
shrubs and trees, fruit trees, plants
used as condiments, vegetables for the
table, when considei'ed merely as acces-
sories to the more substantial articles
of food, and all other plants treated
by horticultural methods.
Horticulture also concerns itself
with the laying out of gardens, and in
this field of its activity it merges into
landscape gardening and forestry.
The latter, however, is a purely eco-
nomic art and is not a branch of hor-
ticulture. It is included in this section
because it is not yet a highly complex
art and is, therefore, treated in a few
general articles. For the general arti-
cles on Horticulture and Forestry,
see:
Horticulture
Floriculture
Landscape Gardening
Arboriculture
Forestry
Afforestation
I. The buildings and equipments
used by the horticulturist are described
in the articles:
Greenhouse
Hothouse
Conservatory
Frame
Espalier
Hoe
One of the principal aims of horti-
culture is to develop particularly de-
sirable varieties of plants and to main-
tain them true to the stock. For this
purpose, special methods of breeding
and propagation are necessary. See:
Plant-Breeding
Nursery
Budding
Cutting
Grafting
Layering
Caprification
Special methods are also necessary
in raising tlie young plants to ma-
turity and securing the desired quali-
ties in the matured product. See:
Forcing
Bottom Heat
Electro-culture of Plants
Pruning
Cordon
Blanching
For the most important plants cul-
tivated in greenhouses, see :
Greenhouse Plants
Abutilon
Achimenes
Banksia
Carnation
Fuchsia
Gardenia
Gladiolus
Hyacinth
Jerusalem Cherry
Mignonette
Oleander
Passion-Flower
Pelargonium
Vanda
II. The principal articles on gar-
dens, ornamental shrubs, and garden
plants are:
Lawn
Hedge
Ampelopsis
Azalea
Canna
Centaurea
Chrysanthemum
218 AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY
Convolvulus
Cosmos
Cotoneaster
Cowslip
Dahlia
Eschscholtzia
Heliotrope
Hibiscus
Hollyhock
Hyacinth
Hydrangea
Ivy
Jasmine
Jonquil
Laburnum
.^ Larkspur
Laurustinus
Lavender
Libocedrus
Lilac
Lily
Lily of the Valley
Mignonette
Narcissus
Peony
Petunia
Phlox
Pink
Polyanthus
Poppy
Rose
Star of Bethlehem
Sunflower
Sweet Pea
Thrift
Tropjeolum
Trumpet Flower
Tuberose
Tulip
Wallflower
Wistaria
in. For tlio principal articles on
fruit trees and fruit culture, see:
Fruit, Cultivated
Orchard
Apple
Apricot
Banana
Blackberry
Butternut
Calville
Cherimoyer
Chestnut
Cranberry
Currant
Custard-Apple
Date
Dewberry
Earthnut
Fig
Gooseberry
Grape
Hazelnut
Huckleberry
Kumquat
Lemon
Lime
Litchi
Loquat
Mango
Melon
Mulberry
Muskmelon
Olive
Orange
Peach
Peanut
Pear
Persimmon
Pineapple
Plum
Pomegranate
Quince
Raspberry
Strawberry
Walnut
Watermelon
AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY 219
For table vegetables, see :
W'getables
Herbs, Culinary
Salad Plants
Asparagus
Brussels Sprouts
Cabbage
Carrot
Cauliflower
Celery
Corn-Salad
Cress
Cucumber
Egg Plant
Endive
Garlic
Kale
Kohl-rabi
Leek
Lettuce
Mushroom
Onion
Parsley
Parsnip
Radish
Rhubarb
Salsify
Spinach
Squash
Tomato
Truffle
Turnip
V. For tlic principal plants culti-
vated for their flavoring qualities, see:
'Flavoring Plants
Allspice
Almond
Capsicum
Caraway
Chicory
Chive
Cinnamon
Citron
Cloves
Fennel
Hop
Horseradish
Mace
Mustard
Nutmeg
Pepper
Pistacia
Thyme
Vanilla
VI. The section on horticulture
should also include reference to the
articles on the well known beverage
plants, and on some of the more direct
products of horticulture. See:
Coff'ee
Tea
Cacao
Wine
Cider
Prune
Raisins
VII. For biographies of eminent
horticulturists and foresters, see:
Bailey, L. H.
Burbank, L.
Downing, A. J.
Downing, C.
Duhamel du Monceau
Henderson, P.
Hess, R.
Heyer, G.
Heyer, K. J.
HoVey, C. M.
Kenrick, W.
Koristka, K. von
Landreth, D.
Lodeman, E.
Longworth, N.
Loudon, J. C.
Lyon, T. T.
Manning, R.
See also Horticultukai. Societies.
OII|itpt^r 22. 200l0gg
E^'ERY topic of importance in Natural History, especially as repre-
sented in America, is contained in the pages of the New Interna-
tional Encyclopadia, which thus may justly be called a complete
text-book of zoology. The outline of our knowledge of animal
life thus furnished is supplemented, in respect to each part of it,
by references to special books, museum collections, and other sources of knowledge
where the student may find the minute details and investigations interesting and
necessary to the specialist, but superfluous to a general reader. The material
contained in the Encyclopttdia is thus equally useful to the deep and to the super-
ficial inquirer ; for the specialist in one department of science needs to have at
hand general information, at least, as to other departments.
Zoology has two aspects: (a) that of its observed facts; and (b) that of
the principles involved : phenomena and deductions ; condition and theory. The
foremost or basic part is a knowledge of the facts of the animal world, namely :
Form and Structure; Reproduction, Embryology and Growth; Habit; Instinct;
Distribution, past and present ; Relationship, of animals to one another, and to
their environment. From these have been deduced the facts of the Classification
and Evolution of forms.
Structure.
Cephalization
The reader who seeks
to take the
Metamerism
topics dealing with Form
and Struc-
Integument
ture in order may read the following
Horn
articles :
Hoof
Biology
Nail
]\Iorphology
Teeth
Animal
Hair
Protoplasm
Feather
Cell
Pterylosis
Amoeba
Scales
Embryology
Pigment
Anatomy
Metachrosis
Bone
Chromatophore
Skeleton ; and the more particular
Melanism
accounts of its component parts,
Touch a-
as Skui>i>, Hand,
Shoulder-
Taste
.JOINT, etc.
Smell
Muscular System
Eye
Circubdory System
Ear
Alimentary System
The structure of various animals.
Excretory System
as characteristic of groups, is given in
Respiratory System
such gciural articles as:
Nervous System and Brain
Aniblypoda
220
ZOOLOGY
221
Ammonites
Amphibia
Annulata
Arachnida
Archa'optcryx
Bat
Beetle
Bird
Bovidae
Butterflies and Moths
Braehiopoda
Camehdas
Canida?
Carnivora
Cephalopoda
Cestoda
Chordata
Coelenterata
Coral
Crinoidea
Crustacea
Deer
Dinosauria
Dipnoi
Echinodermata
Elasmobranchii
Electric Fish
Felida2
Fish
Fly
Fringillidas
Frog
Ganoidei
Gastropoda
Holothurian
Horse, Evolution of the (under
Horse, Fossil)
Hydrozoa
Hymcnoptera
Infusoria
Insect
Mammalia
Marsupialia
Medusa
Mollusca
Ophiuroidea
Prototheria
Protozoa
Pterodactyl
Pteropoda
Reptile
Rodentia
Sirenia
Snake
Tui-tle
Ungulata
Vertebrata
For the most part, the articles re-
ferred to contain, incidentally or cited
in the appended Bibliography, the
names of investigators identified with
these particular subjects. In the great
majority of cases the biography of
each of these men is to be found in its
alphabetical position in the Encyclo-
psedia ; and an earnest reader will turn
to it, and so acquaint himself with
the man by whose learning he is
profiting.
Reproduction and Growth.
Animals continue to exist by repro-
ducing their kind after various methods,
and each individual passes through a
more or less complicated series of
changes from its beginning to its ma-
turity, collectively known as its life-
history, or autogeny. An orderly study
of this essential phase of animal life
may be conducted by reading the ar-
ticles mentioned below, with the lesser
ones indicated by cross-references :
Reproduction
Spontaneous Generation
Egg
Spermatozoon
Gemmule
Sex
Embryology
222
ZOOLOGY
Foetus
Epigenesis
Mitosis
Parthenogenesis
Alternation of Generations
Biogenesis
Cross-fertilization
JVIetaniorpliosis
Larva
Pupa
Metabolism
Growth
Regeneration
Heredity
Pangenesis
Prepotency
Telegony
Hermaphroditism (under Sex)
Breeds and Breeding
Hybridity
Nidification
Habits.
The habits of animals constitute the
principal feature of what may be
called Descriptive Zoology — that is,
accounts of a species or a group of
species placed under the vernacular
name. This policy has been adopted,
rather than that of putting descrip-
tions under technical names, for greater
convenience of reference, as well as to
avoid that attitude of pedantry which
made the earlier encyclopa'dias often
ridiculous. The majority of readers
would turn more naturally to Hokse
than to " Equida' " or to Bi.acksnake
than to " Zamcnis." The teclmical
characteristics of many of the larger
groups, lacking any English appella-
tive, are given under their term in
classification, as Protozoa, Bovid.?;,
and the like, or sometimes under the
name of the special science dealing
with them, as Ichthyology, Oeni-
THOLOGY. Habits of animals, then,
may be learned from the descriptive
articles generally, the principal of
which are given below:
Agate Shell
Agouti
Albatross
Alewife
Alligator
Anaconda
Ani
Ant
Antelope
Ant-lion
Aoudad
Apteryx
Armadillo
Ass
Auk
Aurochs
Axolotl
Aye-aye
Baboon
Badger
Bandicoot
Bank swallow
Barn-owl
Barn-swallow
Bass
Bat
Bear
Beaver
Bedbug
Bee
Bighorn
Bird of Paradise
Bison
Bittern
Blackl)ird
Blacksnake
Bluebird
Bluefish
Boa
ZOOLOGY
223
Bobolink
Bollworm
Bookworm
Bot
Bower-bird
Brant
Buffalo-bird
Bug
Bulbul
Bumblebee
Bunting
Bushmaster
Bustard
Buttcrfish
Butterflies
Buzzard
Caddis-fly
Camel
Capercaillie
Capybara
Caribou
Carp
Carpenter Bee
Cat
Cattle
Cave Animals
Cavy
Chameleon
Chamois
Chinch-bug
Cicada
Civet
Clam
Clothes-moth
Cockatoo
Cockroach
Cod
Codling Moth
Condor
Copperhead
Cowbird
Coyote
Crab
Cricket
Crocodile
Crow
Cuckoo
Curlew
Death Adder
Deathwatch
Deer
Devilfish
Dingo
Dodo
Dog
Dove
Dragon-fly
Duck
Duckbill
Dugong
Duiker
Eagle
Earthworm
Eel
Eider
Elephant
Electric Fish
Ermine
Falcon
Fer-de-lance
Firefly
Fish-hawk
Flamingo
Flea
Flesh-fly
Fly
Fly-catcher
Flying Squirrel
Fox
Frog
Gall-insects
Gannet
Garefowl
Gazelle
Gibbon
Gipsy jMoth
GirafFe
Gnat
224
ZOOLOGY
Goat
Goldfinch
Goose
Gopher
Gorilla
Goshawk
Grayling
Grebe
Grouse
Guanaco
Gull
Halibut
Hare
Hawk
Hedgehog
Hermit Crab
Heron
Herring
Hessian Fly
Hippopotamus
Hognose
Homing Pigeon
Hornbill
Horse
Hound
House-fly
Humming-bird
Hyena
Ibex
Ibis
Iguana
Jackal
Jackdaw
Jaguar
Jay
Jelly-fish
Jungle Fowl
Kangaroo
Katydid
King-bird
Kingfish
Kingfisher
Kraken
Lace-bug
Lamprey
Land Tortoise
Leech
Lemming
Lemur
Leopard
Lion
Lizard
Llama
Lobster
Lory
Louse
Lungfish
Mackerel
Mallard
Mammalia
Mammoth
Manatee
Man-eater Shark
Marsh Hawk
Marten
Maskinonge
Mastodon
Menhaden
Mole
Monkey
Moose
Mosquito
Moth
Mound-bird
Mouse
Mule Deer
IMungoos
Musk Ox
Muskrat
Narwhal
Nest
Nightingale
Nightjar
Nurse-frog
Nutria
Opossum
Orang-utan
Oriole
ZOOLOGY
225
Ostrich
Sardine
Otter
Sawfish
Owl
Scale Insect
Oyster
Scorpion
Palolo Worm
Sea-anemone
Parrakeet
Sea-bass
Parrot
Sea-horse
Partridge
Seal
Peacock
Sea-otter
Pheasant
Sea-urchin
Pigeon
Shark
Pipa
Sheep
Pipefish
Sheepshcad
Plant-bug
Shore-birds
Plover
Shrew
Polecat
Shrike
Pompano
Shrimp
Porcupine
Silkworm
Porpoise
Skunk
Potato Insects
Skylark
Prairie Dog
Sloth
Ptarmigan
Smelt
Puma
Snail
Python
Snake
Quagga
Snipe
Quail
Spaniel
Quinnat Salmon
Sparrow
Rabbit
Spider
Raccoon
Sponge
Rail
Sporozoa
Rat
Squid
Rattlesnake
Squirrel
Raven
Starfish
Ray
Stickleback
Rhinoceros
Stork
Road-runner
Sturgeon
Robin
Sunfish
Rocky IMountain White Goat
Swallow
Roe Deer
Swan
Rook
Swift
Sable
Swine
Salamander
Tailor-bird
Salmon
Tanager
Sandpiper
Tapeworm
226
ZOOLOGY
Tapir
Tarantula
Tautog
Termite
Terrapin
Terrier
Thread-worms
Thrush
Tick
Tiger
Tiger-hunting
Tilefish
Titmouse
Toad
Toucan
Tree-frog
Trogon
Trout
Tsetse-fly
Turbot
Turkey
Turtle
Umbrella-bird
Vampire
Veery
Viper
Virco
Viscacha
Vulture
Walrus
Wapiti
Warbler
Wasp
Watcrsnake
Water-tlirush
Wax-insect
Weakfish
Weasel
Weaver-bird
Weevil
Whale
Wliippoorwill
Wildcat
Wolf
Woodpecker
Wood-rat
Worm
Wren
Yak
Zebra
Mind in Animals.
