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GENERAL HISTORY

MODERN EUROPE

A GENERAL IIISTOM

MODERN EUROPE,

FEOM THE

BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY TO
THE COUNCIL OF THE VATICAN.

THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED,

By JOHN G. SHEA.

P. J. KENEDY, rUBLISnER,
5 Barclay Steeet,

■otervd accordlnft to Act nf Confrreiw to the year IVM^

Br T. W. BTKONG,

I Um Clerk's Offlco of ttao District G>art of tlio United States for the Sonthara
DlBtrlctorNewYwk.

PREFACE

TO THE SECOND AMERICAN EDITIOX.

In preparing a new edition of this history and con-
tinuing it to the present time, the editor has sought to
conform as far as possible to the plan and spirit of the
original work. The alterations which he has permitted
himself to make, are chiefly to remove what seemed to
partake of national bias. The work itself is too well
known to need any approval here. The first edition in
this country was published at the express request of
one, who stands at the height of his profession, then and
now deeply interested in the education of youth. The
author wrote from necessity. Employed in teaching,
it was soon evident that no safe work on the period
could be procured. Histories, indeed, are to be met
with of every size and form: but prejudice, passion,
prevention, and party spirit, have given birth to so
many of them, that when we reflect, we must admit
the charge once boldly made by an eminent modern
writer: "History during the last three centuries has
been one vast conspiracy against truth."

IV PREFACE TO THE SECOND AMERICAN EDITION.

The author has happily succeeded in supplying the
want. For advanced classes in schools, no better work
can be adopted : as a book for the library and the gen-
eral reader, it is perhaps still more valuable. It is not a
mere barren compendium ; it furnishes, what many will
deem in sufficient detail, a clear, bold account of tho
period in which all the great questions of modern times
have arisen, affecting the governments, society, and lit-
erature of the age in which we live.

Hew Yobk, Januarj'i 1870.

HISTOET OF MODERN EUROPE.

PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.

RETROSPECT OF THE STATE OF EUROPE. — ITS STATE FROM THE
BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY TO THE TREATY OP
BLOIs.

The early part of the sixteenth century forms the cora-
inencement of a new and eventful era in the annals of man-
kind, which may properly be termed the modern period.

From the time of their conversion to Christianity, the
«emi-barbarous nations which were spread over the north and
middle of Europe had been making slow but steady progress
m civilization and the refinements of social life, chiefly, if
not altogether, under the influence of the church. Learning,
arts and sciences had been introduced by her ministers : their
buildings were the first specimens of architecture ; they were
the literati, the repositories of all archives, and as such often
made umpires and arbiters by the rude warriors, who, when
not called to the field by their liege lord, were almost con-
stantly at variance with some neighbouring baron. Among
them the church soon assumed a feudal form, and the Pope,
as paramount head of the church, was appealed to as the liege
lord of Christendom, by a necessary consequence of the de-
velopment of the feudal idea. This power was used on the
whole for the general good, and many a war was stopped by
a decision of the Holy See, which now may excite surprise.
But it was not only between prince and prince, or baron and
baron, that the church exercised this authority. The cry of
the oppressed or of the serf procured her interference, and it
was seldom ineffectual. In her bosom rank was forgotten : the
peasant might become primate or even pope, and as many
did, their natural efforts were to elevate the lower classes.

li HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE.

A great impulse to gradual advancement was given b^' the
Crusades, themselves a proof of" the great and general power
of the church. Calling together large ho'lies of men of dif-
ferent nations, they dillused among all, the aeiiiiironieiits
separately made by each, and above all, by centralizing
power, they put a stop to those interminable wars, which
were constantly arming petty states against each other, and
the vassal against his lord. Although they failed in their
great object, the Crusades opened to the West the science, re-
finement and arts of the East. The energies they had awak-
ened soon found employment in other channels. A spirit of
commercial activity arose, and commercial undertakings were
planned on a scale hitherto unknown, yet constantly extend-
ing. In opposition to this moneyed spirit, rose a reaction in
the church in favor of poverty : every idea was now in ac-
tivity : palaces, hospitals, vast commercial houses, monaste-
ries, schools, universities, and ever-increasing fleets of well-
built ships showed the state of general prosperity, while
the numerous guilds and associations of mechanics proved
that they were also rising in social importance and
power.

Amid this progress the Popes were not idle : to the en-
couragement which they held out to talent in all its branches,
may be traced the rapid progress made in learning and tho
fine arts from the beginning of the thirteenth century ;
during the first fifty years of which, universities had been
founded in five of the principal cities of Italy, then the centre
of commerce and manufactures, and to them students re-
sorted from all parts of Europe. Hospitals and other chari-
table foundations had Ixjcn erected and endowed, and those
magnificent churches, the architectural Ijcauty of which has
been an object of admiration to succeeding ages, raised their
pointed spires to heaven.

Later still, the invention of paper, and then of printing in
the fifteenth century, gave ardent minds a means of extend-
ing the spirit of progress, speculation, and insubonlinalion,
and flung to the people at large what had }>cen immured in
universities and convents. The invention of the compiiss
threw open to Portugal an easy passage to the rich realms of
the East, and disclosed to reluctant S[iain a new world be-
yond the western ocean.* The voyjiges t<> India and Anus.

• While tho Portiif^o8e. under tho nonccfiil nile of iCrniiniifl, wore
employed iu tnakiDg aajuiDltiotu \u tbv Euut, uiid ii]>|)ru|>rialiiii^ to Ihuiii-

HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE. iti

rica awakened a spirit of adventure, and a desire for novelty,
which, with the general laxity of manners and a constantly in-
creasing spirit of uneasiness of control, argued great changea
in the state of Europe.

About the close of the fifteenth century this progressive
movement produced its result. Europe had been, as we have
seen, a kind of commonwealth, of which, for certain purposes
the Pope was a kind of president. His political power hac
now ceased : the various European states had acquired firm
ness and solidity : their governments were completely organ
ized and generally despotic :' their intercourse with each othei
more frequent and diplomatic : their thrones were held, not
by gallant knights, but by cautious statesmen. Their
interests, till then, individual and distinct, now became so
completely interwoven, as to render the history of each, to
some extent the history of all, as no war of importance
could take place between two states without the intervention
of others. No general umpire was now acknowledged, but
a system of policy grew up, the fundamental doctrine of
which is a balance of power among the leading states of
Europe.

selves the most lucrative commerce of the then known world, the Span-
iards discovered a new continent towards the West, of which Columbus,
a Genoese navigator, who resided in Lisbon, conceived the first idea. Ilia
countrymen, whom he proposed to put into possession of another hemi-
sphere, treated him as a visionaiy : he unfolded his project, in 1484, to
the King of Portugal without success : he next applied to the court of
Spain, but Ferdinand and Isabella were then engaged in the conquest of
Granada, and the Spanish treasury was exliausted. Some authors relate
that Columbus, who united the stout heart of a hero with the enlightened
mind and persevering spirit of a philosopher, even made offers to Henry
VII. of England ; but that prince was unwilling, by embarking in an
adventurous enterprise, to draw money out of his exchequer, which it
was the chief business of his i-eign to enrich. At length, Ferdinand
liaving completely subjugated the Moorish Empire in Spain, by the con-

?uest of Granada, its stately capital, the enterprising spirit of Isabella
egan to sympaihise with the genius of Columbus. By her assistance
he Was furnished with a fleet, and set sail from the port of Palos, in
Andalusia, on the 3d of August, 1492, in quest of a western continent,
with the title of Admiral and Viceroy of the isles and lands which he
should discover. He prosecuted his hazardous enterprise in four differ-
ent voyages, but did not meet with the grateful return justly due to the
perils and difficulties he had happily surmounted in the ai'duous under-
taking. In 1499, Americus Vespucius, a Florentine, following the track
of the Genoese, sailed to the West. He raised his fame on the superior
merit of Columbus, and having powerful friends, had the address, or the
pride, to impose his name on the fourth pait of the terraqueous globe,
ts if be had been the first who descried it

IV msTORy OF modern europk.

This wc shall now see developing amid the chaos of reli-
gious fouds.

1500. — At this date, Spain was governed by Ferdinand and
Isabellii ; Portugal by Emanuel; Afaxiinilian I. was Enipi-rur
of Germany ; Alexander VI. sat in the chair of St. Peter ;
Bajazet 11. ruled at Constantinople, which Mahomet II., a
descendant of Othman, had taken with his Turks in 1453. In
France, the sceptre was held by Louis XII., and the crown
of England was worn by Henry VII. By his marriage with
Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., this monarch united the
conflicting claims of the houses of York and Lancaster, and
put an end to those destructive wars of the rival roses, which
for so long a period had laid England desolate, and sent the
flower of her nobility to perish in the field or on the .scaffold.
To prevent the recurrence of simihir scenes of bloodshed, he
used every endeavour to establish the validity of his claim, in
virtue of his descent from the ancient British princes of the
island, and applied soon after his accession to Pope Innocent
Vlll. to confirm his title. If this monarch's prudence degene-
rated into avarice, and led him to the commission of many
acts of injustice and extortion, it must ha allowed that he
possessed some estimaljle qualities, and that his wise policy
laid the foundation of England's future greatness. Of his
two daughters, the elder, Margaret, was married to the King
of Scots ; Mary, the younger, to Louis XII., who then occu-
pied the throne of France. Desirous also to cement a closer
friendship with Ferdinand, King of Arragon and Ca.stile, ho
afilanced his eldest son, Arthur, to Catherine, the fmrth
daughter of that monarch; and the young prince, on attaining
the age of twelve years, was married to her in St. PauT.s
church with great .solemnity. Being a sickly youth, he dic<l
a few months after, and Henry, unwilling to forfeit the un[>aid
moiety of her large dowry, proposed to unite her to his second
son: the affair, however, was not brought to a conclusion
during his lifetime. Henry VIII., at the period of his father's
death, ni 1501), was eighteen years of age, handsome in per-
son, accomplished, and exceedingly popular. His accession
to the throne was hailed by the nation as the commencement
of a new era, during which, it was hoped, this ollspring of
the blended roses would reign in peace over a united and
happy people.

The attention of Europe, at the early jiart of the century,
was chiefly engrossed by the affairs of Italy. Louis XII.,
pursuing the ambitious projects of his predeces.sor, crrisned

HISTORlr OF MODERN EUROPE. ,y

the Alps at the head of an army of 20,000 men, to assert
his claim to the duchy of Milan, in right of his grandmother,
Valentina, heiress of the house of Visconti. The reigning duke
at this period was Ludovico Sfoiza ; though the descendant
of a usurper, he had been confirmed in that dignity by the
emperor, who had married his daughter Blanche, and from
whom he might naturally have expected protection. But
Maximilian being then engaged in opposing the Swiss, who had
recently revolted from Austria, was in no condition to assist
him, and, therefore, prudently concealed his real weakness
under an affected indifference. Within the space of twenty
days, the French king made himself master of the whole
territory of Milan, and subdued the republic of Genoa ;
while the Venetians, his allies, occupied Cremona. Not satis-
fied with these important acquisitions, he entered into a league
with Ferdinand of Arragon against Frederic, King of Naples,
who, unable to resist the united forces of the combined sove-
reigns, resigned his crown. But dissensions arose between
the conquerors : from allies they became enemies, and Louis
was eventually constrained, by the arms of the celebrated
Gonsalvo de Cordova, to abandon all the possessions he had
acquired in the territory of Naples. Finding himself baffled in
various attempts to recover them, and being extremely desirous
to secure the Duchy of Milan, he signed, in 1505, a treaty
at Blois, with the emperor, who, in consideration of a large
sum of money, granted him the investiture of that duchy.
Ludovico Sforza was sent a prisoner to France, where he
died.

To the Emperor Maximilian the house of Austria is prin-
cipally indebted for its subsequent aggrandizement. By his
marriage with the heiress of Burgundy, he acquired for his
posterity a claim to that wealthy province ; while the union
of his son the Archduke Philip with Jane the daughter and
sole heiress of Ferdinand and Isabella, secured to his descend-
ants the crown of Spain. The Archduke died in 1506, leav-
ing his son Charles, to the astonishment of all Europe, under
the guardianship of the King of France.

Pius III., who, in 1503, succeeded Alexander VI. in the see
of Rome, survived his election but twenty-six days. He was
followed by Julius II., a Pontiff of warlike and enterprising
character, who could not with indifference see so large a por-
tion of the Italian territory fall under the dominion of foreign
princes. To drive these beyond the Alps was the primary
object of his policy, and in it he so far succeeded as to leave

Vl HISIORT OF MODERN Bt'ROPB.

under the sway of his successors all the beautiful country
from Piacentiii to Terracina. But fljc encroachments of the
Venetians, who had unjustly soizeil on thi' northern part of
the province of Komagna, demanded his more iminedittt©
attentioD.

GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE, FROM THE SIGNING OF THE TRE VTY
OF BLOIS TO THE DEATH OF THE EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN, IN

1519.

The treaty of Blois had restored peace to Europe, but the
interval of tranquillity was of short duration. The enterpris-
ing spirit of Julius II. led him to form the project of driving
all foreigners out of Italy, and he determined in the first place
to oblige the Venetians to restore the towns they had seized
upon at the demise of Alexander VI.

The celebrated republic of Venice took its rise during the
inroads of the barbarians in the fifth century. The litde is-
lands of the Adriatic gulf afforded an asylum to the neigh-
bouring inhabitants, who originally lived by fishing, and after-
wards grew rich by commerce. All the nations in Europe
depended on the Venetians not only for the precious commo-
dities of the East, which they imported by way of Egypt,
but for various manufactures fabricated by them alone, or
finished with a dexterity unknown in other countries. At the
epoch of which we treat, Venice extended her dominion from
the lake of Como to the middle of Dalraatia, and her wealth
Was viewed with envy by the greatest monarchs, who could
scarcely vie with her private citizens in splendour and ele-
gance.

The refusal of the Venetians to restore the places which
they had dismembered from the territory of the church, gave
occasion to the League of Cambray, formed to humble this
proud republic, in 1508, The emperor, the Kings of France
and Spain, and the Pope, were principals in the league, which,
questionless, was one of the most extensive confederacies that
Europe had ever beheld.

Julius II employed the censures of the church against the

2 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE [ciIAP.

Venetians, wliile the impetuous valour of tlie French render-
ed inefToctual all thoir precautions for the safety of tlie repub-
lic ; and the battle of Aignadel, fought near the river Adda,
entirely ruined the army on which they relied for defence.
Finding their affairs desperate, the Venetians concluded an
alliance with the Holy See against France, and were absolved
from the anathema pronounced against them. Pope Julius
declared war against the Duke of Ferrara, the confederate of
Lewis, and solicited the favour of Henry VIII., who had late-
ly, in 1509, ascended the throne of England. Julius detached
Ferdinand from the league, by granting him tlie full investi-
ture of the kingdom of Naples, and in 1510 he formed a
treaty with the Swiss, whom Lewis had offended. The con-
federacy of Cambray being thus dissolved, the face of affairs
soon changed in Italy. The Venetians, recovering from the
consternation into which they had I)een thrown, were aiile to
make head against the emperor, and to regain part of the ter-
ritory which they had lost. Lewis, in the mean time, was
doubtful how to act, and Ferdinand, taking advantage of his
irresolution, seized upon the kingdom of Navarre in 1511.
The method which he took to effect this conquest was singu-
lar. Henry VIII., his son-in-law, naturally sanguine in
temper, was moved with a desire of protecting the Pope
from that oppression to which he believed him exposed from
the French monarch. Impatient also of acquiring that dis-
tinction in Europe to which his power and opulence entided
him, he could not long remain neuter amid the conflicting
powers. Ferdinand saw his intemperate ardour, and made
him the instrument of his own ambition. He engaorod him not
to invade France by the way of Calais, but to send his troops
to Fontarabia, that they might act in concert with his army;
and Henry found, to his disappointment, that his forces re-
turned diminished by want and sickness, after havinjr, by
their presence at sea, shielded the Spanish troops from their
enemies in the reduction of Navarre.

1512. — Though the war which England waged against
France brought no advantage to the former kinijdom, it was of
much prejudice to the latter; and by obliging Lewis to with-
draw his forces from Italy, lost him that superiority which
his arms, in the beginning of the campaign, had ac(iuircd in
that country. The Swiss, who had now rendered themselves
formidable by their bands of disciplined infantry, invaded the
duchy of Milan with a numerous army, and excited its incon
fitant inhal)itants to a revolt against the dominion of Franca

I.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 9

Genoa followed the example of that duchy, and Lewis, in the
course of a few weeks, totally lost his Italian conquest. The
expulsion of the French gave much pleasure to Julius II., but,
worn out with age and worldly solicitude, he died very soon
after, on the 20th of February, 1513. Julius was succeeded
m the pontificate by John of Medicis, son of the celebrated
Laurence, who had governed Florence with so much reputa-
tion, and obtained the appellation of Father of the Muses.
John took the name of Leo X. In him the literati found a
warm friend and steady patron, the arts and sciences a mu-
nificent encourager and protector. From his pontificate the
republic of letters dates a new era. Humane, generous,
affable, the patron of every art, and the friend of every virtue,
he had a soul no less capable of forming great designs than
his predecessor, but he was more delicate in the choice of
means for the execution of them. Yet Leo X. had the afflic-
tion to witness the origin of those heresies which have detach-
ed a great part of Europe from the see of Rome.

By the negotiations of this Pope, who adhered to the politi-
cal system of Julius, the Emperor Maximilian was gained
over from the French interest, and Henry VIII., notwith-
standing his disappointment in the former campaign, was still
encouraged to prosecute his warlike measures against Lewis.

1513. — This projected invasion of France roused the jealousy
of the Scottish nation. The ancient league which subsisted
between France and Scotland, was esteemed the most sacred
bond of connection, and universally believed by the Scots
essential to the preservation of their independence against a
people so much superior in strength and number as the English.
Therefore, though James IV. made professions of maintain-
ing a neutrality, Henry sent the Earl of Surrey to put the bor-
ders into a posture of defence, while he invaded France by the
way of Calais. But of all the allies on whose assistance he
relied, the Swiss alone fully performed their engagements.
Maximilian, among others, failed to perform his, although
he had received in advance a subsidy of 120,000 crowns.
That he might make some atonement, however, for his breach
of faith, he appeared in person in the Low Countries, and
joined the English army, with a small body of German and
Flemish troops. He even carried his condescension so far as
to enlist himself in the service of the English monarch, and
received a hundred ducats per day for the use of his table.
The first enterprise which the English undertook, was the
siege of Terouane on the borders of Picardy. During the

4 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. ([cHAP.

attack of this place, was fought the famous battle of Guine-
gate, when the cavalry of France fled at the first onset. This
action, or rather rout, is called the lialtlr of Spurs, l)rrnuse
in it llic French made more use of tiiem than of their military
weapons. The Swiss, at the same time, had entered Burgun-
dy with a formidable army, and the Catholic king, though he
had made a truce with Lewis, seemed disposed to seize every
advantage which fortune should present to him. Lewis,
though fruitful in expedients, was now at a loss what course
to follow ; his troops were dismayed, his people intimidated,
and he had no ally to assist him. But France was saved by
the blunders of her enemies. The Swiss allowed themselves
to be wheedled into a negotiation by Tremouille, (Tovernor of
Burgundy, without inquiring whether he had any powc^rs to
treat. Henry discovered no less ignorance in tHe conduct of
war than the Swiss in negotiation. By the interested counsel
of Maximilian he laid siege to Tournay. Soon after the reduc-
tion of this place, he was informed of the retreat of the Swiss,
and as the season was now far advanced, he thought proper to
return to England, and to carry with him tlie greatest part of
his army. Such was the issue of a campaign, much boasted
of by the English monarch, but which, all circumstances con-
sidered, was unprofitable, if not inglorious.

The success which during tiiis season attended the English
arms in North Britain, was more decisive. James IV. of
Scotland had assembled the whole force of his tlominions and
crossed the Tweed, at the head of a brave though tumultuous
army of 50,000 men. But his troops became dissatisfied ;
and the Earl of Surrey having collected an army of 26,000
men, drew the Scots from their station near the Cheviot Hills,
and an obstinate battle was fought in the field of Flodden,
September 9th, 1.513, in which the King of Scotland and the
flower of his nobility were slain. Though an invitintf oppor-
tunity was now ofl'ered to Henry of extending his dominion
over the whole island, compassion for the helpless condition
of his sister Margaret and her infant son prevailed with him
to grant peace to Scotland as soon as it was applied for.

1.51 1. — A general pacification took place shf)rdy after be-
tween the contending powers; and Lewis XH., rescued from
his numerous difficulties, had the happiness of beholding once
more his affairs in good order, and all Furo|)e in tranquillity.
But he enjoyed his happiness only a short while ; dying about
three motilhs after his rnarrinire with the Princess Mary of
England, sister of Henry VHL This event happened in 1515

iS] GENERAL HISTORY OF PUROPH 6

Mfhen he was meditating anew the conquest of Milati, <vhich
was left to immortalize the name and swell the misfortunes of
his successor. Few princes seem to have been more beloved
by their subjects than Lewis : he obtained the surname of
Father of his People, a title with wliich he was particularly
delighted, and which he always studied to deserve. His very
misfortunes endeared him to his subjects, because it was well
known that he might have maintained his conquests in Italy,
if he would have levied more taxes on his people, whose bur-
dens he had diminished above one-half.

Lewis XIL was succeeded on the throne of France by his
son-in-law, Francis, Count of Angouleme, first prince of the
blood. Young, brave, ambitious, and enterprising, he im-
mediately turned his eyes towards Italy, as the scene of glory
and conquest. But before he set out on that expedition, he
renewed the treaty which his predecessor had made with
England, and having nothing to fear from Spain, where
Ferdinand was on the verge of the grave, he marched his army
owards the Alps, under pretence of defending his kingdom
against the incursions of the Swiss. Informed of his hostile
intentions, that warlike people had taken up arms, in order to
protect Maximilian Sforza, Duke of Milan, whom they had
restored to his dominions, and thought themselves bound in
honour to support. These hardy mountaineers took posses-
sion of all those passes in the Alps, through which they thought
the French must enter Italy, and when informed that Francis
had made his way into Piedmont, by a secret route, they de-
scended undismayed into the plain, and gallantly opposed
themselves on foot to the heavy armed cavalry of France.
The two armies met at Marignan, near Milan, where, Sept.
13th, 1515, was fought one of the most furious and obstinate
battles mentioned in the history of modern times. The ad-
vantage was on the side of the French, but their loss was very
considerable : the Marechal Trevulzio, who had been present
at eighteen pitched battles, used to declare, that in comparison
of the batde of Marignan, every other engagement he had seen
was but the contention of children; this, a combat of heroes.
The surrender of the city of Milan, and the conquest of the
whole duchy, were the consequences of this victory. Maxi-
milian Sforza resigned his claim, and accepted of a pension ;
and Francis, having concluded a treaty with the Pope and with
the Swiss, returned into France, leaving to Charles, Duke of
Bourbon, the government of his Italian dominions.

The success of the French monarch began to excite jea-

6 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

lousy in the l)rcast of the old Emperor Maximilian, nor was if
regarded with indifference hy the King of England. Maximi-
liap invaded Italy with a considerable army, but being repulsed
by the Freneli, he returned to Germany, made peace with
France and V^enice, ceded Verona to that republic, for a sum
of money, and thus excluded himself, in some measure, from
all future access into Italy. This peace was preceded by the
death of Ferdinand, the Catholic king, and the succession of
his grandson Charles to his extensive dominions ; an event
which had been long looked for, and from which the most im-
portant consequences were expected. Charles, who had hith-
erto resided in the Low Countries, which he inherited as heir
of the house of Burgundy, was received by the Spaniards with
universal acclamations of joy. Cardinal Ximenes, Archbishop
of Toledo, a person of equal virtue and sagacity, had been ap-
pointed, by the will of Ferdinand, sole Regent of Castile till the
arrival of the young king, and succeeded in maintaining his au-
thority, notwithstanding the discontents of a turbulent nobility.

1517. — While Charles was taking possession of the throne
of Spain, in consequence of the death of one grandfather,
another was endeavouring to obtain for him the imperial
crown. With this view Maximilian assembl(;d a diet at
Augsburg, where he strove to gain the favour of the Electors,
to ciiL'^age them to clioose that young prince as his successor.

151'J. — The diet of Augsburg was soon followed by the
death of thr Emperor Maximilian, an event in itself of little
moment, as that prince had for some years ceased to exercise
any influence in the allairs of Europe; but as it left vacant the
first station among Christian princes, of which two great
monarchs were equally ambitious, it became memorable by its
effects; for it awakened a jealousy which threw all Europe
into agitation, and enkindled wars more general and lasting
than any which had hitherto desolated Christendom. It is
proper to remark, that during tlie reign of Maximilian, Ger-
many was divided into Circles, in each of which a provincial
and particular jurisdiction was established, to supply the j)lace
of a public and common tribunal. In this reign also was insti-
tuted the Imperial Chambers, composed of judges, nominated
pftrily liy llie emperor, partly by tlu; several states, and vested
with authority to decide finally, concerning all differences
ami)ii<r the members of llie Germanic bodv. 'I'he Aulic C'ouncil,
too, whicti takes cognisance of all feudal causes, and such as
belong to the emperor's immediate jurisdiction, received a
new form.

II.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE.

CHAPTER II.

A GENERAL VIEW OF THE AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, FROM THE
ELECTION OF CHARLES V., IN 1519, TO THE PEACE OF
CAMBRAY IN 1529.

1519. — Though Maximilian could not prevail upon the
German electors to choose his grandson Charles King of the
Romans, he had disposed their minds in favour of that prince ;
and other circumstances, on the death of the emperor, con-
curred to the exaltation of Charles. The imperial crown had
so long continued in the Austrian line, that it began to be con-
sidered as hereditary in that family ; and Germany, torn by
religious disputes, stood in need of a powerful emperor, not
only to preserve its own internal tranquillity, but also to pro-
tect it against the victorious arms of the Turks, who under
Selim I. threatened the liberties of Europe. This fierce and
rapid conqueror had already subdued the Mamelukes, a bar-
barous militia that had dismembered the empire of the Arabs,
and made themselves masters of Egypt and Syria. The power
of Charles appeared necessary to oppose that of Selim. The
extensive dominions of the house of Austria, which gave him
an interest in the preservation of Germany ; the rich sove-
reignty of the Netherlands and Tranche Comte, the entire pos-
session of the great and warlike kingdom of Spain, together
with that of Naples and Sicily, all united to qualify him for
the first dignity among Christian princes ; and the new world
seemed only to be called into existence that its treasures might
enable him to defend Christendom against the infidels.*

Francis I., however, no sooner heard of the death of Maxi-
milian, than he declared himself a candidate for the empire,
and with no less confidence of success than Charles. He
trusted to his riper years and superior experience, with his
great reputation in arms, acquired by the victory at Marignan
and the conquest of Milan; but Charles, whose youth and
inexperience gave less cause of apprehension than the enter-
prising genius of his adversary, was preferred by the electors.
Francis could not suppress his indignation at being defeated in
his favourite project, and rejected in the face of all Europe for a
youth yet unknown to fame ; and hence arose that rivalship

* The conquest of Mexico was this year effected by the Spaniards, under
Ferdinand Cortes. Peru was subdued in 1532, by the arms of Pizarro.

8 OENF.RAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. (_CHAP.

between those two great monarrhs, which involved them in
ahnost perpetual hostilities, and kept their whole age in agitation.
Charles and Francis had many interfering claims in Italy:
the latter likewise thought himself bound to restore the King
of Navarre to his dominions, which had been seized by the
crown of Spain. They immediately began to negotiate ; and
as Henry VIII. of England was the third prince of the age in
power and in dignity, his friendship was courted by each of
tlie rivals.

1520. — Francis I. solicited an interview with the King of
England near Calais, in hopes of attaching him to his friend-
ship and interest. Politic, though young, Charles dreaded
the effects of this projected interview between two gallant
princes ; finding it, however, impossible to prevent it, he en-
deavoured to defeat its purpose and to preoccupy the favour
of the English monarch. Relying wholly on Henry's gene-
rosity for his safety, he landed at Dover in his way from Spaia
to the Low Countries. The King of England, charmed with
such an instance of confidence, hastened to receive his royal
guest, and Charles had the address, not only to give Henry
favourable impressions of his character and int(;ntions, but en-
tirely to detach Wolsey, the favourite and prime minister of
the English king, from the interest of Francis. On the day
of Charles's departure, Henry went over to Calais with his
whole court, in order to meet Francis. Their interview took
place in an open plain between Guisnes and Ardres, where
the two kings and their attendants displayed their magnifi-
cence with such emulation and profuse expense, as to procure
it the name of the "Field of cloth of gold." Charles again
met Henry at Gravelincs, attended him to Calais, and offered
to submit to his sole arbitration any dilFerence that might arise
between himself and Francis. This important point being
secured, Charles repaired to Aix-la-Chap(;lle, where he was
solemnly invested with the crown and sceptre of Charlemagne,
in presence of a more splendid assembly than had appeared at
any former inauguration.

About the same time Solyman II., surnamed the Magnifi-
cent, one of the most accomplished, cntr^rprising, and warlike
of the Turkish princes, ascended the Ottoman throne, in con-
8C(|uencc of the death of Selim.

The first act of Charles's administration w;is the appoint-
ing of a diet to be held at Worms, in order to concert, wit! the
princes of the empire, proper measures for checking the pro-
gress of Lulheranism.

11.] GENERAL ftlSTORY OF EUROPE. §

Martin Luther was an Angustinian friar, doctor, and profes-
sor of divinity in the new university of Wittenberg : his voca-
tion to a cenobitical state of life seems to have arisen from
mere fright. During the course of his studies, as he was one
day walking abroad with a fellow-student, a tremendous
thunder-storm came on, and a vivid flash of lightning struck
his companion dead at his feet. Trembling with fear, he that
instant vowed to dedicate himself to God in some monastic
order. His proficiency in learning, after a few years, ac-
quired him the reputation of an able divine, and a strong, ner-
vous kind of expression made him pass for a good preacher.
He was in the thirty-fourth year of his age, when the publi-
cation of the indulgences granted by Leo X. to such as should
undertake a crusade against the Turks, or contribute to the
rebuilding of the Basilic of St. Peter at Rome, afforded him
the opportunity of openly avowing his erroneous opinions.
On similar occasions, when a crusade was set on foot, the
Augustins had been usually appointed to announce it from the
pulpit, but they had the mortification this time to see the Do-
minicans pitched upon in preference to themselves. These
preachers were accused of many irregularities in the execution,
which, whether true or false, Luther failed not to make the
subject of the most bitter and virulent declamations. The
university of Wittenberg, and Frederic, Elector of Saxony,
openly espoused his interest. Emboldened by their support,
and encouraged by the admiration which his discourses ex-
cited, he began to inveigh not only against occasional abuses,
but against the very nature of indulgences, the doctrine upon
original sin, the seven sacraments, and many practices of the
Catholic religion.

Lutheranism in 1517 was but a spark, but not being im-
mediately extinguished, in the following year it kindled into
a mighty conflagration. Among the many publications that
appeared, a treatise upon the seven sacraments attracted uni-
versal notice, on account of its reputed author. It was attri-
buted to Henry VHL, though Dr. Fisher, the renowned Bishop
of Rochester, is thought to have had the chief hand in its com-
position. Pope Leo X., to whom the work was dedicated,
bestowed upon the reputed author, in 1521, the honourable
title of " Defender of the Faith," a title retained by the Kings
of England to the present day.

In the diet held at Worms, Luther and his errors were con-
demned. The heresiarch found a secure retreat in the court

10 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

of his old friend the Elector of Saxony, and Charlas, for a
time, had other matters to engage his attention.

1521. — The Spaniards, incensed at the avarice of the
Flemings, to whom the direction of public affairs had been
committed since the death of Cardinal Ximenes, broke out
into open rebellion. This seemed to Francis a favourable
juncture for reinstating the family of John d'Albret in the king-
dom of Navarre. He immediately sent thitlier a French army
under Andrew de Foix, and Navarre was speedily conquered;
but tlic French commander, who was young and inexperienced,
dazzled with his success, ventured to enter Castile. The
Spaniards, though divided among themselves, united against
a foreign enemy, routed his forces, took him prisoner, and re-
covered Navarre in a shorter time than Andrew de Foix had
spent in subduing it.

Hostilities, thus begun in one quarter between the rival
monarchs, rapidly spread to another. The King of France
encouraged the Duke of Bouillon to make war upon the em-
peror and invade Luxembourg. Charles, after humbling the
duke, attempted to enter France, but was repelled and worst-
ed before Mezieres by the famous Chevalier de Bayard,
distinguished among his contemporaries by the appellation of
" The knight without fear and without reproach."

In the mean time Francis broke into the Low Countries,
where he disgusted the Constable Bourbon by giving the com-
mand of the van to the Duke of Alen^on.

During these operations in the field, an unsuccessful con-
gress was held at Calais, under the mediation of Henry VIH.,
and a league was soon after concluded at Bruges, through the
intrigues of Wolsey, between the Pope, Henry, and Cliarles,
against France.

The exactions of Lautrec, Governor of Milan, had alienated
the affections of the Milanese from Francis. They put tliom-
selves under the government of Francis Sforza, l)rolher of
Maximilian, their late duke, and gave up their capital to the
confederates. Parma and Placentia were united to tlic ecclesias-
tical state, and of their conquests in Lombardy, the Frc^ncli had
now only the town of (!remona and a few inconsiderable forts.

The death of Pope LeoX. suspended awhile the operations

of the war in Italy. Cardinal Adrian, of Utrecht, ('harles's

preceptor, who at that time governed Si)ain in tlic character

of viceroy, was raised to the Papacy — he is known by the

ame of Adrian VI.

1522. — The war was renewed, to the still greater disad van-

II j GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 11

tage of Francis than before ; and while the Christian princes
were thus wasting each other's strength, Solyman the Magni-
ficent entered Hungary and made himself master of Belgrade,
reckoned the chief barrier of that kingdom against the Turkish
power. Encouraged by this success, he turned his victorious
arms against the Isle of Rhodes, then the seat of the Knights
of St. John of Jerusalem, and although every prince in that
warlike age acknowledged Rhodes to be the principal bulwark
of Christendom in the Levant, so violent was their animosity
against each other, that they suffered Solyman to carry on his
operations against that city and island, which yielded to his
arras after a most gallant defence in a siege of six months.
Charles and Francis were equally ashamed of having occasioned
through their contests such a loss to the Christian world ; and
the emperor, by way of reparation, granted to the Knights of
St. John the small island of Malta, where they fixed their
residence.

Adrian VI., though devoted to the emperor, endeavoured to
assume the impartiality which became the common father of
Christendom, and laboured, in vain, to reconcile the contending
princes, that they might unite in a league against Solyman.

1523. — The confederacy against France became more for-
midable than ever. The Venetians, who had hitherto adhered
to the French interest, formed engagements with the emperor;
and the Pope acceded to the same alliance. The Florentines,
the Dukes of Ferrara and Mantua, with all the other Italian
powers, followed this example. Francis was left without a
single ally to resist the efforts of a multitude of enemies,
whose armies everywhere threatened, and whose territories
encompassed, his dominions. The emperor, in person, at
the head of a Spanish army, menaced France on the side of
Guienne, the forces of England and the Netherlands hovered
over Picardy, and a numerous body of Germans was pre-
paring to ravage Burgundy. Before his enemies were able to
strike a blow, Francis assembled a powerful army, which he
resolved to lead into Italy ; but the discovery of a domestic
conspiracy obliged him to stop short at Lyons. Charles,
Duke of Bourbon, High Constable of France, being driven
to the last extremity by repeated affronts and injuries, entered
into a secret correspondence with the emperor and the King
of England. Francis received information of Bourbon's trea-
chery, yet suffered him to escape ; and Bourbon, entering the
emperor's service, employed all his genius and skill to the
prejudice of his sovereign and his native country. Francis,

lil OENKRAL HISTORY OT EVnOPE. [cHAP

tipon this discovery, gave the command of his forces, consist-
ing- of 30,000 men, to Admiral Honnivct, wlio, not daring to
engage tlie imperial army, commanded by the two greatest
generals of thi.s age, (the Duke of Bourbon and the Marquis
Pescara,) after losing much time in frivolous enterprises, at-
tempted to retreat into France. He was pursued by the Impe-
rial generals and routed at Biagrassa. Here fell the Cheva-
lier Bayard, after sustaining at the head of the cavalry the
vhole shock of the Imperial army, and thus gaining time for
the body of his countrymen to make good their retreat. Hav-
ing received a mortal wound, he ordered his attendants to
place him under a tree, where he waited the approach of death.
In this situation he was found by the Duke of Bourbon, who
led the van of the Imperialists, and who expressed much sor
row for his fate. "Pity not me," cried the highminded Che-
valier ; " I die as a man of honour ought, in the discharge of
my duty, but pity those who fight against their king, their
country, and their oath."

Francis still aimed at the conquest of Milan, and he now
resolved to march into Italy. No sooner liad tiie French
army appeared in Piedmont, than the whole duchy of Milan
was thrown into consternation — the capital opened its gates —
the forces of the emperor and Sforza retired to Lodi ; but
Francis, instead of pursuing them, laid siege to Pavia, a town of
considerable strength, well garrisoned and defended by Antonio
de Levva, one of the bravest officers in the Spanish service.

1525. — The siege of Pavia had lasted three months, when
the Imperial army, greatly strengthened by new levies, came
to relieve tlie place. A desperate battle was fought on the
24 th of February, in which Francis, after performing prodi-
gies of valour, was obliged to surrender himself prisoner.
Yet he obstinately refused to deliver up his sword to Bourbon,
liannov received it. This victory and the captivity of Fran-
cis filled all Europe with alarm. Almost the whole French
army was cut off; Milan was immediately abandoned, and in
a few weeks not a Frenchman was left in Italy. The power
of the emperor became the oliject of universal terror, and re-
solutions were everywhere taken to set boimds to it. Henry
VIII. had always retained some imperfect idea of the balance
of power necessary to be mnintainr-d between Charles and
Francis, the preservation of which, he boasted, was his pecu-
liar orti«;e. He now became sensible of the danger all Europe
was in, from tlie loss of a proper counterpoise to the power
of (.'harles. Instead of taking advantage, therefore, of the

n.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 13

distressed condition of France, the English monarch deter-
mined to assist her in her present calamities. Another cause
conspired to enforce this resolution. Wolsey was disappoint-
ed in his hopes of the papacy by the elevation of Cardinal
Medicis, under the name of Clement VII. ; and the English
minister, attributing the cause of his disappointment to the
emperor, resolved on revenge.*

Meanwhile Francis, who was rigorously confined, desired
to be removed to Spain, where the emperor then resided.
The following year, 152G, a treaty was concluded by which
Francis obtained his liberty. The chief articles in this treaty
were, that Burgundy should be restored to Charles, as the
rightful inheritance of his ancestors ; and that the two eldest
sons of Francis should be immediately given up as hostages
for the performance of the conditions stipulated. The ex-
change of the captive monarch for his children was made on
the frontiers of France and Spain : but Francis never meant
to execute the treaty of Madrid, and when the imperial am-
bassadors urged their claims, he answered that he would per-
form the articles relative to himself, but in those affecting the
French monarchy, he must be guided by the sense of the na-
tion; and that the States of Burgundy protested against the
article relating to their province. Tlie emperor saw himself
overreached, whde the Italian States observed with pleasure
that Francis was resolved to evade the execution of a treaty
which they considered dangerous to the liberties of Europe.
Clement VII., the Kings of France and England, the Swiss,
the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Milanese, entered into
an alliance to which they gave the name of the Holy Leao-ue,
because his Holiness was at the head of it, in order to oblige
the emperor to deliver up the sons of Francis on the payment
of a reasonable ransom, and to re-establish Sforza in the posses-
sion of Mdan.

In consequence of this league the confederate army took the
field, and Italy became once more the scene of war. The
Duke of Bourbon, who commanded the Imperialists, overran
the whole duchy of Milan, and his troops beginning to mutiny

* With a view of transmitting his name to posterity, Wolsey, about this
time, began to erect two new colleges, one in Oxford, where he was edu-
cated, and another at Ipswich, the place of his birth. For the completion
of this noble and expensive object, without diminishing his own treasure,
he obtained a grant from Rome in 1524, to suppress forty religious houses,
and to convert their property to his own uses. This fatal precedent opened
ihs door to a train of unforeseen consequences.

14 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

for want of pay, he boldly led them to Rome, in spite of every
obstacle, by offering to their avidity the spoils of that ancient
capital. Nor did he deceive them ; for thouiih |u> himself was
slain in the assault, his followers, chielly Lutherans, more
enraged than discouraged by that misfortune, entered the city
Bword in hand, and pillaged it for many days. Never did
Rome experience in any age so many calamities, not even
from the barbarians by whom she had l>een successively sub-
dued, — from the followers of Alaric, Genseric, or Odoacer, as
now from the subjects of a Christian monarch. Whatever was
respectal)le or sacred in religion, seemed only to heighten the
rage of the soldiery. Clement himself, who had taken refuge
in the castle of St. Angclo, was ol)liged to surrender at discre-
tion, and found tliat his sacred character could neither procure
him liberty or respect. lie was doomed to close confinement,
until he should pay an enormous ransom, imposed by the vic-
torious army, and surrender to the emperor all the places of
strength belonging to the apostolic see.

The emperor was seized with horror at the news of the
outrages committed in the taking of Rome, stopped the rejoic-
ings for the birth of liis son Philip, and ordered that the Pope
should be immediately released from confinement.

1527. — The war continued in Italy, chieny to the disadvan-
tage of Francis. His army was utterly ruined before Naples,
and his misfortunes forced him at last to sue for peace. At
the same time, Charles, notwithstanding the advantages he had
gained, had many reasons to wish for an accommodation.
Solyman the Magnificent, having overrun Hungary, was ready
to break in upon the Austrian territory with the whole force of
the Ottoman empire, and the progress of liUther's reformation
in Germany threatened the tranquillity oi that country. In
consequence of this situation of affairs, Margaret of Austria,
aunt to Charles, and Louisa, the mollier of Francis, met at
Cambray, and settled the terms of a pacification between the
French king and the emperor. (1529.)

Francis agreed to pay two millions of crowns, as a ransom
for his two sons, to resign the sovereignty of Artoisand Flan-
ders, and forego -all his llalian claims; and Charles ceased to
deujand the restitution of Burgundy. The Florentines alone,
now reduced under the dominion of the family of Mcdicis, had
reason to comi)lain of tlie emperor ; Sforza otttained the
investiture of the duchy of Milan, and every other powet
experienced the lenity of the victor.

1530. — Charles, who had received the Imperial crown froio

III.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 10

the hands of the Pope, now prepared to revisit Geunany,
where his presence was become necessary : for although the
conduct and valour of his brother F"'erdinand, on whom he had
conferred the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria,
and who had been elected King of Hungary, had obliged
Solyman to withdraw his forces, his return was to be feared ;
and the disorders of religion were daily increasing.

CHAPTER m.

CHANGE OF RELIGION IN ENGLAND.

While the continent was thus disturbed with the innovations
of Luther and his followers in religious matters, an unfortunate
circumstance occurred, which occasioned a similar change in
England. Henry, who, by a particular dispensation from the
Pope, had married his brother's widow, Catherine of Arragon,
after having lived seventeen years with her in the closest union,
now pretended a scruple of conscience, and separated from
her. He had, unhappily, fixed his affections on Anna BuUen,
one of the queen's maids of honour, and as nothing but a
divorce with Catherine could leave him at liberty to contract
a second marriage, he was resolved to obtain one. To this
effect, he urged the nullity of a marriage with a brother's
widow ; and the whole year of 1527 was employed in prepar-
ing the nation for this important event. 'J'he bishops of the
realm were consulted upon the subject; they met and delibe-
rated, but came to no decision. It is said that when the king
first mentioned to Cardinal Wolsey his intention of suing for
a divorce in the court of Rome, the cardinal flung himself
upon his knees and earnestly entreated his majesty not to think
of it ; but when he perceived that the king was positive and
expected his concurrence, he undertook to negotiate the whole
business.

The Pope was at that time a prisoner in the castle of St.
Angelo, and the application from England afforded him a fair
opportunity of revenging himself upon the emperor, by grant-
ing a sentence of divorce against Catherine, who was aunt to
Charles. But Clement would not allow the base suggestions
of interest and revenge to prevail over justice and religion;
in proof of his friendly disposition towards Henry, as far as
equity would admit, he consented that ihe cause should be

16 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [^CHAF

tried inEn^lanil by a lc<;atine court, in wliich he commissioHcd
the two carilinal?, Wolsev and ('anipe<iio, both Enj^lish sul)-
jects,* to sit as jiidgt-s. Bnl as the queen appealed to lionie,
liis Ilohness sent positive orders to the two cardinals to chjse
their sessions in Eniiland, and adjourn to the consistoiial court
of Konie. Canipegio (luilled Enghmd, and Wolsey fell into
disjrracc.

While the nation was held in suspense how this interesting
cause would end, a new personaire appeared, who took upon
himself to pronounce decidedly upon its merits. 'J'liis was
Thomas Cranmer, doctor of divinity and fellow of Jesus Uol-
ege, Cambridije, who, on declarinf^ for the king's divorce,
was introduced at court. He was immediately commissioned
to despatch agents to the continent, in order to procure a
favourable decision from the foreign universities. Some sig-
natures were indeed ol)tained, hut it was by the help of "bribe-
ry and sinister working," as the declaration of Parliament
expressed it in Queen Mary's reign. Cranmer, though a
married man, and a liUlheran in his heart, lieiujr deeply skilled
in the art of dissimulation, had no diniculty in concealing
both ; and being nominated by the king to fill the vacant see
of Canterl)ury, obtained bis bulls of consecration, and was
consecrated in March, lii:J3.

The king, before this, had taken a step wliicli proves that
his resolution was fixed, whatever might be the result of die
pro(-ee(linfjs at Rome, by privately marrvin<j Anna Bullen.
In llie month of May, Cranmer, in virtue of the king's author-
ity alone, pronounced the former marriage nidi, and ratified
his sul)se(|uent connexion, which had been contracted the
November before. His sentenc^e was confirmed by an obse-
quious PaiTiament in .January, 153 t.t

Pope Clement had delayed pronouncing definitively upon
the subject of the divorce, because it was not in his power to
decide in the king's favour, and he wished to avoid exasperat-
ing him by a sentence in opposition to his wishes, 'i'iine,
he hoped, mi;fht work a change, and in the interim, he endea-
V(nired, by expostulations and tlircats, to insj)ire his inajestv with
more ('hristian sentiments. IJut when he was officially inform-
ed uf what had passed in England, he judged it incompatible
with his pastoral duty to remain any longer silent: and ia

• ('ardinal Camprijio, on Italian by birth, hail reccnily l/cen nomiiiate>1
by Hi-nry \'|[I. to tlie spp of SiiliHlniry.

■\ Kcfvu's Ilialory of the Uhri^liaii Church, vol. 3.

III.] GENERAL HISTORV OF EUROPE. 17

May, 1534, he signed a bull which declared the marriage be-
tween Henry and Catherine valid, and tlie sentence of Cran-
mer, pronouncing the divorce, null and void. Clement died
the September following, without having proceeded to farther
censures ; nor was it till the year 1538, that Paul III., success-
or to Clement, being compelled by King Henry's impieties,
as Echard expresses it,* pronounced sentence of excommu-
nication against him and the whole English nation. The
Parliament met again in November, according to appointment,
and conferred upon the king the title of the only supreme
head of the Church of England ; they consequently granted
to him and his successors, or rather acknowledged in them,
an inherent power to exercise every act of spiritual authority
or jurisdiction. Thus, by that memorable act of the legisla-
ture, the English schism was formally established, and the
whole plenitude of spiritual supremacy was declared solely
to belong to the imperial crown of these realms.

Uncommon pains had been taken to prepare the nation for
this innovation in religion. All appeals to Rome had been
forbidden by law from the year 1532. The clergy were re-
strained under severe penalties from meeting in convocation
without the king's leave : the temporizing bishops surrendered
their sacred trust, and solemnly promised never from that time
to meet in convocation, but by the king's command, nor to
decide in any matter, but as he should direct. Dr. Fisher,
Bishop of Rochester, was the only one who opposed his ma-
jesty's will, and was therefore attainted of high treason, and
beheaded on the 22d of June, 1535 ; and in the ensuing month,
Sir Thomas More, late Lord Chancellor of England, met with
a similar fate for the same cause. Some laws against heretics
made in the reigns of Richard H. and Henry IV. were repealed,
but those persons who relapsed into errors or refused to abjure
them, were condemned, on conviction, to be burned alive,
which law the king caused to be executed with great se-
verity.

Queen Catherine died on-the 8th of January, 1536. She
had had many children by Henry, of whom only one, the
Princess Mary, survived her. Her sufferings never betrayed
her into any concessions contrary to her dignity, or prejudi'
cial to her daughter's rights, though every method was em-
ployed to make her derogate from both. The king did not
refuse the tribute of a tear to the news of her death, and though

• Ec hard's History of England.

4«

18 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

he subsequently persecuted the memory of her rival with
contempt and execration, he was not so totally lost to all sense
of luinianily and worth, as to deny his esteem' to that of Cathe-
rine of Arraijon.

This year the Parliament, by the king's order, passed an
act for the suppression of religious houses, by whioh about
400 of the lesser monasteries, which maintained 10,000 reli-
gious persons, were suppressed, and their revenues bestowed
upon the king. Immoralities which had been reported, but
never proved against them, are stated in the preamble of the
act as the cause of their suppression. But the seizure of the
lesser houses was oidy the beginning of more extensive sacri-
lege. There were at this time about 700 monasteries remain-
ing in England and Wales, of which twenty-eight gave their
abbots a seat in the House of Peers. Their revenues, though
very large, did not exceed one-twentieth of the national in-
come, a sum much below what a design to destroy them first
gave out, and credulity has since retained. It was judged
expedient that the seizure of these monasteries should passlfor
a surrender and voluntary cession on the part of those who
were despoiled of their possessions. Various compulsive
measures were therefore made use of to oblige the superiors
of these houses to comply with the king's will, and large
pensions offered to those who submitted. By such sin--
renders and by violent expulsion, all the monasteries were
extirpated within two years, and their revenues appropri-
ated by the king. " England sat weeping," says Camden,
" to see her wealth exhausted, her coin embased, and her
abbeys, which were the monuments of her ancient piety,
demolished." For, by the advice of Cromwell,* whom he
had appointed his vicar-general, Henry caused the very build-
ings to be destroyed, lest the former possessors might "attempt
to re-enter them.t The poor had hitherto been supplied with
food from the monasteries ; when these were supprc'ssed, the
number and distress of indigent families began to multiply,

• Cromwell, the son of a blacksmith in Putney, had been employed by
Wolspy, nft.T wfioso lioath he ramc into favour, nn.l was loail.'d with ho-
nours. (.'Hrdinal Pole, in his ApoloR. Keu. says, that Cromwrll imliilx'd his
oi)iiiions on kindy power in a hook, entitled "On the Art of Government,"
(II prinri[*,) which he earnestly recommended to the cardinal's perusal
On readiiiR it, he says, ih;it he found in it e\ery strntacein l)y which reii-
gion, justice, and good faith arc to he dcfciile.l, and every hurri.iri and di-
vine virtue l-ecome a prey to selfishncH«, dissimulation and fil-chood. Ik
was written hy Machiav. I, a native of Florence, who died in 1627.

f See the Life of Cardinal Pole, vol. Isf, p 57.

ni.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EDROPE. 19

and assessments upon the parishes, which were before un-
known, became necessary for their support. The increased
amount of the poor's rates at this distant period, proves that
the nation is now paying dearly for the rapine committed in the
days of Henry VIII. But tlie king, with all his plunder, was
neither rich nor happy : what he acquired by injustice, he as
quickly wasted by extiav>agance, and even his late marriage
with Anna BuUen was now become the source of trouble. She
who had supplanted the virtuous Catherine, was now supplant-
ed in her turn by one of her own attendants, Lady Jane Sey-
mour. The lightness of her carriage raised suspicions of guilt,
and upon these suspicions she was beheaded, May 19th, 1536,
having been previously degraded from her dignity, and her
marriage annulled by Archbishop Cranmer. She left one
daughter, the Princess Elizabeth. The day after the execu-
tion of Anna BuUen, the king married Lady Jane Seymour,
who died the following year, a few days after she had given
birth to a son, who was named Edward.

After her death, Henry remained a widower two years ; then,
to mortify the emperor and the Pope, he resolved to take for
his fourth wife a daughter of some German prince, who was
engaged in the Lutheran confederacy against the house of
Austria. The choice of his future consort he left to his mi-
nister, Cromwell, who presented to him Anna, the daughter of
the Duke of Cleves. But the king conceiving a dislike to
her, as soon as the marriage was solemnized, the compliant
Parliament granted a divorce between them, and Cromwell fell
into disgrace. He was soon after arrested by the Duke of
Norfolk, condemned for heresy, and beheaded. The duke's
niece. Lady Catherine Howard, became the king's next wife;
she proved unfaithful, and suffered death in February, 1542.
Henry's sixth wife was Catherine Parr, widow of Lord Lati-
mer. This lady was infected with Lutheranism, and on that
account Henry had secretly resolved on her death, but she
had the art to elude the king's inquiries, and indvce him to
alter his resolution.

so GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. ([cHAP.

CHAPTER IV.

OENERA.L VIEW OF THE AFFAIRS OF EUROPE (wiTIl THE PRO-
GRESS OF LUTHERAXISm) CONTINUED, FROM THE PEACE OF
CAM BRAY TO THAT OF CRESPY, IN 1544.

The Reformation had gained much ground in Germany,
during that long interval of tranquillity, which the absence of
the emperor, and his attention to ihe war with France, alFord-
ed its promoters. Almost one-half of llio Germanic body had
revolted from the see of Rome, and the remaining states were
considerably weakened by the example of their neighbours, or
by the secret progress of Lutheranism among tliem. The
rapidity with which heresy overran these countries was
boasted of by Luther as a proof of his divine legation ; but
there is nothing wonderful in the eagerness of ignorant and
carnal men to embrace a doctrine wliich, by rejecting the
necessity of good works for salvation, promised tliem heaven
without requirijig any great endeavours on their side to gain
it. Luther wai" soon joined in his revolt against the church
by a band of au '(diaries ; among whom, Calvin, Melancthon,
Zuinglius, and )i*;za, are particularly distinguished. They
were all united in tacir hostility towards the church of Rome,
wliile tho^y ecpially cufTered in their opinions respecting failli,
and by their disagreements and warm disputes among them-
selves, gave Luther n^ less trouble than his Catholic oppo-
nents.

1529, — The emperor saw that these religious divisions
tended equally to the ni" of religion and of the imperial
authority, he accordingly appointed a diet of the empire to be
held at Spire; in it Luther and hi? innovations in reli<rious mat-
ters were again condemned. Aga'nst tliis decree, the Elector of
Saxony, the Landgrave of Hesse, the Duke of Lunenburg, the
Prince of Anhalt, together with the deput-'is of fourteen imperial,
or free cities, entered a solemn protest. On that account tiie
name of Protestant was given to them. !?U'-h was tlie state of
religion when Ciiarles returned to Germaui i'> 15."}l). He as-
Bisled in person at the Diet of Augsburg, when the Protestants
presented thf;ir sy.stem of opinions, known l)y tlit name of the
Confession of Auffsburg. The ProKfslaut princes, nndinglhem
Belvos again condenuied, assembled at Smalkalde, and con-

nr.^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 21

eluded a league of mutual defence. Meanwhile many circum-
stances convinced Charles that this was not the proper season
to attempt the extirpation of heresy hy the sword. He saw
Solyman ready to enter Hungary with the whole force of the
Turkish empire ; the peace with France was precarious ; the
emperor, therefore, by a treaty concluded at Nuremburg, and
solemnly ratified in a diet at Ratisbon, granted the Protestants
liberty of conscience until the meeting of a general council,
and they agreed on their part to assist him powerfully
against the Turks.

This treaty was no sooner signed, in 1532, than Charles
received information that Solyman had entered Hungary at
the head of 300,000 men. The imperial army, consisting of
90,000 disciplined foot and 30,000 horse, besides a prodi-
gious swarm of irregulars, immediately assembled in the
neighbourhood of Vienna. Of this vast body, the emperor, for
the first time, took the command in person ; and Europe waited
in anxious suspense the issue of a decisive battle between the
two greatest potentates in the universe. But each, dreading the
other's power and good fortune, conducted his operations with so
much caution, that a campaign from which the most important
consequences had been expected, closed without any memora-
ble event. Solyman, finding it impossible to take advantage of
an enemy always on his guard, marched back to Constanti-
nople, and Charles, freed from so dangerous an invader, set out
for Spain. During his absence new disturbances arose in
Germany from the Anabaptists.

In 1535 Charles undertook his first expedition against the
piratical states of Africa. Barbary, or that part of the Afri-
can continent which lies alongr the coast of the Mediterranean
sea, was then nearly, with the exception of the recent French
conquests, in the same condition it is at present. Morocco,
Algiers, and Tunis were its principal governments, and the
two last were nests of pirates. Barbarossa, a famous corsair,
had succeeded his brother in the kingdom of Algiers. He
carried on his piracies with great vigour, and extended his
conquests on the continent of Africa ; but perceiving that the
natives submitted to his government with impatience, and fear-
ing that his continual depredations might draw upon him a
general combination of the Christian powers, he put his do-
minions under the protection of the Turkish emperor. Soly-
man, flattered by such an act of submission, and charmed with
the boldness of the man, offered him the command of the Ot-
toman fleet. Proud of this distinction, Barbarossa repaired to

22 GEXERAL HISTORY OF ErROPE. [ciIAP

Constantinople, and made use of his influence with the Sul«
tan, to extend liis own dniniiiion. Partly by force, partly by
treachery, he usurped the kiuijdom of 'I'unis ; and l)eini( now
possessed of greater power, he carried on his depredations
against the Christian states with more destructive violence than
ever. Daily complaints of the piracies and ravages committed
by Barbarossa were brought to tiie emperor from Spain and
Italy, and all Christendom seemed to look up to Charles, as
its greatest and most fortunate prince, for relief from this new
aud odious species of oppression.

At the same time, Muley Hassen, the exiled King of Tunis,
applied to him for assistance against the usurper. E(iually
desirous of delivering his dominions from the dangerous
neighbourhood of Barbarossa, of protecting an unfortunate
prince, and of acquiring the glory annexed to an expedition
against the Mohammedans, the emperor readily concluded a
treaty with iMuley Ilassen, aud set sail for Tunis with a formi-
dable armament.

Tlie Goletta, a strong fortress on an island in the bay of
Tunis, and the key of the capital, planted with 300 pieces of
cannon, was taken by storm, together widi the entire fleet of
Barl)arossa. He himself was defeated in a pitched batde :
and 10,000 Christian slaves iiaving knocked olf their fetters,
and made themselves masters of the citadel, Tunis surren-
dered to the victor. But while Charles was deliberating on
the means of preserving the lives of the inhabiumts, his troops
broke suddenly into the town, and pillaged and massacred
without distinction. 30,000 perished by the sword, and
10,000 were made prisoners. The sceptre, drenched in blood,
was restored to Muley Ilassen, on condition he should ac-
knowledge himself a vassal of the crown of Spain, put into
the emperor's hands all the fortified seaports in the kingdom
of Tunis, and pay annually 12,000 crowns for the subsistence
of a Spanish garrison in the (ioletta. These points being
setUed, and 20,000 (Christian slaves freed from bondage,
(vharles returned to Europe; while Barbarossa, who had re-
tired to Bona, recovered new strength, and again became the
tyrant of the ocean.

'I'his same year (153.5) Francis I., thouiih unsupported by
any ally, commanded his army to advance U)wanl3 tlw' fron-
tiers of Italy, under pretence of chastising the Duke of Milan,
for a breach of ilie law of nations, in putting to death bis
ambassador. The operations of the war, however, soon took
B new turn Instead of marching to Milan, Francis coni'

IV.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 23

menced hostilities against the Duke of Savoy, on whom he
had same claims ; and before the end of the campaign, that
feeble prince saw himself stripped of all his dominions, except
the province of Piedmont. To complete his misfortunes, the
city of Geneva, the sovereignty of which he claimed, threw
oft' his yoke, and its revolt drew along with it the loss of the
adjacent territory. Geneva was then an imperial city, and
now became the nest of heresy, and the capital of an inde-
pendent republic.

The Duke of Savoy sought the emperor's protection, but
Charles, just returned from his African expedition, was not
able to afford him the necessary support. His treasury was
drained, and he was obliged to disband his army until he
could raise new supplies.

Meanwhile the death of Sforza, Duke of Milan, totally
changed the nature of the war. The French monarch's pre-
text lor taking up arms was at once cut ofT: but as the duke
had died without issue, all Francis's rights to the duchy of
Milan, wfiich he had yielded only to Sforza and his descend-
ants, returned to him in full force. He accordingly renewed
his claim ; but while he wasted his time in fruitless negotia-
tions, his more politic rival took possession of the long dis-
puted territory, as a vacant fief of the empire.

1536. — While Charles was recruiting his finances and his
army, Francis continued his negotiations, as if it had still
been possible to terminate their differences amicably. The
emperor having now collected an army of 50,000 men, pre-
sumed on nothing less than the overthrow of the French mo-
narchy. Having driven the forces of his rival out of Piedmont
and Savoy, he pushed forward, contrary to the advice of his
generals, to invade the southern provinces of France, while
two other armies were ordered to enter that kingdom ; the one
on the side of Picardy, the other on that of Champagne.
The French monarch wisely determined to remain altogether
upon the defensive, and to deprive the enemy of subsistence,
by laying waste the country before him. The execution of
this plan was committed to tlie Marechal de Montmorenci, its
author. He made choice of a strong camp under the walls of
Avignon, at the confluence of the Rhone and Durance, where
he assembled a considerable army; while the king encamped
at Valence, higher up the Rhone. Marseilles and Aries were
th"e only towns lie thought it necessary to defend ; the inhabit-
ants of the other towns were compelled to abandon their habi-
tations : the fortifications thrown down : corn, forage, and all

34 OENKRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAF

provisions carried olT or destroyed. Tliis devastation extend-
ed from the Alps to Marseilles, and from the sea to the con-
fines of Dauphine : so that the emperor, when he arrived with
tlic van of his army on the confines of Provence, beheld nc-
thinjT but one vast and desert solitude. After unsuccessfullv
investiui^ Marseilles and Aries ; after allemi)tiiitr in vain to
draw Montmorcnci from his camp at Avignon, Charles was
under the necessity of retreating as fast as possible, having
spent two inglorious months in Provence, and lost half his
troops by famine or disease.

Tlie invasion of Picardy was not more effectual, and
Charles, having conducted the remains of his army back to
Milan, set out for Genoa, and embarked immediately for
Spain.

15.S7. — Francis now gave himself up to vain resentment.
The dauphin dying suddenly, his dtalii was imputed to poison.
MontecucuUi, his cup-bearer, was put to the rack, and that
unhappy nobleman, in the agonies of torture, accused the
emperor's generals, Gonzaga and De Leyva, of instigating
him to the detestable act. The emperor himself was suspect
ed, though it was evident to all mankind that neither Charles
nor his generals could have any inducement to perpetrate sucli
a crime, as Francis was still in the vigour of life himself, and
had two sons besides the dauphin. In the height of his re-
sentment, Francis accused Charles of violatiuL'' the treaty of
Cambray, and marci:cd an army into the Low Countries; but
a suspension of arms took place through the interposition of
the Queens of France and Hungary; and this cessation ot
hostilities was followed by a truce, concluded at Nice in l.')38,
through the mediation of the reigning Pontilf, Paul III., of the
family of Farnese, a man of a venerable character and pacific
disposition.

Each of these rival princes had strong reasons to desire
peace. The finances of both were exhausted, and the emperor
was deeply impressed with the dread of the Turkish arms,
whicii Francis had drawn upon him liy a league with Solyman.
In consequence of this league, Barbarossa, with a great fleet,
appeared on the coast of Naples, filled that kingdom with
consternation, landed near Tarento, oblisred ('astro, a phice of
some strenirth, to surrender, and plundered the adjacent coun-
try; but the unexpected arrival of Doria, the famous Genoese
admiral, together with the Pope's jralleys and a stjuatlron of
the Venetian fleet, made it prudent fi)r him to reiirr". The
Sultan's forces also invaded Hungary, where the Turkish

IV.] GENERAL HISTORY Ok' EUROPE. 26

general, after gaining several inferior advantages, defeated the
Germans, in a great battle at Essek on the Drave. Francis op
the other hand, feared to draw on his head the indignation of
all Christendom by the league he had made with the infidels :
still the Pope found it impossible to bring about a linal ac-
commodation between them, nor could he prevail on tliem to
see one another, though both came to the place of rendezvous.
Yet, a few days after signing the truce, the emperor, in his
passage to Barcelona, being driven on the coast of Provence
Francis invited him to come on shore, and he was received
and entertained with the warmest demonstrations of esteem
and affection. The next day the emperor paid the king a
visit at Aigues-Mortes, where these two hostile rivals, who
had accused each other of every kind of baseness, conversed
together with all the cordiality of brothers. Such sudden
transitions from enmity to affection, can only be accounted for
by that spirit of chivalry, with which the manners of both
princes were strongly tinctured.

In the following year (1539) the citizens of Ghent revolted
from the emperor, and offered the King of France to put him
in possession of their city. Francis had lived in friendship
with the emperor ever since their enterview at Aigues-Mortes;
forgetting therefore all that had passed, the credulous, but
generous Francis, not only rejected the advantageous offer of
the rebels, but communicated the whole affair to the emperor,
and allowed him a free passage through Fraoce to go and quell
the rebellion. The emperor was met by the daupliin and
Duke of Orleans, who attended him all the waj^, and was
entertained at Paris with the utmost magnificence.

1540. — The citizens of Giient, alarmed at the approach of
the emperor, who was joined in the Netherlands by three
armies, submitted at discretion, but were punished by him
v/ith exemplary severity.

1541. — The emperor this year was obliged to turn his atten-
tion towards the affairs of Germany. A diet was assembled
at Ratisbon ; here the emperor decreed, that till a general
council could be held, all parties should be left at liberty ; that
no innovations should be made, nor any means employed to
gain proselytes. This edict equally dissatisfiea all parties ;
and the emperor thought the posture of his affairs required he
should make greater concessions in favour of the Protestants.

In 1541, Solyman (whose protection had been implored for
the infant King of Hungary, against Ferdinand, King of the
Romans) entered Hungary, sent the queen and her son into

J56 GENERAL HISTORY OF El'ROPE. [cHAP

Transylvania, which province he allotted them, and added
Hunirary to the Ottoman empire. In consequence of the
concessions made to the Protestants, (Jliarles ohlained such
liberal supplies of men and money, as left him little anxiety
about Germany. He therefore hastened to join his fleet and
army in Italy, in order to execute his grand design against
Algiers. Algiers, since the taking of Tunis, was become the
common receptacle of all die Barbary corsairs. The com-
merce of the Mediterranean was gready interrupted by their
galleys, and such frequent alarms were given to the coast of
Spain, diat there was a necessity of erecting watch-towers, to
descry the approach of the enemy's squadrons, and to protect
the inhabitants from the depredations of the rapacious ruffians
with which they were manned.

But this enterprise, on which the emperor had built the
highest hopes, proved the most imfortunalc of his reign. His
fleet was dispersed by a storm, as soon as he had landed in
Barbary, and Cliarles was glad to re-embark, after having lost
the greater part of his army by the inclemency of the weather,
famine, or the sword of the enemy. But if he failed to acquire
tliat glory which attends success, he secured that whicti is
more essentially connected with merit. He never appeared
greater than amidst his misfortunes. His firnmess and con-
stancy of spirit, his magnanimity, fortitude, humanity, and
compassion, were eminendy conspicuous. He endured as
severe hardships as the meanest soldier ; he visited the sick
and wounded, and animated all by his words and example.
He paid dearly for his rash enterprise, but he made mankind
sensible that he possessed many valuable qualities, which an
almost uninterrupted flow of prosperity had hiUierto afforded
liim little opportunity of displaying.

1542. — Two ambassadors of Francis I., the one to the
Ottoman Porte, die other to die republic of Venice, having
been murdered as they were sailing down the Po, Francis
demanded reparation of die emperor, who returned him only
an evasive answer. Francis then appealed to all the courts
of Europe, and renewed his treaty with Solyman : this step
drew upon him the indignation of Christendom. IVut his ac-
tivity supplied all die defects in his negotiation. Five armies
were soon ready to take the field, and with difl'r'rent destina-
tions : nor was Charles wanting in his preparations. 'J'he
battle of Cerisoles ensued, gained by Count d'Enghien over
the imperialists, and in which 10,000 of tlic em|)fror's best
troops fell. In fine, after France, Spain. Piedmont, and the

v.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 27

Low Countries, had been alternately, or at once, the scene of
war ; after the Turkish fleet, under Barbarossa, had ravaged
the coasts of Italy, and the lilies of France and the crescent
of Mahomet had appeared in conjunction before Nice, where
the cross of Savoy was displayed — Francis and Charles
mutually tired of harassing each other, concluded, at Crespy
a treaty of peace, in 1544.

CHAPTER V.

ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND, FROM 1542 TO 1556.

Henry VHI. declared war against his nephew, James V
of Scotland, in 1542, because that prince had refused to
throw off' the jurisdiction of the Pope. James being unsuc-
cessful, was so afflicted, both for his losses and the miseries
he saw hanging over his kingdom, that he died the same year,
soon after tlie birth of his daughter, Mary Stuart.

Henry VHI. continued till his death the tyrannic persecutor
of his subjects. Catholics and Lutherans he burned in the
same pile, without distinction and without mercy ; those for
not acknowledging his spiritual supremacy, these for denying
the docti-ine of transubstantiation. Among the Catholic suf-
ferers, were Margaret Plantagenet, Countess of Salisbury and
mother of Cardinal Pole, thirteen abbots and priors, about
seventy-seven religious, and many of the laity, who were all
put to death for denying the king's supremacy. The Duke
of Norfolk, who had recently quelled a rebellion in the norlli,
and his son, the Earl of Surrey, were the last victims marked
out for destruction. The earl was executed January 19th,
1547, but the duke escaped by the king's death, which hap-
pened the same month, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and
the thirty-eighth of his reign. He had made his will a few
weeks before his demise, in which he left his crown, first t«
Prince Edward, then to the Princess Mary, and lastly to
Princess Elizabeth, his daughter by Anna Bullen.

1547. — Edward VL being only nine years old at the time
of Lia father's death, the government was committed to sixteen
executors, among whom were Cranmer, Archbishop of Can-
terbury, and all the great officers of state. They chose one
of their number, namely, the Earl of Hertford, maternal uncle
of the king, instantly created Duke of Somerset, to represent

18 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. fcHAP.

the royal majesty under the title of Protector. This noble-
man soon rendered himself independent of his colleagues.
He hat! been lonjr a secret friend to the reformation, and was
a Zuinglian in iiis heart. Hcing now invested with sovereign
power, and having but litde opposition to fear from the nation
at large, he openly avowed his principles, and resolved to act
up to them. Till then no public change in the forms of divine
worship, or in tlie articles of religious belief iiad been enacted.
But during the protectorship of Somerset, a new liturgy was
framed, the ecclesiastical hierarchy was overthrown, and the
penal statutes which had been enacted against heretics during
the last reign, were repealed.

In the mean time, the democratic principles of Calvin,
wJiich had found their way into Scodand, roused the pcoi)Ie
to revolt against the established jjovernment bf>th of church
and state. One of their party having suiTered at the stake for
heresy, some of his disciples formed a conspiracy asfaiust the
primate, Cardinal Beaton, whom they cruelly murdered in his
own palace.

Somerset had not lost sight of the projected marriage be-
tween Edward and the young Queen of Scotland. To ol)lige
the nation to accede to this measure, he appeared on tiie fron-
tiers at the head of 18,000 men; but his proposals being re-
jected, and an army sent to oppose him, llicy came to an
engagement near the village of Pinkey, (four miles distant
from Edinbursrii.) in which the Scots were routed with great
slaughter. This victory, however, was of no real utility to
England, as it induced tlie Scots, alarmed for the safety of
their young queen, to send her to France, where she was
soon after atPianced to the dauphin.