The intelligence and mental processes
of animals are subjects to which much
attention has been paid recently, and
facts bearing upon them are eagerly
sought. Information may be gained
from man}' descriptive articles ; and
some of the conclusions of students will
be found in the following :
Ant
Nervous System, Evolution of the
Habit
Social Insects (under Insect)
Orientation
DiSTRIBrTION OF AnIMALS.
Everyone is aware that different
parts of the earth's surface have
different faunas, and that this con-
dition apparently remains permanent,
except when, by means of civilization
or commerce, certain animals ai'e en-
abled to spread beyond their natural
habitat, and even become cosmopolitan,
as have rats, house-mice, the Euro-
pean house-sparrow, and a large num-
ber of plant-feeding insects. Nor-
mally one fauna does not enlarge or
diminish at the expense of another,
and, for the most part, species of ani-
mals, as of plants, are restricted to a
comparatively small range and set of
climatic conditions. The local faunas,
both on the land and in the sea, have
been examined, and their boundaries
well ascertained. It has been found,
however, that groups of related faunas
ZOOLOGY
227
exist side by side, which may be com-
posed into large divisions called " sub-
regions," and these into a few still
larger ones called " regions." The
natural barriers which are set to the
dispersion of animals, and the finding
of the actual boundaries of the faunal
districts, form the outlines of the
highly interesting study of the geo-
graphical distribution of animal life,
past and present. To acquaint him-
self with this science, the reader should
peruse the following co-related articles :
Distribution of Animals
Fauna
Ethiopian Region
Paleotropical Region
Holarctic Region
Nearctic Region
Oriental Region
Palearctic Region
Deep-sea Exploration
Pelagic Animals
Plankton
See also the names of the various
subregions, as New Zealand Sub-
KEGiON, Malagasy Subregion, etc. ;
the paragraphs on Fauna under the
names of the various continents and
countries, as America, Australia,
Brazil, and the like ; and, for the dis-
tribution of animals in past ages,
Paleontology and Extinction of
Species.
Relationship.
The relationship of animals toward
others, and to the environment of each
individual, species, or group, forms a
feature of far-reaching importance
and of great interest in zoology, and
the study of the facts involved has been
set apart as a science under the name
of Bionomics. Much relating to it
will be found in the descriptive articles
cited under Habits and elsewhere, but
special consideration is given under
the succeeding heads :
Bionomics
Cave Animals
Environment
Estivation
Flowers and Insects
Hibernation
Social Insects (under Insect)
Natural Selection
Orientation
Parasite
Symbiosis
Tropism
The relations between man and the
lower animals are mainly those of war-
fare or service. Animals are in the
way of his operations or dangerous to
him, and must be got rid of, or supply
him with flesh, or hide, or fur, or some
other desirable thing, which can be ob-
tained, in most cases, only by killing
them ; or they attract him to the chase
and to such sports as angling and
shooting. Hence, many are sought
only to be killed, and some species
have been entirely exterminated. On
the other hand, his agricultural opera-
tions have encouraged the spread and
development of some, as various insects,
rats, etc., in a remarkable way. A third
class has been utilized by domestication
and turned to his service and benefit.
Some articles of special moment in the
Encyclopasdia dealing with this sport-
ing and economic aspect of natural his-
tory are these:
Acclimatization
Angling
Buffalo
Caee-Birds
228
ZOOLOGY
Domestic Animals (and the various
kinds, as Camel, Cat, Dog, Horse,
Sheep, Fowl, etc.)
Extinct Animals
Falconry
Fish as Food
Fish Culture
Fisheries
Fishing
Fur and the Fur Trade
Game Laws
Game Preserve
Insects, Propagation of Disease by
Introduced Species (especially of
injurious insects, such as those
described under Bollworm, Cut-
worm, Chinch-bug, Pear Insects,
etc.)
Mosquito
Oyster
Pearl
Prairie Dog
Rabbit
Seal
Silkworm
Taxidermy
Methods of Study.
The methods of study in natural his-
tory arc described to some extent in the
articles :
Deep-sea Exploration
Laboratory
Microscope
Morj)hology
Nature-Study
Psychological Apparatus
Zoological Garden
Zoological Station
Classification of Animals.
Turning now from the methods and
facts of observation and experiment to
the philosophical deductions, — the prin-
ciples and theories drawn from these
facts, — the reader will first need to at-
tend to the subject of classification,
which has been slowly developed
through a long series of errors and lim-
itations and gradually corrected in the
brightening light of growing knowl-
edge. The history of this search for
the true, because natural, classification
may be found in the articles Anatomy,
Classification of Animals, and
Zoology, with the names of the men
who from time to time notably ad-
vanced taxonomy, and whose biog-
raphies may be read. No real success
was achieved until the modern convic-
tion was arrived at, that the key to the
problem of classification was to be
found in community of descent, and
that any true classification must follow
the perception of genetic relationship
— descent from a common ancestor.
This is the basis of modem classifica-
tion, and what we have approaches
perfection in just the degree that the
phylogeny of each group is rightly
apprehended. As a result of the con-
stant increase of knowledge, the ar-
rangement of this group and that is
constantly being modified and presum-
ably always improved. From time to
time, these amendments are gathered up
and critically combined into a general
scheme. The latest such scheme of
classification of the whole animal king-
dom, which is authoritative and at the
same time generally accessible, is that
contained in Parker and Haskell's
Text-book of Zoology/, and this has
been followed in respect to the general
outline in this Encyclopa'dia, insuring
uniformity. For further details, con-
sult:
Classification of Animals
Phylogeny
ZOOLOGY
229
Variation
Type
Zoology
For the classification of separate
groups, see their titles, as Ccelenter-
ATA, Crustacea, Mollusca, Echino-
DEEMATA, etC.
Zoology and Evolution.
The philosophical part of zoology
has been developed since man began to
observe the ways of nature, and has
produced a vast body of " laws," doc-
trine, and speculation, the history of
which is sketched in such general arti-
cles as Anatomy, Zoology, Evolu-
tion, etc., and the biographies of the
great thinkers cited should be read in
connection witli their themes. Science
has constantly tended to separate itself
from metaphysics, and to use its hy-
pothesis merely as a means for furtlicr
investigation of phenomena. The out-
come has been the formulation and
general acceptance of a theory of uni-
versal development from the simple to
the complex, from the homogeneous to
the specialized ; and Organic Evolution
or the Doctrine of Descent is the ap-
plication of the general principle to
the history and phenomena of living
things. A reader who wishes to ac-
quire a knowledge of these views of
nature may do so by reading in con-
secutive order the articles named below :
Biology
Evolution
Ontogeny
Phylogeny
Darwin
Natural Selection
Lamarck (biography)
Lamarckism
Growth
Heredity
Hybridity
Guided by these articles and the
cross-references to be found in them,
he may pursue the subject under other
fruitful titles, such as :
Botany
Cross-fertilization
Degeneration as a Factor in Evolu-
tion
Embryology
Environment
Flowers and Insects
Isolation
Kinetogenesis
Longevity
iVIechanics of Development
Mimicry
Neo-Darwinism
Neo-Lamarckisni
Otter Sheep
Pollination
Polymorphism
Protective Coloration
Recognition Marks
Regeneration
Reversion
Senescence
Sex
Sexual Selection
Sport
LTse-Inheritance
Variation
Warning Coloration
Weismannism
Biography.
Onh' a name or two has been quoted
in the preceding analysis of the science
of zoology. The investigators in the
field have been numerous, and the fol-
lowing list should be regarded as se-
lected rather than complete. See :
Agassiz, L.
230
ZOOLOGY
Audubon, J. J.
Baer, K. E.
Baird, S. F.
Balfour, F. M.
Barry, M.
Bates, H. W.
Beecher, C. E.
Bennett, J. H.
Bichat, M. F. X.
Blunienbach, J. F.
Bory de Saint Vincent, J. B.
Buffon, G. L. L.
Burmeister, H.
Camper, P.
Carus, K. G.
Castolnau, F.
Clark, H. J.
Cope, E. D.
Coste, J. V.
Cuvier, G. L. C.
Dana, J. D.
Darwin, C.
Davenport, C. B.
Degeer, K.
Dohrn, A.
Du Bois-Rcymond, E. H.
Dujardin, F.
Eimer, T.
Eschsclioltz, J. F.
Fleming, J.
Flourens, M. J. P.
Forel, A.
Galton, F.
Gay, C.
Gegenbaur, K.
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, E.
Gcsncr, K.
Goode, G. B.
Gould, A. A.
Gould, J.
Graaf, R. de
Green, S.
Hacckcl, E.
Hallcr, A.
Harvey, W.
Hertwig, O.
Hertwig, R.
Huber, F.
Humboldt, A.
Hunter, J.
Hux%, T. H.
Hyatt, A.
Jordan, D. S.
Kolliker, A.
Lamarck, J. B.
Lang, A.
Lankester, E. R.
Le Conte, L.
Le Conte, J. E.
Le Conte, J. L.
Leeuwenhoek, A.
Leidy, J.
Lesueur, C. A.
Leuckart, R.
Levaillant, F.
Leydig, F.
Linna?us, C.
Loeb, J.
Lubbock, J.
Lyonnet, P.
RLalpighi, M.
Marsli, O. C.
Milne-Edwards, H.
Mivart, St. George
Miiller, J.
]\Iuller, J. F. T.
Orbigny, A. D. d'
Osborn, H. F.
Owen. Uicliard
Packard, A. S.
Pallas, P. S.
Perty, J. A. M.
Ray, J.
Hoaumur, R. A. F.
Rcimurus, H. S.
Romanes, G. J.
Ross, A. M.
Roux, W.
ZOOLOGY
231
Schleiden, M. J.
Schultze, M. S.
Schwann, T.
Sedgwick, W. T.
Semper, K.
Siebold, K. T. E.
Spallanzani, L.
Spencer, H.
Swammcrdam, J.
Tschudi, J. J.
Vries, H. de
Wagner, M.
Wallace, A. R.
Weisniann, A.
Wilson, A.
Wyman, J.