Several disturbances arose in Enffland at tliis time, excited
by the discontent, which the oppressions and rapacious acts
of the ministry had occasioned. The rebels, however, were
soon dispersed and their leader hanged ; but the majority of
the pe()i)le beheld witli grief tiieir clmrches i)lund(Ted, and
their ancient religion abolished. The Scots, taking advantage
of the internal troubles of the kinirdom, ol)liged tiu^ Euirlish
to evacuate Iladdiriixton ; and tlie King of France seized the
opportunity of recovering, with the exception of Boulogne,
all the conquests which Henry had made on the continent.
Somerset, embarrassed on every side, was inclined to con-
clude a peace with France and Scotland, but he found that he
no longer possessed his wonted induence in the couuimI. A
powerful faction was formed against him, at the head of which

T.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 29

was the Earl of Warwick ; and the protector was compelleJ
to resign his office in 1549. Warwick succeeded to his pow-
er, though not to his title, and immediately negotiated a peace
with France ; and as Henry II. refused to pay to England
the arrears which were due to her by former stipulations, but
offered a large sum for the immediate restitution of Boulogne,
a treaty was concluded on these terms, in 1550, in which
Scotland was comprehended. Warwick, lately created Duke
of Northumberland, though now raised to the summit of his
ambition, still found in the degraded Somerset the disturber
of his repose; by various provocations he excited him to
imprudent schemes, and afterwards accused him of high trea-
son for seeming to acquiesce in them. Somerset was, in
consequence, tried, condemned, and executed in 1552. Some
time after, Northumberland persuaded the king, who was now
in a deep decline, to alter the succession in favour of his
cousin, Lady Jane Grey, who had lately been married to Lord
Guilford Dudley, the duke's fourth son. After this measure
Edward's health visibly declined, and he died on the 6th of
July, 1553, in the sixteenth year of his age and the seventh
of his reign. The traitorous Northumberland immediately
sent to secure the two princesses, Mary and Elizabeth, but
failed in his attempt. Mary was within half a day's journey
of London, when she received private intelligence from the
Earl of Arundel of her brother's death, and of the conspiracy
formed against her. She retreated into Norfolk, while the
duke caused Lady Jane to be proclaimed queen. But the
dissatisfaction with which this proclamation was received, soon
convinced him that military force was necessary to carry his
point ; he therefore resolved on civil war, and marched an
army into Suffolk. Mary, in the mean time, had been very ac-
tive in rousing the loyalty of her subjects into action. The fol-
lowers of her standard amounted to twice the number of the
rebel forces. The duke, who had advanced as far as Ed-
mondsbury, finding his cause hopeless, laid down his arms,
proclaimed Mary Queen of England, and resigned himself to
her royal clemency. But his guilt was of too deep a dye to
be effaced by any submissions, and his character made it un-
safe for any government to pardon such an offender. Before
he was executed, he openly confessed his belief of the Catho-
lic faith, to which he exhorted all present to return, as well
as to their obedience to their lawful sovereign. Two others
suffered death with him, and eight more were condemned.
Among these were Lady Jane and Lord Guilford Dudley,

30 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [^CHAP,

wliose execution was put ofl' and probably never would have
ensued, had not a subsequent rci)ellion made it seem neces-
sary for the queen's safety and the tranquillity of tlie stale.
A ffcneral pardon followed these acts of justice: the queen
remitted tlie subsidy, which had been granted to her brother,
and no sovereign seems to have ascended the throne with more
universal satisfaction. She was solemnly crowned at West-
minster on the 1st of October, and shordy after the Parlia-
ment met by summons. They began the session by some
popular acts ; they next proceeded to declare the validity of
King Henry's marriage with Catherine of Arragon, stigmatized
Cranmer's conduct for pronouncing the sentence of divorce,
and annulled every public act that had been passed in conse-
quence of it. All statutes made in the last reign ajrainst the
Catholic religion were repealed, and the form of divine wor-
ship was restored to the state in which Henry left it. Bishop
Bonner was reinstated in the see of London, and orders were
issued to use the Roman ritual throughout the whole kins-
dom. One of the objects the queen had in view was to
strengthen her authority by a suitable marriage, and several
persons were proposed to her by her ministers. She had
already consulted the Emperor Charles V. on the subject,
who recomiftended his son Philip. The proposition was ac-
cepted, and the articles of the marriaffe which were agreed
upon, seemed so evideiuly to favour the interests of England,
that both houses of Parliament approved them, by every ex-
pression that could denote a sense of the advantages which
accrued to the queen and the realm.

The re-establishing of the ancient worship, though enacted
by the whole legislative authority, united to the nation's pre-
judices against the queen's marriage with a foreigner, gave
occasion to a rebellion, which, failing of success, only
strengthened that government it was designed to over-
throw. An insurrection in Devon was attempted by Sir Pe-
ter Carew, in 1554, but he was arrested at Exeter, whence he
escaped to France. Sir Thomas VVyatt collected a body of
f),Ot)() men in Kent, with which he marched to London ; but
finding the citizens firm in tlioir allegiance to the quren, he
took up a position in front of the royal army which lay
entrenched near St. .James's. F'ager to engage, Wyatt rashly
attempted to force their entrenchments; but he was rP|)u]sed,
his forces rotitrd, an'i liimsflf taken prisoner. Tlie Duke of
Sufl'"olk, who commanded another party of rebels in the inte-
rior of the kingdom, was defeated about the same time, anl

T.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 31

conveyed to the Tower. In levying war against their lawful
sovereign, the views of these two rebels were different, their
crime the same. The duke's ambition was to raise his
daughter, Lady Jane Grey, to the throne; and his guilt caused
her to experience a severity, which all the personal merit that
pleaded in her favour oonld not avert. She and her husband
were beheaded on the 12th of February, 1554.

Wyatt wrote a letter to the queen from the Tower, in which
he revealed the whole plot of the conspirators, and frankly
owned their intentions of placing the Princess Elizabeth upon
the throne. He also accused Courtenay, Earl of Devonshire,
as being as deeply concerned in the plot as himself. The
princess was aot ignorant of their plan: for the security
of the public tPanquillity she was therefore conveyed to
Woodstock, where she was kept in custody for some months,
while Courtenay was sent to Fotheringay Casde. Though
no overt act of treason had been committed by them, sufficient
was proved against them to justify their commitment.

The emperor, thinking it beneath the dignity of Mary to
marry one below the rank of king, resigned to his son the
crown of Naples, with the duchy of Milan. Philip arrived in
England on the 19th of July, and was married to the queen
on the 25th.

The object which Mary had most at heart since her acces-
sion to the throne, was the reunion of her subjects with the
see of Rome : Pope Julius III. had, at her request, nominated
Cardinal Pole his apostolic legate for that purpose. The
cardinal arrived in England, November 20th : eight days after,
by the unanimous consent of both houses of Parliament, the
nation, in the person of its representatives, was solemnly ab-
solved from spiritual censures by the legate, in the House of
Lords, and reconciled to the church. The clergy received a
more special absolution on the following Thursday.

To prevent the opposition which was expected from the
occupiers of church lands, the legate, by virtue of the power
he had received for this purpose from the sovereign Pontiff,
confirmed them to the lay possessors, with the consent of
those who had been dispossessed. The legislature confirmed
the same. But the queen had the generosity to give up all that
share of the spoils which had been annexed to the crown,
including the tenths and first-fruits, amounting to ^63,000,
altogether about a million and a half of our present money.
These last were restored to the clergy of the English church,
and not to the Pope, to whom they were originally paid. Oa

92 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. (_CHAP.

tlie authority of Fra Paolo,* some of our historians assert that
Paul IV., the successor of Julius, expressed his displeasure to
tlie queen at the church lands not having been restored ; but the
journal of the House of Commons, Cardinal Pole's lett(;rs,
and the testimony of Dr. Heylin, Camden, &c., supply authen-
tic information to the contrary.

The several rebellions we have mentioned, and many sub-
sequent outrages the queen endured from her Protestant sub-
jects, out of hatred to her religion, were deemed by her coun-
cil a sufficient motive for reviving the penal statutes which
had been enacted against heretics during the reign of Richard
II. aiid the two succeeding Henrys. In consequence of the
revival of these statutes, many persons were taken up, some
for treason, and others for heresy. They had a fair trial;
many were legally convicted and executed, as the law direct-
ed, but not in such numberst nor with such aggravating cir-
cumstances of cruelty as Mr. Hume represents upon the au-
thority of John Fox, tlie Protestant martyrologist.|

Most of these unhappy persons suffered in the diocese of
London, of which Bonner was bishop, who is represented
as the chief actor in tliat deplorable transaction ; and London
being the capital, was likewise the theatre where the delin-
quents were chiefly to make their appearance. Tiie most
noted among the sufferers were tlie five Protestant bishops,
Cranmer, Hooper, Ridley, Farrar, and Latimer. Archbishop
Cranmer had been confined in the Tower since the suppres-
sion of the rebellion in favour of Lady Jane Grey, in wliich
he had taken an active part. He was then attainted of high
treason, and his revenues sequestered. Two years after-

• Fra Paolo was an apostate monk of Venice, in which town he waf
born, in 1552. His disohcdience to the Po])e drew upon him a sentence
of excommunication in 1606. After many endeavours to introduce into
hi.s country the errors of the Genevans, he died out of the communion of
the church in 1623.

■[ Heylin, Hist. Reformation, p. 226.

i J. Fox relates that 227 j)ersons sulTered death by fire during tliis
reipn ; but the account having been very accurately examined by the learn-
ed F. Parsons, who lived very near that time, was shown to be much ex-
aggerated, with respect to the number and cause of the sufferers, which
made an eminent divine nf ihe church of Etii;l;nid observe, (.Vtji. Oxun. v.
1, page 2.'J1.) that " where he produces records, he m.iy be credilrd, but as
to other rel:ilii)ns he is of very slenfler authorily." Afler minute inipnry,
not more than thirteen arc found to have sulfered throughnut England,
besides those who were executed in Smithfield. Sec Phil. Life of Cardi-
nal Pole, vol. 2, p. 216.

VI.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 88

wards, he was tried by a spiritual court of delegates nomi-
nated by the Pope, and being convicted of obstinate heresy
was degraded and delivered over to the civil power, which
condemned him to death by fire. In the hope of having his
life spared, he retracted his errors ; but finding his death inevi-
table, he repeated his former profession of faith at the place
of execution. He suff'ered on the first of March, 1556. The
queen nominated Cardinal Pole to succeed him in the see of
Canterbury, and the Pope approved of her majesty's choice.

CHAPTER VI.

EUROPE, FROM THE FIRST MEETING OF THE COUNCIL OF TRENT,
IN 1546, TO THE PEACE OF CHATEAU CAMBRESIS, IN 1559.

1546. — In consequence of the resolution of the Emperor
Charles V. to humble the Protestant princes, which had been
his principal motive in concluding a disadvantageous peace
with Francis I., at Crespy, he sent ambassadors to Constanti-
nople and concluded a dishonourable truce with Solyman. He
stipulated that his brother Ferdinand should pay an annual
tribute to the Porte for that part of Hungary whicli still ac-
knowledged his sway, and that the sultan should retain the
undisputed possession of the other. Charles, at the same
time, entered into an alliance with Paul III., the reigning
Pontiff, for the extirpation of heresy. Meanwhile a general
council had been assembled at Trent, by the authority of the
Pope, in order to regulate the affairs of religion ; but the
Protestants, though they had appealed to a general council,
refused to acknowledge the legality of this, or to submit to
its decrees.

In the mean time the death of Luther threw ihe German
Protestants into much consternation, but did not suspend their
preparations for war. In a few weeks they assembled an
army of 70,000 foot and 1500 horse ; thougli several of the
Protestant princes, overawed by the emperor's power, had
remained neutral ; while others, allured by the prospect of ad-
vantage, had voluntarily engaged in his service. Among the
latter, Maurice, Marquis of Thuringia and Misnia, of the
house of Saxony, entered one part of the territories of Fre-
derick, Elector of Saxony, at the head of 12,000 men, while
Ferdinand, with an army of Bohemians and Ilungaiians

B4 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CIIAP

overran the otlier. The elector, upon receiving the news thai
Maurice had made himself master of all the electoral domi-
nions, except WuicnI)or^, Gotlia, and Eisenack, returned home
wilh liis troops, and tims divided the army of the conlVile-
rntes. Ulm, at the same time, submitted to the emperor, and
the other cities and princes followiHl this example, 'I'hus tiiis
confederacy, lately so powerful, fell to pieces, scarcely any of
the associates now remaining in arms, except the Elector of
Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse.

1547. — The death of Francis I., while he was forming new
schemes against the emperor, encouraged this prince to act
with vigour in Germany, more especially as he thought he
had nothing to fear for some time from the negotiations or
personal efibrts of the young monarch, Henry H. Ciiaihis
marched into Saxony, at the head of 10,000 veterans, attack-
ed the main body of the elector's forces at Mulhausen, near
ISIulberg, defeated them, and took the elector prisoner. He
then marched towards Wittenberg, the capital in that age of
the electoral branch of the Saxon family. Sybilla of Cleves,
the elector's wife, animated the citizens to a vigorous defence ;
but understanding that her husband was made prisoner, and
that his life might probably pay for her resistance, she sub-
mitted to the cnn(jueror's terms. The elector agreed to resign
his electoral dignity and put the imperial troops in possession
of his capital : in return, the emperor promised not only to
spare his life, but to settle on hiui and his posterity tiie city
of Gotha and its territories, with a revenue of 50,000 florins.
The Saxon electorate was inslanUy bestowed upon Maurice.
The emperor, having humbled tlie Germans, summoned a diet
to meet him at Augsburg, in order to compose finally the con-
troversies witii regard to religion, wliicli had so long disturbed
the empire.

1548. — Here he publishfulhis famous Intp.rim, which pleased
neither party : the Protestants thought it granted too litde
indulgence; the Catholics, too much. The emperor, how-
ever, fond of his plan, adhered to his resolution of carry-
ing it into execution, and slripptnl Ulm and Augsburg of their
privileges on account of tiuiir opposition. This example
made many other cities feign compliance. In 1519 died Paul
FH., and in 1550 he was succeeded in the papacy by the
Gardiii il de Monti, who took the name of .Inliiis HI.

1550. — Charles continued to carry all before him in Ger-
many, till he altemplfd to transmit llie (Mnpirc, as W(dl as th«
kingdom of Spain and his dominions in tlie Low Countries

fl.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 35

to his son Philip. He had formeily assisted his brother Ferdi-
nand in obtaining the dignity of King of the Romans : he now
hoped to prevail on the electors to cancel that choice, or, at
least, to elect Philip a second King of the Romans, substitut-
ing him as next in succession to his uncle ; but all the elect-
ors concurred in expressing such strong disapprobation of the
measure, that Charles was obliged to relinquish the design.
The war of Parma, where the French took the field as allies
of Octavio Farnese, Duke of Parma, and the Imperialists, as
the protectors of the Holy See, was distinguished by no me-
morable event ; but the alarm which it occasioned in Italy
prevented most of the Italian prelates from repairing to Trent,
at the time appointed for the reassembling of the council.
The war continued in Germany till the middle of the follow-
ing year: the Protestants being headed by Maurice, wliom
Charles had made Elector of Saxony, and receiving great suc-
cours from Henry II. of France. In July, 1552, the elector,
after great success, repaired to Passau, and concluded a peace
on these conditions : that the confederates should lay down
their arms ; that the Landgrave of Hesse should be set at
liberty ; that a diet should be held within six months to settle
the affairs of religion; that, in the mean time, no injury or
impediment should be offered to either party; tbat the impe-
rial chamber should administer justice impartially to both par-
ties ; and Protestants be admitted indiscriminately with Catho-
lics, to sit as judges in that court. Thus, by the peace of
Passau, was Protestantism established in Germany. Henry
II. experienced, in this treaty, what every prince, who lends
his aid to the authors of a civil war, may expect. His ser-
vices were forgotten, and his associates made a merit with
their sovereign, of the ingratitude with which they had aban-
doned their protector.

The peace of Passau was no sooner signed, than Maurice,
who was considered by the Protestants as the deliverer of
Germany, marched into Hungary against the Turks, at the head
of 20,000 men, in consequence of his engaj ements with Fer-
dinand, whom the hopes of such assistance had made an ad-
vocate of the confederates. But the vast superiority of the
Turkish armies, together with the dissensions between Mau-
rice and Castaldo, the Austrian general, who was piqued at
being superseded in the command, prevented the elector from
doing any thing of consequence. In the mean time, Charles V.,
concerned at the loss of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, of which
Henry II. had made himself master, and which, till then, had

J6 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. QcHAP.

formed the barrier of the empire on llie side of France, deter-
mined to recover the three bishoprics. Henry, on his side,
resolved to defiMid his conquests with vigour. Charles first laid
siege to Mctz, which was defended by Francis of Lorraine,
Duke of Guise. But after losing 30,000 men before the place,
he was obliirod to abandon the enterprise. This was not the
only contradiction the emperor received: the inhabitants of Si-
enna revolted from him and put themselves under the protec-
tion of the French; after which a Turkish fleet appeared in
the Mediterranean, and after plundering and burning several
places on the coast of Calabria, filled INaples itself with con-
sternation.

1553. — An obstinate battle was fought at Siverhausen, in
the duchy of Lunenhurg, between Albert of Brandenburg, and
Maurice, Elector of Saxony. After a long and desperate fight,
Albert's army fled, but Maurice received a wound, of which
he died two days after. As he left only one daughter, after-
wards married to the famous William, Prince of Orange,
Frederic, the degraded elector, claimed the electoral dignity,
but the states declared in favour of Augustus, Maurice's brother,
whose descendants still possess the electoral dominions.

During these transactions in Germany, the war was prose-
cuted in the Low Countries with considerable vigour. Charles
laid siege to Terouane, and that important place was carried
])y assault. Hesden was also invested, and carried in the same
manner. The imperial arms were less successful in Italy
The Viceroy of Naples failed in an attempt to recover Sienna,
and the French not only established themselves firndy in
Tuscany, but conquered part of Corsica; while Castaldo, the
imperial general, was obliged to abandon Transylvania to tlie
Turks.

In the following year, (1554,) the war continued betwetin
Charles and Henry, with various success in the Low Coun-
tries, and in Italy to the disadvantage of the French, who
were deft;ated in the batUe of Marciano, and lost Sienna, after
a siege of ten months. In the mean time, Germany was occu-
pied with the famous recess of Augsburg, which established
Protestantism on the footing it has ever since held : though
(Cardinal Carafl'a, who was now raised to the papal throne
under the name of Paul IV., protested loudly against the
indulgence given to the Protestants.

1555. — An event happened this year which astonished all
Europe. The Emperor Charles, though no more than fifty-
six years of age, an age wluii ()l)jccts of ambition operate

Vl,3 GENERAL HISTORV OF EUROPE. 37

with full force on the mind, and are generally pursued with
the greatest ardour, resolved to resign all his hereditary do-
minions to his son Philip. Sated with the vanity of human
greatness, he determined to seek, in the tranquillity of retire-
ment, that happiness which he had in vain pursued amid the
tumults of war and the intrigues of state. In consequence of
this resolution, Charles assembled the states of the Low Coun-
tries at Brussels, and seating himself, for the last time, in the
chair of state, he explained to his subjects the motives of his
resignation, and solemnly devolved his authority upon Philip.
He recounted with dignity, but without ostentation, all the
great things which he had undertaken and performed since
the commencement of his administration ; and that enumera-
tion gives us the highest idea of his activity and industry.
"I have dedicated," said he, "from the seventeenth year of
my age, all my thoughts and attention to public objects, re-
serving no portion of m}- time for the indulgence of ease ;
and very little for the enjoyment of private pleasure. Either
in a pacific or hostile manner, I have visited Germany nine
times, Spain six times, France four times, Italy seven times,
the Low Countries ten times, England twice, Africa as often ;
and while my health permitted me to discharge the duties of
a sovereign, and the vigour of my constitution was equal, in
any degree, to the arduous task of governing such extensive
dominions, I never shunned labour, nor repined under fatigue ,
but now, when my health is broken, and my vigour exhausted
by the rage of an incurable distemper, my growing infirmi-
ties admonish me to retire ; nor am I so fond of reigning as to
retain the sceptre in an impotent hand, which is no longer able
to protect my subjects. Instead of a sovereign worn out with
disease, I give you one in the prime of life, already accustomed
to govern, and who adds, to the vigour of youth, all the atten-
tion and sagacity of maturer years."

Then turning towards Philip, who fell on his knees and
kissed his father's hand, " It is in your power," said Charles,
" by a wise and virtuous administration, to justify the extra-
ordinary proof which I give this day of my paternal affection,
and to demonstrate that you are worthy of the confidence
which I repose in you. Preserve," added he, " an invio-
lable regard for religion; maintain the Catholic faith in its
purity ; let the laws of your country be sacred in your eyes ;
encroach not on the rights of your people ; and if the time
should ever come, when you should wish to enjoy the
tranquillity of private life, may vou have a son to whom you

88 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE [cHAP.

can resign your sceptre, with as much satisfaction as 1 give
up mine to you." A few weeks after, the emperor resigned
to Philip tlie Spanisli crown, witli all the dominions depend-
ing upon it, both in llie oUl and new worhl ; reserving nothing
to himself but an annual pension, and retired into Spain.

1556. — This year was chiefly occupied in negotiations be-
tween King Philip II., Ilrnry II., and Pope Paul IV. In
the following year, Pliilip determined to act with such vigour,
as should convince all Europe, that his father had not erred
in resigning to him the reins of government. Finding that
Henry had violated the truce, he assembled in the JjOw Coun-
tries a body of 50,000 men; he obtained 10,000 from Eng-
laivd, and gave the command of this army to Emanuel Pliili-
bcrt, Duke of Savoy, one of the greatest generals of his age.
The duke advanced by rapid marches into Picardy, and laid
siege to St. Quintin, then deemed a place of considerable
strength. The Constable Montmorenci hastened to its relief;
but his army was cut to pieces, himself made prisoiier, and the
town, after being long and gallantly defended by Coligny, was
taken by storm. Philip next reduced Horn and Catelet, which,
with St. Quintin, were the sole fruits of one of the most de-
cisive victories gained in the sixteenth century. The Catho-
lic king vowed to build a churcii, a monastery, and a palace,
in honour of St. Lawrence, on whose feast the battle of St.
Quintin had been fought. Tlie same principle that dictated
the vow, directed the construction of the fabric. It was so
formed as to resemble a gridiron, on which the saini had suf-
fered martyrdom. Such is the origin of the famous Escurial,
near Madrid, the royal residence of the Kings of Spain. In
1558, the Duke of Guise, taking advantage of the defenceless
state of Calais, the garrison of which amounted only to 500
men, made himself master of it, an offer from Philip to rein-
force it having been rejected by the Queen of England's mi-
nisters. This town and its adjacent territory had been in the
possession of tlie English upwards of 200 years, and as it
opened to them an easy and secure entry into the heart of
France, was regarded as the most valual)le foreign possession
belonging to the crown. The English were highly enraged
at this loss; they murmured loudly against the queen and her
council, who, afler engairing the nation in a ruinous war, had
exposed it, by their negligence, to so severe a disgrac(;. 'i'liis
event, with her subjects' ill conduct towards her, and the con-
cerns of religion, so affected Mary, that she fell into a slow
fever, which put an end to her short and turbulent reign of

ri.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE, 39

five years. " When I am dead," said she to her attendants,
"you will find the word Calais engraven on my heart."
Cardinal Pole died the next morning, aged 58.

The Princess Elizabeth was in Hertfordshire, when news
was brought to her of her sister's death. She hastened im-
mediately to London, where she met with a very flattering
reception. At her accession she found the kingdom divided
into two parties ; one for the old, the other for the new reli-
gion. Her first steps were calculated to inspire the Catholics
with a hope that she would remain in the communion of
that church, the rights and liberties of which she solemnly
promised to maintain in her coronation oath, Avhich she took,
according to the ancient form, on the 14th of January, 1559.
But the friends of the reformation, M'ho had endeavoured by
force to place her upon iier sister's throne, were well acquaint-
ed with the real sentiments of her heart ; and with some of these
she devised measures for re-establishinsf the Protestant reli-
gion. A Parliament devoted to her will assembled on the
25th of January.

Their first session declared Queen Elizabeth true and law-
ful heir to the crown of England, though it passed no act for
the validity of her mother's marriage, on which her title prin-
cipally depended, A bill was brought in for suppressing the
monasteries, which Mary had re-established. It passed with
litde opposition, and was followed by another for annexing
supremacy to the crown. This act was vigorously opposed
in both houses of Parliament, yet it was carried by a decided
majority, and Elizabeth was declared supreme head on earth
of the church of England.

The primary cause of the queen's quarrel with the Holy
See, has by some been attributed to the cool reception her
ambassador met with at Rome, and the rude reproach she re-
ceived from Paul IV., for having assumed the crown under a
doubtful title. This Pope, though possessed of many good
qualities, was unfortunately of a very .austere and haughty
disposition, and old age, and his late quarrel with Spain had
rather increased than mollified the asperity of his temper.
Elizabeth was far from entertaining in private any aversion to
the Catholic religion. It was chiefly owing to her partiality
for the hierarchy, and for many points of the ancient faith and
discipline, that the church of England has departed less from
the ancient church, than any other sect of Protestants. She
was known, in private conversation, to ridicule her own spi-
ritual supremacy and to acknowledge that of tlie Pope ; she

4U GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

even intimated a wisli,^ if circumstances would permit it, to
follow tlie original faiih ; but as ambition was, among all her
strong passions, tl:e most violent, and as the counsellors to
whom she referred the question of religion convinced her that
it was for her temporal interest to cast off the Pope's jurisdic-
tion and to suppress the ancient religion, she took her mea-
sures accordingly, and became in the end one of the most
violent persecutors of Catholics upon record. Her dissimula-
tion, cruelty, and profligacy of manners were only inferior to
her ^inliition; and as it was not to be expected that the court
would be more virtuous than the queen, it is described by an
eyewitness and member of it as a scene of all enormities,
whore wickedness reigned in the highest degree.! This is
particularly applicable to the three most distinguished mem-
bers of her ministry, namely, Dudley, Earl of Leicester, Sii
William Cecil, afterwards Lord Burghley, the chief promoter
of the civil wars among the subjects of foreign princes and of
the persecutions raised at home; and, lastly. Sir Francis Wal-
singham, the more immediate agent in those murderous acts
of assassination and horrid forgeries wliicli Elizabeth's minis-
ters employed to siiorten the life of the Queen of Scots, and
also of her son, James LJ

After passing the Supremacy Act, Parliamejit proceeded to
abolish tiie mass, and to revive the form of divine worsliip
wliich had been framed in Edward's reign. The aversion
which the bishops and many of the clergy evinced for this
change, made the government resolve to put them to the test,
by tendering to them the oath of supremacy. Out of fifteen
bishops who remained in the kingdom, only one consented to
take it; the others were deprived of their sees, and put under
an arrest. Great numbers of the more eminent clergy went
abroad; the major part of the parochial clergy conformed
against the conviction of conscience, as Echurd writes. In
order to extirpate the Catholic religion, a variety of penal
statutes were enacted, by which the exercise of that religion
was foi!)i(lden, under pain of forfeitures, imprisonments, and
death. This system of persecution was kept up with unre-
lenting severity during the whole reign of Elizal)elli. It ig
dilhcult to ascertain the precise number of those who sufTered

• Sec all the outhorities quoted by Dr. Milner in his " Letters to a Pre-
bendary," L- fi. p. lyi.

I Viz., Sir Nirhohis Taunt, undrr secretary to Wal.singhnm. Birch'a
Mcin. Eliz., vol. 1. History of England, l)y Bfvil Hit^mms, p. 234

^ See Whittaker's Vindication of Mary, Cjueen of Scots.

fl.'J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 4]

loss of estates, banishment, imprisonment, tortures, and death
during this period.* These punishments were arbitrarily inflict-
ed by a Court of Commission, consisting of forty-four mem-
bers, whose jurisdiction extended aver the whole kingdom,
and whose power was unlimited.

The Protestant religion was hardly established in England,
when a schism was formed in its bosom, which seemed to
threaten its destruction. The emigrants, whom the queen had
recalled in the beginning of her reign, had returned, strongly
imbued with the puritanical principles of Zuinglius and Cal-
vin. To compromise, if possible, the jarring tenets which
set the Protestant sects at variance, a convocation met in
1562. The famous thirty-nine articles were then agreed
upon, approved by the queen, published, and afterwards con-
firmed by Parliament. From this digression we must return
to the affairs of the continent, at the date of Elizabeth's
accession.

1558. — 'After the reduction of Calais, the Duke of Guise
invested Thionville, in the Duchy of Luxembourg, one of
the strongest towns on the frontiers of the Netherlands, and
forced it to capitulate : but the French meeting with less suc-
cess in other parts, the Duke of Guise was compelled to re-
linquish his schemes and hasten to the frontiers of Picardy
The Spanish and Flemish army, under the Duke of Savoy
and the French under the Duke of Guise, both 40,000 strong
were now encamped within a few leagues of each other : peace
began to be mentioned in each camp. Henry and Philip were
equally desirous of it, and the Abbey of Cercamp was fixed
upon as the place of congress.

While Henry and Philip were making these advances to-
wards a treaty, which restored tranquillity to Europe, Charles
V. ended his days in the monastery of St. Justus, in Estra-
madura, having lived in his solitude on a plan that would have
suited a gentleman of moderate fortune. He sometimes ad-
mitted a few gentlemen to visit him and entertained them as
equals, or he employed himself in study and in framing curi-
ous works of mechanism : but he always set apart a consider-
able portion of his time for religious exercises, and regularly
attended divine service in the church of the monastery. To pre-
pare himself more immediately for death, he formed the singular
resolution of celebrating his own obsequies. His tomb was ac-

* See the " Memoirs of Missionary Priests," by the Right Rev Richard
Challoner.

48 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAF.

cordinol y erected in the chapel of the monastery ; his attendants
walked thither in fimoral procession, Charles followed them in
his shroud ; licMnglaid in liis coflin, the burial service was clianfed
over him, he himself joining in tlie prayers that were oiTered
for the repose of his soul, and mingling his tears with tliose
wliifh his attendants shed. The fatiguing length of the cere-
mony, or the awful sentiments whicii it inspired, threw him
into a fever, of which he died, in the fifty-ninth year of his
age. His enterprises speak his most eloquent panegyric, and
his history forms his iiighcst character. His abilities as a
statesman and as a general were of the first class, but his ambi-
tion frustrated the chief end of government — the happiness
of the nations committed to his care.

Philip H., unwilling to lose his connexion with England,
warmly espoused the interests of Elizabetli in the conference
of (ycrcamp, and afterwards at Chateau Cambresis, whither
they were removed ; and insisted that the treaty of peace be-
tween Henry and Elizabeth should be concluded in form before
that between France and Spain. By this treaty it was stipu-
lated that the King of France should retain possession of ( 'a-
lais during eight years, at the end of which term he should
restore it to England or pay 500,000 crowns; but as the force
of this stipulation was made to depend on Elizabeth's pre-
serving inviolate, during that period, the peace with France
and Scothmd, all men of discernment saw it was but a decent
pretext for al^andoning Calais, and palliating what could not
be prevented. The principal articles of peace between France
and Spain were, that all conquests on this side tlie Alps since
15.51 should be mutually restored; that the duchy of Savoy,
the principality of I'iedmont, the county of I3resse, and ot'ier
territories, formerly subjec-t to the Dukes of Savoy, sliould be
restored to Emanuel Pliilibertupon his marriage with Margaret
of France; that the French king should evacuate the phices
he held in Tuscany and Sienna, receive the Genoese into
favour, and give up to them the towns he had taken in Corsi-
ca ; but he was allowed to keep Metz, Toid, and Verdun. All
past transactions either of princes or sui)jects were to t)e bm'ied
in obHvion. 'J'hus was peace ajjiiin estabMslied in Europe, alnioi*t
every prince and state in (Christendom being comprehended
in the trraty of Chateau ('ambrcsis, as aRies either of Henry
or rhilij). Among thes(! conlracting powers were included
the Kings of Sweden, Denmark, and Poland.

155!). — Meanliuif, Henry H. liaving l)een killed in a tourna-
ment, while celebrating tiic es])ousals of his sister with the

fl.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 43

Duke of Savoy, his son, Francis 11., a weak prince and under
age, already married to tiie Queen of Scots, succeeded to the
crown of France. A few weeks after, Paul IV. ended his
pontificate, and thus the personages who had so long sustainei'
the principal characters on the great theatre of Europe disap-
peared at the same time.

As this period forms an era in history, it is a proper place
to mention some of the persons most eminent for learning
who flourished during the sixteenth century, and the religious
institutions which were then established. The celebrated Eras-
mus was born at Rotterdam, in 1467. If we consider him as
a genius and a scholar, envy itself must own he holds a rank
to which very few have ever attained. His industry could
only be surpassed by the ease with which the most various
and difficult attainments became familiar to him. But as a
Christian, he was a disgrace to the clergy to which he belonged ;
there having been scarcely any error advanced against the
Catho-lic celigion, which he professed, that he has not revived,
or any tenet of belief or practice which he has not oppugned,
either by profane sneers or sophistry. He resided a long
time in England during the reign of Henry VIII. He died a
Catholic, in 15.36.

St. Ignatius Loyola founded the celebrated order of the
Society of Jesus, about the same time that Martin Luther was
disseminating his doctrine in Germany. The first fathers of
this religious order were remarkably learned ; and two of
them assisted at the council of Trent as the Pope's divines.
The order was confirmed by Paul III., in 1540, and its found-
er lived to see it spread almost over the whole world, and
divided into twelve provinces, which contained at least a hun-
dred colleges. A few years before his death, St. Francis Xa-
vier, the most celebrated of his disciples, terminated a life,
which had been an object of admiration, not only to the Catho-
lic church, but to those who are estranged from her tenets.
After having enlightened the empire of Japan, and several
other kingdoms of the East, with the gospel, he died in the
Island of Sanciano, as he was preparing to communicate that
blessing to China, in 1552.

In the reign of Elizabeth, when Catholic parents were de-
barred from bestowing any education on their children at home,
Dr. William Allen, afterwards cardinal, formed the design of
establishing English colleges on the continent for the educa-
tion of youth. By the help of charitable contributions, an
establishment for that purpose was opened at Douay, which

44 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAH.

then formed a part of the Spanish Nethcrhuuls. During the
trouhles in that country, it removed to Rheims, in 1578, hut
returned to Douay in 1593, and continued to be a flourishing
college till the rcvohition in France, at the close of the eight-
eenth century. St. Francis of Sales, IJishop of Geneva,
was born in 1507, and seemed destined by Providence to
repair the ravages which heresy had made in Savoy. His zeal
in the conversion of Zuinglians and Calvinists was attended bj
the most surprising success, and he had the happiness to bring
back seventy-two thousand to the bosom of the Catholic
church. Having instructed the faithful by his writinirs, edi-
fied them by the admirable example of his virtues, and insii-
tuted the holy order of the visitation of the blessed Virgin
Mary, he died, December 28th, 16'22. St. Vincent of Paul,
the illlustrious apostle oT France, in these later ages, was
born at Puy, in that kingdom, in the year 15(57. His life,
from the foundation of his first congregation of Missionary
Priests, (called Lazarists, from the priory of St. Lazarus, ceded
to them in 1033,) was a continued series of works of charity.
His pious foundations for missions in all parts of the kingdom,
as well as distant provinces and states, for spiritual retreats,
for foundlings, and for the sisters of charity, have proved the
resource of France, in these latter days, against the deluge of
impiety and infidelitv, which had overturned nearly all her
ancient religious establishments. St. V'incent exerted his zeal
in opposing the partisans of Jansenius, and, worn out with
labour and austerities, died, September 27th, 1000, in the 85th
year of his age. St. Philip Neri, founder of the congrega-
tion of Oratorians at Home, who died in 1595, and St. 'I'ere-
sa, the celebrated reformer of the Carmelites, deceased at
Avila in Spain, in 1582, deserve by their labours and writings
to be mentioned in history, if the narrow limits of this abridg-
ment did ):ot oblige us to omit any particulars of their lives. St.
Charles liorromaeo, Cardinals nfllarmin and Herulle, are iiamcf
that will ever be mentioned with sentiments of admiration.

ni.j GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 45

CHAPTER VII.

INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN KINGDOMS

OF EUROPE.

Norway, a part of the ancient Scandinavia, had kings of its
own till the year 1375. Of Sweden, we have no certain ac-
count till the year 714, when it was converted to Christianity
by St. Anscharius, about which time Denmark, the ancient
seat of the Cimbri, is said to have been governed by a king
called Gormo.

Margaret, daughter of Waldemar III., King of Denmark,
married Hacquin, King of Norway, son of Magnus III., King
of Sweden. On the death of her son Olaus, the last male
heir of these three crowns, which were more elective than
hereditary, she succeeded by consent of the states to the
Danish throne in 1387. She was elected Queen of Norway,
which she had governed as regent, and the Swedes, being op-
pressed by Albert of Mecklenburg, whom they had chosen
king, offered their crown to Margaret.

The three northern crowns were no sooner fixed on her
head, than she laboured to render their union perpetual. She
convoked the states of the three kingdoms to meet at Calmar,
in Sweden, where it was established as a fundamental law
that Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, should thenceforth have
but one and the same sovereign, who should be chosen suc-
cessively by each kingdom, and then approved by the other
two. But this union proved the source of much discontent
and of many barbarous wars. The national antipathy be-
tween the Danes and Swedes was now heightened by national
jealousy. Margaret's partiality to the former is said to have
been evident; and under her successor, Eric, the Swedes
openly revolted, choosing their Grand Marshal Canutson, first
regent, and afterwards king. The Swedes, however, return-
ed to their allegiance under Christian I. of Denmark, in 1442,
but again revolted from the same prince ; they renewed the
treaty of Calmar, under John, his successor; revolted a third
time, and were reduced by Christian II. to the state of a con-
quered people. The Swedes, on revolting from Christian I.,
had conferred the administration of the kingdom on Steen
Sture, whose son succeeded to the regency. The authority
of young Sture was acknowledged by the body of the nation,

• 6 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

&ut disputed by Gustaviis TroUe, Archbishop of Upsal and
Primate of Sweden, wliose father had been a competitor for
the achninistration, and whom Christian II. had brouirlu over
to his interest. Besie<Ted in liis castle of JSteclva, and obUged
to surrender, notwithstanding the interposition of the Danish
nionarcli, tlie arclibishop was deprived of all his bcnericea.
In his distress he applied to Pope Leo X., who excommuni-
cated the regent and his adherents, corarnillir-g the execution
of the decree to the King of Denmark. Pursuant to this
decree, the Nero of the North, as Christian II. is deservedly
Btylcd, invaded Sweden with a powerful army; but being
worsted in a great battle, he pretended to treat, and offered to
go in {)erson to Stockholm to confer with the regent, provided
six hostages were sent as a pledge of his safety. The pro-
posal was accepted, and six of the first nobility, among whom
was Gustavus Vasa, grand-nephew of King Canutson, were
put on board the Danish lleet, whom the perfidious Christian
carried prisoners to Denmark. Next year he relumed with
a more formidable armament, invaded West Gothland, where
Steen Sture, advancing to erive him balde, fell into an ambus-
cade, and received a mortal wound. The Swedisii army, left
without a head, was soon dispersed; and the conqueror left the
senate no time to deliberate upon the choice of a new regent.
He immediately marched to the capital, wasting every thing
before him with fire and sword. Stockholm surrendered, and
Gustavus Trolle, resuming his archiopiscopal functions, crown-
ed Christian King of Sweden. Tiiis coronation was followed
by one of the most tragical scenes recorded in history. Chris-
tian, knowing how much he was hated by the Swedes, affected
clemency, and swore he would govern Sweden, not as a con-
queror, but as a father; after which he invited the senators
and grandees to a sumptuous entertainment, which lasted three
days. Meanwhile, a plot was formed for extirpating the
Swedish nol)ility. On the last day of the feast, as had bern
preconcerted, Archbishop Trolle reminded the king, that
thouirh his majesty had graciously pardoned all past offences, no
satislaction had been made to tin; Pope, in whose name he
demand(!d justice. The hall was instantly fdled with armed
men, who secured the guests ; the primate proceeded against
them as excommunicated persons; a scaffold was (^reeled be-
fore the palace gale; and ninety-four persons of dislinclion,
»mong whom was Eric Vasa, father of the famous Gustavus,
were publicly executed. The rage of the soldijcry was ihen
let l«)ose against the citizens, who were butchered without

VII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 47

mercy. The body of the late regent Avas dug from the gravg
and exposed on a gibbet. But Sweden soon found a deliverer
from the tyranny of the Danes in Gustavus Vasa, who had
escaped from his prison in Denmark, and concealed himself
in the habit of a peasant among the mountains of Dalecarlia.
There, deserted by his sole companion and guide, who car-
ried off his little treasure, bewildered, destitute of every ne-
cessary, and ready to perish with hunger, he entered himself
among the miners, and worked under ground for bread, with-
out relinquishing the hope of one day ascending the throne of
Sweden. Again emerging to light, and distinguished among
the Dalecarlians by his lofty mien, and by his strength and
agility, he had acquired a considerable degree of ascendency
over them before they were acquainted with his rank. He
made himself known to them at tbeir annual feast, and exhorted
them to assist him in recovering the liberties of their country.
They listened with admiration, and begged to be led against
the enemy. Gustavus did not suffer their ardour to cool.
He immediately attacked the governor of the province in his
castle, took it by assault, and sacrificed the Danish garrison
to the vengeance of the Dalecarlians. Like animals that have
tasted the blood of their prey, they were now furious, and fit
for any desperate enterprise. Gustavus everywhere saw him-
self victorious, and gained partisans in all parts of the kingdom.
Every thing yielded to his valour; he was first chosen regent,
and, in 1523, King of Sweden. Meanwhile, Christian H.,
become obnoxious by his tyranny even to his Danish subjects,
was degraded from the throne ; and not daring to trust any one,
he retired into the Low Countries, the hereditary dominions of
his brother-in-law, Charles V. Frederic, Duke of Holstein,
Christian's uncle, was elected King of Denmark and Norway.
He aspired also to the sovereignty of Sweden; but finding
Gustavus firmly seated on that throne, he laid aside his claim,
and afterwards entered into an alliance with Gustavus and the
Hanse towns against the deposed monarch. Christian H.,
who, after several unsuccessful attempts to recover his crown,
died in prison. Frederic was succeeded on the Danish throne
by his son. Christian HL, in 1533. This prince iiUroduced
Lutheranism into Denmark and Norway in 1537, in imitation
of Gustavus, who had already established it in Sweden.
Christian HL died in 1558, and Gustavus in 1560.

While Denmark and Sweden were thus rising to distinction,
Russia remained buried in that barbarism and obscurity, from
which it was called by tho creative genius of Peter the

IB GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

Great, who made his country known, and rendered it formi-
dable to the rest of Emopc. Jolin Basilowitz, Grand Duke
of Muscovy, threw olf the yoke of the Tartars, to wliom
Russia had been long tributary; invaded tlieir territories,
made himself master of Novogorod and also of Cassan, where
he was crowned with the diadem of that country, and
assumed the tide of czar, wliich, in the Sclavonian language,
signifies king or emperor. To these acquisitions, his grand-
pon, John Basilowitz II., added, in 1554, Astracan and also
Siberia, hitherto as litde known to the Russians, as Mexico
was to the Spaniards before the expedition of Cortez, and ns
easily conquered. This prince sent ambassadors to the court
of England, and concluded a treaty of commerce wiUi Queen
Elizabeth in 15G9: Richard Chancellor, an English navigator,
having discovered, some years before, (by doubling the North
Cape,) the port of Archangel, on the river Dwina, Poland
began to be of some consideration in tlie north after the race
of the Jagellons came to the throne, and united Lithuania to
that kingdom. The crown, though elective, continued imin-
terrupted in the same family nearly two hundred years; and
Sigismund I., contemporary with Charles V., was esteemed
a great prince.

Prussia, which has since made so great a figure in the af-
fairs of Europe, was only erected into a kingdom in the year
1700. It was originally conquered from the pagans of the
north, by the knights of the Teutonic order, who held it up-
wards of 300 years. At last AUiert, Margrave of Branden-
burg, grand master of tlie order, embracing Lutheranism,
and willing to aggrandize himself at the expense of the
knights, agreed to share Prussia with his uncle, Sigismund I.,
King of Poland, on condition of paying he mage for the pro-
tection of that crown. The proposal was accepted ; Albert,
in 1582, took the tide of duke in his new terriiory; hence
part of the present kingdom is called Ducal Prussia, and that
part ceded to Poland on the western side of the Vistula,
Regal Prussia.

VIII.]] OENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 49

CHAPTER VIII.

GERMANY, FROM THE RESIGNATION OF CHARLES V., IN 1556,
TO THE DEATH OF MAXIMILIAN II., IN 1576.

1556. — Charles V. was succeeded on the imperial throne
by his brother, Ferdinand I., the beginning of whose reign waa
distinguished by the diet of Ratisbon, which reconciled tlie
house of Hesse to that of Nassau. Pius IV., who was raised
to the papacy in 1559, confirmed the imperial dignity to Fer-
dinand, and issued a bull for reassembling the Council of Trent.
On the publication of that bull, 1561, the Protestants assem-
bled at Naumberg in Saxony, and came to a resolution of ad-
hering to the Confession of Augsburg, whatever should be
determined in the Council of Trent. Meanwhile, Ferdinand
issued orders for convoking a diet at Frankiort, where he con-
ducted matters with so much address, that his son Maximilian,
already promoted to the throne of Bohemia, was elected King of
the Romans, with the unanimous consent of the Germanic body.

1563. — The famous Council of Trent, which had been so
often suspended and renewed during eighteen years, was
finally concluded in the December of this year. In the last
session, (December 5,) all the decrees of the former sessions
under Paul HI., Julius HI., and Pius IV., were confirmed and
subscribed by two hundred and fifty-five fathers, viz. : four
legates of the holy see, two cardinals, three patriarchs, twenty-
five archbishops, one hundred and sixty-eight bishops, thirty-
nine deputies of absent prelates, seven abbots, and seven
generals of religious orders. Among these, many were
eminent for their learning, and many for their extraordinary
virtue. Matters were discussed in particular congregations,
and lasdy defined in the sessions. It was agreed that points
of faith and matters of discipline should be jointly considered,
and the condemnation of errors and the decrees for the refor-
mation of manners carried on together; there being abuses in
practice relative to many points of doctrine. Besides the
prelates, above one hundred and fifty theologians, some of the
ablest from all Catholic nations, attended the council, and dis-
cussed every point in the conferences. Innumerable difficulties
had been thrown in tlie way, first by one prince and then by an-
other ; and it was chiefly owing to the unw^earied zeal of St.
Charles Borromreo, Archbishop of Milan, that they were at
length happily removed. The council was confirmed by Pope

BO GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. (]CHAP

Pins IV., January 26tli, 15G4.* Soon after died the Emperor
Ferdinand I. He was succeeded by his grandson, Maximilian
II., who, in the Iieuinning of his reign, was obliged to engage in
a war against ibe Turks. Solyman II., whose valour and am-
bition had been so long terrible to Christendom, though now
no longer fit for the field, continued to make war by his gene-
rals. He even projected, it w'as said, the conquest of the
German empire. The affairs of Transylvania furnished him
with a pretext for taking up arms. Jolm Sigismund, prince
of that country, had assumed the title of King of Hungary,
(which his mother had resigned for some possessions in Silesia,)
and put himself under the protection of the Grand Seignior.
Maximilian immediately sent an army against Sigismund,
under the command of Lazarus Schuendi. The imperial
general took Tokay, and would soon have reduced all Tran-
sylvania, had not Solyman despatched an ambassador to the
imperial court to negotiate in behalf of his vassal. By this
envoy, matters were seemingly accommodated; however, the
sultan did not lay aside his projects, nor, happily, the emperor
his suspicions. While Maximilian convoked a diet at Augs-
burg for regulating the domestic affairs of the empire and
securing it against the Turks, Solyman sent a fleet and army
to reduce tlie Isle of Malta, whence he hoped to drive the
Knights of St. John, whom he had formerly expelled from
Khodcs, and who still continued to annoy the infidels. But
the rock of Malta proved fatal to Solyman's glory. His gene-
ral, Musiapha, after a siege of almost five months and the loss
of 24,000 men, was obliged to abandon the enterprise. La
Valette, Grand Master of Malta, and the whole body of knights,
signalized themselves wonderfully on that occasion ; but, as
the Turks were continually reinforced, the island must at last
have surrendered, if Don Garcia, Governor of Sicily, had not
come to its relief with 12,000 men. Solyman, in revenge of
this disappointment and disgrace, the greatest he had ever
endured, sent a fleet to reduce the Isle of Scio, and ravaged the
coast of Italy; and having invaded Hungary with a powerful

• In vain have the advocates for reliijious innovations tried to invalidnto
the authority of this last cecumenical council : its doctrinal decisions are
those of truth : they are received by the whole Catholic church, and will
stand inviolable to the end of time. All kincdoms and states in communion
with the gee of Rome were witnesses of llie *;ur[irisiiiiT change vvhicli the
regulations ordered by ihe couiiri! etfected both in the clerpy and the people
An exact arrouni of this council is to Ik' found in the esteemed history of
Cardinal Palavicini, who has charged Fra Paolo's compilation, bo often
cited by Protestant authors, with no fewer than 3G0 errors.

V1II.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 51

army, he laid siege to Sigeth. This city is strongly situated
in a marsh, about fifteen miles to the north of the Drave, on the
frontiers of Sclavonia, and was tlien the bulwark of Stiria
against the Turks. The brave Count Zerini long defended it
with incredible valour, against the whole force of the sultan.
Meanwhile, the Emperor Maximilian lay in tlie neighbourhood,
with an army not inferior to that of the besiegers, without
daring to attempt its relief. At length, all the works being
destroyed, and the magazine set on fire by the enemy, Zerini
sallied forth, at the head of 300 chosen men, and died gallantly,
sword in hand. During tlie siege of Sigeth, before which the
Turks lost above 3000 men, Solyman expired, in the 76th year
cA his age ; but the emperor, being unacquainted with tliis
circumstance, which was kept secret till after the reduction
of the place, had retired towards the frontiers of Austria, as
soon as informed of the death of Zerini. Solyman was suc-
ceeded on the Ottoman throne by his son, Selim II., who
immediately concluded a truce of twelve years with Maximi-
lian. In. consequence of this suspension of arms, and the
pacific disposition of the emperor, Germany enjoyed some
repose. Selim, in the mean time, was not idle. After
attempting, but without success, to subdue the kingdom of
Persia, he turned his arms against the Island of Cyprus, then
belonging to the republic of Venice. Pope Pius V. and the
King of Spain, on the first rumour of this invasion, had entered
into a league with the Venetians for the defence of Cyprus.
But Nicosia, the capital, was taken by storm before the arrival
of the allied fleet, and the Turks, being daily reinforced with
fresh troops, had reduced all the towns in the island except
Famagosta. That city, after a most gallant and obstinate
defence, was obliged to capitulate ; and Mustapha, the Turkisli
general, neither respecting courage in an enemy, nor the faith
of treaties, ordered Bragadino, the governor, to be flayed alive,
and the companions of his heroism, either to be butchered, or
chained to the oar. This conquest is said to have cost the
Turks 100,000 men.

1571. — The fate of Cyprus alarmed the Christian powers;
Charles IX., however, excused himself, on account of the dis-
tressed state of his kingdom, from entering into the league
against the Turks ; the emperor pleaded his truce ; and the
German princes were in general too much interested in the
issue of the religious wars in France and the Low Countries,
to enlist themselves under the banner of the cross. But
Ph"; .ip II. entered warmly into the cause, and engaged to bear

62 GENERAL HISTORY OF El'ROPE. [_CHA.P

half tlie expense of the armament. Tlie Venetians fortilied
tlieircity, ami aiio-ineiited ilirir (leel. The Pope, who was the
soul of llie enterprise, sent twelve jralleys undur.Mark Antony
Calonna. Venieri commanded tlie Venetian galleys, D )ria
those of Philip. Tlie chief eoinniand was ^iven to Don .I.>hn
of Austria,* who had lately distin<ruished himself in Spain, by
Bubduinff the Morescoes, or descendants of the Moors.

After the reduction of Cyprus, the Turks not only ravaged
with impunity the coasts of Dalmatia and Istria, but also those
of Italy. 'I'heir ileet, consisting of 230 galleys, was met by
the confederates, on the 5th of October, in the gulf of Lepanto,
near Corinth, where was fou<rht the greatest naval engagement
that modern times had beheld. 'J'he force on both sides was
nearly equal, and the contest was long, fierce, and bloody.
Assisted by a brisk gale of wind, which promised them the
greatest possible advantage, the Turks bore down with rapidity
on the Christians ; but just as the fight began, a calm ensued,
which was succeeded by a high wind entirely favourable to
the latter. The hostile combatants fought hand to hand in
most of the galleys, and grappled together as on a field of
balde. Ilali, the Turkish admiral, surrounded by 400 Janiza-
ries, and Don John of Austria, with an equal number of chosen
men, maintained such a struggle for three hours. At last llali
was slain and his galley taken : the banner of the cross was
displayed from the mainmast, and the Ottoman admiral's head
fixed on the stern. All now was carnage and confusion.
The cry of "victory" resounded tiirough the Christian fieet,
and the Turkish army everywhere gave way. They lost
30,000 men in the conflict, 10,000 more were taken prisoners,
and 1.3,000 Christian slaves set at liberty. This victory,
which filled Constantinople with the deepest melancholy, was
celebrated at Venice with the most splendid festivals. 'I'he
battle of Lepanto was followed by a peace between the Vene-
tians and Turks, in which treaty Cyprus was ceded to the
Ottoman empire. The Pope was displeased at this treaty,
fvnich was certainly dislionouralile to ('hristcndom. Don
John was equally dissatisfied with the Venetians, and afler
separating himself from the confederates, took Tunis ; but in
spriuL', 1. "374, the Turks attacked it; and. though tralhmtly de-
fended, it was taken by storm, and the garrison put to the sword.

In lilTO, Maximilian II. dieil, while preparing to support
his election to tlie throne of Poland ; and was succeeded in
the empire by his son, Rodolph II.

• He was natural son to Charles V,

IX."] GENERAL HISTORY OV EUROPE ftS

CHAPTER IX.

ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND FRANCE, DURING THE SAME

PERIOD, i. e. FROM 1559, TO 1574.

The treaty of Chateau Cambresis by no means restored
tranquillity to Europe. The Protestant opinions had already
made considerable progress, both in France and the Low
Countries, and Philip II, and Henry II. were equally resolved
to extirpate heresy from their dominions.

1559. — A new source of discord also arose between France
and England. The family of Guise, who had negotiated the
marriage between the dauphin, now Francis II., and their
niece, Mary, Queen of Scots, governed both king and kingdom.
Catherine of Medicis, the queen-mother, the two princes of
the blood, Anthony de Bourbon, King of Navarre, and his
brother Lewis, Prince of Conde, besides the Constable Mont-
morenci and his powerful family, became envious of their
power. A civil war ensued, not unlike that which was going
on at the same time in Scotland ; while Elizabeth, whose
tide was disputed in both these countries, openly favoured the
Protestants in Scotland and the Huguenots* in France. To-
wards the close of the year 1560, the King of Navarre and
the Prince of Conde were seized and thrown into prison; the
latter was condemned to death, but the sudden demise of the
young king arrested the uplifted blow. Catherine of Medi-
cis was appointed guardian to her son, Charles IX., only eleven
years of age at his accession, and invested with the adminis-
tration of the realm, though not with the tide of regent. In
consequence of her maxim, " Divide and govern," the King
of Navarre was named lieutenant-general of the kingdom ;
the sentence against Conde was annulled ; the Constable de
Montmorenci was recalled to court, and the C4ui?es, though
still in power, found a counterpoise to the weight of their influ-
ence. The death of Francis 11. without issue, freed the
Queen of England from the perils attending a union of Scot-
land with France, and the still greater apprehensions of Eng-
land's becoming eventually a province dependent on the latter
crown ; but she still regarded the Queen of Scots as a danger-
ous rival, and again insisted on a renunciation of her claim tc
the English crown. Mary, though now slighted by the queeiv

• The Protestants in France were called Huguenots.

64 OENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

motlier, forsaken by the swarm of courtiers, who appear only
in the sunshine of prosperity, and overwhehned with the sor-
row which so sad a revirse of fortune could occasion, refused
to make any solemn renunciation of the English throne. In
the mean time, the states of Scotland invited Mary to return
to her native kingdom and assume the reins of government.
Accustomed to the elegance and gayety of a splendid court,
and to the conversation of a polished people, among whom she
had been educated from her infancy, she contemplated with
horror the barbarism of her own country, and the turbidence
of her native subjects, who had so violendy spurned all civil
and religious authority. By the advice of her uncles, how-
ever, she determined at last to set out for Scotland, and de-
manded of Elizabeth a safe conduct during her voyage. That
request Elizabeth rejected in such a manner as gave rise to no
.slight suspicion of a design, either to obstruct the passage, or
intercept the person of the (Jueen of Scots. This ungenerous
behaviour of Elizabeth did not retard Mary's departure from
France. She embarked on board a galley at Calais, and pass-
ing the English fleet under cover of a thick fog, arrived safclv
at Leilh. The first appearance of afi'airs in Scotland was
more favourable than Mary had reason to expect. Her youth
and beauty, with the gracefulness of her person, attracted uni-
versal admiration; while her elegant manners and enlightened
understanding commanded general respect. She was skilled
in many languages, ancient as well as modern. The progress
she had made in all the arts and sciences esteemed useful or
ornamental, was far beyond what is commonly attained by
those who are born and educated as the immediate heirs of
the crown ; and a courteous affability, which, without lessen-
ing the dignity of a sovereign, gains the hearts of her subjects,
rendered all her other qualities more engaging.

'I'lie first measures of Mary's administration confirmed the
prepossessions entertained in her favour; but these promising
appearances soon vanished. Mary professed the Catholic
religion, and this circumstance alone rendered her odious to
her subjects, and formed the ground of all the calumnies and
insults that were afterwards heaped upon her. It was with
much difTiculty she could even obtain permission to have mass
celebrated in her own ebapel. The pidpits soon became mere
stages for railing airainst her, and exciting the people to re-
bellirm. The (^alvinistical ppcacher, John Knox, who had
recently arrived from (Jeneva, stvled her the Jezebel of the na-
tion. She applied for relief to Elizabeth, who immediately

IX. J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 55

put. on all the appearance of cordial reconciliation and friend-
ship, while she secretly encouraged the factious party.

Meanwhile, Catherine of Medicis, the queen-mother of
France, in consequence of her maxim of dividing to govern,
only increased the troubles of the state. By balancing the
Catholics against the Protestants, the Duke of Guise against
the Prince of Conde, she endeavoured to render herself ne-
cessary to both, and to establish her own dominion on their
constrained obedience. Moved by zeal for the ancient rehgion,
the Constable Montmorenci united with the Duke of Guise,
and the King of Navarre joined the same party. Fourteen
armies were levied and put in motion in different parts of
France. Each province, each city, each family, was distract-
ed with internal rage and animosity. Wherever the Hugue-
nots prevailed, the altars were overthrown and churches de-
molished.

1562. — They had already made themselves master of Or-
leans, Bourges, Lyons, Poitiers, Tours, Angers, Angouleme,
Rouen, Dieppe, Havre-de-Grace, and several places of less
note, when Philip H. sent 6,000 men to reinforce the Catho-
lics ; and the Prince of Conde craved the assistance of the
Queen of England, offering to put her in possession of Havre-
de-Grace. Elizabeth immediately sent 3,000 men to take
possession of that town, and 3,000 more to defend Dieppe
and Rouen, but the Catholics carried Havre by assault, and
put the garrison and inhabitants to the sword.

1563. — The Duke of Guise, animated by this conquest,
laid siege to Orleans : he had the prospect of speedy success
in this undertaking, when he was assassinated by an enthusi-
astic Huguenot in the pay of Coligni. Conde and Montmo-
renci, the heads of the two opposite parties, had both been
taken prisoners ; tired of captivity, they became desirous of an
accommodation, and soon came to an agreement. A general
amnesty was published, and both sides laid down their arms.

1564. — In the subsequent treaty between England and
France, Elizabeth, who had unjustifiably broken the terms ot
the peace of Chateau Cambresis, was content to receive one-
fourth part of the sum originally stipulated in lieu of the resti-
tution of Calais, which town remained united with the French
territory.

The negotiation for the marriage of the Queen of Scots
awakened anew the jealousy of Elizabeth, and roused the zeal
of the Scottish reformers. The young queen's hand was so-
licited by the Archduke Charles, the emperor's third son, by

M GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [^CHAP

Don Carlos, heir apparent to the Spanisli monarchy, aii^l by
the Duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. Eitlier of these
foreiijn alliances would have been alarming to Elizabeth and
to .Mary's Prulostaiit subjects; she therefore resolved to make
Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, eldest son of the Earl of Lenox,
and her cousiu-german, by Margaret Douglas, niece of Hen-
ry VIIL, the partner of her sway. In the following year,
(1565) the malcontents appeared in arms; but, by the vigour
and activity of Mary, they were compelled to take refuge in
England. The deceitful Elizabeth, upon whose promises of
protection they had revolted, refused to see them except in the
presence of the French and Spanish ambassadors ; and the
Scottish exiles, finding themselves so harshly treated by her,
had recourse to the clemency of their ofTended sovereign for
pardon.

1506. — The associated lords having plotted the ruin of
their queen, whose religion they hated, determined upon the
murder of her husband, as a preparatory step to it. Darnley,
a weak and profligate character, was supposed to have lost
the queen's afTections, and it is certain that tlie indilTorence
he sliowed her, ill requited the fondness and generosity she
had testified for him. The murder of her faithful secretary,
Rizzio, before her face, by Darnley's order, and in his pre-
sence, was an action no less shocking to humanity, than in-
sulting to the dignity of Mary, who not long after gave birth
to a son, named James, afterwards King of England. The
next year, (1567,) her husband being taken ill at Glasgow, she
followed him thillier, and as soon as he could be moved, ac-
companied him to Edinburgh, in order that she might be able
to attend him herself, without being absent from her son.
There, in a house called " Kirk of Field," situated without
the town walls, to which she removed the king for the benefit
of the air, she continued her assiduous care of him, sleeping
several nights in an adjoining room. On the 9th of February,
about eleven o'clock at night, she left the house in order to be
present at a masked ball in the palace, given in honour of the
mnrriajje of one of her domestics ; and at two o'clock the
next morning, the house in which the king lay was blown up
with gunpowder, and liis dead body was found in a neighbouring
enclosure. Suspicion instanUy fell on the Earl of IJothwell.*

• A bond had been rntrrcd into, siunrd by the Earls Hunllry, Argyle,
Botbwf'll, Maiiland, and Sir Jumps Balfour, to murder tho king. Both-
well Lndcrlook to perpetrate the deed.

Oi.'] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 5?

Among the profligate characters in which Scotland then abound-
ed, he held a conspicuous rank. He aspired to a partnership
in the throne, and the rebel lords, who judged him a proper
instrument for the accomplishment of their dark design, haa
encouraged him in his ambitious views ; after the assassina-
tion of Darnley, they entered into a new league, to promote a
marriage between him and the queen, and to assist him against
all mortals whomsoever. Meanwhile, Mary summoned a par
liament, at the request of her father-in-law, the Earl of Len-
nox ; and a day was appointed for the trial of Bothwell and
some others, whom the earl accused of the murder of his son ;
but, intimidated by the superior power of his adversary, Len-
nox, on the eve of the trial, wrote from Stirling, to request an
adjournment of forty days. This petition was rejected; and
as no prosecutor appeared, the jury returned a verdict in fa-
vour of the accused, (April 12.) But as Mary resolutely
refu;3ed the Earl of Bothwell's suit, convinced that force alone
could extort her consent, he watched the opportunity, when
the queen was returning from a visit to her infant son, at Stir-
ling, (April 24,) seized her person, and conducted her to the
castle of Dunbar, where she remained a prisoner ten days,
nor was she released from confinement till she had consentecf
to become the wife of Bothwell. The marriage ceremony
was performed at Holyrood House, by a reformed minister,
on the 15th of May. Soon after the rebel lords, who had so
recently bound themselves to assist Bothwell, entered into a
new association, and, under pretence of revenging the late
king's death, made their queen, with the infamous Bothwell,
prisoners. Him they suffered to escape, lest he might betray
their secrets. He fled to the Orkney Islands, and thence to
Norway, where he lost his senses, and died in confinement.
The captive queen they conveyed to the Castle of Lochleven,
where they compelled her to resign her crown to her infant
son, and to appoint Earl Murray, her natural brother and pro-
fessed enemy, regent. Forged letters, supposed to have pass-
ed between her and Bothwell, during the late king's life, were
handed about, to make the world believe that she was accessa
ry to the murder of her husband. To palliate their conduct,
the associated lords alleged that they had offered to obey Ma-
ry as their sovereign, provided she would give up Bothwell,
to suffer as the murderer of Darnley. The queen, on her
side, who, in the first instance, had been made to believe him
innocent by these same men, said she had proposed to con-
vene the three estates of the kingdom, and to submit to their

58 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

determiii;\tion tlie validity of her marriage, and the punish-
ment of the nmnh^rors.

Tlie conchictof Elizaheth during all this period, was extreme*
ly equivocal. On the first intelligence of Darnlcy's murder,
she iiad despatched Throckinorlun, with an excellent letter of
advice to Mary, but on his arrival he could not procure ad-
mittance to tlie queen, and it is lielieved she did not receive
the letter hcfore tlie acquittal of Bothwell. Ehzabeth, though
she continued openly to profess herself the friend of Mary,
and demanded her lilieration in strong terms, was deceived by
her secretary, Cecil ; her ministers were closely leagued with
the enemies of the Scottish queen, and through tlieir medium
alone could Elizabeth act and receive information. Afier a
year's confinement, when a loyal party effected Mary's es'^ape,
(in I5G8,) she lied to England; where Elizal^elh, alfecting to
believe all the calumnies which had been circulated concerning
this unfortunate queen, not only refused her a personal inter-
view, tliough granted to the rebel Murray, but gave orders for
her to be put under arrest, and confined her in dilfercnt castles
during nineteen years. The regent (Murray) was assassi-
nated in revenge for a private injury, in 1570, and was suc-
ceeded in his olfice by Morton.

The civil war broke out again in France in 1567. Pre-
tending to believe, though without any satisfactory evidence,
that at a late meeting between the French and Spanish
courts, at Bayonne, a resolution had been formed to extirpate
the Protestants, Conde again unsheathed the sword, and at-
tempted to surprise the young king at Monceaux, whence he
witli dilliculty escaped to Paris. The English amiiassador,
Norris, had been instrumental in arranging this unjustifial)le
outrage, and Elizabeth, through the persuasion of her minis-
ters, continued to assist tlie insurgents, though she professed
to be at peace with their sovereign. The same year, (Nov.
10,) a battle was fought in the plains of St. Denis, in which
the rebels were defeated, but the old Constalde Montinorcnci,
general of the Catholics, was slain; and in 1501), the Duke
of Anjou, brotlier of the king, gained the famous batde of
Jarnac, in which Conde was killed, (^oligni, whose re-
sources never failed, assembled a new and formidal)le army
of Huguenots, having with liim the young King of Navarre,
afterwards Henrv IV. f'oliirni was defeated in 1571, at the
memoral)le battle of Moutoiicour, with the loss of 10,000
men. Soon after, the king entered into a negotiation with
the Huguenots, granted them a pardon for all past olTences,

Ilf.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 59

and ceded to them for two years, as places of refuge, llo-
chelle, Montauban, and some other places ; and, in fine, offered
his sister Margaret in marriage to the young King of Navarre,
(1572.) The Admiral de (loligni, the Prince of Conde, and
all the chiefs of the Protestant party, went to Paris to assist
at the celebration of the marriage ; Coligni, in passing
through the streets, received two wounds from the hands of
an assassin, which, though not dangerous, roused the chief-
tains of his party to threats of vengeance against the queen-
mother, to whom they were attributed by Coligni. These
threats elicited an order from the king in council, to anticipate
the expected attack; the Duke of Guise and his followers, on
the following morning, (the eve of St. Bartholomew,) forced
the hotel where the admiral resided, and murdered him, as
well as every Huguenot that fell in their way. The bar-
barous measure was imitated in several of the provinces ; and
though the governors were ordered to prevent similar ex-
cesses, many fell victims to the revenge of an infuriated mob,
chiefly in those towns where the remembrance of the late
cruelties exercised by the Huguenots were fresh in theii
minds. The numbers of those who perished on this occasion
have been greatly exaggerated by Voltaire and by Protestant
writers, who at first made them amount to 100,000. The
lists collected from the ministers of the different towns gave
the names of 786.* Conde and the Kinar of Navarre were
exempted from the general doom, and they afterwards abjured
their heresy.

The miseries of France increased every day. Charles
grew jealous of his brothers; and many of the Catholics,
displeased with all the measures of the court, favoured the
progress of the Huguenots. In the midst of these disorders
died Charles IX., at the age of twenty-four years, in 1574;
he was succeeded by his brother, Henry, Duke of Anjou,
lately elected King of Poland,

* See LingarJ's Hist, of England, vol. viii. pp. 74 — 76, and note T ;
and Vindication, &c., in reply to the Edinburgh Review.

60 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

CHAPTER X

EUROPE, FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES IX., TO THE ACCESSION
OF HENRY IV., IN 1589.

1574. — Henry HI., on liis accession to the throne of
France, I'ound the kingdom in the greatest disorder. The
people were divided into two factions, mutually enraged from
the injuries they had committed or suffered. Henry, desirou
of preserving a balance between tlie factions, granted peace to
the Protestants on the most advantageous conditions. Thi.s
treaty of pacification was so displeasing to the ('alholics, that
the Duke of Guise immediately laid the foundation of the
League ; an association, which, without any regard to the
royal authority, aimed at the entire suppres^don of the new
doctrines. In order to divert the force of the League, Henry
declared himself at the head of it; but his dilatory and feeble
measures discovered his reluctance to the undertaking. His
moderation appeared criminal to one party, and suspicious to
both ; while the plain, direct, and avowed conduct of the
Duke of Guise, on one side, and of the King of Navarre on
the other, engaged by degrees the bulk of the nation to enlist
themselves under one or otlier of those great leaders. (1 570.)

While such was tlie position of affairs in France, the I^ow
C'ountries were struggling to throw off the Spanish yoke, and
met with orreat encouraorement and assistance from Elizabeth.
After a variety of events, much bloodshed, cruel enmity, jealou-
sies, and desperate batUes, William, Prince of Orange, (1 579,)
formed the scheme of closely uniting the provinces of Hol-
land and Zealand, and cementing them willi such others as lay
most contiguous; Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssel,
and Guelderland, in which the Protestant interest was predo-
minant. The deputies accordingly met at Utrecht, and signed
that famous union of seven provinces, independent of each
other, yet as closely connected as a bundle of arrows, the
arms and emblem of tlirir republic.

1580. — While Pliili|) was losing the seven United Pro-
vinces, fortune threw in his way a new sovereignty. Don Se-
/jaslian, Kinir of Portuiral, grcat-jirandson of T']ni:nuiel, and
grandson of Jolm HI., determined to signalize liimself by an
expedition against tlie Moors in Africa. He espoused the
cause of Muley Mahomet, (who had been dispossessed of the

X."] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 6^.

kingdoms of Fez and Morocco by his uncle, Muley-Moluck,)
and, contrary to the opinion of his wisest counsellors, embark-
ed for Africa, in 1578, at the head of 20,000 men. The army
of Muley-Moluck was superior, but this only roused the cou-
rage of Don Sebastian. The two armies engaged near Alca-
zarquivir, and after a desperate conflict, the Christians were
totally routed, or rather destroyed, being either killed or taken
prisoners. Among the slain was Don Sebastian ; and the two
Moorish kings, uncle and nephew, were also left dead on the
field. The Kmg of Portugal, having left no issue, was suc-
ceeded by his uncle. Cardinal Henry, who also dying withoul
children, (1580,) a number of competitors arose for the crown
Among them was the King of Spain, nephew to Henry by the
mother's side; the Duke of Braganza, married to the grand-
daughter of the great Emanuel, the Duke of Savoy, the Duke
of Parma, and Catherine of Medicis. Philip's claim was
perhaps the best, and he had most power to support it. The
old Duke of Alva, who had been for some time in disgrace
for ill success in the Netherlands, was recalled to court, like
a mastiff unchained for fighting, and placed at the head of an
army. His victories decided the contest. Philip was crown-
ed at Lisbon, and proclaimed in India in 1581.

1583. — The King of Spain, though not yet come to an
open rupture with Elizabeth, sent a body of 700 Spaniards
into Ireland, to retaliate for the assistance she had given to his
rebellious subjects in Holland; but they were cut off" to a
man. When the English ambassador at the court of Madrid
complained of this invasion, he was answered by like com-
plaints of Francis Drake, a bold navigator, who had passed
into the South Sea by the straits of Magellan, taken many
rich prizes from the Spaniards, and returned home safely by
the Cape of Good Hope in 1580. As he was the first Eng
lishman who had circumnavigated the globe, his name became
celebrated, and the queen, who loved valour, and hoped to
share in the spoil, conferred on him the honour of knighthood,
and accepted of a banquet on board his ship. She, however,
caused part of the booty to be restored, in order to appease
the Catholic king.

1584. — The Prince of Orange was this year assassinated
at Delf ; his death deprived the United Provinces of their chief
support. Out of gratitude to his memory, they elected his
son Maurice, though only eighteen years old, their stadtholder
and captain-general by sea and land.

Meanwhile, the Duke of Parma having reduced Ghent and

68 GENERAL HISTOKY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

Bnissels, made preparations for the siege of Antwerp, the
richest and most populous city of the Netherlands. On hia
first approach, the citizens o[)eiie(l the sluices, cut down the
dykes, and ovcrtlowed the nei^hbouriuir country with an inun-
dation which swept away all his magazines. Not discouraged
fcy this loss, he cut, at prodigious labour and expense, hut with
incredible expedition, a canal froniStckin to Caloo, to carry oil
the waters. lie next erected that stupendous monumentof his
genius, a fortified bridge across the deep and rapid river Scheld,
to prevent all communication with the town by sea. The
besieged attempted to burn it or blow it up, by sending against
it two fire-ships full of powder and other combustible materials.
But this scheme failing, and the besiegers daily making pro-
gress, in spite of every eflbrt to oppose them, Antwerp sent
deputies to the duke, and agreed to acknowledge the sovereignty
of Philip, Domestic jealousy, no less than the valour of the
Spaniards or the conduct of their general, contributed to the
fall of this flourishing city. The Hollanders, and particularly
the citizens of Amsterdam, obstructed every measure for the
relief of Antwerp, hoping to profit by its reduction. The
Protestants, it was concluded, would forsake it, as soon as it
fell into the hands of Philip. The conjecture proved just.
Antwerp went hourly to decay, and Amsterdam, enriched by
tiie emigration of her inhabitants, became the greatest com-
mercial city in the Netherlands.

1585. — -The loss of Antwerp was a mortal blow to the cause
of the republicans : they tendered the sovereignly of their
country to the King of France ; but the distracted state of that
monarchy obliged Henry HI. to reject so advantageous an
ofi^er. The Duke of Anjou's death, which he expected would
bring him relief by freeing him from the intrigues of tliat prince,
only plunged him into deeper distress. The King of Navarre,
a professed Protestant, being now next heir to the crown, the
Duke of Guise took tlience occasion to revive the League, and
to urjje the king to exclude the King of Navarre, and to ex-
tinguish the heresy he abetted.