23. ilanufartur^B ani lEngtu^^rtttg
THE development of manufacturing industries has resulted from
more efficient economic organization, and from the perfection of
technological processes involving the application of scientific dis-
coveries and knowledge. Accordingly, the most profitable method
of study is first to consider the development of manufactures in
general from the economic standpoint, and especially of the Factory System,
where concentration permits of manufacture in increagcd quantities at diminished
expense. This will be found treated in the articles on Factories and Machin-
ery, Economic Effects of, in which is traced the growth of manufacturing in
general. For specific industries, reference should be made to the separate articles,
as the historical and statistical development of any given industry is best con-
sidered by itself, on account of the important relation that it bears to practical
questions of material, processes, and the like. Tliis brings us straightway to the
leading question how things are made, which it is an important function of an
encyclop<'edia to answer. In this is involved the gathering and prepai'ation of
the raw material, the manufacture, the finishing, and the chstribution, or utiliza-
tion, of the finished product. There are prepared below a number of lists of
subjects, more or less cognate, dealing with manufacturing industries and their
products, and, by carefully observing the cross-references, a complete idea of the
more important processes may be gained.
A. mattitfarturtitg Jprnrrssrs
Food and Manufacture of Food
Stuffs, etc.
An important field of manufacturing
operations is that concerned with the
preparation of food stuff's, both in the
factory and on a less extensive scale in
the home. Cookery; Food, Preser-
vation of ; Slaughter Houses ; and
Packing Industry are titles that sug-
gest the wide range of subjects that
may be grouped under such a head.
The following list indicates appropri-
ate titles:
Meat
Slaughter Houses
Packing Industry
Food, Preservation of
Digester
Extract of Meat
Ham
Lard
Tallow
Pemican
Jerked Beef
Cookery
Wlieat
Flour
Baking
Bread
Biscuit
Baking Powder
Butter
Cheese
Guarana
Macaroni
Sugar
Sardine
232
MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING 233
Gelatin
Confectionery
Chocolate
Cocoa Butter
Chewing Gum
Macaroon
Condiments
Pickles
Chutnee
Curry Powder
Olive Oil
Fermented and Distilled LiaroRS.
The manufacture of Beer, Wine,
and Liquors involves many interesting
processes in chemical technology. A
convenient beginning may be made by
considering the history of fermented
and distilled liquors, and the extent to
which they are manufactured and con-
sumed. Then, taking up the general
properties of beer, wine, and distilled
liquors, a classification of these bever-
ages can be made, and the essential
features of their production learned.
Further details appi'opriate to the
manufacture are discussed under
Brewing, Still, Bottling and Bot-
tling Machinery, while questions in-
volving the chemistry of the subject
are treated under Fermentation, Dis-
tillation, and Alcohol. The physi-
ological effects of alcohol are not only
interesting, but instructive, and are
properly considered in connection with
the manufacture of alcoholic bever-
ages. For a comprehensive study of
the whole subject, the following arti-
cles should be consulted :
Liquors, Fermented and Distilled,
Statistics and History of
Alcohol
Alcoholometry
Hydrometer
Alcohol, Physiological and Poison-
ous Action of
Fermentation
Brewing
Beer
Wine
Currant Wine
Distilled Liquors, or Ardent Spirits
Distillation
Brandy
Apple Brandy
Rum
Whisky
Fusel Oil
Geneva
Gin
Liqueur
Absinthe
Benedictine
Chartreuse
Cura^oa
Kirsch
Kiimmel
Maraschino
Ratafia
Noyau
Bishop
Cider
Berlin Spirit
Bottling and Bottling Machinery
Fibres and Textiles.
The subject of fibres and textiles is
one of novel scope and, for its proper
comprehension, requires first the con-
sideration of the fibres themselves and
how they are produced and prepared
for manufacture. The chief fibres are :
Cotton
Flax
Hemp
Jute
Linen
Hemp, Manila
234 MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING
Noils
Ramie
Shoddy
Silk
Organzine
Floss Silk
Wool and Worsted
Coir
With these must be included Silk,
Aetificial ; and Cotton, Artificial,
whose use is increasing with improved
processes. See also Silk, Vegetable ;
and Silkworm.
It is next advisable to consider the
processes by which the fibres are pre-
pared for spinning and weaving. These
processes are discussed in the following
articles :
Cotton-Gin
Heckle
Carding
Spinning
Yarn
Textile manufacturing comprises in-
dustries of many diverse characters,
which employ complicated machinery.
As thev have a certain amount of simi-
larity, and bear some relation to each
other, the processes of making the vari-
ous fabrics may first be considered to-
gether. The first step is the designing
of the fabric, in which the weaves, pat-
terns, and designs are made on the
Loom. This naturally involves the dis-
cussion of Weaving, which should ex-
plain the fundamental weaves and the
methods by which patterns are pro-
duced. Therefore, in this connection,
the following articles slioidd be con-
sulted :
Textile Manufacturing
Textile Designing
Weaving
Loom
Heddle
Bobbin
Crocheting and knitting differ essen-
tially from weaving and, whether per-
formed by hand or machine, are the
means of producing garments and other
useful articles. The following titles in-
dicate the articles to be consulted on
these subjects :
Crochet
Knitting
Hosiery
Either the yarn or the finished fabric
may be dyed, or the latter may be
printed, in order to impart colored
designs to it. In either case, com-
plex and interesting processes arc in-
volved, which are described in the list
below :
Dyeing
Coal-Tar Colors
Vegetable Colors
Indigo
Turkey Red
Textile Printing
Beetling
Calendering
Bleaching
Blcaching-Powder
Embroidery
The finished textile fabrics are al-
most infinite in their variety. It is pos-
sible to select the more important and
tiie representatives of the leading
classes and study them in detail. Such
a list arranged alphabetical!}' is as
follows :
Art Square
Bandana
Barege
Batiste
- Blanket
Bobl)inet
MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING 235
Bolting-Cloth
Bombazine
Brocade
Brocatel
Brussels Lace
Buckram
Bunting
Cambric
Camel's Hair
Camlet
Canvas
Carpet
Cassimere
Chenille
Chintz
Corduroy
Crape
Cretonne
Crinoline
Damask
Diaper
Dimity
Dornick
Drugget
Duck
Felt
Flannel
Floor-Cloth
Fustian
Galloon
Gauze
Gingham
Grass Cloth
Gunny
Haircloth
Huckaback
Kersey
Lace
Linen
Matting
Mercerized Cotton
Mohair
Moire
Moleskin
Muslin
Nankeen Cloth
Nets
Oilcloth
Pina Cloth
Plush
Poplin
Rugs
Satin
Silk
Taffeta
Tapestry
Tarlatan
Tweed
Velvet
Leather and Leather Manufac-
tures.
The various processes for the manu-
facture of Leather are described under
that title, and the finished products,
such as boots, shoes, saddlery, etc., in
which independent industries partici-
pate, are appropriately grouped by
themselves. For leather and leather
goods, the following list is recom-
mended :
Leather
Bark
Tanning (under Leather)
Buckskin
Glove
Buff Leather
Cordovan
Shagreen
Chamois
Leather Cloth
Saddlery
Boot
Shoes
Blacking
Carriages and Other Vehicles.
From the primitive ox-cart to the
236 MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING
modern automobile is a long step, and it
includes the development of many vehi-
cles for pleasure and more direct use-
fulness. These are represented in the
following list:
Cart
Chariot
Carriage
Coach
Driving
Coupe
Hansom Cab
Wagonette
Buckboard
Phaeton
Ambulance
Bicycle
Automobile
Porcelain axd Pottery.
There are few more interesting stud-
ies than that of porcelain and pottery,
and, if the processes are traced from
the production of the clay until the fin-
ished piece emerges from the kiln after
the final firing, the reader will be well
repaid. For this purpose the following
articles are recommended:
Pottery
Porcelain
Clay_
Kaolin
Biscuit
Kiln
Annealing
Ceramic
Enamel
Bow China
Burmese Ware
Vase
Cracklin
Stoneware (under Delft)
Delft Ware
Eggslicll China
Faience
Jasper Ware
Majolica
Terra Cotta
Glass.
Few materials are more extensively
emploj-ed in the arts than glass, and in
scientific work and in decoration it also
holds an important place. For the es-
sential features of its manufacture, the
general article should be consulted,
while the subordinate topics, as listed
below, should be read in this connec-
tion:
Glass
Flint Glass
Crown Glass
Iridescent Glass
Water-Glass
Wire Glass (under Glass)
Bottle
Carboy
Prince Rupert's Drops
Bologna Vial
Lens
Mirror
Lorraine Glass
Stained Glass
Gems, Imitation
Horology.
The construction of A'arious instru-
ments for keeping time is a science of
considerable antiquity, and its various
departments may he studied with profit.
A convenient arrangement of titles is
given below:
Horology
Clock
Watch
Clepsydra
Dial
Hour-Glass
MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING
237
Balance
Escapement
Fusee
Pendulum
Isochronism
Chronoscope
Chronograph
Time, Standard
Time Signals
Printing, Typography, Engraving,
Paper, etc.
The development of the art of print-
ing has brought about many connect-
ed processes and industries. These are
concerned with the impression on paper
of letters or designs in one form or an-
other, or the provision of the apparatus
and machinerj' to do this, as well as
the material to receive the impression.
An arrangement of such subjects is as
follows :
Printing
Case
Type Founding
Typesetting ]\Iachines
Electrotyping (under Electro-Chem-
istry, Industrial)
Bank-Notes, Manufacture of
Engraving
Photo-Engraving
Three-Color Process
Lithography
Ink
India Ink
Graphotype
Paper
Parchment
Parchment, Vegetable
Cardboard
Bristol Board
Cartridge-Paper
Calendering
Bookbinding
Envelope
Pen
Pencil
Typewriters
Copying Machines
Sealing-Wax
Ruling Machine
Miscellaneous Industries and Prod-
ucts.
Bead
Bell
Blacking
Bristles
Brush and Broom
Button
Candle
Celluloid
Coal-Tar
Coke
Comb
Cooperage
Cork
Corset
Cosmetics
Doll
Embossing
Excelsior
Fan
Flowers, Artificial
Gems, Imitation and Artificial
Gilding
Gimp
Glove
Glue
Gold Lace
Grease
Gutta-Percha
Ivory
Ivory, Vegetable
Japanning
Jewelry
Lac
Lacquer-Work
Lapidary Work
238
MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING
Laundry INIachinery
Linoleum
Lumber Industry
Mangle
]\Iatches
Needle
Ormolu
Papier-lNIache
Pen
Pencil
Perfumery
Petrolatuii]
Pin
Poppy-seed Oil
Pyrotechny
Rope
Rubber
Sawdust
Sewing jNIachine
Silkworm Gut
Straw ^Manufactures
Tableware, Silver-Plated
Tobacco Pipe
Varnish
Voting ^Machine
Metallurgy.
Under the A'arious metals, will be
found articles dealing not only with
their occurrence and general proper-
ties, but also with their mining and
metallurgy. Such articles are included
in the following list :
Iron
Copper
Gold
Silver
Nickel
Zinc
Platinum
Lead
Tin
Antimony
Manganese
Mercury
Aluminium
Cobalt
Tungsten
Looking, however, at methods of
mining and metallurgy, there are gen-
eral articles which have reference to the
more common metals and the methods
of producing and refining them. These
articles are as follows:
Mining
Assaying
Metallurgy
Crucible
Ore Dressing
Refining of Metals
Electro-Chemistry
Although considerable material on
metal working is given under the metals
themselves, there are certain processes
which can be described in special arti-
cles. These include the following:
Founding
Forge, Forging
Anvil
Weldinff
Tempering Steel
Annealing
Dies and Die-Sinking
Damaskeening
Brazing
Rolling Mill
Grinding and Crushing Machinery
Mint
Draw-Plate
Electro-Plating
Metal-Working IMachinery
For many purposes, alloys are more
useful than simple metals. These are
discussed under their own heads, as well
ns in a collective article, while other
preparations of metal as Galvanizkd
Iron and Steel Wool are also
MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING
239
treated. A list of such articles is as dered, and there are a number of ar-
follows :
Alloy
Brass
Bronze
Pinchbeck
Solder
Flux
Galvanized Iron
Steel Wool
The ornamental working of metals
into small objects is also to be consid-
ticles which treat the subject from the
artistic as well as the practical side.