The United Provinces ha^l again recourse to Elizabeth,
who immediately concluded a treaty with them, and sent the
Earl of Leicester over to Holland, at the head of the English
auxiliaries: while Sir Francis Drake, with a fieet of twenty
sail, attacked the Sj)anianis in the West Indies. This gallant
seaman made himself master of St. .Tago dc Cuba; of St. Do-
mingo, tlie capital of Hispaniola ; of ('artliagena, and several
Other places ; and returned to England in 1586, with Buck

K."] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 63

riches as served to stimulate the nation to futuie enterprises.
The English arms were less successful in the Low Countries.
Leicester was recalled, and Lord Willoughby appointed com-
mander of the English forces. The scene that now opened
was new and extraordinary. Elizabeth and her ministers
resolved to bring Mary, Queen of Scots, to a public trial, on
pretence of her having formed a conspiracy against the life of
the English queen. As Camden* endeavours to connect the
several partial disturbances which happened at different pe-
riods of this reign, during the nineteen years Mary remained a
captive in England, apparently with a view of making them
appear like a continued chain of conspiracies against the Bri-
tish queen, we must return to the beginning of Mary's cap-
tivity, in order to notice the first of these really separate
events, which the thread of the naiTative prevented our men-
tioning before. The Duke of Norfolk, though a professed
Protestant, was supposed secretly to favour the Catholic inte-
rest. This circumstance, in addition to his high rank and
popularity, rendered him the object of ministerial jealousy.
He aspired to a marriage with the captive Queen of Scots.
The English ministry maliciously contrived to have the pro-
posal made to him, with a design of effecting his ruin. His
consent to marry Mary was construed into a formal conspiracy
against Queen Elizabeth and the Protestant religion, and on
that ground the duke was condemned and beheaded, June 2d,
1572. — The supposed correspondence between Pope Pius V.
and the Duke of Norfolk, is solemnly contradicted by Mary
and by the duke himself. When the queen was interrogated
on the subject, she acknowledged her own correspondence
with the Pope, but said it was on spiritual matters only. She
likewise owned her pecuniary transactions through the agency
of Rudolphi, an Italian merchant in London, who had con-
veyed to her considerable sums, sent by the charity of foreign
princes to relieve her wants ; but she denied them to have
been remitted for any seditious purposes. The conduct of the
Pope might indeed lead us to suppose that there was some
foundation for the conspiracy laid to his charge. Hoping to
effect by severity, what his prudent predecessor (Pius IV.)
could not do by moderation, Pius V. had pviblished, in 1569,
a bull of excommunication and deposition! against Elizabeth,

* Camden, a learned Protestant antiquary, was the author of the " An-
nals of Queen Elizabeth," which he published in Latin, 1615.

■\ The opinion which attributes to the Pope a power over the temporal
rights of kings, was a scholastic doctrine, much in vogue among the the

64 GENERAL HISTORY OF ETROPE. [cHAP.

and declared her subjects absolved, by liis authority, fiom their
oath of alleyfiaiice to her. In the following year, the bull was
sinuirgled into England, and a Mr. Felton had the rashness to
fix it on the bishop's gate in London, for which act, equally
condemned both by Catholics and Protestants, he was exe-
cuted. Meanwhile an extensive conspiracy was organized in
the north of Eiiglaiid, and headed by the Earls of Northum-
berland and Westmoreland, of wliieh the ostensible object was
to effect the restoration of the old religion. The Catholics
still formed a large proportion of the po])ulation, and assem-
hkd in considerable numbers under the standard of the two
Earls. But the Duke of Sussex, who was sent by Elizabeth
to suppress the insurrection, was every where victorious, and
while the leaders made good their escape, hundreds of their
humble followers suffered the penalty of treason. As this in-
surrection had followed so closely on the publication of the
bull, and claimed to represent the Catholic cause, it was, though
erroneously, deemed its consequence. The whole Catholic body
paid the forfeit, although they never adopted the bull and only
in one section of country ever resisted her measures. The laws
against recusants were rendered more stringent, and the exer-
cise of their religion prohibited under the severest penalties.
In the mean time, the death of the Queen of Scots being
resolved upon by the English ministry, it only remained 1o
engage some young men of the Scottisii, or the Catholic
party, in a conspiracy to set Mary at liberty, with some cir-
cumstances of intended violence against the person of Eliza-
beth, or the peace of the realm, and then to procure evidence,
real or forged, of Mary's being implicated in it; and this
work, Walsingham, with the help of his band of spies and
forirers, was not long in finding the means to accomplish.
About fourteen Englisli gendenien united in an association to
rescue the unhappy Mary from the hands of her enemies.
(1586.) Walsirigham, who had notice of the plot, and appears
to liave been the contriver of it, deputed two of his spies to
associate with Habington and his companions, and to urge
them on to greater excesses than they would otherwise have

oloRJans of that at^p, especially l)eyon(l tlie AIp^, thouirh never adoplcil by
the church, anil now iiriiversnlly rcjcrted. St. Pius V. rarried thai opinion
with him to the pontifical throne. But it ahnuM lie oliscrvei], lat, That
Elizul>elh'8 title to tlie throne was never acknowletitjed on the continent;
2dly, That he did not reijuire the Enclish CathoiicH to receive bin hull.

Sec also the remnrWalile works of \'oii;ht, " Hililehrnnd and his Timed,"
and of Hurler, History of Innocent lit. The tein()oral power and influ*
eitce of the Popes iu the middle itgeii are there admirably set forth.

X."] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 65

(hought of. When the plot was ripe for discovery, they were
taken up, indicted for treason, condemned and executed.
Walsingham then had a fair opportunity of giving- to Babing-
ton's conspiracy any extent of criminality he pleased, for the
sake of rendering the Catholic name as odious as possible to
the nation ; and the Queen of Scots was to be tried as a part-
ner in the conspiracy.* An idea so repugnant to majesty, as
being arraigned for treason, had not entered the mind of Mary,
though she had long lived in dread of private assassination,
when forty commissioners, with five judges, arrived at Fothe-
ringay castle, where she was now confined. She received the
intelligence, however, witliout astonishment or emotion, but,
protesting in the most solemn manner that she had never counte-
nanced any attempt against the life of Elizabeth, she refused to
acknowledge the jurisdiction of her commissioners. "I came
into England," said she, " an independent sovereign, to im-
plore the queen's assistance, not to subject myself to her au-
thority ; nor is my spirit so broken by past misfortune, or so
intimidated by present dangers, as to stoop to any thing unbe-
coming the majesty of a crowned head, that will disgrace the
ancestors from whom I am descended, or the son to whom I
shall leave my crown. If I am to be tried, princes alone can be
my peers. The Queen of England's subjects, how noble so-
ever their birth may be, are of a rank inferior to mine. Ever
since my arrival in this kingdom, I have been confined as a pri-
soner. Its laws never afforded me protection. Let them not
now be perverted to take away my life." The commissioners
were perplexed ; but one of them (Hatton) having observed that
conscious guilt made her refuse to plead, she consented next
morning to appear before them, after first protesting against
the authority of the court. The lawyers of the crown opened
the charge against her, and, though unprovided with papers,
witnesses, or counsel, she had for two days defended herself
with spirit, and had the advantage over her enemies, till, on
the third, the proceedings were unexpectedly suspended, and
adjourned to Westminster, where sentence of death was pro-
nounced against her, Oct. 25th, 1586. The only evidence
against the Queen of Scots, arose from the declaration of her
secretaries, that she was engaged in Babington's conspiracy.
They were threatened with the torture, if they refused the

* Mary, who had been many years under the care of the Earl of
Shrewsbury, at Sheffield, then in the old, ruinous castle of Tutbury, in
Staffordshire, was then in Fotheringay, in Northamptonshire, under Sir
Amyas Pawlet.

•6 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

evidence required of them. As her secretaries, ihoy were
Bworii to keep her secrets, and their perjury in one instance
rendered them unworthy of creiht in auotJier. Tiiey were
never confronted with her, thou<rh she desired tliat ihey might
be, and adirmed that tliey would never to her face ])ersist in
their evidence; nor were the orijrinal copies of the letters pro-
duced against her ever l)rought forward. But the condemna-
tion of ilie Queen of Scots, not justice, was the oI)ject of this
unprecedented trial: the sentence of tlie commissioners was
received in London with transports of joy, and both Huuses of
Parliament united in a petition to the queen to have it speedily
carried into execution. Elizabeth hesitated ; she dreaded the
infamy that such an action would attach to her name, and she
wished to avoid it by the private assassination of her victim.
She made the proposal to Sir Amyas Pawlet, February 2d,
1587; but though he hated Mary, he refused to shed her
blood without law or warrant.* At last Elizabeth signed the
fatal warrant; and the arrival of the Earl of Shrewsbury,
Earl Marshal of England, with his attendants, at l"'otheringay,
announced the following morning as fixed upon for its execu-
tion. Never did Mary appear so great as in this last scene
of her life; slie was not only traii(|uil, but intrepid and mag-
nanimous. When Sir Andrew Melville, the master of her
household, was permitted to take his last Airewell, he burst
into tears. "Weep not, good Melville," said she, "there is
at present greater cause U>t rejoicing. Thou shall this day
see Mary Stuart delivered from all her cares, and such an
end put to her tedious sulTerings as she has long expected.
Hut witness that I die constant in my religion, firm in my fide-
lity towards Scodand, antl unchanged in my a(Tccli<Mi to IVance.
Commend me to my son. Tell him I have done nothing
injurious to his kingdom, to his honour, or to his rights: and
God lorgive all those who have thirsted wiliiout reason for my
blood." After long and fervent prayer, she ascended the
scafTold at half-past eight o'clock, February 8th, with a firm
and intrepid step, and after publicly declaring h(!r iimocence
of the crime laid to her charge, and professing her reliirjon
and parrlon of her enemies, she began with the aid of her wo-
men to lake oir her v(m1 ; the executioner nidelv endeavoinini»
to assist Uiem, she gently checked him, and siniliu'r said. "I
have not been accustomed to undress before so many spccta-

• 8pc Eiizalx-th's letter to Sir A. Pawlet, extant in RobcrUon and in
Dr. Miliicr'a " Letters to a Prebendary."

X.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 67

tors, nor served by such valets ;" and soon after laid her
head on the block witli calm but undaunted fortitude. Such
was the fate of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland and Dowager
Queen of France, who, in the forty-fifth year of her age, and
the tweutieth of her captivity in England, fell a victim to the
jealousy of an offended rival.* Elizabeth, when informed of
Mary's execution, affected the utmost surprise and concern ;
sighs, tears, lamentations, and weeds of mourning, were
all employed to display the greatness of her sorrow. She
even undertook to make the world believe that the Queen of
Scots, her dear sister and kinswoman, had been put to death
without her knowledge, and contrary to her inclination ; and
to complete the farce, she commanded Davison, her secretary,
to be thrown into prison, under pretence that he had exceeded
his commission in despatching the fatal warrant, which,
though she had signed, she never meant to carry into execu-
tion. This hypocritical disguise was assumed chiefly to
appease the young King of Scotland, who seemed determined
to employ the whole force of his dominions in order to
revenge his mother's death. He recalled his ambas-
sador from England, and every thing bore the appearance
of war. Elizabeth saw the danger ; and after allowing
James an interval to vent his grief and anger, she employed
her emissaries to set before Jiim every motive of hope or fear,
which might induce him to live in amity with her; and these,
joined to the queen's dissimulation and the pacific disposition
of James, prevailed over his resentment. He fell gradually
into a good understanding Avith the court of England.

While Elizabeth was thus insuring the tranquillity of her
kingdom from the attempts of her neighbours, she was not
inattentive to more distant dangers. Hearing that Philip was
secretly preparing a prodigious armament, she sent Sir Fran-
cis Drake with a fleet, to intercept his supplies and pillage
his coasts. Drake, besides other successes, burned, in the
harbour of Cadiz, a hundred vessels laden with ammunition and
naval stores. The sailing of the armada was thus retarded
for twelve months, which afforded Elizabeth leisure to take
more effectual measures against that formidable fleet and army,
intended for the invasion of her kingdom. Philip was now
no longer desirous of keeping his project secret. Every part
of his European dominions resounded with the noise of arma-

* Her body was embalmed, and, after six months, interred by order of
Elizabeth with royal pomp in the Abbey Church of Peterborough, whero
it reposed till James I. had it removed to Westminster, in 1612.

^8 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

nieiits. and the treasures of botli Indies were exhausted in
vast preparations lor war. In all the ports of Sicily, Naples,
Spain, and Portugal, artizans were employed in building
vessels of uncommon size and force ; naval stores and pro-
visions were amassed at great expense; armies levied and
quartered in the maritime provinces; and plans laid for such
an embarkation, as had never before appeared on the ocean.
The military preparations in Flanders were no less formi-
dable. Troops from all quarters joined the Duke of Parma,
who assembled in the Netherlands 35,000 men, whom he was
to transport into England. Elizabeth was apprised of all
these preparations. Lord Howard of Efilngham was ap-
pointed admiral : Drake, Hawkins, and Forbisher, the most
renowned seamen in Europe, served under him. The prin-
cipal tleet was stationed at Plymouth, and a smaller squadron,
under Lord Seymour, lay oil' Dunkirk, in order to intercept
the Duke of Parma. An army of 20,000 men was disposed
in different bodies along the south coast; 22,000 foot were
stationed at Tilbury, to defend the capital; and another army
of 30,000 men were ready to marcli on any side. The
queen appeared on horseback at Tilbury, and, riding through
the lines, exliorted the soldiers to do their duty; professing
her intention rather to perish with them in batdc, than to
survive the ruin of her people. " I know," said she, " I
have only the feeble arm of a woman, but I have the heart
of a king, and of a King of England too."

1588. — The Spanish Armada, after various obstructions, at
length appeared in the channel. It consisted of 130 vessels,
and carried about 20,000 land forces. Effingham saw it as he
was just getting out of Plymouth Sound," coming full sail
towards him, disposed in the form of a crescent, and stretch-
ing the distance of seven miles, from the extremity of one
<liyision to that of the other. The lofty masts, the swelling
sails, and the towering prows of the Spanish galleons seemed
impossible to be justly described by the historians of that age,
without assuming the language of poetry. Not satisfied with
representing the armada as a sj)ectacle infusing equal terror
and admiration into the minds of all beholders, and as the
most magnificent that had ever appeared on the main; they
assf;rt, that although the ships bore every sail, it yet advanced
with a slow motion, as if the ocean had groaned with support-
ing, and the winds Itecn tired with irnpclliiiir so enormous a
weight. The Etiglish admiral at first gave orders not to come
lo close fight with the Spaniards, on account of the size of

X."] . GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 69

their ships, and the number of soldiers on board ; but a few
trials convinced him that the size of the Spanish ships was
no advantage to them ; their bulk exposed them to tlie fire ;
while their cannon, placed too high, shot over the heads of
the English vessels. Every thing conspired to the ruin of
this vast armament. Sir Francis Drake took the great galleon
of Andalusia, and a large ship of Biscay, which had fallen
behind the rest; while the nobdity and gentry hastened out
with their vessels from every harbour to reinforce Efhngham,
who filled eight of his smaller ships with combustibles, and
sent them into the midst of the enemy. The Spaniards fled
with disorder, (July 29,) and the English, besides doing great
damage to their whole fleet, took twelve large ships. The
Duke of Parma, whose vessels were calculated only for trans-
porting soldiers, refused to leave the harbour, while the Eng-
lish were masters of the sea. The Spanish admiral, (the
Duke of Medina Sidonia,) therefore, after many unsuccessful
encounters and dangers in unknown seas, vs'ith contrary winds,
prepared to make his way, but not daring to re-enter the chan-
nel, resolved to take the circuit of the island. The English
fleet followed him for some time ; and, had not their ammunition
failed, they had obliged the armada to surrender at discretion.
This vast armament, which had been styled the Invincible,
was attacked by a violent storm in passing the Orkneys ;
some of the ships were driven on the Western Isles, some on
the coast of Ireland ; not one-half of the fleet returned to Spain.
Philip, whose command of temper and fortitude were supe-
rior to adverse fortune, received with an air of tranquillity the
news of such a disastrous event. " I thank God," he coolly
replied, " who has given me so many resources, that I can bear
without inconvenience so heavy a loss. One branch has been
lopped off; but the tree is still flourishing, and able to supply
its place."

In England, the defeat of the armada was celebrated by the
people with the most lively demonstrations of joy : the queen
marked it o*it as an epoch for increasing the sufferings of her
Catholic subjects. The Earl of Arundel* had been a prisoner
on suspicion of treason, which could not be proved against
him, since the year 158.3 ; he was now arraigned again on a
charge of high treason contained in a formula of prayer he

* Philip Howard was the eldest son of the late Duke of Norfolk, and
became Earl of Arundel in right of his mother, Mary Fitzallan, daughtei
of the late earl, and heiress of the castle and earldom of Arundel.

70 OEXERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

had made use of with some other Calliolic prisoners in tlie
Tower, during the Spanish invasion. Tliouirh the charge was
unrounded, his peers declared liini giiihy, and he was con-
demned. The queen was prevailed upon to spare his life, yet
she concealed lier intentions from the prisoner, whose sudden
illness and deatli in 1595 provoked a suspicion of poison.
From this dale, till llie close of Elizabeth's reign, the persecu-
tion of the Catholics was unremitting. Sixty-one priests,
forty-seven laymen, and two gentlewomen, sutTered capital
punishment, which, in nearly all these instances, consisted in
the butchery of the victim, while still alive and in his perfect
senses.

The Puritans next experienced the severity of the queen's
government. Several of them were executed ; but, by degrees,
the persecution against them subsided, and before the death
of Elizibeth, they enjoyed a state of comparative peace.

While the naval power of Spain was receiving so signal a
defeat on the British shores, great revolutions were taking
place in France. Henry III., jealous of tlie popularity of the
Duke of Guise, basely contrived to have him and his brother,
the cardinal, murdered. The partisans of the League were
enraged, and flew to arms. In this extremity, the king entered
mto a confederacy with the Huguenots and the King of
Navarre, who advanced with him to tlie gates of Paris. They
(aid siege to the capital, when Henry HI. was assassinated
by one Clement, an ignorant enthusiast. This assassination
left the succession open to the King of Navarre,* who, as next
heir to the crown, assumed the government, under the name
of Henry IV.

CHAPTER XI.

EUROPE, FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY IV., TO THE PEACB

OF VERVINS, IN 1598.

The reign of Henry IV., jusfly styled the Great, forms one
of the most memoralile eras in the history of France. Tlie
eyes of all Europe were fixed upon this prince, as the hero
of its militarv theatre and the rentre of its political system;
Philip and Elizabeth were now Init secondary actors. Upon

• Henry, King of Navarre, was a descendant of ■'^t. liowia, by Robert,
Count of ('lermont, younKeft son of that monarch. He inherited Navarre
in right of his mother, .liine, who introduced the leneU of Luther into hef
dominions, and cruelly persecuted her Catholic subjects.

XI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 71

the assassination of Henry III., one-half of the royal army
forsook the King of Navarre on account of his religion. This
desertion obliged liim to abandon the siege of Paris, and retire
into Normandy. Thither he was followed by the forces of
the League, commanded by the Duke of Mayenne,* who had
proclaimed the Cardinal of Bourbon king, under the name of
Charles X. ; though that old man, who had been thrown into
prison on the assassination of the Guises, was still confined
in the casde of Fontenai-le-Comte, in Poitou. Conscious of
Henry's distress, Elizabeth immediately sent him a present
of £22,000, in order to prevent the desertion of his Swiss and
German auxiliaries, and a reinforcement of 4,000 men. Mean-
while Henry had been so fortunate as to secure Dieppe aiid
Caen, and to repulse the Duke of Mayenne, who had attacked
him at Arquos. On the arrival of the English forces, Henry
marched towards Paris, but was again obliged to retire. His
forces were still inferior to those of the League, but what was
wanting in numbers was supplied by valour. He attacked the
Duke of Mayenne at Ivri, (1590,) and gained a complete vic-
tory over him. Henry, in this battle, rushed into the thickest
of the enemy ; but when he perceived their ranks broken, and
great havoc committed in the pursuit, his natural humanity
and attachment to his countrymen returned, and he cried out,
" Spare my enemies ; they are Frenchmen." Soon after this
victory, died the Cardinal of Bourbon; and the king invested
Paris, which he certainly might have reduced by famine, had
not his paternal tenderness for his people made him forget the
duty of the soldier, and relax the rigour of war. He left a
free passage to the old men, women, and children. He per-
mitted the peasants, and even his own men, to carry provisions
secretly to the besieged. Meantime, the Duke of Parma, by
order of the King of Spain, left the Low Countries, where he
was hard pressed by Prince Maurice, and hastened to the
relief of Paris. On his approach, Henry raised the siege and
offered him battle ; but that consummate general, having per-
formed the service for which he was detached, prudently
declined the combat, and retired with honour.

1591. — Elizabeth, who had withdrawn her troops on the
first prosperous appearance of Henry's affairs, again inter-
posed, and sent him 3,000 men, and afterwards 4,000 more,
under the command of her favourite, the Earl of Essex.
These, joined to an army of 35,000 men, enabled Henry to
lay siege to Rouen, and to prosecute the war, though witli
• He was brother to the late Duke of Guise.

72 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAP.

various success, till in 1593, afior tlic taking of Droiix, he
solemnly made his abjuration at tSt. Denis;, and received abso-
lution from the Arciibisliop of Bourges, On his accession to
the throne, he had promised to study the doctrines of liie reli-
gion of his ancestors ; and this step was the result of several
conferences on the subject, at which he had been present.
Queen Elizabeth was not a little mortified and irritated at tliis
change in her ally ; but her remonstrances on the occasion
were unsuccessful. The dillcrent provinces and towns of
France submitted by degrees to Henry ; in 1590 the Duke of
Mayenne was reconciled to him; and, cliarnied with the gene-
rous reception which he met with on his submission, he con-
tinued ever after firmly attached to the king's person and
government.

During these transactions in France, the confederates were
not idle in the Low Countries. Prince Maurice and Sir Francis
Vere gained at Tournhout, (1597,) a complete victory over
the Spaniards, in consequence of which that place immediately
surrendered, and many others were reduced before the clos&
of the campaign.

1598, — The confederates were equally successful in other
parts. Besides the naval armaments which Elizal)eth was
continually sending to annoy the Spaniards, in the AVcst Indies,
and to obstruct tlieir trade at home, a strong force was sent
to Cadiz, where Philip was making preparations agamst Eng-
land. The combined English and Dutch fleet altackeil liie
Spanish ships and galleys in the bay, and oi)liged them all to
surrender or run ashore. The Earl of Essex then disem-
barked his troops, and carried the city by assault. The plun-
der was considerable, and the loss of the Spaniards was com-
puted at twenty millions of ducats ; but the rpicen was dissatis-
fied with the commander on his return, because she did not
receive a share of the booty.*

Age and infirmities, added to many disappointments, had
now broken tlie spirit of Philip, and he offered peace to the
confederates on equitable terms ; but as he refused to acknow-
ledge the independence of the United Provinces, they would
not negotiate with him. Henry's situation did not albtw him
to l)ehave with the same rigour. France, torn by civil dissen-
sions, stood in need of peace. Philip knew it, and offered

• Lord Burlrip;h and his son, Sir Robert Cecil, were the earl's enrmie«
at court: Drill durini; hiH aliHcnce the former liad the nddrrssto p;ct his non
■p[ir>inted to ihc ullko of bccivtary, vacant riiicc ihu dvulhof WuUiiigliam,
in 15U0.

XII.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 78;

advantageous conditions to Henry. The French monarch,
however, first sent ambassadors to Elizabeth and the States to
facilitate a <rencral agreement : they remonstrated against such
a mea»«ure, unless the independence of the States were made
its basis. Henry pleaded his necessity of negotiating, and
they were made sensible of the justness of his arguments.
A separate peace was accordingly concluded at Vervins (in
Aisne) between France and Spain, (in 1598,) by which Henry
recovered possession of all the places seized by Philip during
the civil wars, and procured to himself, what he had long
ardently desired, leisure to setde the domestic affairs of his
kingdom, to cultivate the arts of peace, and to contribute to
the happiness of his people.

CHAPTER XH.

SPAIN AND THE LOW COUNTRIES, FROM 1598 TO 1609.

1598. — Soon after the peace concluded between France
and Spain, at Vervins, a new treaty was negotiated between
England and the United Provinces, that the war might be
prosecuted with vigour against Philip. Scarcely was this ne-
gotiation finished, when Philip H., its first object, breathed
his last at Madrid. No European prince ever possessed such
vast resources as this monarch. Besides his Spanish and Ita-
lian possessions, the kingdom of Portugal and the Netherlands,
he enjoyed the whole East India commerce, and reaped the
richest harvest from the American mines. But his prodigious
armaments, his quarrels with France and England, and his
long and expensive wars in the Low Countries, exhausted his
treasures, and enriched those whom he sought to subdue ;
while the Spaniards, dazzled with the sight of the precious
metals, and elated with an idea of imaginary wealth, neglected
agriculture and manufactures, and were obliged to depend on
their more industrious neighbours for the luxuries, as well as
the necessaries of life. Spain, once a rich and fertile king-
dom, became only the mint of Europe. Its wedges and ingots
were no sooner coined, than called for; and often mortgaged
before their arrival, as the price of labour and ingenuity. The
state was enfeebled, the country rendered sterile, and the peo-
ple poor and miserable. The condition of the United Pro-
vinces was, in all respects, the reverse of Spain. They owed

74 GENERAL HTSTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

every thing to their imhistry; manufactures were carried on
with \ iiro'ir, and comnierce was extended to all the quarters of
the globe. The republic was become powerful and the peo-
ple rich. Conscious of this, the court of Madrid had changed
its measures before the deadi of Philip. Despairing of being
able to reduce the revolted provinces by force, and desirous
of an accommodation, that he might end his days in peace,
Philip transferred to his daughter Isabella, contracted to the
Archduke Albert of Austria, the sovereignty of the Low Coun-
tries. Philip died before the celebration of the marriage, but
his son and successor, Philip III., executed his will.

1599. — The first material step taken by All)ert and Isabella
for reducing the Hollanders to obedience, was the precluding
the United Provinces from all intercourse by trade with the
Spanish dominions ; which an idea of general advantage had
induced Philip II. to allow them. Meanwhile, war was carried
on with vigour in the Low Countries, and after several towns
had been taken, many gallantly assaulted, and no less gallantly
defended on both sides, the two arniios came to a general en-
gagement at Newport, near Oslcnd, where Albert was totally
defeated. Overtures of peace were again renewed, but rejected
by the States. In 1601, the Archduke Albert laid siege to
Ostend. The brave resistance which he met with, astonished,
but did not discourage him. All the resources of war were
exhausted, rivers of blood were spilled ; but neither side was
dispirited, because both received constant supplies; the one
by sea, the other from the neighbouring country. Spinola,
who commanded for Albert, showed at last, that no fortification,
however strong, is impregnable to an able engineer, furnished
with the necessary force. Ostend was reduced to a heap of
ruins, and the besiegers were preparing for the grand assault,
when the governor offered to capitulate, in 1004. Spinola
granted the garrison honourable terms. During this memora-
ble siege, which lasted upwards of three years, and cost the
Kin<r of Spain and the Archduke the lives of 80,000 brave
soldiers. Prince Maurice made himself master )f Rinil)ack,
Grave, and Sluys, acquisitions which more than balanced the
loss of Ostend ; and Albert, by employing all his strength
against that place, was prevented durinir thn^e campaitjus from
entering the United Provinces. The Dulch profited ctf that
interval of security, to push their trade and manufactures.
Every nerve was strained in labour, and every talent in inge-
nuity. Commerce, both foreign and domestic, llourished.
Ternatc, one of the Moluccas, had been gained, and the East

Xn.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 75

India Company, that grand pillar of the republic, was estab-
lished. But, as a counterpoise to these advantages, the States
had lost the alliance of England, in consequence of the death
of Elizabeth. James I., her successor, showed no inclination
to engage in hostilities with Spain ; and concluded, soon after
his accession, a treaty with that court.

1605. — Philip III. now resolved to carry on the war against
the revolted provinces, with the whole force of his dominions.
Spinola was declared commander-in-chief of the Spanish and
Italian forces. On the other hand, the States empowered
Prince Maurice to augment his army ; they recruited their
garrisons, and repaired their fortifications. Spinola's success
was rapid during two campaigns, in spite of all the eflbrts of
Maurice. But although he had made himself master of many
important places, he had yet made no impression on the body
of the republic ; and 300,000 doubloons a month, the com-
mon expense of the army, was a sum too large for the Spanish
treasury long to disburse, and a drain which not even the
mines of Mexico and Peru could supply. His troops muti-
nied for want of pay. He became sensible of the impractica-
bility of his undertaking; and delivered it as his opinion, that
it was more advisable to enjoy the ten provinces in peace and
security, than to risk the loss of the whole Netherlands, in
pursuit of the other seven. It was accordingly agreed (1607)
to negotiate with the Belgian powers as an independent state.
A suspension of arms took place ; and, in 1609, a truce of
twelve years was concluded at the Hague, through the media-
tion of France and England. This treaty secured to the United
Provinces the acquisitions they had made, and the liberty
for which they had so long struggled. Scarcely had the court
of Spain terminated one civil war, than it commenced another.
Philip III., by the advice of his minister, the Duke of Lerma,
issued an edict ordering all the Morescoes, or descendants of
the Moors, to leave the kingdom within the space of thirty
days, under penalty of death. Their attachment to Mohamme-
danism, though many of them had received baptism, induced
the king to take this step for the preservation of religion
among his subjects. He has been severely censured for it
by Protestant writers, who tell us, that by this violent and
impolitic measure, Spain lost nearly a million of industrious
inhabitants ; and as that kingdom was already depopulated by
long and bloody foreign wars, by repeated emigrations to the
New World, and enervated by luxury, it now sunk into a
state of languor, from which it has never recovered.

76 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. CcHAP

CHAPTER XIII.

ENGLAND, FROM THE DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA, TO
THE DKATH OF ELIZADliTH, IN 1003.

The leading cliaractcristics of Elizabeth's administration
were economy and vigour. The exeeulioa of the Queen of
Scots and the defeat of the Spanish Armada haviii<r ficcd her
from all apprehension in regard to the safety of her crown, she
now turned her attention to the alTairs of Ireland, where the Eng-
lish sovereignty had liitherto been little more than nominal.
Elizabeth saw the importance of that island, and took several
measures for reducing it to greater submission. She furnished
her dej)uties with a greater force, and founded a university in
Dublin. But in 1585, Sir John Perrot, then lord deputy, put
arms into the hands of the inhabitants of Ulster, to enable
them to repress the incursions of tlie Scottish islanders ; and
Philip II. having about tiie same time engaged many of the
Irish gentry to serve in his armies in the Low Countries, Ire-
land, thus provided with ofllccrs and soldiers, was able to
maintain a more regular war, and became more formidable to
England. Hugh O'Neal, the head of a potent clan, who had
been created Earl of Tyrone, framed the project of rendering
himself independent. His success surpassed even his hopes.
After spinning out the war lor some years, he defeated the
English army under Sir Henry Bagnal, who was left dead on
the field with 1500 men. This victory made Elizalieth re-
solve to push the war I)y more vigorous measures ; and she
appointed, at his own request, her reigning favourite, the Earl
of Essex, Governor of Ireland, under the title of lord lieu-
tenant: vested him with almost unlimited i)Ower, and gave him
the command of a considerable army. (1599.) Hut Essex,
unacquainted with the country, and misled by interested coun-
sels, disappointed tlic expectations of the queen and the nation,
and fearing the artifices of his enemies at home, sudiicidv re-
turned, expressly contrary to the queen's orders. He was
confined a prisoner in his nwn house by her command, and,
by a decree of tlic privy council, was deprived of all his em-
ployments except tliat of master of tiie horse.

IGOl. — Essex, finding the (jueen inexorable, ihrciw ofT all
appearance of diity and respect. Already high in the public
favour, he practised anew every art of poj)ularity, and, sallying

XIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 77

forth at the head of 200 followers, attempted to raise the city ;
but, meeting with little encouragement, he was obliged to sur-
render at discretion. Orders were immediately given for his
trial. He was condemned, and privately beheaded in the Tower,
to prevent the danger of an insurrection.

1602. — Meanwhile, Lord Mountjoy, who had succeeded
Essex in Ireland, restored the queen's authority in that king-
dom. He defeated the rebels near Kinsale, though supported
by 6,000 Spaniards, whom he expelled the island ; and many
of the chieftains submitted to mercy, and received such terms
as the deputy was pleased to prescribe. Even Tyrone peti-
tioned for terms, which being denied him, he was obliged to
throw himself on the queen's clemency. He renounced for-
ever the name of O'Neal, and all pretensions to sovereignty ;
on these conditions his life was spared, and most of his estates
were restored to him.

But Elizabeth was now incapable of receiving any pleasure
from the fortunate conclusion of a war, which had long
occupied her councils, exhausted her treasury, and disturbed
her domestic peace. Though in her seventieth year, she had
hitherto enjoyed good health ; but the infirmities of old age
stole upon her, and with them great depression of spirits.
She had no offspring to inherit her dominions ; she saw they
must descend to the son of her hated rival ; and hence a deep
melancholy settled on her mind. The enemies of Essex,
through fear and envy, had hastened his destruction; but no
sooner was the blow given, than his merits were universally
extolled. Elizabeth became sensible she had been deceived.
Her courtiers having no longer the superior influence of Essex
to dread, grew less respectful and assiduous in their attendance,
and all men desirous of preferment, seemed to look forward to
her successor. The people caught the temper of the court;
the queen went abroad without the usual acclamations. Her
existence itself now seemed a burden. She threw herself on
a carpet, where she remained pensive and silent during ten
days and nights, leaning on cushions, and holding her finger
in her mouth, with her eyes open and fixed on the ground.
Her sighs and groans were all expressive of some inward grief,
which preyed upon her life. At last, her death visibly approach-
ing, the privy council sent to know her will in regard to her
successor. She gave them to understand the King of Scots
was the person, and soon after expired.

1603. — Few sovereigns ever swayed the sceptre with more
dignity than Elizabeth ; few have enjoyed more uniform pros-

78 GENERAL HISTOIW OF EUROPE. [CH\P

perity; yet, after all hor ijlory and popularity, she lived to fall
into neglect; and sank into tlie grave beneath the pressure of
a private grief, accompanied by circumstances of distress,
which the wretch on the rack might pity, and which the slave
who expires at the oar does not feel.*

CHAPTER XIV.

FRANCE, FROM 1598, TO THE DEATH OF HENRY IV,, IN 1610.

No kingdom exempt from the horrors of war, could be
more wrelciied than France at the peace of Vervins. The
crown was loaded with debts, the people poor and miserable.
To form a regular plan of administration, and to pursue it
with success, Henry stood in need of an able and upright
minister. He found one in the Marquis de Hosni, whom he
created Duke; of Sidly. Sully seemed formed to be the
minister of Henry the IV. By his prudent measures he paid,
in the space of five years, all the debts of the crown, augment-
ed the revenue four millions of livres, had four millions in the
treasury, and had considerably reduced the taxes. Henry
introduced the culture and manufacture of silk into his king-
dom ; and in 1607, at great expense, but with greater profit,
manufactures of linen and tapestry. He built the Pont-neuf,
and cut the canal of liriare, which joins the Seine and the
Loire ; and he had projected the union of the two seas, when
a period was put to his life.

1008. — The Duke of Savoy was encouraged by Spain to
declare war against Henry, but his estates were overrun, and
he was soon obliged to make peace : the Duke of Uiron was
then engaged in a conspiracy which cost him his head. Many
other attempts being made against him, Henry resolved to
carry into execution a design, which he had long meditated,
of humbling the house of Austria, which he considered as the
jealous rival of his glory, and of circumscribing its power in
Italy and (iermany. While he was maturinir tliat i/reat project,
a dispute, concerning llie succession to the duchies of Cleves
and .iuliers, alTorded him a pretext for taking up arms. Ro-
dolph n., sou and successor of Maximilian H., had succeeded
to th" imperial throne, in 1.57(5. 'J'iie eiiuity of liis adminis-
tra* I ct^'^ensated for its weakness. The chief disturbances

* Russc), vol. 3d, p. 85.

XIV.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 79

which he met with proceeded from his brother Matthias. The
Turks, as usual, had invaded Hungary; Matthias had been
successful in opposing them, and a peace being concluded, in
1606, with Sultan Achmet, successor of Mahomet II., the
Hungarians conferred their crown upon Matthias, who after-
wards made himself master of Moravia and Bohemia. Ro-
dolph, ambitious only of extending the empire of science,
confirmed to his brother those usurpations, with the succession
to the kingdom of Bohemia, where the new opinions had
taken deep root. In proportion as Lutheranisra gained ground
in Hungary and Bohemia, the Protestant princes of the empire
became desirous of extending their privileges, and entered
into a new confederacy, called the Evangelical Union. This
association was opposed by another, formed (in 1609) to
protect the ancient faith, under the name of the Catholic
League.

The succession to the duchies of Cleves and Juliers roused
to arms the heads of the two parties, who may be said to have
slumbered since th'3 peace of Passau. John William, Duke
of Cleves and Juliers, dying without issue, several competitors
arose for the succession, and prepared to support their title by
the sword. Rodolph ordered the claimants to appear before
him to explain their pretensions, and in the mean time sent his
cousin, Leopold, to rule the disputed fiefs in his name, till the
right of inheritance should be settled. John Sigismund
Elector of Brandenburg, and the Duke of Newburg, alarmed,
at this step, united against the emperor, and were assisted by
the Elector Palatine and the other princes of the evangelical
union. In order to be a match for the emperor, who was
assisted by the Elector of Saxony, the Pope, and the King of
Spain, they applied to the King of France. Henry had only
wanted an apology for breaking with the house of Austria.
His preparations were vigorous and his negotiations successful.
The Duke of Savoy, the Swiss, and the Venetians entered
warmly into his views. He assembled an army of 40,000
men, (1610,) and resolved to command it in person; but the
queen, Mary of Medicis, appointed regent during his absence,
insisted on being solemnly crowned before his departure.
Henry consented with an inward dread, arising, no doubt, from
the many barbarous attempts which had been made upon his
person, the rumours of new conspiracies, and the opportunities
which a crowd afforded of putting them into execution. He
escaped, however, on that occasion; but the next day, his
coach being obstructed in a narrow street, Ravaillac, a d(!spe-

80 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. " [cHAF.

rate fanatic, mounted the wlioel of his carriage, and stabbed
him to the lieart, wilii a knife, over the Duke d'Epernon's
shoukler, and amidst six of his courtiers.

France seems only to have been fully sensible of the worth
of this monarch, justly styled the "Great," when she had lost
him; but in estimating his character, we consider him only in his
regal capacity; the libertinism of his private life had a pernicious
effect upon the morals of the nation, and tarnished his great
qualities ; but he always preserved a due respect for religion,
and appears to have embraced the Catholic faith from conviction.
He received the Jesuits into France, and obliged the Parlia-
ment to sanction their establishment in his kingdom l)y law

CHAPTER XV.

ENGLAND, FROM 1603 TO 1628.

The English throne being left vacant by the death of Eliza-
beth, James VI. of Scotland was immediately proclaimed
King of England, by the lords of the privy council, 'i'his
prince was great-grandson of Margaret, eldest daughter of
Henry VH., so that, on the failure of the male line, his here-
ditary title remained unquestionable. The crown of F'ngland,
therefore, passed from the family of Tudor to that of Stuart,
with as much tranquillity as ever it was transmitted from father
to son. People of all ranks, forgetting their former hostility
towards Scotland, testified their satisfaction with louder accla-
mations than were usual at the accession even of their native
princes. They foresaw greater advantages resulting from a
perjK'tual alliance with Scodand, and the addition of power
and consequence which England would derive from it, than
inconveniences from submitting- to the dominion of a stranijer.

James retained most of Elizabeth's ministers in office,
amoiirj whom Robert Cecil, son to the late lord 15urh'ijr)i, was
regarded as his prime minister and chief counsellor. He created
him Earl of Salisbury, and loaded him with honours. Cecil
began his ministry l)y getting rid of several pc^rsons peculiarly
obnoxifuis to him, under pretence of their being entratreil in a
conspiracy to place the king's cousin-uerman, Arabella Stuart,
on the throne of England. Sir Walter Raleigh was one of
the principals in this conspiracy, and, thou<rh not convicted,
w \B detained prisoner several years in the Tower.

XV.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 81

Soon after surmounting this danger, the king was engaged
in a scene of business much more suitable to his temper, and
in which he was particularly ambitious to make a figure. Of
all the qualities that mark his character, he was by none so
much distinguished, as by the vanity of being thought to excel
in school-learning. In effect, his learning and eloquence were
not contemptible ; but the one was tinctured with pedantry,
and the other with affectation. To decide upon the differ-
ences which existed between the Puritans and Protestants, he
appointed a conference to be held ; but as he was well aware
of the hostile dispositions of the former, he always declared
himself on the side of the established church, and frequently
repeated his favourite maxim, " No bishop, no king." A
union of the two kingdoms was also an object which James
had much at heart ; but the animosity that existed between
them could only be allayed by time ; and all that he could ob-
tain of Parliament at the present moment, was an appointment
of commissioners on both sides, to deliberate on the subject.
To procure money from the Commons was still more difficult;
but as he soon after concluded a peace with Spain, supplies
were less necessary.

Though educated by Puritans,* James entertained favoura-
ble ideas of the Catholic religion; and considering his new
Catholic subjects as a loyal body, who had been oppressed
and heavily aggrieved, he made no secret of his friendly dispo-
sitions towards them. The regard which he expressed for
them at the opening of the Parliament, raised their expecta-
tions of seeing the penal statutes repealed, at the same time
that it gave great umbrage to the Puritans. - They beset the
throne with declaimers against popery; ministers supported
the popular clamour, and spoke loudly of public dangers, aris-
ing from the machinations of Jesuits and popish priests.
James, unwilling to offend his Protestant subjects, published
an order for all priests to quit the kingdom ; and, by another
proclamation, he affirmed the ecclesiastical government, and
book of common prayer. This put an end to the flattering
hopes the Catholics had entertained since the beginning of the
reign. They were disappointed ; but their disappointment
neither lessened the loyalty of that body at large, nor stimulated
revenge. Some few individuals, indeed, being actuated with

* After the imprisonment of his mother, James was placed in the hands
of the reformists, and had the celebrated Scotch historian Buchanan for hia
preceptor. This violent Puritan and bitter enemy of the unfortunate Mary
died in 1582. Hume and Robertson have inherited his prejudices.

88 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

a diaboliciil desire of ivvpncfc upon tliat occasion, cntercl into
one of tlie most execral)lo plots that history has rccordeil ; it
is commonly called the Gunpowder Plot, the design of which
was, to blow up the royal family and l)oth Houses of Parlia-
ment, at the very time that tiie king addressed them from
the throne. The atrocity of the treason, and the manner in
which it was carried on to the time of its disclosure, leaves
litUe room to doubt that the whole was a political contrivance
of Cecil, who had been profoundly lettered in that kind of
mischief by his intriguing father, in order to furnish govern-
ment with a pretext for persecuting the Catholics, Tresham,
one of the conspirators, was well ac(iuaiuted with Cecil, and
is known to have had some communication with him concern-
ing the afTairs of the Catholics : at the disclosure of the plot,
he never attempted to escape, presuming, no doubt, that he
was sufficiently protected at court, but, on the contrary, offered
his services to apprehend the conspirators. Being, however,
seized upon and committed to the Tower, he met with a sud-
den death in the course of a few days, before any examination
of him had taken place. The physician who attended him
pronounced that he died of poison. But whelhor tiie treason
originated with those wretched men who visibly lal)oured for
its execution, or was suggested to them by Tresham as an
emissary of the minister,* the guilt of a few deluded, rash
men could not stigmatize the loyalty of the Catholic body at
large. The number of the conspiralorswasonl} twelve;f five
more were executed as having been privy to the plot and not
revealing it ; among these were two .Tesuits, F. F. Garnet, and
I'esmond or Greenway, the first of whom was only made ac-
quainted with it tmder the seal of confession, and did all in
his power to prevent it; the second sufTercd for harbouring
him : a third, by name F. Gerard, who was suspected, on ac-
count of his personal knowledge of some of those who were
let into the secret, made his escape. No proofs of his guilt
could be produced; and in a letter written to the Right Kev.
Dr. Smith, he solemnly protests his entire ignorance of the
plot till its detection. J But that Cecil aimed at involving per-

• Wee Di)(l(], vol. 2, p. .395, and his authorities: also Mem. Miss. Priests,
vol. 2, p. 476.

j- Amon(5 these, seven only appear to have Itccn arquaintotl with the worst
part of it, VIZ. Catcslty, Pk-rcy, Fawkcs, Winter, Keycs, Bates, and 'I'res-
ham. See the presumptive (jroofs of the supposition of Cecil's knowledge
of the conspiracy, in Reeve's Christ. Church, vol. 2, century 17th, chap. 2,
3, and 4.

t Thii letter is ini>erted in Bartoli, Ingbiltcrra, p. 513, in Roma, 1667.

XV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPR. 83

sons of greater respectability than the rash youths that were
engaged in the plot, is evident from the letter written to Lord
Monteagle, a young Catholic peer, and which led to its disco-
very. Had Monteagle concealed this anonymous letter, which
warned him not to attend Parliament on the fatal day, there
is no doubt that all the other twenty Catholic peers, who then
sat in Parliament, would have received similar advertisements.
But he immediately carried it to the secretary himself, who
was thereupon obliged to dissolve his plot prematurely. Still,
however, he waited till the very day (November 5, 1605)
before the sessions, to examine the vault beneath the Parlia-
ment-house. The king having by supposed inspiration been
enlightened as to the nature of the plot, every thing was then
found as Cecil expected ; the conspirators were arrested, and
soon destroyed, either fighting or on the scaffold.

The Earl of Salisbury and the Puritans had now succeeded
in their malicious schemes against the Catholics. So sensible
was James of the advantages which his minister reaped from
the plot, that he ever afterwards called the 5th November,
CeciVs Holiday.

The conduct of James in Ireland was characterized by an
unexpected hostility. The Irish, viewing in him a descendant
of their ancient kings, hailed his accession with joy, and soon
despatched envoys to solicit freedom to practise the religion
of their ancestors. Not only was all toleration refused, but
the deputies were cast into prison for their presumption, and
all succeeding monarchs followed the precedent thus set by
James. His next step was an attempt to entrap the Earl of
Tyrone, and when that nobleman fled and O'Dogherty re-
volted, James's joy was unbounded, as it required then but a
few lines from a willing parliament, to declare forfeited to
himself, two millions of acres in the north of Ireland. This he
granted out chiefly to his countrymen, and as his wholesale
robbery did not impress the Irish with any great reverence
for English laws, an army was needed to protect the new
settlers. It was to raise money to support this guard, that
James created and sold the title of baronet ; the price being
one thousand pounds. His plan siicceeded, and this colony,
with its severely disciplined army, did much to introduce and
maintain English laws, land tenures, and judicial proceedings.
Deeming that his system of robbery and violence had civi-
lized the Irish nation, James and his flatterers always boasted
of this as the masterpiece of his reign. A few trifling im-
pro% ements were indeed introduced, but on the whole Ireland
lost rather than gained. While the king was thus busi-

84 OENEKAI, HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

hly em ployed, the death of Ilenry, Prince of Wales, in the
eighteenth year of his age, cast a general gloom over the
prospects of the nation. This prince seems to have possessed
great and real merit. Neither his high birth nor his youth
liad seduced him into any irregular pleasures : business and
ambition were his sole delight; his disposition was strongly
turned to war. The trench ambassador, taking leave of him,
and asking his commands for France, found him employed in
the exercise of the pike. " Tell your king," said Henry, "in
what occupation you left me engaged."

The marriage of the Princess Elizabeth with Frederic,
Elector Palatine, which soon after took place, served to dissi-
pate the grief which the death of the prince had occasioned
throughout the whole kingdom. The court of James, at this
period, produced various incidents, which had a considerable
effect on public opinion, if not on public happiness. James,
amongst many other weaknesses, had one in particular, which
drew upon him the odium of the nation; namely, an infatu-
ated attachment to young and undeserving favourites. About
the end of 1609, Robert Carr, a youth of a good family in
Scotland, first appeared in the English court. The charms
of his person and the elegance of his manners soon won the
heart of James, and, in a short time, he was successively
knighted, created Viscount Rochester, and honoured with the
garter. Intoxicated, however, by good fortune, he soon gave
himself up to the indulgence of every criminal passion, and
in a short time he was freed from all restraint by the death of
his former friend and counsellor, Sir 'I'homas Overburv, who
is sujjposed to have fallen by poison, administered at the insti-
gation of the earl and his lady.

1011. — Every eff"ort having been made to raise money by
virtue of the prerogative, and always without success, a Parlia-
ment was again called ; but that assembly, instead of granting
a supply, began with disputing the king's power to levy cus-
toms and taxes. His majesty was so provoked, that he dis-
solved them without obtaining theol)jectof their convocation.
About this period Sir Waller Raleigh, whose enteri)rising
.spirit had not been broken by an imprisonment of thirteen
years, taking advantage of the abated resentment of his ene-
mies, and of the favourable impression of the public, spread
a report that he knew of a rich gold mine in fJuiana. hoping
by this means to recover his liberty; Italcigh was accordingly
released from prison, but without pardon, and obtained per-
jnission to embark in the hazardous enterprise. No sooner

KV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 85

was he arrived, than he sent a detachment uader the command
of h's son and of Captain Kemys, who were tired upon at their
landing. The Spaniards had formed a small setderaent on the
river Oronoko, and built a town called St. Thomas. Raleigh
was either not aware of this circumstance before his setting out,
or he affected total ignorance of it. The young Raleigh, irri-
tated by his reception, pursued the enemy into the town, which
was reduced to ashes ; but a shot carried him off in the midst
of his career, and Kemys could not be prevailed upon to pro-
ceed. Returning to his vessel, he retired to his cabin, and
put an end to his life in despair. The other adventurers,
thinking themselves duped by Raleigh, hastened back to Eng-
land, carrying their leader with them. Raleigh was tried,
declared guilty, and the warrant for his execution signed upon
the former sentence. He met the blow with resolution ; his
address to the people was calm and eloquent; and with the
utmost indifference he laid his head on the block, and received
the fatal stroke.

In order to hasten the match between the Princess of
Spain and his heir-apparent, James despatched the Earl of
Bristol to Philip IV., and matters were, apparently, in a fair
train of settlement, when every flattering prospect was blasted
by the temerity of Buckingham. The young and ardent m^
of Prince Charles eagerly embraced the scheme proposed by
Buckingham, of proceeding to Madrid in disguise; and the
king having unguardedly given his consent, they set out on
this romantic expedition. The Spanish monarch treated
Charles with the most flattering attentions; but according to
the established etiquette, the infanta was only shown to him
in public until a dispensation should arrive from Rome. In
the mean time Gregory XV. died, and the refusal of the nuncio
to deliver the dispensation until it should be renewed by his
successor. Urban VIII., caused various delays. The King
of England, as well as the prince, became impatient, and the
latter, taking his leave, embarked on board the English fleet
at St. Andrew, and returned to England. Buckingham, during
his residence in Spain, had incurred the hatred of the Spaniards,
and he, probably, feeling reciprocal animosity for them, con-
curred with the prince in putting an end to the long-protracted
negotiation. James having reluctantly entered into the views
of the favourite, all thoughts of a union with the infanta w^ere
forever laid aside. Soon after this, a treaty of marriage be-
tween the Prince of Wales and Henrietta of France being
proposed, James entered into the negotiation with so much

86 GENERAL HISTORY 01 EUKOHE. [tHAP.

arilour, that it was soon hroiijrht to a favourable conclusion.
James dill not lt)n<r survive tlie rummiMK-cmi'nt of hostilities
for the recovery of the Palatinate. He met death with calm-
ness and fortitude, in the 5*.)lh year of his acre, and the 22d of
his reign over England, March 27lli, 1025. The character
of James has been variously represented. As a man, he is
allowed to have possessed some good qualities; lie had a con-
aiderahle share of learning and abilities, l)ut wanting sincerity,
as well as that vigour of mind and dignity of manner so
essential to the character of a sovereign : as a monarch, he was
certainly contemptible. His disposition, naturally lenient,
inclined him to alleviate the snfl'erings of his Oalliolic sulijects,
and moderate the fanatical zeal of the puritanical party.
Though the prisons were crowded with priests, yet, during
the lapse of eleven years, from 1007 to 1018, only sixteen
suffered as traitors for the exercise of their functions: but the
statute enacted in IGOG* had severely aggravated the sufferings
of the lay ('atholics. The proposal of an ambiguous oath of
allegiance, which was received in general by the secular clergy,
and by their superior, the Arch-priest Blackwall, rejected
mostly bv the regulars, and finally censured by the Pope,
(Paul V.,) increased the dilhculty of their situation. 'I'he
fines of recusancy continued to be levied with rigour; they
were continually summoned to take the disputed oath, and
non-attendance was visited with excommunication, and the
civil consequences of that ecclesiastical sentence; while the
refusal of the oath subjected them to perpetual imprisonment,
and the penalties of a pr^munire.

During the latter part of tlie reign of James, the great seal
was in the hands of Francis Bacon, Lord Vendam, a man
universally admired for the s\iblimitv of his tjenius, but who
had made himself obnoxious to censure by the easiness of his
disposition, and the irregular means he had used to obtain
money, less indeed on his own account, than to gratify his
dependents, whose importunities he could not resist. lieing
impeached by the Commons, the Peers sentenced him to pay
a fine of forty tiiousand pounds, to be imprisoned in the Tower,
and to be forever incapal)le of holding any ofTice, place, or
employment. Hacon, however, was soon released from prison,
his fine was remitted, and, in consideration of his intrinsic
worth, received a pension of ci<rhteeii hundred pounds a year.
The short remainder of his life was sjxiil in literary avoca-

• See the wvcrc [wnnlties enacted by this slatute, in Lingard'a History
pf England, reign of Jameti I.

XVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. W

tions ; and in the greatness of his talents, posterity have al-
most forgotten that lie had the weaknesses and the failings of
a man.

Charles I., son of James, mounted the throne in the flower
of his age. He immediately hastened to call a Parliament, to
whom he frankly explained the nature of the engagements he
had made with his father, and the sums that would be neces-
sary to discharge them, particularly with regard to the opera-
tions of the war. But all his efl'orts were vain; no supplies
were to be obtained, and Charles, in order to s pply the want
of parliamentary aid, was obliged to have recourse to the des-
perate and unconstitutional method of issuing privy seals, foi
borrowing money of his subjects, and of reviving the taxes
on tonnage and poundage ; a loan was also required both from
the nobility and the city; and the counties, as well as the
capital, were compelled to equip a certain number of ships.
This mode of taxation was afterwards productive of very
violent discontents. The people complained loudly of the
loans which were extorted from them under various forms;
the Commons enumerated the encroachments that had been
made on their constitutional liberties, under tlie name of a
" Petition of Rights;" they recurred to the duties of tonnage
and poundage, which could only be relinquished for an equi-
valent which was never offered ; and when the question was
about to be put on this subject, the speaker rose and declared,
" that he had it in command from the king to adjourn." A
few days after, the Parliament was dissolved; and it was evi-
dent that the king now intended to emancipate himself forever
from the control of Parliaments, and to reign without them.

CHAPTER XVI.

EUROPE, FROM THE DEATH OF HENRY TV., TO THE TREATY
OF PRAGUE, IN 1635.

The two great confederacies, called the Catholic League
and the Evangelical Union, appeared to be dissolved with the
death of Henry IV. ; but the Elector of Brandenburg and his
adherents expelled Leopold, and took possession of Cleves and
Juliers by force of arms. In this petty quarrel, Spain and
the United Provinces interested themselves, and the two great-
est generals in Europe were once more opposed to each other;

B8 GENERAL HISTORY OF ECROrE. [CHAP.

Spinoln on tlie part rf tlio Duke of Nc\vl)urir, who liad
rcmmiiced lailhrraiiisni, and .Mauiic-e on tlie side ol'llu; Elector
of Brand(!nIiurCT, who introduced Calvinism into his dominions,
to attach the Dutch to his cause.

1012. — This year died Hodolph 11.; he was succeeded by
his brother Matthias. The Turks now entered 'IVansylvania:
but the extent of the Ottoman dominions, which had so
alarmed Christendom, proved its safety. The younjr and
am!)ilious Aclimet, who hojjed to signalize the i)eginniiig of his
reign by the conquest of Hungary, was obliged to recall his
fi)rces from that (piarter, in order to protect the eastern frontier
of iiis empire; and Matthias obtained, without striking a I)low,
a peace as advantageous as he could have expected after the
most successful war.

lie stipulated for the restitution of Agria, Pest, Buda, and
every other place held by the Turks in Hungary.

1617. — Matthias procured his cousin, Ferdinand de Gratz,
Duke of Stiria, to be elected Kinnr of Bohemia and ackiio\vled<red
in Hungary, and he engaged the Spanish branch of the house
of Austria to renounce all pretensions to those crowns. This
family compact alarmed the Evangelical Union, and occasioned
the revolt of the Hunirarians and Bohemians. Thus was
kindled a furious civil war, which was not extinguislied till
the peace of Westphalia. Amid these disorders died the
Emperor Matthias, (in 1619,) and Ferdinand de (^ratz was
raised to the vacant throne. The Bohemians chose Frederic
V. I'dector Palatine. Frederic, seduced by his flatterers,
unwisely acce])ted of the crown, notwithstanding the remon-
strances of James I. of England, his father-in-law. Frederic
was seconded by most of the Protestant princes; but Ferdi-
nand, assisted by the C'atbolic princes of the empire, by the
King of Spain and tbe Archduke Albert, was more than a
match for his enemies. Frederic was totally routed near
Prague, (1620,) and degraded from his electoral dignity, which
was conferred on the Duke of Bavaria.

While the house of Austria was thus extending its authority
in Germany, the Spanish branch of that family was endcavour-
ini: to render itself absolute in Italy. In the midst of these
ambitious schemes, to which he was himself liide inclined,
died Philip HI., 1021. Philip I V^., his son and successor, was
more cnterprisino-, and the alulities of Olivarez, {hv new minis-
ter, were fir superior to those of the Duke of Lerma, who had
directed all in the last reiffn. The ambition of Olivarez was
yet greater than his capacity. He made his master assume

Jtfl.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 89

the surname of Great, and thouglit himself bound to justify
this appellation. He hoped to raise the house of Austria to
that absolute dominion in Europe, for which it had been so
long struggling. In prosecution of this bold plan, he resolved
to maintain the closest alliance with the emperor; to make
him despotic in Germany, to keep possession of the Valtelline,
to humble the Italian powers, and reduce the United Provinces
to subjection, the truce being now expired.

The minority of Lewis XIII. had been a constant scene of
faction and domestic broils. In 1620, Lewis having, by a
solemn edict, united the principality of Beam, the hereditary
estate of his family, to the crown of France, attempted to re-
establish the Catholic religion in that province. The Hugue-
nots, alarmed, assembled atRochelle and determined to erect a
republic after the example of the Protestants in the Low
Countries : but upon a confirmation of the edict of Nantes,
peace was again concluded, in 1622. The French councils
now began to assume more vigour. Cardinal Richelieu no
sooner got a share in the administration, than, turning his eyes
on the state of Europe, he formed three mighty projects; to
subdue the turbulent spirit of the French nobility, to reduce
the rebellious Huguenots, and to curb the power of the house
of Austria. Hence it was necessary to keep peace with Eng-
land, and Richelieu accordingly negotiated a treaty of marriage
between Charles, Prince of Wales, and Henrietta Maria, sister
of Lewis XIII. : he also negotiated with England and Holland
that alliance which brought on hostilities with Spain. (1624.)
In consequence of these negotiations, preparations were made
for the restoration of the Palatine, and Christian IV. of Den*
mark was declared head of the confederation. About the same
time, a French army, with the Venetians and the Duke of
Savoy, recovered the Valtelline, which had been sequestered
to the Pope, and restored it to the Grisons.

Meanwhile, the house of Austria was neither inactive nor
unfortunate. Spinola reduced Breda, one of the strongest
towns in the Netherlands, in spite of all the efforts of Prince
Maurice, who died of chagrin before the place surrendered.
The English failed in their attempt upon Cadiz, the embarka-
tion of their troops at Dover proved abortive, and the King of
Denmark was defeated by the Imperialists near Northeim.
This ill success of the English cooled their ardour for foreign
enterprises, and Richelieu found for a time enough to occupy
his genius at home. He had not only to quiet the Huguenots,
who again rebelled, but a powerful faction at court to oppose

10*

90 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

Not one prince of the blood was heartily his friend. Gaston,
Diike of Orleans, the kind's brother, was his declared enemy;
the queen-mother herself was jealous of him, and Lewis was
attached to him rather from motives of interest than of aflVciion.
Hut the bold and amliitious spirit of Kichclieu triumi)h('(i ovrr
every obstacle; it discovered and dissipated the cabals formetl
ajrainst liim, and at length made him absolute master of ih^
kint;^ and Uiiiirdoin.

1G27. — During these cabals in the French court, the Hugue-
nots showed once more a disposition to render themselves
independent, and in that spirit they were encouraged l)v t le
court of England. As Lewis XIIL was wholly governed Ity
Richelieu, and I^liilip IV. by Olivarez, Charles L was in like
manner governed by the Duke of Buckingham, who no«v
eniraifed his master to declare war asjainst France. Tiie
Huguenots had been deprived of many of their cautionary
towns, and forls were erecliiiir in order to i)rid|o Rochclle,
their most considerable bulwark. Buckingham appeared
before that place with an army of 7,000 men, and a fleet of a
hundred sail; but so ill contrived were his measures, that the
inhabitants of that city shut tlieir gates against him, and refusi'd
to admit allies of whose coming they were not previously
informed. 'I'his blunder was followed bv another. Instead
of attacking Oleron, a fertile island and defenceless, he made
a descent on the Isle of Rhe, well garrisoned and fortified.
He allowed the governor to amuse him with a negotiation, till
the principal fort was provided for a siege; and guarded tlie
sea so negligently, that a French army stole over in small
divisions and oblig-ed him to retreat to his ships. He was the
last man that endjarked, and having lost two-thirds of his
forces, ret\irned to England, bringing home with him no repu-
tation but that of personal courage. This ill-concerted enter-
prise proved fatal to the power of the French Protestants.
The siege of Rochelle was now regularly formed, and conthicted
With vii;our by Lewis and th(; canlinal in person. The latter,
finding it impossible to reduce the place, while the comnnnii-
cation remained open l)v sea, attempted to shut u|) the harbour
by sUikes and l)y a boom, 'i'iiese methods proving inellectual,
he recollected what Alexander had performed at the siege of
Tyre, and finished a mole of a mile's length across a gulf, into
which the sea rolled with an impetuosity tb.at seemed to l)id
defiance to all the works of man. The place being now
blockaded on all sides, the irdiabitunta were obliged to surren-
der, after sulfering -dl die miseries of famine and war during a

XVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 9i

siege of almost twelve months. Cardinal Richelieu then
marched against the Protestants in the other provinces of
France ; destroyed all their fortifications, and took from them
their cautionary towns, but confirmed to them the possession
of their estates and otJier privileges. From this era we may-
date the aggrandisement of the French monarchy in latter
times, and the absolute power of its princes. Richelieu's
system, however, was not yet complete. No sooner had he
subdued tlie Protestants in France, than he resolved to support
them in Germany, that he might be enabled by their means
to set bounds to the power of the house of Austria.

Ferdinand II., whom we have seen triumphant over the
Palatine and the Evangelical Union, continued to carry every
thing before him in the empire. The King of Denmark and
the League in Lower Saxony were unable to withstand his
armies under Tilly and Wallenstein. The Danish monarch,
after repeated defeats, was obliged to sue for peace, and the
emperor found himself possessed of absolute authority. But
Ferdinand attempting to revive the imperial jurisdiction in
Italy, Richelieu passed the Alps at the head of 20,000 men,
gained several advantages over the Spaniards and Imperialists,
and obliged the emperor to grant the investiture of Mantua and
Montserrat to the Duke of Nevers. (1630.) The Duke of
Savoy and Spinola died during these transactions, and an
accommodation between France and the empire was partly
negotiated by Julio Mazarin, who now first appeared on the
theatre of the world as an ecclesiastic and a politician. The
Protestants, in the mean time, secretly formed an alliance with
Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden. Eric Vasa, the son
and successor of Gustavus, proving a dissolute and cruel
prince, had been dethroned and imprisoned by the states of
Sweden in 1568. He was succeeded by his brother John,
who, after attempting in vain to re-establish the Catholic
religion, died in 1592, and left the crown to his son Sigismond,
already elected King of Poland. Sigismond, like his father,
being a zealous Catholic, the Swedes deposed him, and raised
to the sovereignty his uncle, Charles IX. The Poles attempted,
in vain, to restore Sigismond to the throne of Sweden : Charles
swayed the sceptre till his death, and was succeeded in 1611
by his son, the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus.

Russia, during that period, was a prey to civil wars. John
Basilowitz II. dying, left two sons, Theodore and Demetrius.
Theodore succeeded his father on the throne, and, at the insti-
gation of Boris, his prime minister, ordered his brother Deme-

92 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

trills to be murdered. He liimself died soon after, and Boris
was proclaimed sovereign. Meanwhile a young man appeared
in Iiilhuaiii;i, under the name and character of Prince Deme-
trius, pretending thai he had escaped out of the hands of the
assassin. Assisted by a Polish army, he entered Moscow in
1605, and was proclaimed Czar without opposition, Boris
being now dead. This Demetrius was, on the day of his
marriage, slain, with most of his Polish attendants, who had
rendered him obnoxious to the Russians; and Zuski, a noble-
man who had fomented the insurrection, was declared his
successor. But scarcely was Zuski seated on the throne, when
a second Demetrius made his appearance, and after his death
a third. Poland and Sweden took part in the quarrel, Zuski
was delivered up to the Poles, and Demetrius was massacred
by the Tartars. But a fourth and even a fifth Demetrius ap-
peared, and Russia, during these struggles, was repeatedly
ravaged by opposite factions and foreign troops. At length,
Michael Theodorowilz, son of Roraanow, Bishop of Roston,
afterwards patriarch, related, in the female line, to the Czar
John Basilowitz, was raised to the throne ; and this prince
having conchnlcd a peace with Sweden and iNjIand in 1618,
restored tranquillity to Russia, and transmitted the crown to his
descendants.

Denmark affords nothinfj tliat merits our attention during the
reign of Frederic II., who succeeded his father. Christian III.,
in 1.558; nor during the reign of his son and successor. Chris-
tian IV., before he was chosen General of the League in Lower
Saxony. Sweden alone, during those limes, of all tlie northern
kingdoms, yields a spectacle worthy of ol)servation. No
sooner was Guslavus seated on tlie throne, though only eiiihteen
years of age at his accession, than he signalized himself by his
exploits against the Danes, the ancient enemies of his crown.
In a war against Russia, he subdued almost all Fiidand, and
secured to himself the possession of his conquests l)y a treaty.
His cousin, Sigismond, King of Poland, refusing peace when
oflered l)y Gustavus, the latter overran Livonia, Prussia, and
Poinerania. An advantageous truce of six years, concluded
wilii Pohind, in 162'J, gave him leisure to make war against
the emperor, for which his chief motives were his love of glory
and his zr-al for Liithoranism. He laid his desiirn before the
slates nf Sweden, and negotiated with France, England, and
Holland. (16."J0.) Charles I. sent him supplies of men, and
irichelieu proniised an annual sulisidy of I, '300,0(10 livres.
Gustavus entered Pomerania, and matle himself master of

XVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 93

Frankfort-on-the-Oder, Colberg, and several t)ther places. To
put an end to the irresolution of the Protestant Princes, who
were afraid to join him, he summoned the Elector of Branden-
burg to declare himself openly in tiiree days, but receiving an
evasive answer, he marched directly to Berlin. This conduct
had the desired effect. The gates were thrown open, and he
was received as a friend. He was soon after joined by the
Landgrave of Hesse and the Elector of Saxony. In 1631 he
marched towards Leipsic, where Tilly lay encamped. That
experienced general advanced into the plains of Breitenfield,
where Gustavus, by his conduct and the superior valour of the
Swedes, gained a complete victory. The conqueror was now
joined by all the members of the Evangelical Union, and made
himself master of the whole country from the Elb to the
Rhine, comprehending near 100 leagues, full of fortified towns.
In the mean time, the Elector of Saxony entered Bohemia and
took Prague, and Tilly was killed in disputing with the
Swedes the passage of the Lech. The next year, 1632,
Gustavus reduced Augsburg, and there re-established Luther-
anism. He then marched into Bavaria and took Munich.
During these transactions, the renowned imperial general,
Wallenstein, who had been for some time in disgrace, but was
now restored to the chief command, recovered Prague and the
greatest part of Bohemia. Gustavus offered him battle, near
Nuremberg, but he declined it; the king was repulsed in
attempting to force his entrenchments, and a masterly retreat
alone could save him from a total overthrow. That service
was chiefly performed by an old Scotch colonel, named Hep-
burn, who had resigned his commission in disgust, but was
present at this assault. To him Gustavus applied in his dis-
tress, and trusting to the colonel's natural generosity, he was
not deceived. Hepburn's pride overcame his resentment : he
rushed into the thickest of the batde, delivered the orders of
Gustavus to his army, and conducted the retreat with so much
order and ability, that the Imperialists durst not give him the
smallest disturbance. Gustavus afterwards attacked Wallen-
stein in the wide plain of Lutzen, near Leipsic, where a great
battle was fought, and the Swedish monarch lost his life in the
height of a complete victory, which was improved by Bernard
of Saxe Weymar, his lieutenant-general. The Swedes, though
victorious, were overwhelmed with sorrow for the loss of their
heroic prince, .whose daughter and successor was only six
years of age. A council of regency, however, being appointed,
and the management of the war committed to the Chancellor

94 OEXERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

Oxenstiein, the Protestant confedorarv still wore a formidable
aspect; hostilities were eoniimied duriii!^ the lollowiiij^ year
witli viffoiir and success, by the Generals Banner and Horn.

KkH. — The emperor now became jealous of the vast pow-
er he had irranleil to Wallenstein, and resolved to dt^prive him
of the command; and Wallenstein, perhaps, to prevent his
disgrace, is said to have concerted the means of a revolt. It
is at least certain tliat he was assassinated, and was succeeded
in the conjinand of the Imperial army by die emperor's eldest
son, the K\n<T of Hungary. Both armies were reinforced
from every quarter, and met ajrain, after various success, near
Nordlin<ren, in Swabia; where was foujrht one of the most
obstinate and bloody battles recorded in history, and where
the Swedes were totally routed, in spite of their most vijroroug
efi'orts. This defeat threw the members of the Evans^elical
Union into the utmost consternation and despair, and brouixht
on a treaty wliich was si<rned at Pratrue, (1635,) i)y all the
Protestant princes, except the liaudirrave of Hesse Cassel.
By this treaty, the exercise of the Protestant relii^ion was
freely permitted in all the dominions of the empire, except
the Kingdom of Bohemia, ami iIk; provinces belomrinji to the
house of Austria; and a mutual restitution was to take place of
all that had been conquered since the irruption of Gustavus
into the empire.

CHAPTER XVH.

ENGLAND, FROM 1628, TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES I., IN 1 6 19.

The ill success of the enterprise afjainst Rochelle helped
to increase the discontents of the Eni^lish ; their commerce,
which had been injured by the Spanish, was ruined by the
French war, while the J^lory of the nation was tarnished, and
its safety threatened, by the forces of two powerful monarch-
ies. At such a season, Cliarles and I^uckinirliam must have
dreadeil, above all thinj^s, the callino[ of a l*arliament; yet the
necessity of supply, and the danjrer of fnrcinir anotlier loan,
oblijTcd them to have recourse to that expedient. It was soon
found that the new memliers were equally independent with
the old, and that the resentment of past injuries was neither
weakened nor forirotten ; vet they ent(!red upan business with
no less temper and decorum, than vijrour and aliility. A vote
was unanimously passed against arbitrary imprisonments, aud

XVII.] GENEUAI. HISTORY OF EUROPK. 96

forced loans. In return for this concession, a supply of five
subsidies was voted with apparent good will, but though voted,
was not immediately passed into a law, and the Commons
were resolved to employ the interval in providing some barriers
to their liberties so lately violated. An immunity from such
invasion they alleged to be the inherent right of the subject;
therefore, the demand was denominated a '■^Petition of right."
As this seemed to infringe the prerogative, it was not without
much difficulty and many evasions, that the royal assent could
be obtained. The Commons continued their scrutiny into
every department of government, and made so many demands,
that Charles, finding that one concession only led to others,
suddenly prorogued the Parliament.

An armament having been prepared for the relief of Rochelle,
Buckingham repaired to Portsmouth, resolved once more to
display his prowess on the coast of France ; but this enter-
prise was obstructed by an enthusiast, named Thomas Felton,
who having met with some disappointment in his hopes of
promotion, inflamed with resentment, and taught by the public
voice to consider Buckingham as the cause of all the national
grievances, assassinated him while he was conversing with
some officers.

1629. — The Parliament assembled again, in January, when
they proceeded to question the legality of levying tonnage
and poundage, without the consent of the representatives of
the people, a right which they had not granted to the king,
though it had been given to each of his predecessors, since
Henry V., and had usually been voted by the first Parliament
of each reign. But, determined to reduce Charles to a state
of dependence, instead of conferring it on him for life, they
had only voted it for one year. He did not, however, imme-
diately break with them on their delay of granting him the
contested duties ; but when, instead of listening to his earnest
solicitations for supply, they proceeded to carry their scrutiny
into his management of religion, his indignation was roused,
and he dissolved the Parliament with a determined resolution
never to call another, unless he could see indications of a more
compliant disposition in the nation. He ordered those popular
leaders who had been most active in the late tumult in the
House of Commons, to be taken into custody. Some of them
were fined, and condemned to find sureties for their good
behaviour. In the midst of so many domestic difficulties, and
utterly destitute of money, Charles submitted to necessity,
and concluded a peace with France and Spain. (1630.) Sir

96 GENERAL HISTORv OF EUROPE. [CIIAP.

Thomas Wentworth, created Earl of Staflbrd, whom he hf.d
detached from the republican party, became now liis prime
minister. Tiie cmincni abilities and unsliakon litielity of thi?
nobleman, merited all the conlidence which his royal master
reposed in him ; but in proportion as he became honoured at
court, he was detested I)V the opposite party. The alliance
of Charles with a Catholic princess, had procured the ('atho-
lics a temporary relief from the penal laws. Some of the
Protestant bishops, particularly Laud, when he was advanced
to the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury in 1G)J3, seemed to
favour Catholic principles. The knit^'s preachers openly
commended them from the pulpit. This show of moderation
in the Protestant clergy, furnished the dissenters with ample
matter of declamation against the Catholic as well as the esta-
blished church. They represented both as the enemies of
liberty, and the obstinate supporters of the high prerogatives
of the crown. Foperi/, the watchword of pojjular commotions,
never failed of its effect. In this the puritanic faction had a
double view ; the one to draw the attention of government
from the dissenters, the other to stigmatize the Catholics, by
charging them with the very traitorous design, which they
themselves were preparing to execute.

In the mean lime, it appeared that Charles was resolved to
reign without a I'arliainent. He continued his uuconslilutional
expedient of raising money ; compositions were made with
nonconformists ; the Star Chamber and high commission court
exercised their arbitrary severities upon sev(!ral olTenders,
who only gloried in their sufferings, and contrii)uted to render
government odious and contemptible. Among the other taxes,
that of ship-money had been revived, and levied upon the
whole kingdom. (1G37.) It was refused by a private gentle-
man named John Hampden, though the stun at which he was
rated did not exceed twenty shillings. His cause was argued
in the Exchequer Chamber before all the judges in England;
he lost it, but the applauses of the people more than recom-
pensed his conduct. Hampden died fighting against his king
in in 13.

Wiiile the minds of men underwent this fermentation in
England, a more dangerous spirit made its appearance in Scot-
land. (Jharles pursued his father's system of introducing
episcopacy into that kingdom, and with that view visited his
native country in 1033, and made a violent attempt to get his
authority ackno'vlcdirfMl there in ecclesiastical matters. His
proclamation to order the use of the liturgy, (1G37,) occasioned

XVII J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 97

the formation of the famous association known by the name
of the Cjvenant, in which were comprehended all orders of
men in the state. It required an engagement upon oath to
defend the Presbyterian worship against Popery, and to rejec*
all innovations whatever. To enable him to oppose the
Scotch rebels, Charles was obliged to call an English Parlia-
ment, after an interval of eleven years. (1640.) The Commons,
as might have been expected, insisted that the redress of
grievances should be taken first into consideration ; and Charles,
finding his friends in the House outnumbered by his enemies,
came to the hasty resolution of dissolving this Parliament, as
he had done tlie preceding ones. Frustrated in the hope of
a legitimate supply, he was obliged to have recourse to other
measures to oppose the Covenanters, who, having taken a de-
tachment of the king's troops, had made themselves masters
of Newcastle. The Earl of Strafford opposed all conciliatory
measures, and advised the king to hazard a battle, but his
advice was not followed. A conference was entered upon by
commissioners of both parties, and a treaty agreed upon. In
compliance with the general wish of his subjects, Charles
again assembled a Parliament. Its first measure was to im-
peach his minister, Strafford. Twenty-eight articles were
exhibited against this unfortunate nobleman, and a committee
appointed to scrutinize his conduct in every particular. Straf-
ford was at that time Lord Lieutenant of Ireland,* which he
governed as a conquered kingdom. During his administration
as deputy, when Lord Wentworth, complaints of his harsh,
imperious, and unjust conduct, had reached the ear of the
English monarch ; but his influence over the mind of his royal
master was proof against all the efforts of his enemies. On
the present occasion, the Irish committee were directed to ad-
dress themselves to the king ; but they seem to have been
privately instructed to apply to the English House of Com-
mons. Contrary to his own sentiments, and relying on the
protection and promises of the king, by whose authority he
seems to have acted, Strafford attended Parliament and was
immediately arrested. Though no distinct charge of high

* At the beginning of Charles's reign, while Lord Falkland was deput}',
the Irish Catholics met with some inilulgence. But it was of short duration
The Puritans lieset the English cabinet with complaints of his administra-
tion, and the king sacrificed a faithful servant to the intrigues of enemies.
Falkland was recalled. Under his successors, Viscount Ely and the Earl
of Cork, two lord justices, the penal statutes were rigorously enforced and
a system of terrorism again adopted.

•9 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

treason could he proved agniiist him, he was declared guilty, and
his death was demanded with the loudest clamours by an in-
censed populace. Tlio kiuij at last reluelantly sisiuitied his
consent l)y a hill of commission, and the earl was hcheatled at
Tower-hill. (IGll.) Charles soon after sanctioned a bill still
more fatal to his interests, i)y which Parliament could neither
be adjourned nor dissolved without their own consent. The
rijjht of }jrantiu<r tonnaire and pouiulaire was forever vested in
the Commons ; the Star-Chamber and high commission courts
were abolished ; the demolition of crucifixes, altars, and
images, enacted ; all religious ceremonies rejected as savouring
of Popery ; triennial Parliaments established, and, in short, the
kingly power reduced almost to a shadow. Charles soon
after visited Scotland, where he sanctioned all the decrees of
the Covenanters ; but while he was thus conciliating the affec-
tions of his Si!Oltish subjects, he received intelligence that a
rei)ellion had broken o\it in Ireland. Goaded by the persecu-
tions of the Puritans, who were headed by the Lords (^hief
Justices Parsons and Borlase, and threatened the extinction
of loyaltv as well as of the Catliolic religion, the Irish broke
out into open rebellion, and retaliated upon their oppressors
the cruelties which they themselves had so dreadfully ex-
perienced. Instead of assisting the loyal Catholics to suppress
the nijrliiern insurgents, the lords justices emi)l()ved all their
power to drive the rest of the kingilom into a similar insurrec-
tion, for the base purpose of sequestrating the estates of those
who should engage in it. diaries, unable to put a stop to
these disorders, once more applied to the Commons ; who, in-
stead of affording assistance, insinuated that he had himself
fomented the rebellion. Every measure pursued by them
from this time evinced their determined resolution to subvert
the whole civil and religious government. Their iirst attack
was against episcopacy, which they knew to be one of the
strongest bulwarks of the regal power ; thev impeaclnul lliirteen
bishops for high treason, which measure induced their lord-
ships all to leave the House, having entered a protest against
every thing that should be transacted in their absence. A
precipitate impeachment of five of the most turbulent members
by the king in person, completed his unpopularity, and his
subsequent submission to his Commons rendered him con-
temptible. Taking with him his two sons, he retired to York :
die queen had alnsady taken refuge in Holland. There she
resided with her daughter Mary, who had been given in m:ir-
riage to the Prince of Orange.

XVII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 9©

On the appearance of civil commotion in England, the
Princes Rupert and Maurice, sons to tlie unfortunate Palatine,
and nephews to Charles, offered him their services. The for-
mer was made general of tlic horse. The king erected his
royal standard in 1641, and invited all his faithful suhjects to
come forward in defence of his crown. The Catholics, though
fetiered with penal laws for their religion, and branded with
the repute of disaffection towards a Protestant sovereign,
hastened among the foremost to testify their loyalty. They
Isvied troops at their own expense, they sacrificed their
property and lives for the king and constitution, and this at a
time when many of their clergy were iniquitously dragged to
prison, and from prison to the gallows, merely for their reli-
gion.

1642. — Edge Hill, in Warwickshire, was the first place
where the two armies were drawn out in array : the Earl of
Essex commanded the parliamentary forces. After an en-
gagement of some hours, they separated with nearly equal loss.
The first campaign was favourable to the king, but the Parlia-
ment was not discouraged. They united in a league of mutual
defence with the Scotch Covenanters, while Charles received
a reinforcement of Irish troops. In order to preserve the ap-
pearance of a Parliament, the king had summoned to Oxford
(1644) the members who adhered to his interest. A great
majority of peers attended him, but the Commons were scarcely
half so numerous as those who sat at Westminster. An ac-
count of the different battles and skirmishes that took place
between the two armies, during the space of eight years, would
far exceed our narrow limits. The battle of Marston Moor
was the beffinning of the king's misfortunes. The Scottish
and parliamentarian army had united, and were besiegmg
York, when Prince Rupert determined to give them batUe.
The Royalists were opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who now
came into notice, and succeeded in breaking their right wing.
They returned to a second engagement, no less furious than
the first. The king's artillery was taken, and his army pushed
off the field. Prince Rupert retired to Lancashire, and Lord
Fairfax (a parliamentarian general) fixed his residence in York,
while the Scottish army, marching north, laid siege to New-
castle, and carried it by assault. Archbishop Laud, who had
long been confined in the Tower, was this year (1645) sacri-
ficed to the vengeance of his enemies.

In the mean time a new sect began to discover itself
among the Presbyterians, called the Independents ; their aim

100 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

was a total abolition of tiie monarcliic;il, aiul even of the aristo-
eralical brancii of the Enji^lish constituticiii. Of course, they
were (leclared I'liiMuie.s to all proposaLs for peace, wliieh had
been so often made l)y tbe kiiijr. Tlio obstinate l)altle wliich
decided the fate of Charles, was fonglit at Naseby, a village
in Yorksiiire, on the lltli of June. The king himself com-
manded the main body o{' the royal army, and disjilayed in the
action all the conduct of an experienced general, and all the
courage of a gallant soldier. Victory, however, declared for
Cromwell; near 5,000 of tbe royalists were taken prisoners,
and all their baggage, artillery, and ammunition, fell into the
hands of the enemy. After the batUe of Naseby, the king's
afl'airs went to ruin so fast in all quarters, that be sent the
Prince of Wales abroad to join the queen his mother at Paris,
while he himself retreated into Wales, in hopes of raising a body
of troops in that loyal but exhausted country. In the mean
time, the parliamentary generals and the Scots made them-
selves masters of almost every place of importance in the
kingdom. Prince Rupert, who had thrown himself into
Bristol, had promised to hold out four months, yet be surren-
dered at the lirst summons, (.'barles, astiwiished at this unex-
pected event, recalled the prince's commissions, and ordered
him to quit the kingdom. To crown the king's misfortunes,
the gallant Marquis of Montrose, who, witli a Iiody of High-
landers, had for some time supported tlie royal cause in Scot-
land, was this year defeated. The civil war continued in
Ireland, long after the king bad commanded a cessation of
arms, and appointed his deputy, the Marquis of Ormond, to
negotiate with the confederated Irish. Though thoroughly
convinced of their loyalty, this nobleman, unwilling to concede
in full the demands of the Irish Catholics, who stipulated for
the free exercise of their religion, delayed the peace till it was
rendered unavailing, by the imprisonment of his majesty. It
was not concluded till 1018.

Afraid of falling into the hands of his insolent enemies, and
of being led in triumph by them, Charles (in 1(»4G) resolved
to throw himself on tin; generosity of the Scots : without
sudiciently rellecting, that he must by such a step disgust bis
English subjects of all denominations, and that the Scottish
covenanters were not only bis declared enemies, but were now
acting as auxiliaries to the Hnglish Parliament. The Scottish
generals alTected great surprise at tbe appearance of Charles,
tliough previously acquainted with his design; and while they
treated him with the exterior respect due to his dignity, they

XVII.^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 101

made him in reality a prisoner, and soon after (1647) delivered
hirn up to the English Parliament, on condition of being paid
their arrears, which were compounded at i]400,000 sterling.

The civil war was now over. The Scots returned to their
own country, and every one submitted to the authority of the
ruling powers. But the dominion of the Parliament was of
short duration. The power of the Independents became daily
greater ; and having obtained the command of the army, tumbled
the Parliament from its slippery throne. This was the crisis
for Cromwell to lay the foundation of his future greatness ;
and he did not fail to take advantage of it. Heavy taxes ex-
cited discontents among the people, and the army, though
commanded by Parliament, was unwilling to disband. In
opposition, that of Westminster, a kind of military parliament
was formed, consisting of a council of the principal officers
and of two private men from each troop or company, under
the tide of Agitators. Still more to strengthen their party,
they sent a party of horse to Holmby Casde in Northumber-
land, where the king was confined, who conducted the
monarch to the rendezvous of the army near Cambridge.
Charles was more inclined to negotiate with the council of
officers than with the Parliament, whose rigour he had severely
felt, because the former neither insisted on the abolition of
episcopacy, nor on the punishment of the royalists ; the very
points he was unwilling to yield, and had refused to the Long Par-
liament. He was soon after conducted to Hampton Court, where
he lived for a time with an appearance of dignity and freedom.
But Cromwell's ambitious views were not consistent with the
restoration of the monarchy ; by doubling the king's guards
and rendering his situation uneasy to him, they induced him
to take the imprudent resolution of withdrawing himself from
Hampton Court. He retired to the Isle of Wight, where he
was made a prisoner by the governor, and confined in Caris-
brooke Castle. Cromwell, in the mean time, had led his troops
to London ; reduced the Parliament to submission by force ;
quelled an insurrection in the army, by punishing the ring-
leaders with exemplary severity, and routed the Scots, who,
being alarmed at the subjection of Parliament to the military,
had marched a considerable army southward, under the com-
mand of the Marquis of Hamilton. But the Parliament, though
deprived of all hopes of succeeding, were still determined to
resist, and attempted to proceed in the setdement of the kingdom.
(1648.) This was the time for the generals to interpose, an(]
they knew it. Next morning, when the Commons were to

11*

103 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

moot-, Colonel Pride, formerly a drayman, entered the house
Nvitli a party of soldiers, seized in the passag-e forty-one mem-
bt>rs of the PreshytiTinn partv, and <'xchi(l('(I a hundred and
fifty more. '^ 'J'lie I'mious Independents remained, who passed
a vote declaring it liis^h treason in a king to levy war against
his Pttrliament, and appointing a higl\ court of juslice, to try
Charles ^^luart for that crime. 'I'h<' hill was thrown out by
the Peers, but the Commons neverlliele*!s proceeded; and
Colonel Harrison, who was the son of a butcher, and the most
furious demagogue in England, received orders to conduct his
sovereijjn to London.

1G49. — The court assembled at Westminster. Cromwell
and Irelon were among the judges; Cook was the accuser in
the name of the nation, and IJradsliavv was president of the
tribunal. Charles appeared amidst his enemies with his hair
grown gray through misfortune, and with a serene tranquillity.
Having been accustomed during eighteen months to ruminate
on the deceptions of life in the gloom of a solitary prison, he
no longer hoped for any thing from mankind ; being con-
ducted to a chair witliin tlie liar, he took his seat with his hat
on, and surveyed his judges with an air of dignified disdain.
It would be difiicult to imagine a conduct more noble and in-
trepid than he displayed. 'J'hrec; times was Charles produced
before the court, and as often declined its jurisdiction. On
the foiirth, the judges having examined some witnesses, ad-
judged him to suffer death, as a traitor, assassin, tyrant, and
enemy of the republic. Firm and composed in all liis appear-
ances before his judges, the unfortunate monarch never forgot
him.self either as a prince or as a man ; nor did he discover
anv emotion at this extraordinary sentence, but seemed to look
down willi a hiixture of pity and contemjtt on all the elforts
of human malice and iniqtuty. Three days were allowed him
to prepare for his fate. These he passed in great tranqtiillity,
and every night slept as sound as usual amidst the noise of
workmen employed in framing die scafl'old. C'harles, though
thus oppressed by a rebellious faction and insidted by the sol-
diers, who even spit in bis face, was not sufl'ered to die with-
out the tear of compassion, or the interposition of friendly
powers. The people now avowed him for their monarch by
their tr'Mierous sorrow ; nor could they forbear pouriiiir forth
their jiravers for his preservation, notwithstandin-i the rod of
tyranny that hung over them. The French and Dutch am-

• 'f'liisinvaHion nf parlinmcntary privilppn pa-ssnl liy the name of Pn'c/cV
Purge, tuid the rfinainiiig members were called ihe Rump.

XVn.'] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUPOOI? 108

bassadors interposed in his behalf; the Scots exclaimed and
protested against the intended violence ; the queen and the
Prince of Wales wrote pathetic letters to the Parliament. But
all tlieir solicitations were in vain. Cliarles obtained permis-
sion to take his last leave of the Princess Elizabeth and the
Duke of Gloucester, who alone of his family remained in Eng-
land. On the 30th January he was conducted to the scaffold,
erected in the sight of his palace ; care was taken to surround
the place of sacrifice with a large body of soldiers, for fear that
the victim's voice might reach the people, who were ranged
at a distance in mournful silence. Charles, perceiving that he
could not make himself heard, wished at least when he died to
leave posterity an awful lesson. He addressed himself to the
few persons around him, and vindicated himself from the accu-
sation of having commenced war against his Parliament. But,
although innocent towards his people, he acknowledged the
equity of his sentence in the eye of Heaven, and observed that
an unjust sentence which he had suffered to take effect upon
the F'.arl of Strafford was now punished by an unjust sentence
upon himself.* Having made this avowal, he resolutely laid
his head upon the block, and the executioner severed it from
his body at a single blow. At this sight, grief, terror, and
indignation took possession of the astonished spectators ; each
one seemed to accuse himself either of active disloyalty to his
murdered sovereign, or of tamely witnessing so horrid a
catastrophe, which had fixed an indelible stain upon the charac-
ter of the nation, and must expose it to the vengeance of an
offended Deity. The sufferings, piety, patience, and magna-
nimity of Charles, made all his errors be forgotten; and
nothing was now to be heard but lamentations and self-reproach.
He was a sincere admirer of the fine arts, and a liberal en-
courager of those who pursued them. As a man, his character
was unexceptionable ; and he was allowed to be an excellent
father, husband, master, and friend. He suffered in the 48th
year of his age, and was buried at Windsor.

* It being remarked that the king, the moment before the execution, had
emphatically pronounced the word remember, the generals insisted upon
Bishop Juxton's informing them of its latent meaning. The bishop told them
that the king had frequently charged him to inculcate on his son the for-
giveness of his murderers, and had taken this opportunity to reiterate that
desire. This disposition also appeared in a work that was published in the
king's name a few days after his execution, called the Icon Basilike, which
many persons believe to have been the genuine production of Charles.
Chateaubriand observes that the Icon of Charles and the testament of Louis
XVI. have made more royalists than the edicts of these princes would have
aiade in all their prosperity.

lot GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. ^CHAF.

CHAPTER XVIII.

EUROPE, FROM THE TREATY OF PRAGUE, IN 1035, lO THE PEACH
OF WESTPHALIA, IN 1648.

While Germany was a scene of war and desolation, Cardi-
nal Richelieu ruled France with a rod of iron. Thouirh uni-
versally hated, he continued to liold the reins of o-overiuuent.
Several conspiracies were formed against him at liie instigation
of the Duke of Orleans and of the queen-mother ; but they
were all defeated by his vigilance and vigour, and terminated
in the ruin of their contrivers. The widow of Henry IV.
was banished the kingdom ; her son Gaston was obliged to
beg his life; the Marshals Marillac and Montmorenci, tlie
young Marquis de Cinq Mars, and his unfortunate friend De
Thou were brought to the block; and the gil)bets were every
day loaded with inferior criminals, condemned by a court
erected for the trial of the cardinal's enemies.

Richelieu's jealousy of Gustavus had prevented him during
the life of that monarch from joining the arms of France
to tliose of Sweden ; and Oxenstiern, before the unfortu-
nate balde of Nordlingen, was unwilling to n'lve the French
any footing in Germany. But after that overthrow, he ollered
to put Lewis XIII. in immediate possession of Pliilipsburg
and Alsace, on condition that France should take an active
part in the war against the emperor. Richelieu readily em-
braced a proposal that corresponded so entirely with his views,
and five considerable armies soon appeared in the field. All
Germany became again a scene of war. The Swedes under
IJaniiicr, and the Imperialists under the Elector of Saxony,
met in the plain of Wislock, (1636,) where a desperate batUe
was fouirht, in which tlui Imperialists were defeated. This
battle, which restored the lustre of the Swedish arms, raised
Bannier to the highest degree of military reputation, and gave
a signal blow to the imperial power, was followed i)y the de-
mise of Ferdinand II. He died at Vienna, and was succeeded
by his son, I'erdinand HI. (1637.) The accession of this
pnnce made litde alteration in the state of the war. In the
followinir year, (163H.) ibo impi'rial armv was ajjain defeated.
The Duke of Saxe Weymar, after this victory, besi('g(Ml and
look Rhinfield, to which he granted an honourable capitidation.
Newburg, Rottelen, ai:d F'riburg, the capital of IJrisgau, were

XVIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 105

also reduced, and the siege of Brisac undertaken. Here tlie
Duke of Lorraine and Goevvtz, the Imperial general, attempt-
ed to interrupt Weymar's successful career by attacking liis
entrenchments, but without eifect; and Brisac was forced at
last to surrender, after it had been reduced to such extremity
by famine, that the governor was obhged to set a guard upon
the burying-places, to prevent the inhabitants from digging
up and devouring the dead. While the Duke of Saxe Wey-
mar thus triumphed over the Imperialists in Alsace, the Swe-
dish general, Bannier, prosecuted his conquests in Pomerania.
The two victorious commanders, in 1639, concerted measures
for penetrating into the heart of the Austrian dominions.
Bannier crossed the Elbe, entered Saxony, advanced as far as
the suburbs of Dresden, and after having in his progress cut
in pieces seven imperial regiments and two Saxon, he attacked
the Saxon army and obtained a complete victory. He then
entered Bohemia, defeated again the Imperialists, pursued
them to the walls of Prague, and took the imperial generals,
Hofskirk and MontecucuUi, prisoners. But the Protestant
cause sustained this year a great loss by the immature death
of the Duke of Saxe Weymar, who expired at Newburg, in
the 35th year of his age. He is supposed to have fallen a
sacrifice to the jealousy and ambition of Richelieu, to whom
he would not resign Brisac.

1640. — At this time the house of Austria suffered in another
quarter. Catalonia revolted, and Portugal threw off the
Spanish yoke. A plot had been forming for upwards of three
years in favour of the Duke of Braganza, which was now
carried into execution. Olivarez had recalled the Spanish
garrison from Lisbon, and ordered the Portuguese to take up
arms for the subjection of Catalonia: very few troops were
left in the whole realm of Portugal ; the oppressed people
were ripe for an insurrection ; and the Spanish minister, to
amuse the Duke of Braganza, whose ruin he meditated, had
given him the command of the arsenal. The Duchess of
Mantua, who had been honoured with the title of Vice-Queen,
was driven out of the kingdom. All the towns in Portugal
followed the example of the caj)ital, and almost on the same
day. The Duke of Braganza was unanimously proclaimed
king, under the name of John IV. Ships were immediately
despat(!hed from Lisbon to all the Portuguese setdements, and
they all, with one accord, expelled their Spanish governors.
Portugal became again an independent kingdom ; and by the
recovery of Brazil, which, during the Spanish administration,

106 OEXERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

had l)een con.]uorcd by tlic Dutch, its forintT hislre was in
lome measure restored. While all Europe rung witli the
news ot' this singular levoluiion, Philip IV., sluit up in the
inmost recesses of the Esciirial, was utterly isrnoraiu of it
The manner in wliich Olivarez made him acquainted with his
misfortune is memorable: — " I come," said that artful minis-
ter, " to communicate ffood news to your majesty: the Duke
of IJraganza's wlxde fortune is become yours. lie has been
8o presumptuous as to get himself declared King of Portugal ;
and in consequence of this folly, your majesty is entitled to
the forfeiture of all liis estates." " Let the sefjuestration he or-
dered," replied Philip, and he continued his dissipation.

IGil. — In Germany, Bannier, after repeated success, fell
ill at Zickau, in consequence of the fatigues of that campaiirn,
and died at Ilalberstadt, to the great loss and ine.\pressil)le
regret of his country and its allies. The war continued equally
fierce and blood v in all parts of the empire, to the detriment
of the emperor, till, in IG43, conferences were opened for a
general peace. This year was signalized by the death of the
Cardinal Richelieu, and his master, Lewis XIII. Mazarin,
who succeeded the former in the ministry, adliered with vi-
gour to his plans, and a young hero sprunsj- up tiido Imnour to
France, during the minority of Louis XIV. This was the
celebrated Duke (rEngbien, afterwards honoured witii the title
of the (4reat Conde. In the year following, Tureniu; retrieved
the affairs of France upon the Rhine, and routed the Imperial-
ists near the source of the Danube. (IfiM.) Forstenson, the
Swedish general, passed the Moldaw, and attacked the Impe-
rialists in the neighbourhood of Thal)or : the Austrian general
and 3,000 men were left dead on the field, and the rest put to
fliirht. The campaiirns of the two following years were sig-
nalized by bloody battles and dcsar-bought victories.

Charles Gustavus, Count Palatine of Deux Fonts, who
arrived from Sweden, in 16IH, with a reinforcrmenl of 8,000
men, undertook the siege of Old Prague, and carried on hia
approaches with such vigour, that the place must have been
taken, had not the emperor, dreading the loss of that capital,
resolved in earnest to conclude the so lonjj demanded peace ;
for hitherto the negotiations at Munster and Osnaburg had
varied according to the vicissitudes of the war. The memo-
rable peace of Westphalia, whifli put an end to what is called
the thirty years' war, was signed at Munster, in the mouth
of October, 1048. It was here stipulated that France should
yosdess the sovereignly of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, Upper

XIX. ]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 107

and Lower Alsace, &c. ; to Sweden was granted the arch-
bishopric of Bremen, Upper Pomerania, Stettin, the isle of
Rugen, and the city of VVismar, in the duchy of Mecklen-
burg. The republic of Switzerland was declared to be a
sovereign state, exempt from the jurisdiction of the empire ;
and many parti !ular provisions were enacted, relative to the
episcopal sees and chapters in Germany, highly detrimental
to the interests of the Catholic church. War between France
and Spain was continued with various success, until the treaty
of the Pyrenees, in 1659.

CHAPTER XIX.

ENGLAND, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE COMMONWEALTH, TO
THE DEATH OF CROMWELL, IN 1658.

The death of the king was followed by the dissolution of
the monarchy. The Commons declared it high treason to
acknovi^ledge Charles Stuart, commonly called Prince of
Wales, as sovereign of England, and soon after set a price
upon his head. They abolished the House of Peers, as use-
less and dangerous, and caused a great seal to be struck with
this inscription — "The First year of Freedom, by God's
blessing restored." Cromwell, who secretly pursued his
schemes of ambition, had the address to get himself appointed
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Ormond, a short time before,
had been disgracefully defeated by Colonel Jones, the rebel
governor of Dublin ; and on the arrival of the new lieutenant, the
royal party lost ground on all quarters. Drogheda was taken
by storm, and a cruel massacre made of the garrison. The
same severe execution took place at Wexford, though it
had made but a slight resistance. Henceforth every town
before which the savage conqueror presented himself, opened
its gates on the first summons : he had no farther any thing
to fear, but what arose from fatigue and sickness, which swept
off great numbers of his men. Ormond, seeing affairs so
desperate as to admit of no remedy, left the island, and Crom-
well freed himself from all farther opposition, by permitting
the Irish officers and soldiers to engage in foreign service.
Above 40,000 Catholics embraced this voluntary banishment.
Commissioners were now sent over by the English regicides
for the final settlement of the administration of Ireland, and
Fleetwood, the son-in-law of Cromwell, was named command-

108 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [^CHAP

er-iii-chief, a tillc which Lambert, the successor of Ireton, had
rejected. His first act was to collect all the native Irish who
liad survived the trnioral desolation, and transplant tlieni into
the province of Connaught, which had been depopulated in the
course of the rebellion. They were ordered to retire thither
by a certain day, and forbidden to rej)ass the Shannon, on
pain of death : and this sentence of deportation, as well as
the penal statute of the 27th of I'llizabcth, was rigorously
enforced until the restoration. 'J'lieir ancient possessions
were seized and given up to the conquerors ; tiie rest of the
kingdom was parcelled out among the soldiers, and a colony
composed of all the sects that then infested England, who
came over in numbers. Such were the blessings of republi-
can liberty dealt out by Cromwell. Soon after he was made
protector, he sent Ids second son, Henry, into Ireland, in
1655. The equitable and mild administration of the envoy
conciliated the affections of the Irish, and lightened their griev-
ances. Cromwell, in the mean time, had left Ireland, to reduce
Scotland to obedience. Prince Charles, finding his hopes
blasted in the former kingdom, was induced to listen to the
offers of the Scottisli Covenanters, and apj)ointed a meeting
with their commissioners, at Breda. (1650.) He there con-
sented to accede to the dishonourable conditions proposed by
these fanatics, but not before he had received intelligence of
the utter failure of his hopes from the Scottish royalists, in
consequence of the total defeat and capture of the Marquis of
Montrose. That callant nobleman, having laid down his arms
at the command of tiie late king, had retired to France ; but
no sooner did he hear of the tragical death of his sovereign,
than his ardent spirit w'as inflamed with the thirst of revenge ;
and having ol)tained of young Charles a renewal of his com-
mission, beset sail forScodand, with 500 foreign adventurers.
He was in hopes of rousing the royalists to arms ; but a de-
tachment of the Covenanters' army attacked and routed his
followers, and made tlie marquis himself prisoner. The
Covenanters carried their noble captive in triumph to Edin-
bnrtih, where he was exposed to the most atrocious insults,
and condemned to suffer the ignominious death allotted to the
basest felon. Along with him were sacrificed all the persons
of any eminence who had repaired to his standard.

('Iiarles, in conserpience of his agreement to take tlie cove-
nant, and sut)mil to other hard conditions, was proclaimed king,
and arrived under convoy of seven Dutch ships of war in the
Frith of Cromarty. Before his coronation, it was proposed

JCIX.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 109

he should pass through a public humiliation ; but he was saved
from this disgrace by the advance of an English army under
Cromwell, who, leaving Ireton in Ireland, had been invested
with the principal command in Scodand, which Fairfax had
declined from motives of conscience. The Scots were defeated
at Dunbar ; Charles, finding the way open, boldly marched into
England in 1651. Cromwell, on this, leaving Monk to com-
plete the reduction of Scotland, followed the king with all
possible expedition. The prince had reason to expect that his
presence would produce a general insurrection in England,
but he fotind himself disappointed. The English Presbyterians,
having no notice of his design, were not prepared to join him ;
and when the king arrived at Worcester, he found that his
forces were little more numerous than when he left the bor-
ders of Scodand. Cromwell, with an army of 30,000 men,
attacked Worcester on all sides ; and Charles, after beholding
the ruin of his cause, and giving many proofs of personal
valour, was obliged to have recourse to flight. The Duke of
Hamilton, who made a desperate resistance, was mortally
wounded, and the Scots were almost all either killed or taken.
The prisoners, to the number of 8,000 men, were sold as
slaves to the American planters.

After the batde of Worcester, the king withdrew in the night
from Lesley, the Scottish general, and a party of horse who
still attended him, that he might the better effect his escape
in the disguise of a peasant. By the direction of the Earl of
Derby, he went to Boscobel, a lone house on the borders of
Staffordshire, inhabited by one Pendrel, an obscure but honest
farmer. There he remained for some time, employed in cut-
ting wood with the farmer and his three brothers. One day,
for better concealment, he mounted a spreading oak : among
the thick branches of which he sheltered himself, while
several persons passed below in search of their unhappy
sovereign, and expressed in his hearing their earnest desire of
seizing him, that they might deliver him into the hands of his
father's murderers. The Catholics were neither daunted by
the fate of their late master, nor depressed by their own suffer-
ings, but continued to prove the same unshaken fidelity to
Charles II., which they had shown to his royal father. A
great many of them had shed their blood at the battle of Wor-
cester, and during the six following days, the king's life was
entirely in their hands. The names of fifty-two persons of
their communion, among the rest, of three priests, are upon
record, who, during that interval, were acquainted with the

llO GENERAL IIISTORV OF EUROPE. [CHAP

dignity of the royal fugitive then in tlieir power; not one of
whom was tempted to betray him, either by the immense re
wards or tlie terrible punishments held out to all persons in-
discriminately for this purpose. After many surprising and
romantic adventures, Charles arrived at Shoreham, in Sussex,
where he embarked, and landed safely at Fiescham, in Nor-
mandy, after one-and-forty days' concealment. During thi»
time, C'romwcll, crowned with success, (1051,) returned to
London, where he was received in triumph. An act was soon
after passed for annexing ScoUand, as a conquered province,
to the English commonwealth ! Every place now submitted
to the arms of the English ; not only in Ireland and the con-
tiguous islands, but also on the continent of America, and in
the East and West Indies; so that the Parliament had soon
leisure to look abroad, and to exert its vigour against foreign
nations. The Dutch first felt the weight of its vengeance.
After the death of William II., who was carried off by the
small-pox when he was on the point of enslaving the people
whom his ancestors had restored to freedom, a perpetual edict
was issued against the dignity of stadtholder. The English
Parliament thought this a favourable opportunity of forming
such a coalition between the two republics as would have ren-
dered their interests inseparable ; but the proposal being re-
jected by their high mifrhtinesses, war was dectlared against
Holland in 1051. Through tlie iulluence of Cromwell was
framed and passed the famous Act of Navigation, which pro-
hibited foreign goods being imported into England, except in
such vessels as belong to the country of which the goods are
the growth or manufacture.

Van Tromp, an admiral of great renown, with a fleet of
forty sail, entered the road of Dover, where he met with the
celebrated Blake, who commanded an English fleet of only
fifteen ships. The latter, however, maintained a desperate
oattle for five hours, took one of the enemy's ships, and sunk
another. Niglit parted tlie two fleets. Several oilier engnge-
ments ensued, without any decided advantage ; till Van Tromp
was victorious over Rlake near Goodwin's sands. Hut he was
not sulTered long to enjoy his triumph. A fleet of eighty sail
was speedily fitted out in England ; HIake was again invested
Avith the chief command; and with this he gained a decisive
victory, after the most furious !)attl(! that had yet been fouirht
by the hostile powt-rs. 'I'wo days was the contest maintained
with the utmost rage and obstinacy ; on the third the Dutch
gave way, and once more yielded the sovereignty of the ocean

XIX.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPB. Ill

to its natural lords. (1653.) Overtures of peace were made to
the English Parliament, but they were treated with disdain.
It was not, therefore, without pleasure, tliat the States heard
of the dissolution of that haughty assembly, which Cromwell
dissolved by military force the same year. He next sent
summonses to 128 persons of different counties of England, to
five of Scotland, and six of Ireland. On these illiterate en-
thusiasts, chosen by himself, he pretended to devolve the
whole authority of the state, under the denomination of the
Parliament; and as one of the most active and illuminated
among them, a leather-seller in London, bore the name of
Praise-God Barebone, this contemptible assembly was ludi-
crously called Barebone's Parliament. After five months,
this pretended Parliament was forced to dissolve itself and
resign its powers to the council of officers, who proceeded, by
their own authority, to declare Oliver Cromwell protector, or
supreme magistrate of the Commonwealth. He was accord-
ingly conducted to Whitehall with great solemnity, and having
taken the oath required of him, he was proclaimed over all the
three kingdoms, without the smallest opposition. While
■Cromwell was thus completing his usurpation over his fellow-
subjects, he did not neglect the honour or the interests of the
nation. Never did England appear more formidable than dur-
ing his administration. Another naval victory gained over the
Dutch in 1653 excited all the endeavour of the States to re-
trieve the honour of their flag ; and never on any occasion did
their vigour appear more conspicuous. Tromp issued forth
in a few weeks, with a fresh fleet, determined again to fight
the victors, and to die rather then yield the contest. He soon
met with the English fleet, commanded by Monk, and a des-
perate battle ensued. Next day, the action was continued,
and the setting sun beheld the contest undecided. The third
morning the struggle was renewed, and victory seemed still
doubtful, when Tromp, while gallantly animating his men,
with his sword drawn, was shot through the heart with a
musket-ball. That event decided the contest; and the Dutch
were now glad to purchase peace, by yielding to the English
the honour of the flag, and making such other concessions as
were required of them.

1655. — Cromwell soon after assembled a new Parliament;
but not finding it sufficiently submissive, dissolved it, after it
had sat five months. But though his authority met with a
good deal of opposition at home, and he lived in continual fear
of assassination, yet his alliance was courted by the different

112 GENERAL HISTOKY OF EUROPE [cHAP.

powers of Europe, and England held a rank among tliein,
which she had not enjoyed since the days of Elizabeth.
Cromwell preserved his aulliority till his death, which hap-
pened on the 2lM Scptonitn'r, 1058, about a year after he had
refused the regal dignity, which his friends in Parliament h»d
oiTered him.

CHAPTER XX.

EUROPE, FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA, IN 1618, TO TUB
PVRENEAN TREATY, IN 1G59.

1018. — Lewis XIV. was yet in his minority, and Anne of
Austria, the queen regent, reposed her whole eonlidcnce in
Cardinal Mazarin. The princes of the blood took offence at
the uncontrollable power placed in the hands of a foreigner,
and the Parliament of Paris declared Mazarin a disturber of
the public peace and an enemy of the kingdom. The insur-
rection became general; a civil war ensued. (1G5I.) The'
Duke of lionillon and his brotiier Turenne were detached from
the malcontents, still headed by the Great Condc, who now
threw himself upon the protection of Spain, and after pursuing
the king and the court from province to province, entered Paris
with a l)ody of Si)anish troops. (1053.) A popular tumult,
in wiiich several citizens were killed, oblijjcd Conde, who
was supposed to be the author of it, to quit Paris; and the
king, in order to appease his subjects, being now of age, dis-
missed Mazarin, who retired to Sedan. That measure had
the desired effect ; the people everywhere returned to their
allegiance, and Lewis entered the capital amid the acclamations
of his people. Conde being condemned to lose his head,
continued his unhappy engagements with Spain. The Parlia-
ment was huinl)le(l, and Mazarin recalled and more liriidy
estal)lished than ever. During these ludicrous but |)eruiciou9
»vars, which for several years disturbed France, the Spaniards,
thouirh fcfrble, were not inactive : ihev had reduced (Iravelines
and Dunkirk, ('ond; and the Archduke Leopold besieged
Arras. Turenne resolved to force the Spanish lines, and per-
formed it with success, makinjr himself master of the baggage,
artillery, and ammunition of ihe enemy. Conde, however,
by his admirable retreat, gained no less honour than his rival.
It w:ls the udent of at once inspirin<: confidence into his troops
and intimidating his enemies by the boldness of his enterprises.

XX. J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 113

tliat made Turenne superior to any general of his age. Con
scions that his forces would be estimated by the greatness of
his undertakings, after he had acquired the reputation of pru-
dence, he conquered no less by his knowledge of human
nature, than of the art of war. Thus for a time the balance
was held even between France and Spain ; but when Mazarin
(in 1058) drew England to the assistance of France, Spain
was no longer able to maintain the contest. Dunkirk surren-
dered to the English. Furnes, Dixmude, Oudenard, Menin,
Ypres, and Gravelines, submitted to the arms of France, and
Spain saw the necessity of suing for peace. One great object
of Mazarin's policy was to obtain for the house of Bourbon
the eventual succession to the Spanish monarchy : with this
view he proffered peace to Philip IV., by proposing a marriage
between the Infanta Maria Teresa and Lewis XIV. This was
agreed to ; and the better to settle the preliminaries of a treaty,
Mazarin and Don Lewis met on the frontiers of both kingdoms,
in the Isle of Pheasants, in the Pyrenees. All things were ad-
justed by the two ministers. Philip agreed to pardon the
rebellious Catalans, and Lewis to receive Conde into favour.
Spain renounced all pretensions to Alsace, and the long-dis-
puted succession of Juliers was granted to the Duke of New-
burg.

About a year after the signing of the Pyrenean treaty,
(1661,) died Cardinal Mazarin, and left the reins of govern-
ment to Lewis XIV., who had become impatient of a yoke
which he was afraid to shake off. Historians have seldom
done justice to this statesman, whose political caution
restrained the vigour of his spirit, and the lustre of whose
genius was concealed beneath his profound dissimulation.
His leading maxim was, " That force ought never to be em-
ployed but in default of other means."

That tranquillity which the peace of Westphalia had
restored to Germany, continued unmolested till the death of
Ferdinand III., in 1657, when an interregnum of five months
ensued, and the diet was violently agitated in regard to the
choice of a successor. At last Leopold, son of the late em-
peror, was elected; for, though jealousies prevailed on
account of the great power of the house of Austria, yet, as the
Turks remained masters of Buda, the French in possession
of Alsace, and the Swedes of Pomerania, a powerful emperor
seemed necessary.

Sweden had been raised to the highest pitch of glory by
the victories of Gustavus Adolphus; and his daughter Chris-

12*

114 OKNERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAF

Una inimorlalizcd licr snort rciirn by declaring herself the
patroness of learning and the line arts. She drew to her
court Grolius, Vossius, Descartes, and other eminent men.
She arredi'd to tlie peace of Westplialia, cliiefly from a desire
of indulging lier passion for study. Tiiat peace liglitened liie
cares of governnieiU, but they were still loo weighty for
Christina. In IHoO she prevailed upon the Slates to declare
her cousin, Charles Gustavus, her successor; and, in 1654,
finally resigned to him her crown, aiul, leaving her capital and
kingdom, travelled into Germany ; en\l)raced the Catholic
reliirion at Ikussels, and solemnly renounced Lutheranism at
Inspruch. The Catholics considered this conversion as a
triumph, and the Proteslanls were not a little mortified at the
defection of so celebrated a woman, but both without reason;
as lier subsequent conduct did little honour to religion, though
we may hope the eccentricity of her character extenuated
many of her faults. She visited Paris, and then repaired to
Rome, where she spent the remainder of her days. In the
mean lime her successor, Charles X., conquered Poland, and
obliged King Casimir to lake refuge in Silesia. Hut the
Poles revolted from him, and, by the assistance of Russia,
Denmark, and Austria, expelled iheir invaders. Charles,
however, suddenly entered Denmark, and laid siege to Copen-
liagen. (1658.) Rut while he seemed lo be carrying all
before him, he was seized with an epidemical fever, which
terminated his life. (1659.) The son of this warlike and
ambitious monarch being yet a minor, peace became neces-
sary to Sweden, and was concluded at Oliva, near Dantzic, in
1660, l)y which Polish Prussia was restored to Casimir, who
ceded Estonia and N. Livonia lo Sweden. The Danish
monarch also made considerable sacrifices.

CHAPTER XXI.

EUROPE, FROM 1658 TO 1608.

It was generally believed thai CromwelTs arts of policy-
were exhausted with his life, and that when the potent hand
which had liitherlo coruhicled the trovernniciit of the com-
monwealth was removed, the unwieldy and ill-constructed
machine would f<dl to pieces. All Europe, therefore, beheld
with astoaishmeut his s on. Richard, an inexperienced and

XXI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 119

unambitious man, quietly succeed to the protectorship. But
it soon appeared that the consent which all the different
authorities gave to his elevation, was only a temporary acqui-
escence, until each party could concert measures, and act
effectually for its own interest. The most considerable
officers entered into a cabal against Richard, and demanded
of him the dissolution of the Parliament. Unable to resist,
aud wanting resolutioTPto deny, the protector granted their
r eques t. Withjhe Parliament his authority was supposed to.
expire, and he soon after signed his resignation in form. His
brother Henry, though endowed with more abilities, also
quiedy resigned the government of Ireland. XliMjelLfrom
ail enormous height, but, by a rare fortune, without bloodshed,
the family of the CromweJISj . to that humble station from
whic h they had risen.

^he council of officers being now possessed of supreme
aitthority, agreed to revive the remnant of tlie Long Parlia-
rrimt, which had b een ex£elled by^ Cromwell. Thebulk of
the nation at this date consisted of royalists and Presbyterians.
To both these parties the dominion of the pretended Parlia-
ment, and of the army, was become equally obnoxious ; a
Kpcrfit. reconc iliation therefore took place between them, and
it was agree^, tliat, burying former animosities in oblivion,
they should_malig. every possible effort for the overthrow of
t lTe Rumip Parliam ent, and the restoration of the royal family.
But this combination was disconcerted by the treachery of
Sir Richard Willis : many of the cohs piratojS- were throw a
intoprison, and the only party that had taken arras was dis-
persed by a body of troops, under Lambert. This artful and
able general, advancing with his hardy veterans to London,
and intercepting the members as they were coming to the
House, sent them home under a military escort. By this
decisive measure, the officer's were once morein possessioa.
of supreme authority, the substance of which they intended
to retain ; though, in order to bestow on others the shadow,
they elect£d_^L.eommittee of twenty-three persons, of whom
seven were of their own body. The most melancholy appre-
hensions prevailed among the nobility and gentry of the three
kingdoms, of a general massacre, and among the people, of a
perpetual and cruel servitude under those tyrannical oppress-
ors , who had already expelled all public law and justice from
t he Rrif,is li_dom inions . At this very time, however, when
Cliarles, a neglected fugitive oix_jthe continent, seemed
abandoned by all the world. Providence was paving the way

116 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

Ibr him, by a surprising revolution, to mount the throne of
his ancestors, in peace and triumph. ^It was to Gener al
Monk, commander-in-chief in Scotland, that the king was to
o we iiis resto ration, and tlic three kin<ifdoms the termination
of their hlooTIy TTissensions. Hearing that Lambert waa
advancing northward. Monk afTecled to treat with the com-
mittee of safety ; but Ids oliject seems to have been to gain
time. In the mean while, the Parliament was restored ; the
troops under Lambert were ordered to repair to llieir quar-
ters, and tl ieir generalj being thus deserted by the greater ])art,
was tukeil4irisqner and sent^tp_the_J,'Qwcr. As^Jeneral INlonk
advanced towards London, all parlies eagerly sought his
countenance, but he kept his designs an impenetrable secret.
Being introduced into the House of Commons, he observed
that nothing but the summoning of a new and free Parlia-
ment could give content to the nation. His speech diffused
universal joy among the people. The hope of peace and
concord broke, like the morning sun, through the darkness in
which the nation was involved, and the memory of past
calamities disappeared. The P arliament assenibiciL_OJl_ihe
.fir st of May , 1000. Monk, alter sounding their inclinations,
acquainted them that Sir John Granville had been sent over
by his majesty, and was now at the door with a letter for the
Commons. He was immediately called in and the letter
eagerly read. A moment's pause was scarce allowed : all at
once the House burst into a universal assent to tlie king's
proposals. The letter was pul)lishe(l ; the peers hastened to
reinstate themselves in their ancient rights, and take their
share in the settlement of the government. His m ajesty was
solemnly proclaimed on the 8th of May, and entered London
on the 2yih, amidst the acclamations of an immense concourse
^f people.

No prince seems to have had it more in his power to render
himself the favourite of his people, than Charles H., of Eng-
land, at the date of his restoration. 'I'lie airectionale expre s-
.sioaSLiiLlDyalty^and attachment which everywhere saluted his
ears, deinruMlcd bis warmest arknowledguients. \\"\i\] loyalty,
mirth and gayely returned, and that gloom which had so lon^
overspread the island, gradually disappeared with the fanatical
opinions that had produced it. All juridical decrees passed
during the commonwealth or protectorship, we.-c anirmed, and
an act of indemnity was passed, confornial)le to the king's
declaration from l*r(;da. 'J'lie regicides were excluded from
this act by Parliament, to which Charles had wisely referred

XXI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 117

all exceptions, but only six of them, together with four others
who had been abettors of their treason, were executed. Ad-
miral Montague, who had carried a fleet to receive his majesty,
was created Earl of Sandwich, and General Monk, Duke of
Albemarle.

But c ertain political m easures soon destroyed that popularity
whicli the king had enjoyed at his restoration. His marriage
with Catherine of Portugal was by no means agreeable to the
Protestants.* The sale of Dunkirk to France, occasioned
universal disgust ; and the Dutch war contributed to increase
the_general dissatisfaction. The reasons assigned for com-
mencing hostilities against the United Provinces were the
depredations committed by the Dutch upon the English traders
in different parts of the world.t In 1664, Sir Robert Holmes
was secretly despatched with a squadron to the'coast of Africa,
where he not only expelled the Dutch from Cape Corse, to
which the English had some pretensions, but seized their
settlements of Cape Verd and the Isle of Goree, with many
trading vessels. AnotheiLsquadron_.s^led sopn_after--.tQJS.orth
America, and took possession of the Dutch settlement of New
Netherland. n ow-^jjalled New York, in honour of the duke,
W-haJiad-ahlaiued a grant of it from his brother.

Sinfifi-thfi.- death of William II., of Orange, the Dutch had
. elected no stadtholder! The government had continued in the
hands of the Louvestein or republican party, enemies to the
house of Orange. This j^tate of the affairs of the United
Provinces was iiot very agreeable to the King of England, who
^sjied to see his nephew, William III., in posses&ion of the
authority which his ancestors had enjoyed. John de Wit,
pensionary of Holland, the soul of the republican party, and
vested with almost dictatorial powers, informed of the hostilities
of England, did not hesitate how to act. He entered into an
alliance with France, and sent orders to De Ruytci", who was
cruising with a fleet in the Mediterranean, to sail towards the
coast of Guinea, and put the Hollanders again in possession
of those settlements from which they had been expelled ; the
Dutch succeeded in this enterprise, and then, sailing for
America, insulted Barbadoes, committed hostilities in various
parts, and took a considerable number of ships. AJeclara-

* The king's chief inducement in the marriage seems to have been the
dower of the infanta, who brought him, besides £350,000 sterHng, the porta
of Tangier in Africa, and Bombay in India. His conduct towards her was
equally destitute of good feeling, as of the respect due to her station.

■j- In 1658, the Dutch took possession of the Isle of Ceylon.

118 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

tion of war, in 1(H)5, w;is the consequence of these mulual
hostilities. Jsuiies, Uiike of York, Lord Hij^h A(hniral of
.EnghiiKl, put to sea wilTi a Heet of one huiuU-ed sail, biisidcs
fire-shijjs, and stood lor the coast of llollaiul. Prince Rupert
and the Earl of Sandwich commanded under him. 'I'he Dutch
fleet was commanded by Admiral Opdain, in conjunction with
Evertson and vounjj Tromp, son to tiie famous admiral of that
name, killed in the former war. The Duke of York, in the
Royal Charles, bore down upon Opdam, and a furious batUe
be<(an. The contest was continued for four hours with irreat
obstinacy, ^t len gth Opdam's sliip blew up, and the Dutch,
afterjosing near thirty ships, fled towards the Texel. The
joy arisintf from the Duke of York's naval victory was much
diminished by the breakinjroutof the Plague in London, which
carried oft' near 100,000 persons in one year. ^i ewis XIV .
and the King of Denmark joined the l)utch. liT order to
Balance so formidal)le a coml)ination, Charles attempted, but
without success, to negotiate an alliance with Spain : he was
not alarmed at the number of his enemies, though every shore
was hostile to the English seamen, from the extremity of
Norway, to the coast of Bayonne. A formidable fleet of
seventy-eight sail of the line, commanded by the D uke of
Albemarle and Prince Rupert, seemed to justify the confidence
of the king. The Dutcli fleet, to the number of nini;ty sail,
commamJed by De_Rii^tej and Tromp, put to sea in UJGG.
riie batUe that ensued is one of the most memoralfle in the
annals ofTii story. Four days did the combat rage, witliout
any appearance of valour slackening on either side. 'i'he
Dutch had the advantage in the action of the first day; yet
Albemarle, in engaging DeRuyter, had shown himself worthy
of his former renown. Darkness parted llie coml)ataiits. Next
morning the battle was renewed with redoul)led fierceness, and
the Dutch were ready to give way, when they were reinforced
by sixtefiu caj)ital shijis. The Entflisiv-wx;ie now almost over-
powiiUid iiy numbers, yet Albemarle would yiehl to. jio.thing .
but the interposition of night; tlicn, finding his forces much
weakcMied, ho resolved to retire. Hut the Dutch following,
being determined to perish sooner than to slrikr", he prepared
lo renew the action; declaring to those about him his intention
to l)low up his ship, rather than fall into the hands of the
enemy. Tlie I'hiiflish, to their nnspcakaijic joy, descried
Prince Rupert's squadron coming to their assistance before the
renewal of the comI)at, and the next morning the batlh^ raged
with more intenseness than ever. Through the whole fourth

XXI.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. IIP

day the contest remained doubtful ; and towards evening both
fleets, as if weary of carnage, retired under a thick fog to their
respective harbours. But the English admirals could not be
satisfied with less than victory. While they sent the disabled
ships to difterent docks to be refitted, they remained on board
their own. The whole fleet was soon ready to put to sea,
and a new engagement was eagerly sought. Nor was it long
denied. Ruyter and Tromp, with the Dutch fleet, appeared
in the Channel, and a terrible conflict ensued. Ruyter, who
occupied the centre, maintained with equal conduct and
courage the combat against the centre of the English, com-
manded by Rupert and Albemarle, till, overpowered by
numbers, his high spirit was at last obliged to submit to a
retreat, which he conducted with the greatest ability. Yet he
could not help exclaiming, in tlie agony of his heart, " What a
wretch am I, to be compelled to submit to this disgrace !
Among so many thousand bullets, is there not one to put an
end to my miserable life?" Tromp, too, after great success,
was obliged to yield; and the Eiiglislv now absolute masters
jv f til p. sp.il, rnric in triumph along the coasts ; insulted the
Hoilaaders in their harbours, and burned many of their ships,
chiefly merchantmen. The Dutch merchants, uniting them-
selves wiili the Orange faction, now violently exclaimed
against the administration of De Wit, which, as they pretended,
had brought disgrace and ruin on their country. The firm
and intrepid mind of De Wit supported him in all difilculties':
the fleet of the republic was refitted in an incredibly short
time, and again put to sea under De Ruyter ; but a violent
storm obliged him to take shelter in the road of Boulogne,
whence he returned home with his troops in a sickly condition.
The same storm, which by sea prevented Prince Rupert from
annoying the French and Dutch fleets, promoted a dreadful
calamity on land. A fire broke out in London, and raged
three days and nights, without intermission. Of twenty-six
wards, into which the city was divided, fifteen were burned
down : four hundred streets and lanes, and thirteen thousand
houses, chiefly built of wood, were consumed. Popular pre-
judice ascribed this calamity to the Catholics, though without
the shadow of a proof, and a monument was erected to per-
petuate the calumny.

1667. — The expense of the naval armaments of England
had been so great, that Charles had not hitherto been able to
convert to his own use any of the money granted him by
Parliament. He therefore resolved to save the last supply fof

120 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CUXP.

the payment of his debts, as a prospect of a peace freed him
from all apprehensions from his enemies. But De Wit, who
was apprized of Charles's siij)irie security, hastened the n;ival
preparations of Holland. The Dutch lleet, under Do Riiyler,
took possession of the mouth of the Thames, while a squadron,
commanded by Van Ghent, after reducing Sheerness, broke a
chain which had been drawn across the Medway, destroyed
the ships stationed to guard it, advanced as far as Chatham,
burned three tirst-rate ships, and carried off the hull of a fourth.
This news threw the city of London into the utmost consterna-
tion ; and such vigorous steps were immediately taken, as in-
duced De Ruyter to steer his course to the vvestw.i.rd. lie
made fruitless attempts upon Portsmouth and IMymouUi, but he
rode triumpliant in the Channel for several weeks, and spread
universal alarm along the coast, Ttw^g^J^^'H'-'i |iout^'^f''",_u/f^rp
soon dispelled, byulie signing of the" treaty at Breda, by which
England retained possession of New York ; and the Knglisii
settlement of Surinam, which had been seized by the Dutch,
was ^ cede d to ihem.

The next step taken by C harles was to engage in the Triple
Alliance. Lewis XIV., who assumed the reins of government
nearly at the same time that Charles IL was restored to the
throne of his ancestors, possessed every quality that could
ilatter the pride, or conciliate the afTections of his people.
Dazzled witli the lustre of his shining qualities, and proud of
participating in the glory of their young sovereign, the French
nation submitted without murnuiring to the most violent
strelc-hcs of his arbitrary power. Colbert, an active and able
minister, had put the finances into excellent order; enormous
sums were raised for the public service ; a navy was created,
and a great standing army supported, almost without being felt
by that populous and extensive kingdom. Conscious of his
power and resources, the French monarch had early given
symptoms of that lofty spirit and insatiable thirst of glory,
which so long disturl)ed the peace of I'hirope. Tlie first
measure that gave general alarm, was the invasion of the Spa-
nish iVetherlands. Though IjewiaJiad rcjiouncejJLJiy, liie trea-
ty of the Pyrenees, all title to the succession of Spain, wliich
might occur from his marriage with the Infanta Maria Teresa,
he still kcjjt in view the eventual succession. Philip IV.
had left a son, Charles IL of S|)ain, a sickly infant; but as the
Queen of France was the oH'spring of a prior marriage, she
laid claim to the Spanish Low Countries, to the exclusion even
of her brother. 'i'his claim was founded on a custom esla-

XXI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 121

blislied in some parts of Brabant ; and was more likely to be
adjusted by military force than by argument. Lewis entered
Flanders at the head of forty thousand men. Turenne com-
manded under him, and Louvois placed large magazines in all
the frontier towns. Charleroi, Tournay, Furnes, Armenliers,
Courtray, and Douay immediately surrendered: Lisle capitu-
lated after a nine days' siege. Garrisons were left in these
towns, and the celebrated Vauban was employed to fortify
them. A progress so rapid, filled Europe with consternation :
another campaign, it was supposed, might put Lewis in posses-
sion of all the Low Countries. The Dutch were alarmed at
the prospect of having so ambitious a neighbour; and the
English monarch resolved to take the first step towards a con-
federacy, the ostensible object of which should be, the restrain-
ing of the power and pretensions of France. In 16G8, Sir
Wilham Temple, the English resident at Brussels, received
orders to go secretly to the Hague for this purpose. Matters
were soon adjusted between these two patriotic statesmen.
Lewis, dre ading a anuM-al coinbiualion, had offered to relinquish
ail his_gueenls_xighls to Brabant, on condition either of keep-
iiig~tKecon£uests_h.^ad mada-luat-campaign, or of receiving
instead ofthem Franche Comte, Aire, and St. Om ers. De Wit
ahcLi'g5jple,Jo imdm their treaty upon t hat proposal, co n-
cluded a defensive alliance betweeiij^n gland and Hollan d, and
engaged Sweden to join tluan. This treaty, which has always
been considered as t he wisest measure in the r eign jjf Charles
n., restored_Engl^dto_her_ proper^statipn in the^ scale of_
E urope, and_ highl y exalted tlig consequence of Hplland,_
France and Spamwereegually displeased at the Triple Alliance.
Ee wis foundjiimself stopped in his career, and Spain was not
less dissatis fied at behjg obliged to give up so many important
gTacfis^joiTaccount of unjust claims and unprovoked hostilities.
A^lengthj^however, both agreed lo treat, and tlie plenipoten-
tiaries^ of all parties met at Aix-la-Chapelle ; where Spai n,
from a conscjousness of her own^JVKeaknes s. accepted of tHeJ~
alternative offered by France. Lewis h ad already entjred~
Franclie^ Comte.. an d reduced the jwhole^_pravijice in _a few;^
weeks. Spain chose to recover this proyinae Mltl to abandon all
the towns conquered in Flanders during the last campaign.
Other circumstances seemed to combine to insure the balance
of Europe. After a ruinous war of almost thirty years, carried
on by Spain in order to recover the sovereignty of Portugal, ar.
equitable treaty had at last been concluded between the two
crowns, and the independence of Portugal acknowledged.

122 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

While Char les II. of Engliuul, by an unexpected turn of
fo rUi ne , w ayTf-T centiing the thronc~ol his ancestors, a revolu-
ti oiT~ti)oirpT aa.' in Dniniark, wliich rciKlorf'd tliat crown licre
ditary in the family of Oldcnburg^. On the death of Cliris-
tiern IV., in lt>48, his sjonj Frederick IJI'i was fleeted King
of Denmark, and displayed equal abilities with his father, in
war and in civil administration. The valour with which he
defended his capital against Charles X. of Sweden, anil com-
pelled him to retreat, gained him the admiration of his sub-
jects, and disposed them for a chanffo in the <rovernment. By
the spoliations of the clergy, when Lutherunism was introduced
into the kingdom, the nobles gradually acquired an undue in-
fluence and power, while the oppressed people sustained alone
the whole burden of taxation. The Bishop of Copenhagen
united himself witli one of the principal commoners and othei
associates, in order to compel the nobles to pay their just pro
portion of the public expenses. To efl'cct this, they proposed
to weaken the senate by extending the royal prerogative. A
diet being assembled, soon after the peace with Sweden was
concluded in 1600, the members of it, who were all warndy
devoted to the king and queen, whose kindness and benevo-
lence they had experienced during the siege, drew up a memo-
rial of their grievances and inability to raise the necessary
supplies. During these transactions, Frederick, who was
aj)j)rized of, and had consented to, the projected revolution of
the two orders, quietly waited in his palace the turn of events.
The nobles, unprepared for so sudden and decisive a change,
relucUmtly aci|uiesced in the determination of the other two
orders ; and thus, without any blootlshed, the crown was de-
clared heredit^iry in the family of Frederick, his power abso-
lute, and all the acts which restricted his authority were an-
nulled. After which the king, by his own power, regulated
the several parts of government, and issued what is denomi-
nated the Ii>t/<il Law, which, since the epoch of the revolution,
has Ijcen considered as the national code. Many wise ordi-
nances were afterwards added to it by Frederick, who, by hia
moral virtues, moderation, and political talents, laboured to
promote tiie liaj)piness of his subjects, and became the father
of his people.

XXII. ^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE.

CHAPTER XXH.

DOMESTIC HISTORY OF ENGLAND, DURING THE REIGN OF

CHARLES II.

On the accession of Charles, Sir Edward Hyde, created
Earl of Clarendon, father-in-law to the Duke of York, was
made chancellor and prime minister, to the general satisfaction
of the nation, but some subsequent disappointments had ren-
dered him unpopular; he was impeached by the Commons;
and Clarendon, finding that past services were not sufficient
to protect him, retired to the continent, where he employed
his leisure in writing the history of the civil war. The king,
indeed, who had always revered, rather than loved him, was
glad to be freed from a minister, who did not permit his mas-
ter's licentious conduct to pass without reprehension.

In Scotland, the king, from his aversion to business, had
intrusted his affairs to his ministers, who, in order to establish
episcopacy, passed several severe laws against conventicles.
These rigours, instead of breaking the spirit of the people,
served only to render them more obstinate, and to inflame them
against the established religion. To reduce them to obedience,
an army of barbarians, unaccustomed to discipline, was let
loose among them and committed the most dreadful havoc.
While Scotland was thus suffering for nonconformity to the
Protestant church, (which professes toleration,) the English
Presbyterians were no less active in raising apprehensions of
the subversion of their religion by popish machinations. We
have observed before that Charles was indebted to his Catho-
lic subjects for his crown and life ; but their loyalty was not
requited in the manner they had reason to expect. The act
of indemnity and oblivion passed at the beginning of his reign,
was construed, and in many cases too justly, as an act of
indemnity to the king's enemies, and oblivion of his friends.
On some few individuals, Charles conferred distinguished
titles, and then consented to deprive them of the most pre-
cious advantages to which their rank entitled them. Against
the whole Catholic body, which he knew and had experienced to
be true and steady in their allegiance by principle, he listened
to the most atrocious calumnies, and gave his sanction to penal
Btatutes more degrading than even the sanguinary laws of
Elizabeth. He connived at the groundless fictions of popish

124 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. []cHAP

plots, maliciously fabricated by a disafTcctetl party, and so
entirely void of foundation, that even Hume and other writers,
who in hardly any other instance do justice to Catholics,
acknowlcdire their innocence on the present occasion. In a
fit of political resentnuMit, the unprincipled Earl of Sliaftes-
bury* proposed an act for the creation of new oaths and tests,
with the view of exchulin<^ some of the most al)le and trusty
men from tlie kiiifr's service. Besides the oaths of allci^iance,
supremacy, and receiving the sacrament according to the rite
of the Church of Enirland, the tat moreover requireil a so
lemn declaration against transubstantiation and the invocation
of saints, as idolatrous. By this act, which received the
royal assent, all Catholics were incapacitated from holding
any office under government ; even the Duke of York was
obliged to resign the command of the navy, in which station
he iiad several times signalized his valour ; and it was only
l)y a majoritv of two, that he preserved his seat in Parliament,
from wliich all the other Catholics were excluded. James
professed himself a Catholic in 1671, after the death of his first
wife, Lady Anne Hyde, who herself died a Catholic. As the
duke was heir apparent to tlie crown, his conversion gave
general umbrage to the nation, which dreaded nothing more
than a popish successor; this discontent was consideral)ly
auirmented by his second marriage, in 1073, with Maria
D'Esle, aCatiiolic princess of the house of Modena. In tliis
state of the public mind, nothing was wanting but the contriv-
ance of a Walsingham or a Cecil to invent a new popish
plot, and thereby furnish a pretext for exterminating the whole
race of Englisii (Catholics, and for involving the royal family
in their ruin. Their place was supplied by the traitor Sliaftes-
bury, who fo\ind associates worthy of himself in two infa-
mous clergynuMi of the established church, named Titus Oates
and Doctor Tongue. Oates, who was the chief actor in this
horrid imposture, was one of the most profligate of mankind.
By the advice of Tongue, a lover of miscliief, and whose
chief amusement was to spread scandal and propagate plot.s,
he went abroad, agreed to reconcile himself to the (^atholic
church, and to enter the society of Jesuits, whence he was
dismissed for his bad behaviour. Oates, however, setting his

• It was Ashley f'owpcr who, in 1C71, advised ('harlesln shut the exche-
qaer, and to seize all the payments that should be made by the olTirers of the
rcv( niie for the jmMir service. In violation of every rule of riijht or jui<tie«,
this plan was a<lo[)ted, atid Ashley Kriincd the oirico of chancellor and ■
pec: age, for what ought lu have brought him to the gallows.

JtXII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 125

wicked imagination to work, in order to supply the want of
material s, returned to England burning with resentment against
the Jesuits, with a full resolution of forming the story of a
popish plot. The information he gave the king was treated
with due disregard, and the plot would have sunk into oblivion,
had not the Duke of York, on learning that his confessor's
name was implicated in the business, insisted on a thorough
inquiry into the conspiracy before the council. The substance
of Oates's evidence was, that the pope, having assumed the
sovereignty of England and Ireland, on account of the heresy
of the prince and people, had delegated his authority to the
Jesuits, whose general had supplied by commission all the
chief offices, both civil and military. Tliese impostures were
delivered by Oates in a manner that would have discredited
the most consistent story, and the most respectable evidence.
But certain collateral circumstances which took place about
the same time, worked up the public ferment to a degree of
frenzy. The murder of Sir Edmonsbury Godfrey, an
active justice of the peace, who had examined Oates, which
remained veiled in mystery, completed the general illusion.
The Earl of Danby, an enemy of the Catholics, laid open the
matter before the House of Peers, who impeached five Catho-
lic peers for high treason, and passed the degrading law we
have before mentioned. It would be useless to enter into de-
tails of this pretended plot, or of another, called the meal-tub
plot, invented later by one Dangerfield, a wretch more infamous ,
if possible, than Oates and Bedloe ; let it suffice to say that
the nation was nearly two years under this fatal delirium ; that
the reality of Oates's plot was voted by two different Parlia-
ments ; and that one peer. Viscount Stafford, was beheaded,
and seventeen other Catholic laymen or priests were hanged,
drawn, and quartered, as being guilty of it, besides a great
many others* who were tried and imprisoned on the same ac-
count, without mentioning seven more priests, who were exe-
cuted about this time for the mere exercise of their spiritual

• Lord Stafford was executed in 1680. The populace, who had exulted
over his conviction, were softened into tears, at his execution, by the vene-
rable siniplicity of his appearance. When the real enemies of the king
and government became manifest, in 1684, by the discovery of the assas-
sination or lii/e-hnuse plot, the other four Catholic peers who had remained
in the Tower, were then discharged upon their bail : Lord Petve had died
the month before. Oates, styled "the saviour of the nation" was rewarded
by the Commons with a pension of £1200 a year. On the accession of
James II., being convicted of perjury, he was brought to condign punish-
ment, but again received a pension of £400 a year under King William.

13*

120 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAT.

functions, the kinpf not darinjr to reprieve them at sucli a junc-
ture. Equally void of principle and of conduct, Charles little
cared to wiiat diniciiilit's he exposed his friends, as lonji as
he could free himself from the importunities of his malignant
ministers. Composed at his ease in the lap of indolence and
voluptuousness, he has sufiered his name to be transmitted to
posterity as a passive persecutor of the rcliirion in which he
chose to die.* In order to do sometiiing g^raieful to the nation,
Charles, in 1677, encouraged proposals of marriage from the
Prince of Orange to the Princess Mary, his hrotlier's eldest
daughter, and at that time presumptive heiress to the crown,
by which he afforded the prospect of a Protestant succession,
and hoped to tranquillize the minds of his subjects. Two
years after, he desired the Duke of York to withdraw beyond
the sea, that no further suspicion of popish counsels might
remain. Parliament, however, was still jealous and dissatis-
fied, and passed a bill of absolute exclusion against the duke ;
but it was thrown out in the House of Peers, after a long and
violent debate. About the same time, the standing army and
the king's guards were voted by the Commons to be illegal;
and that bulwark of personal and national liberty, the Habeas
Corpus Act,t which provided against arbitrary imprisonment,
pa.ssed the same session. The violence of the Commons in-
creased the number of the king's friends among the people,
and from this time he acted with mure firmness and resolution.
Finding that no concession on his part, except the absolute
exclusion of his brother from the succession, could satisfy the
(-'ommons, and that they refused him the necessary supjdies,
wiiile they impeached his minister, tlie Earl of Danby, and
revived the bill of exclusion, Charles took the opportunity of
dissolving the Parliament, and resolved to depend on economy
and retrenchments. He soon after proceeded to some very
ariiilrary measures for repressing the independent spirit of the
citizens of London. A writ of rjuo warranto was issued

• f'harirs was rpconciled to tho ('alhojic rluirrh thr day before lir dird,
by Mr. Huddlo!<tone, the Bencdirliiic, who had Iwcii bo inslruinenlal in his
preservation after the battle of Worcester.

■j- The HalK^aK Corpus .\ct obliges every judge to (jive his prisoner a writ,
by which tlic jaiU'r i.s (hrected to produce in court the lnwly oftlic prisoner,
(whence the writ had its name,) and to certify the cause of the detainer
■n<l imprisonment within a specil'ii-d time, proportionate to the diHtance of
the jail. It re.|uireK that he Iw indicted the first term afti^r his confinement,
anil liroughl to trial in the sulx^'quent term; and no man after being en-
larged by order of the <^ourt, can be rccomniilted for the same ollence. It
klsu pr ihibils the wading aay Eogliiih subject to yriaoa beyond sea.

XXll.^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 127

against the city; that is, an inquiry into the validity of its
corporation, which proving defective, the king deprived them
of it, nor did he restore it till he had subjected the election
of tlieir magistrates to his immediate authority. Alarmed
by this precedent, most of the other corporations in Eng-
land surrendered their charters into the king's hands, and
paid large sums for such new ones as he was pleased to
frame. (1683.)

A few years before this period, (in 1679,) Dr. Sharp, arch-
bishop of St. Andrews, fell a victim to the fury of the Cove-
nanters, to whom his severity had rendered him obnoxious.
An insurrection broke out, which, though apparently formida-
ble, was soon quelled by the Duke of Monmouth,* at the head
of some English troops. The Duke of York, having procured
the banishment of Monmouth, whose projects were known
and avowed, obtained leave to retire into Scotland, and took
upon himself the administration of affairs in that country.
By his prudence and well-timed severity towards some of the
restless fanatics, he soon restored tranquillity, and acquired
great popularity.

In Ireland, the Duke of Ormond had recovered all his for-
mer authority, and preserved the nation in peace ; but, though
conscious of his sovereign's secret wish to favour the Catho-
lics, they alone were excluded from the general indemnity, to
the astonishment of all impartial men, while the regicides
were confirmed in the wages of their sanguinary rebellion.
During the remainder of the reign of Charles II., many mali-
cious attempts were made to stigmatize the Irish with fresh
insurrections, as a pretext for enforcing the penal laws against
the Catholics. Meanwhile, a plan of insurrection had long
been concerted in England, though various causes had hitherto
prevented it from being brought to maturity, particularly the
impeachment of the Earl of Shaftesbury, the framer of the
plot, and his unexpected departure for Holland, where he
soon after died. A council of six was established, the mem-
bers of which were Monmouth, Lord Russell, the Earl of
Essex, Lord Howard, Algernon Sidney, and John Hampden,
grandson of the republican of that name, These, together
with the party of the Duke of Argyle in Scotland, were the
leaders of the conspiracy, Avhile another scheme, called the
Rye-house plot, was projected by a number of conspirators,

* James, Duke of Monmouth, natural son of the king, was extremely
popular, and aspired to the throne, in prejudice to the rights of the Duke
cf York.

128 GENERAL HISTORY OF EURdPE. [cHAP.

who aimed at nothinjT loss than the assassination of the king
and tlie Duke of York. This alrorily was happily prevented
by one of the criminals, who turned informer. The conspira-
cy hcin^ traced to its source, several of the principal leaders
were immediately ap|)rehended. Monmouth and Grey es-
caped; Russell and Sidney, with some inferior conspirators,
beiniT convicted, paid the forfeit of their lives.

Tiie Duke of York was soon after recalled from Scotland,
and restored to the office of high admiral, without taking tlie
test. A few months before the death of Charles, he married
liis niece, the Princess Anne, to Prince George, brother to the
Kinir of Denmark. Amidst the thick cloud of fanaticism
which overspread the nation during the Commonwealth, the
celebrated Boyle (son to the Earl of Cork) jnirsucd his philo-
sophical researches. lie was one of the first members of the
Royal Society in London, established by a patent granted by
Charles II., in 1662.

CHAPTER XXIII.

EUROPE, FROM THE TREATY OF AIX-LA-CHAPF.T.LE, IN 1688, TO
THE PEACE OF MMEOUEN, IN 1078.