These titles include:
Jewelry
Plate, Sheffield
Tableware, Silver-Plated
Gold-Beating
Gold-Beater's Skin
Repousee
Enamel
Embossins
B. OInnstntrttan
Building and Building Materials.
The materials used in building em-
brace natural and artificial substances
which are specially wrought for the
purpose. Whether we start with the
lumber from the forest or the stone of
the quarry, we find that there are a
number of processes which have to be
gone through before the material is
finally disposed of in its appointed
place. Considering first the materials
for building, together with their
sources, the following list has been con-
structed :
Building-Stone
Quarry, Quarrying
Stone Cutting and Dressing
Stone, Artificial
Clay
Brick
Mortar
Kiln
Cement
Terra Cotta
Tile
Gypsum
Lumber Industry
Strength of Materials
For a study of the process of
Building, the article under that title
will furnish an adequate idea. The
separate branches, however, require
more extensive treatment, as the fol-
lowing topics will suggest :
Building
Foundation
Masonry
Fireproof Construction
Heating and Ventilation
Plumbing
Elevator
Paper-Hangings
Painting
Gas, Illuminating
Electric Lighting
For certain forms of building, such
as Apartment Houses and Hotels,
somewhat different equipment is re-
quired, and these are discussed under
their own heads. For building opera-
tions in general, there are a number of
minor topics that require a separate
treatment. These may be included in
the following list:
Centring
240
MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING
Chimney
Door
Window
Framing
Column
Girder
Beam
Brace
Roof
Gutter
Lightning, Protection from
Lock
Alarm
Fire-E scape
Calcimine
Heating and Ventilation
C. iEttgtn^^rtng
The constantly broadening field of
engineering endeavor has resulted in
dividing the work, so that to-day an
engineer adopts but a comparatively
small field for his own activity. Under
Engineer and Engineering, will be
found a description of the modern
divisions of engineering work and the
qualifications of the men that follow
each branch. In civil engineering,
first may be mentioned the surveyor.
Surveying.
Surveying involves the measurement
of distances and areas and the delinea-
tion of the territory examined. It is
carried on in different ways, depending
on the extent and character of the coun-
try under survey. The following
shows the general division of topics :
Surveying
Coast and Geodetic Survey
Geological Survey
Geodesy
Triangulation
Hydrography
Dredge
Sound, Sounding
Photographic Surveying
Altimctry
Hypsometry
Leveling
Offset
Map
Engineering Instruments
Theodolite
Plane-Table
Stadia
Telemeter
Yernier
Sextant
Compass, Solar
Planimeter
Range-Findcr
Aneroid
Heliograph
Odometer
Railways.
After a general review of the subject
of Railways, particular parts require
somewhat fuller treatment, involving,
as they do, engineering and other fea-
tures of a unique character. For this
purpose, the following list is supplied:
Railways
Street Railway
Electric Railways
Ship Railway
Locomotive
Com pressed- Air Locomotive
Tunnel
Bridge
Cantilever
MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING 241
Viaduct
Culvert
Gauge
Frog, Railway
Fish Plate
Block-Signal System
Air Brake
Buffer, Buffing Apparatus
Bumping Posts
Snow-Plow
River and Harbor Improvements.
Various important works to aid
maritime commerce consist in the erec-
tion of numerous harbor and river im-
provements. These are of a permanent
character and require special engineer-
inff. Such works are described in the
list below:
Lighthouse
Buoy
Jetty
Breakwater
Embankments
Dike
Harbor
Levee
Dock
Pile
Excavating Machinery
Blasting
Caisson
Masonry
Retaining Walls
Quay
Canals.
When canals are carried across an
isthmus, as the Suez or the Panama,
they may take on many of the essential
characteristics of harbor improve-
ments ; yet such works show consider-
able variation, and, when ordinary in-
land canals or those in connection with
an irrigation system are considered, the
methods of construction are quite dif-
ferent. Tlie following list suggests a
line of topics that could with profit be
consulted :
Canal
Panama Canal
Nicaragua Canal
Suez Canal
Trans-Isthmian Canal
Ship Railway
Waterworks and Hydraulic Engin-
eering.
The use of water practically involves
a separate department of engineering,
but one in contact at many points with
civil, sanitary, mechanical, and electri-
cal engineering. It is necessary first
to consider Water Supply, or the
sources of water, then its storage, trans-
mission, purification, distribution, and '
final consumption, and also various de-
vices that are employed in these differ-
ent stages. The material on this
subject in the New International En-
cyclopadia is represented in the follow-
ing list:
Water Supply
Hydrography
Well-Sinking
Artesian Wells
Dams and Reservoirs
Hydrostatics
Hydrodynamics
Current-]Meter
Weir
Irrigation
Pipe
Water Purification
Water-Works
Pumps and Pumping Machinery
Valve
Water Power
Filter and Filtration
242
MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING
Accumulators
Hydraulic Ram
Water Wheel
Turbine
Hydraulic Press
Archimedes' Screw
Danaide
Hydraulic Pressure Engine
Water jNIeters
Hydraulic Elevator (under Ele-
vator)
Sanitary Science.
Under ihis somewhat comprehensive
title, may be included such schemes as
tend to improve and safeguard the
health of mankind. See :
Hygiene
Health, Boards of
Sanitary Commission
Quarantine
Water Supply
Water Purification
Plumbing
Sewage Disposal
Sewerage
Drainage
Catch-Drains
Heating and Ventilation
Bath-Houses, Municipal
Slaughter Houses
Burial
Cemetery
Cremation of the Dead
Health Association, American Public
Municipal Engineering.
The various applications of engi-
neering knowledge to a large city result
in the solving of many problems, such
as water supply, transportation, the
provision of Parks and Playgrounds
for the masses, etc. These subjects,
grouped from this point of view, will
be found in tlic following list:
Road
Street
Boulevard
Road and Street Machinery
Asphalt
Pavement
Subways
Water-Works
Parks and Playgrounds
Landscape Gardening
Recreation Piers
Bath-Houses, IMunicipal
Garbage and Refuse Disposal
See also preceding section on Sani-
tary Science.
Fire Protection.
The surest fire protection is Fire-
proof CoxsTBUCTioN for buildings.
Safes and Safe Deposit Vaults for
valuables, and the use of Incom-
bustible Fabrics. When these safe-
guards are unavailing, however,
recourse must be had to the various
apparatus for fighting fire, such as the
Fire-Engine, Fire-Extinguisher, etc.
See:
Fireproof Construction
Safes and Safe Deposit Vaults
Fi reproofing
Incombustible Fabrics
Fire-Alarm
Fire Protection, Municipal
Fire-Engine
Fire-Extinguisher
Mechanical Engineering.
For raising and transporting mate-
rials, and for carrying on otiier impor-
tant operations, many interesting me-
chanical devices arc constructed. The
Cahlevvay, Telpherage, Derrick,
and Traveling Sidewalk arc typical
of the former class, while Grinding and
MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING
243
Crushing Machinery and Air Com-
pressor may be cited as divisions of
the many branches of meclianical en-
gineering. A list of such subjects as
are not already cited under other heads
includes :
Derrick
Crane
Cableway
Telpherage
Ropeway
Traveling Sidewalk
Elevator
Air Compressor
Blowing-Machines
Pneumatic Dispatch
Power, Transmission of
Dynamometer
Brake
Air Brake
Lubricants
Wood-Working Machinery
Mechanical Devices.
In the construction of machinery,
there are cei'tain elementary parts that
enter into its design. These serve such
purposes as changing the direction of a
motion, increasing or reducing speed,
or permitting its control in any desired
way. See :
Mechanical Powers
Axle
Shafting
Wheel and Axle
Lever
Pulley
Crank
Cam
Eccentric
Winch
Windlass
Inclined Plane
Wedcre
Toggle Joint
Screw
Endless Screw
Belt
Gear-Wheel
Gearing
Couple
Prime Movers.
For the generation of power, there
are a number of sources to be consid-
ered. Heat, Steam, Electricity,
Water Power, Wind, etc., are all
treated in their proper places, but under
this head may conveniently be included
articles describing the means for trans-
forming energy into mechanical power
available for a thousand and one dif-
ferent purposes. See:
Caloric Engine
Compresscd-Air Engine
Compressed-Air Locomotive
Gas-Engines
Fireless Engine
Steam Engine
Steam Turbine
Water Wheel
Windmill
Hydraulic Ram
Hydraulic Press
Hydraulic Pressure Engine
Dynamo-Electric ]Machinery
Mechanical Powers
Steam and Steam Engine.
Commencing with a consideration of
the properties of steam, any discussion
soon reaches the Steam Engine and
its various parts and its applications.
Such will be found in the classification
given below :
Steam
JEolipile
Steam Engine
Locomotive
244 MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING
Steam Navigation
Steam Turbine
Pumps and Pumping Machinery
Eccentric
Crank
Fly-Wlieel
Governor
Valve
Injector
Indicator
Safety Valve
Condenser
Horse-Power
Electrical Engineering.
In Electrical Engineering, we may
include the generation and distribution
of electric current, also its use for light
and power, and the methods by whicli
it is transmitted to considerable dis-
tance. The subject is treated in the
following articles :
Dynamo-Electric Machinery
Armature
Cable, Electric
Transformer
Transmission of Power
Electric Lighting
Electric Heater
Electric Railways
Electro-Chemistry
Storage Battery
Electrolysis
Welding
Liglitning-Arresters
Electric Fuze (under Fuze)
For a discussion of the plienomena
of the electric current, see the compre-
hensive section on Electricity in the
chapter on Physics.
Tools.
Many and varied tools have been and
are used by the mechanic, which are dis-
cussed in the articles dealing with the
various industries. Certain groups and
individual tools, however, demand con-
sideration. Thus, Metal and Wood-
Working Machinery include many
important tools, the chief types
of which it is desirable to under-
stand. Pneumatic Tools have
resulted in considerable saving of
labor and are of increasing im-
portance. INIany tools, such as the file,
hammer, and axe, still survive and are
not yet replaced by macliinerj^. The
list in alphabetical order is as fol-
lows:
Axe
Boring Machinery
Calipers
Cutlery
Drill
File
Hammer
Jack
Marling Spike
Mandril
Metal-Working Machinery
Micrometer
Plane
Pneumatic Tools
Sand-Blast
Sandpaper
Saw
Sawmill
Screw
Wood-Working Macliinery
TELKGUArH and TELEPHONE.
The transmission of intelligence is
constantly being acconijilishcd more
effectively and by a greater variety of
methods, specialization iiaving its play
here as in other branches of apj)b"cd
eicctricitv. The following articles
MANUFACTURES AND ENGINEERING 245
may be recommended as supplying a
complete idea of the history and devel-
opment of these important processes :
Telegraph
Signaling and Telegraphing, Mili-
tary
Lightning- Arresters
Telautograph
Telegraphy, Submarine
Atlantic Telegraph
Wireless Telegraphy
Telephone
24. iitlttarg mxh Natial Btinut
A S the purpose of an amiy or any military organization is to carry on,
/^k or at least be prepared to carry on, war, either of defense or of
/ ^k offense, as effectively as possible, a study of the topic War, to
Y ^^^ ascertain under what circumstances recourse is had to the court of
arms and under what conditions the laws and usages of nations
demand that war shall be waged, makes a fitting beginning for reading in this
field. Then, coming to the actual operations of war, we find that thej' must be
planned according to the principles of Strategy and executed along lines
worked out in systems of Tactics. Accordingly, then, a suitable grouping of
allied subjects is as follows:
A. KnxmB
War
Strategy
Tactics, Military
Tactics, Naval
Attack
Assault
Fire
Battle
Engagement
Skirmish
Invasion
Blockade
Fortifications, Attack and Defense of
Siege
Sap
Bombardment
Coast Defense
Manoeuvres
Evolutions, Military
Demonstration
Marching
Manual of Arms
A Cheval Position
Ambuscade
Ambush
Debouching
Echelon
Enfilade
Feint
Point d'Appui
Retreat
Base of Operations
Advance Guard
Cavalry Screen
Outposts
Picket
Patrol
Guard
IVIain Guard
Rear Guard
Flank
Reconnaissance
Prisoner
Contraband of War
Organization.
To carry out, however, any scheme of
strategy and tactics involves an army
whose effectiveness depends upon its or-
ganization. In the organization of an
army, the Infantry, Cavalry, and
Artillery, or Line, must be consid-
ered. These are its prime essentials,
together with its Engineers, Medical
Department, Commissariat, Depart-
ment of the Qfartermaster, Signal
Coups, Bureau of Military Justice, or
Judge Advocate's Department, its Pay
Corps, General Staff, and the varl-
246
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
247
ous other bureaus and departments
upon the efficiency of which tlie suc-
cessful organization and operation of
a military body depend.
Looking at military organization
from the point of view of the units of
which an army is made up, we may start
with the Corps, and gradually proceed
from one command to an inferior one,
learning the function of each and its
relation to the common whole. Rank
AND Command is the keystone of mili-
tary organization. Over each body of
men there must be an appropriate
officer, and to learn his duties it is but
necessary to consult the article on this
subject. In addition to officers, there
may be certain subordinate individuals
who have peculiar or individual func-
tions to perform ; these too are best
described under their own heads. The
accompanying lists suggest the re-
lation of many of these topics.
Dealing first with the division which
may be headed Armies and Army Or-
ganization, we find large and ade-
quate treatment, the historical side here
as well as elsewhere in the Encyclopaedia
being considered. The first group
deals with the divisions of military or-
ganization, the second, entitled Rank
and Command, with the individuals of
all ranks that form an army. See :
(a) Antiies and Army Organization:
Army Organization
Armies
Corps
Division •
Brigade
Regiment
Battalion
Squadron
Company
Battery
Platoon
Detachment
Artillery
Artillery Corps
Artillery Train
Cavalry
Infantry
Mounted Infantry
Engineer Corps
Medical Department, United
States Army
Medical Department, United
States Navy
Ambulance
Hospital Corps
Signal Corps
General Staff
Staff
Military Police
Band, iMilitary
Pioneer
Sharpshooter
Color-Guard
Reserve
Cadre
Contingent
Column
Militia
Landwehr
War, Department of
Horse Guards
Life Guards
United States Army (under
United States)
(b) Rank and Command:
Field-Marshal
General
Lieutenant-General
Major-General
Brigadier-General
Colonel
Lieutenant-Colonel
248
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
Major
Captain
Lieutenant
Cadet, ^Military
Cadet, Naval
Adj utant-General
Adjutant
Aide-de-Camp
Commissary
Quartermaster
Paymaster
Surgeon, Military
Inspector-General
Chaplain
Contract Surgeon
Commander-in-Chief
Commandant
Field Officer
Ensign
Cornet
Non-Commissioncd Officer
Color-Sergeant
Drum Major
Sergeant
Corporal
Gunner
Artificer
Drummer
Orderly
Private
Bombardier
Sentinel
Military Engineering.
To the military engineer, is assigned
many problems connected with the ex-
istence and operation of an army. He
has to provide for its protection in both
peace and war, which involves the
construction of suitable barracks,
camps, and fortifications, both tempo-
rary and permanent, and is besides re-
quired to study and delineate the coun-
try in which tiie troops live or operate.
Naturally, the chief division to be made
in the topics relating to this subject
is Fortification, involving the con-
struction of more or less permanent
works, and Field Engineering, deal-
ing with those of a more temporary
character. See :
Engineering, Military
Fortification
Battery
Bastion
Berm
Blockhouse
Caponiere
Casemate
Coast Defense
Embrasure
Epaulement
Traverse
Stockade
Enceinte
Frontier, Military
Trench, Military
Escarp
Gallery
Magazine
Martcllo Tower
Orillon
Abatis
Bill-Hook
Blindage
Barricade
Cheveaux-de-Frise
Fascines
Gabion
Approaches
Parallels
Siege and Siege Works
Demolition
Breach
Camp
Encampment
Bridges and Docks, Military
Mines and Mining, Military
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
249
Redoubt
Retrenchment
Revetment
Redan
Forts of the United States.
With a description of the principles
of Fortification and MiHtary Encamp-
ments, or posts, may properly be in-
cluded a description of such military
posts of the United States as are of
importance for one reason or another.
These are included in the following list,
and the articles give information as to
their location, garrison, general char-
acteristics, etc.
Fort Adams
Fort Bliss
Fort Canby
Fort Caswell
Fort Clark
Fort Columbus
Fort D. A. Russell
Fort Douglas
Fort Du Pont
Fort Ethan Allen
Fort Getty
Fort Grant
Fort Greble
J^ort Hamilton
Fort Hancock
Fort Howard
Fort Keough
Fort Leavenworth
Fort Logan
Fort McHenry
Fort McPherson
Fort Meade
Fort Monroe
Fort iMorgan
Fort Myer
Fort Porter
Fort Preble
Fort Riley
Fort Robinson
Fort Sam Houston
Fort Schuyler
Fort Sheridan
Fort Snelling
Fort Stevens
Fort Strong
Fort Terry
Fort Thomas
Fort Totten
Fort Trumbull
Fort Wadsworth
Fort Walla Walla
Fort Warren
Fort Washington
Fort Wayne
Fort Yellowstone
Columbus Barracks
Jefferson Barracks
Madison Barracks
Plattsburg Barracks
Presidio (San Francisco)
San Diego Barracks
Vancouver BaiTacks
Washington Barracks
Oednance and Gunnery.
To carry on warfare, many weapons
and resources have been placed at the
disposal of the soldier. Such titles as
Artillery, Ordnance, Explosives,
Gunpowder, Projectiles, Small
Arms, naturally suggest themselves as
principal topics. With them may be
grouped the underlying science as em-
bodied in Ballistics and Gunnery, to-
gether with the other topics contained
in the following list :
(a) Artillery:
Coast Artillery
Field Artillery
Horse Artillery
Mountain Artillery
250
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
Siege Gun
Guns, Naval
Rapid-fire Guns
Machine Gun
Mitrailleuse
Gardner Gun
Mortar
Howitzer
Air Gun
Pneumatic Gun
Submarine Gun
Ordnance
Ordnance Establishments
Cannon
Jacket
Bore
Calibre
Artillery Carriages
Gun-Carriage
Limber
Caisson
Small Arms
Carbine
Chassepot
Arquebus
Bayonet
Pistol
Revolver
Target and Target Practice
Sword
(b) Projectiles:
Ammunition
Grapc-Sliot
Case-Shot
Canister
Carcass
Grenade
Bomb
Shrapnel
Rocket
Cartridge
Torpedo
(c) Explosives:
Gunpowder
Smokeless Powder
Dynamite
Nitroglycerin
Atlas Powder
Cordite
Lyddite
Maximite
Picric Acid
Dualine
Fulminates
Fulminate of ]Mcrcury
Fulminate of Silver
Pyrotechny
Primer
Fuze
Greek Fire
Charge
Matches
{d) Gunnery:
Ballistics
Range
Range-Finder
Aim
Charge
Plongee
Ricochet
Target and Target Practice
Target Practice, Naval
Proving Ground
Loading-Tray
(e) Historic Cannon:
Coehoorn
Columbiad
Demi-Cannon
Demi-Culvcrin
Falcon
Jingal
Mitrailleuse
Uniform and Euuitment.
Closely connected with the soldier's
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
251
and sailor's weapons are his Uniform
and Equipment, the various insignia
often being matters of considerable in-
terest and curiosity to the layman.
[With these subjects, we may include
allied topics as follows :
Military Insignia
Uniforms, Military and Naval
Aiguilette
Bandolier
Busby
Canteen
Cartouch
Chevrons
Epaulet
Facings
Good Conduct Badges
Haversack
Helmet
Kepi
Khaki
Kit
Knapsack
Spur
Sword
Military Cekemonies.
As a witness of various military cere-
monies or other formalities, the layman
comes in contact with certain other as-
pects of army and navy life. The
more important of these will be treated
under their respective heads. See the
following :
Salutes
Feu-de-Joie
Dress Ship
Escort
Review
Inspection
Parade
Muster
Flags.
Flags of one kind or another, by rea-
son of tlieir histories and tradition and
their special uses at the present time,
play an important part in military and
naval affairs. Besides being the em-
blem of the nation, they may also per-
tain to various organizations or
individuals, as the colors of a regiment
or the flag of an admiral. These will
be understood on reference to the fol-
lowing articles, many of which are
illustrated by colored plates:
Flag
Ensign
Colors
Guidon
Standard
Pennant
Jack
Union Jack
Flag of Truce
Signaling and Telegraphing
Historic and Special IMilitary Or-
ganizations.
Military organizations in the past,
as well as in the present, have been
formed either for special purposes or
under special auspices, or as independ-
ent commands. Some of the more fam-
ous classes of soldiers and historic
military organizations are those in-
cluded in the following list!
Artillery Compan}', Ancient and
Honorable
Artillery Company, Honorable
Bashi-Bazouks
Beefeater
Bersaglieri
Black Watch
Cameronians
Carbineers
Chasseurs
Cohort
Coldstream Guards
252
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
Colonial Corps
Cossacks
Cuirassier
Dragoons (under Cavalry)
Equestrian Order
Fencible
Foot Guards
Francs-Tireurs
Fusiliers
Green Mountain Boys
Grenadier
Grenadier Guards
Guard
Guerrillas
Guide
Gurkhas
Highlanders
Honved
Horse Guards
Household Troops
Hussars
Janizaries
Lancer
Landsturm
Landwehr
Legion
Life Guards
Mamelukes
Minute Men
Mobiles, Corps of
National Guard
Phalanx
Rangers, Mounted
Rifleman
Rough Riders Association
Scots Greys
Sepoy
Sikhs
Spahis
Strcltsi
Trainbands
Voltigeurs
Yeomanry
Yeomen of the Guard
Zouaves
Military Law.
For the government of the army
there are certain statutes and regula-
tions. International law in many of its
aspects touches on the acts of armies
in the field. Accordingly, a grouping
of certain topics allied, tiiough not nec-
essarily logically connected, may be
made as follows :
Military Law
Acts of Hostility
Allegiance
Armistice
Articles of War
Belligerent
Blockade
Booty
Bounty
Capitulation
Cartel
Cashiering
Casus Belli
Conscription
Contraband of War
Council of War
Courts INIilitary
Declaration of War
Desertion
Discliarge
Judge- Advocate
Judge-Advocate-General
King's Regulations
Martial Law
Military Commissions
Military Government
Military Law
Military Police
Military Prison
Neutrality
Posse Comitatus
Prisoner
Privateering
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
253
Prize
Prize Courts
Provost-Marshal
Ransom
Spy
Truce
War
Military and Navai- Education.
The professions of the soldier and
sailor require from beginning to end
continual training, and from Acad-
emy to War College tiiere are many
studies to be pursued. Grouping those
topics referring to the education of
the soldier and sailor, we have the fol-
lowing list:
Army Schools
Artillery Schools
Cadet, Military
Cadet, Naval
Cavalry and Light Artillery School
Military Education
Military Academy, U. S.
General Service and Staff College
Staff Colleges and Schools
War College
Naval Academy, U. S.
Naval Schools of Instruction
Naval Institute, U. S.
Discipline
Drill
Drill Regulations
MiSCELLANEOrS.
Tlie food for the soldier and his ani-
mals is discussed under Rations and
Forage, and its mode of preparation
under Field Cooking. The princi-
pal Bugle and Trumpet Calls that
summon him to his duties are given
with the music notes, and tiic Drum
and Fife, whicii supply the field music,
are also treated. Methods of Re-
cruitment in various countries, and
also Retirement, should be studied,
while the Pay and Allowances of the
soldier must be considered in order to
understand army conditions at home
and abroad. An essential of modern
military operations is the maintenance
of communication between every part
of an army and its base, or capital.
This is the function of the Signal
Corps, whose operations and apparatus
are treated under Signaling and
Telegraphing, Military. In the
event of casualties, the Surgeon and
the Medical Department, with
its Hospital Corps, are called into re-
quisition, protected as they are by the
terms of tlie Geneva Convention. It
is advantageous to learn the present
conditions of Surgery, ]\Iilitary, and
the peculiar problems that the military
surgeon has to face, as well as his
methods of operation. In this connec-
tion, also, should be mentioned the work
of the Red Cross, and the part it plays
in alleviating suffering on the battle-
field. Of importance, as in a small way
reproducing some of the conditions of
warfare, the War Game is worthy of
consideration, as on its board may be
worked out many interesting problems
in strategy and tactics.