The Turks, after a long interval of in-'.ction, were airain
become formidable to F^urope. The (irand Vizier Kiipruli
entered Hungary, at the head of 100,000 men, in 1664 ; and
allhoiiijh lie was defeated in a great battle near St. Godard,
upon the Raab, by the imperial troops, under Montecuculi,
the Turks obtained an advantageous peace from Leopold, who
was threatened with a revolt of the Hungarians. The Hun-
garian nobles, whose privileges had been invaded bv the empe-
ror, flew to arms, and even craved the assistance of the Turks,
their old and irreconcilable enemies. The rebels were quick-
ly sidnhied by the vigour of Leopold; but those brave men
who had so often repelled the infidels, and tilled, with the
sword in their hand, a country watered with the blood of their
ancestors, were still dissatisfied ; and Germany, depf-ived of
so strong a barrier as Hungary, was soon threatened by the
Turks. In the mean lime, Kupruli turned the arms of the
Pr)rte against tin; Venetians, and an arinv of 00, 000 .Janizaries
had now i)esiesied ('anilia for upwards of two years. IJut the
time of the crusades was long past, and the ardour which had
inspired ihem, extinguished. 'I'liough this island was rc^puted

XXI1I.3 GENERAL HISTORY €)V EUROPE. 129

one of the chief bulwarks of Christendom agains the infidels,
no general confederacy had been formed for its defence. The
pope and the knights of Malta, were the only allies of the
Venetians, against the whole naval and military force of the
Ottoman empire. At length, however, Lewis XIV., in 1669,
sent a fleet from Toulon, to the relief of Candia, but these
succours only retarded for a short time the conquest of the
isle, which surrendered to the Turks before the close of the
year.

These distant operations did not divert the attention of
Lewis from his favourite project, the conquest of the Low
Countries and the invasion of Holland, for he was highly
incensed against the Dutch, for pretending to set limits to his
authority. But to render his schemes successful, it seemed
necessary to detach England from the Triple Alliance. This
was no difficult matter. Since the exile of Clarendon, which
had been preceded by the death of Southampton, and was
soon followed by that of Albemarle, Charles IL had given
himself up to a council of five persons, commonly denomi-
nated the Cabal, in allusion to the initial letters of their names:*
they had encouraged Charles to hope he might obtain a more
absolute power by a close connection with France ; and a
secret treaty to this effect was concluded at Paris, in 1672.
Never had Europe beheld such a naval and military force, or
so extensive a confederacy, since the league of Cambray, as
was formed for the destruction of Holland. Sweden, as well
as England, was detached from the Triple League. The
combined fleet of France and England, amounting to upwards
of one hundred sail, was ready to ravage the coast of Holland,
and a French army of 120,000 choice troops, commanded by
the ablest generals of the age, was preparing to enter the
frontiers. De Wit attempted to raise a respectable military
force for the defence of his country, in this dangerous crisis •
but his proposals were opposed by the Orange faction, whose
power had become formidable by the popularity of the young
prince, William HL The whole tenor of William's behaviour
was suitable to the genius of the Hollanders. Grave and
silent even in youth, destitute of brilliant talents, but of a
sound and steady understanding ; greatly intent on business,
and little inclined to pleasure, he won the hearts of his coun-
trymen ; and the people, remembering what they owed to hi?
family, which had protected them against Spain, were desi
rous of raising him to the authority of his ancestors.

* Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale

180 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CMAP

III consequence of tins general predilection, William was
appointed commander-in-chief of tlie forces of the repiihlic,
and the wliole military power was pnt into liis hands; while
l)e Wit hastened the equipment of the fleet, and De Ruyler,
the greatest naval ofTicer of his ai^e, put to sea with ninety-one
men-of-war, l)esides frigates and fire-ships. The English fhuU,
under the Duke of York and the Karl of S;mdwi('ii, had
already joined the French fleet, conimandf'd by ('oiuitd'Estrees.
A terrible conflict ensued. The Duke of York bore down upon
De Ruytcr, and fought him with such furv for two hours, tliat,
of thirty-two actions in which that hoary veteran had been en-
gaged, he declared this to have been the most vigorously dis-
puted. Night put a stop to the doubtful contest. The next
day the Dutch were chased to their own coast.

The King of France, having divided his numerous army into
three bodies, headed the first in person, and, to the universal
consternation of the Hollanders, advanced to the hanks of the
Rhine. Having passed the river, he took possession of Arn-
heim, Schench, Nimeguen, and several other towns ; and the
Prince of Orange, unalile to make head against the victorious
enemy, retired into the province of Holland, with his small and
discouraged army. The progress of Lewis, like the course
of an inundation, levelled every thing before it. The town
and province of Utrecht sent deputies to implore his clemency.
Lewis entered Utrcidit in triumph. In the course of a few
weeks the three provinces of Guelders, Utrecht, and Ovcryssel
had submitted to his arm; Friesland and Oroningen were
invaded liy his ally, the Bishop of Munster; the reduction of
Holland and Zealand was alone wanting to crown his triumph,
and these provinces were a prey to fa(;tion, and become un-
governable from their fears. Amsterdam alone scemcnl to
retain any degree of courage or conduct. Ships were stationed
to guard the city I)y sea, and as a last resource, the sluices
were opened, and the neighl)ouring country was laid under
water, without regard to the fertile fi(dds, the numerous villas,
.md flourishing villages which were overwhelmed by the
inundation. All the provinces soon followed the example of
the capital. Enraged to find their co\intry enfeebled by party
jealousy, when its very political existence was threateneil,
the people rose at Dort, and forced their magi«trates to sign
the repeal of the j)erpeiual edict; other cities followed the
example, and the l'iin<-e of Orange was de(dare<l stadtholder.
Tliis revolution wns followed by the barbarous massacre of
De Wit an 1 his brother, who fell a sacrifice to the vengeance

XXin.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 131

of the Orange party, now triumphant. The Dutch had hoped
that the elevation of the Prince of Orange to the dignity of
Btadtholder would inlUience the measures of his uncle, the
King of England ; but Charles persisted in his alliance with
France ; and Lewis, finding that his enemies gathered courage
behind their inundations, and that no further progress could be
attempted by his arms during that campaign, returned to Ver-
sailles.

1673. — The other states of Europe, however, soon began
to discover a jealousy of the power of France. The emperor
put himself in motion ; the Elector of Brandenburg showed a
disposition to support the states ; the King of Spain sent some
forces to their assistance, and a different aspect of affairs soon
became visible. The combined fleet of France and England
again appeared off the coast of Holland, and three indecisive
batdes were fought. In the mean time the French monarch
took Maestricht, while Naerden was retaken by the Prince of
Orange, and the Imperialists under Montecuculi besieged and
took Bonn. The greater part of the electorate of Cologue
was subdued by the Dutch and Germans ; and the communi-
cations between France and the United Provinces being by
that means cut off, Lewis was obliged to recall his forces and
abandon his conquests with precipitation. The- house of
Austria in both branches, being alarmed at the steps taken by
the King of France, the emperor, and the Catholic king, pub-
licly signed a treaty with the United Provinces, before the
close of the year. Forgetting her ancient animosities against
the republic, in the recent injuries received from the French
monarch, Spain immediately issued a declaration of war; and,
by a strange reverse in her policy, defended the Dutch against
France and England, by whose aid they had become independ-
ent of her power.

When the English Parliament met, in the begin ing of
1674, the Commons discovered such strong symptoms of dis-
content at the late measures of government, that Charles judged
it necessary to make peace with Holland ; apologizing to
Lewis for the step he had taken by representing the state of
his affairs. Lewis astonished all Europe by the vigour of his
exertions in the campaign of this year. He had three great
armies in the field ; one on the side of Germany, another in
Flanders, a third on the frontiers of Roussillon, and he him
self, at the head of a fourth, entered Franche Comte, and sub
dued the whole of that province in six weeks. The taking of
Besan^on was a matter of triumph to Lewis. He loved sieges*

132 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

and is said to liavo understood them well: l)Ut lie never be-
sieged a town without being morally certain of taking it.
liOuvois ])rcj)arcd all things so ciTi'ctually, the troops were
so well appointed, and Vauban, who conducted most of the
sieges, was so great a master in the art of taking towns, that
the king's glory was perfectly safe. Vauban directed the
attacks al Besan^on, which was reduced in nine days, and be-
came the capital of the province ; the university and seat of
government being transferred to it from Dole. In F'landers,
the Prince of Conde attacked the rear of the confederates near
Senelle, a village between Marimont and INivelle, and took
great part of their cannon and baggage. The Prince of Orange,
liowever, rallied liis disordered forces and led them back to the
cliarge, pushed the veteran troops of France, and obliged the
great Conde, though now advanced in age, to exert more des-
perate eflorts, and hazard his person more than he had done
in any action during his life, though he had been peculiarly
distinguished in his youth, by the impetuosity t)f his courage.
William did not expose his person less. The engagement
was renewed diree several times ; and after sunset it was
continued for two hours by moonlight. Darkness at length
put an end to the contest, and left the victory undecided.
Twelve thousand men lay dead on the field, and the loss on
both sides was nearly equal. IJefore the close of the campaign,
the Prince of Orange took Grave, the last town which the
French held in any of the seven provinces. Turcnne, on the
side of Germany, completed that high reputation which he had
already ac(|uired, of being the greatest general of his age and
nation. He possessed himself of tiie whole Palatinate. In
the folio wiiiif year (1(57.')) he was less successful. Monlecu-
culi, who commanded the forces of the empire, attempleil to
pass the Rhine. The most consummate skill was displayed
on both sides. 'J'hese two generals had reduced war to a
science, and each was enabled to discover the designs of the
other, by judging what he himself would have done in like
circumst;mccs. Turennc was preparing to seize a favourable
opportunitv of l)rin<ring the Germans to a decisive action, and his
own geiuralsliip and that of Montecuculi to a final trial, wlien a
period was put to his life by a cannon-ball, as he was viewing the
position of llu! enemy, and takiiiir measures for erecting a
battery. The consternation of the French at the loss of their
geneial was inexpressible; they retreated, and by the aid of
the English auxiliaries were enalded to repass the Hhine with-
out much loss. 'I'hc Prince (»f Conde came with a reinforce'

XXIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 1 3&

nient to supply the place of Turenne; but before his arrival
the Mareelial de Crequiwas routed by the Germans, who took
Treves. The King of Sweden, who had been induced to
take part with France, was very unfortunate in this campaign.
He was defeated by the Elector of Brandenburg, whose terri-
tories he had invaded, and lost all Pomerania.

In 1G76, France was equally successful by sea and land.
Messina in Sicily had revolted from Spain, and a French fleet,
under the Duke of Vivonne, was sent to support the citizens
in their rebellion. A Dutch and Spanish squadron sailed to
oppose Vivonne, but after an obstinate combat Messina was
relieved by the French. Another engagement ensued near
Augusta, rendered famous by the death of the gallant De
Ruyter, in which the French had also the advantage. A third
battle, more decisive than either of the former, was fought off
Palermo ; this left tlie French undisputed masters of the
Mediterranean, and endangered the total revolt of Naples and
Sicily. In 1677, Lewis took several important places in
Flanders, and defeated the Prince of Orange in an obstinate
battle, while the Marechal de Crequi, who commanded on the
Rhine, obliged the Duke of Lorraine to retire from Meutz,
and closed the campaign by taking Fribourgin Swabia. The
King of Sweden was still unfortunate. His fleet was twice
defeated by the Danes, and the Elector of Brandenburg took
from him the important fortress of Stettin. During the rapid
progress of the French arms in Flanders, serious negotiations
had been begun between Lewis and the States General. Both
sides had reason to wish for peace. Holland had suffered in
her commerce and was overpowered with taxes, and France,
though victorious in the field, was exhausted at home. And
as the emperor and Spain, though least able to continue tlie
war, seemed resolved to stand it out, the Dutch ambassador
signed a separate treaty with France, (1678,) which occasioned
much clamour among the confederates, but was ratified by the
States ; and all the other powers were at last obliged to accept
the terms dictated by the French monarch. The principal of
these were, that Lewis, besides Franche Comte, which he had
twice conquered, should retain possession of Cambray, Aire,
St. Omers, Valenciennes, Tournay, Ypres, Bouchaine, Cassel,
Charlemont, and other places : that he should restore Maes-
tricht to the Slates : that Spain should be again put in posses-
sion of Charleroy, Oudenard, Ath, Ghent, and Limbourg.
That th(! emperor should give up Fribourg to France, and re-
tain Philipsbourg : that the Elector of Brandenburg shoula

134 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

restore to Sweden his conquests in Pomorania, and that the
treaty of Wcstplialia should remain in full force over Germany
and the north. The Duke of Lorraine was the only prince
who refused to be included in the peace of Ninie^uen: he
chose rather to be a soldier of fortune, and to command the
imperial armies, than to accept his dominions on the condi-
tioni* proposed by Lewis. Tlie Prince of Orange was so en-
raged at this peace, that he took, a most unwarrantable step to
break it. He attacked the quarters of the Duke of Luxem-
bourg, near Mons, in hopes of cutting off the French army,
after the treaty was signed, and when the duke reposed on the
faith of it; but this bold violation of tlie law of nations was
attended with no other consequence than the loss of many
lives on both sides.

CHAPTER XXIV.

BUROPE, FROM THE PEACE OF NIMEGITEN, IN 1 G78, TO THE
LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG, IN 1G87.

The peace of Nimeguen, instead of setting bounds to the
power of Lewis XIV., left him more at leisure to extend it.
W^hile the empire, Spain, and Holland, disbandeii their
supernumerary troops, Lewis still kept up all his, and in the
midst of profound peace maintained a formidable army. No
European prince since the time of Charlemagne had acted so
much like a master and a judge. In 1080, the Elector Palatine
and tlie Elector of Treves were div(;sted of several places ijy
his imperious tribunals. The following year he laid claim to
the ancient and free citv of Strasburg, as cajjilal of Alsace.
Louvois, at the head of 20,000, took possession of the place,
and Vauban, who had fortified so many towns, here exhausted
his art, and rendered Strasburg the strongest barrier of France.
In 1683 he blockaded Luxemburg. Alarmed at these pre-
tensions, the empire, Spain, and ILtUand, began to take
measures for restraining the encroachments of France ; but
Spain was yet too feeble to enter upon a new war, and the
imperial armies were called upon to oppose a more pressing
danger. The Hungarians, who thought their privileges had
not been sufficicntlv respected by Lfop(»ld, again broke out
into rebellion ; and Tekeli, the head of the iu'surgcnts, called
in the Turks to the support of his countrymen. By the as-
fistaace of the Bashaw of Buda, he ravaged Silesia, and

XXIV,] GENERAL HISTOUY OF EUROPE. 135

reduced many important places in Hungary; while Moham-
med IV., the reigning sultan, was preparing the most lormi-
dalile force that the Ottoman empire had ever sent against
Christendom. Leopold, foreseeing that the gathering storm
would finally break upon Germany, besides demanding the
assistance of the princes of the empire, concluded an offen-
sive and defensive alliance with John Sobieski, King of
Poland. Meanwhile, the Grand Vizier, Kara Mustapha,
passing through Hungary, at the head of 50,000 Janizaries,
30,000 Spahis, and 200,000 common men, advanced towards
Vienna. The Duke of Lorraine, who commanded the impe-
rial forces, attempted in vain to oppose the progress of the
invader. The Turks under the grand vizier took the right
of the Danube, and Tekeli with the Hungarians the left. See-
ing his capital threatened on all sides, the emperor retired first
to Lintz, and then to Passau. The Turks invested Vienna in
July, and had not only destroyed the suburbs, but made a
breach in the body of the place before September. The
Duke of Lorraine had prevented the Hungarians from joining
the Turks, but was unable to relieve the garrison ; an assault
was every moment expected, when John Sobieski, having
joined his troops to those of Saxony and Bavaria, made a
signal to the besieged from the top of the mountain of Calem-
berg, and inspired them with new hopes. Kara Mustapha,
who, out of contempt for the Christians, had neglected to push
the assault, and who, amidst the progress of ruin, had wanton-
ed in luxury, was made sensible of his mistake when it was
too late to repair it. The Christians descended the mountains,
under the command of the King of Poland and the Duke of
Lorraine. The Turks were seized with a panic, and routed
almost without resistance. Only 500 of the victors fell ; and
so great was the terror, and so precipitate the flight of the infi-
dels, that they abandoned not only their tents, artillery, and
baggage, but left behind them the famous standard of Mo-
hammed, which Sobieski sent to the pope with the follow-
ing letter : — " I came, I saw, God conquered." The Turks
i'eceived another defeat on the plain of Barcan, and all Hun-
gary on both sides of the Danube was recovered by the impe-
rial arms. The King of France had raised the blockade of
Luxemburg, when the Turks approached Vienna, " I will
never," said he, " attack a Christian prince, while Christen-
dom is in danger from the infidels :" but the apprehensions
of Christendom being removed by the relief of Vienna, and
the expulsion of the Turks, Lewis returned to the siege of

136 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. LciIAP.

Luxemburfr, aiul rciUiccd, in a sliort lime, not only lluit place,
but also Courlray and Dixinude. (1081.) The glory and
greatness of the French monareh were still farther extended
by means of iiis naval power: he had upwards of a hundred
ships of the line, ami 00,000 seamen ; the mafrnilicent port
of Toulon was constructed at an immense expense ; and that
of Brest, upon the oecan, was formed upon as extensive a
plan. Dunkirk and llavre-de-Grace were filled with ships,
and Rochefort, in spite of nature, was converted nto a con-
venient harl)our. Nor did Lewis allow his ships to lie inac-
tive in these ports. He sent out squadrons to clear the seas
of the Barhary pirates ; he ordered Alj^iers twice to be bom-
barded, and not only huml)led that hautrjity predatory city,
and oblis^ed the Al^rerines to release all their Christian slaves,
but siil)jected Tunis and 'I'ripoli to the same conditions. The
Genoese being accused of having sold bombs and gunpowder
to the Algerines, and built galleys for the Spaniards, Lewis
ordered Duquene to sail from 'I'oulon with fourteen ships of
the line, twenty galleys, and fourteen frigates; these appeared
before Genoa, atul suddenly reduced to a heap of ruins many
of those magnificent buildings, which have ol)tained for that
city the appellation of Proud. Four thousand men were
landed, and the sul)urb of St. Peter D' Arena was burned. It
now became necessary for the Genoese to make submissions,
in order to prevent the total destruction of their capital.
Lewis demanded that the doge and four of the principal sena-
tors should eome and implore his clemency at Versailles.
Tliese humiliating coiuiilioiis were comijlied with; tin; doge,
in his ceremonial habit, appeared before Lewis, in a suppli-
calinjj posture. Tiiis doge, who was a man of wit and
vivacity, being asked by the French courtiers vvliat seemed to
him most extraordinary at Versailles, very pointedly replied,
"To see myself there."

In 1085, Lewis revoked the edict of Nantes, which had
been granted by Henry IV., in favour of the Calvinists.
This strong and decisive measure seems to have been dictated
by cautious policy, not iiy tyrannical persecution, as it is
fepresenled by various historians.* Forty years of Lewis's
reign had passed, and no molestation had been given U) the
Huguenots, until provoked by tiiemselves. The danger of
Bfeing France om-e more involved in civil war, through the

• 8cc thJH articlr treated At Inrpo in o memoir, written l)y Lewis Dau-
phin, father of Iicwis XVI., quoted by Feller. Dictiunnaire Historiijue^
»ol. 4, pago 19".

kX^,"] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 13?

intrigues of democratical innovt^tors, (Jansenists and Hugue-
nots, both by principle equally hostile to regal and episcopal
government,) was visible on the one hand, and on the other,
no less visible was the loss of so many industrious mechanics.
The politic monarch of France judged that public tranquillity
could not be secured at too dear a rate ; and, therefore, ordered
all the body of French Huguenots either to abjure the doc
trines of Geneva and return to the Catholic Church, or quit
the kingdom. The generality of them conformed ; but some
preferred banishment, and sev( ral of these exiles fled to Eng-
land, where they experienced great kindness from James H.
Thus protected, many among them rose to opulence and con-
sequence, which their posterity still enjoy.

During the last-mentioned transactions in France, the em-
peror had taken Buda from the Turks, after an obstinate
siege. He had defeated them with great slaughter at Mohatz,
1689: he had entirely subdued the Hungarian malcontents,
he had even got the crown of Hungary declared hereditary in
the house of Austria, and his son, Joseph, proclaimed king of
that country. He had now leisure to turn his eyes towards
France, nor could he do it with indifference. A league had
been concluded by the whole empire in 1686 to restrain the
encroachments of that power; and an attempt of Lewis to get
the Cardinal of Furstersburg made Elector of Cologne, in
opposition to the emperor, kindled anew the flames of war in
Germany and the Low Countries. Spain and Holland became
principals in the league ; Denmark, Sweden, and Savoy were
afterwards gained over, and the accession of England was at
ength acquired.

CHAPTER XXV.

1685. THE REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND.

On the demise of King Charles, in 1685, his brother James,
Duke of York, mounted the British throne, with every mark
of public approbation and attachment to his person, notwith-
standing his open professions of the Catholic religion ; and
he might probably have reigned in tranquillity, and died in
peace on the throne of his ancestors, had he been less zealous
in the cause of religion, or had he placed less confidence in
those who, by false advice, led him into a snare. The spring
of James's subsequent misfortunes may be traced to the choice

14*

188 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. ^CHAP.

he made of Cecil, Earl of Sunderland, for his prime minister
and secretary of slate. 'J'liis perfidious and artfid minister
professed liinif^elf a eonvrrl to tlie Catholic reliirion, (hat he
miglit ruin iiiin the more en'tctually, wliilc he svviuvd to exert
his best endeavours to serve him. James saw not througli
the dark desiprns of the hypocrite, hut blindly pave in to every
unpopular mea.sr.re sntriiesied by him. The tirs<t piil)lic dis-
turbance arose from tlie rebellion of the Diike of IMon'iiouth,
who had long cast his eyes on the crown; and, being (lattcred
with hopes of success, by tl e a.^surnnces he received from
Sunderland, emiiarkcd from Holland, where he then was, and
landed at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, June 9th, 1685. His stand-
ard was joined by a raw multitude, amounting toHvo thousand
men; but the royU army being encamped williin three miles
of Bridgewater, he was defeated with great slaughter. tJiken
prisoner, and beheaded. Before his execution, he let the king
know that Sunderland, and olliers in his confidence, were part-
ners with him in treason. But the king was too prepossesseil
in favour of his confidential minister to believe him guilty.
A sj)eci.al commission of Oi^er and 7\rminer was issued to
Jelferies, the lord chief justice, for the trial of the rebel
prisoners. JefTeries, in the execution of his commission, is
represented to have been bloody, arbitrary, and savajje ; and
llie odium of his severities was unjustly cast u])on the king,
tiiough it does not appear that he approved of them.* In the
mean time, the Duke of Argyle, one of Monnioiilirs partisans,
had made a similar attem|H upon Scotland; but the king's
authority was too well eslal)lislied there, to be shaken by the
duke's forces, which amounted to two thousand men. His
arms and ammunition were seized, and his followers, after suf-
fering all the har(lshi[)s of famin ; and fatigue, gradually de-
serted ; and he himself, being made prisoner, was conveyed to
Ediiiburirh and imu.rdiatelv executed. (IfiSO.) Monmouth's
rebellion was scarcely sujipresscd, when tiie good understand-
ing which had hitherto subsisted between the king and the Parlia-
ment Ix'^an to be interrupted. His majesty informed the C"om-
mons that a disposition in the people to revolt, rendered the in-
crease of a military force necessary to preserve the tranquillity
of the realm ;and that having in the time of danjrer employed offi-
cers in the army who had not taken tfir qualifvinir tests, they
eoulil not nosv be disujissed without disgrace. The king con-
sidered the right of dispensing with penal statutes as an inhe-

• Vide Lin'^ard.

XXV.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 139

rent prerOijalive of his crown, which he was resolved not to
relhiquish. Tlie judges of the law were consulted upon the
question, and eleven of them declared the claim to be legal.
The same dispensation had been frequently granted by Eliza-
beth, James I., Charles L, and Charles II., who had all em-
ployed Catholics in their armies and navies ; and Parliament
itself had more than once acknowledged this prerogative of
the crown ; but as the exertion of it seemed now to favour
the re-establishment of the Catholic religion, it met with viru-
lent opposition. The treacherous Earl of Sunderland was,
all this while, furnishing the nation with subjects of discontent,
by urging the king from one unpopular step to another. At
his suggestion, the king formed a secret council of Roman
Catholics, to consult upon affairs of religion. An English
ambassador was sent to reside at Rome, and a pope's nuncio
was publicly received in England. The management of affairs
relative to the national church was consigned to an ecclesias-
tical Court of Commission, composed of seven Protestants,
who were vested with the same exorbitant powers as those
formerly given by Elizabeth to the like court. A royal procla-
mation was issued, which granted to every British subject an
entire freedom to follow that mode of worship which con-
science should dictate. This indulgent grant was joyfully
received by the Catholics and by the Dissenters of every deno-
mination, but loudly censured by others. The king, believing
that his edict gave general satisfaction, published a new decla-
ration for liberty of conscience, in April, 1688, to which an
order was subjoined, that it should be read in every church
and chapel in the kingdom, after divine service. This order
was considered by the clergy as an insult upon the national
church. Six of v\e bishops resisted the mandate ; they were
indicted, for disobedience, and committed to the Tower. Their
case was tried in the Court of King's Bench, and the jury de-
clared them not guilty. This contest with the bishops com-
pleted the king's unpopularity ; x .hile the measures he had taken
relative to the governmp.nt of Ireland, were calculated to in-
crease the jealousy a»d suspicions of the Protestant party.
No wonder that the Jutholics of that long oppressed and
much injured country should hail the accession of a Catholic
prince to the throne, with an enthusiastic and even intempe-
rate joy. The turn of tke scale af politics was rapid and
complete. The Earl of Clarendon had succeeded Ormond as
ord deputy; but he was probably too firmly attached to the
Protestant interest, to gi\ e in as largely to the king's measures

140 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAP.

as was t.grccahle to the court. In obedience to the instructions
he received, tlie Catholics were advanced to many civil and
military otlices, and the Earl of Tyrconnell a|)pointed com-
mander of the army. (1G86.) This last was soon after pre-
vailed on to go over to England, in order to engage the king
to come into their favourite measure, of abolishing tlie obnox-
ious act of settlement. His endeavours were successful, and
he returned to Ireland as lord deputy.

Meanwhile, the Prince of Orange, -who was minutely in-
ibrmed by Sunderland of every thing that passed in England,
was active in forming schemes for mounting the throne of his
father-in-law. Ever since his marriage with the Princess
Mary of England, he had always kept his eye upon the crown ;
though he had a complicated scheme of policy to conduct,
and many interfering interests to reconcile on the continent.
The league of Augsburg, formed to break the power of France,
could not accomplish its object without the accession of Eng-
land; and as James refused to take part in the league, the
House of Austria, in both its branches, countenanced his pro-
jected expulsion, as the only means of lunnbling their common
enemy. All the German princes were in the same interest;
and it was agreed they should protect the United Provinces
during the absence of William.

While one-half of Europe thus combined against the King
of England, while many of his own subjects were determined
to oppose his power, and more to divest him of his authority,
James, as if blinded l)y fate, reposed in the most supine secu-
rity, and disregarded tlie repeated accounts of the preparations
made against him. Deceived by his ambassador in Holland,
and betrayed by his minister, the Earl of Sunderland, James
believed the rumour of an invasion was only raised by his
enemies, in order to frighten him into a closer connexion with
France, and to complete, by that means, the disalfection of
his subjects. The prince, at length, after several disajipoiiil-
ments, put to sea, on the 1st of November, 1688, with a large
fleet, having on board land forces to the amount of 1.5,0((0
men. Lord Dartmouth, who commanded the I'^nglish lleet,
let thsm pass unmolested ; they sailed down the Channel, and
un the tth of November anchored safclv in Torliay. As soon
as the king was apprized of the invader's landing, he hasl(!ned
to put himself at the head of his army, pnd ordered all his
forces to rendezvous (ui Salisbury plain, imdcr the command
ol the Earl of Feversliam ; but on reviewing them, he disco-
vered su ; ; symptoms of didalTection, that he was at a loss how

XXV.] GENERAL HISTORY OP EUROPE. 141

to act. Even among those whom he had most favoured, he
saw but few on whom he could rely. In a council ot war,
A retreat towards the capital was resolved on. The enemy
advanced ; James left the remains of his army in quarters,
and retreated to London on the 26th of the same month.
Successive misfortunes were now daily heaped upon the un-
fortunate monarch ; his nearest friends and relatives were
among the first to desert him, and the spirit of revolt spread
from county to county, as if the whole nation had at once
combined against its lawful sovereign. His son-in-law, the
Prince of Denmark, joined the Prince of Orange, and even
his darling daughter, Anne, secretly withdrew, under the con-
duct of the Bishop of London, to join the rebels. This de-
fection of a favourite child wrung his heart with inexpressilile
grief, and subdued the usual constancy of his mind. The
terrors of the queen for her own, and her infant son's safety,
idded to his distress : he therefore sent them off privately to
France, under the care of the Count de Lauzun, a generous
French nobleman. All hopes of an accommodation with the
invader being now past, and not knowing on whom to rely
for advice or support, James resolved to quit a country which
nad brought his father to the scaffold, and to retire to France.
With this design, he privately left his palace, at midnight, on
the 10th of December, crossed the river in disguise, and was
met at Vauxhall by Sir Edward Hales, and another friend.
To complete his imprudence, he commanded the Earl of Fe-
versham to disband the army, recalled the writs for the meet-
ing of Parliament, and threw the great seal into the Thames !
At Feversham he was discovered, and forced to return to
Whitehall, amidst the insults of a militia guard, who h^d
orders to take care of his person. On the 17th, at night, his
English soldiers were replaced by Dutch troops, and the king
received a message from the prince, to quit his palace before
ten the next morning. A hundred Dutch soldiers were ordered
to escort him to Rochester, and guard him as their prisoner.
Several noblemen, the gallant Lord Dundee, and other officers
of distinction, who had assembled at Rochester, strenuously
opposed the king's determination of redring to France. They
represented to him that the opinion of mankind began already
to change ; and Dundee, with his generous ardour, only entreat-
ed his majesty to give him his commission, and he would
carry his standard through England, and drive before him the
Dutch and their prince. James replied, that he believed ii
might be done, but that it would occasion a civil war, and he

142 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CIIAP.

would not do so much mischief to a people who would soon
return to their senses. 'I'hc animated remonstrances ot' his
friends could not inspire with new firmness a mind l)ro!ven l)y
appreheusion and terror. James still continued to meditate
his escape ; and the l)ack door of the house in which lie lodged
being left unsruarded, his majesty seized the opporiunity,
after three days' conlinemcnt ; went on hoard a sloop that lay
waitinj^ for him ; got safe to llic opposite shore on the 25th
of December,* and immediately taking post, soon joined his
queen, at St. fTcrmains, where he was received hy liewis
XIV., with every mark of cordial affection. The two Houses
of Parliament met in January, 1689, and declared the ilisjht
and expatriation of James equivalent to a desertion of his
subjects, and an alnlication of his crown. In the m^an time,
the Presbyterians in Scotland, who formed the bulk of the
nation, entered warmly into the interests of the I'rince of
Orange, who was of their persuasion, and deputed thirty noble-
men, and about eighty gentlemen, to request him to assume
the administration of Scotland. The English Convention,
after many disputes between the whigs and tories,t at last
agreed, that the Prince of Orange shoidd reign jointly with
his wife, tiie sole administration to be in the prince. The
act of settletnent, moreover, provided, that in default of heirs
in the direct line, the Princess Anne was to succeed, and her
posterity after that of her sister. To this regulation was an-
nexed a declaration, which fixed the bounds of the royal pre-
rogative. Tlius was terminated the (jreat stniffgle between
the crown and the people, which commenccel with the acces-
sion of the family of Stuart to the throne of England, and
continiied till their exclusion, when almost a century had
elapsed. This event, called the Revolution, forms a remark-
able epoch in the English history.

Long before James left England, the Protestants in the
North of Ireland were up in arms ; ihov had a])pointed coun-
cils and eommillces to carry on tiieir business, and all this
was done without the authority of James, at that time King of
England. Tyrconnel, imdcr these embarrassments, summoned

• Uo was nccom[>anied by the Duke of Berwick, his natural son.

+ Various otvrnoloirios have Iwon (jivrn to thpse notcil terms. They
«werr ii**-.! a« epitholx of rniitiinl rP(iroiirh durini; t\w roiRn of (Jhnrlrs If.
Tho Wliiirs wore «trom;ly uttaclicd to tho lilx-rlics of the pcojilo, wliile the
Tories w«to ri|ually z«'alou'* for ihc j)rt'ro;;,itivc of the crown. .Xflcr the
abdication of James IF., the latter was supposed to favour the Sluart fuc-
ceiwion, and the roproarhful appellation of Jnrnhlle waa bestowed on those
who were attached to the person or family of the dethroned monarch.

XXV.] (JENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 143

all the loyal part of the nation to arm in defence of the rights
of their lawful sovereign ; and an army of about 30,000 men
was at length formed by him, and officered chielly with
Catholics. James gave constant assurances, that he would
come over to lead thetn in person ; he was then at the court
of Lewis XIV., who, commiserating his fallen state, and envy-
ing the rising power of William, his inveterate enemy, offered
Aim a French armj- to regain his rights, which he declined,
saying, " that he would recover his dominions by the assistance
of his own subjects, or perish in the attempt." James sailed
from Brest with a strong armament, having on board 1300 of
his own subjects, who were then in the pay of France, and a
hundred French officers. He landed at Kinsale, in March,
1689, whence he proceeded to Dublin, and was received as
king with great pomp and solemnity. The Protestant revolu-
tionists defended themselves in Derry and Enniskillen, till the
arrival of an English army of 40,000 men, under Schomberg,
m August, the same year. William afterwards landed to head
his army in person, and the battle of the Boyne was fought cfti
the 1st of July, 1690. In this action William distinguished
himself by his intrepidity and vigilance ; while James, on the
contrary, stood at a secure distance, and when he saw his Irish
troops repulsing those of the enemy, exclaimed, " O spare my
English subjects." His chief concern before the battle was
to provide for his personal safety. Resolved to insure it,
when matters took an unfavourable turn, he fled precipitately
to Dublin, and thence to Waterford, where he took ship-
)ing for France. The route of William and his victorious
army was marked with cruelty and devastation. They met
with a vigorous resistance from the army under Tyrconnel, till
October, 1691, when the Irish surrendered their last hold, the
city of Limerick, on honourable conditions. By the treaty,
concluded on this occasion, all who wished to quit the country
were permitted to retire with their families and effects. The
number of voluntary exiles, who chose rather to forfeit all
natural advantages than fail in the allegiance they conceived
due to their lawful prince, amounted to upwards of 19,000
men. The trenty of Limerick secured to William the undis-
puted possession of Ireland ; in return, he promise 1 liberty of
conscience. The stipulation was observed just two months ;
during that period the flower of the Irish army followed James
to Fiance, and the rest disbanded.

»44 OENERAI HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

CHAPTER XXVI.

EUROPE, FROM 1689, TO THE PEACE OF CARLOAVITZ, IN 1099.

The League of Augsburg was completed by tlie adhesion
of England, in 1689. The French monarrh, trusting to his
great resources, prej)ared himself to repel the storm, with a
vigour proportioned to the occasion. He assembled two armies
in Flanders; he opposed a third to the Spaniards in Catalonia ;
and to form a barrier on the side of Germany, he laid waste
the Palatinate with fire and sword. The Germanic body,
united under the emperor, assembled three formidable armies,
besides that opposed to the Turks ; namely, one under the
Elector of Bavaria, on the Upper Rhine ; the main army, under
the Duke of Lorraine, on the Middle Rhine; and a third, con-
ducted by the Elector of Brandenburg, appeared on the Lower
Rliine. The Uuke of Lorraine laid siege to INlentz, while the
Elector of Brandenburg invested Bonn. Both places were
taken ; and the French were worsted in an engagement in
Flanders. Nor was Lewis more successful in Cataloni.-". : his
troops were driven l)ack to their own frontiers.

The same year the Prince of Baden, who commanded for the
emperor on the side of Hungary, defcaled the Turks in three
successive engagements. About the same time an alarming
attempt was made in ScoUand to assert the rights of James.
But Lord Dundee, who headed the Highlanders, having l)ocn
killed by a random shot, the restsubiuilted. In the mean wiiilc,
the English Parliament, though divided on every other point,
■was unanimous in seconding the inimical designs of William
against France, and, accordingly, war was declared this same
year. (1689.)

In 1690, the Duke of Savoy having joined the allies, it be-
came necessary for Lewis to send an army into Italy. This
army was rommitled to Catinat, who united the lire of a hero
to the coolness of a philosopher. He completely defeated
Victor Amadeus, at Staffarada ; and all Savoy, excc|it Mont-
melian, was soon after reducjMl. Equal succens attended the
arms of France in this campaign on the frontiers of Spain and
in Flanders, where Luxembnrg gained a complete, but bloody
victory, over the Dutch and Sj)aniar<Is at I'leurus, near Char-
leroy. Nothing memorable lia|)peiied on the side of Germany,
owing, perliaps, to the death of the Duke of Lorraine. Thia

KXVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 14&

gallant prince, whose high spirit induced him to abandon his
dominions, and become a soldier of fortune, rather than sub
mit to the conditions offered by Lewis at the peace of Nime-
guen, was become a consummate general. His injuries seem
always to have been uppermost in his mind, except while en-
gaged against the infidels, when religion was predominant.
He threatened to enter Lorraine at the head of 40,000 men
before the end of the summer, but died before that date. His
letter to the Emperor Leopold, his brother-in-law, stror.gly
marks his character. " I am going," says he, " to give an
account to a more powerful master of a life which I have de-
voted chiefly to your service. Remember that I leave behind
me a wife who is nearly related to you ; children who have
no inheritance but my sword, and subjects who lie under op
pression."

1690. — The Turks this year took Nissa Widin, and even
Belgrade, which was carried by assault after a bloody siege.
All Upper Hungary, beyond theTibiscus, fell into their hands,
and they took up winter-quarters in that country. To add to
tlie misfortune of the allies during this campaign, the combined
fleet of England and Holland was defeated by the French
under Tourville.

1G91. — The progress of the French during the next cam-
paign, was not equal to what might have been expected from
their late victories. Though Lewis in person took Mons, in
defiance of King William, who had placed himself at the head
of the confederate army, yet the summer passed without any
memorable event. Meanwhile the Turks lost all they had
gained the former year, and were totally routed by the Prince
of Baden, with the loss of 20,000 men.

A cruel massacre of the inhabitants of the vale of Glenco,
in Argyleshire, contrary to the faith of a royal proclamation,
roused once more the resentment of the Jacobites, and was
made use of by the dissatisfied whigs to render the government
of William odious. An insurrection, in favour of the dethroned
monarch, was projected both in England and Scotland ; and
Lewis, encouraged by favourable accounts from Britain, began
to prepare for an invasion. A considerable body of French
forces, joined by many fugitive Irish and Scots, assembled for
the purpose, between Cherbourg and La Hogue, commanded
by James, while sixty-three ships of the line were appointed
to favour the descent. To oppose this formidable armament,
a fleet of 99 ships was fitted out, under the gallant Admiral
Russel. On the 19th of May, 1 f^92, the hostile fleets met off

/4(l GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPB. [cHAf

La Iloijiic A bloody contest ensued ; victory declared in
favour of tlie Enfflish, and all the expectations of James
vanished. Diiriiit^ ihc coiillici, the exilctl monarch repeatedly
exclaimeii, with a mixture of admiration and rcirret, "See my
brave Enjrlish," conscious, nevertheless, that he was viewing
the extinction of his lioj)cs. The projected invasion thus
proving unsuccessful, James returned to St. (icrmain's iu
101)4, where he spent the few remaining years of his life, in
the unostentatious practice of die most exemplary piety. In
awarding to this well-meaning but misguided monarch the
praise due to his many good qualities, and, above all, his un-
shaken fidelity to the religion he had conscientiously embraced,
we are free to admit that the rash zeal, or secret treachery of
his advisers, often betrayed him into unconstitutional measures,
the extreme unpopularity of which led to his expulsion from
the throne. His sulisequent life in exili; was marked by every
virtue, and he closed his career, still honoured by all as a
aovereign, and reverenced by many as a saint.

In th.e spring of 1G92, William and Lewis set out on the
same day to join their respective armies. Lewis sat down
before Namur witii an army of 30,000 men, while Luxem-
bourg, with another army, covered the siege of that important
place, which is situated at the conflux of the Saml)re and
Maese. William advanced to the relief of the place with aij
army of 80,000 men, but failed in his attempt, and the town
was obliged to surrender. To wipe off this disi{race, Wil-
liam endeavoured to surprise the F'ren(;!i army, under Luxem-
bourg, at Steinkcrk. 'I'he attack was chiefly made by the
British troops. William and his Dutch generals failed to
second the etforls of those brave battalions. The English,
thus neglected, and left to sustain the whole shock, were
obliged to uive ground, and were almost all cut to pieces.
AI)ove 10.000 men fell on both sides in the space of two
hours. William's military character sutfcrcd greatly by this
batUe, and the hatred of the English against the Dutch became
violent in llu' hi<rhcst dcirree. " Let us see what sport these
English bull-dogs wUI make," was the cool, sarcastical reply
of (Jount Solmes, when ordered to advance to the support of
the British troops.

In the mean while, the Duke of Savoy entered Dauphine ;
ravaged the coimtry, and reduced die fortified towns. No-
thing of any consequence happened on the Rhine. Hanovei
was this year made an electorate In' the emperor. In lOOSy
Lewif^ ijx-ned the campaign with great pomp, in Flanders, a

XXVI. 3 GENERAL HISTORY OP EUR3PE. 147

the head of an army of 120,000 men. He sent part of hia
troops into Germany, under the dauphin, and, leaving to
Luxembourg the conduct of the military operations in Flan-
ders, returned to Versailles. Luxembourg, finding the allies
unwilling to come to an engagement, resolved to attack them
in their camp. A desperate batUe was fought at Neerwinden,
(1694,) in which the French obtained a signal but bloody
victory. They were again victorious on the side of Savoy,
and on the ocean. The glory and greatness of Lewis XIV.
were now not only at their height, but verging towards a de-
cline. His resources were exhausted ; his minister, Louvois,
who knew so well how to employ them, was dead ; and
Luxembourg, who had made France the terror of Europe,
died before the opening of the next campaign. Lewis
therefore determined to act merely on the defensive in
Flanders.

This year was signalized in England by the act for trien-
nial Parliuments, which passed both Houses, and received
the royal assent in November,* also by the death of the
queen, after a short illness, in the thirty-third year of her
age, and the sixth year of her reign. She was possessed
of a good understanding, and of conciliating, amiable manners.
Her attachment to the Protestant religion, and to the princi-
ples of liberty, gained her the good-will of the whigs, who,
on those considerations, were ready to overlook the ingratitude
and breach of filial duty with which her character is stained.

The military reputation of William, which had suffered
greatly during the three foregoing campaigns, was much
raised by the retaking of Namur. But the allies had litUe
success in other quarters. On the side of Hungary the acces-
sion of Mustapha H. to the Ottoman throne gave a new turn
to affairs. He passed the Danube, stormed Lippa, seized Itul,
attacked and killed Veterani, and dispersed his forces. The
next campaign produced no signal event. France was ex-
hausted by her great exertions, and most of the other powers
seemed heartily tired of the war. A congress for a general
peace, under the mediation of Charles XL of Sweden, was at
last opened at the Casde of Ryswick, between Delft and the
Hague. The taking of Barcelona by the Duke of Vendome,
induced the King of Spain to listen to the proposals of
France; and the emperor, after reproaching his allies with
deserting him, found it necessary to accede to the treaty.

* A similar bill had been extorted from Charles I ,but repealed soon aftei
the restoration, in rorn')liment to P/horlos IT

148 GENERAL HISTORY OF ECROPE. [cHAP

(1697.) The concessions made by Lewis XIV. were very
considerable, but the pretensions of the lioiise of Bourbon to
the Spanish succession were left in full force. It was stipu-
lated that the French monarch should acknowledge William
to be lawful sovereign of England, and mak.e no further at-
tempt to disturb him in the possession of his kingdoms ;
that the duchy of Luxemliourg, Charleroy, Mons, &c., as
well as the places taken in Catalonia during tiio war, should
be restored to Spain ; that Fribourg, Brisgau, and Philii)sbourg
should 1)0 given up to the emperor, and the duchies of Lor-
raine and liar be restored to their native prince.

Scarcely had the emperor acceded to the treaty of Rys-
wick, when he received intelligence of the total defeat of the
Turks, by his arms, at Zciila, a small village on the banks of
the Theisse, in Hungary. The celebrated Prince Eugene, of
Savoy, had succeeded the Elector of Saxony in the command
of the Imperialist-s, and to his consummate abilities they were
indebted for their extraordinary success. Mustapha II. com-
manded his army in person. The battle was of short dura-
tion, but uncommonly bloody. About 20,000 Turks were
left dead on the field, and 10,000 were drowned in the river,
in endeavouring to avoid the fury of the sword. This victory
broke the spirit of the Turks ; and the haughty Musia[)ha,
after attempting, during another campaign, to recover the
laurels he had lost at Zcnta, agreed to listen to proposals of
peace. The plenipotentiaries of the belligerent powers ac-
jordingly met at (Jarlowitz, (1090,) and signed a treaty, in
whii-h it was stipulated that all Hungary on this side thi' Save,
with Transylvania and Sclavonia, should be ceded to the
house of Austria.

CHAPTER XXVII.

THE AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, FROM THE PEACE OF RYSWICK, TO
THE GRAND ALLIANCE, 1701.

1097. — The first object which engaged the general atten-
tion of Europe, after the peace of Ryswick, was the settlement
>f the Spanish succession. The declinintj health of Charles
H. gave new spirit to th(! competitors for his crown, 'i'hesc
were Lewis XIV., the Emperor Leopold, and the Elector of
IVivaria. Lewis and the emperor were in the same deirree of
»nsanguinity to Charles II., being both grandsons of Philip

XX-Vn.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 149

III. The dauphin and the emperor's eldest son, Joseph,
King of the Romans, had moreover a double claim, their
mothers being two daughters of Philip IV. Priority of birth
was claimed by the house of Bourbon, Lewis and his son be-
ing descended from the eldest daughters of Spain ; the impe-
rial family, on the other hand, alleged the solemn renunciation
made by Lewis and his father to the Spanish succession, and
their descent fr( m Maximilian, the common parent of both
branches of the house of Austria. The Elector of Bavaria
claimed as the husband of an archduchess, the only surviving
child of the Emperor Leopold, by the Infanta Margaret,
second daughter of Philip IV., who had declared Aer descend-
ants heirs of his crown, in preference to those of his eldest
daughter, Maria Teresa. The general interests of Europe
seemed to require that the Prince of Bavaria should succeed
to the Spanish monarchy, but his two competitors were obsti-
nate in their claims. The body of the Spanish nation favour-
ed the lineal succession of the house of Bourbon ; but the
queen, who was a German princess, supported the preten-
sions of the emperor. Lewis XIV., sensible that any attempt
to treat with the emperor would be ineffectual, proposed to
the King of England a partition of the Spanish dominions.
To carry this design into effect, a treaty of partition was
signed, in 1698, by England, Holland, and France. Intelli-
gence of the secret convention was privately conveyed from
Holland to Madrid. The Spanish ministers were filled with
indignation, at finding a division of their monarchy made
by foreigners, during the life of their sovereign. Charles II
immediately, by will, constituted the electoral Prince of Ba-
varia his sole heir, agreeably to the testament of Philip IV.;
but the sudden death of this prince, the following year, re-
vived all the former contentions.

While these disputes agitated the south and west, two
extraordinary men were rising into notice in the north of
Europe, — Peter I., of Russia, and Charles XII., of Sweden.
Peter had already rendered himself formidable by the defeat
of the Turks, in 1696, and the taking of Asoph, which
opened to him the dominion of the Black Sea. This acqui-
sition led to more extensive views. He I'esolved to make
Russia the centre of trade between Europe and Asia ; he
projected a junction of the Dwina, the Wolga, and the Don
or Tanais, by means of canals, thus to open a passage from
the Baltic to the Euxine and Caspian seas, and from these
seas to the Northern Ocean. He resolved to build a city on

15*

150 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

•he Ilaltic, wliich sliouUl become the magazine of the North,
and the capital of his extensive empire. Animated by the
n()l)!(' anibilion of iiitnxhuMiiir amont: his people the improv(>-
niciU:> of other nations, he (iiiillcd iiis doniinions in lO'.l?,
laboured as a journeyman in the dockyards at Amsterdam,
slinhed navigation, fortification, and all the sciences necessary
for the sovereign of a liarbarous people. From Holland he
passed over to Enjrland, wlicrc he was honourably received
and assisted in his literary pursuits by Kin^ William. 'I'he
peace of Carlowitz, cimchidod soon after the return of thc-
c/ar, alforded him leisure to prosecute his plans. As he
wanted a port on the Baltic, he resolved to make himself
master of llif province of In^ria, N. E. of Livonia, which
had Ibrmerly been in the possession of his ancestors. With
this view he entered into a league against Sweden, with Fre-
deric Augustus, Elector of Saxony, who had succeeded
the famous Sobicski on the throne of Poland. The war
was begun by the King of Denmark, who, contrary to
the faitli of treaties, invaded the territories of the Duke of
Holstein Gottorp, brother-in-law to Charles XII., and after
taking sonic incoiisiderai)lc jdaces, invested Toimingen, in
1705, while the Russians, Poles, and Saxons entered Livonia
and Inirria. The moment f/liarlcs was inff)rme(l of the inva-
sion of llolslein, he resolved to carry the war into Denmark.
He accordingly left his capital, never to return thither, and
embarked with his troops at ('arlscroon, having appointed a
coun<-il from among the senate, to regulate his afl'airs during
his absence. The Swedish fleet was joined, at the mouth
of the soun<l, by a squadron of English and Dutch men-of
war. The Danish fleet, unalile to face the eneiiiv, retired
umler the guns of C'oj)enhagen, which was Ijondiarded, and
the King of Denmark, who had failed in his attempt upon
Tonniniifen, was cooped »ip in Holstein by the Swedish fri-
gates. In this critical season, the enterprising spirit of the
young King of Sweden suggested to him the means of finish-
ing the war at a blow. He proposed to besiege Copenhagen by
land, while the coinliined fleet blocked it up by sea. Impatient
to reach the shore, he leaped into the sea, sword in hand, and
being followed by all his officers and soldiers, quickly put to
flight the Danish troops who alteinpted to opjxtse their land-
ing. Charles, who bad never before l)een present at a getier:il
iliscnarge of musketfl loaded with ball, asked Major Stuart
what occasioned the whistling which he henrd : "It is the
iound of the bullets," said the major, "which they fire

XXVII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 151

against your majesty." " 'Tis well," said the rAng; "this
shall henceforth be my music." The citizens of Copenhagen,
filled with consternation, sent a deputation to Charles, be-
seeching him not to bombard the town. In the mean time
the King of Denmark was in the most perilous situation ;
pressed by land on one side, and confined by sea on the
other. Tlie Swedes were in the heart of his dominions, and
his capital and fleet were both ready to fall into their hands.
He could derive no hopes but from submission. The King
of England ofl'ered his mediation, and a treaty highly honour-
able to Charles was concluded at Travendal, between Den-
mark, Sweden, and Holstein, to the exclusion of Russia and
Poland.

In 1700 died Charles II. of Spain, the last king of the eldest
Austrian branch, after having, by a second will, appointed the
Duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin, his successor in
all his dominions. Lewis XIV. accepted the will, and the
Duke of Anjou, with the universal consent of the Spanish na-
tion, was crowned at Madrid, under the name of Philip V.
War was now become inevitable. The securing of commerce
and of barriers, the preventing a union of the two powerful
monarchies of France and Spain in any future period, and the
preserving in some degree an equilibrium of power, were mat-
ters of too much importance to Europe in general, to be rested on
the moderation of the French. The vigorous steps, however,
taken in the Spanish Netherlands, induced William to come
to an accommodation with Lewis, but the emperor continued
to dispute the title of Philip V. He sent an army of 30,000
men into Italy under Prince Eugene, to take possession of the
Duchy of Milan as a fief of the empire : the Duke of Savoy
favoured the Imperialists, and the French were repulsed with
great loss. Leopold had already secured the concurrence of
the Elector of Brandenburg, by dignifying him with the title
of King of Prussia. Such was the posture of afl^airs when the
famous treaty called the Grand JlUiaace was signed by the
plenipotentiaries of the emperor, the King of England, and
the States-Cxeneral of the United Provinces. The avowed
objects of the treaty were, to procure satisfaction to the
emperor ; to obtain security to the English and Dutch, for their
dominions and commerce ; to prevent the union of France and
Spain, and to hinder the French from possessing the Spanish
dominions in America. WhUe this confederacy was forming,
the nortli-east quarter of Europe was deeply involved in blood.
Charles XII. no sooner raised the siege of Copenhagen, than

152 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. fcHAP.

he turned his arms ajrainst the Russians, wlio had undertaken
the siege of Narva with 80,000 men. (,'harles advanced to
its relief, forced the enlrencliinents of tlu; Russians with only
8000 men, and entered Narva in triumph. The followinf^
spriuff, 1701, lie entered liivonia, and ap|)eare(l in llie neigh-
bourhood of l{i<ia, which the Kins^ of Poland had in vain be-
sieged the preceding campaign. The Poles ami Saxons were
posted along the Uwina, which is very broad in that place,
and Charles was under the necessity of forcing a passage.
This he effected, ihouirh with much difhculty, tiie Swedes i)e-
in<j driven back into the river after they liad formed themselves
upon the land : their young king rallied them in the water,
and led them into the plain, where a general enuagement en-
sued, and tlie Swedes obtained a complete, l)ul bloody victory.
He next advanced to Mittau, the capital of Courland, which,
with all the towns of that duchy, submitted at discretion.
From Courland he passed into Lithuania, conquering every
thing in his progress. He is said to have expressed a particu-
lar satisfaction, when he entered in triumph the town of iJirzen,
where Auirustus, King of Poland, and tlie Czar Peter had
planned liis destruction but a few months before. It was here
that, under the stimulating influence of resentment, he formed
the irreat project of dethroning Augustus, by means of his own
subjects

CHAPTER XXVHI.

EUROPE, FROM THE BEOINMNO OF THE GENERAL WAR, IN 1701,
TO TIIE UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND, IN 1706.

1701. — Soon after the signing of the Grand Alliance, James
H. died at St. Germain, and Lewis XIV,, in violation of the
treaty of Ryswick, acknowledged the son of that unfortunate
monarch Kin^ of Great llritain and Ireland, under the tide of
James III. The Marquis dc Torcy attempted to apoloijize to
the King of F%nLrland for this step of his master, bit VV^illiam
thought the alfrout too great to l>e borne. He recaMed his am-
bassador from France, and ordered the French envoy to quit
his dominions. The f-'uLdish Parliament entered warmlv into
his views, and voted forty thousand men for land service
agreeably to the terms of the (irand Alliance. William was
m iking vast preparations for opening the ensuing campaign,
when a fall from his horse threw him into a fever, which put

XXVIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF ETTROPE. 153

a period to his life. (1702.) His rei^n, though lenient in
many respects, was nevertheless distinguished by several very
severe acts passed against the Catholics. Banishment was
inflicted upon all priests and schoolmasters, and perpetual im-
prisonment in case of a return. No Catholic born after March,
1700, could inherit either tide or estate, purchase lands?, &c.*

The quiet accession of Anne, only surviving daughter of
James II., and the early declaration of her resolution to pur-
sue the objects of the Grand Alliance, revived the spirits
of the confederates. Lord Godolphin was placed at the
head of the treasury; the Earl of Marlborough was appoint-
ed commander-in-chief of the English forces in Flanders,
and immediately despatched to Holland. All the allies en-
gaged with alacrity to furnish their several quotas, and war
against France was declared on the same day at London, the
Hague, and Vienna. The first campaign, however, Avas not
distinguished by any great event. In the beginning of 1703,
the Duke of Savoy and Peter II. of Portugal, united themselves
to the confederates. To the defection of these two princes
the French ascribed their subsequent misfortunes in the war.
Lewis XIV., however, made great preparations for opening the
next campaign, and was by no means wanting in success.
Marshal Villars gained a complete victory over the Imperialists
in the plains of Hockstedt. The victorious army put the
Elector of Bavaria in possession of Augsburg, and the road to
Vienna being thus laid open, the emperor trembled in his
capital. In Italy, where Staremburg commanded for the em-
peror, the Duke of Vendome reduced Barsillio and took
possession of the duchy of Modena. The allies were more
successful in the Netherlands, but their acquisitions by no
means balanced the advantages of the enemy in other quarters.
The emperor, however, emboldened by the alliance of Portu-
gal, from which a passage might be opened into the disputed
kingdom, made his second son, Charles, assume the title of
King of Spain, and the archduke immediately set out for the
Hague ; from thence he passed into England, and was con-
ducted to Lisbon by a powerful fleet, having on board a con-
siderable body of land forces.

While the Queen of England was exerting herself with so
much vigour in a foreign quarrel, in which her subjects were
little interested, the greatest disorders prevailed in her own
dominions. The ferment in Scotland, occasioned by the mis-

* The first act of indulgence showed to Catholics in the reign of George
III was the repeal of this act. (1778.)

154 GENERAL HISTORV OF EUROPE. [CUAP

carriaire of the settlcinenl at Darirn,* had iievor yot fully sub-
sided ; and allhouijh that kiimdoin readily ackuowiedfjed the
queen's authority, tlie hottest jealousies tliere prevailed, among
all ranks of men, respectinir the independency of their crown,
and the freedoni of their commerce. Nor was the Euiiflish
nation free from discontents. 'I'iie tpieen had roused the re-
sentment of the whiijs hy throwint,'; liersclf into tlie hands of the
lories, who, conjeclurinif that she must naturally be disposed
to favour the succession of her brollier, held a secret corres-
pondence with the court of St. Germain, where hopes were
even entertained of a repe:d of the act of settlement.

1704. — As the success of the two foreijoing campaigns, hy
making the allies masters of the Maese and Spanish (Judder
land, had provided a stronjr harrier for the United Provinces
Marll)orought proposed to march into the heart of Germany,
in order to protect the emperor, now almost besieged in Ins
capital bv the Hunirarian malcontents on one side, and by ihe
French and Bavarians on the other. lie ordered the Confe-
derates to advance towards Coblcntz, where he joined them.
Crossing the Rhine at that place, and successively the .Maine
and Nei^ker, he was met by i'rince Eugene, at Mondelsiieim.
After the junction of the two armies, they proceeded towards

• The Scots, agreeably to powers cjranted by William HI. to his com-
missioner, and confirmed by letters patent, had i)lanled, in IG89, a colony
on the Isthmus of Darien, and founded a settlement, to which they ijave
the name of New Edinliursh. Its vicinity to I'orto Hello and (.'arlh;ii;etia,
alarmed the court of Madrid, wh^i made warm remonstrances to the LIni;lish
government on the subject. VVillinin, therefore, ordt'red the governors of
the English settlements to hold no communication with them ; and, thus de-
prived of provisions, ami all sup[iort in .\merica, the Scottish settlers were
obliged to surrender to the Spanish.

-f (Jf'neral ("liurchill was raised to the peerage by .lames II., and created
Earl of .Vlarlbonmgh by William, but was afterwards confine*! to the Towor
on a HURpicion of Jacobitism. Under Anne, he may be said to have go-
verned the kingdom, through the influence of his countess, a woman of a
bold, intriguing spirit; she was afterwards sup|ilanted in the (|ueen's alTec-
tionn by .Mrs. .Masham, a relative, who had been raised by her l"rom a state
of dejKnidencc. Marlborough was created a duke, by Queen .\niie, and
after gaining the bailie of HIerdieim, was presented by her majesty with
the manor of Woodstock, in which she ordered HIenheim castle to l)e built
for him. He received ihe thanks of I'arliament, during ten victorious cam-
paigns, yet lived to liecomc the object of jealousy and parliamentary cen-
burc; and <m the change of ministry wasdismi.'sed from all his employments.
After his disgrace he retired to the Low C'oui. tries, where he was received
with the grealest honours. He relumed to England some months Iwfore
the queen's death, and again enjove^l royal favoui on the accession of
Ucorge I. He died in 17'J2, aged 73.

JCXVII1.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 155

Ingolstcult. The opposing forces were now nearly equal,
each consisting of about 80,000 men. The French and Ba\a-
rians were advantageously posted near the village of Blenheim.
A desperate battle ensued, in which the French and Bavarians
lost near 40,000 men, including killed and taken. Every
trophy that can distinguish a complete triumph, fell into the
hands of the conquerors. No modern victory, between disci-
plined armies, was ever more decisive than that of Blenheim:
none could be followed by more important consequences.
The emperor was relieved from his fears, the Hungarian mal-
contents were overawed, and the conquests and dominions of
the Elector of Bavaria fell at once into the hands of Leopold.
Broken, ruined, and dispersed, the forces of Lewis XIV. left
an uninterrupted march to the confederates from the Danul)e
to the Rliine ; and the remnant of that army, which at the
beginning of the season had spread terror to the gates of Vi-
enna, was obliged to take shelter within the frontiers of France.
The victors crossed the Rhine, they entered Alsace ; and the
important fortresses of Landau and Trierbach surrendered to
them before the close of the campaign. On the side of Portu-
gal, the archduke, who had assumed the title of Charles III.,
was unable to make any progress ; but Philip V. carried the
war into Portugal, and took several places. The operations
at sea, this memorable year, were of great importance. Tlie
combined fleet of England and Holland, which carried the
archduke to Lisbon, having failed in an attempt upon Barcelo-
na, appeared before Gibraltar; and that strong fortress, hi-
therto deemed impregnable, was taken at the first assault.
Astonished at the intrepidity of the English sailors, who
ascended the mole sword in hand, the governor immediately
surrendered the place.

1705. — Lewis XIV. possessed in an eminent degree that
Christian fortitude which enables the soul to bear misfortunes
with composure and resignation. Though accustomed to
victory, he received the intelligence of the ruin of his army
at Blenheim without any marks of confusion, and took the
most vigorous steps for repairing his loss, as well as for check-
ing the progress of the victorious enemy. Understanding
that the Duke of Marlborough intended next campaign to
carry the war by the Moselle, into the heart of his dominions,
he assembled on that side an army of 70,000 men, under
Villars, whose conduct was so masterly, that he prevented
Marlborough from eff'ecting any enterprise of consequence
during the whole campaign. The death of the Emperor Leo-

150 OENKRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

pi)l(l iiiadi! no rliaiii^c in iIk? oporalions of the war, tlioiiirh
his son ami successor, Joseph, was considered as a j)rince of
frreatcr viponr and al)ilities. In Italy the French maintained
theirsupcriority. The Duke of Vendoine took V lUa Franca and
Veru ; he rei)ulse(l tlie Iniperialisls uniier Prince Kufrene, and
Victor Aniadeus, Duke of Savoy, was obliged to shut himself
up in Turin. The Confederates were more successfid in Spain.
Ttie fortresses of Lerida and Torlosa were yielded wiUiout a
hlow ; Barcelona was oblifred to surrender, with almost the
whole kiuLi^dom of Valencia, as well as the province of Catalo-
nia. In 17(t(), the allied army, under the command of the
Duke of Marlborough, gained the celebrated battle of Kami-
lies. The total conquest of Brabant, and almost all Spanish
Flanders, was the immediate consequence of this victory.
Louvain, Brussels, Antwerp, Client, Oudenarde, and other
places, surrendered at discretion. Ostend, so famous for its
lonijsien-o in the last century, put the first stop to the progress
of the Confederates. It was, however, forced to capitulate, after
a siege of ten days. To repair these losses, Lewis ordered the
Duke of Feuillade to besiege Turin ; but Eugene advanced to its
relief, routed and dispersed the whole army, ami the house of
Bourlxm lust, at one blow, the duchies of Milan and Mantua,
the principality of Piedmont, and eventually the kingdom of
Naples. In Spain, the English and Portuguese armies j)ene-
trateil even to Madrid ; and Philip V. was obliged to remove
with his court to Burgos.

During these transactions in the south and west of Europe,
the all'airs of the north and east had undergone a considerable
change. Charles XII. of Sweden, burning with revenge,
oi)stinately refused to listen to any accommodation, and an-
swered the Polish deputies that he would colder with tlu^m
at Warsaw. He accordingly marched towards that capital,
and declared he would never grant peace to the Poles till they
had elected a new kinti. Auiiust\is, on receiving this intelli-
gence, saw he must either relin(iuish his crown, or preserve
it by force of arms. The contending kings met in a spacioui
plain near Clissaw, between Warsaw and Oacow. Charles
gained a comi)lel«; victory, with all the honours that could at-
tend it. He halted not a moment on the field of battle, but
ujarched direct to ('racow, which surrendered without firing a
gun. Havinir received a strong reinforcement from Pomcra
nia, he marched against the remains of tiie Saxon army, came
tip with them ntiar Pnllansh, and soon roul«'il and dis|)ersed
them. Augustus retired to Thorn, an aiirieut cit} on the

XXVIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 157

Vistula. Cliarles followed him and " besieged the place; i*
surrendered witliin a month, but Augustus liad found means
to escape into Saxony. It was the intention of the King of
Sweden, and the wish of the diet, to raise to the throne James
So])ieski, eldest son of the late king ; but that prince being
taken prisoner, together with his second brother, Constantine,
by a party of Saxon dragoons, the crown of Poland was of-
fered to a younger brother, named Alexander, who generously
rejected it. Nothing, he said, should ever induce him to
take advantage of the misfortune of his elder brothers ; and he
entreated Charles to employ his victorious arms in restoring
liberty to the unhappy captives. This circumstance having
disconcerted the measures of the Swedish monarch, his mi-
nister. Count Piper, advised Charles to take the crown of Po-
land to himself; but that romantic hero answered, that he had
more pleasure in giving away, than in conquering kingdoms.
He accordingly recommended to the Polish diet Stanislaus
Leczinski, Palatine of Bavaria, who was immediately raised
to the throne.

While Charles XII. was thus imposing a king on the van-
quished Poles, and the Danish monarch durst not presume to
create any disturbance ; while the new King of Prussia court-
ed his friendship, and his antagonist, Augustus, was forced to
take refuge in his hereditary dominions, the Czar Peter was
growing every day more formidable. He had made a power-
ful diversion in favour of Augustus. He took Norva by as-
sault, in 1704, after a regular siege. He was at the same
time carrying on the building of his future capital, Petersburg
That city is situated between Finland and Ingria, in a marshy
island around which the Neva divides itself into several
branches before it falls into the Gulf of Finland. In 1703,
Peter had drawn thither 300,000 men to labour in this greai;
work While the czar was employed in creating as it were
a new people, he still held out a helping hand to the fugitive
Augustus, who had again found his way into Poland, had
retaken Warsaw, and been obliged a second time to aban-
don it.

In 1705, Peter sent 60,000 Russians to his assistance : but
the King of Sweden was attended by his usual good fortune,
the effect of his active and enterprising spirit. The Russian
armies were attacked and defeated so fast, that the last was
routed before it had heard of the defeat of the first. Nothing
could stop the progress of the Swedes, or equal their celerity
If a river inte/posed, thev swam across it; and Charles, at the

168 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cilAH.

head of his cavalry, marclieil lliirtv Irajnios in twontv-four
hours. Struck with terror, the Ru-sians retired heyoiid tho
Boristhenes, leaving Augustus to his fate. In the mean time,
Schiillemhurg, having repassed the Oder, olTcred battle to Ma-
rcschal Uenchild, who was reckoned the King of Sweden's
best general, and called the Parmenio of the Alexander of the
North. The Russians, though double the number of the
Swedes, were defeated with great slaughter. To relieve Po-
land, Charles now desired to remove the scene of war into
the hereditary dominions of Augustus, and accordingly direct-
ed his march towards Silesia, passed the Oder, entered Saxony,
and pitched his camp at Alt Ramsladt, near the j)lains of Lut-
zen. Augustus, unable any longer to contend with such an
adversary, sued for peace, but could only olitain it on proniis
ing to renounce forever all |)retensi(ui.s to the crown of I'oland,
and acknowledging Stanislaus lawful sovereign of that king-
dom.

In 1706, Lewis XIV. madevcry advantageous offers of peace,
but they were rejected ; and it was resolved to conclude no treaty
with the house of Bourbon while a prince of that family sai
on the throne of Spain. 'J'his year was siirnalized by the
union of England and Scotland under one legislature ; a union
which had been often attempted in vain, and was at last ac-
complished after lont; and warm dcliates between the commis-
sioners of the two kingdoms. In consequence of this famous
treaty, both kingdoms were to form but one, by the name of
Great Britain, and the succession to the United Kinjjdom was
fixed to the person and successors of the Princess Sophia,
Duchess-dowager of Hanover, to the exclusion of all the
Catholic descendants of the house of Stuart.

CHAPTER XXIX.

A GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE, FROM 1706, TO TMF, CONFER-
ENCES HELD AT GERTRUVDENBKRO, IN 1710.

1707. — Tin: French troops, to the number of l.^),000, being
obliged to evacuate IiOml)ardy, by a capitulation signed in the
beginning of March, were despatched to the assistance of
Pliilip v. ."Miidcna and Milan surrendi'red successively to the
alli(;s ; the whole kingdom of Naples was reduced, and the few
places still held by tlie French or Spanish garrisons, fell one

XXIX.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 159

by one before the close of the campaign. In Spain, the
fortune of the war was very different: the allies received a
dreadful overthrow at Alnianza, from the united armies of
France and Spain, under the Duke of Berwick, who, follow-
ing up the advantage thus obtained, soon recovered the whole
kingdom of Valencia, and, marching into Arragon, took the
cities of Saragossa and Lerida. Nor did the affairs of the
confederates wear a more favourable aspect in Germany.
Marsl al Villars laid the duchy of Wirtemberg under contri-
bution, and penetrated as far as the Danube : nor was the
superiority of the French the only thing the empire had to
fear. Charles XII., who had remained in Saxony during the
winter, found some pretence for quarrelling with the court of
Vienna. From complaints he proceeded to demands, which
he continued to urge with an obstinacy suitable to his charac-
ter. The Queen of England, afraid that the pride of Joseph
might overcome his attention to the interests of the allies,
ordered the Duke of Marlborough to repair to Saxony, and
attempt to soothe the King of Sweden. Marlborough, who
was no less a statesman and courtier than a general, and who
had acquired by a long course of experience the art of diving
into the character of men, soon discovered the inclinations and
views of the King of Sweden. In the pleasure with which he
talked of the views of the allies, Marlborough perceived his
aversion to France; while the kindling of his eye at the name
of the czar, and a map of Russia lying on the table, made this
politician acquainted with the designs of Charles. He there-
fore took leave without making him any proposals, sensible that
his disputes with the emperor could be easily accommodated,
as all his demands would be granted. England and Holland
accordingly guarantied the promises of the court of Vienna;
and tiie czar having entered Poland, the King of Sweden re-
passed the Oder in quest of new victories.

In 1708, the allies gained the battle of Oudenarde ; took
Lisle, after an obstinate siege; as also Ghent and Bruges, be-
fore the end of the campaign. A variety of circumstances, a
famine ir, France, discontent and disunion among the servants
of the crown, induced Lewis to offer terms of peace, at once
adequate to the success of his enemies, and suitable to the
melancholy situation of his own affairs. He agreed to yield
the whole Spanish monarchy to the house of Austria; to give
a barrier to Holland ; to acknowledge the Elector of Branden-
burg as King of Prussia, the Duke of Hanover as ninth elector
of the empire ; to own the right of Queen Anne to the British

160 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cilAP.

throne, ami to restore every thing taken in the war. Hut these
terms, thou<rh so aclvanlaireous, were rf^ected l)y Ma.lborough,
Eugene, and the pensionary Ileinsius. Lewis tl:en threw
himself upon his peoph*, and exphiined his own ample con-
cessions, and the haughty terms proposed by tlic allies. The
pride of the French nation was rotised. 'I'hey resolved to
make new efTorts in support of their huml)led monarch. In
the following cainpaiiin, 1709, the allies took Tournay and
Mons, and boasted of the victory of Malplaqiiet, althoujrh m
effect they gained litde beside the field of battle, and that they
pnrchased with the lives of 20,000 men. The French did not
lose above half the number. Though the misfortunes of
France during this campaign were by no means so depressing
as she had reason to apprehend, Lewis XIV. renewed his ap-
plications for peace, and conferences were appointed at (Jer-
truydenburg, to adjust the terms. Hut before we enter into
the particulars of that neirotiation, it will be proper to carry
forward the story of Charles XIL and his antagonist, Peter
the Great.

The King of Sweden liaving quitted Saxony, in 1707, and
returned at the head of 13,000 men, to Poland, forced die czar
to retire, on his approach, towards the Boristhenes or Nieper.
Charles being determined to come to an engagement, followed
him by forced marches to the borders of his own dominions.
Peter then sent serious proposals of peace to Charles. "I
will treat at Moscow," said the Swedish monarch. " My
brother ('harles," replied the czar, when informed of thi;*
haughty answer, "always afFecls to play the Alexander; bu»
he will not, I hope, find in me a Darius." The czar imme-
diately destroyed all tlie roads, and desolated the country lead-
ing to Moscow. Charles, thus thwarted in his favourite
projectof proceeding thither straight, resolved to make himself
a passage through the Ukraine. In this mad march, he had
the misfortune to see 2.000 of his men perish of cold and hun-
ger; yet he still pressed forward, and, after a variety of
obstructions and delays, occasioned by the hovering parties
of the enemy, and the most intcsnse frost ever known in those
northern regions, he arrived, in 1709, in the n(Mghl)ourhood of
Pultowa, a small Russian town, at the eastern extremity of
the Ukraine, on the river Worshlau. Pidtowa was strongly
garrisoned, and the czar lay at no irreat distance, with an army
of 70,000 men; yet ('harles obstinately persisted in his desiirn
of investing the town with his half-famish('d army, mow reduced
to 27.000 men. The garrison bravelv re|ielled the assault, and

XXX.^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 161

the King of Sweden was wounded as he was viewing the
works. Meanwhile, the czar advanced to the relief of Pultowa ;
Charles could not bear the thought of waiting for his enemy ; he
rashly advanced to meet him, and ordered his army to attack the
Russian camp. The Swedes charged with incredible fury, but
after a desperate combat of two hours, they were utterly routed
and dispersed: 9000 of the vanquished were left dead in the field,
600O were taken, together with the king's military chest, contain-
ing the spoils of Poland and Saxony. The remaining 12,000
men were obliged to surrender on the banks of the Boristhenes,
for want of boats to carry them over the river. Charles him-
self, accompanied by 300 of his guards, with difficulty escaped
to Bender, a Turkish town in Moldavia. No victory could
be attended with more important consequences than that
gained by Peter the Great, at Pultowa. The King of Sweden
lost in one day the fruits of nine years' success in war, and
that veteran army, which had spread terror over Europe, was
totally annihilated. The czar was not only relieved of his
apprehensions, but enabled to forward his plans of improve-
ment, by means of the industry and ingenuity of his Swedish
prisoners, whom necessity obliged to exert their talents in the
most remote parts of Siberia. The Elector of Saxony, hear-
ing of the defeat of his conqueror, protested against the treaty
of Alt Ranstadt, as having been extorted from him by force,
and re-entered Poland. Peter revived the ancient pretensions
of the czars to Livonia, Ingria, Carelia, and part of Finland ;
Denmark laid claim to Scania ; the King of Prussia to Pomera-
nia ; and had not the emperor and the maritime powers inter-
posed, the Swedish monarchy would have been rent to pieces.
During these transactions Charles XII, remained at Bender,
where he endeavoured to engage the Turks in a war with
Russia.