No clearer distinction can be drawn for military purposes and those for
in discussing vessels for navigating the commerce. Under Navies and Ship,
seas than to consider separately those Armored, is given an historical de-
254
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
scription of the former, while under
Navigation and Steam Navigation
the development of the latter is traced.
As regards modern Shipbuilding,
many of the features are the same for
both classes of vessels, and a single
article suffices, leaving the subjects of
Armor Plate, Turret, and the like to
be discussed separately. In the follow-
ing lists, have been grouped in classes
by themselves ships of war, merchant-
men, or pleasure vessels, and small boats
of many and varied designs and uses:
(o) Warships:
Warship
Ship, Armored
Cruiser
, Gunboat
Torpedo Boat
Torpedo Boat, Submarine
Hospital Ship
Ram
Guard-Ship
Receiving Ship
Galley
Galliot
Trireme
Fire-Ship
Floating Battery
Frigate
Monitor
Mortar Vessel
Corvette
{b) Merchantmen:
Ship
Steam Navigation
Clipper
Bark
Brig
Schooner
Sloop
General Ship
Composite Ships
Lighter
Whaleback
Yacht
Lugger
Junk
Grab
Dhow
Corsair
Ketch
Pinnace
Pirogue
Pram
Great Eastern
Launch, Launching
Derelict
Wreck
(c) Boats:
Lifeboat
Life-Rafts
Balsa
Launch
Whalcboat
Long Boat
Jolly-Boat
Punt
Cutter
Catboat
Canoe
Catamaran
Banca
Ice-Breaking Steamer
Barca
Kayak
Ferry
Organization.
Naval organization presents many of
the same aspects as does that of an
army. There nmst be the same respon-
sibilities, the same gradations of Rank
AND CoM^rAND, Line and Staff, Corps
and Departments, and a specialization
in duties on the part of both officers
and men. In the merchant marine
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
255
much the same system is observed, as
safety of passengers and cargo depends
upon disciphne and efficiency from
master to crew. Therefore, with the ab-
sence of the combative elements, the or-
ganization is similar in many respects.
This can be studied by reference to
the articles listed below. In the first
series, are given titles appropriate to
naval organization itself, while in the
second are the various individual offi-
cers and men whose positions and duties
must be considered. See:
(a) Navies:
Navies
Tactics, Naval
Marine Corps
Engineer Corps, United States
Navy
Medical Department, United
States Navy
Equipment, Bureau of
Hydrographic Office
Navy, Department of the
Revenue Cutter Service, United
States
Life-Saving Service
Coast Guard
Naval Reserve
Crew
Company, Ship's
Complement
Watch
Division
Landing Fore
Billet
Mess
{b) Officers:
Admiral
Commodore
Captain
Commander
Lieutenant-Commander
Lieutenant
Ensign
Midshipman
Cadet, Naval
Clerk, Naval
Commanding Officer
Commandant
Flag-Officer
Executive Officer, United States
Navy
Surgeon, Military and Naval
Paymaster
Watch Officer
Naval Constructors
Provost-Marshal
Pilot
Coast Pilot
Warrant Officer
Gunner
Master
Master-at-Arms
Mate
Carpenter, Navy
Boatswain
Petty Officer
Quartermaster
Coxswain
Naval Apprentice (under Ap-
prentice)
Landsman
Boys, Ships'
Shipbuilding and Naval Architec-
ture.
The design and construction of a
vessel, especially one of modern type,
involves the application of much study
and practical engineering. Under
SnirBUiLDiXG will be found a descrip-
tion of the principal problems before
the naval architect, and especially those
arising from the substitution of iron
and steel for wood as materials of
construction, and the use of steam
256
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
as a motive power in place of sails.
The construction of a vessel of great
cargo-carrying capacity, or, in the
case of a war vessel, one of the maxi-
mum offensive power, is important
as influencing the final success of the
craft when launclied. This involves the
consideration of Tonnage, Displace-
ment, Stability, Arjige Plate, Ar-
mament, etc. These features and their
relations one to another will be shown
by consulting the titles in the following
list:
Ship
Shipbuilding
Navigation
Steam Navigation
Steam Engine
Steam Turbine
Buoyancy
Stability
Metacentre
Resistance
Displacement
Tonnage
Measurement of Ships for Ton-
nage
Lloyds
Al"
The various parts of a vessel are al-
most infinite in number. The articles
Shipbuilding, Steam Navigation,
and Ship will tell of these various parts
and describe how the skill of naval
ai'chitect and shipbuilder unites them
into one congruous whole. Such parts,
however, often ])ossess distinct features
and ciiaracteristics which need separate
treatment, and these are included in
tlic following list:
Beak
Bilge
Beam
Bottom
Bow
Bridge
Bulkhead
Bulwark
Cockpit
Companion
Deck
Figureliead
Gangway
Hawse
Helm
Hold
Keel
Keelson
Paddle-WHieel
Poop
Screw Propeller
To gain a good idea of the rigging
of a ship and the names of masts, sails,
etc., the best plan is to consult the plate
accompanying the article Ship, where
all the various parts of the rigging
of a full-rigged ship are indicated and
specified. There are various topics con-
nected with sails and rigging that are
described and their functions shown
in brief articles. Such a list includes
the following :
Belay
Boom
Bowsprit
Brace
Brail
Clip Hooks
Crow's-Nest
Gaff
Halliards
Jib
Jury
Lateen Sail
Lug-Sail
Mast
Rigging
Sail
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
257
Spanker
Sprit
Stay
Connected with the ship, but not fall-
ing in any of the above classes, are
many essentials such as the Anchor,
the Binnacle, the Davit, etc. These
adjuncts are specially designed for
specific purposes, which the reader nat-
urally desires to understand. The fol-
lowing list includes some of the more
important subjects in such a grouping:
Anchor
Ballast
Batten
Bells
Binnacle
Block
Bridle
Buoy
Burton
Cable
Canvas
Capstan
Cat
Cofferdam
Controller
Cordage
Davit
Fender
Ground-Tackle
Kedge
Knotting and Splicing
Lifeboat
Life Buoy
Life-Prescrvers
Life-Rafts
Life-Saving Guns and Rockets
Life-Saving Service
Lights
Marling Spike
Oakum
Purchase
Rope
Tackle
Wheel
Winch
Windlass
Navigation.
Navigation involves the conducting
of a vessel from one port to another by
making use of charts, the position of
various heavenly bodies as determined
by the navigator, and such other data
as he can obtain by observation and
calculation. In general this is con-
tained in the article Navigation, but
further details and explanations are
given of incidental topics. The follow-
ing list will be found by the reader suf-
ficiently comprehensive :
Navigation
Latitude and Longitude
Sailings
Compass
Reckoning
Dead Reckoning
Day's Work
Departure
Deviation
Rhumb Line
Meridian
IMap
Loxodrome
Chart
Coast Pilot
Bowditch's Practical Navigator
Almanac
Ephemeris
Pilot Chart
Protractor
Sextant
Quadrant
Vernier
Seamanship.
Seamanship may be distinguished
258
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
from navigation as dealing with the
actual practice, rather than the theory,
involving the handling of vessels
and the means taken to insure their
safety. Thus, under this head, is dis-
cussed such important subjects as the
Rules of the Road, the use of the
Log, Jacking, jibing, mooring, and
the various manoeuvres and operations
carried on at sea and in port. These
hardly fall in a logical order, but the
more important are contained in the
following list :
Tacking and Wearing
Jibe
Boxhauling
Lee
Leeway
Moor, Mooring
Log
Log-Book
Helm
Steering
Port
Larboard
Starboard
Bearing
Maritime Law.
Vessels sailing on the high seas are
governed by rules and usages which
have given rise to a body of laws
known as admiralty and maritime law.
Furthermore, such vessels are required
to observe the statutes of the countries
whose flags they fly, and such formal-
ities as are duly prescribed. Con-
nected with such governmental regu-
lations, are those of marine under-
writers and insurance principles, form-
ing a large department of maritime
law. Interests at sea are also consid-
ered by intcniational law, and prizes
and privateering arc subjects which it
must consider. A grouping of inter-
esting topics in these more or less re-
lated branches is as follows :
International Law
Admiralty Law
Maritime Law
Navigation Laws
Navigation, Freedom of
Ship's Papers
Manifest
Bill of Lading
Clearance
Bill of Health
Charter-Party
Cargo
Freight
Demurrage
Admiralty, The
Bounty
Collisions of Vessels
Bottomry Bond
Respondentia
Salvage
Derelict
Wharfage
Jettison
Barratry
Quarantine
JNIarine Insurance
Lloyds
Al
Measurement of Sliips for Tonnage
Tonnage
Load-Line Marks of Vessels
Privateering
Prize
Prize Courts
Desertion
As the sailor must make his base of
operations on shore, it is proper to
consider such subjects as Navy
Yards, Docks, etc., where he may
secure suppHes and protection. The
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE
259
following list indicates certain articles
that will be of assistance in this
respect :
Navy Yard
Dockyards, Royal
Arsenal
Reef
Harbor
Breakwater
Dock
Wharf
Torpedo Station
Qllfapt^r 25* iM^Jitrm^
THE dissemination of some medical knowledge among the laity is a
matter of inestimable social importance. Popular ignorance on
the subjects of hygiene, the prevention of disease, and the care of
the sick, places many widespread evils sadly beyond the power
of the medical profession. The average man's failure, moreover, to
appreciate clearly the soundness of the principles and methods of medical science
invites the appearance in tlie community of various mystical, or mystifying,
quacks, claiming to know therapeutic methods of all but miraculous efficiency, and
offering to sell medicines which, like the philosopher's stone once vainly sought
by the alchemists, possess unlimited curative powers. Honest and valuable
knowledge to-day has no secrets, and, notwithstanding, or rather because of, really
considerable development, is professedly aware of its limitations. Perhaps,
therefore, the clearest mark of the impostor or incompetent is the alleged posses-
sion of secrets or of methods of universal applicability. Nor will the cunning
theories, widely advertised in support of such allegations, appear at all reasonable
to the man who has familiarized himself with the main principles and facts of
scientific — that is, rational — medicine.
The lists of articles presented in the following pages map out a complete
course of systematic reading in medicine. A true understanding of tlie purely
medical subjects, even in their elementary aspects, is possible only after the
acquisition of some knowledge of the general biological sciences and of chemistry.
Thus, human anatomy is best understood if studied in connection with compara-
tive anatomy. Physiology is more or less obscure if studied without a prelim-
inary knowledge of the general principles of chemistry and biology, and, again,
human physiology should be studied in connection with the physiology of tlie
lower animals. Even general botany presents a number of points of the highest
interest to the student of human anatomy and physiology. Should the assiduous
reader of the Encyclopaedia desire to familiarize himself with tlicse and cognate
subjects, the present volume will readily afford the necessary guidance. We
would especially call attention to the psychological articles on the special senses
and faculties, without which the physiological functions of the brain and nervous
system cannot be thoroughly understood. Further, a large number of chemico-
physiological articles on special foods, and of articles on subjects of veterinary
medicine, will be found listed in the chapter Agriculture, Horticulture, and
Forestry, those articles having been prepared for the Encyclopa'dia by the food
and veterinary experts of the United States Department of Agriculture.
The classification of the medical subjects proper, on which the lists below
are based, and the order of sequence of the subjects in the lists themselves, are
tliose adopted by the best medical authorities, with slight modifications to
suit the distribution of subject-matter in the Encyclopiedia. The only consid-
erable deviations from general usage are in the case of anatomy and physiology,
the two being somewhat closely interwoven in the Encyclopa'dia and therefore,
here, too, arranged as one joint subject. The listed articles comprise a complete
260
MEDICINE 261
treatment of essentials. The reader desiring more detailed information on par-
ticular bones, muscles, nerves, etc., will be guided to the special articles on such
subjects by cross-references in the articles listed.
The only lists in which the order of sequence of the topics is not according
to some recognized system are those under " Symptoms and Morbid Conditions "
(division. Pathology and Therapeutics) and "Diseases of the Skin" (divi-
sion. Diseases of the Nose and Throat, Ear, Eye, Skin, and the Gcnito-Urinary
System). The former list comprises those symptoms and morbid conditions
that are common to more than one class of diseases and that could not, there-
fore, be included in the somewhat rigidly classified lists preceding. On the
other hand, the orders of sequence of skin diseases usually adopted in special
medical works are practically useless. It was, therefore, deemed best in both
cases to preserve the alphabetical order — for convenience of reference. The list
of " Drugs " (division, Materia Medica) includes all the pharmacopceial prep-
arations in frequent use. A number of rarer drugs may be found described in
the articles on chemical subjects.
The biographies of famous medical men are arranged in the order of his-
torical sequence and, together with the articles listed under " History," form a
complete presentation of the history of medicine — a truly fascinating subject.
Interesting historical detail will also be found in the articles on all medical topics
of any importance. The inclusion of such historical articles as Bath, Barber,
Empiric, Derivation, Black Death, Plague, Inoculation, etc., would have
swelled the lists unnecessarily.
1. Introductory Articles. Malpractice
Medical Education Medicine
Homoeopathy H. Anatomy and Physiology.
Eclectic School of Medicine -, ^ , ^ ,• ,
_, . . „ 1. General Articles:
Nurses, T. raining ot
Chnic Anatomy
Hospital Physiology
Dispensary 2. Bones, Muscles, and Ligaments :
Ambulance Bone
Insane Asylum Cartilage
Bedlam Marrow
Gheel Periosteum
Epileptic Colony Suture
Vital Statistics Ossification
Sanitary Laws Skeleton
Health, Boards of Skull
Contagious Diseases Spinal Column
Hippocratic Oath Rib
Medical Code Sternum
262
MEDICINE
Muscle and Muscular Tissue
Tendon
Ligament
Flesh
Muscular Force
Diaphragm
Joint
Shoulder-Joint
Arm
Hand
Hip-Joint
Thigh
Knec-Joint
Patella
Leg
Foot
3. Cavities:
Skull
Chest
Abdomen
Pelvis
4. Nervous St/stem and Brain:
Nervous System and Brain
Cerebro-Spinal Fluid
Inhibition
5. Circulatory System:
Circulation
Heart
Blood-Vcssels
Artery
Pulse
Aorta
Innominate Artery
Carotid Artery
Iliac Arteries
Blood
Blushing
6. Respiratory System:
Respiration, Organs and Pro-
cess of
Pharynx
Larynx >
Voice
Trachea
Bronchus
Asphyxia
7. Alimentary System:
AUmentary System
Digestion, Organs and Pro-
cesses of
Food
Nutrition
Teeth
Pharynx
Salivary Gland
CEsophagus
Stomach
Pepsin
Intestine
Peristaltic Motion
Pancreas
Pancreatin
Liver
Bile
Bi'unner's Glands
Absorption
Colon
Cscum
Vermiform Appendix
Rectum
Anus
Faces
8. Genito-Urinary System:
Puberty
Menstruation
Climacteric Year
Reproduction
Ovary
Fallopian Tubes
Uterus
Vagina
Bartholin's Glands
Breast
Kidney
Ureter
Bladder
MEDICINE 263
Urethra
, 12. Embryology:
Urine
Embryology, Human
9. Special Senses:
Epigenesis
Nose
Embryo
Eye
Foetus
Ear
T'on CPU p
13. Physiological Subjects not in-
Touch
cluded Above:
Chemistry, Physiological
10. Ductless Glands and
Lymphatic
Life, Mean Duration of
Structures:
Rigor Mortis
Thyroid Gland
Longevity
Thymus Gland
Metabolism
Suprarenal Capsules
Animal Heat
Pituitary Body
Temperature of the Body
Spleen
Sleep
Tonsil
Hypnoscope
Lymphatic
Sex
Thoracic Duct
Sensation
Lacteal
Secretion
Chyle
Vivisection
Lymph
Vegetarianism
11. Tissues:
III. Hygiene and Prophylactic
Histology
Methods.
Epithelium
Hygiene
Gland
Sanitary Laws
Skin
Sanitary Science
Hair
Health
Sweat
Immunity
Nail
Quarantine
Scalp
Disinfectants
Membrane
Heating and Ventilation
Mucous IVIembrane
Water Supply
Connective Tissue
Water Purification
Adipose Tissue
Sewage Disposal
Endothelium
Food
Serous Membrane
Diet
Pericardium
Infants, Feeding of
Pleura
Wine
Mesentery
Sterilized Food
Peritoneum
Exercise
Periosteum
Physical Training
Muscle and Muscular
Tissue
Bath
Nervous System and Brain
Vaccination
264
MEDICINE
IV. Pathology and Thekapeutics.
1. General Articles:
Pathology
Therapeutics
Disease
Nosology
Disease, Germ Theory of
Distribution of Diseases
Congenital Disease
Degeneration
Intennarriage
Filth Disease
Endemic
Epidemic
Infection
Infectious Disease
Insects, Propagation of Disease
by
Bacteria
Microscopy, Clinical
Toxin
Virus
Homoeopathy
Eclectic School of Medicine
Christian Science
Osteopathy
2. Specific Infectious Diseases:
Typhoid Fever
Typhus Fever
Relapsing Fever
Smallpox
Chicken Pox
Scarlet Fever
Measles
Mumps
Whooping Cough
Influenza
Dengue
Meningitis
Erysipelas
Diphtheria
Croup
Septicaemia
Pyaemia
Cholera
Yellow Fever
Black Vomit
Plague
Dysentery
Malaria and ]\Ialarial Fever
Ague
Jungle Fever
Malignant Pustule
Anthrax
Intermittent Fever
Remittent Fever
Hydrophobia
Tetanus
Trismus Nascentium
Syphilis
Tuberculosis
Scrofula
Glanders
Actinomycosis
Febricula
Malta Fever
3. Constitutional Diseases:
Rheumatism
Lumbago
Gout
Diabetes
Rickets
Scurvy
Purpura
Ha?mophilia
Obesity
4. Diseases of the Alimentary Sys-
tem:
Mouth, Diseases of the
Aphthae
Pharyngitis
Quinsy
Qilsopliagiis
Stomach, Diseases of the
Gastritis
Dyspepsia
MEDICINE
265
Indigestion
Enteritis
Gastro-Enteritis
Cholera Infantum
Mesentery
Liver, Diseases of the
5. Diseases of the Respiratory Sys-
tem:
Rhinitis
Hay Fever
Laryngitis
Bronchitis
Asthma
Tuberculosis
Pneumonia
Pleurisy
Hydrothorax
6. Diseases of the Circulatory Sys-
tem:
Heart, Diseases of the
Pericarditis
Endocarditis
Myocarditis
Palpitation
Angina Pectoris
Atheroma
Arterio-Sclerosis
7. Diseases of the Blood and Duct-
less Glands:
Anaemia
Chlorosis
Leucocythaemia
Goitre
Cretinism
Myxoedema
Basedow's Disease
Acromegaly
Addison's Disease
8. Diseases of the Kidneys :
Kidney, Diseases of the
Bright's Disease
Uraemia
Diseases of the Nervous System
and Brain:
Neurology
Nervous Disease
Nervousness
Paralysis
Neuritis
Sciatica
Facial Paralysis
Caisson Disease
Myelitis
Locomotor Ataxia
Syringomyelia
Brain, Diseases of the
Aphasia
Apoplexy
Hemiplegia
Hydrocephalus
Paralysis Agitans
Chorea
Epilepsy
Hystero-Epilepsy
Migraine
Neuralgia
Facial Neuralgia
Neurosis
Occupation Neurosis
Hysteria
Sea-Sickness
Neurasthenia
Hypochondriasis
Rest-Cure
Acromegaly
Stammering
Nostalgia
Fatuity
Imbecility
Idiocy
Insanity
Delirium
Dipsomania
Melancholia
Mania
Paranoia
266
MEDICINE
Monomania
Pyromania
Kleptomania
Homicidal Mania
Puerperal Insanity
Paresis
Lucid Interval
Imitative Insanity
10. Parasitic Diseases:
Parasitic Diseases
Worms
Oxyuris
Trichiniasis
Sleeping-sickness
Filaria
Lumbricoid
Tapeworm
11. Symptoms and Morbid Condi-
tions :
Albuminuria
Amblyopia
AmenorrliCEa
Anosmia
Aphonia
Arcus Senilis
Asthenopia
Bedsores
Breath, Offensive
Cachexia
Catalepsy
Catarrh
Colic
Coma
Congestion
Constipation
Convulsion
Coughing
Cramp
Crisis
Cyanosis
Degeneration
Diarrhoea
Dropsy
Ecchymosis
Embolism
Epistaxis
Fainting
Fatty Degeneration
Fever
Formication
Haematuria
Ha?mopt}'sis
Headache
Heat-Stroke
Hectic Fever
Hemiopia
Hiccough
HypersEsthesia
Hypertrophy
Insomnia
Jaundice
Knee-jerk
Leucorrhoea
Meningitis
Muscffi Volitantes
Nausea
OEdema
Osteomalacia
Oxaluria
Papule
Pectoriloquy
Petechia
Pleurodynia
Polydipsia
Pulse
Purpura
Pyrosis
Respiratory Sounds
Senility
Sitophobia
Skin Disease
Spasm
Starvation
Sweat
Symptom
Tenesmus
Thirst
MEDICINE
267
Tinnitus Aurium
Urine, Incontinence of
Vertigo
Vomiting
Waxy, or Amyloid Degeneration
12. Diagnostic and Therapeutic
Methods and Instruments:
Diagnosis
Percussion
Auscultation
Stethoscope
Dynamometer
Axillary Thermometer
Temperature of the Body
X-Rays
Microscopy, Clinical
Laryngoscope
Ophthalmoscope
Therapeutics
Diet
Exercise
Movement Cure
Hydrotherapy
Massage
Rest-Cure
Transfusion of Blood
Venesection
V. Surgery, Gynecology, and Ob-
stetrics.
1. General Articles:
Surgery
Surgery, Military
Obstetrics
2. General Surgical Pathology:
Inflammation
Suppuration
Pus
Abscess
Boil
Felon
Carbuncle
Ulcer
Phagedena
Sinus
Fistula
Necrosis
Gangrene
Caries
Adhesion
Cicatrization
Bruise
Wound
Gunshot Wound
Dissection Wounds
Burns and Scalds
Frostbite
Tumor
Cyst
Hydatid
Actinomycosis
Adenitis
Septicemia
Pyaemia
Shock
3. General Surgical Technique:
Anaesthesia
Antiseptic
Acupressure
Acupuncture
Bleeding
Drainage Tubes
Ligature
Suture
Tourniquet
■ Puerperal Fever
Abortion
Forceps
Embryotomy
Csesarean, or Cssarian, Opera-
tion
4. Pathology of Special Structures:
Artery
Aneurism
Phlebitis
Varicose Vein
Thrombosis
Embolism
268
MEDICINE
Nerve-Stretching
Fracture
Callus
Osteomyelitis
Periostitis
Splint
Amputation
Sprain
Synovitis
Arthritis
Housemaid's Knee
Ankylosis
Dislocation
Resection
Wen
Keloid
Chapped Hands
Bunion
Corn
Skin-Grafting
5. Orthopadic Surgery:
Deformities
Wry-Neck
Pott's Disease
Spine, Curvature of the
Hip-Joint
Knock-Knee
Leg
Valgus
Varus
Clubfoot
Tenotomy
Artificial Limbs
6. Regional Surgery, Including
Gynecology :
Encephalocele
Concussion of the Brain
Trephine, Trephining
Rhinoplastic Operation
Harelip
Ranula
Dentistry
Laryngotomy
Tracheotomy
Choking
Mammary Gland, Diseases of
Rib, Fracture of the
Pleurisy
Empyema
Peritonitis
Gastrostomy
Umbilical Hernia
Hernia
Truss
Intussusception
Laparotomy
Vermiform Appendix
Perityphlitis
Ovary
Nephrotomy
Nephrectomy
Calculus, or Stone
Lithotrity
Lithotomy
Castration
Rectum, Diseases of the
Prolapsus Ani
Piles
Spina Bifida
Uterus, Diseases of the
Prolapsus Uteri
7. Obstetrics:
Obstetrics
Gestation
Superfcetation and Superfecun-
dation
Placenta
Caul
Umbilical Cord
Meconium
Weaning
Agalactia
Electricity, Medical Uses of
Compressed- Air Treatment
Respiration, Artificial
Resuscitation
Stomach-Pump
Cupping
MEDICINE
269
Lcecliing
Organotherapy
Serum Therapy
Antitoxin
Tubercuhn
Hypnotism
Hypodermic Medication
VI. Diseases of the Nose and
Thkoat, Ear, Eye, Skin, and
THE GeNITO-UkINARY SYS-
TEM.