CHAPTER XXX.

THE AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, FROM 1710, TO THE DEATH OF QUEEN

ANNE, 1714.

1710. — The confederates rising in their demands upon
Lewis XIV., he judged it impossible to submit to their insoleni
terms, and yet was unwilling to break off ;,he treaty. The
conferences at Gertruydenberg were therefore idly protracted
while the armies on both sides took the field. The campaigi.

16*

162 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CJIAP.

of 1710 was distinguislied only by the capture of some towns
in I'landers by the allies, and by a battle in Spain, in uhidi
both sides clainicd the advaiilage.

In 1711, died the Kniperor Joseph; and his brulher, die
archduke, who had so long contended for the crown of Sj)ain,
and even assumed the title of Charles III., was unanimously
raised to the imperial dignity, by the name of ('harh^s VI.
This event, which entirely changed the face of all'airs, together
with the success of Marshal Villars, in Flanders, where he
comi)lelely routed a detachment of 1 1,000 English, under the
command of the Earl of Allx-marle, inspired the house of
Hourbon with the most sanguine hopes of peace. General
conferences were aecordiiiirly lield at Utrecht, in the begiiining
of 1712, for restoring tranquillity to Euroi)e. The i)auj)iiiii
of France, surnamed the Great, having died the preceding
year, was succeeded in his tide by his eldest son, the Duke
of Burgundy; that amiable and virtuous prince died in 1712,
to the inexpressible grief of the nation, and three weeks after
was followed to the grave by his son, the Duke of 13ritti\ny ;
so tliat there now stood only the Duke of Anjou, a sickly
infant, between the King of Spain and the throne of France.
The first care of the confederates, therefore, was that Pliilip
V. should transfer to his younger brother, tlic Duke of IJerry,
all right to the crown of France; that the isle of Sicily should
be ceded to the Duke of Savoy, wiUi the tide of king; that
Spanish (Juelderland should be given to the King of Prussia,
in exchanire for the priiu-ipality of Oranire, and that his regal
title sluMild be acknowledged ; that the Kliine should form
tlie boundary of the German emjdre on die side of France;
that the kingdom of Naf)les, the duchy of Milan, &.C., should
be ceded to the house of Austria, as also the Spanish Nether-
lands ; that the Elector of Bavaria should be put in possession
of the island of Sardinia, with the tide of king ; that certain
places in North America and the West Indies shoidd be ceded
or restored by France to Great Britain, and that the island of
Minorca and fortress of Gibraltar, conquered from Spain,
should remain in the possession of the English. Charles VI.
was olistiuate in refu>ing to i<igu die general pacification ; but
fimliiiir himself iinable to bear alone the weight of a disastrous
war, his armv umler Prince Eugene not having born in a con-
dition duriuir the w hole campaign to face the French under
Marshal Vdlars, who took, successively, Worms, Spire, and
the fortress of I/iurlau, he canw to an agreement in si)ring,
'714, to wh''"l« •'•« King of Spain also assented. The terntfl

XXX.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 163

of this treaty signed at Radstadt, were less favourable to the
emperor than tliose he had refused at Utrecht.

Pliilip V,, though now freed from the arms of the con-
federates, was by no means in quiet possession of his king-
dom. The Catalans were still in arms. Vast preparations
were made for the reduction of Barcelona, and the Duke of
Berwick besieger^ it by land and by sea. After a vigorous
and diisperate resistance, the town was taken, and all Catalonia
submitted : thus was extinguished the last spark of that great
fire, kindled by the will of Charles II. of Spain, which had
so long laid waste the finest countries of Europe.

In 1714 died Queen Anne of England, in the fiftieth year
of her age. The character of this princess is neither striking
nor complicated ; her capacity was extremely limited, nor were
her manners or person prepossessing. Her conduct towards
her father was a stain upon her private character, which, in
other respects, was blameless. She was continually governed
by favourites, but her popularity concealed the weakness of
her personal authority, and the great abilities of her principal
servants, to whom she was indebted for it, threw a veil over
her own feeble qualities. According to the act of settlement,
on the demise of Queen Anne, the Elector of Hanover was
proclaimed king, by the title of George I. He was then in
the fifty-fourth year of his age. It has been observed of him,
that in contradistinction to the impolitic maxim too frequently
embraced by the princes of the house of Stuart, of trusting
to the attachment of their friends, without rewarding them,
and attempting by favours to make friends of their enemies,
he made it a rule not to forget his friends, and to set his ene-
mies at defiance. He soon found that, of all the parties in
the kingdom, the Whigs alone were attached to his cause.
The Tories in general were inclined to Jacobitism ; and a
small body of foreign troops was only wanting to have made
the contest doul)tful between the house of Hanover and that
of Stuart, Such a body of troops the Duke of Orraond and
other zealous Jacobites in England, eagerly solicited from
Prince James, then known in France by the name of Cheva-
lier de St. George. The Duke of Berwick used all his influ
ence to procure a few regiments from Versailles ; but Lewis
XIV., now broken by years and infirmities, and standing on
the verge of the grave, was unwilling to engage in a new war,
or hazard any measure that might disturb the minority of his
great-grandson. He therefore declined taking openly any
part in favour of the excluded family ; and the vigilance of

164 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAP.

Ihe Earl of Stair, the British ambassador in France, efTcctually
prevented any secret aids from operating to the disadvantage
of )iis master.

Tlic <lealh of Lewis XIV., which happened soon after, was
a fresh blow to the Jacobites. He died September Ist, 1715,
aged seventy-seven years, after a vigorous and sploiKHd reign
of seventy-two years. No prince, says the Duke of Berwick,
was ever so little known as Lewis XIV. lie was born with
an air of majesty, which struck every one so much, that noliody
could approach him without being seized with awe and respect.
He was llie most polite man in liis kingdom; and his answers
were accompanied with so many obliging expressions, that if
he granted a reijuest, the oI)liixation was doubU-d I)y tlie man-
ner of conferring it; and if he refused, it was difficult to com-
plain. It was thai air of majesty, mentioned by the Duke of
Berwick, which so disconcerted an old olhcer who came to
ask a favour of Lewis XIV., that he could only say, in a fal-
tering voice, " I hope your majesty will believe I do not thus
tremble before your enemies." The character of this prince
is variously represented ; all anree that he held the reins of
government with a degree of firmness bordering on despotism ;
but this the necessity of the times seemed to require. A
inisunderstamrmg bi'twecn this king and Pope Iniioceiit XI.,
was productive of unhappy consequences to relisrion duriiiij n
part of his reign. Tlie contest arose on the subject of privi-
leges, respecting the nomination to ecclesiastical benefices,
claimed by Lewis and refused by Innocent. As both parties
refused to abandon their respective claims, many i)islio|)ric8
in France remained without pastors for a considerable space
of time. In order to mortify the pope, Lewis asseiiil)le(l a
council of the French clergy in 1632, at which the celebrated
and learned Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, presided. The famous
declaration, made in this assembly, in the name of the (Jal-
lican church, (though only thirty-two bishops were present,)
was deroijaiory to the authority of the pope, scandalized the
faithful, and adorded a subject of joy to the Jansenisls.* The

• Jiinsonism, thoimh it takes its name from Jansf-niuR, Hishopof Yprch,
owrs its cxiKtciirc to five other innovators who were linketl v/'ah hitn to
overthrow rcli^^ion, while they proferiiipil tliemnelvca its most ilevoted friends.
The two most notcil mernhers, hesiiles Jansenius, were the Abl)u St. Cyrran
ami the Hiciir .Xntiiine .\rnaui|. Their errors were r>unilcil on erroneous
conclusions from the writini;s of !St. ,\in{iisline ; each chief hud his '.auk
■sHii;ne(l him; nn excessive severity of moriiU was the lesion he had to
teach, and its ohvious clfcct was to deter men from the praclire, and, !>y de-
grees, from the iHrlief of a reliijion which, according to these new teacher^

MX.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 165

four propositions it contained were condemned b) the Pope,
and peace was not restored during the life of Innocent, or that
of his successor, Alexander VIII., till, in 1692, under Innocent
XII., Lewis solemnly relinquished the Galilean propositions,
and the Pope, on his side, granted canonical institution to those
whom the king had nominated to fill the vacant sees. But,
though Lewis, by the unhappy bent of human nature, occa-
sionally swerved from his duty, and disgraced his private
character by licentiousness and immorality, yet he loved and
respected religion. Infidelity, which since, like an impetuous
torrent, has swept away in its course the altar and the throne,
dared not then appear. Had he been less zealous for the pre-
servation of the true faith, he would have found admirers
among those who decry him, and panegyrists among his cen-
sors. Having lost his queen, Maria Theresa, in 1683, he
soon after married the celebrated Madame de Maintenon,
whose exalted qualities have been the theme of many eloquent
pens. To her influence over the king is ascribed, in great
measure, the wonderful change that took place in his senti-
ments and conduct, during the latter years of his life. The
death of Lewis was that of a Christian and a hero. But what
particularly immortalizes the name of Lewis XIV., is the
protection he granted to the sciences and the fine arts, which
caused his reign to be styled the Jiugustan <Age, and to form
an era in the annals of France. To name the great men,
whose talents he knew how to appreciate, as well as to stimu-
late into action, would alone fill a volume. The chief gene-
rals who commanded his armies, were the great Conde, the
Marshals de Turenne, Luxembourg, Crequi, Catinat, and
Villars ; his chief ministers were Colbert and Louvois. Among
the literati who adorned this period, we discover the names
of Racine and Corneille, tragic poets, who attained a high
reputation ; Moliere excelled in comedy, Boileau in works of
satire and criticism ; Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Flechier, and Mas-
sillon, carried pulpit eloquence to the highest degree of per-
fection ; De Tillemont, Pere Daniel, and Rollin, were eminent

exacted duties above their strength. The principles of the sect were com-
piled by Jansenius, and compose a large folio volume, entitled Aiigustinus,
This book the author, on his death-bed, submitted to the judgment of the
See of Rome. It was accordingly examined and condemned by Urban
VIII., 1641. Five propositions, extracted fron^ it, were afterwards juridi-
cally denounced by Pope Innocent X., the successor of Urban, in a formal
instrument, signed by eighty-tive bishops of France, and solemnly proscribed
and condemned by him as heretical, in a dogmatical bull, May 31st, 1653

166 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUUOPE. ([cHAF

historians. * Montesquieu has acquired a fatal celebrity as
the leirislator of nations, hy the pul)lifalion of "('onsid ra-
tions on the causes of the trrantleur and decline of the Roman
empire," and " 'Die Spirit of liie Laws." Pascal abused his
splendid talents, by employing them in the support of the
errors of Jansenism ; but the incomparable Frn»'lon claims all
the admiration thai is due to threat abilities and eloquence,
when united with the most exalted virtue. He rendered eshen-
tial service to the Duke de Rouriiotjne, who became a model
of learning and piety, and his labours were rewardcjd, in lOoi),
wiUi the archbishopric of Candiray. He died in the exercise
of his pastoral fuiKUions, 1716. England, at the same time,
produced many eminent men. Dryden, celebrated for his
translation of Virgil, died in 1701. Addison, who wrote the
most admired papers in the Spectator, Taller, and (luardian,
was noted for the elegance of his diction ; he died 171;"). Sir
Isaac Newton, the prince of philosophers, died 1727, and
Dr. H alley, a famous astronomer, 17i2. Prior, Congreve,
lilackmore. Philips, Garth, and Rowe, arc names which
should not be omitted. In Ireland, Dr. Parnell, a poet and
divine, was the friend and correspondent of Pope, Swift, Gay,
Arbulhuol, and other eminent wits of this period, who nou-
rished later than those we have already named, as included in
the luography of the seventeenth century. 'J'he Rev. John
Golher was the wiost noted Catholic writer, and Dr. Hurnet,
and Dr. ('ave, were eminent Protestant divines and historians,
'i'he Duke of Orleans, who was apj)ointc;d Regent of
France during the minority of Lewis XV., in contradiction
to the will of the deceased monarch, affected privately to
espouse the interests of the house of Stuart; but the exhaust-
ed state of France, and the dilFiculty of maintaining his own
authority against the other princes of the blood, induced liim
pui)licly to cultivate a good understanding with the Enirlish
governnu'iit; ami even to adopt, though with seeming reluct-
ance, such measures as it suggested for defeating the designs
of the house of Stuart. Nevertheless, the partisans of tiie

• De Thou, first prc«ident of tho Parliament of Paris, may more proper-
ly be ri'ckonni an hiMtoriral wrilrr of the KixtoiMilh century. Hi- ilii-d in
lfil7, and 8Uind!< foromost anion i; tin; nnxliTn I'lirruptcrt: of liistory, in which
h<' has been too succcHsfiilly fidlowcd liy Hunic, Vullaire. ami many otlicr
inferior imitators in Frnnre anil Hni;lan(l. Among this crowd of writers,
whoH<> worliH are only proper to nUHlead yoiuh.aiid render ri lit^iun o<lioii»,
Aiay tie |>nrtirularly named the .\bLK;8 liuynal and Millul, b'>tli hisluriaiu
o( ihe laJit oinlury.

KXX.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EITROPE. 167

fallen dynasty, who were still very numerous, thought this a
favourable opportunity to raise tlie standard of insurrection.
The Earl of Marr, assembling 300 of liis vassals, proclaimed
the accession of James VIII., and being joined by several
Highland chiefs and their clans, attacked the Duke of Argyle
in the neighbourhood of Dunblane, in September, 1715.
After an engagement of several hours, the armies separated,
both sides claiming the victory. This battle, though so little
decisive, proved fatal in its consequences to the Jacobite
cause. Lord Lovat, the chief of the Erasers, who seemed dis-
posed to join in the insurrection, now declared in favour of
the established government ; while the Marquis of TuUibar-
dine withdrew from the army, and the clans, disgusted at their
want of success, dispersed on the approach of winter. In
England the insurrection wore for a time a more formidable
aspect. The Earl of Derwentwater, and other Jacobite
leaders took up arms in considerable numbers ; but dissen-
sion arising in their councils, they separated in various
directions ; and the main body, being surrounded by the
king's troops, surrendered at discretion. The officers were
shot as deserters, the noblemen and gentlemen were com-
mitted to the Tower, and the others imprisoned at Carlisle.
In this unfavourable position of his affairs, James landed in
Scotland, was again proclaimed king, made his public entry
into Dundee, in January, 1716, and fixed on the 23d of the
same month for the day of his coronation. But, receiving in-
telligence of the near approach of the Duke of Argyle, who
had been reinforced by 6000 Dutch auxiliaries, and seeing
no prospect of fortune proving favourable to his arms, he
withdrew with the Earl of Marr to Montrose, and shordy
after took sliip for France. The main body of the insur-
gents moved northward so rapidly as to elude pursuit.
All who thougiit they could not hope for pardon, embarked
at Aberdeen ; the clans dispersed among their native hills, and
the whole country submitted to Argyle. Such was the issue
of an insurrection which proved fatal to so many noble fami
lies, and cost the lives of so many brave men. The Earls of
Derwentwater and Nairn, with several other noblemen, suffer-
ed the death of traitors. Lord Nithisdale, who had been
sentenced to a similar fate, owed his safety to the affectionate
ingenuity of his countess, who contrived his escape from the
Tower in female attire, which she had carried thither for the
purpose, when admitted to pay him a farewell visit. Many
of the lower classes fell a sacrifice to the cause they had

I88 GENERAL HISTORY OF EI'nOPE. [cHAP

embraced, and about a thousand were transported to North
America. The danircr of the slate was made a jth'a for
lenjrihening the period of I'ariiameut, wliich was extended to
seven years, by the exertions of Walp()U% now first lord of
llie treasury, and i-hancellor of the exche(juer. Some years
afterwards, (1722,) when a new plot was set on foot for the
restoration of the Stuart family, (but discovered in its birtli,)
the celebrated Atterbury, Ilishop of Rochester, was l)anished
on suspicion of guilt ; the Iiahras corpus act was suspended
for a whole year, and vigorous measures taken for preventing
a rebellion.

CHAPTER XXXI.

RUSSIA, TIIRKEV, AND THE NORTH, FROM THE HATTLE OF PHE-
TOWA, IN 1709, TO THE DEATH OF PETER THE GREAT, IN

1725.

The KinjT of Denmark, havinof declared war aorainst
Sweden, soon after the defeat of the Swedish monan-li at
Pultowa, invaded Scania, or Sclionen ; but his army was di!-
feated v/ith <i;reat slaughter, near Elsenberg, by CJcncral Sleeii-
bock. Charles XII. was so much delighted witli the news of
this victory, that he exclaimed, " My brave Swedes, should
I once more join you, we will l)eat them all." Tlie Kin^ of
Sweden was honourably received at Hender, and, tliough des-
titute of resources, still his mind was occupied with the thought
of delhronint: the czar. With this view, his envoy at ('on-
stantiuo[)le delivered memorials to the grand vizier, and his
friend, Poniatowsky, supported these solicitations by his in-
trigues. Achmet IK., the rciiruing sultan, presented Pi)iiiatow-
sky with a purse of 11)00 ducats, and tlie grand vizier jiromised
him to take his king in one hand and a sword in the other, and
conduct him to Moscow at the head of 200,000 men. Hut the
czar's money soon changed the sentiments of the Turkish
minister. 'I'be military chest, which Peter had taken at
Pultowa, furnished liim with new arms to wound the van-
quished ('harles, whose blood-earned treasures were turned
against himself. Wliile the ol)stinacy of tl.t; King of S\veii( n,
in refusing to return to his own dominions in any other cha-
racter than that of a contiueror, madir his fate depend upon the
caprice of viziers; whih- he was alternately receiving favours
»nd alfronLs from the great enemy of Christianity ; the Russian

XXXI. 3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 169

monarch was exhibiting to his people a spectacle not un-
worthy of ancient Rome. To inspire his subjects witli a
taste for magnificence, and to impress them with an awful
respect for his power, he made his public entry into Moscow,
under seven triumphal arches, adorned with every thing that
the climate could produce or a thriving commerce furnish.
First marched the guards, followed by the artillery taken
from the Swedes, the colours and standards won from the
same enemy, carried by those who had captured them ; the
litter, in which Charles XII. was carried at the batde of Pul-
towa, all shattered with cannon-shot, appeared in a chariot
made on purpose to display it. Behind the litter marched all
the Swedish prisoners, two and two ; among whom were
Count Piper, the prime minister, the famous Marshal Ken-
child, the Count de Lenenhaupt, and several officers and
generals, who were afterwards dispersed through Great Rus-
sia. Last in procession came the triumphant conqueror,
mounted on the same horse he rode at the battle of Pultowa,
and followed by his generals who had shared in the victory.

Tiiis magnificent spectacle furnished Charles v/ith new
arguments for awakening the jealousy of the Porte; and
Achmet gave orders to the grand vizier to attack the domi-
nions of the czar with 200,000 men. The first step of the
Ottoman court was to arrest the Russian ambassador, and
commit him to the castle of the seven towers. The czar, as
soon as informed of this insult, ordered his army in Poland to
march towards Moldavia, and made every preparation for war.
He mustered his forces on the frontiers of Poland, and planned
his route through Moldavia and Wallachia, the country of the
ancient Dacii, but now inhabited by Greek Christians, who are
tributary to the grand signior. Having concluded a secret
treaty with their prince, Cantemir, Peter passed the Niester,
and reached at length the northern banks of the Pruth, near
Jassi, the capital of Moldavia. Meanwhile, the grand vizier
advanced on the other side of the Pruth, at the head of 250,000
men. The Russians were destitute of forage and provisions,
and the sfrand vizier was determined to reduce the czar and his
exhausted army by famine. In this extremity, the Czarina
Catherine* obtained of Peter leave to negotiate with the grand
vizier; she sent to him the vice-chancellor, and a negotiation
took place. The vizier at first demanded that Peter and his
whole army should surrender prisoners of war; the chancellor
replied, that the Russians would all perish to a man, soone*

• Catherine v?as a liivonian captive whom he had raised to the throne.

170 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE (]cHAP

than submit to such conditions ; that his master's irsolulion
was alroaily taken, to oi)en a |)a.s.sa<re wilh tlie point of tli6
bayonet. The vizier was sensible of the (hniirer ol driving to
despair a body of ;{;"), 000 brave and diseiplined troops, headed
by a gallant prince ; and an agreement ensued, that tlie czar
should restore the city of Asoph ; destroy the harbour of
Tangaroh, and demolish the forts built on tlie I'alus IVheotis,
or sea of Zeback ; withdraw his troops from Poland ; give no
further disturbance to the (Cossacks, and permit the Swedish
monarch to relurn to his own kingdom. On these conditions
Peter was allowed to retire wilh his army, and was supplied
with provisions.

Charles arrived at the tent of the grand vizier, just as Peter
was marching olT, happy in the thought of having his enemy
in his power; enraged to find a treaty concluded, he burst
into the keenest reproaches. "I have a right," said the vizier,
" to make eiUier peace or war. Our laws command us to
grant peace to our enemies, when they implore our clemency."
" Did not fortune," replied Charles, " afl'ord you an ojiportuuity
of leading the czar in chains to Constantinople?" " And who,"
said the vizier, " would have governed his empire during his
absence? It is not proper that all crowned heads slioidd leave
their dominions." Charles, swelling with indignation, threw
himself on a sofa, and, stretching out his leg, entangled his
sj)ur in the vizier's robe, and purjjosely tore it. IJallagi took
no notice of this sjjlenelii; insult, and the King of Sweden,
further mortilicd by that neglect, sprung up, mounted his horse,
and returned with a sorrowful heart to Bender. All his
atlemjits to kindh; anew a war between Russia and Turkey
proved inelb.ctual ; aiul the divan, weary of his importunities,
nssolved to send him home, attended by a sufllcient guard.
The sultan presented him wilh 1200 purses of money to pay
his debts, and the Hashaw of Bender informed him of the orders
of the court; but Charles, in spite of the earnest entreaties
of his friends and servants, resolved to defend himself against
an army of 'I'urks and Tartars. After fiirhting like a desjierado,
he was seized and carried to the bashaw's (juarters. The
bashaw gave him his own apartment, and ordered him to be
served as a king, though a prisoner. N(!xt day he was con-
ducted towards Adrianoplc. On his way he was informed by
Baron Fabricius, aml)assador from the Duke of Ilolstein, that
Stanislaus, having come to share his fortunes, had been taken
into cnstodv, ami was (roiMU to Bender un<lera truard of soldiers.
"Run to hiiu, iny dear Fabricius," cried Charles; "desire him

XXXI. J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPK. 171

never to make peace with Augustus, and assure him that our
affairs will soon take a more flattering turn." This idea con-
tinued to occupy him during iho whole time of liis confinement.
He was at first committed to the castle of Demirlash, in the
neighbourhood of Adrianople, but afterwards allowed to reside
at Demotica, a little town about six leagues distant from that
city, near the famous river Hebrus, now called Merizza.
There he renewed his intrigues ; and, lest the Turks should
not pay him the respect due to his royal person, he resolved
to keep his bed during his captivity, under pretence of sick-
ness.

1713. — While the naturally active and indefatigable Charles,
who had set even the elements themselves at defiance, was
wasting his time and health in bed, the northern princes, who
had formerly trembled at his name, were dismembering his
dominions. General Steenbock defended his master's posses-
sions in Germany as long as possible. He defeated an army
of Danes and Saxons with great slaughter, at a place called
Gatesbush, in Mecklenburg; but, though victorious, he could
not prevent the junction of the Russians, Danes, and Saxons,
who obliged him and his army to seek an asylum in Tonningen,
a fortress in the duchy of Holstein. In the mean time, the
czar was pushing his conquests in Finland. Having made a
descent at Elsingford, the most southern part of that cold and
barren region, he took possession of the town. He afterwards
made himself master of Abo, Borgo, and the whole coast ; de-
feated the Swedes near Tavestius, a post which commanded
the Gulf of Bothnia; penetrated as far as Vasa, and reduced
every fortress in the country. In 1714, he gained a complete
victory by sea, and made himself master of the isle of Oeland.
These successes furnished him with a new occasion of tri-
umph: he entered Petersburgh, as he formerly had Moscow,
in procession, under a magnificent arch, decorated with the
insignia of his conquests. Meanwhile, the regency of Stock-
holm, driven to despair by the desperate situation of their af-
fairs, and the absence of their sovereign, came to a resolution
no longer to consult him in regard to their proceedings ; and
the senate entreated Ulrica Eleanora, the king's sister, to take
the government into her own hands, till the return of her bro-
ther. She agreed to the proposal ; but, finding their purpose
was to force her to make peace with Russia and Denmark, she
resigned the regency, and wrote a full account of the matter
to the king. Roused from his affected sickness, by what he
considered a treasonable attempt upon his authority, Charles

173 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

signifud his desire to the ^rand vizier of returning tlirouirh
Gcrnianv to his own doniinions. The 'J'liikiali minister
notrlectcd nolhini; which might I'acihiate that event ; and, ail
tilings being prepared for his departure, he set out with a con-
voy of sixty loaded wagons and three hundred horse. The
emperor gave orders that he shoidd i)e received in every [':irt
of the imperial dominions with tlie respect due to ills rank;
but Charles had no inclination to bear the fatigue of pomp and
ceremony. lie; therefore took leave of his 'I'urkisli convoy,
as soon as he arrived at Targowitz, on the coniines of Tran-
sylvania; and, assembling his attendants, desired them to give
themselves no further concern about him, but to proceed with
all expedition to Stralsund, in Pomerania. Tiie king himself,
in disguise, attended only by two officers, arrived at that
place in November, 1714, and employed the winter in recruit-
ing his armies. In order to strengthen his interest, he gave
his only survivintr sister, Ulrica Eleonora, in marriajje to
Frederic, Prince of Hesse Cassel, who was esteemed a good
general.

1715. — Charles, on the opening of tiie campaign, found
himself environed with so many enemies, that valour and
conduct alone were of very little service. The German troops
of the Elector of Hanover, now King of Great Hritain, invested
the strong town of Wismar; while the coml)iued army of
Prussians, Danes, and Saxons, marched towards Stralsund to
besiege it. The czar was in the Hahic with a numerous (leet
and army, and Sweden was in daily expectation of an invasion.
Stralsund, the strongest place in Pomerania, is situated be-
tween the TVdlic sea and the Lake of Franken, near the Straits
of Gella. To deprive the King of Sweden and his little army
of all succours, the allies chased the Swedish fleet from the
coast, and took possession of the isle of Usedom, and then
attacked Kugen, which serves as a bulwark to Stralsund.
(Jharles hastened to its relief with 4000 chosen men ; but tlic
Prince of Anhalt, who had effected a landing with 20,000,
liad ordered a deep fosse to be sunk as soon as he landed, and
fortified it wiUi chevaux-de-frize. The King of Sweden, who
marched on foot, sword in hand, was not a little surprised,
wlien. plucking up some of the chevaux-de-frize, he discovered
a ditch. He was not, however, disconcerted; he leaped into
the fosse, accompanied by the boldest of his men, and at-
tempted to force tFie enemy's camp. The impetuosity of the
attack threw the Danes and Prussians into some confusion,
but the contest was unequal; the Swedes were repul.-ed, and

XXXI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 173

obliged to repass the fosse. The Prince of Anhalt pursued
them ; the battle was renewed ; the greatest part of the Swedes
were cut to pieces : Charles saw liis secretary and two gene-
rals fall dead at his feet, and, being himself wounded, he was
put on horseback by Poniatowsky, who had saved his life at
Pultowa, and shared his misfortunes in Turkey; he was now
constrained to make the best of his way to the sea-coast, and
abandon Rugen to its fate. Stralsund was now reduced to the
last extremity. 'I'he bombs fell as thick as hail upon the
houses, and half the town was reduced to ashes. Charles,
however, still preserved his firmness. It happened, as he was
dictating a letter, that a bomb burst in the neighbourhood of
his apartment; his secretary dropped his pen. "What is the
matter?" said the king. "The bomb," sighed the intimidated
scribe. " Write on," cried Charles, " what has the bomb to
do with the letter I am dictating?" The grand assault was
now every minute expected, when his friends forced him on
board a small vessel, which landed him in Sweden, and Stral-
sund surrendered next day. The king, not choosing to visit
his capital in his present unfortunate circumstances, passed
the winter at Carlscroon, from whence he had set out fifteen
years before.

In 1716, when all Europe expected Sweden to be invaded,
and even overrun by her numberless enemies, Charles passed
over into Norway, and made himself master of Christiania.
Meanwhile, Wismar, the only town that remained to him on
the frontiers of Germany, had surrendered to the Danes and
Prussians; who, jealous of the Russians, would not allow
them to be present at the siege. This jealousy alienated the
czar's mind from the confederates ; and Goertz, taking advan-
tage of it, obtained leave from Charles to negotiate for peace.
Peter proceeded cautiously ; but conferences were at last
appointed to be held in the isle of Oeland. In October, 1718,
Charles, having undertaken a second expedition into Norway,
sat down before Fredericshall in December, when the ground
was as hard as iron, and the cold so intense that the soldiers
on duty frequently dropped down dead. To animate them,
he exposed himself to all the rigour of the climate, as well
as to the danger of the siege, sleeping even in the open air,
covered only with a cloak. One night, as he was viewing
them carrying on their approaches by starlight, he was killed
by a cannon-ball. Though he expired without a groan, the
moment he received the blow, he instinctively grasped the hilt
of his sword, and was found in that position so truly charae-

17*

174 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [[cHAP.

teristic of his mind. The dcatli of Cliarles was ponsidei-eJ
as a signal f(ir a ircnrral eossatioii of arms. The l^riiice of
llissc, wlio rommiiiiili'il uiulcr tlie kiiitj, immrdiatclv raised
the siege of Fredcricshall, and led the Swedes hack into their
own country ; nor did llic Danes attempt to molest them on
their niairli.

1719. — Hy a free and voluntary choice, the states of the
kinijdom elected Ulrica Eleonora, sister of Charles XII., for
their queen, and she soon after relin<iuisl)ed the crown to her
husband, the Prince of Hesse. 'I'he Swedes now lurneil llieir
views to peace, which was procured l)y different treaties.
'I'hat with the czar was not concluded till 1721. He was left
in jiossession of l>ivonia, Estonia, and Ingria, with part of Carc-
lia and part of Finland, Peter henceforth took the tide of em])e-
ror, which was soon acknowledged hy all the European powers.
In 1722, Persia ijeincr distracted by civil wars, he marched to
the assistance of Sha Thatnas, and in return for iiis seasonable
protection, the new sophi put him in possession of three pro-
vinces bordering on the Caspian Sea, which composed the
greater part of the ancient kingdom of the Medes. His son,
Alexis, having discovered an inclination to ohstruct his favour-
ite plans of civilization, was made to sign, in 1718, a solemn
remmiiation of the crown; and soon after condemned to die.
The death of the czarowitz was soon lollowed hy that of
Peter's infant son. (1724.) As a prelude to the eventual
succession of the czarina, Peter, after his return from his
Persian e.vptiditioii, assisted in jierson at liersolemn coronation ;
and upon the death of the emperor, in 1725, she quietly suc-
ceeded to the throne.

CHAPTER XXXH.

EUROPE, FROM THE DEATH OF LEWIS XIV., IN 171. *>, TO THE
DEATH OF THE EMPEROR CHARLES VI., 1710.

The Turks had happily remained quiet, while the Christian
princes were most deeply embroiled among themselves ; hut
no sooner was the general peace of Utrecht concluded, than
Achmet HI. commenced hostilities against tln^ Venetians, and
made liimHclf master of the Morea. or ancient Peloponnesus.
Tiie Emperor ('harles VT,, as guarantee of the treaty of
Carlowilz, liy which this territory had been assi<^ned to the
repuh'ic of Venice, was bound in honour to declare war againnl

XXXII. J GENERAL HISTORV OF EUROPE. 176

the Turks for infringing it: and the Pope, alarmed at the pro-
gress of the infidels, urged his imperial majesty to stand forth
in defence of Christendom. (1716.) Charles accordingly
assembled a powerful army, under the celebrated Prince
Eugene, who passed the Danube, and defeated the Grand
Vizier Ali, at Peterwaradin. (1717.) The year following, tlie
same general undertook, the siege of Belgrade. The Turks
besieged him in his camp. His danger was imminent ; but
military skill and disciplined valour triumphed over numbers
and savage ferocity. He sallied out of his entrenchments, fell
upon the enemy, entirely routed them, with great slaughter,
and Belgrade surrendered immediately after. The consequence
of these two victories was the peace of Passarowitz, (1718,)
by which the Porte ceded to the emperor Belgrade and all the
Bannet of Temeswar ; but the Venetians never recovered their
possessions in Greece.

Meanwhile, Phdip V. of Spain, having lost his first queen,
Maria Louisa of Savoy, had married, in 1714, Elizabeth
Farnese, presumptive heiress to the duchies of Parma, Pla-
centia, and Tuscany. The jealousy occasioned by this alli-
ance, and the great projects of the Spanish minister. Cardinal
Alberoni, induced the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France for
Lewis XV., to enter into a league with England and Holland,
in 1716; and in 1718, these three powers, in conjunction
with the emperor, formed the famous Quadruple Alliance.
After the articles which provided for the maintaining of the
peace of Utrecht, the principal stipulations of this treaty
were, that the Duke of Savoy, in consideration of certain
places in Italy, should exchange with the emperor the island
of Sicily for that of Sardinia, of which he should take the
regal title, and that the emperor should confer on Don Carlos,
eldest son of the young Queen of Spain, the investiture of
the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Tuscany, on the death
of the present possessors without issue. The Spanish court
rejected these proposals with scorn ; they had already taken
possession of Sardinia, and great part of Sicily, and the
consequence of these hostilities, was a declaration of war
against Spain, by France and England. George L sent a
powerful fleet into the Mediterranean, under Sir George
Byng, who engaged the Spanish fleet near the coast of Sicily,
and took or destroyed twenty-one ships out of twenty-seven.
He next recovered the town and citadel of Messina, and the
Spaniards made overtures for evacuating the island.

1719. — The recovery of Sicily was followed bj the sur

178 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

render of Sardinia, In the mean time, the Duke of Borwick
conducted a I-Voncli army towards the frontiers of Spain, and
made himself master of St. Sebastian and Funlarabia; and
havinir prepared to open the next eampai>rn by the siege of
Roses and Pampehina, IMiilip V. acceded to tlie terms
prescribed by the Quadruple Alliance, and All)eroni was
disfrraeed.

During these political transactions, great changes wero
eflected in the commercial world, the finances of nations,
and fortunes of thousands of individuals, liy a Scottish
adventurer, named John Law. He undertook to repair the
finances of France, which were then in a deplorable condition.
Law's scheme was, by speedily paying off tlie national debt,*
to clear the public revenue of the enormous interest that
absorbed it: the introduction of paper credit could alone effect
this revolution, and the exigencies of the state seemed to
require such an expedient. But the delusion soon vaiii.-ihe(l :
even Law himself, deceived by his own calculations, and
intoxicated with the pulilic folly, had fibricated so many notes,
that, in 171'J, the cliimerical value of the funds exceeded four-
score times the real value of the current coin of the kingdom,
wliich was nearly all in the hands of government. Pui)lic
credit sunk at once. Upwards of 500,000 iieads of families
presented their whole f(jrtuiie in paper, and government was
under the necessity of contributing to their relief. The
elTects of this famous scheme w(!re not confined to France ;
the contagion of stock-jol)bing infected other nations. Hol-
land received a slight shock, but its violence was peculiarly
reserved for England, where it exiiausted its fury.

Li 1723 died Philip, Duke of Orleans, Kegent of France;

• The National Debt is the residue of those immense sums, which
government has, in tinies of cxJRi'ncy, been ol)lif^ed to raise hy wny of
voluntary loan for tlic public service, beyond what the annual revenue of
the crown could supply, and which the state has not yet paid olT. The
Pii/ilic Fundi ciinsist of certain masses of the money thus deposited in
the hands of jjovernment, toijcthcr with the (general |>roducc of the taxes
njipriipriated by Parliament to [)ay the interest of that money ; and the
surplus of the taxes, which have always been more than sutricient to
answer the charjje upon ihi'tn, composes what was called the Sinki/iq
Fund, lu'causc it was ori|>inally intended to be ap(ilied towards the reduc-
tion, or sinkio(T nf ihe t)iitional d'iit. The Slnc/cn arc the whole of this
pi.blir and funded debt, which beini; divided iiUo many shares, l>earin(r a
known interest, but dilTerent in the diirerent funds, may be easily transferred
from o!ie |MTson to another, ainl wliich rise or fall in value, according to
the plenty or scarcity of money in the nation, or the opinion the proprioi
tors havo of llic security of j)ublic credit.

XXXII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 177

under the auspices of this prince, Jansenism acquired new
strength, vice and irreligion increased to an alarming extent;
yet tlie politic duke, though himself a monster of libertinism,
feeling the necessity of religion to the state, would not siifter
it to be publicly impugned. This audacity commenced after
his death, when deism, under the delusive name of reason and
enlightened philosophy, threw off all disguise, both in practice
and profession, and attacked the whole substance of revealed
religion. At the head of these free-thinkers was Voltaire, a
vain, aspiring youth, who sought to raise to himself an ever-
lasting monument on the ruins of Christianity. " I am tired,"
he used to say, "of hearing it repeated, that twelve men were
able to establish Christianity. I will show the world that one
man will be enough to effect its ruin." Proud was his boast
and impotent his endeavour ; deplorable, however, was the
change that his writings wrought in the principles of his
numerous readers.

The Duke of Orleans was succeeded in the administration
(but not in the regency, the king being now of age) by the
Duke of Bourbon. This minister was soon supplanted by
Cardinal Fleury, who had been preceptor to Lewis XV., and,
at the advanced age of seventy-three, took upon him the cares
of government. About the same time, Sir Robert Walpole,
whose disposition was no less pacific than Fleury's, became
prime minister of Great Britain. A treaty, signed at Vienna
this year, (1725,) between the emperor and the King of Spain,*
excited the jealousy of George I., who was under apprehen-
sions for his German dominions, as well as of some secret
article in favour of the Stuart femily. It also gave umbrage
to the French and Dutch. In order to counteract the treaty
of Vienna, another was concluded at Hanover, between the
three offended powers, and the Kings of Prussia, Denmark,
and Sweden. (1736.) The King of England fitted out three
squadrons, one of which he sent to the West Indies, to block
up the Spanish galleons, in the harbour of Porto Bello. The
Spaniards, in resentment of this insult, laid siege to Gibraltar,
but without success ; and a reconciliation was soon after
effected, through the mediation of France. During these
negotiations died George I., being suddenly seized with a
paralytic disorder, on the road from Holland to Hanover ; he
was conveyed to Osnaburgh, where he expired, on the 11th

* Philip V. had abdicated the crown the preceding year, in favour of his
son, Don Lewis; but this prince dying about six months after, Philip again
resumed the sceptre.

178 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. (^CHAF

of June, 1727, in the sixly-eighth year of liis a^e, and
tliirtetMith of his reiirn. Hy his consort, Sophia Dorothea,
hfircss of ZcU, he U*ft a son, (ieorire, who sncccctk'd to the
throne, and a ihiii<rhler, married to FrecU'iic William, Kinij of
Prussia. George I. has had the good fortune to have the
merits of his reiijn attributed to himself, whiU; its (h-fects
were thrown upon the corruption and false principles of his
ministers. The accession of George II. made no alteraliou
in the svstfin of British pcdicv.

1731. — in consequence of the treaty of Seville, confirmed
by another at Vienna, Don Charles took quiet possession of
the duchies of Parma and Plncentia, when the succession
devolved upon him ; hy the treaty of Vienna, the emperor
also agreed that the Oslend Company, which had given so
much umbrage to France, England, and Holland, should be
toUiUy dissolved, on condition that the contracting powers ia
the treaty of Seville should guarantee the Pragmatic Saiu'tion,
or domestic law, iiy which the succession to the hereditary
dominions of the house of Austria was secured to the heirs
female of the Emperor Charles VI., in case he should die
without male issue. The proposal was acceded to, and the
peace of Europe continued undisturbed till the death of
Aug\istus II., King of Poland, in 1733. On this event,
Stanislaus Leczinski, whom ('harles XIl. had invested with
the sovereignty of Poland, in 1704, and whom Peter the Great
had dethroned, now become father-in-law to Lewis XV., was
a second time chosen king. IJut the emperor, assisted hy the
Russians, obliged the Poles to proceed to a new election: the
Elector of Saxony, son of the late Kin^r of I'nhmd, wlio had
married the emperor's niece, was raised to the throne, under
the name of Augustus III., and Stanislaus, as formerly, was
forced to abandon his crown. Lewis XV, thought himself
injured in the person of that prince, and determined to be
revenired on the emperor: he entered into an alliance with
the Kings of Spain and Sardinia, and war was begun in Italy
and on the frontiers of (Jcrmany : tlie imperial courts of Vienna
and I'cU-rsburgh warndy espoused the pretensions of Augustus.
Philipsburg was invested by the French, uiuler the Duke of
Hcrwick; and though this experienced commander was killed
by a cannon-ball, in visiting the trenches, the place was taken
by the Marquis d'Asfeld, who succeeded Berwick, in spite
nf the efforts of I'ri nci- l]ugenc to prevent its surrender.

The French were not less successful in Italv, while the
Spaniaids, in two campaigns, became masters of Naples and

XXXII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 179

Sicily. Discouraged by so many losses, the emperor signified
a desire of peace, which was finally adjusted, in 1735. By
this treaty it was stipulated, that Stanislaus should renounce
his pretensions to Poland, in consideration of the cession of
the duchy of Lorraine, which he should enjoy during his life,
and which, after his death, should be reunited to the crown
of France ; that the Duke of Lorraine should have Tuscany
in exchange for his hereditary dominions ; and that Lew is X V
should insure to him an annual revenue of 3,500,000 livres
till the death of the grand duke ;* that the emperor should
acknowledge Don Carlos king of the two Sicilies, and accept
the duchies of Parma and Placentia as an indemnification for
those kingdoms ; that he should cede to the King of Sardinia
the Novarese, Torlonese, and the fiefs of Langes ; in consi-
deration of these cessions, the King of France agreed to
restore all his conquests in Germany, and to guarantee the
Pragmatical Sanction. Scarcely was this peace negotiated,
when a new war broke out on the confines of Europe and
Asia, in which the emperor found himself involved. Pro-
voked at the ravages of the Crim Tartars, as well as at the
neglect of the Ottoman Porte to her repeated remonstrances,
Anne, Empress of Russia, resolved to do herself justice. She
accordingly ordered Lasci, one of her generals, to attack
Asoph, which he reduced; M'hile the Count de Munich,
entering the Crimea with another army, forced the lines of
Precop, made himself master of the place itself, took Banie-
sary, and laid all Tartary waste with fire and sword. Next
campaign, Munich entered the Ukraine and invested Ocza-
kow, which was carried by assault, though defended by
a garrison of 3000 Janizaries, and 7000 Bosniacs. The
powder-magazine having taken fire, the Russian general took
that opportunity to storm the town, and the Turks soon sur-
rendered.

The emperor, who was bound by treaty to assist the court
of Petersburg against the Porte, resolved to attack the Turks
on the side of Hungary, while the Russians conti'.med to
press them on the borders of the Black Sea; but the imperial
generals were repeatedly defeated, several important places
were lost, and, in 1739, Belgrade was besieged. Discou-
raged by his misfortunes, Charles VL had recourse to the me-
diation of France ; and the Empress of Russia, though
recently victorious at Choczim, afraid of being deserted by

• John Gaston, the last prince of the house of Medicis, who died in 1737

iSO OENKRAL HISTOKY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

liiT j.Uy, li:ul :ilso recourse to negotiation. Tlie Turks
obiaiiioii an advBiUagcous peace. Hy tlial treaty, tlic empe-
ror ceded to the graiul .seiiiuior Ik-lj^iade, Sahalz, tlie isle and
fortress of Orsova, with JServia and Austrian Wahicliia; and
llie contracting powers agreed that the Danube and tlie Save
should in future be the boundaries of the two empires.

Tiie Euipretis of Russia was h'ft in possession of Asoph, on
condition that its fortitications siiouKl be duinohshed ; and tiie
ancient limits between the Russian and Turkish empires were
re-established.

Soon after this peace was signed, died, in 1740, the Em-
peror Charles VI., the last prince of the ancient and illustrious
house of Austria ; the disputtid succession to whose hereditary
dominions, kindled anew the flames of war in Eurojje. The
same year, the English took Porto Hello from the Spaniards,
and Commodore Anson began the circumnavigation of the
globe.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

A GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE, FROM THE DEATH OF i'HARLES
VI., IN 1740, TO THE TREATY OF DRESDEN, IN 1745.

1740. — The death of the Emperor Charles VI., without
male issue, awakened the ambition of many potentates, the ad-
jusliuL'' "if whose j)rct('nsioMs threw all lCuroi»e into a fernu'ut.
Hy virtue of the Praj^uiatic Sanction, as well as the rights
of blood, the succession to the whole Austrian dominions
belonged to the Arch-dufhess Maria Teresa, the emperor's
eldest daughter, married to Francis of Lorraine, (irand Duke
of Tuscany. The kingdoms of Hungary and Holiemia, the
provinces of Silesia, Austrian Swabia, Upper and Lower
Austria, Stiria, ('arinthia, Carniola ; the four forest towns,
Hurgaw, Hrisgaw, the Low Countries, Eriuli, Tyrol, the
duchies of Milan, Parma, and Placentia, formed that immense
inheritance.

Almost all the European powers had guarantied the Prag-
matic Sanction; but, as Prince Eugene remarked very judi-
ciously, "a hundred thousand men would have guarantied it
better than a hundred th(>\isand treaties." Charles Albert,
Elector of Havaria, laid claim to the kitiffdom of Hobemia, on
the strength of an article in tin; will of the Emperor l'"erdi-
Uiind 1.. brother to Charles V. : Augustus III., Kirigof Poland

XXXIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 181

and Elector of Saxony, exhibited pretensions to the whole
Austrian succession, in virtue of the rights of his wife, daugh
ter of the Emperor Joseph, elder brother of Charles VI.
The Catholic king deduced similar pretensions from the
rights of the daughter of Maximilian II., wife to Philip II.,
from whom he was descended by females ; and the King of Sar •
dinia revived an obsolete claim to the duchy of Milan. The King
of France had also his pretensions, as being descended in a riglu
line from the eldest branch of the house of Austria, by two prin-
cesses married to his ancestors, Lewis XIII. and Lewis XIV.
In the mean time, Maria Teresa took quiet possession of that
vast inheritance, which was secured to her by the Pragmatic
Sanction. She received the homage of the states of Austria
at Vienna ; and the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia swore
allegiance to her by their deputies, as did the Italian posses-
sions. By a popular affability, which her predecessors had
seldom displayed, she gained the hearts of her subjects, with-
out diminishing her dignity. But, above all, she ingratiated
jierself with the Hungarians, in voluntarily accepting the an-
rient oath of their sovereigns, by which the subjects, should
their privileges be invaded, are allowed to defend themselves
tvithout being treated as rebels.

The first alarm given by Maria Teresa's enemies was by a
formidable but unexpected pretender. Frederic II., King o.
Prussia, had lately succeeded his father, Frederic William
This enterprising monarch revived certain antiquated claims
of his family to four duchies in Silesia, and began his march
at the head of .30,000 choice troops to establish his right.
When he found himself in the heart of that rich province, and
in possession of Breslaw, its capital, he showed a disposition
to negotiate. He offued to supply the Queen of Hungary (as
Maria Teresa was then generally called) with money and
troops ; to protect to the utmost of his power the rest of her
dominions in Germany, and to use all his interest to place her
husband on the imperial throne, provided she would cede to
him the Lower Silesia. But tlie queen was sensible that by yield-*
ing to the claims of one pretender, she should only encourage
those of others ; she therefore rejected the offers of the King
of Prussia, and sent Count Newperg, with a strong body of
troops, into Silesia, to expel the invaders. The two armies
met at Molwitz, a village in the neighbourhood of Neiss, and
within a league of the river of the same name. There a des-
perate battle was fought. The Austrians lost 4,000 men, and
were obliged to retreat. This victory of the Prussians was

|82 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. | ClIAF.

followed, tlioiich not immediately, by the rednrtion of fJlati
and Nciss, ami the submission of the wiiole province ol Silesia.
The success of the Kin^ of Prussia astonished all Europe,
and tiie refusal of Maria Teresa to comply with his demands,
whieli had so lately been diijnilied with the name of jrrealness
of soul, wi's now branded with the appellation of imprudent
obstinacy and hereditary hausrhtiness. The Queen of Hun-
gary mitrht perhaps have found an ally in Russia, if Sweden
had not prevented it l)y declaring war against that empire in
174 1 . The campaign of the following year proving disastrous
to the Swedes, peace was concluded between these two powers,
at Abo, in 1743. The crown of Sweden, on the death of
Ulrica Eleanora, (in 1741,) had devolved on her husband,
Frederic, Landgrave of Hesse Cassel ; when peace with
Russia was treated of, the states of Sweden chose Prince
Adolphus Frederick, of Holstein Gottorp, Bishop of Lubeck,
hereditary prince ; and on the death of his predecessor, in 1751,
he succeeded to the throne of Sweden. A revolution also took
place in Russia in 1741. 'I'lie Empress Anne, dying in 1740,
named for her successor John or Iwan, the son of her niece
Anne, married to the Duke of Brunswick Bcvern. The fol-
lowing year the Princess Anne was appointed regent for her
infant son, and her husband named generalissimo of the
Russian forces ; but discontents arising on account of the
share which forciirners had in the government, the Princess
Elizabeth, only surviving child of Peter the Great, was, con-
formably to the will of her father, called to the throne in 1741,
and the regent, with her son and husband, was imprisoned.
France had guarantied the Pragmatic Sanction (»f (Jiiarles V'l.,
and Cardinal Fleury, whose love of peace increased with his
declining years, was desirous of fulfilling his master's engage-
ment; hut no sooner was it known at Versailles that the King
of Prussia had invaded Silesia, than the French nation became
desirous of breaking the power of the house of Austria, and
of exaltin? that of Bourbon on its ruins, by dismembering the
dominions of Maria Teresa, and placing on the imperial
throne Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria, a stipendiary of his
most Christian Majesty. A treaty was therefore concluded
between France and Spain with Bavaria, against Maria Teresa;
the Kings of Poland, Prussia, Sardinia, and N.aples, afterwards
acceded to this alliance, and I^ewis appointed the Elector of
Bavaria his lieutenant-general, with the Mareschals Belleisle
and Broglio to act under him. In 1741, the combined forces
of France and Prussia overrun Upper Austria, took possession

XXXIII.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 183

of Lintz, and approached Vienna, which was thrown into
great consternation. In this extremity of her fortune, INIaria
Teresa, committing her desperate affairs to the care of hei
husband and her brave generals, left Vienna and retired to
Presburg in Hungary ; where having assembled the states of
that kingdom, she appeared before them with her eldest son,
yet an infant, in her arms, and addressed them in a speech to
the following purport. " Abandoned by my friends, perse-
cuted by my enemies, and attacked by my nearest relations, I
nave no resource left, but in your fidelity and valour. On you
alone I depend for relief; and into your hands I commit, with
confidence, the son of your sovereign, and my just cause." At
once filled with rage and compassion at these affecting expres-
sions of confidence, by so flattering an appeal to their loyalty,
and by the appearance of a young, heroic princess in distress,
the Palatines drew their sabres, and exclaimed, in a tone of
enthusiasm, " We will die for our king,* Maria Teresa."
The Hungarian nobility were instantly in arms, and old Count
Palfy, whom the queen honoured with the name of father,
marched to the relief of Vienna, with 30,000 men. Keven-
huUer had a garrison of 12,000, Count Newperg was in
Bohemia at the head of 20,000 : the grand duke and his
brother. Prince Charles of Lorraine, who was the delight of
the Austrian armies, commanded another large body ; and the
other generals were exerting themselves to the utmost in rais-
ing troops for their sovereign. These circumstances, added
to the declining season, induced the Elector of Bavaria to
alter his plans ; instead of investing Vienna, he marched into
Bohemia, and, being joined by 20,000 Saxons, laid siege to
Prague. The place was stormed and taken by the gallantry
of the famous Count Saxe, natural son of Augustus H., of
Poland, who had already entered the French service : and the
Elector of Bavaria, having been crowned King of Bohemia at
Prague, proceeded to Frankfort, where he was elected emperor,
under the name of Charles VH., and invested with the imperial
ensigns in January, 1742.

The intimate connexion between England and the house of
Austria, since the revolution in 1688, cemented by the blood
spilled during two long and desolating wars against Lewis
XIV., made the people consider this connexion as essential to
the liberties of Europe, against the power of the house of
Bourbon. The English nation therefore warmly espoused

* Tlie Hungarians call their sovereign, king, of whatever sex.

184 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CU\9

the causo of llir Qiieon of Iluiisraiy : tlio cry for war was loud,
and for fiilfilliiiir lo ilic utmost, the treaty with the hitc emperor.
Georj^e II., who sceiru-d only to value the Hrilish crown as it
augmented his consequence in (iermany, was suiricicnlly dis-
pos(!d lo enter into these views: KUlO Ikitish troops were
transported into the Low Countries, to make a diversion in
favour of Maria Teresa; they were joined by 6,000 Hessians
and 10,000 Hanoverians in Ikitish pay.

Tlie good fortime of the Elector of Bavaria terminated with
IMS elevation to the imperial throne. The very day that he was
elected emperor, he received an account of the loss of Lintz,
the capital of Upper Austria, though defended by a garrison
of 10,000 Frencli troops. KevenhuUer, the Austrian general,
who had |)crformed this important service, having dislodged
the Frencli from all llie stronghoUls of that country, entered
the emperor's hereditary dominions, defeated Marshal Thoring
at Memherij, and took Munich, capital of IJavaria. In the
mean time Prince Lobkowitz, with 11,000 foot and 5,000
horse, was appointed to observe the motions of the French in
Bohemia, while Prince Charles of Lorraine, at the head of
48,000 men, advanced against the Prussians and Saxons who
had invaded Moravia. They retired with precipitation on iiis
approach, and al)andoned Olmutz, whicii they had taken.
This retreat was considered ;is an event of mucli importance
l>y the Austrians ; but the active and enterprising King of
Prussia, having received a reinforcement of 30,000 men, under
the Prince of Aiilialt-Dcssau, marched to the assistance of his
allies in Boiieinia, and gave battle to Prince Charles, at
Czaslaw. The disciplined troops on both sides were nearly
equul,but the Austrians had besides a large body of undisciplined
irregidars, Croats, Pandurs, *Sic., who engaged with incredible
fury." The Prussians were brokcMi ; the king left the field,
and a total defeat must have ensued, had not the thirst of
plunder seized the Austrian irreffidars, at the sight of the
Prussian l)aggage. Their example infected the regulars, who
gave over the pursuit. The Prussian infantry seized the op-
portunity to rally; they n.-turned to the charge, and after an
ol)stinate aHVay, broke the main body of the Austrian army,
and obliged I'rince Charles to retire, with the loss of 5,000
men. The King of Prussia, whose loss was litUe inferior to
that of the Austrians, sick of such bloody victories, and suspect-
ing the sincerity of the court of France, began to turn his

• The CroaUi arc the militia of C'roalia ; tin- Patidors arc Sclavoiiiana.

XXXin._, GIJNERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 185

thoughts towards peace, and concluded at Breslaw, without
consulthig his allies, an advantageous treaty with the Queen
of Hungary. By this treaty, Maria Teresa ceded to Frederic
II. Upper and Lower Silesia, with the county of Glatz ; and
he engaged to observe a strict neutrality during the war, and
to withdraw his forces from her dominions, within sixteen
days after the signing of the treaty. A peace was also con-
cluded, nearly at the same time, between the Queen of Hun-
gary and Augustus III., King of Poland and Elector of Saxony,
by which she yielded to him certain places in Bohemia, and
he guarantied to her the possession of the rest of that king-
dom. The intelligence of the treaty of Breslaw came like a
clap of thunder upon the court of France. The Mareschals
Belleisle anrf Broglio no sooner found themselves deserted by
the Prussians, than they abandoned their magazines and heavy
baggage, and retired with precipitation under the cannon of
Prague. There they entrenched themselves in a kind of
peninsular meadow, formed by the windings of the river
Muldaw, while the Prince of Lorraine, having joined Lobko-
witz, encamped in sight of them on the hills of Grisnitz.

Maillebois, who commanded on the Rhine, marched to the
relief of Prague, at the head of 73,000 men ; but he was neces-
sitated to return to the Palatinate ; all prospect of relief for
the besieged was now cut off: still the intrepid spirit of Belle-
isle supported him, and seemed to communicate itself to the
whole army. Finding no terms would be accepted, but that
he and all his garrison should surrender themselves prisoners,
he formed the design of a retreat; and by making in one quar-
ter of the town a feint for a general forage, he marched out at
another with 14,000 men, and got a day's ma ch of Prince
Lobkowitz. The great extent of the walls of Prague rendered
this the more practicable ; and the better to amuse the enemy,
he left a small garrison in the city. He had ten leagues to
march before he could reach the defiles ; the ground was co-
vered with snow ; all the inhabitants of the country were his
enemies, and Prince Lobkowitz, with 20,000 men, hung on
his rear. Under all these disadvantages, however, he reached
the defiles, with his army unbroken. After a fatiguing march
of twelve days, he arrived at Egra, which was still in the
hands of the French, and entered Alsace, without the loss of
a single man by the hands of the enemy, but of a thousand
in consequence of the rigour of the season.

The war raged during this campaign with no less violence
\n Italy, than in Germany. On the death of the emperor '

18*

186 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE, [CHAP

Charles VI., the King of Spain put in a claim to the whole
Austrian succession, and the King of Sardinia revived one to
the duchy <>f Milan. Bolli afterwards thouirlit proper to mode-
rate their pretensions, 'i'iie S[)anish monarch seemed (hs-
p()sc<l to he satisfied witli the Austrian dominions in Italy, which
he intended to erect into a kingdom for Don I'hilip, his young-
est son hy the Princess of Parma: and his Sardinian majesty,
alarmed at the encroachments of the house of l{ouil)on, en-
tered into an alliance with the Queen of Hungary and the
Kinii' of Great Hritain, in consideration of an annual sulisidy,
and the cession of certain places contiguous to his dominions.

All the other Italian slates affected to remain neutral during
the war. An EuLdish fleet had cruised in the Mediterranean
ever since tiie declaration of war with Spain, withovit per-
forming any thing of consequence. Admiral Matthews, being
apj)oinled chief commander, was vested with full powers to
treat with the Italian states, as his Britannic Majesty's minis-
ter. In this double caj)acity, he watched the motions of the
Spaniards both by sea and land ; and understanding that the
Kin<r of the two Sicilies had, notwithstanding his jiretended
neutrality, sent a body of troops to join Uie Spanish army,
he sent an English squadron into the bay of Naples, with
onlers to bombard that city, unless the kins: consented to with-
draw his troops, and siijn a promise that they shimld not act
in conjunction with Spain during the continuance of the war.
These conditions were immediately acceded to. Meanwhile,
Don Philip, third son of his Catholic majesty, for whose ag-
grandizement the war had been undertaken, invaded Savoy
with another Spanish army, which he had led through France,
and soon made himself master of that duchy. Alarmed at
this irruption, the King of Sardinia returned with his troops
to the defence of Piedmont, which the Spaniards attempted in
vain to enter. The Queen of Hunirary, now victorious, was
in possession of the territories of Charles VII., so that the
French, tired of supporting that princ(% in whose cause they
had lost above 100,000 men, made at last proposals of peace,
which were, however, rejected.

The Queen of Iliinirary's good fortune continued to attend
her. Prince (Jharles of Lorraine having assumed the com-
mand of the Austrian army in IJavaria, defeated the Im|)er.-
llists with jrreat slaujrhter, near Hranaw, and took possession
of their canip ; while Prince liohkowitz, marching from Ho-
liemia, drove the French from all their |)osts in the Upper
Palatinate; and the emi)eror, finding himself abandoned by hii

XXXIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 187

allies, and stripped of his hereditary dominions, took refuge
in Frankfort, where he lived in indigence and obscurity.

The operations on the side of Flanders, during the cam-
paign of 1743, were important, though not decisive. The
British and Hanoverian troops, commanded by the Earl of
Stair ; and the Austrians under the Duke d'Aremberg, begaa
their march from the Low Countries towards Germany ; the
King of France sent an army under the Duke of Noailles,
prevent these allies from joining Prince Charles ; while he
despatched another army into Alsace, to oppose that prince,
should he attempt to pass the Rhine. Having secured Spire,
Worms, and Oppenlieim, Noailles passed the Rhine, and
posted himself above Frankfort ; the Earl of Stair advanced
to Aschaftenburg, with a view of securing the navigation of
the Upper Maine, but Noailles had prevented him and cut off
all supplies. The King of Great Britain, attended by his
second son, the Duke of Cumberland, arrived in June, at the
camp of the aUies, and found his army, amounting to 40,900
men, eager for battle, but in great want of supplies. The
French general, in fact, had taken his measures so wisely,
that it was thought the allies must be forced to surrender pris-
oners of war, or to be cut to pieces if they attempted to with-
draw. A retreat, however, was resolved upon. Their danger-
ous route lay between a mountain and the river Maine ; they
were annoyed in their march by the enemy's cannon, and the
French general, leading 60,000 of his men over the bridges
he had erected across the river, took possession of the village
of Dettingen, in front of the allies ; while another detachment
occupied Aschaffenburg, v/hich they had abandoned. Having
made these dispositions, Noailles repassed the Maine, the bet-
ter to observe the motions of the enemy. Meanwhile, the
Duke de Grammont, (his nephew and lieutenant-general,) who
was stationed at Dettingen, with 80,000 choice troops, eager
to engage, passed the defiles behind which they were posted,
and advanced into a plain, called the Cock Field, where the
allies had formed themselves in order of battle. Noailles
beheld this movement with grief and astonishment ; but could
not arrive in time to prevent it. The French charged .vith
great impetuosity, and put the Austrian cavalry into disorder:
the British and Hanoverian infantry, animated by the presence
of their sovereign, who rode bet'.veen the lines with his sword
drawn, stood firm as a rock, and poured forth an incessant
fire, which nothing could resist. By a masterly manosuvre,
on the approach of the French cavalry, who rushed on despe-

188 GENERAL HISTORY OF El'ROPE. [ciIAP

rately, these impenetrable battalions opened their linos, and
afterwards closing ajrain, made great havoc in that gallant body.
'I'crior now seized llic wiiole Frencli army, every one crying
"Sauve qui pent," so that the Duke de Noailles found liiin-
Bclf under the necessity of precii)itatcly retreating over the
iMaine, with the loss of 5,000 men. 'I'lie allied army, though
reinforced with 20,000 Dutch auxiliaries, did nothing of any
consequence after the victory of Dettingen ; and tlie Earl of
Stair was so dissatisfied witli this inaction, that he resigned
in disgust.

The season was so far on the decline before the Spanish
armv, under Don Pliilip, entered upon action, that the cam-
paiijn, on the side of Piedmont, was distinguished by no im-
portant event. The inaction of this prince was occasioned
by secret negotiations, and ended in the famous treaty of
Worms, by which his Sardinian majesty renounced his pre-
tensions to the duchy of Milan, and guarantied anew the
Pragmatic Sanction : the Queen of Hungary relinquishing, in
his favour, all title to the town and marquisate of Final, and
some other places. 'J'his private treaty ilissipated all hopes
of a general peace; the Queen of Hungary not only rejected
any terms of accommodation with the emperor, but avowed
her purpose of keeping possession of Bavaria, and the Upper
Palatinate, as an indemnification for the loss of Silesia; this
produced a change in the sentiments of the principal German
powers. Tiieir jealousy of liie ambition of the house of Aus-
tria was revived, and their pride was wounded by the degra-
dation of the imperial dignity, in the person of ('harles VII.,
now no better than an illustrioiis beggar, depending on the
bounty of Prance for a precarious subsistence. Tiiey resolved
to interpose in his favour, A secret negotiation began be-
iwj-en France, the emperor, the Elector Palatine, the King of
Sweden, as Landgrave' of Hesse Cassel, and the King of Prus-
sia, as Elector of Brandenl)urg, who feared the growing power
of Maria Teresa might strip him of his late comiuests, (ireat
preparations were made for carrying on the war with vigour;
20,000 French troops, under the Prince of Conti, were or-
dered to join Don I'liilip in Savoy ; and the French and Spa-
nish s(iuadron at 'I'oulon were commanded to act in concert,
and attempt to recover tlie sovereignty of the Mediterranean.
If successful, to join the Brest fleet, and having established a
Huperiority in the channel, to assist in the prr)jecled invasion
of ICngland.

That enterprise, which had for its more remote object thf

JtXXIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF MTKOPE. 189

re-establishment of the house of Stuart, was planned with a
view of obliging George II. to recall his troops from the Con-
tinent in defence of his own dominions. A correspondence
was entered into with the Jacobites in Scotland and England,
where the public discontent was very great; the people being
enraged at the mysterious inaction of the last campaign, which
they ascribed to the influence of German counsels, and to the
political situation of George II. as Elector of Hanover. Car-
dinal de Tencin, who on the death of Cardinal Fleury had
taken the lead in the French administration, was warmly
attached to the Stuart family, and the chief promoter of this
enterprise: 15,000 men were assembled in Picardy under
Count Saxe ; a number of transports were collected at Calais,
Dunkirk, and Boulogne, and Charles Edward, eldest son of
the Chevalier de St. George, whom his father, in a procla-
mation dated from his court at Rome, had nominated regent
of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland,
arrived in the French camp to join the expedition.*

The transports put to sea; but, a sudden storm arising, they
were driven back with great damage and loss of men ; so that
the young prince, after being within sight of the English
coast, found himself necessitated to wait for another opportu-
nity to attempt the recovery of the kingdom of his ances-
tors. Mutual declarations of war were now issued by the
Kings of France and England. Lewis XV. accused George
II. of having violated the neutrality of Hanover; of dissuading
the Queen of Hungary from coming to an accommodation
with the emperor; of blocking up the ports and disturbing the

* The son and only surviving child of James II., was known on the
Continent by the name of the Chevalier de St. George; in England, by
that of the Pretender. Shortly after his abortive attempt at invasion, in
1715, he withdrew from France into Italy. His friends having advised
him to marry, a suitable consort was found in the Princess Clementina
Sobieski, granddaughter of the famous John Sobieski of Poland. It was
agreed that she should set out for Italy with all possible expedition ; but the
plan being made known to the English ministers, they found means to
gain over the Emperor of Germany, by whose orders the princess was
stopped at Inspruck. After a detention of two months, she effected her
escape from prison, and, accompanied by her mother, reached Bologna in
safety. The marriage was there celebrated by proxy, and the princess
continued her journey to Rome, where she was joined by her consort, May,
1719. In the following year she gave birth to a son, who was named
Charles Edward, and, in 1725, to a second, called Henry Benedict. Dis-
sensions unhappily arising between Prince James and his consort, the
latter withdrew into a convent in Rome, where she usually resided till her
fleath. Prince James survived her some years, and died in 1766,

190 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

commerce of France. His Britannic majesty recriminated,
by accusing the French king of viidating the Pragmatic Sanc-
tion ; of iitteniptin^ to dcstrov the; balance of power in Fu-
roi)e, l)y ilisnicnihering the Austrian succession; of assisting
the Spaniards, in contempt of the faith of treaties ; of harhonr-
ini: the Pretender, and furnishing him willi a fleet and army to
invade CJrcat Britain.

The campaign in Italy began on the side of Piedmont.
Don Philip, being joined by the Prince of Conti, passed the
Var, whicli descends from the Alps and falls into the sea of
Genoa below Nice. Tlie whole county of Nice subinilUHl.
The French and Spanish army then defiled off towards Pied-
mont, and invested the strong town of Coni ; the Kingr of
Sardinia, being reinforced by 10,0(10 Austrians under Palavi-
cini, advanced to its relief, and attacked the French and
Spaniards in their cntreiicliinents, but was obliged to retire
with considerable loss ; ho, however, found means to reinforce
the garrison of Coni, and to convey into the town a supply
of provisions ; this obliged Don Philip and the Prince of
Conti to raise a siege which had almost ruined their army ;
repassing the mountains, they took up their winter quarters
in Dauphine ; but the Spaniards still continued in possession
of Savoy, which they fleeced without m(!rcy. Meanwhile a
treaty was concluded at Frankfort, througli llic! influence of
France, between the Emperor Charles VTI., the King of
Prussia, the Kinij of Sweden, as I^audgrave of Ilesse Cassel,
and tlie Elector I'alatine. 'J'iie declared ol))ect of this treaty
was to restore the imperial dignity and the tranijuillity of
Germany; the contracting jjowers engaging either to persuade
or oblige the Queen of Hungary to acknowledge the title of
Charles V^H., to give up the archives of the empire still in
her possession, and evacuate Bavaria ; the emperor's claims
on the Austrian succession to l)e scUlled by a fri«!ndly compro-
mise or juridicial decision. So far the <'onfederacy seemed
reasonable ; but by a separate article of a difl'erent nature, the
King of Prussia engaged to put the emperor in possession of
Bolu-mia, and to guarantee to him Upper Austria, as soon as
concjuered, on condition he should give up to his Prussian
Majesty the town and circle of Koningsgratz in its whole
extent, with the country between the frontiers and the Elbe,
and from Koningsgratz to the conti nes of Saxony. licwis
XV^ put himself at the head of PiO,000 men, in sjiring, and
invested Meiiin, ('ount Save, now Marshal of France, com-
manded under him. Menin surrunderud in seven days :

XXXllI.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 191

Ypres, Fort Knocke, and Fumes were reduced with equal
facility, and Lewis entered Dunkirk in triumph ; while the
allied army, unable to obstruct his passage, continued posted
behind the Scheldt. Meanwhile Prince Charles of Lorraine
entered Alsace at the head of 60,000 Austrians, took Weisen-
burg, and laid all Lower Alsace under contribution. Leaving
Marshal Saxe in Flanders, Lewis advanced to oppose Prince
Charles, but at Metz was seized with a fever which threaten-
ed his Ufe, and spread consternation throughout France.

His recovery was celebrated with such transports of joy, as
naturally sprung from the awakened sensibility of a nation,
then remarkable for its attachment to its sovereigns ; and it was
on this occasion that he received the flattering appellation of
Bien-aime. In the interim, Prince Charles, hearing that the
King of Prussia had entered Bohemia, repassed the Rhine,
and hastened to the relief of that kingdom : and Lewis on his
recovery besieged and took Friburg. Before the arrival of
Prince Charles, the Prussian monarch had made himself
master of Prague, Tabor, and all Bohemia east of the Mul-
daw. But Augustus III., King of Poland, sent 16,000 men
to join Prince Charles, who was also reinforced by a large
body of Hungarians, zealous in the cause of their sovereign,
Maria Teresa ; so that the King of Prussia, unable to with-
stand such a force, was obliged to quit Bohemia and retire
with precipitation into Silesia. He was pursued by Prince
Charles, but the rigour of the season prevented the recovery
of that valuable province. The Prussians, in their retreat,
lost above 30,000 men, with all their heavy baggage, artillery,
provisions, and plunder.

1745. — While the high-minded Frederick II, experienced
this sudden reverse of fortune, the dejected fugitive, Charles
VII. once more got possession of his capital, Seckendorff", the
imperial general, having driven the Austrians out of Bavaria.
But the rapid progress of the Prince of Lorraine filled him
with new apprehensions, and he was in danger of being a
third time chased from his dominions, when death freed him
from a complication of bodily ills, aggravated by the anguish of
a wounded spirit. His son Maximilian Joseph, being only se-
venteen years of age, could not become a candidate for the im-
perial throne. He therefore concluded a treaty of peace with
the Queen of Hungary. By this treaty, Maria Teresa agreed
to recognise the imperial dignity, as having been vested in the
person of Charles VII.; to put his son in possession of all
his electoral dominions, which she had again invaded ; and the

192 GENERAL HISTORY OF EIROPE. [cHAP.

young elector renounced all claim to any part of the Austrian
succession ; consented to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction ;
airrcfd to give his vole for the grand duke at the ensuing
elcciion of an cmporor, and to dismiss tht? auxiliary troops
in his service. 'I'iiis treaty, it was confidently expected,
would prove a prelude to a general pacillcalion, hut the French
ministry jiersisled in tlieir resolution of opposing the election
of the grand duke, and of continuing the war in Germany and
the Low Countries, to facilitate the operations of the house
of Uourbon in Italy, where Elizubedi Farnese, who still di-
rected all the measures of the court of Madrid, was determined
to establish a sovereignty for her second son, Don Philip, at
the expense of Maria Teresa.

Don Pliilip closed a brilliant campaign in Italy by a triumph
ant entry into Milan. Lewis XV. was equally successful in
1745, on the side of Flanders : he first invested Tornay, one
of the strongest towns in the Austrian Netherlands, and the
most important in the Dutch barrier. The Hanoverian and
the British troops, commanded by the Duke of ("unil)erlaiid,
advanced to its relief, with the Austrians conducted by old
Count Konigseg, and the Dutcli, by Prince Waldeck, as young
and inexperienced as the Duke of Cund)erland.

The I'rench urmv, under Marshal Saxe, was posted on a
rising ground in front of the village of Fontenoy. A despe-
rate battle ensued : it began at break of day, and lasted till
three in the afternoon. 'I'hougli tiie fire from the French bat-
teries was so heavy, that it swept oil whole ranks at a single
discharge, the British infantry continued to advance as if they
had been invulnerable, and drove the French beyond their
lines. Marshal Saxe, concluding all was lost, sent advice to
the king to provide for his safety, by repassing the bridge of
Colonne ; but Lewis XV. refused to quit his post, and his
firmness saved his army from disgrace and ruin. As a
last resource the Irish brigade were ordered to charge,
and filially compelled the English and Hanoverians to
retire with the loss of 7,000 men, after having successively
routed almost every regiment in the French army. The
French lost near H),()00 men, yet their joy was extravagantly
high at their dear-bouirlit victory; and their exultation in the
hour of triumph seemed to b(;ar a projjortion to llic danger
they had been in of a defeat. After this battle, the allies lay
intrcnehed between Antwerp and Brussels, while Marshal Saxe
and CJount Lowendalil rediii-ed bv stratagem or fifrce, Tour-
nay, Oudenanle, Ath, Dendennonde, Client, Ostend, ISew

XXXII.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 193

port, and every other fortified place in Austrian Flanders. Yet
tlie Queen of Hungary obtained the great object of her wishes,
in the elevation of lier husband to the imperial throne ; the
electors assembled at Frankfort, and raised to the head of t'le
empire the Grand Duke of Tuscany, under the name of
Francis I.

Meanwhile the King of Prussia gained two victories over
the Aiistrians under Prince Charles of Lorraine ; he then
invaded Saxony, and made himself master of Dresden. The
King of Poland now found himself under the necessity of
suing for peace, and the King of Prussia was heartily tired
of the war. A treaty was accordingly concluded at Dr^-sden
in 1745, between Augustus, as Elector of Saxony, and Fred-
eric II., by which Augustus agreed to pay Frederic for the
evacuation of his hereditary dominions one million of German
crowns at the next fair of Leipsic.

Another treaty, confirming that of Breslaw, was at ths same
time concluded between the King of Prussia and the Queen
of Hungary. This treaty secured to Frederic the possession
of Silesia, on condition of acknowledging the new emperor's
election. The Elector Palatine was included in this tr.^aty on
the same condition. These treaties restored tranquillity to
Germany, but the war still continued for some years between
the houses of Austria and Bourbon.

Such was the condition of affairs on the continent, when
Charles Edward, the grandson of James II., arrived in Scot-
land to assert his right to the kingdom of his ancestors. AVith
a few tried adherents and a small supply of money and arms,
he had sailed from France, and having made the circuit of
Ireland, landed at Lochaber on the western coast. He was
immediately joined by several Highland chiefs with their
clans, and on reviewing his troops found them amount to 3,000
men. Having crossed the Forth in the neighbourhood of Stir-
ling, he entered Edinburgh without opposition, caused his
father to be proclaimed king, as he had previously done at
Perth, and fixed his head-quarters at Holyrood-house. Mean-
while, Sir John Cope, commander-in-chief of the army in
Scotland, who, by marching northward towards Inverness,
had left the whole of the Low Country open to the insurgents,
advancing to oppose them, was met by Charles Edward and
his adherents near the village of Preston Pans, and completely
defeated. By this victory, the whole of Scotland, a few forti-
fied castles excepted, was reduced to the obedience of tlie
Stuarts; and Prince Charles, who now held the style and title

194 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

of regent, being joined by many of tbc h>coltis/i nobility w'th
llieir wives and daughters, indulged in the parade of royalty
at Ilolyrood-housc, the ancient palace of his ancestors. He
was at this time twentv-five years of age; a consi(leral)le
share of manly beauty, heightened by elegant manners and
an alfable deportment, rendered his general appearance strik-
iiiijlv attractive and prepossessing. After much useless delay,
finding himself unable to reduce the castle of Edinburgh for
want of artillery, he left that city, and, entering England, took
the road of Carlisle, which surrendered at the end of three
days ; many other towns opened their gates without resist-
ance. In Lancashire he was received with some demonstra-
tions of joy, and joined by Colonel Townely, at the head of
200 men, but though he advanced within a hundred miles of
London, no signs of any general movement in his favour ap-
peared. The Highland chiefs were under no subordination,
and unanimous only in discontent; and, in ^ council of war
held at Derby, it was resolved, contrary to the wishes of
Prince Charles, who was for attempting to gain possession of
the capital, to return to Scotland. A masterly retreat was
plamied and executed with trifling loss. In passing Carlisle,
the garrison was augmented by throwing in the Lancashire
volunteers ; it was, however, almost immediately besieged by
the Duke of ('uml)erland, (who had been recalled from Flan-
ders to head an army against the insurgents,) and compelled
to surrender at discretion ; the men, to the number of 400,
were immediately imprisoned ; their subseipienl fate was exile
or death. In Scotland, the friends of the young adventurer
were still numerous and formidable ; and a brilliant victory
gained at Falkirk over the regulars under fieneral Hawley,
a<l(led vigour to their hopes. But the Highlanders became
dispirited by fruitless elTorls to take Stirling castle by storm,
and their chiefs seemed willing to decide at one blow a
struL"^!.'!!' of which they had grown weary. In April, 17H5,
the Duke of Cumberland crossed the Spey without opposition^
and coming up with the insurgents on the plains of ('idlodeii,
gained a a if tory so decisive as at once to quell the insurrec-
tion, and annihilate the hopes of Prince Charles and his ad-
herents, 'i'hc conquerors disgraced their triumph by the
moat atrocious cruelty, refusing quarter to the wounded, and
carryinjT fire and sword into the huLs of a simple; people,
whose only crin)e was too irn|)licit an ot)e(lience to lln^ir
chiefs, 'i'he men were hunted down upon the mountains, the
women and children left to perish with cold and hunger

XXXIV ] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 195

The Earl of Kilmarnock, the Lords Balnierino and Lovat,
and a great number of officers and prisoners of distinction,
suffered death. Many of the Highland chiefs escaped beyond
sea, and Prince Charles himself, after a series of romantic ad-
ventures and hair-breadth escapes, was received on board a
French frigate, and safely landed in France. It is worthy of
remark, that though a price of £30,000 was set upon his head,
and more than fifty persons must have been at different times
acquainted with the place of his retreat, not one was found
base enough to purchase affluence by betraying him. Tlie
Duke of Cumberland returned triumphantly to London, and
sliortly after set out to resume the command of the army in
Flanders.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

THE AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, FROM THE TREATY OF DRESDEN IN
1745, TO THE PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE IN 1748.

The treaty of Dresden and the confirmation of that ol
Breslaw, by detaching the King of Prussia from the house
of Bourbon, made a change in the state of the contending
parties, but did not dispose them to peace. Of all the hostile
powers, the King of France was the first in readiness to put
his designs into execution. Marshal Saxe, to the astonish-
ment of Europe and the terror of the confederates, took
Brussels, the capital of Brabant, and the residence of the
governor of the Austrian Netherlands. Lewis XV. joined
his victorious army of 120,000 men in April, 1746, reduced
Antwerp, and forced the allies to retire to Breda. Mons,
reckoned one of the strongest towns in the world, held out
only a few weeks, and, by the middle of July, Lewis saw
himself absolute master of Flanders, Brabant, and Hainault.

The enterprising Marshal Saxe, after the reduction of
Namur, passed the Jaar at the head of the whole French
army, attacked the allies, and forced them to retreat to Maes-
tricht. In Italy, Don Philip and Maillebois, who had carried
every thing before them the preceding year, were still at the
head of a powerful army, notwithstanding which, the King
of Sardinia made himself master of Asti, one of the strongest
places in Italy. The Austrian forces under Prince Lichen-
stein now amounted to 40,000 men ; with these he recovered
all the Piedmontcse fortresses, and entering the duchy of Milan,

196 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. QcHAP

took Tiodi, Guastalla, Parma, and other plares. Don IMiilip
and Maillebois atlemplinij to force the Austrian camp al JSt.
liazaro, a battle ensued, in wliicii, so masteilv was the con-
duct of Prince Lichenstein, lirat they were obliijcd to retire,
after a bloody contest of nine hours, leaving 6000 men dead
on the field, and as many wounded. Soon after this disaster,
Don Philip received inlelliiience of the death of his father,
Philip v., and finding himself hard pressed by the allies,
retired toward Savoy, while Maillei)ois entered Provence.
The retreat of the French and Spaniards was immediately
followed by the surrender of Genoa.

Struck with consternation at the progress of the French
arms, the inhabitants of the United Provinces clamoured loud-
ly against the ministry of the republic. They rose in many
places, and compelled their magistrates to declare the Prince
of Orange stadtholder, a diiruity which had i)ecn laid aside
since the death of William III. 'J'he beneficial elfecls of this
revolution to the common cause of the confederates soon
appeared in several vigorous measures.

In June, 1717, a partial, but obstinate and bloody battle,
was fought near the village of Val or Laffeldt, in which the
British troops distinguished themselves greatly ; and, if pro-
perly supported, iniirht have jrained a glorious victory. Hence
the bon mot of Lewis XV'., that " the English not only jxtid
all, but fought all." The Duke of Cumberland, however,
was on the [)oint of being made prisoner, when Sir .lohn Li-
gonier rushed at the head of three reijiments of dragoons upon
the victorious enemy, thus giving the duke time to collect
his scattered forces, and to retire without molestation to Maes-
tricht. The loss of the victors on this occasion was doiilde
that of the vanijuishcd. After this battle. Marshal Saxe sud-
denly detached Count Lowendahl, with 30,000 men, to invest
Beriren-i>p-Zoom, the slroncfesi fortification of Dutch Prabant,
and the favourite work of the famous ('tehorn. Tliis place
had never been taken, and was generally deemed impregnable.
It was dcfendtMl by a irarrison of .TOOO men under the I'rince
of Hesse i'hilipstal, when Lowendahl sat down before it. He
conducted his operations with great judgment and spirit;
mines were sprung on both sides, and every instrument of
destruction employed for many weeks. Nothing was to be
seen but fire and smoke, nnthing heard but the perpetual roar
of bombs and cannon : tlie town was laid in ashes, the
trenches Were fdled with ciinuiu^e ; und the fate of Perjren-op-
Zoom, on which the eyes of all Fiiropc; were fixed, was still

XXXV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 19^

doubtful, when Lowendahl boldly carried it by assault. All the
forts in the neighbourhood surrendered, and the French be-
came masters of the whole navigation of the Scheldt. Lewis
XV. immediately promoted Lowendahl to the rank of Mar-
shal of France ; and having appointed Count Saxe governor
of the conquered Netherlands, returned in triumph to Ver-
sailles. Fortunately for the confederates, the French were
not equally successful in Italy during this campaign.

The maritime transactions of this year were to Great
Britain more advantageous than glorious, as she had a mani-
fest superiority of force in every engagement : the ruin of the
French navy was however completed.

Lewis XV. now seriously turned his views to peace ; he
was discouraged by these losses, he saw his designs frustrated
in Germany by the elevation of the Grand Duke to the impe-
rial throne, and the subsequent treaties between the houses of
Austria, Bavaria, and Brandenburg. He made advances
towards a pacification both at London and the Hague, and a
new Congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748.
This treaty had for its immediate object, a mutual restitution
of all conquests made since the beginning of the war, with a
release of prisoners without ransom. The principal stipula-
tions provided that the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and
Guastalla should be ceded as a sovereignty, to the Infant Don
Philip and his heirs male ; that all the contracting powers
should guarantee to his Prussian majesty the duchy of Silesia
and the county of Glatz; and that such of the same powers
as had guarantied the Pragmatic Sanction of the Emperor
Charles VI., for securing to his daughter the Empress Queen
of Hungary and Bohemia the undivided succession of the
house of Austria, should renew their engagements, with the
exception of the cessions made by this and former treaties.

CHAPTER XXXV.

FRANCE, SPAIN, AND GREAT BRITAIN, FROM 1748, TO 1759.

In March, 1751, died, universally lamented, Frederic Prince
of Wales. He had been a considerable time at variance with
his father, wliich had tlirown him into the opposition, but
after Walpole's resignation, in 1742, was reconciled to the
King.

19*

198 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAI

An art was passed tliis year for iiitrodiicinir tlic New or
Gregorian Style into England ; \vliieli was efFccted by pass-
ing over eleven days in Uie eah'ndar, in the heginninij of 1752.

Europe continued in peace from the treaty of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle, till 1751, whe i the disputes between France and
England, concerning the limits of Nova Scotia, began to be
holly agitated by the commissioners of the two crowns, and
anotlier subject of ccuitention arose relative to the boiindaries
of the British provinces to the southward. The French had
formed a plan to unite, by a chain of forts, Canada and Loui-
siana, and to circumscril)e the English colonies within that
tract of country which lies between the sea and the Alleghany
or Appalacliian mountains. This scheme was ardently em-
braced by De la Jonquiere, commander-in-chief of the French
forces in North America, and by La Galissonicre, Governor
of New France. By their joint eflorts, forls were erected
along the great lakes which communicate with the river St.
Lawrence, and also on the Ohio and the Mississippi : the
vast chain was nearly completed from Quebec to New Or-
leans, when the court of England, roused by repeated inju-
ries, broke off the conferences relative to the limits of Nova
Scotia.

In 17.'')5, the English government equipped a fleet, under
the command of Boscawen, who directed his course to the
hanks of Newfoundland ; a few days afterwards, a French
fleet from Brest, under M. de la Mothe, came to the same
latitude, in its passage to Quebec. 'I'he summer was spent in
variiuis skirmishes and partial ent:a<rrmeiits, and thecampaisrn
was estimated to the disadvantage of Cireal Britain, though the
French were driven from their encroachments on Nova Sco-
tia, and :<()() trading vessels belonging to France, laden with
West Lidia produce, were brought as prizes into the ports of
England. L'nable, from their inferiority at sea, to make any
reprisals, the French resolved to make George IL tremble for
his (Jerman dominions, which thev iiad for some lime threat-
ened ; and an army of 2()0,(t(M) men, with tlieir vicinity to the
country to be invaded, seemed to promise success.

While the flames f»f war were thus breaking out anew be-
tween France and ICnirland, tlie southern parts of Europe
were visited by a dicadfid calamity. On the 1st of Novem-
ber, 17.'j.'), a violent earthquake; sliook all Spain and I'ortu-
pal, and laid the city of Iiisl)on in ruins. About 10,000
persons lost their lives, and the survivors, for the greatef
part, were obliged to take up their abode in the open fields

XXXV '] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. lOB

The Britisli Parliament generously voted £100,000 for the
relief of the sufferers in Portugal, and ships, laden with pro-
visions and clothing, were immediately despatched to Iiis!)on,
where they arrived so opportunely as to preserve thousands
from dying of hunger and cold. The throne of Portugal waa
then filled by Joseph, who succeeded his father, John V., in
1750. King John had been complimented by Pope Benedict
XIV,, in 1749, with the title of Most Faithful Majesty,
which his successors have since retained. To preserve tlie
sceptre of Portugal, in the house of Braganza, the Princess
Mary Isabella, who, by the accession of her father, Don Jo-
seph, had become sole heiress to the crown, was, by virtue of
a special dispensation, married to her uncle, Don Pedro. A
similar alliance afterwards took place between her eldest son,
Joseph, Prince of Brazil, and her sister, Donna Maria Frances.
Carvalho, Marquis of Pombal, minister to Joseph, a monster
of cruelty and ambition, abused the confidence of his sove-
reign to oppress the people, and gratify his insatiable avarice
and revenge. In 1752, he began to persecute the Jesuits, a
measure which is thought by some to have originated in a
spirit of revenge, for their having discovered to the king the
notorious injustices committed by a brother of Carvalho's, in
Brazil ; while others suppose it connected with the antichris-
tian conspiracy, then carrying on by the ministers of Por-
tugal, France, and Spain.

To attain his diabolical ends, he procured the king's sig-
natures to sheets of blank paper, which were afterwards filled
with any thing he pleased to dictate. By this means and by
the abuse of the inquisition, he murdered the exemplary
missioner, Father Malagrida, shipped off the greater part of
the Jesuits, in insult to the Pope, and buried the remainder
alive, in subterranean dungeons, constructed for the horrid
purpose. On the death of the king, in 1777, Carvalho was
disgraced ; but not till he had stained the scaffold with the
innocent blood of several ecclesiastics and the first nobility
of Portugal, for conspiracies fabricated by himself.

1756. — An English fleet under Admiral Byng was sent to
the Mediterranean off Minorca, but the French effected a
landing, and got possession of the whole island ; Byng not
darinff to advance to the relief of the Governor-general
Blakeney. The voice of public indignation was loud against
the admiral, who was superseded by Sir Edward Hawke
in the command of the fleet, and brought home under arrest
to be tried for his life. He was found guilty and executed.

200 GENERAL HISTORY OF Et'ROPE. [cHAP.

Mr. Fox was, at this time, (1757,) at the head of afTairs,
but soon afterwards made room ior the ])opidar minister, Mr.
Pitt. In North America, tlie Earl of London was appointed
commander-in-chief, and General Ahercromhie second in
command. Albany was agreed upon as the place of rendez-
vous ; hut this campaign w;us lost to (Jrcat Britain, throuirh
neglect and procrastination. Nor did her affairs wear a more
favourable aspect in the East Indies. As early as the year
1000, a company had been chartered to traffic in those parts,
but the first traders were often grievously harassed by the
Dutch, and, at a later period, by the French ; who, under
Colbert's administration, had made a settlement at Pondi-
cherry. The successors of Taiuerlane, the illustrious con-
queror of Indostan, especially since the invasion of Kouli
Khan, in 1738, had sunk into such a state of indolence and
apathy, that the siihahs, or Mohammedan viceroys of pro-
vinces, the nabobs, or governors of districts, and even the
rajahs, or tributary Indian princes, began to consider them-
selves independent sovereigns, and to make war upon each
other at pleasure. Yet the three European powers who had
settlements in Bengal, were not permitted to maintain an
army, or to fortify the factories they had erected, till, taking
advantage of a rebellion raised by tlie rajahs against the
naliob, the English obtained permission to erect Fort
William, in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, then a small
town, where they had eslal>lishe(l their chief maija/ines.
From this time forward llie trade of the company llourislied
exceedingly, and the town increased in population, notwith-
standing the jealousv of the native powers and iMiropeans of
other nations. Though the treaty of Aix-la-("hapelle had re-
estal)lis!ied peace between France and England, hostilities
were still carried on in the East Indies, with various success,
till, in 1751, an individual appeared, who, liy his genius and
bravery, asserted the superiority of the latter. This was Mr.
Clive, a writer in the East India Company's service. At the
head of 150 men he took Arcot, restored it to the deposed
nabob, withstood a siege aijainst an overwhelming force of
French and Indians, and oblijred them to relinquish it at the
end of fiftv davs. Being reinforced shortly after, he pursued
them ; and. by a complete victory, effcclually humbled the
prirle of the French and their allies. On the death of the
nabob, or, more [)roperly, sul)ah, Alavcrdy, who had governci}
with the greatest ability, for many years, the provinces of

XXXV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 201

Bengal, Baliar, and Orixa, the superiority devolved uponhia
grandson, Surajah Dowlah, a weak and tyrannical prince.
Equally timid, suspicious, and cruel, the new viceroy de-
termined to take vengeance on all whom he feared, and to
owe his security to the inability of any power within his
jurisdiction to hurt him. The English had particularly
awakened his apprehensions, by the taking of Gheria, a fort-
ress in India deemed impregnable ; by their increasing
strength in the Carnatic, and by the growth of their settle-
ment at Calcutta. The governor and council of Calcutta
had moreover refused to deliver up to him a noble refugee
who had taken shelter, with all his treasures, within their
presidency. Enraged at this refusal, Surajah Dowlah
ordered 50,000 men, whom he had assembled, to march
directly towards Calcutta, where the English, he was told,
were building new fortifications. He, himself, headed his
troops, and advanced with such rapidity, that many of them
died of fatigue. After attempting in vain to oppose the
enemy in the streets and avenues, the English inhabitants
took refuge in Fort William, a place in itself by no means
strong, and defended only by a small garrison. Panic-struck
at the thought of falling alive into the hands of Surajah Dow-
lah, the governor made his escape to one of the ships, and
was followed by several persons of distinction. By a despe-
rate assault, the besiegers soon made themselves masters of
the fort, which had then only 190 men in it, of whom 146
survived the siege, and were made prisoners. Surajah Dow-
lah, enraged at the resistance they had made, and disappointed
at finding but a small sum in the treasury, ordered Mr. Hol-
well, the commander, and his companions to be confined in the
common dungeon of the fort, usually called the black hole ;
and, in that dungeon, only eighteen feet square, were they con-
demned to pass the night in one of the hottest climates of the
earth, and in the hottest season of that climate. They could
receive no air but through two small grated windows, almost
totally blocked up by a neighbouring building. Their distress
was inexpressible ; they attempted to force the door without ef-
fect. Rage succeeded disappointment. The keenest invectives
were uttered to provoke the guard to put an end to their mise-
rable lives, by firing into the dungeon; and while some, in the
agonies of torment and despair, were uttering frantic execra-
tions, others were imploring relief from Heaven, by wild and
incoherent prayers. When morning appeared, of the hundred
and forty-six, only twenty-three survived ; these were sen»

202 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CH\P.

pri?(»nors to Mnxadavad, the capital of the province. Cal-
cutta was pillaged, and Fori William secured ijy a garrison of
.3,000 Mioii.

An attempt was made this year upon the life of Lewis XV.
bv one Dainicns, wiio having attached himself to the service
of some Parliament-mcii, was enraged at the disgrace into
which that Ijody luul fallen.* lie was torn to pieces l)y
young horses, after having sutTered every torture that human
invention could suggest.

The latter years of the reign of Lewis XV, were marked
by continual disagreements with liis Parliaments. Jansenism
infected many of the members of that body, and the con-
demnation of tlieir errors by the celebrated bull f^iii'j^rniftt.'i, in-
stead of silencin<T, increased their clamoiir. On their refusal
to enrcgister the bull, the Parliament of Paris was suspended
by Lewis, in 1750; and did not resume its functions, till the
September of the following year.

The Abbey of Port Royal, in Paris, had long been the resi-
dence of solitaries, who liave immortalized their names by
their writings. Pascal had there composed his '* Provincial
Letters," a work which, though victoriously refuted in point
of doctrine, will ever be admired for its enchanting style and
poignant raillery. It was there that Ariiand forged the sharp
lances with wliicli he had attacked the Jesuits in his "Morale
Pratique," and it was still the asylum of Nicole, of Dugnet,
of Racine and his son, when Le Telliert ol)tained die dc>mo-
lition of this famous solitude, in 1709; an act of arbitrary
power condemned by the majority of his colleagues. The
rapid proirress of vice under the ministry of the Duke dc
Choiseuil ; the extreme prodiifality of this minister, an<l his
secret machinations for the destruction of the Society of
Jesus, were not unknown to the virtuous dauphin, son to
Lewis XV. Having prepared a memoir, drawn \ip by the

• Ditmiens, in his interrogatories, said " that if he had never gone into
the chatilH'rs of the I'urlianieiit, this would never have happened to him ;
that he had forint-d hi.s plan after the ullair of the ParUameni ; that if ho
had not iM'en in the Hervice of one of llie^e Parliamentary men, it wouh!
never have entcrexl into his head ; that he sImuI.I not have no often heard
the refusal of the Sa'-ramenb* wpoken of, whirh heated his iniaciiiation,"
&c. Sec the .Mciniiri* to Hcrvc for the Ecclesiastical History of the I8lh
century, vol. 2, anno 1757.

•(• Lc 'IVIlier was a Jesuit, ami confessor to Lewis XIV. See " Me-
moirs of AIiIh! (icori;el," vol. 1st. See also the " Ni-w l)is(jui!<ition," faith-
fully Irati'ii.iieil Ifoin " .NouvcUwj CoiibidcralionB," &c., printed at Versaillaa,
18 7. By a Sulpician.

XXXV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 203

elegant pen of Pere de Neuville, the dauphin liimself present-
ed it to his father. The indignation which it excited in the
mind of the king against his unwortliy minister, may be easily
conjectured ; but his weakness in showing it to the duke him-
self, in discovering the authors of it, and in consigning the
contents to oblivion, would be hardly credible, if it were not
related on good authority.* From this time the dauphin lost
all his influence at court, and a slow malady, the cause of
which was not unknown to him, insensibly conducted him to
the tomb, in 1765, to the great grief of the French nation.

In vain did Rome, and the virtuous Beaumont, Archbishop
of Paris, excommunicate the Parliaments for having employed
fraud and calumny to destroy an order approved by the Coun-
cil of Trent; in vain did the French bishops assembled pre-
sent a public memorial to attest the sanctity of the institute
and doctrines of the Jesuits, the utility of their labours for the
instruction of youth and the reformation of morals ; its
destruction was resolved upon by Choiseuil, who was the
soul of the league between philosophy, Jansenism, and the
Parliaments; he directed their movements to bring about this
event, in spite of the king himself, who loved and esteemed
the society. But at last the natural indolence of his disposi-
tion yielded to the intrigues and solicitations of his unworthy
favourites, and Lewis suppressed the Society of Jesus in his
dominions, in 1764, by an edict, which was, however,
favourable to individuals, as it left them at liberty to pursue
their evangelical labours in the ministry, under the habit of
secular priests. Their goods were sold, their valuable libra-
ries dispersed, and their colleges seized. But their enemies
were not yet satisfied. In order to deprive the church of
France of their services, the Parliament of Paris devised a
qualifying oath, which required them to abjure their institute,
and to approve of the odious stigma which the Parliament had
maliciously endeavoured to fix upon it. The greater part of
the Jesuits preferred the loss of the small pension that had
been assigned them, and voluntary exile, to the infamy of this
degrading test.

The death of the queen, Mary Leczinski, who did not long
survive her only and beloved son, deprived the Jesuits of a
generous protectress. Her father. King Stanislaus, had met

* See " Memoirs of Abbe Georgel, vol. 1st. See also the " New Dis-
quisition," faithfully translated from " Nouvelles Considerations," &c^
Drintt d at Versailles, 1817. By a Sulpiciau.

204 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAF

with ail untimely dealli, the preceding year, (17(57,) on wliose
demise, the duchy ol' Lorraine was united to the kingdom of
France.

'i'iie King of Prussia, who liad concluded an oflensive and
defensive league with his uncle, George II., in 1756, finding
Maria Teresa unwilling to leave him in quiet possession of
Silesia, resolved to annoy her and oblige her to withdraw her
forces from that quarter; he, therefore, overran Saxony, and
took possession of Dresden. No sooner had he entered Sax-
ony, than a process was commenced against him in the Aulic
Council, and also in the diet of the empire; he was put under
ihe ban of the empire, and adjudged fallen from all the dig-
nities and possessions which he held in it. A French army,
under the Prince of Soubise, was sent to the aid of the em-
press-queen. Soubise, before he passed the Rhine, made
himself master of Cleves, Meurs, Gueldres, Emden, and what-
ever belonged to his Prussian majesty in East Fricsland.

Alarmed at the danger which threatened his electoral domi-
aions, George II. seemed disposed to enter into the continental
knr, and even to send over a IkxIv of troojjs for the protection
of Hanover. In tiiese views he was thwarted by his ne^v
ministers, Pitt and Lcgge, who considered Hanover as a use-
less and expensive appendage to the crown of Great Urilain,
and all continental connexions as inconsistent with our insular
situation. These popular ministers were deprived of their
employments for opposing the will of their sovereign in coun-
cil ; and the Duke of Cumberland was sent over to command
an army of oi)servation for tln^ defence of Hanover. This
army, which consisted of 40,000 Hessians and Hanoverians,
including a few regiments of Prussians, attempted in vain to
obstruct the jirogress of the Mareschal d'Eslrees, The Duke
of Cumberland was obliged to retire behind the Wescr, and
the French passed that river without opposition. His Prussian
majesty, advancing towards I'rague, gave i)attle to tiie Aus-
trians, and i)roke their centre. After an obstinate and bloody
contest, in which the valour and military skill of both armies
were fully tried, tlie main l)ody of the Austrians, to the innnber
of .'iO,!)!)!!, were driven into Prairuo. Another desperate batde
followed soon after, in which the Prussians returned seven
times to the charL^c, but were finaliv forced to rclirujuish the
contest. Altoiil -iO.OOO nun were left dead in the field. After
this battle, the King (»f Prussia was forced to evacuate Bohemia.
Meanwhile, a Russian arinv advanced towards the Preirel,
passed that river, repulsed the Prussians, and ravaged the King

XXXV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 205

of Prussia's dominions on one side of Germany, while the
French were stripping him of his possessions on the other,
and laying the electorate of Hanover under contribution ; the
Duke of Richelieu, the celebrated conqueror of Minorca, made
himself master of Bremen and Verden, and obliged the Duke
of Cumberland to take refuge under the cannon of Stade,
where, encamped between the AUer and the Elbe, and all
communication being cut off, he was under the necessity of
signing the singular convention of Closter-seven, by which an
army of 38,000 Hanoverians and Hessians, in the pay of
his Britannic Majesty, was dissolved and distributed into
different quarters, without being disarmed, or considered as
prisoners of war. The French were left, till a definitive treaty
should be arranged, in possession of the countries they had
conquered ; and hostilities were to cease on both sides. The
face of affairs was now less gloomy (for England) in the East
Indies. Admiral Watson, on his return from taking the fortress
of Gheria, was informed of the loss of Calcutta, with all the
horrid circumstances attending it, and resolved upon revenge.
By a zealous co-operation of the sea and land-forces, the forts
of Biizbuzia and Tannah were speedily reduced ; Calcutta was
recovered, and the English colours were again hoisted on Fort
William : the British commanders next made themselves
masters of the large town of Hughley, where the nabob had
established his principal magazines. Enraged at so many
losses, and dreading more, Surajah Dowlah assembled a large
army, and marched towards Calcutta; but he met with so
warm a salute as induced him to sue for peace, and agree to
such terms as the English commanders thought proper to
dictate.

Informed of the new war between France and Great Britais^
the English now turned their arms against the French factories
in Bengal. They reduced Chandernagore, the principal
French settlement in the province, and a place of great strength,
situated a litde higher on the river Hughley than Calcutta.
Colonel Clive next resolved still further to humble the Nabob
of Bengal : finding him slow in fulfilling the treaty, and mak-
ing secret preparations for war, he offered him battle ; totally
routed his numerous army, which fled in all directions ;
Surajah Dowlah was taken, brought back to his capital, and
put to death by orders of Meerum, son of Meer JafSer, who
had betrayed him, and who succeeded him in the vice-royalty
or subahship of Bengal, Bahar, and Orixa.

In Europe, the King of Prussia gained the battles of Rosback

206 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPB. [cHAP.

aiul Lissa, over llic combined army of Frrnch and Austrians:
and GeoifTO II., enraircd at the violalicm of the treaty «f
Clnstcr-scvcn l»y the Froiu-li, invested Prince Ferdinand of
Bninswick with tlie diief command of his electoral forces ;
these, reinforced by a body of Prussian horse, pushed tlie
French from post to post, and oliliged them to evacuate suc-
cessivelv ()tlerl)erg and IJremen. The town and castle of
Hoya, on the Weser, were reduced by the hereditary Prince
of IJruiiswick; and while his uncle Ferdinand recovered
Minden on the same river, making prisoners a j^arrison of 4,000
men, an Enfrlish squadron compelled the French to abandon
I'mbden, capital of East Fricsland ; and the wretclied remnant
of that lately victorious army found the utmost dilliculty in
rtioassinjj the Rhine, without being entirely cut oif.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

STATE OF EUROPE FROM 1758 TO 17(50.

1758. — A SECOND treaty of convention was signed at Lon-
don between the Kiuff of Prussia and his liritannic majestv;
by which they cufjaged to conclude no treaty with tin; liostile
powers, but in concert and by mutual agreement. Germany
continued one scene of l)loo(lshed, sieges, marclies, and coun-
ler-marclies ; and the close of the year left the war as unde-
cided as it was in the beginning.

In Nortli America, the affairs of Great Britain took a
more favoural)le turn. Louisbin-g was taken, and the whole
isle of Cape Breton submitted to the English, with that of
St. John, and whatever inferior stations the French had
estal)lislied for carrying on the cod-fishery in the gulf of St.
Lawrence. Fort Frontenac was then conquered, and next
the British standard was erected on Fort I)u Quesne, to
which was given the name of Fort Pitt, in honour of tlie mi-
nister under whom the ex|)edition had been undertaken. In
Africa, the English entered the river Senegal, and obliged
Fort Lewis, which commands the navigation of that river, to
surrender, with all the French sclUcments on it, and the isle
of Gori;e.

In 1759, the British and Hanoverian army gained the
batt e of Minden; which, thoujrh not complete, threw the
touit of Versailles into the utmost confusion. It not only

IXXVI.] GENERAL HtSTORY OF EUROPE. 207

enabled Prince Ferdinand effectually to defend the electorate
of Hanover, but to recover Munster and force the French to
evacuate great part of Westphalia. The Prussian general,
Weden, attacked the Russian army with great vigour, but
without effect, at Kay, near Znllichan in Silesia. The Prus-
sians were repulsed with much loss, and the Russians made
themselves masters of Frankfort on the Oder. A more despe-
rate battle was fought in the month following, when 12,000 Aus-
trian horse having joined the Russians, they gave battle to the
King of Prussia at Cunnersdorf, opposite to Frankfort. After
every effort of bravery and desperate courage, the Prussians,
overwhelmed by superior force and numbers, were totally de-
feated. Night alone prevented them from being entirely cut off.
Thirty tliousand men lay dead on the ticld, and 16,000 of
these were Prussians. The day after this battle, the King of
Prussia repassed the Oder, and posted himself so advantage-
ously, that the Russians did not dare to make any attempt
upon Berlin. Before the close of the campaign, the Prus-
sian general, Finck, was surrounded by the Austrian army in
Bohemia, and forced to surrender at discretion ; himself, with
eight other generals and nearly 20,000 men, being made pri-
soners of war. This mortifying blow taught the King of
Prussia a lesson of moderation ; he put his army into winter-
quarters at Freyburg, without attempting any new enterprise ;
so that, after the loss of so many thousands of men, the affairs
of Germany remained nearly in the same situation as at the
opening of the campaign. The country had been desolated,
and much blood spilled ; but Dresden, which was retaken by
the imperial army, was the only place of importance that had
changed masters.

In America, the English took Guadaloupe, Marigalante,
and some other small islands ; they also reduced Niagara, and
thus effectually cut off the communication between Canada
and Louisiana. The taking of Quebec was the great aim they
had next in view. The British troops were landed in the
night under the heights of Abraham, in hopes of conquering
the rugged ascent before morning. The stream was rapid, the
shore shelving, the intended landing-place so narrow, as to be
easily missed in the dark ; and the steep so difficult, as hard-
ly to be ascended in the day-time, even without opposition.
General Wolfe was one of the first who leaped on shore.
Colonel Howe, with the Highlanders and light infantry, led
the way up the dangerous precipice; all the troops vied with
each other in emulating the gallant example, and the whole

808 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [^CHAP.

British army li:i<l reached the summit, anil vvas ranged in
o/der by break of" day. Montcalm, the French genend, could
not credit the alarmiiiix iiUclliiriMicc, lliat the invaders ha(i
jaiiu'd the heijrhts of Abraham, which in a manner command
Quebec ; but when convinced of the truth, he put his troops
n nioiion for a I)attle, which coidil not prudenUy l)e avoiiied.
The di.xposition of the two armies was ma-^terly, and the bat-
de obstinate and bh)ody. Tiie British fire was supported
witii such constancy, that the enemy everywhere yielded to
it ; but just when the fortune of the field began to declare it-
(*eif, (General \\ olfe, who was pressing on at the head of the
grenadiers, received a bullet in his breast, and fell in the mo-
ment of victory. Tlic brave Montcalm and his second in
command were both mortally wounded. About a thousand of
the enemy were made prisoners, and as many fell in the battle
'i'he remainder of this army, unable to keep the field,
retired first to Point au Tremlde, and afterwards to Trois
Rivieres and Montreal. The loss of the English did not
amount to 500 men, but the death of General Wolfe was a
national misfortune. Under all the agonies of approaching
dissolution, his sole anxiety seemed for the fijrtune of the day;
and when told that the French army was totally routed and
fied on all sides — "Then, "said he, " I am happy," — and
expired. Montcalm, the French general, was not inferior to
his antagonist in military talents ; nor vvas his death less re-
markal)le. When told that his wound was mortal, and the
hour of his death at hand, " I am glad of it," he replied ; " I
shall not then live to sec the surreiuler of tiueijci-." Five
days after the victory gained in its neighbourhood, the city of
Quebec surrendered to the Fuglish.

In 1700, the Auslrians made themselves masters of Berlin,
levied a contribution upon the inhabitants, destroyed the ma-
gazines, arsenals, ;uul foundations, and pillaged the royal pa-
laces, licipsic, Toriraw, and Wirlemberg, successively surnMi-
dered to the imperialists, while a detachment from the French
army in Westphalia, laid Halberstadt under contril)ution.
One part of Fomerania was rava<jcil by the Swedes, and an-
other by the Russians; the situation of the King «)f Prussia
seemed very perilous, and he resolved to strike a desperate
blow. He rushed into Saxony, nu-t tin; Austrian army under
Marshal Dauu, in tfie neigliljourhood of 'i'orgaw ; a battle
ensued; both sides claimed the advantage; but it seems to
have been <in the side of the Prussians, who iMitui'diateK
entered Torgavv, and recovered all Saxony, except Dresden.

XXXVII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 209

The French, this year, made a spirited attempt to recover
Quebec, but they were obliged to retire from before the place ;
and the English, uniting their forces from different quarters,
besieged and took Montreal, and every other place within the
government of Canada. The Cherokees made the most
humble submission, as well as the other savage tribes. The
town of New Orleans, and a few plantations higher on the
Mississippi, alone remained to France, of all her settlements in
North America, and these were too distant and feeble to mo-
lest the English colonies. This same year, the English
besieged and took Pondicherry, the only settlement of any
consequence remaining to the French on the Coromandel
coast. By the reduction of this place and of the small
settlement of Manie, on the coast of Malabar, the French
power in the east was utterly subverted ; and the English
became in a manner masters of the whole commerce of the
vast peninsula of India, from the point of the Carnatic, to the
mouths of the Indus and Ganges, besides the almost exclusive
dominion of the provinces of Bengal, Baliar, and Orixa. This
was the state of affairs, when George II. died, in the seven-
ty-seventh year of his age, and thirty-fourth of his reign.
The attachment of this prince to German politics made the
early part of his reign unpopular; but the spirit with which
he resisted the insults offered to his crown, and the brilliant
conquests that adorned the latter years of his reign, have
endeared his name to the nation.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

THE STATE OF EUROPE, AND PROGRESS OF THE WAR, FROM
THE. ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. TO THE PEACE OF PARIS, IN

1763.

1760.— George III., eldest son of the late Prince Frede-
rick of Wales, succeeded to the crown of Great Britain, in the
twenty-third year of his age ; he was universally allowed to
be the arbiter of peace and war, and the most powerful mo
narch in Europe. His first care, after his accession, was to
assemble the Parliament, which met in November, and settled
the annual sum of ;6800,000 upon the king, to maintain the
civil list.* His majesty soon after married the Princess

• This sum being found insufficient, £100,000 per annum was added to
It ill 776.

20*

210 GENERAL IIISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAF

Chavlotte of Mecklenburg Slrelilz, and tlic ceremony of their
coronalioii was performed with great ponip in Westminster
Ahhev, on tlie 2'2(1 Scjitc inlxr, 17t)l.

The liberal supplies irpanted by the British l*arlianient for
supporting the war during the ensuing campaign, amounted
nearly to X'iO.OOO.OUO sterling, 'i'heso immense resources
astonished all Murope, and made the courts of Vieiuia and
Versailles sensible of the necessity of proposing terms of
peace. Negotiations commenced, but failed of any efl'ect, and
the cause of failure may be thus explained. The pacific Fer-
dinand VI. having breathed his last in 1759, was succeeded
on the throne of Spain by his brother, Don Carlos, King of
Naj)les and Sicily. On this event, by an article in the treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle, Don Philip should have ascended the
throne of the two Sicilies, and Parma, Placenlia, and Guas-
talla have reverted to the house of Austria ; saving certain
provisions made by the same treaty, in favour of the King of
Sardinia. But, as Don Carlos, now Charles III. of Spain,
had never acceded to that treaty, he left the crown of the two
Sicilies, by will, to his third son, Don Ferdinand, the second
Ijeing juilged unfit for government, and tin; eldest designed for
the Spanish succession. Don Philip acquiesced in this dis-
position ; and the court of Vienna, through the mediation of
France, permitted him to remain in possession of tlie duchies
of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, without putting in any
claim to those territories. 'I'lie King of Sardinia was (piieted
with money. Charles 111. foresaw that, if the French empire
in America were deslroycid i)y the English, that of Sp'ain must
also lie at tlieir mercy ; this apprehension, which the
court of Versailles endeavoured to increase, brought about
the Fdiiulji Coui/Kic/ i)etween France and Spain, which the
former had so long and so ardenUy desired. The English
miiii><ler, Mr. Pitt, considered a war with Spain as the un-
avoidable conseciuciK'c of this measure. Biding opposed by
Lord Grenvillf! and the other members of the council, he
resolved to resign the seals.* The Flarl of Bute, who had
been governor to the yoiinir kinsr, was placed at the head of
the new ministry, and Lord lOgremont received the seals.
But it was soon found necessary to adopt the measures of the
ex-minister, and, in the betjinningof ITCi'i, mutual declarations
of war were issued i>y the courts of London and Madrid, and

• Mr. F'itt wo« crcalod Earl of ('tiHlham in 1776, and a prnsion of
£3,0(1(1 per aiiriiiiii Rctllrd on tiitn for Uiri-o lives. He died in 1778, an4
Mraa buried in Westminster .\bl)ey, al the luiblic cx{K!nse.

XXXVII."! GENERAL HISTORV OF EUROPE. 211

the greatest preparations were made by both for commencing
hostilities with vigour and effect. Great Britain was now
engaged as a principal in a war with the whole house of
Bourbon ; and as an ally, she had the declining cause of the
King of Prussia to support against the house of Austria, the
Empress of Russia, the King of Sweden, and the Germanic
body. Nor was this all : France suggested to Spain the in-
vasion of the neutral kingdom of Portugal, as the most effect-
ual mean of distressing England, her ally. The conquest of
Portugal, indeed, seemed no distant or doubtful event. Sunk
in ignorance and indolence, reposing on the protection of
England, and fed and adorned with the rich productions of
Brazil, the Portuguese, under a worthless king, and an im-
pious ministry, laid aside all attention to their internal defence.

A declaration of war against Portugal, by the Kings of
France and Spain, soon followed ; and a Spanish army was
ready to enter that country. His Britannic majesty could not
view with indifference the danger of his ally ; he sent over to
Portugal arms, ammunition, provisions, and near 10,000 land
forces. By these means the Spaniards, who had passed the
mountains and taken several places, found themselves neces-
sitated to abandon their conquests and evacuate Portugal
before the close of the campaign.

Meanwhile, a revolution in the state of Russia changed the
face of politics in Europe. Elizabeth, Empress of Russia,
second daughter of Peter the Great, died in the beginning of
the year 1662, and was succeeded by her nephew, the Duke
of Holstein, under the name of Peter III. Peter, besides an
extravagant admiration of the character of the King of Prussia,
was ambitious of recovering from Denmark the duchy of
Sleswick, to which he had pretensions as Duke of Holstein.
He therefore ordered a cessation of arms, and soon after
entered into an alliance with Frederic, without stipulating any
thing in favour of his former confederates. He even joined
part of his forces to those of his new ally, in order to drive
the Austrians out of Silesia ; while he commanded another
army to march towards Holstein. Sweden followed the
exjmple of Russia, in concluding a peace with the court of
Berlin. A body of Russian irregulars made an irruption into
Bohemia, and retaliated on the Austrians those cruel ravages
wbich the same barbarous enemy had, in alliance with Austria,
before committed on the Prussian dominions.

In the mean while, the dissatisfied part of the nobility,
tlergy, and chief officers of the army, taking advantage of the

*12 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. ^CHAP.

dissensions between Peter III. and his consort, Catherine of
Anh:ih-Zcrl)st, asscnil)ltHl in the absence of tlie czar, deposed
him lorniully, and invested Catherine with tlie imperial
ensigns. Peter attempted to escape into Holstein, but was
seized and thrown into prison, where he expired a few days
after. Tlio odium of iiis death lias jrenerally been cast on his
empress; and by reason of tlie steps which liad precedt^d it,
was an event universally expected. The new empress or-
liered back to Russia all her troops in Silesia, Prussia, and
Pomerania. Notwithsiaiidin^r tliis defection, the Kini^ of
Prussia made himself master of Schweidnitz, and eventually
of all Silesia; and then turned his eyes towards Saxony and
prepared to besiege Dresden. These preparations, and the
decisive victory gained by his brother. Prince Henry, near
Freyherg, induced the court of Vienna to conclude a cessation
of hostilities with Frederic for Saxony and Silesia. The
Prussian army then broke into Bohemia, laid the greater part
of the town of Egra in ashes, penetrated into the heart of
Franconia, and even as far as Swahia, ravaging the country,
exacting heavy contributions, and spreading ruin and dismay
on every side.

During these transactions in Germany, the English made
tliemselves masters of Martinique, Granada, St. Lucia, St.
Vincent, and every other place belonging to France, though
reputed neutral, in the extensive chain of the Carribbee
Islands ; but an advantage still more decisive and glorious,
was the taking of the famous city of Havana, the principal
seaport in the isle of Cuba, the key of the Gulf of Mexico, and
the centre of the Spanish trade and navigation in the new
world; while, in tlie I'^ast lulies, the whole range of Philip-
pines fell, with the city of Manilla, under their power. But,
before the event of this suc(;essful expedition in the east was
known, preliminaries of a treaty of peace were siirned at
Fontaiiie!)leau, which has generally been considered as inade-
quate to the advantages olitained by the British arms during
the war. By the articles of this treaty, tlie whole of ('anada,
with the i.-.laiids of St. John and C^ape Breton, and the greater
part of Louisiana, were ceded to Great Britain. France regain-
ed possession of Marlinieo, Guadaloupe, Goree, and Belleisle,
as well as of lier East India setd(!ments. She agreed, however,
not to erect any fortifications in Bengal, and to destroy those
of the city of Dunkirk. Tlie Havana was restored to Spain
in exchange for the; Florid.ts and Minorca, which were ceded

HXVIIl.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 21?

to England. These preliminaries were approved, and the
deiinaive treaty was signed at Paris, February, 1763.

About the same time was signed at Hubertsl)urg, a treaty
of peace between the empress-queen and the King of Prus-
sia, by which it was provided that a mutual restitution of
conquests and an oblivion of injuries should take place, and
both parties be put in the same situation as at the commence-
ment of hostilities,*

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

PRUSSIA, POLAND, TURKEY, AND RUSSIA, FROM 1763 TO 1772.

The treaty of Hubertsburg, in 1763, having put an end to
what is sometimes called the seven years' war, the King of
Prussia returned to his capital, from which he had been absent
upwards of six years. The contest in which he had been
engaged, was one of the most sanguinary upon record ; and
the exertions of Frederic, against enemies so numerous and
formidable, had been a subject of universal admiration. But
the laurels with which his brow was encircled, were a trifling
compensation to his subjects for the calamities they had endured,
and the blood that had been shed to satiate his thirst for mili-
tary glory. The throne of Poland becoming vacant the follow-
ing year, (1764,) by the demise of Augustus III., he concurred
with the Empress of Russia to procure the election of Stanis-
laus Poniatowski, a Polish nobleman of ancient lineage, and
high in the favour of Catherine II. This foreign nomination
was opposed by a numerous party of dissentient members,
who quitted the Diet, and took up arms, but were defeated
by the Russians. The Empress Catherine, conceiving her-
self entitled to the submission of a monarch of her own crea-
tion, soon put forward the most exorbitant pretensions ; and,
tracing on a map a line of demarcation, by which a great part
of the Polish territory was made over to Russia, insisted on
the recognition of her claim. The kingdom, meanwhile, was
torn with internal divisions ; the Dissidents, under which
name were comprised Greeks, Socinians, and sectaries of
every denomination, claiming equal rights with the Catholics,
which the prelates and nobles perseveringly refused to con-
cede. These troubles were artfully fon^nted by Catherine,

• The National Debt at this period amounted to £148,000,000, and thfl
Interest of it to nearly £5,000,000.

tl4 OEXERAL HISTORY OF KUROPE. [[cHAP.

w!io found in tlicin a pretext for introducing an anny into
Poland, (iradually advancing, the Russian troops at length
invested Warsaw, and several of those who liad In-en most
active against the Dissidents, being seized and bound, were
sent into Siberia. After many tumultuous meetings, the Diet
yielded and made the concessions retjuired. Various confe-
deracies were now formed by the Poles to support the inde-
pendence of their country, and Turkey was induced to lend
them her aid by declaring war against Russia, in 17G8. Two
squadrons of Russian men-of-war sailed round the Straits of
(Tibraltar, and, entering the Archipelago, carried terror and
desolation through the islands and coasts of the Ottoman em-
pire. The arrival of tlie Russians was a signal of revolt to
the Greeks, who flew to arms, but were defeated and forced
to take refuge in the mountains. The Turkish fleet was at
anchor near the island of Scio, when the Russian armament
coming up with it, a desperate conflict ensued ; the admiral's
vessel, and that of the capitan pacha were closely engaged,
when both took fire and were blown up. The remaining
Turkish vessels ran into a small bay, where, on the following
niglit, fire-ships being introduced among them, they were all
destroyed. The partial diversion caused by this war, ani-
mated tiie confederate Polos to new exertion. The kingdom,
desolated by anarchy, laid waste by civil war, and depopu-
lated by the plague, which had spread from the Turkish fron-
tier through many of tlie provinces, was reduced to the most
di;plorable condition. Stanislaus, a mere puppet in the hands
( f Russia, scarcely deemed himself safe within the walls of
his capital. On the night of the 3d of September, 1771, a
party of tlie confederates entered Warsaw in disguise, stopped
•he king on his way to the palace, wliitlier he was returning
without guards, dragged him forcibly out of his carriage, and
convey(.'d liim on horseback out of the city. The night being
extremely dark, the conspirators were unable to find tlieir
way; and, perceiving the dilficulty of carrying oflf the king,
repeatedly proposed to kill him, but were prevented by
their leader, Kosinski, who was at length left alone with
the royal captive, to whom he promised protection and
liberty, on the conditions of pardon and reward. After wan-
dering about for some time, they reached a mill, whence
Stanislaus sent a note to tlie captain of his guards, at Warsaw,
who conducted him back with an escort, amidst the rejoicing
of tlie court and people. Of all the conspirators, Kosinski
alone escaped punishment.

XXXIX.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 215

Poland was now completely surrounded by hostile armies ;
and in an interview between the Prussian monarch and the
Emperor Joseph II.* in 1772, a partition of her territory was
finally resolved on. Manifestoes were prepared, in which
Russia, Austria, and Prussia set forth their several preten-
sions ; while the royal conspirators introduced each, on his
side, an army to support them. Thus was Poland unjustly
dismembered of several large and fertile provinces, comprising
above seven thousand square leagues of territory, with five
millions of inhabitants, and despoiled of one-half of her annual
income.

CHAPTER XXXIX.

SPAIN, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND, FROM 1767, TO THE TREATY
OF PEACE IN 1784.

The Jesuits had been calumniated, despoiled, and expelled
from Portugal and France; but they were still a numerous
and powerful body in the foreign and domestic dominions of
the crown of Spain. Among the partisans of heresy and infi-
delity, who had nothing more at heart than the destruction of
an order formidable by its learning, its deep penetration, and
its virtues, men were to be found who could unblushingly
invent and circulate the most atrocious calumnies.! By
forged documents and terrors of insurrection, 'it was no diffi-
cult task to work upon the weak mind of Charles III., and
win his consent to the execution of a plan as novel as it was
unjust and treacherous. Despatches were forwarded to the
governors and civil magistrates in every part of the Spanish
dominions, with strict orders to open them only at the hour
of sunset, on the 2d of April, 1767. According to the direc-
tions therein contained, on a given day and hour, and without
the sliglitest previous intimation, all the Jesuits in Spain, in
Africa, in Asia, America, and the isles, were seized ; forced
on board transports in readiness for the purpose, and cast on
the shores of the ecclesiastical state. The flourishing mis-

* Joseph, who had been elected King of the Romans, succeeded to the
imperial dignity on the demise of his father, in 1765, and the empress-
queen made him co-regent in her hereditary dominions. Leopold, her se-
cond son, was at the same time, agreeably to the wish of the late emperor,
made Grand Duke of Tuscany.

■(■ One of the maxims of the party was this: Calomniez hardiment; il
en restera toujours quelque chose.

21** GUNERAL HISTORY OF EtTROPE. [cHAP.

Bioi.s in Paraguay and California thus disappeared, and (he
poor Indians were deprived of those to whom they wore
indchled for the advanla^ros of civilized life and the hlessing^s
of Christianity. In vain did I'opc Clement XIII., in an auto-
graph letter, inquire into the cause of so unheard-of a proceed-
ing ; it was a secret which (Charles tiiou<rhl fit, as he said, to
seal up in his own royal heart, and tlunigh the Pope, I)y a
brief, declared the institute pious and holy in its spirit, its
laws and its morality, the king's resolution to condemn those
whom he would not, because he could not, accuse, remained
immutable : Clement ceased not to protect and console t\\e
proscribed members of die society till his death, in 1769.

The Jesuits had now disappeared from all the countries
where the intriguing ministers, Choiseuil, Pombal, and Aranda
could extend their influence ; the young King of Naples,
guided by his father Charles III., had pul)lislied an edict for
their perpetual expulsion from his kingilom of the two Sici-
lies ; and the Duke of Parma, grandson of Louis XIV., had
adopted a similar measure. On the elevation of Cardinal
Gauganelli to tlie pontilicale, under the name of Clement
XIV., the three crowns redoubled their exertions to obtain
from the head of the church the entire suppression of the
order. During the reign of his predecessor this would have
been a hopeless effort; but the love of peace, the dread of
exciting schism, some say, a previous simoniacal promise,
induced the Pope to yield assent to their wishes. In 177.3,
he published a brief, suj^pressing the Society of .lesus thronjrh-
out the C'hristian world, elTacing it from the number of reli-
gious orders, and placing its disbanded members in the ranks
of secular clergymen.

The venerable chief of the order, the aged Ricci, was
imprisoned in the casde of St. Angelo, and detained there till
his death. In his last moments, he made a solemn declara-
tion, that among all his subjects, he knew not one who had
been guilty of a crime deserving that name, or the treatment
they had experienced. The brief of suppression was re-
ceived by ilie bishops, and by all uninfected with Jansenism
or infidelity, with grief and consternation ; by those whom it
concerned, willi edifyinjr sul)mission. The empress-queen,
who loved and esteemed the Jesuits, yielded a reluctant
acquiescence; the Kings of Prussia and Poland maintained
them, under the habit of seculars, in possession of their
houses and colleges ; but no entreaties could induce the high
minded CaUicrinc of Russia to connive at die destruction of

SXX1X.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 217

an order she had found so emuiently serviceable. She even
threatened to withdraw her protection from t!ie Catholics ir:
general, if the Jesuits were molested in lier dominions.
Clement XIV. died the year after the publication of tlie brief;
Cardinal Braschi was elected in his stead, and took the name
of Pius VI. From him the empress obtained an authoriza-
tion, empowering the Jesuits in Russia to live as formerly, ac-
cording to the institute of St. Ignatius. Tlius was one branch
upheld by Providence till the restoration of tlie parent tree.

The year in which Clement XIV. signed the brief of sup-
pression, was the last of the Duke de Choiseuil's administra-
tion. Supplanted by the intrigues of the reigning favourite,
and the party of the Duke d'Aiguillon, his successor in the
ministry, he quitted Paris to live an exile on his estates,
leaving the affairs of the kingdom in a deplorable condition.
The people groaned under the weight of taxes, heavier by far
than those of any preceding reign ; while the increasing defi-
ciencies of the revenue did not prevent the court from dis-
playing the most profuse expenditure. Thus was France
situated, when Lewis XV. was seized with the small-pox, to
which disease he fell a victim in 1774. The title of Bicn
Jlim?. he had long ceased to deserve, and his memory will be
ever tarnished by his unbounded prodigalities, weak conde-
scension, and depraved conduct. He was succeeded by his
grandson, Lewis XVI., a prince of unblemished morals and
excellent disposition, whose accession was hailed with exces-
sive joy by the people, and who began his reign by several
very popular acts.

The year 1772 was distinguished by a revolution of a sin-
gular nature in Sweden. A year had elapsed since the acces-
sion of Gustavus III.; he had been crowned, and the Diet was
still sitting, when, having secured the adherence of the army,
and made himself master of the senate and the admiralty, he
entered the senate-hall, in his regalia, carrying the silver
hammer of Gustavus Adolphus in his hand. After many
complaints against the Diet, he ordered a new form of govern-
ment to be read, giving almost absolute power to the crown.
All were required to swear they would observe it, and, in
such circumstances, it is no wonder that there was not one
dissentient voice. The king then rose, took a psalter from
his pocket, and entoned Te Deum, in which all the audience
joined. Thus an important revolution was effected withoui
bloodshed. Gustavus displayed on tliis occasion great
talents, firm resolution, and profound dissimulation.

218 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE LCHAP

The court of Denmark was at this epocli (1772) divided
into two parties ; at the head of one was tlie Queen Caroline
MaliUla, sister of George III., and Counts IJrandt and Stru-
ensee ; the other parly was headed l)y the queen-dowager,
widow of the late King Frederic V. Christian III., now re-
duced to a state of mental imhecilitv, was prevailed upon to
order the arrest of his queen and iier accomplices, who, he
was assured, had resolved on compelling him to abdicate his
crown. Struensee from being the most powerful man in
Denmark, saw himself chained in a dungeon ; he was tried
wiih Brandt on a charge of high treason, found guilty, and
executed. The queen was conveyed to Zell, where she was
maintained in affluence by her brother, and died, at the age
of twenty-four, in 1775.

The disputes which had for some years been carried on,
between Great Britain and her colonies in America, now be-
gan to assume a very serious aspect. The chief subject
of contest was the right claimed by Parliament of levying
taxes on the colonists ; which they denied, maintaining that
they could not lawfully be taxed without their own consent
In order to raise a revenue from the transatlantic j)ossession3
of Great Britain, Mr. Grenville, when minister, proposed a
stamp act, which, though afterwards repealed, was unfortu-
nately revived in 17t»0, and a duty laid upon tea, and various
other articles imported into the colonies. A combination was
immediately formed in America not to receive any of the com-
modities thus taxed; and three ships arriving at the portof Bos-
ton, laden with tea, were boarded by a numberof men disguised
like Indians, who threw the whole cargo of each into the sea.
In consequence of this opposition, an act was passed for shut-
ting up that port, and for changing the constitution of Massa-
chusetts Bay, and Quebec. The Americans, on their side,
agreed to suspend all cominercial intercourse with Great
Britain, till the oluioxious acts should be repealed ; at the
same time they sent over deputies to profess their loyalty, and
to supplicate a change of measures in their regard. I^ut their
remonstrances were disregarded : coercion in its utmost
rigour seemed to be resolved upon, and every attempt at con-
ciliation was negatived in Parliament by large majorities.
In the same proportion was a spirit of determined resist-
ani-e diffused thrr)Uirh the colonies, which became more
animated on the receipt of every new act or declaration from
EuLdand. In April, 177r>, the first I)lood was shed in this
unfortunate contest. (ieneral Gage had sent a body of

XXXIX.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 219

troops to destroy a military depot at Concord : they succeed-
ed in their design, but on their return were dreadfully harassed
by tlie Americans, and the loss of life on both sides was consi-
derable. All the colonies now began to act in open hostility to
the British government, and appointed a congress to manage
their affairs. This body of representatives instantly passed'
resolutions for raising an army and issuing a paper currency
on the security of the United States of America, (a title now
first assumed,) and for stopping all importations to those
places, which still remained faithful in their allegiance to
Great Britain. However, the arrival of Generals Howe,
Burgoyne, and Clinton, with reinforcements from England,
kept up the spirits of the royalists, and they were victorious
at an engagement near Bunker's Hill. In compliance with
the general wish. Congress appointed George Washington,
a gentleman of fortune in Virginia, commander-in-chief of the
American forces ; and his conduct and military skill justified
the partiality of his countrymen. The main body of the
British army being blockaded in Boston, an invasion of
Canada was attempted, but proved unsuccessful ; the Ameri-
cans, in their retreat, burned St. John's and abandoned
Montreal.

The spring of 1776 was signalized by the bombardment of
the town of Boston, which the British general at length de-
termined to evacuate by sea; as the rear embarked, Washing-
ton entered the town triumphantly on the other side. All
hope of an accommodation being now at an end, the
thirteen colonies declared themselves free and independent ;
abjured their allegiance to the crown of Great Britain, and
renounced all political connection with that country. In
1777, Howe gained two victories over Washington, and Phi-
ladelphia surrendered to the king's troops ; on the other hand,
General Burgoyne was surrounded at Saratoga, and obliged
to lay down his arms. Overtures for peace were at this time
held out by General Howe and his brother, the admiral ; but
concessions, which formerly would have been received with
gratitude, were now rejected with contempt.

1778. — The French, who, from national jealousy, had long
viewed the revolted colonies with a favourable eye, now
entered into open alliance with them as independent states,
and war between France and England became inevitable. On
this occasion, as on many others, Lewis XVI. suffered his
own judgment to be overruled by evil counsellors, for such an
alliance was in every respect impolitic. The Marquis de la

220 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

Fayctle arrived in America towards the close of the campaiirn
of 1777, and there laid the foundation of that reputalioa
which aftrrwanls rose so lii^li, tlimigh jn-rliafis not beiioficial
tx) the real inti-rests of his oountrv. The certainty of a
war with France induced General Clinton, who now held the
principal command, to qnit Philadclpliia, and retire to New
York. I'ondiclierry in the East, and St. Lucia in llie West
Indies, surrendered to the Enj^lish, hut Dominica, St. Vincent,
and Grenada fell into the hands of the French, who assisted
the Americans with a fleet commanded hy Count d'Estaing.
Spain soon united her arms to tliose of France and America ;
took Pensacola and closely invested Gibraltar; while lh<j
combined fleeUsof the two neiCThI)ourinff powers rode for some
time triutnplianlly in the British channel, but withdrew with-
out attempting any thing of importance. The Dutch had long
heen suspected of assislinij the Americans ; and as the Slates-
general declined giving any satisfactory answer to the decla-
mations which were made on the subject, war was declared
against Holland towards the close of the year 1780. In the
month of June, the same year, the city of London exhibited
one of the most disgraceful scenes that religious bigotry ever
produced. It arose from the fanaticism of an association of
Frolestaiit sectaries, who took offence at some recent relaxa-
tion of the penal statutes in favour of the Catholics by the
legislature. Several chapels, belonging to persons of that
religion, were destroyed; and on the commitment of some of
the rioters, the mob rose in a mass and pulled down the
prison of Newgale, liberating the prisoners, who readily join-
ed them in the work of destruction. In short, the King's
Bench, the Fleet Prison, the houses of Catholics, and of
those who were suspected of favouring them, were seen at
once in a conflairration. Among others. Sir George Saville
and the Earl of Mansfield, whose liberalitv of sentiment had
marked them out to the vengeance of the fanatics, were very
great sufferers. During these disgraceful scenes, the ministry
seemed appalled, and the mairislrales of London, in general,
except Mr. Wilkes, shrunk from the exercise of their author-
ity. At len<rlh, bv the king's command, who retained his pre-
sence of mind, troops poured into London, and order was
restored by military force. Many of the rioters lost their
lives by the fire of the soldiers, or i)V the sentence of the
law ; and Lord George Gordon with difficulty escaped, for
the weak, rather than wicked j)art he had taken in this
affair.

XXXIX.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 221

Some relief had also been conceded by the Irish Parliamen"
to the Catholics of that kingdom in 1778, especially an act
which enabled them to talie leases for any term of years not
exceeding 999. A violent contest had long been maintained
respecting the legislative independence of Ireland. An address
to his majesty, stating the grievances of the nation and the
declaration of right, was powerfully supported by the eloquence
and patriotic exertions of Mr. Grattan, and passed unanimously.
The measure of conciliation was at length adopted by England,
during the administration of Earl Shelburne, afterwards Mar-
quis of Lansdowne, in May, 1782, by a repeal of the 6th of
George I. The motion was proposed in the House of Com-
mons by Mr. Secretary Fox, in a speech of uncommon
eloquence and perspicuity, and carried without a dissenting
voice. By this act of the British Parliament was the inde-
pendence of Ireland in legislating for herself established, to the
great joy of the whole nation. The Irish Parliament rewarded
the services of Mr. Grattan by voting him £50,000, enacted
the Habeas Corpus Act, abolished the Sacramental Test,
rendered the judges independent, and established the Bank of
Ireland. The illustrious order of St. Patrick was instituted
the following year, of which the king and his heirs were ap-
pointed sovereigns.

In Sept. 1780, the Resolution and Discovery returned from
a voyage round the world, but, to the grief of every person
who respected worth and talents, without their captains, Cook
and Clarke. The former, whose life had been devoted to use-
ful and important pursuits, was unfortunately killed by the
natives of Owhyhee, an island he had discovered in the South
Sea ; the latter died soon after of a decline.

The war with Holland was vigorously pursued, and St.
Eustatia, St. Martin, and St. Bartholome-w, the colonies of
Demerara and Essequibo, with a great number of trading and
some armed vessels, fell into the hands of the British.

In America, alternate successes and reverses attended the
arms of England ; but victory itself was of small advantage to
the mother country, while defeats only served to teach the
colonists the art of conquering in their turn. On the whole,
however, the cause of Great Britain became every day more
desperate. Earl Cornwallis, after distinguishing himself on
various occasions, was, at length, surrounded by General
Washington, assisted by the Marquis de la Fayette, and obliged
to surrender Yorktown, as well as himself and all his forces,
amounting to 7000 men. (1781.) The untimely fate of Majoi

21*

222 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. QcHAP

Andre, an able and estimable young oHicer in the British
service, excited universal sympalhy. While concertin<r mea-
sures with General Arnold, who oflcred to betray West Point,
an important post, into the hands of the Knirlish, he was taken
by the Americans and shot, in pursuance of a sentence passijd
by a council of ollicers. He met Ids death with the fortitude
of a soldier, and was honoured with a monument in West-
minster Abliey. The cause of American independence was,
in the mean time, warmly advocated by Fox and Murke in the
House of Commons; in fact, after the surrender of liOrd
Cornwallis, a chani^e of measures became absolutely necessary ;
and as a change of ministry was a requisite preliminary, an
entire alteration took place in the caliinet, on the 27th of March,
1782, under the auspices of the Marquis of Rockingham, who
was appointed first lord of the treasury. In order to confirm
the favoural)le opinion which had attended their coming into
power, the new ministry conscuted that the indepcMidence of
America should be acknowledged, and entered witli ardour
into measures for promoting a general pacification. For this
purpose, Mr. Grenville was invested witli full powers to treat
at Paris with the plenipotentiaries of all the belligerent na-
tions; and orders were despatched to the commanders-in-chief
in America, to ac(i\iaint them with the pacific intentions of the
British cal)inet, and with their olTer of independence to the
United States. Peace was now most ardently desired by all
ranks of people in this coimtry ; a signal naval victory, gained
over the P'rendi fleet under ('omit de (irasse, by Admiral Kod-
ney, in Ajiril, rendered essential service to the interests of the
country, and facilitated the pending negotiations.

The Bahama Isles, however, soon afler surrendered to
Spain, which had previously conquered Minorca; but, to coun-
terbalance this loss, the British reaped immortal laurels at
Giliraltar, und(!r the lirave General I'dliott, and converted one
of the most formidaI)le attacks which had ever Iieen made,
to the destruction of their :.ss;iilants.

The Marquis of Rockingham dying, was succeeded in of-
fice bv Lord Shelburne, uniler whose auspices the preliminary
articles of peace were finally adjusted, (178.3,) by which
America gained all she had been contending for, and was ac
knowled<>-ed ;in independent nation.

The address of thanks for peaci; being lost in the House of
Commons, Lonl Shelburne resigned, and was succeeded by
the former un|)opular minister. Lord North, who had recently
formed a coalition with Mr. I'ox, though they had hitherto

XL."] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 223

differed so widely in their political sentiments. Peace was
proclaimed in July, 1784; and the same year the coalition was
dissolved, the ministry again changed, and Mr. Fox made
place for his popular rival, the Honourable William Pitt, second
son of the celebrated Earl of Chatham, then only twenty-four
years of age.

Though peace was thus restored in the west, the East Indies
stih continued the scene of warfare. The ambition of Ilyder
Ally, Sultan of Mysore, who, from a private soldier, had
raised himself to the rank of a powerful prince, obliged the
company to take up arms against him. Being defeated by an
army from Madras, he withdrew into a mountainous district,
whence, by the superiority of his cavalry, he harassed the
English and intercepted their supplies. In 1780, he formed
a confederacy with the Nizam of the Deccan and other native
princes to expel them from India ; and, passing the Ghauts,
burst, like a torrent, into the Carnatic. Victory was for some
time in his favour ; but General Sir Eyre Coote, arriving to
take the command, defeated him in three different actions, and
effected a great improvement in the affairs of the company.
Hyder Ally died in 1782, leaving a kingdom of his own ac-
quisition to his son, Tippoo Saib, who became one of the most
powerful princes in the east, and an inveterate enemy of the
English.

CHAPTER XL.

GERMANY, PRUSSIA, AND RUSSIA, FROM 1778 TO 1791.

1778. — THEdeathof Maximilian Joseph, Elector of Bavaria,
gave rise to a new contest between the Prussian monarch and
the court of Vienna. In him was extinguished the Ludovician
line of Bavaria, which had possessed the duchy nearly 500
years. He was succeeded, both in the electoral dignity and in
his dominions, by Charles Theodore, the Elector Palatine of
the Rhine. This prince was in the forty-fourth year of his age ;

2?4 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAH.

and having no issue, the lar^c possessions of the double elec-
torate were held in exportation by the Duke of Deux Fonts,
who was the nearest relative on the male side. Scarcely iiad
Charles Theodore arrived in his capital, Munich, before die
Austrian trt)ops, who had only waited ft)r an account of the late
elector's death, poured on all sides into IJavaria, Unable to
contend witli an artny of (»0,000 men, the new elector concluded
a treaty with Vicuna, by which, in order to preserve a part of
his possessions in liavaria, he gave up more than half of tiiein.
The Duke of Deux Ponts protested against d»is arrangenu>nt,
and the King of Prussia undertook to supi)ort his rights, 'l^he
Emperor .Joseph, then very young, commanded the Austrian
army; and when Frederic quitted Berlin to oppose him, he
sent the following note to one of Ids ministers : — " You will tind
money enough in the treasury for the pul)lic supplies. 1 trust
in God that I shall soon return, as I am only going on a short
excursion to teach a young gendeman his military exercise."

Tiie campaign, however, was radier long; but no action of
consequence took place; and a treaty of peace was, at length,
concluded at Teschen, 1779, by which Austria renounced all
pretensions to Bavaria, excepting only the district of Biirg-
hausen, and agreed to make satisfaction to the Duke of Deux
Ponts.

During the American war, when Enirlaud, Holland, France,
and Spain tinged widi blood tlu" seas of tlui two hemispheres,
the pride of <Jatherine II. was hurt by the English, wlio paid
no respect to the vessels freighted in her ports; and as she was
determined to protect the navigation of the nordi, slie proposed
to the courts of Copenhagen and Stockholm to equip each a
squadron, which, combined with hers, should defend the
neutrality. Russia had experienced from her conquests on tiie
frontiers of Turkey, a rapid increase of commerce; iier vessels
passed the Dardanelles, proceeded to Smyrna and Alexandria,
and traded in the ports of Italy. On the shores of die Nieper,
Cadierine had laid the foundation of the city of Cherson,
which already counted within its walls 40,000 inhabiUuiLs, and
from the yards of vvhicii were launched vessels of commerce,
and ships of war, destined to strike terror into the (JtUiman
Empire. Desirous of conquering a country so long the object
>f her ambitious projects, tlu! empress resolved to commence
iperations, by detaching the ('rimea from Ttirkey, Having,
therefore, excited an insurrection there, the Russian troops,
onder pretence of assisting the khan, found means to possais
ihemselves of the country.

XL.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 225

1783. — Intimidated by the immense preparations of Cathe-
rine, the Porte concluded a treaty with Russia, by which the
empress retained the sovereignty of tlie Crimea, of the isle ot
Tainan, and a great part of the Kuban, while her right was
acknowledged to the dominion of the Euxine and to the pas-
sage of tlie Dardanelles. Thus did she acquire, without the
necessity of a battle, an immense territory and 1,500,000
subjects. To the Crimea and to the Kuban, she restored
their ancient names of Taurida and Caucasus. In the Caspian
Sea, Catherine maintained a fleet which cruised along the
Persian coasts and burned all the vessels it met in those parts.
She revived the commerce with China, and sent thither seve-
ral young Russians to learn the language. The spirit of
toleration was a striking feature in her government; not satis-
fied with having appointed a Catholic bishop, she established
at Mohilef a seminary of Jesuits ; and, on the day of the
benediction of the waters, her confessor, by her orders, gave
an annual grand entertainment to ecclesiastics of every deno-
mination, called the dinner of toleration, at which have been
seen the clergy of eight different forms of worship.