1. Diseases of the Nose and Throat:
Rhinitis
Epistaxis
Ozena
Polypus
Throat, Affections of the
Larynx, Diseases of the
Laryngitis
2. Diseases of the Ear:
Ear
Deafness
Cerumen
Otitis Media
Otorrlicea
Otalgia
S. Diseases of the Eye:
Eye, Diseases of the
Blindness
Ectropion
Entropion
Stye
Trichiasis
Conjunctivitis
Ophthalmia
Blepharitis
Cornea
Leucoma
Staphyloma
Iritis
Glaucoma
Cataract
Retinitis
Nyctalopia
Color-Blindncss
Optic Neuritis
Sight, Defects of
Myopia
Hyperopia
Astigmatism
Heterophoria
Strabismus
4. Diseases of the Skin:
Acarus Folliculorum
Acne
Alopecia
Bromidrosis
Corn
Ecthyma
Eczema
Erythema
Favus
Hair
Ichthyosis
Impetigo
Itch
Leprosy
Lichen
Lupus
Naevus
Pemphigus
Pityriasis
Plica
Prurigo
Psoriasis
Ringworm
Rupia
Seborrhoea
Sycosis
Tinea
Vitiligo
Wart
Yaws
5. Diseases of the Genito-Urinary
System:
Cystitis
Calculus, or Stone
Extravasation
270
MEDICINE
Prostate Gland
GonorrhcEa
Stricture
Hydrocele
Varicocele
Syphilis
Circumcision
VII. Materia Medica.
1. General Articles:
Materia Medica
Pharmacopoeia
Toxicology
Prescription
2. Preparation of Drugs:
Tincture
Pill
Liniment
Lotion
Plasters
Infusion
Extract
Percolation
Suppository
Unguent
Ointment
Elixir
3. Classification of Drugs:
Alterative
Tonic
Excitant
Narcotics
Sedatives
Hypnotics
Ana-sthetic
Anodyne
Antipyretic
Febrifuge
Expectorant
Stimulants
Gargle
Emetics
Anti-Emetic
Bitters
Antacids
Carminatives
Cholagogue
Laxative
Purgatives
Cathartic
Hydragogues
Anthelmintic
Diuretics
Diaphoretics
Anhidrotics
Antispasmodic
Astringents
Demulcents
Diluents
Aphrodisiac
Anaphrodisiacs
Emmenagogues
Oxytocics
Irritant
Rubefacients ^
Refrigerants
Depilatories
Disinfectants
Poison
Antidote
4. Drugs:
Quinine
Mercury, Medicinal uses of
Iodine
Iodides
Bromides
Arseftic
Iron
Colchicum
Colchicine
Salicylic Acid
Salicylates, Medical Uses of the
Salicin
Sulphur, Medical Uses of
Fern, Male
Kamala
Santonin
Goa Powder '
MEDICINE
271
Chrysarobin
Phosphorus
Alcohol, Physiological and Poi-
sonous Action of
Absinthe
Hashish
Opium
Laudanum
Paregoric
Dover's Powder
Morphine
Chloral
Paraldehyde
Hypnal
Sulphonal
Trional
Urethane
Hemlock
Coniine
Curari
Chloroform
Ether, or Di-Ethyl-Ether
Nitrous Oxide
Cocaine
Digitalis
Nux Vomica
Strychnine
Strophanthus
Valerian
Sparteine
Aconite
Hellebore
Veratrine
Tobacco
Amyl Nitrite
Nitroglycerin
Belladonna
Atropine
Homatropine
Sal Ammoniac
Heroin
Guaiacol
Creosotol
Calumba
Sodium
Lime, or Calcium Oxide
Apomorphine
Asafoetida
Senna
Cascara Sagrada
Castor Oil
Blue Pill
Calomel
Rhubarb
Aloes
Seidlitz Powders
Rochelle Salt
Epsom Salt
Jalap
Colocynth
Elatcrium
Elaterin
Bismuth
Lead
Lunar Caustic
Diuretin
Copaiba
Methylene Blue
Salol
Jaborandi
Iodoform
Carbolic Acid
Sulphurous Acid
Antipyrine
Phenacetine
Acetanilid
Matzoon
Cod-Liver Oil
Lanolin
Ichthyol
VIII. History and Biography.
1. History:
Medicine
Homoeopathy
Eclectic School of Medicine
Anatomy
Histology
272
MEDICINE
Physiology
Hygiene
Pathology
Disease, Germ Theory of
Therapeutics
Surgery
Surgery, Military
Obstetrics
Dentistry
2. Biography:
Hippocrates
Galen, or Claudius Galenus
Aretasus
Avicenna
Linacre, or Lynaker, Thomas
Paracelsus
Fracastoro, Girolamo
Fallopio, or Fallopius, Gabriel
Vesalius, Andreas
Eustachio, Bartolommeo
Pare, Ambroise
Fabricius, or Fabrizio, Girolamo
Harvey, William
Sydenham, Thomas
Pecquet, Jean
Graaf , Regnicr de
Willis, Thomas
Malpighi, Marcello
RadclifFe, John
Leeuwenhoek, Antonius van
Bocrhaave, Hermann
Hoffmann, Fricdrich
Sloane, Sir Hans
Morgagni, Giovanni Battista
Swieten, Gerard van
Haller, Albrecht von
Pott, Percival
Brown, John
Cullcn, William
Hunter, John
Perkins, Elisha
Aucnbruggcr, von, or Aucn-
brugg, Leopold
Mesmer, Franz, or Friedrich-
Anton
Bell, John
Jenner, Edward
fiaillie, Matthew
Pinel, Philippe
Post, Wright
Gall, Franz Joseph
Soemmering, Samuel Thomas
von
Scarpa, Antonio
Spurzheim, Johann Kaspar
Hufeland, Christoph Wilhelm
Physick, Philip Syng
Broussais, Franfois Joseph
Victor
Ling, Pehr Henrik
Esquirol, Jean Etienne Domi-
nique
Cooper, Sir Astley Paston
Larrey, Dominique Jean
Bell, Sir Charles
Hahnemann, Samuel
DiefFenbach, Johann Friedrich
Wells, Horace
Morton, Samuel George
Priessnitz, Vincenz
Beaumont, William
Orfila, Matthieu Joseph Bona-
venture
Graves, Robert James
Ennemoser, Joseph
Magendie, Francois
Warren, John Collins
Amussat, Jean Zulema
Hall, Marshall
Bright, Richard
Miiller, Johannes
Forbes, Sir John
Francis, John Wakefield
Wagner, Rudolph
Mott, Valentine
Qiiain, Jones
Lawrence, Sir William
MEDICINE
273
Flourens, Marie Jean Pierre
Goodsir, John
Morton, William Thomas Green
Syme, James
Simpson, Sir James Young
Parrish, Edward
Holland, Sir Henry
Winslow, Forbes (Benignus)
Andral, Gabriel
Rokitansky, Karl, Baron
Bernard, Claude
Peaslee, Edmund Randolph
Long, Crawford W.
Wood, George Bacon
Taylor, Alfred Swaine
Seguin, Edouard Onesimus
Broca, Paul
Sims, James Marion
Parker, Willard
Gross, Samuel D.
Draper, John Christopher
Post, Alfred Charles
Flint, Austin
Kneeland, Samuel
Gray, John Perdue
Quain, Richard
Langenbeck, Bernhard Rudolph
von
Parker, Peter
Sands, Henry Berton
Ricord, Philippe
Taylor, Isaac Ebenezer
Owen, Sir Richard
Earle, Pliny
Mackenzie, Sir Morell
Peters, John Charles
Moleschott, Jacob
Charcot, Jean Martin
Brown-Sequard, Charles Edouard
Pasteur, Louis
Tuke, Daniel Hack
Loomis, Alfred Lee
Dubois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich
Kneipp, Sebastian
Lusk, William Thompson
Quain, Sir Richard
Hart, Ernest Abraham
Pepper, William
Seguin, Edward Constant
Paget, Sir James
Taylor, Charles Fayette
Hammond, William Alexander
Virchow, Rudolph
Kussmaul, Adolph
Thomas, Theodore Gaillard
Davis, Nathan Smith
Thompson, Sir Henry
Esmarch, Johannes Friedrich
August von
Guernsey, Egbert
Lister, Sir Joseph
Emmet, Thomas Addis
Mitchell, Silas Weir
Jacobi, Abraham
Turner, Sir William
Recklinghausen, Friedrich von
Flint, Austin, Jr.
Smith, Andrew Heermance
Sternberg, George Miller
Carpenter, William Benjamin
Hansen, Gerard Henrik Armauer
Janeway, Edward Gamaliel
King, Albert Freeman Africanus
Wood, Horatio Curtis
Rayleigh, John William Strutt,
Baron
Koch, Robert
Laveran, Charles Louis Alphonse
Morton, William James
McBurney, Charles
Trudeau, Edward Livingston
Morselli, Enrico Agostino
Spitzka, Edward Charles
Lorenz, Adolph
Starr, Moses Allen
Horsley, Victor Alexander Haden
Peterson, Frederick
Manson, Patrick
fflljapt^r 2fi. (BnmtB anh ^pnrts
A
LL peoples indulge in exercises of strength, of skill, of bodily and
mental agility, or of fortune, and often these mimic the more serious
pursuits of life, or consist in these very pursuits indulged in for
pleasurable purposes only.
1. The capture and slaying
of
Canoe and Canoeing
animals has remained a source
of
Yachting
pleasure long after it has ceased
to
Houseboating
be the chief business of life.
See:
(b)
Skating
(a) Shooting
Ice Polo
Archery
Ice Yachting
Trapping
Curling
Coursing
(c) Snowshoeing
Battue
Skiing
Tiger-hunting
4.
Useful to man in labors, the horse
Deer-stalking
is his great companion in numerous
Fox-hunting
V
sport
:s. See:
Falconry
Horsemanship
Game Laws
Coaching
Game Preserves
Driving
(b) Angling
Trotting
Bait-fishing
Pacing
Salmon-fishing
Horse-racing
Trolling
Stud-book
Trout-fishing
Derby Day
Fly-Casting
Steeple chasing
2. The mimicry of war
is
also
Polo
found in contests between
men
or
Hippodrome
animals, or men and animals.
See:
5.
Of the instruments entering into
Pugilism
popi:
liar games, the ball, in various
Boxing
shapes, is by far the most common and
Wrestling
the most widespread. See:
Fencing
Bowls
Cock-fighting
Baseball
Bear-baiting
Indoor Baseball
Bull-fight
Cricket
3. Water, both in its common state
Golf
and in the forms of ice and snow.
fur-
Croquet
nishes many forms of sport
to primi-
Hockey
tive and civilized man. See:
La Crosse
(a) Swimming
Polo
Rowing
Football
274
GAMES
AND SPORTS 275
Basketball
Craps
Handball
(0
Roulette
Pelota
'
Racquets
7.
For the great intellectual games
Tennis
par (
2xcellcnce, see:
Lawn Tennis
Chess
Court Tennis
Checkers
Ping-Pong
and for cognate games:
Billiards
Backgammon
Bagatelle
Dominoes
6. In games of chance, the card and
8.
Miscellaneous sports and games:
the die in varying forms are univers-
Cycling
ally found. In the case of cards,
how-
Mountain Climbing
ever, chance often plays the minor
Coasting
part and the game assumes a hi
ighly
Toboggan
intellectual character. See:
Shufflcboard
(o) Cards
Quoits
Whist
9.
The general subject is treated
Bridge
under :
Pinochle
Athletics
Skat
Gymnastics
Ecarte
Physical Culture
Piquet
Amateur
Bezique
Handicapping
Cribbage
Sports, Book of
Euchre
Games, Ancient
Solitaire
Gymkhana
Poker
Olympic Games
Baccarat
Pythian Games
Rouge et Nolr
Nemea
Fan-tan
Gladiator
(b) Dice
Circus
Hazard
Acrobat
mm
^1^^^
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