After this short view of the increasing power of Russia,
we must return to the affairs of Germany. The year 1780
was marked by the death of the empress-queen, Maria Teresa,
a princess who appears to have inherited all the spirit, firm-
ness, and magnanimity of her most renowned ancestors,
united with a clear understanding, a happy temper, and a
captivating condescension. In the course of her life she expe-
rienced many vicissitudes of fortune; but her unfailing cou-
rage enabled her to surmount all difficulties, and to elevate th?
house of Austria to a degree of power which it had not en-
joyed since the time of Charles V. Exclusive of her engage-
ments against Poland, she was entitled to universal respec>
for the justice of her administration ; and in the characters of
a wife and parent she is deservedly proposed as a model
to posterity.* Her son, Joseph II., succeeded to her exten-
s ve possessions, but his unfortunate reign presents us with a
very different prospect. To this prince's early acquaintance
with the infidel King of Prussia, and with the deistical pro-
ductions of his literarjr friends, may be traced the subsequent
sacrileges and tyrannical acts which have rendered his reign
ever memorable in the annals of the church. The dissolution

• The Prince of Kaunitz, long the Nestor of the European ministers,
enjoyed to the last the confidence of his sovereign, and died at the ad-
vanced age of eighty-four.

220 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cilAP.

of the Society of Jesus coiUril)iited also not :i liiilc to overturn
the sentiiiiLMits of reliirioii lie luid iiiil)il)fttl from his moilicr.
Enrly im[)rcssed wiili an oslfciii for the Jesuits, it was ob-
served, that wlie.i he visited tlie ihlTerent provinces of liia
einj)ire, he gave particular attention to their establishments.
In Transylvania, 7000 families were pointed out to him,
whom thev iiad recently reconciled to the ('atiiolic church.
On his return to Vienna, Joseph made this circumstance
the subject of a congratulatory letter to l*ope Clement XIV.,
and received from liim in reply, the brief suppressing an
order, whose apostolical laliours he had so much admiri'd.
This was the moment made use of, l)y the lovers of innova-
tion, to confirm liis prepossessions against tlie power of the
Holy See and churcli hierarchy ; and no sooner had the em-
press expired, than he began to circumscribe the Pope's
autliority, and to destroy monastic orders in his dominions.
I'ius VI., who undertook a journey to Vienna to expostulate
witli the emperor, could not engage him to put a stop to the
innovations by which he afllicted the church. Jansenism
triumj)hed in Gennaiiy ; the priiici|des of liUlher were taught
in the universities, and tiie lyceums of the Freemasons suc-
ceeded the Jesuits' schools for the instruction of youth. But,
of all the subjects of the emperor, the Catholics of the Aus-
trian Netherlands sufTered most from the new edicts. Faith-
ful, however, to their religion, they repulsed the troops that
would have compelled them to conform to the imperial inno-
vations ; and, after sustaining many sieges, and gaininsj several
battles, lieigium, in a few mouths, proclaimed its independ-
ence, not like the Jacobins, of the altar and llu; throne, but of
pliilosophical iinpietv. Joseph protecteil the Protestants and
Jews in his dominions ; lie also granlc<l liberty to the press,
as far as regardjid the productions of profane literature and
modern philosophy, but Ik; established a severe censorship,
over (yatliolic writings. Hv an edict which does honour to
his memory, he abolisheil the slavery of the peasants in
Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia ; and similar measures were
soon after taken to meliorate their condition in Austrian
Poland.

In 1786 died Frederic II. of Prussia,* surnamed the Great,
at the age of seventy-four; till llu! day that preceded his death,
he retained all those niicommon j)ow(;rs of understanding for
which he had been remarkalih', and, although alllicted with

• The night he died, he went to bed in his regimentals, with liis hal
Uid btMita on.

XL."] GENFRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 227

the gout, applied to business with the same indefatigable at'
tention. In estimating his character, we must remember that
he was heir to a despotic monarcliy, trained up from his in-
fancy in military and arbitrary ideas, and that his education
had been a good deal neglected. But it is probable, that with
his taste for literature, and his distinguished talents, he would
have made a better king, if he had not early imbibed the
pernicious skepticism of Voltaire.* His vanity, which blind-
ed him to his own interest, in this particular, was ridiculed
even by Voltaire himself; while the protection he afforded the
enemies of Christianity, made religion consider him as one of
her principal adversaries. He desired to unite in his own
person the reputation of a great king, a wise legislator, an
illustrious hero, an accomplished general, a fine poet, and an
enlightened philosopher. Active, enterprising, indefatigable,
and intrepid, he continually alarmed his neighbours ; and
their apprehensions were increased by his appearing not to
scruple at any means which might eff'ect his purpose. As a
general, his talents were of the first order; and few kings de-
voted so much time and attention to promote the happiness of

* Voltaire, the chief of the antichristiaa conspirators, was born at Pans,
in 1 694, and gave early proofs of the fertility of his genius, and the activity
of his irtiagination ; deep researches and solid reasoning will in vain be
sought for in his compositions. Inordinate vanity appears to have been his
characteristic, and to establish his reputation by the overthrow of the
Christian religion, the grand aim of all his numerous writings, in prose and
verse. To succeed in his impious undertaking, he soon found that associates
would be necessary, and he selected for the purpose Diderot and d'Alembert ;
who were, like himself, atheists, deists, and skeptics, by turns. In order to
propagate their opinions, these infidels undertook to compile a universal
dictionary of the arts and sciences. The Encyclopedia was announced to
the public as the masterly performance of the most scientific men in
France, and the articles regarding religion were professed to be treated of
by men of known learning and orthodoxy. But, under the specious
appearance of reverence and respect for religion, the most pernicious doc-
trines are inculcated ; and the unsuspecting reader imbibes, before he is
aware, the spirit of infidelity and materialism in full force. The impious
and satirical writings of Voltaire obliged him to abscond, in order to
escape imprisonment. He retired to Ferney, near Geneva, where he
resided till 1778, when the young Lewis XVI., yielding to the solicitations
of his friends, permitted him to return from exile. The infidel sect
triumphed, and celebrated the event in the most pompous manner. In the
midst of these enthusiastic honours, Voltaire was seized with a mortal dis-
temper, which terminated his life, in such transports of rage and despair,
that his physician, the celebrated Tronchin, considered his death the most
salutary lesson that could be impressed upon those whom his writings had
torrupted.

229 GKNERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

their sul)jocts, as did Frederic II., diirin<i^ tlic last twenty
years of his life. In short, he was certainly one of tlie raosi
(li.slin<:iiished and extraordinary princi's of w hoin llie records
of iii-story liave prcscrvi-d any incniorial. lie \v;is succeeded
by his ncpiiew, Frederick William II., whose rei<rn it was
believed would he as jrjorious as had been that of his prede-
cessor, and more mild and peaceable ; but these j^ood begin-
ninsjs were soon followed by weakness, carelessnes.s, prodi-
gality, and vanity. Prussia look an active part in the affairs
of lloUand, and, resentinjj the treatment which the Princess
of Orange, sister to the King of Prussia, experienced, overran
Holland with her armies, and obliged the Dutch to reinstate
the stadtholder in the authority of which he had been
deprived.

Catherine II. again calls our attention to the events of her
reign. A magnificent procession was this year (1786) to be
made to Cherson, where she was to be declared Queen of
Taurida and protectress of all the Tartar tribes. It was ex-
pected that the adjoining nations would flock from all parta
U) do homage to the new sovereign of the east, who would
thus be enabled to conduct her grandson, Constantine, to the
gates of Constantinople, to the sovereignly of which she had
destined him since his l)irth. The prince, liowever, sickening
of the mcaiiles, was obliged to be left behind, and the empress
took only a kind of formal possession of Cherson and the
Crimea. Her ambition had excited the jealousy and fears of
the Turkish emjjire ; the insults and injuries of which the
Porte complained were neither f(!w nor imairinary, and war
was accordingly dedarctl against Russia in 1787. A formi-
dable Turkish army advanced to the sliores of the I)aiuil)e,
and the standard of .Mohammed was prepaied to be unfurled
Catherine, who impatiently expected the declaration of war
was ready with her lleets and armies, and ,Iose|)h II. senV
30, 000 Austrians to her assistance. Surrounding nations be
held with j(;alousy the intentions of the empress, who threat
ened to destroy the equilibrium of Europe; and the King ol
Sweden declared war against Russia and laid siege to Frede-
rii'ksham. Hut (iustav\is III., who hoped to carry terror to
the gales of Petersburg, had tlie iiiortilication to discover that
no conlldence could be placed in his soldiers, and was finally
obliged, by ihe superior force of Russia, to evacuate Finland.
Having restored discipline in his army, he ditl not cease to
annoy ihe enemy ; and he gained a victory over the Prince
of N;issau, who had, with superior numbers, given Itattle tc

XL.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 229

the Swedes. In this engagement the Russians lost half their
fleet and more than 10,000 men. This defeat accelerated a
peace, and Gustavus, sensible of his imprudence, accepted the
proposals of the empress. In the mean, time the Russian
forces, estimated at 150,000 men, under the command of Po-
temkin and Count Romanzof, assisted by Suvvarrow and other
officers, took Oczakov, by an assault that cost the Russians
12,000 men, while 25,000 Turks perished in the town. Su-
warrow routed the Turkish army with a horrible carnage near
the river Rimnik, and having captured Tutukay, in Bulgaria,
wrote to the empress four lines of Russian poetry, which sig-
nified, " Glory to God ! Praise to Catherine ! Tutukay is
taken ! Suwarrow is in it !" Town after town submitted to
the conquerors. Ismail, however, still held out ; Potemkin,
therefore, sent orders to Suwarrow to take that city within
three days. Accordingly the assault was commenced. Fif-
teen thousand Russians purchased with their lives the bloody
laurels of their general, who wrote to the empress with his
usual brevity, " The haughty Ismail is at your feet !"
Elated with the news of these successive victories, Catherine
thus accosted Sir Charles Whitworth, the British ambassador,
when he next appeared at court. " I hope," said she, with
an ironical smile, " that since the king, your master, is deter-
mined to drive me out of Petersburg, he will allow me to re-
tire to Constantinople." The war, during this period, was
extremely unsuccessful on the side of Austria : and, in addi-
tion to the vexations resulting from his ill success, the empe-
ror had the mortification to witness the rapid destruction of
his army by a dreadful mortality. Prince Lichtenstein being
obliged by illness to resign the command of the army in
Croatia, Marshal Laudohn was persuaded to succeed him,
and the great name of that veteran officer seemed to reanimate
the troops with vigour and confidence. Under his auspices,
fortune began to smile on the Austrian arms, which had been
long attended with such ill success, and Belgrade was taken.
(1789.) Torrents of blood were shed on both sides, but Jo-
seph determined to prosecute the war till his tarnished glory
should be restored to its former lustre. The campaign of
1789 was successful ; but a spirit of discontent prevailed in
the Austrian dominions. The war raged in Transylvania,
and the Hungarians sent a haughty memorial to Vienna, de-
manding the restoration of their privileges and their crown,
ifec, on which condition they promised to defend the king-
dom : the emperor, worn out with bodily disease, complied

830 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

witli most of tlieir deniamls, ami promised to visit Presburg in
order to be crowned, if he should be alive the following May.
Death, however, defeated his iiiliMilion. !!(! died penitent of
the trouble and scandals he had created in the church, and
ordered the same to be signified to Pius VI. On the accession
of his brother Leopold, a separate peace was concluded with
the Porte by Austria. The preliminaries of peace between
Turkey and Russia were signed in 1791, and thus a war was
terminated, which had cost the latter 200,000 men, and the
Turks 330,000. Brussels surrendered to the imperial arms
the same year ; and Leopold put an end to the troul)les which
had agitated the Low Countries, since the innovations in reli-
gion set on foot by his predecessor, by granting a general am-
nesty, and promising to respect the privileges of the Belgians.

CHAPTER XLL

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

The ministers to whom Lewis XVL gave his confidence,
after tiic dismissal of the Duke d'Aiguillon, were jx-rsons of
limited abilities ; and the difTicidtics in which the nation was
involved assumed daily a more alarming aspect. The disor-
dered state of the finances has already been alluded to ; and
although some attempts had Ijeen made to introduce economy
into the administration of alTairs, they had been injudiciously
applied, and had tended to divest the regal dignity of its
splendour, without producing any adequate result, or prevent-
ing the deficit' from accumuhuing to a frightful extent. The
plans of the banker Necker, who had been intrusted with the
administration of the finances, being considered extravagant
and chimerical, he was dismissed ; and his successor, M. de
Calonne, suggested the expedient of calling together an
Assembly of .\otal)les, or persons of note from various parts
of the kingdom, selected cliiedy from among the higher orders,
and nominated by the court. Before this assembly, which

• The (Icfiril is the amount l>y whirh llip revenue of the fitntr fell short
of the expenditure. In the nHsrniMy of Nolnliles, it wns stnted at T)!), (1(10,000
of livres; under the adriiiriisinitinn of .N'rcker it exeecdcd four times iliat
num. Necker wa« n foreigner and a Protestant, and as such exdudi'd i.y
the laws of the kingdum from t):(> ininiitCry to which he had the hardihood
to upirs.

tLl.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 231

met at Versailles, and was opened by the king with great
Bolemnity, in February, 1787, the minister brought forward his
plan. He proposed, by a general land-tax, to equalize the
public burdens, of which the whole weight had hitherto fallen
on the industrious classes; the clergy, nobles, and magis-
trates being exempt. Notwithstanding the equity of this
measure, it was rejected ; and so great was the clamour raised
by the privileged classes and the Parliaments against the
minister, that he resigned and withdrew into England ; the
Assembly was dissolved, and separated without effecting any
thing of importance. The Archbishop of Toulouse succeeded
M. de Calonne, and, in his turn, devised some expedients to
meet the exigencies of the state ; among which was a loan,
which the Parliament declared illegal, and perseveringly
refused to enregister. This body, so long noted for its spirit
of resistance to the wall of the sovereign, was now influenced
by a faction devoted to the Duke of Orleans, whose determined
hostility to the king was notorious, and founded, it is asserted,
on that monarch's refusal to appoint him to the office of Lord
High Admiral of France. He now openly avowed himself
the head of the discontented party, and admitted the counsel-
lors of the Parliament to hold in his palace nocturnal meetings,
in which their projects of opposition were discussed and
arranged. The king, being informed of these proceedings,
sent an order to the duke to withdraw to his country-seat,
banished the refractory Parliament to Troyes, and issued
lettres de cachet for the arrest of two of the members. The
queen was suspected of being the adviser of these measures :
the dissatisfaction they excited was so marked, that they were
shortly after revoked, and the duke, at the solicitation of his
virtuous duchess, allowed to return to Paris,

At this juncture, France was a prey to famine ; the incle-
mency of the weather had, in some measure, destroyed the
promise of the last harvest, and an edict, permitting the free
circulation of corn, had enabled a few monopolists to possess
themselves of what remained. At the head of these mis-
creants was the Duke of Orleans, who thus became the arbiter
of the life and death of the multitude. The granaries which
his immense resources had enabled him to fill, were opened or
shut according to his pleasure or policy ; while the gold
which his emissaries scattered among the populace with pro-
fusion, gained him a vast number of partisans, by whose
means he sought to transfer to his own head the crown worn
oy the elder branch of his family. Writers in his pay worked

232 OKNTRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. LcHAF

up the soil, wliii'h vice :iml incredulity liul prepared, and
eowed then; the seeds of rel)ellion anil apostasy. The niani-
feslalions of public discontent ^rowinir day by day more fre-
quent and violent, it appeared necessary to convoke the
Btates-fTcneral of the kinjidoin, to prevent a civil war. Tliey
accordinj^ly assembled at Versailles, on the 5lh of May,
178i). 'l"he speech of the kin<r to the deputies, exi)r(;ssive of
his wish to make every sacrilice to the publiir good, was
received with great applause. In it, he declared himself the
first friend of his people, and thanked die clergy and nol)ilily
for having renounced their pecuniary privileges to clear the
pid)lic debt. Disputes, however, soon arose as to the method
of voting. The deputies of the people, called of the third
estate, being equal in number to the clergy and nobles united,
the latter proposed that each of the three shoidd have its sejia-
rate hall of meeting, and that the votes should be given by
order, which would render the nunil)ers of the third estate
less available. This arrangement was warmly opposed by
the deputies of the people, who insisted on voting by head,
and forming one general assembly, to which they summoned
the other two orders tu iniite themselves. The mandate was
obeyed l)y a few of the nobles and several among the inferior
clergy, and a meeting was held, in defiance of the royal au-
tluiritv. in the tennis-court of Versailles, on the 17th of
•luuc, 178D, by the united memliers, who formed themselves
into a National Assembly, and took an oaUi not to separate till
they had given a new constitution to France. The king,
being supported by the great majority of the nobles, declared
these proceedings null, but was afterwards prevailed on to
sanction them, and the union of the three orders took place.

In the mean while, an army, under the command of the
Due de Hroglie, advanced into the vicinity of Paris, and
Nccker, to whom the finances had a second time been intrust-
ed, was again suddenly dismissed. Tremendous commotions
ensued in die capital : the citizens, being joined by the
French guard, took up arms ; and the court found diat litUe
reliance could be |)laced on the troops of the Due dc llroglie,
who soon became infected with tlu; popular s|)irit of license
and iiisul)or(liMalion. Nor was this to be wondered at ; the
most in(1aiiin)atory harangues were echoed from the tribune
of the National Asseml)lv, amou'j which, those of the Duke
of Orleans, (recendy relurncil from Fntibrnd,) of the Abbe
Sieyes, and of Mirabeau, a creature of Uio Orleans faction,
were conspicuous. The latter vehemently demanded that the

XLI.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 233

troops should be withdrawn from the neighbourhood of Paris,
and that a decree should be issued, declaring Uiat the minis-
ters who had been dismissed merited the confidence of the
people. The busts of Necker and the Duke of Orleans were
carried in triumph through the streets of Paris, the populace
loudly demanding the recall of the former ; a concession
which the king was constrained to make. At length, the
storm which had been so long gathering, burst forth in all its
fury. On the 14th of July, 1789, an enraged multitude,
aided by some among the military, carried the Bastile by
storm, and levelled it with the ground. The governor, M.
de Launay, an upright and humane man, fell a victim on this
occasion to the popular indignation. He had ordered a flag
of truce to be hung out, and, as it was alleged, had taken ad-
vantage of the confidence it inspired, to intimidate the assail-
ants, by pouring on them a heavy fire of cannon and
musketry. Whether this were the result of accident or
treachery, it had no other effect than to increase their rage
almost to frenzy : the governor was massacred, and his head
earned through the streets on a pole. This crime unavenged,
was only a prelude to scenes of far greater atrocity. The
National Assembly, meanwhile, continued to sit ; and on the
20th of August issued a declaration of rights, to serve as a
basis to the new constitution, by which the form of govern-
ment was declared a limited hereditary monarchy, and the
person of the king inviolable : it was promulgated the follow-
ing month, and received the royal sanction. But the insti-
gators of rebellion were not yet satisfied ; early in October,
the royal guards gave, as was customary, a banquet to the
newly-arrived regiment from Flanders, and the queen,
with the dauphin in her arms, appeared in the assembly.
The enthusiasm of these brave men in the cause of their in-
sulted sovereigns was manifested by repeated acclamations;
and a sonorous voice having entoned the well known couplet
from the opera of Richard Cceur de Lion, beginning, " O
Richard! O mon roi ! I'univers t'abandonne !" the chorus waa
taken up, and sung with all the feeling which existing circum-
stances were likely to inspire. This natural and affecting
scene was made the subject of the grossest misrepresentation.
The plan of a counter-revolution, it was falsely said, had been
laid open in a moment of excitement, and the national colours
trodden under foot. The French guards, who had been
refused the exclusive custody of the royal person, which they
had demanded, became discontented and mutinous, and even

22*

234 OENFIIAL HISTORY OF F.l'ROPE. [cHAP.

the regiment of Flrinders, on whose fidelity so much reliance
had bocn placed, soon passed over to (he standard of revolt.
That llie scenes of the 5ili and Gth of Oclohcr were tlie resulta
of a deep-laid conspiracy, of uliich the Duke of Orleans was
the chief promoter, there can be no doubt : it seems less cer-
tain whether Mailly, tlie Mayor of I*aris, and La I-'ayi'tte, who
commanded the >i;;tiona[ (iuard, were privy to it. l*aid by
the ag'cnts of sedition, and worked up to fury by the lugli
price of bread, a troop of demaffoj^ues, the drej^s of the fau-
bourifs, accompanied by women of the lowest class, went in
crowds to Versailles. The National Guard assembled on
the IMace dc CJreve under arms, and imperiously demanded
to be led tiiither also, to call out the king, and conduct him to
Paris, where his presence was necessary to restore tran(|uilliiv.
To this mutinous demand the coun<;il of the commune acceded,
and siirncd an order to La Fayette to lead his troops to Ver-
sailles. The National Assembly was still sitting, when a
horde of ferocious women demanded entrance ; fifteen were
admitted, and boldly stated their determination to conduct
the king to Paris. Several members of the assembly, who
wished to preserve the dignity of the crown, proposed that
they shoidd go in a body to protect the king; this project
was insolently overrided by \Iirabean. However, the Presi-
dent, Mouuier, departed at the head of a deputation, to which
the iieroines of the popular faction joined themselves. J^a
Fayette, on arriving at Versailles, had ranged his troops
around the casde, where the greatest tranquillity appcjared to
prevail. Tlic women had presented their retjuest and (h.-part-
ed ; tht! captains of the (Juards had retired to rest, for La
Fayette had made himself responsible for the royal safety.
Fortunately, the ladies in attendance on the queen were still
watching in her antechamber, when, before daybreak, a
band of nitii ins forced open the doors of the castle and at-
tempted to make their way to the royal apartments. The
gunie-du-corps on duty had scarcely time to exclaim, " Save
the queen," when he fell, covered with wounds : his place
was instantly supplied by another, who met with a similar fate.
The ladies m"anwbile were not inactive. They roused the
queen, who, breathless with terror, quitt^id her bed, ran alonjf
the corridor wliieh led to the kinsr's clianil)er, atid took refuge
in his arms. The assassins, having l)y ibis time overpowered
the guard, forced open the doors of the queen's room, and,
rushiiiiT to the lied she had just (piitted, plunged a dairger into
it in several places. They soon, however, ascertained that their

ILl.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 235

design had failed, and were proceeding full of rage to the
apartments of the king, wlien tlie arrival of the Marquis de la
Fayette, with a gallant troop of 300 men, obliged them to with-
draw. Their retreat was favoured by the presence of the
Duke of Orleans and other conspirators, who had arrived to
witness, as they hoped, the success of the plot. At an early
hour the royal family appeared on the balcony, and were
received by the troops below with repeated shouts of joy.
The grenadiers of the French guard, recalling their ancient
loyalty, swore to die for their king ; and, embracing the Swiss
gardes-du-corps, promised them friendship and fraternity.
The courts of the castle were filled with multitudes waiting
the moment of departure, wliich La Fayette entreated the
king to hasten. At length the cortege set out, preceded by
the mob, carrying on pikes the heads of the slain, and rending
the air with appalling shouts of mingled joy and ferocity :
the royal family, wearied and depressed, were conducted in a
sort of mock triumph to the Tuileries. An inquiry was
entered into as to the authors of these outrages ; yet the Duke
of Orleans, whose participation was notorious, met with no
other chastisement than an order to withdraw into England.
Application being made to the queen for her testimony, she
replied, with great magnanimity : " I saw all, heard all, and
have forgotten all."

On the 2d of November, the revenues of the church were
placed, by a decree of the National Assembly, at the disposal
of the nation ; the clergy having in vain offered to relieve the
public burdens and pay the debt of the state, by a gratuitous
gift of four hundred millions of livres. On the 11th, the geo-
graphical distribution of the kingdom was altered, and France
was divided into departments, (chiefly borrowing their names
from the nearest mountains or rivers,) districts, cantons, and
municipalities.

It was the misfortune of Lewis XVL to be governed by
timid counsels, and to sanction, on the plea of necessity, many
decrees which his own sound judgment and virtuous feelings
would have urged him to reject. The tears and expostulations
of the queen were often made use of, to extort from him con-
cessions of tliis nature. Still it was evident, that in signing
the acts of the new legislature, his heart did not guide his
hand, and a feeling of distrust was excited, which Lewis
deemed it prudent to avert. On the 4th of February, 1790,
ho repaired to the hall of the National Assembly, where a chair
was placed for him at the right hand of the President, who did

336 GENERAL HISTORY OF El'ROPE. [cilAF

not rise at liis entrance. Lewis, thongh a little disconcerted,
made a conciliatorv speech, expressive of liis adhesion to the
will of liie national rcprescnlalives, and liis desire to defend
constitutional liberty. This declaration was a triumph to the
Jacobins,'^ who caused it to he notified to all foreijrn courts; a
solemn 7c Dcum was suiiir in thanksiriviiiir. and the city was
brilliantly ilUiminaled at ni<rht. On the 14th of .Iune,a grand
federal meeting was held in the ('hamp de Mars, where
2(K1,()(U) men were assembled under arms, and Lewis, at the
head of the National Representatives, took the civic oath. In
the following September, Necker, whose popularity had for
some time been on the decline, gave in his resignation, and
retired to Copet, near Geneva, his native place. Decrees
subversive of the altar and of the throne, now followed each
other in rapid succession ; cloisters were thrown open and
suppressed, marriage was declared to be only a civil act; the
clergy were called upon to swear fidelity to the unfinished and
already schismatical constitution, and on their refusal deprived
of their benefices, into which others, elected liy the ditlerent
administrations, were immediately intruded. From this lime
commenced a series of persecutions, which compelled the most
estimable members of the Frrncli dergv and nobility to seek
an asylum in forei;:n lands. 'I'he (^ointe d'Ai tois and iiis family,
who were particularly obnoxious to tiie Orleans faction, had
already fiuilted France ; their example was followed, in Feb-
ruary, 1791, by Mesdames Victoire and Adelaide, the king's
aunts, who, notwithstanding the dilficulties thrown in tiieir way
by the Jacobins, reaclu^d Rome in safety. The wliole king-
dom was now on the verge of anarchy ; paid emissaries of the
dominant faction traversed it in all dircH-tions, pillaging the
castles of the nobility, and exciting everywhere tumult and
sedition. The royal family were helil captives in the midst
of Paris, by La Fayette and his satellites ; while the regal
dignity itself, shorn of its honours, and divested even of the
priviletro of doing good, became a daily-increasing source of
affliction and disciuiet to the peace-loving and virtuous monarch,
who bore the empty title of constitutional king. Though
Lewis had rejected the offers of six hundred devoted nol)les.
who had formed a confed(>ralion, to rescue him from thraldom,
and were afterwards distinguished as Knights of tlie Dairger,
from having gained access to the Tuilerics with arms concealed
beneath their clothes, he was induced to listen to the overtures

• Tlif Jai'oliins were ho railed, lirrau>^<' ihry liclil ificir meetings in the
convent whence the Jacobin fnur;* had been cxpoficd.

Xhl."] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 237

of the Marquis de Boiiille, then military governor of Metz,
who recommended that the royal captives should privately quit
Paris, promising that different detachments of the troops, under
his command, should meet and escort them to the frontiers.
Accordingly, on the 20th of June, 1791, the king, with all the
members of his family who were still in France, departed
privately from the Tuileries, and arrived between twelve and
one at the village of St. Menehould, four leagues distant from
Varennes. Here the king was recognised by the postmaster,
DroLiet, a furious republican, who caused the tocsin to be
sounded in the neighbouring villages, and the National Guard
to be put under arms. The royal fugitives were arrested and
detained at Varennes, while an express was sent of!' to ascer-
tain the intentions of the national representatives. Meanwhile,
La Fayette, who had been gained over to connive at the king's
evasion, carried the news of it with well-dissembled astonish-
ment to the National Assembly, who immediately declared
Lewis suspended from his functions, and ordered the govern-
ment to be carried on by a council of ministers. A paper was
produced, signed by the king on the eve of his departure, in
which, annulling all the decrees he had sanctioned while under
restraint, he laid open the motives of his evasion, and his in-
tention of repairing to Montmedy, there to take such steps as
might seem conducive to the happiness of his people. Not-
withstanding this pacific declaration, the Jacobins asserted that
the king had quitted France only to return at the head of
a foreign army, to punish Paris, to dissolve the National
Assembly, and re-establish despotism on the ruins of liberty.
While these reports were urging the Parisian populace almost
to madness, news arrived that the king's flight had been
arrested at Varennes, and that the royal fugitives were on their
return to the capital. This unfortunate attempt destroyed all
confidence between the court and the people, whom it was
now easy to persuade that Lewis favoured the hostile designs
of the emigrants, a large body of whom were assembled under
the orders of the Prince of Conde, and another still more
numerous surrounded the children of Henry IV. at Coblentz ;
whither the Marquis de Bouille and Monsieur and Madame,
who, by taking a different route, reached Brussels in safety,
had also repaired.

In August, 1791, an interview took place at Pilmtz between
the emperor and the King of Prussia, which was attended by
many of these illustrious exiles, and in which the two sove-

138 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

feigns aj^recd to take up arms in support of the royal authority
in France.

The new eonstitntion was completed in Septemher; and
Lewis, liaviuiT siirnilicd hi< aceeptalion of it, was permilted to
resume a sliadow of auliiurity. The iNatioual Asseinl)ly was
replaced on the 1st of October, by the second legislature, con-
sistin<T chiedy of literary men, votaries of the new order of
things, both as to religion and politics. Among their earliest
measures was a decree, condemning to death all emigrants,
without exception, who should not return to France before the
first day of the ensuing year; and to deportation, every priest
or bisiiop who should refuse to swear adhe-iion to the civil (con-
stitution of the clergy. Indignation now inspired Lewis with
courage and energy ; making use of the privilege granted him
by the constitution, he peremptorily refused to sanction this
decree. To prove, however, that he did not invoke the aid
of a foreign army to avensre his personal wrongs, he consented,
at the instigation of his ministers, to declare war against Atis-
tria and Sardinia. The Jacobins had, in this measure, a
secondary ol)ject; that of employing on the frontier those
troops of the line who might have proved an olistacle to the
change of government they now sought to ellcct. On the
20th of June, 20,000 men, headed by the execrable Santerre,
presented themselves at the palace of the Tuilcries. They
were in the act of forcing the door of the royal apartment,
when Lewis ordered it to be opened. The furious assassins
instantly rushed in, demanding with veliemence the death of
the queen, the expulsion of the j)riests and aristocrats. The
calm intrepidity of the king chcjcked their fury ; several drew
back in astonishment, and for some time a profound silence
ensued. The tumult then recommenced, and several diflferent
attempts were made to stal) the king, l)ut tlie blows were
warded ofTl)y sume faithful attendants. After horrible outrages,
whicli were closed by puttinu a red bonnet on his majesty's
head, and obliging him to drink to the health of the nation, the
mayor, Petion, entered the palace, and, addressing the king,
told him he had nothini: to fear. liCwis took the baud of a
grenadier, who was slandiiii'' by, and, placing it on his heart,
asked him if he found that it beat quicker than ordinary.

Tin? brevity of this aceotmt will not admit of a detail of the
Iiorrid massacres wliicli were perpetrated on the memorablo
lOtli of AuL'^ust. Th(! kini{ was oldigcd to seek rcfiiL'e with
his family in the Legislative Assembly, after his faithful
Swiss guards, and all the servants who were in the palace had

XLl.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 239

been cut to pieces. Some of the members observing that the
constitution forbade the legislative body all deliberation in
presence of the king, the royal family were conducted to a
box, ten feet square, situated behind the president's chair,
where they remained fourteen hours, during the burning heat
of a summer day. On the 13th, they were conveyed as
state prisoners to the Temple; the civil list was suspended,
royally was abolished, and all the statues of the kings over-
turned. It had been foreseen that the altar and the throne
would be overthrown at the same time. In effect, the princi-
pal cause of the recent outrages committed against Lewis
XVI., was his refusal to sanction the resolutions adopted in
the liCgislative Assembly respecting the emigrants, and
those among the clergy who rejected an oath incompatible
with their sacred obligations.* All these were marked out
for destruction ; and orders were given to drag as many as
could be found to several convents of the city, now converted
into prisons ; principally that of the Carmes, the seminary of
St. Firmin, and La Force. On the 2d of September, the
dreadful butchery commenced. On that and the two follow-
ing days, 1085 state prisoners, among whom were 300 priests,
the Princess de Lamballe, and many other persons of high
rank, were sacrificed in a manner shocking to humanity.
Those who had emigrated were received in Italy, England,
and other places, with the greatest charity and benevolence.

We must now return to the situation of Great Britain at
the date of 1788 ; which we were induced to defer in order
not to interrupt the narrative of the French Revolution.

England was enjoying peace and recovering from her
losses, under the ministry of Mr. Pitt, when the king's illness
spread a gloom over the nation. The regency-bill was about
to pass, but his majesty's sudden recovery rendered it unne-
cessary. The principal measures proposed by Mr. Pitt,
after his accession to power, were, first, his East India Bill,
in 1784; secondly, his motion, in 1785, for a parliamentary
reform, Avhich was negatived by a majority of seventy-two
members ; thirdly, his plan for the liquidation of the National
Debt, by the establishment of a Sinking Fund, in 1786; and,
fourthly, the act on the treatment of negroes, and the amelio-
ration of their condition, in May, 1788. In 1791, the penal

* Talleyrand de Perigord, Bishop of Autun, was flie first prelate in
France who, by the civic oath, withdrew himself from the j irisdiction and
communion of the see of Rome. His example was followed by three
bishops only, out of one hundred and thirty-eight.

210 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cJlAP

Statutes were softciiotl down, and several pains, penalties, and
disqiialitieations were done away with. The conslilution of
Canada was fixed l)y dividin": that province into two govern-
ments, and giving a (.'oiincil and House of Assembly to each.
The same year, the Duke of York was married to the Prin-
cess Frederiea Charlotte, sister to the King of Prussia.

With equal conduct and good fortune. Earl Cornwallis,
who had accepted the office of governor-general of Bengal,
carried on the war with Tippoo Saih, in which he had been
involved througli tlic intrigues of France. Overcoming all
impediments, he formed the siege of Seringapatam, the capital
of iMysore, and concluded, on his own terms, a peace with
Tippoo, in 1791. In connection with the affairs of India,
may be noticed tlie celebrated trial of Warren Hastings, the
late Governor-general of Bengal, who was arraigned at the bar
of the House of Lords, on a cliarge of hiijh crimes and misde-
meanours, Burke and Sheridan supported the accusation,
with their usual eloquence ; but he defended himself in a
speech of great ability, and ol)taincd a verdict of honourable
acquittal, after a trial which had lasted for seven years. In
addition to a handsome donation conferred upon the accuse(.',
the expenses of the suit, amounting to £70,000, were defray
ed by the East India Company.

In the mean time, the Freuch revolutionists found inanv
admirers in England ; while the discriminating and tliink'.ig
part of the nation apprehended equal danger froui the associa-
tions formed in this country, and from the intemperate and
ungovernable licentiousness of its natural enemies. A great
riot took place at Birmingham, in which the library of the
philosopher, Dr. Priesdey, was consumed. The militia was
imbodied, and proper methods taken for seeming the internal
peace of the kingdom; yet it has been since known, that, far
from nssistini; Lewis to (pu'll tlie disturbances in France,
Mr. Pitt secretly encouraged the chsafrcctcd there, by way of
reprisal* for the assistance the French had given the Ameri-
cans in the late war. Difference of opinion respecting tlie
revolution occasioned a disagreement biitween the principal
members of the opposition, Mr. Burke, Mr. Fox, and Mr
Sheridan. Mr. Burke severely censured the leaders of affairs
in France, and demonstrated, in a celebrated work, that their
object was the destruction of the monarciiy ; he was answered
by his colleagues in office ; and in reply to Mr. Sheridan,
Burke dechired that from that hour their pf)litical connexion
• See Memoirs of Abbe Georgcl, vol. ii., page 419.

XLI.3 GENF.RAI HISTORY OF EUROPE. 241

was at an end. The publication of his " Reflections," in
1791, involved the nation in a war of principles. Ministers
were inclined to favour his sentiments, as the numerous sedi-
tious writings that had appeared since the French Revolution
gave them considerable uneasiness. This year, Mr. Wilber-
force again introduced the question of the Slave Trade, and,
after a long discussion, the gradual abolition of it was at last
resolved upon.

1792. — The armies of the allied sovereigns were on tlie
point of entering France, when the Emperor Leopold was
seized with a pleuritic fever, which brought him to the grave,
in the second year of his reign. Francis 11. succeeded his
father in the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, and was
soon after raised to the imperial throne. The King of Prus-
sia induced him to declare war against France, and the Duke
of Brunswick soon arrived at Coblentz with the first division
of the Prussian army ; but the haughty terms in which liis
manifesto was conveyed injured the cause of loyalty, as it
engaged many young Frenchmen to enlist without bounty in
the service of their country. The French princes, who liad
quitted France, published a declaration in the month of Au-
gust. In the mean time, the French twice successfully in-
vaded the Austrian Netherlands. On their side, the grand
army of the allies entered France, and took possession of
Longwi, August the 22d ; about which time the Marquis de
la Fayette came over to the allies, with a part of the staff of
his army. The French general, Dumouriez, who, with all the
other generals, had given in his adhesion to the provisional
government, was at this time strongly encamped atGrandpre,
where he had the mortification to learn that Verdun had been
delivered up to the allies. His out-posts were repeatedly, but
unsuccessfully, attacked. The post, Croix-au-bois, was
however forced; and as his army was reduced to 15,000
men, who had to contend against 60,000 Prussians and Aas-
trians, together with a body of emigrants, he was forced to
retreat. It required all his skill to prevent the complete rout
of his troops, who were seized with a panic terror. He now
proceeded !o occupy the camp of St. Menehould. Towards
the latter end of September, the important fortress of Thion-
ville was besieged by the allies. It was gallantly defended
by General Wimpfen, who, in a successful sortie, seized on
the magazines and military wagons of the besiegers. Dumou-
riez, having been joined by Generals Kellermann and Beur-
nonville, the combined army advanced in pursuit of him ;

242 GENERAL UISTOKV OF El'ROPE. [cHAP

repcatpii skirmishrs ensued, but notliiu;T docisivc was efiectea
on ritlier side. The allied troojis, cne-auiped in the sterile
parts of the provinee of Champaj^ne, suflercd so much from
famine and disease, that their eainp I)eeame the seene of deso-
lation and death. The Prussian monareh, after having twice
sent his adjutant-general with propositions to General Du-
mouriez, retreated with his troops.

'J'he French, under General Custine, having made an
irruption into Germany, in a few weeks made themselves
masters of Spire, Worms, Mentz, and Frankfort. The Duke
of Saxe Teschen, governor-general of the Austrian Nether-
lands, having joined the army of General Clairfayt, and the
Austrian forces being strongly intrenched on the heights of
Jeniappe, Dumouriez came to a resolution of attackinir them,
on tlie 6th of jN'ovember, and succeeded in forcing the Aus-
trians to retreat, after a very vigorous defence. The concjuest
of Beliiium followed this very important victory. General
Clairfayt, wiio had now assumed the command inchief of the
Austrian forces, after having spv^nt nearly two months in
retreating, took up his position en the right bank of the
Rhine.

About the middle of September, Lewis and his family were
immured in a tower of the Temple, which had been carefully
insulated from the rest of the building, by a stronir wall ana
deep ditch. The windows were dosed, and no Ught admit-
ted but tlirough a narrow aperture at the top ; eight iron door8
forbade access to the stairs which led to tlie king's apartment.
In this prison, he was deprived of pens, ink, and paper, but
was allowed to retain his books. Before his captivity, Lewis
had sometimes appeared irresolute and weak ; but in his pri-
son he was a model of serenity, fortitude, and courage, in tho
midst of every kind of outrage.

On the 21st of September, the Legislative Assembly made
place for the National ('onvention; tlie first on the list of the
members who composed it was Robespierre, to whom France
was indebted for the formation of the too celebrated Com-
mune, which orjjanized the murders and proscriptions in the
capital. Marat, the echo of Robespierre, the ferocious
Danton, and JJ<:(tIife, late Duke of Orh-ans, were among the
members, of wlutm ^'etion was president. On the 11th of
December, tlie king .vas cited to the l)ar of the Convention,
ami appeared there with the di^niity and firmness whieh suited
his rank and innocence. Among the crimes alleged againsi
him, he was accused of having sent money to the enemict* of

XLI.]

GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 243

France,* of being the author of the war waged against the
French territory, of having conspired against the liberty of the
nation, &c. ; to all which he replied with equal firmness, pre-
cision, and dignity. Counsel was allowed him, and Target
having refused his services, the king chose M. de Male-
sherbest and M. Tronchet, to whom was afterwards joined
M. de Seze. On Christmas-day, Lewis finished his will, and
disposed himself for his last hour, with a full persuasion of ita
near approach. His eloquent defence was read on the follow-
ing day by M. de Seze, and he was again reconducted to the
Temple, amidst the insulting cries of the populace. The
death of Lewis was decided in the Convention by a majority
of five voices ; his appeal to the people was rejected through
the persuasion of the Duke of Orleans, and of all his
demands, two only were granted ; namely, that he should
have a private interview with a priest of his own choice, and
another with his family, from whom he had been entirely se-
parated since the commencement of his trial. The clergyman
he fixed upon to assist him on this melancholy occasion was
the Abbe Edfi-eworth, from whose hands he received the sa-
craments of the church, on the last fatal morning. Lewis met
death with the constancy and piety of a martyr, at a quarter
past ten on the 21st January, 1793, in the thirty-eighth year
of his age and the nineteenth of his reign.

* Twelve millions of iivres had indeed been sent to Vienna fronri Ver-
sailles, in 1785, on the following occasion. The Emperor Joseph II., find-
ing his unreasonable demands as to the opening of the Scheldt and the
cession of Maastricht, rejected by the Dutch, declared war against them in
1784. A compromise was effected, through the mediation of France, by
which Joseph consented to withdraw his claim, if indemnified to the
amount of 10,000,000 of florins. As the Dutch were unable to pay more
than half that sum, Lewis, who had imprudently promised his concurrence
to his brother-in-law, was constrained to make good the remainder.

■j- This venerable magistrate had been united with some of the most
famous philosophers of the day ; but two or three visits to Lewis in the
Temple effected an entire change in his sentiments. At the sight of the
patience and the serenity of the prince, no doubt remained in his mind
of the force and truth of religion. From that time he gave hi'iiself
up to the practice of an exemplary piety. (See Abbe Caron, " Vie dea
Justes," vol. iv, p. 148.) He died by the guillotine during the reign of
terror.

244 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. fcHAP

CHAPTER XLIl

SWEDEN, SPAIN, WITH A CONTIMIATION OF THE WAR FROM

1793 TO ITOt)

1792. — The spirit of insubordination andlilierty whioli hnd
spread into Sweden, proved fatal tiiis year to Ciiistavus III.
lie had <jiven canse of discontent to his senate, by engaa;in^ in
a war atrainst Russia, without the consent of th(^ States: and
thoiisrh he hud endeavoured to suppress tlie dissatisfaction
of his nobles, tlie evil was not eradicated, 'i'hc king had
resolved to put himself at the liead of the French emii^rants,
wliose liopcs and enthusiasm he had cherished and inllanied,
and to attack, the dominions of France. To tliis measure, not
only the nobles, but the people were extremely averse. lie
was assassinated at a masked ball, on tl>e 16th of March,
1792, by Ankerstroem, a captain in the "guards, who was no
sooner apprehended, (having been traced by a pistol that he
had dropped near the king,) than he confessed and gloried
in the deed. lie was sentenced to have his right hand cut
off and his body impaled. The king's wound proved mortal,
but he lived several days, and displayed in his misfortiuies a
constant courage and an heroic firmness. Immediately on
his death, his son, Gustavus IV., was proclaimed king of
Sweden, and his uncle, the Duke of Sudermania, was
appointed sole recent, till the prince should have attained the
eighteenth year of his age. The mild and eipial conduct of
the regent preserved the country from the horrors of internal
war, and he dedicated his whole attention to repair the losses
which it had sustained. At the conclusion of the year 179.3,
a conspiracy was discovered and quelled, at the head of
which was Haron Armfeldt and others of the noliilily.

('harles IV. ascended the throne of Spain on the demise of
his father, in 1789, and was crowned in Sepleml)er, wilh the
utmost pomp and solemnity. The Spanish government testi-
fied trreat uneasiness at the French Revolution, and carefully
guarded against the propagation of the j)riucipl(^s of those who
attempted to defeiul it, i)y prohil)iting the circulation of news-
papers and French puijUcations. In consequence of a dispute
relative to the sovereignty of Nootka Sound, his Catliolic
Majesty prepared to take up arms against I'ngland, in 1790;
but the naval force of the latter being vastly superior, he

XLII.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 245

altered his intentions, and consented to give the satisfaction
demanded by Great Britain.

The mediation of the Spanish court between Lewis XVI.
and his rebellious subjects having been disdainfully rejected,
and this refusal being soon after followed by the execution of
that unfortunate monarch, Spain declared war against France, in
1793 ; and the first actions which took place between the
Spanish and republican forces were decidedly in favour of the
former power. In England, Parliament being sitting when
news was received of the execution of the Kino- of France,
advantage was taken of the melancholy sensations it produced
to enforce the necessity of war, (which was, however, strongly
opposed,) preparations for which had beOn made. The re-
publicans were beforehand with us, and in 1793 declared
hostilities against England : the Stadtholder of the United
Provinces and Russia soon after joined in the alliance against
France.

Meantime Dumourier, having conquered all the Austrian
Netherlands except Luxemburg, was ordered to invade Hol-
land, and confided to General Miranda the siege of Maestricht.
He himself took Breda and several other places; but while he
was employed in the blockade of Bergen-op-Zoom, the Bri-
tish army, commanded by the Duke of York, landed in Hol-
land and recovered Williamstadt from the hands of the French.
The Prince of Coburg surprised the French army before
Maestricht, and obliged Miranda to raise the siege of that
place, having defeated the republicans at Aix-la-Chapelle with
prodigious slaughter. About this time news was received at
Paris of the unfavourable posture of affairs in St. Domingo,
and of the surrender of Corsica to the British. The Spaniards
had invaded a part of Roussillon, with an ardour and vigilance
that were not expected from such a foe ; and in La Vendee
an insurrection had been kindled by the royalists. The forces
there collected assumed the title of the Catholic army, and
rallied in the name of God and the king. It was headed by the
nobility, who had not emigrated thence so much as from the
other parts of France. Alarmed at these disasters, Dumou"
rier returned into the Netherlands, and compelled the Austrian
advanced posts to retire from Tirlemont. On the 27th of
March, 1793, a general engagement took place at Neerwin-
den, where the French were defeated with the Inss of 4,000
men and several pieces of cannon. They are said to have
displayed singular courage and address upon this occasion,
but they were overpowered by the superior numbers and more

23*

246 OKNERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

roj^iilar discipline of their enemies. Shortly after this event,
Dumoiirier incurred the displeasure of the Convention, and
four coMiMiissioners were actuallv cMipowcrod to arrest liiiu ;
but on his discoverint; tlicir intentions, he caused them to be
immediately conveyed to Clairfayt's quarters at Tournay, as
hostages for the safely of the royal family. He then ventured
to sound his army rcspectinir the restoration of monarchy in
the person of the daupliin ; but the mere proposal excited
such general indignation, that he vi^as instandy obliged to flee
to the allies for protcition, after narrnwly escaping a tremen-
dous discharge of uiuskelry, which his exasperated troops
poured upon him and his faithful attendants. The latter end
of June was only distinguished by some petty skirmishes be-
tween the two grand armies ; but in the ensuing month, the
Austrians gained some advantatrcs of greater importance. The
garrison of Conde, after sustaining a l)lockade of three months,
was obliged to capitulate to the Prince of Wirlemberg, and
Valenciennes surrendered to the Duke of York, who took
possession of it in the name of the emperor. About the same
time Mentz was reduced, after a most tedious siege, by the
King of Prussia.

A glorious naval victory was gained by Lord Howe over
the French fleet of twenty -seven of the line, ofl' Hrest, in June,
J7!)t.

The Committee of Public Safety continued to desolate
France l)y the most horrid butcheries and persecutions. Dan-
ton withdrew from the Convention, ami left all the power in
the liands of Hobcspicrre, (^>llot D'llerbois, IJilJaud Vareimes,
Couthon, and St. Just. Their first act of authority was to
apprelu-nd all suspected persons, and to trv them by revohi-
tionary committees, tlie powers of whii-h wert; so \uilimited
that they could readily seize on the four-fifths of the popula-
tit)n of France.* One of their earliest victims was general
Custine, wliose murder was followed by that of Marie Antoi-
nette of F'rant-e, the unfortunate widow of Lewis XVLt She

• On the fiih of October, (IT) Vcndcmiaire,) the Convention ordered thw
GrrRorian calendar to l)c si i)|)rrsscd, nri<l Kubstitulcd in its place a new era
and republican call ndor, which brgan from the 22d of September, 179.3.
The SiindfljH wore struck oiil, and the months divided into decades.

■f The queen's imputed ['artiniily to her nalive land, whiiher, it was
faUelv BKnerled, nhe had sent larce sutiiH of money, had made her very
unpopular in France. 'I'he unfoitunale atl'air of ihc diamond necklace, in
which the namen of the noverei(jnn, and of a prince of the church, appeared
in connection with that of a vile impoRtor and her asHociates, tended to
auj^tnent the public dislike. The cardinal whose credulity had been i4

XLII.]

GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 241

had suffered, during three months, all the horrors of a close
captivity in the prison of the Conciergorie, from whence she
was led before tlie revolutionary tribunal. She perislied on
the 16th of October, 1793, having survived her husband nearly
nine months.* The numberless cruelties and massacres per-
petrated in many parts of France at this time, exceed all that
imagination can picture to itself. The cities of Lyons, Mar-
seilles, and Toulon entered into a confederation against the
Conventioi.al Government; Marseilles soon submitted, Lyons
was closely besieged ; but the people of Toulon entered into
a negotiation with the English Admiral Hood, who was then
cruising in the Mediterranean, and he took possession of the
town and shipping, in the name of Lewis XVIL The city
of Lyons surrendered in October, after a long and desperate
siege, during which the greatest horrors were committed by
the satellites of the Convention. It is impossible to follow
Collot D'Herbois in the hellish devices to which he resorted
to torture his victims. The guillotine having been employed
till the executioner was fatigued, another method was resorted
to, and the rest of the destined sufferers were driven by crowds
into the Rhone, or shot in the public squares. Soon after the
queen had been brought to the scaffold, the Convention en-
tered upon the trial of Brissot, who was executed with one-
and-twenty others belonging to the Convention. The wretched
and intriguing Egalite was soon after brought to the block.
He was accused of having aspired to the sovereignt)^ from
the commencement of the Revolution ; though with what
truth it is not easy to determine. He was conveyed in a cart
to the place of execution, and suffered amidst the insults and
reproaches of the populace, whose contemptible idol he had
been.t The Committee of Public Safety sent a new army

basely imposed upon, was sent into exile, as soon as the tribunal had pro-
nounced him innocent; this harsh measure, the odium of which fell on
the queen, added greatly to the number of her enemies,,

* Throu2;h the charitable exertions of some pious ladies, a nonjuring
priest found access to her prison, from whose hands she had the happiness
to receive the last consolations of religion. The constitutional priest, Gi-
rard, wh.) was appointed to accompany the queen to execution, said to her ;
" ' Voici, Madame, I'instant de vous armer de courage.' * De courage I'
repondit fierement la fiUe des Cesars, ' il-y-a si long terns que le malheur
m'en a fait faire I'apprentissage, que ce n'est pas (juand le Cicl va fisir
mes maux que je commencerai a en manquer.' " — Tableau Synoptiqiie.

■\ L'Abbe Carron, in his " Vie des Justes," observes, that there are
crimes, which, though they will never be pardoned at the tribunal of men,
may yet find forgiveness at the tribunal of the God of mercy ; and there-

248 GENKRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

imo La Vendoe, with instructions to deliver up that unfortu
nale, but loyal country, to fire and piilairc. Carrier, one of
the most nirocious monsters of the Kevolution, was sent to
Naiiles, He there sjiared neither age nor sex. On pretext
of removing his prisoners from one place of confinement to
another, lie caused them to he bound together, and embarked
in boats so contrived, by means of a valve at the boltom, as to
become filled with water on reaciiiug the middle of the Loire.
A great number of these victims were priests, who had se-
cretly remained in the kingdom, in order privately 1o assist
those Christians wlio still continued firm in their attachment
to the failli of their forefathers. These were hunted like wild
beasts from the subterraneous dwellings in which they cele-
brated the holy mysteries, like the apostolical men of tlie pri-
mitive church; and which they often left at the hazard of their
lives, to attend the sick and dying. Those who were taken
and not destroyed at Nantes, in the manner already related,
were conveyed to Rochefort, to be embarked for Cayenne.
Their number amounted to seven hiuidred and sixty, who
were stowed in two frigates ; five hundred and thirty-seven
perislieil during the voyage, whicli lasted ten mouths. A law
permitting priests to marry, and a law of divorce, were passed
by the Convention ; but after having endeavoured to efface
every religious institution, and after estal)lishing temples de-
dicated to reason, the necessity of a belief in God was still
recognised ; Robespierre then proposed to have a solemn
public festival in honour of the Supreme Brins^, to be cele-
brated in the Champ-de-Mars, June the 8th, 17'.)L The cru-
elties of Carrier* drew over many partisans to Charette, the
royalist general; and it has been calculated tliat the war of Tja
Vendee cost the French more men than had been sacrificed
in hostilities with the different continental powers. In the
south of France, neiilier the exertions of the allies, nor the
surrender of the Toulonese, were sufficient to establish a mo-
narchical government. The garrison of 'I'oulon having made
a vi(Torr)us sortie, (1793,) in order to destroy some batteries
whii'h the French were erecting, and succeeded in the attempt,
unfortunauly pursued the French, till they unexpectedly en-
fore ritos with snti-ifiirtion an authrntir and oilifyinir ncrount of tlie livrly
ri'pcntanco, rpsiunnticin, ami ilrsirc nf aliminn '"' ilivino jiislicc for his Sinn,
express*-!! Iiy ihc Duke of (IrU-ans, in his hist moments, to the priest (M
Lothringcr) who assihteJ him on that solemn orrasion.

• Carrier and other aeromiilires in the nffiir of Nantes, paid the furfetl
of their Crimea on the ICih of December, 1794.

XLII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 249

countered a considerable force. At this moment General
O'Hara, who was commander-in-chief at Toulon, came up,
and while he was endeavouring to bring off his troops with
regularity, received a wound in his arm, and was made pri-
soner. Soon after his capture, the town was evacuated by
the allies. It was attacked by the republicans on the 19lh of
December, at five in the morning, and at six the republican
flag was flying on one of the strongest posts. The town was
then bombarded ; and the allies and part of the inhabitants
having set fire to the town and shipping, precipitated their
departure, which was attended with the most melancholy con-
sequences. Numbers who were left behind, crowded to the
shores, demanding the protection they had been promised on
the faith of the British crown. Some plunged into the sea,
others shot themselves, in order to escape the tortures they
might expect from the republicans. During this time, the
flames were spreading in all directions ; and the ships that had
been set on fire were every moment expected to explode, and
blow up all around them. Nothing could equal the horror of
the sight, except the still more appalling cries of distraction
and agony that filled the ear, for husbands, fathers, and child-
ren, left on shore. In vain did these beg their lives on their
knees : they were massacred without mercy, or distinction of
age or sex. The most moderate calculation makes the num-
ber of these sufl'erers amount to 2,000. Many more owed
their safety to the generosity of the Spanish Admiral, Lan-
garra, who, equipping a considerable number of transports,
hastened to their assistance.

The siege of Toulon was the first occasion on which the
celebrated Bonaparte signalized his military abilities. He
was then lieutenant of artillery in the qonvenlional forces sent
against that town, and in consequence of the intrepidity dis-
played by him in the reduction of a fort, Barras, one of the
representatives of the people, who was deputed to superintend
the siege, procured him the rank of general of the artillery.*

* Napoleon Bonaparte, the son of Charles Bonaparte and Letitia
Ramolyno, was bom in Ajaccio, a town of Corsica, August I5th, 1769.
His father, whose ancestors were from Italy, was also a native of Corsica.
Some years after the conquest of the island by the French, (1769,) he was
eent in the deputation to the King of France, and continued, notwithstand-
ing his impoverished condition, to live on terms of intimacy with the Go-
vernor of Corsica, who placed his second son, Napoleon, at the military
academy of Brienne, in Champagne, where he was instructed in the usual
branches of education, became versed in history and geography, and at-
tained to great proficiency in the mathematics. Thence he removed to the

850 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

In the latter end ot" Marrli, Danton and several of the princi-
pal revolutionists were arrested and executed as conspirators
against the repiihlic. The government of France now hccaine
almost entirciv vested in one man, the usurper liohcspierre,
a name which will he transmitted with infamy to the latest
posterity.* Under his sanguinary administration, the prisons
of Paris contained at one time l)etween 7.000 and 8,000 per-
sons, some of whom were almost daily led to execution. In
one of these harharous slaughters, the admirahle and virtuous
Princess Elizaheth, sister to Lewis XVI., was included: she
suffered the last of twenty-six persons, whom she animated,
by her words and example, to meet death with constancy and
resignation. But the fall of the tyramiical demagogue rapidly
approached. A strong party was secretly formed against him
in the Convention, headed Ijy Tallii-n, Legendre, and some
others. Robespierre and his brother were arrested, and having
found means to escape, trained some partisans in order to form
a new ('onvenlion ; but being deserted by the peoi)le and the
national guard, they were attacked; and hiuling all elTorts to
resist useless, they endeavoured to turn their arms against
themselves. They were, however, conducted before the re-
volutionary tribunal, and the two Rohcspierres and nineteen
others executed, the 2Rth of July, 1791.

In the campaign of this year, the arms of the new republic
were successful on every side against the allies. In Flanders,
General Jourdan gained the battle of Flenres ; and Charleroi,
Ipres, Bruges, and ('ourtray surrendered to the French. Ostend
was evacuated, Mons was taken, and the Prince of Cuburg

military nrailcmy nt Paris, in 1785, and in his ninctoonth year rntered .in
a cailct otViciT in thf rciyal artillery. I)iiurriftini> rclalrs of liiin at this
time ihi' foilowini; rhnractcristir rinrrdolc; On the fal:il "Oth ot" June, ho
followed from curiosity llie crowds who were hastening to the attack uf the
Tuileries, and stoiwl opposite to the [lalace, when the unfortunate monarch
appeared at the window, with the red cap of liberty on his head. Nolhinc;
could exreeil IJonaparle's inilii;natiori at this si^ht. " What madness !"
said he to Unnnienne, who acrorjipanied him ; " how coulil ihey allow these
ncoumlrels to enter ! they ont;ht to have l)lown four or five hutidrcd into the
air with cannon, the rest would then have taken to their heels." Shortly
nficr h» withdrew into (^'orsica, and did not till the followin;; year return to
I'aris, where he remained unemployeil in any ihinn of consei|uenre, till his
eervires on the important day, called " of the sections," Uiil the foundation
<*f his future ureatness.

• Robespierre was formerly a sinijinK-lioy in the cathedral of Arras, and
owed his promotion to a post in ihi' law, to the Bisliop of Arras, whom he
repaid with the hlarkcsl ingratitude. He was related to Damiens, the a»-
fl^abin of Lcwiii XV

XLII.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 251

obliged to abandon the whole of the Netherlands, while the
victors, without opposition, entered Brussels and Antwerp.
Landrecy, Quesnoi, Valenciennes, and Conde were successive-
ly retaken ; and tlie French armies, pursuing their course, took
Aix-la-Chapelle, defeated Clairfayt near Juliers, and made
themselves masters of Cologne and Bonn. Maestricht and
Nimeguen were likewise conquered. The United Provinces
began now to be seriously alarmed, and the states of Friesland
determined to acknowledge the French republic, to break their
alliance with England, and to enter into a treaty of peace with
France. In December, the French made a feeble attempt to
cross the Waal, and were repulsed with loss ; but the frost
soon after setting in with unusual rigour, the river was frozen
over ; having crossed it, they attacked the allies, and, according
to the report of General Pichegru, " were, as usual, victorious
in every quarter." The general attack was made upon Wal-
raoden's position, between Nimeguen and Arnheim ; and the
allies, alike unprepared for resistance or for flight, suffered
equally from the elements and from the enemy. It was in
vain that the stadtholder issued mauifestoes, proclamations,
and exhortations to the Dutch peasantry, conjuring tliem to
rise in a mass for the defence of the country. The French
continued to advance, and the allies to flee before them, till
Utrecht surrendered to them, on the 10th of January, 1795,
and Rotterdam and Dort a few days after. The utmost con-
sternation now prevailed among the partisans of the stadtholder.
The Princess of Orange, with the female and younger part
of the family, escaped on the 15th, carrying with them all
their plate, jewels, &c. The stadtholder and the hereditary
prince embarked at Scheveling on the 19th, in an open boat,
and arrived safe at Harwich. In England, the palace of
Hampton Court was assigned him for his residence. The
very day after, Pichegru entered Amsterdam in triumph, and
was received by the inhabitants with the loudest acclamations.
The whole of the United Provinces either submitted to, or was
reduced by the French in a few weeks ; and sliordy after the
government was changed and modelled nearly after the French
plan. In the mean time, the King of Prussia, finding he could
derive no advantage from the war, began to relax his efforts.
The Prussian and Austrian forces, which, as well as their
leaders, were on bad terms with each other, began to retreat
towards the Rhine, which they soon after passed. A negotia-
tion between Prussia and France followed, which ended in a
treaty of peace signed at Basle, in April, 1795, by which h:3

'^52 GENERAL HISTOUY OF EUROPE. [^CHAP

Prussian niajcsly cnlirelv aliandonod the roalition. The French
arm.s luul been equally successful in Spain: after having made
themselves masters of the greatest part of the rich provinces
of Biscay and ('alalonia, the troni)s were in full march for
the capital of the kinj^dom, when orders were despatched to
conclude a treaty with France, which was also signed at Hiisle,
in Julv, in virtue of which his Catiiolic majesty ceded all his
part of llispaniola to France, and the Convention restored the
recent conquest.s in Spain.

About the middle of this year, (179.5,) died the son of the
unfortunate Lewis XVI. lie expired in the prison of the
Temple, where he had been confined since the fatal autumn
of 1794. Moved, perhaps, by this event, the Committee of
Public Safety proposed the exchange of the princess, his sister,
(who was likewise a prisoner in the Temple,) for the deputies
delivered up to Austria by Dumouriez, and for two ambassa-
dors, who had been seized by an Austrian corps. The emperor
acceded to the proposal, and the exchange was effected. The
convention at length set forth the new constitution, called of
the year III., by which the government was confided to a le-
gislative body, divided into two elective chambers, and an
executive of five persons, to be called the Directory. To
insure, at least in part, their own re-election, the meml)er3 of
the Convention declared that two-thirds of the new legislators
should be taken from among them. This was violeiuly op-
posed by the Parisian sections, and a confiict took place on
the .5th of October, 179.5, between the citizens and the regular
troops, in wtiich more than a thousand lives were sacrificed.
General Hoiiaparte sided with the Convention, and, by his
skill in the disposal of the artillery, greatly contributed to tiie
discomfitur<' of the sections. Oii the motion of Barras, he
was named seconil in command of the army of the interior,
as a recompense for his services on this occasion. A few days
after, the National Convention resiirned its autlioritv to the new
legislature, and the directors assumed the reins of the execu-
tive government. General Harras being one of the five, the
chief command devolved upon Bonaparte, who removed to
a man-niiii-eiit hotel and gave sumptuous entertainments, to
which ladies of the first rank were often inviK.-d. Among
these was the amiabh; .losephinc, widow of Vicomte Bean-
harnais, who, after havinir twice presided in the National
Convention, perished on the revolutionary scaffold. She had
come to Paris to sue for the restoration of his property, which
had been confiscated, and Bonaparte often met her at th«

XMII.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 253

house of Barras, To this lady he was united by a civi.
ceremony before the Paris municipality, in March, 1796. He
only remained in Paris twelve days after the nuptials, being
appointed commander-in-chief of the army of Italy.

In the course of the preceding year, an expedition had been
planned by the English ministry to invade the coast of France,
in that part where the royalists (known by the name of Chou-
ans) were in arms against the republic. The force employed,
consisted chiefly of emigrants. They landed in the Bay of
Quiberon, and took the fort of the same name : but they were
soon defeated, and about 10,000 killed or made prisoners.
Many of the emigrants were tried and executed ; and before
April, 1796, the force of the insurgents in this part of France
was entirely broken, and their chiefs, Charette and Stofllet,
taken prisoners, and put to death. In Germany the French
army had crossed the Rhine and blockaded Mentz, but unsuc-
cessfully ; and after suffering a defeat from the Austrians, were
obliged to repass the river. A suspension of arms for three
months, was soon after agreed to by the generals of the con-
tending armies, which was ratified by their respective powers.

CHAPTER XLIH.

PRUSSIA, RUSSIA, SWEDEN, AND ENGLAND, FROM 179.3 TO 1798.

Catherine H. had never forgiven Poland the Diet of 1788,
in which the constitution dictated by force in 1775, was abro-
gated ; the moment of vengeance had now arrived. Her mi-
nister at Warsaw had orders to declare war against the Poles,
who received the declaration, not merely with firmness, but
with a generous enthusiasm. The Russian minister published
a manifesto, making known the intention of the empress, to
incorporate with her domains all the territory of Poland which
her arms had conquered, and her troops, strengthened by the
Prussians, poured into that unfortunate country. Frederic
William, at the head of his forces, fought against the patriotic
General Kosciusko, whose talents and courage were unavailing
against multiplied and increasing numbers. The inhuman
Suwarrow immediately marched to Warsaw, and, after an ob-
stinate resistance, captured the suburb of Praga, put all the
inhabitants to the sword, and entered the city in triumph. It
is computed that not fewer than 30,000 persons perished in

254 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHA»

this massacre. 'J'lic courts of Pclcrsburir ami liorliii diviiled
tl>e remains of lliis unliappy country, and the courtiers of
Catherine shared among tliein the possessions of tlie pro-
8cril)cd, and wished to annihilate even the name of Poland.
Tlie Vistula divided Prussia from Austria, and tiie Ho>r sepa-
rated Austria from Russia. Warsaw fell under the dominion
of llie Prussian monarcii, and the Niemen marked the limits
between the Russian and Prussian territories. JStanislaua
Augustus had a pension allowed him, and was sent to live at
Grodno; and the friends of the brave and generous Kosciusko
were, with their general, conveyed to Petersburg, and immured
in dungeons. They were afterwards liberated on the accession
of Paul I., who invited Stanislaus to Petersl)urg, where he
died of an apoplexy, in 1708. From this period (1790) Po-
land ceased to exist as a kingdom, till, i)y the Congress of
Vienna, in 1815, it recovered its rank, and the title of King
of Poland was conferred on the Emperor Alexander. Cathe-
rine met with a humiliating disappointment this year, (17'J6,)
in the failure of one of her iavourite plans, the marriage of
her granddaughter, Alexandra Paulina, with the young King
of Sweden, contrary to the established law of that kingdom,
which ordained lliat the queen should conform to the Protest-
ant Church. Gustavus IV. was at Petersburg; every thing
was ])reparcd for tlic; ceremony, and only wailed his coming,
when, discovering that the empress did not intend her daugiiier
to embrace the Lutheran tenets, he broke off the business, and
soon after quitted Russia. Catherine sickened at the mortifi-
cation, her speech faltered, and she had a slight (it. Thirsting
for conquest, and inured to the din of war, she turned her arms
against Persia. Her army penetrated into Dagliestan and laid
siege to Derbent, the keys of which wvro. delivered to tlie ge-
neral by an old man, who had surrendered that city to Peter I.,
at the commencement of the century. Having concluded also
a new treaty with Austria and Great Britain, the jjcriod seemed
to her approaching, when she should reign in Constantinople;
but having risen on the 10th of November, and transacted
business with her secretaries, she was found soon after pros-
trate on the door, without sense or motion, and died, aftei
continuing thirty-seven hours in that state, in the sixty-seventh
year of her age. The reign of this extraordinary woman ap-
pears to have been, for her suljjerts, rather l)rilliant than happy
Within the circle of her infliuMice, her governmcir.t was moih;-
rate and benign, but at a distance, terrible and despotic
Justice, order, and law, were sometimes violated under tlio

XLIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 255

protection of her favourites, who exercised, with impunity,
the most odious tyranny. She aspired to the character of an
author, to which her celebrated " Instructions for a Code of
Laws," and various other productions, written in the philo-
sophical spirit of the eighteenth century, seem to entitle her.
The generosity of Catherine, the splendour of her court, her
institutions, her monuments, and her victories, were to Russia
what the age of Lewis XIV. was to France ; but the French
constituted the glory of Lewis, Catherine that of the Russians.
No excuses can be offered for her vices as a woman; but as a
sovereign, posterity will probably allow her the title of Great

1796. — On the death of Catherine, her son, Paul Petrowitz
ascended the throne. The commencement of his reign gave
hopes of a happy continuance, but these beginnings were of
no long duration, and he spent most of his time in trifles and
ridiculous ceremonials. He ordered the corpse of his father
to be taken up, and two of the murderers of the unfortunate
czar were fixed upon to officiate as chief mourners, at the
funeral service for him and his empress.

In order to oppose France, and re-establish the balance of
Europe, he concluded a treaty with the King of England. In
the spring of 1799, the Russian army, under Suwarrow, ef-
fected a junction with the Austrians, in Italy ; and the emperor
also declared war against Spain and Holland.

In 1797, died Frederic William II., regretted only by his
family and a few friends. He left his finances much deranged,
by his profusions and the expenses of the war ; and though
he had been the first to form a coalition against France, he
was the first to abandon it. He was succeeded by his son,
Frederic William III.

Among other projects of hostility which the French had
meditated against Britain, was the invasion of Ireland ; a pro-
ject which the prevailing civil dissensions seemed likely to
favour. During the session of 1793, several laws had passed,
in the Irish Parliament, favourable to the Catholics, par-
ticularly that by which freeholders were admitted to vote at
elections. In 1795 they had been led to expect an entire
emancipation ; but the bill being brought in by Mr. Grattan,
was rejected, and Lord Fitzwilliam recalled to England. As
a mark of the national regret, his coach at his departure was
drawn by gentlemen dressed in black, from the College Green
to the water-side, and the day was observed as one of general
mourning. The disaffected party, called the " United Irish-
men," had opened a communication with the French Directory,

456 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

and a plan of invasion was concorted. Tlie attempt, though
it proved abortive, exr.itcd a considorahlo decree of alarm.
The Freiicli llt(;t, wliieli had l)een l)locl\('d up in Brest, took
the opportunity ol a tlii(;U fng, to elude the vigilance of the
Eni^lish admiral, and set sail for Ireland ; hut was dispersed
hy violent storms. A part of it, however, anchored in Hanlry
Bay ; hut the violence of the weather preventing the French
from attempting to land, they quitted the coast after a few
days ; and the inhabitants, who were a good deal alarmed at
the appearance of the armament, evinced the most determined
loyaltv, and manifested the greatest readiness to meet and resist
the enemy, wherever he might attempt a descent.

The Prince of Wales was, in April, 1795, married to his
cousin, the Princess Caroline of Hrunswick. Parliament,
on this occasion, setded on the prince an annual revenue of
d£P25,000, together with that of the ducliv of Cornwall, es-
timated at ,€13,000 ; out of this income X'73,000 were appro-
priated to the payment of the prince's debts.

In conseciuence of the reverses which liad attended the arms
of the allied powers, warm debates took j)lacc in tiie British
cabinet, and peace was earnesUy recommended by the leaders
of the opposition ; but another victory at sea, gained by Lord
liriciport, ofl' L'Orient, in 1795, tended to secure the naval
superiority of the Englisli. Tlie Cape of Good Hope and
Ceylon were also taken by them ; and in tbe following year,
Ambovna, Handa, and neinerara fell into their hands. The
Spanish and Dutch were grievous sufl'erers this year, (1797,)
in two great naval engagements, which were both equally glo-
rious to the IJritisli arms. The first of these memorable ac-
tions took place oil' Cape St. Vinc<'nt, It was gained l)v Sir
John Jervis, (afterwards created Earl St. Vincent,) with fifteen
sail of the line, over the Spanish fleet of twenty-seven, with
the loss of onlv three hundred men on the side of the British,
in killed and wounded. The victory gained by Admiral (after-
wards Lord) Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, at Camperdown,
was r(iually rom|)letc on the side of the British, but less in-
glorious to ilu; Dutch. When Admiral Winter's ship struck
to the Venerahlc, he was the only man on the quarter-deck,
who w.'is n»)t either killed or wounded. The importance of
this victory was not then fully known, b\it it afterwards ap-
peared, that the fleet was desi^^ued to assist the French, in their
intended invasion of Fnijland. for which vast preparations were
makiiiL'' in all the ports of I'Viiuccr.

'I'he difliculties under wiiich Great Britain laboured, wero

XLIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 257

further increased in 1797, by the Bank of England suspend-
ino- payment. The immense sums it had been called upon
♦.o advance in cash, for the foreign subsidies, rendered it una-
ble to supply all demands. Mr. Pitt, therefore, obtained an
order from the Privy Council, to prohibit the issue of specie
from the bank. ; and a bill soon after passed both Houses of
Parliament, to continue and confirm this restriction for a
limited time. Two years later, an income tax was imposed,
which was fixed at ten per cent., to begin with incomes
exceeding sixty pounds per annum. This same year, (1799,)
died the celebrated Edmund Burke, admired in the British
senate as an accomplished orator and an enlightened statesman.

CHAPTER XLIV.

CONTINUATION OF THE WAR FROM 1796, TILL THE PEACE
OF AMIENS, 1802.

In the course of the year 1796, another attempt had been
made by the British cabinet, to negotiate a treaty of peace
with France ; but, as it proved unsuccessful, vigorous prepa-
rations were again made for continuing the war. Never did
the energy of the British nation display itself more than on
this occasion. The campaign opened in the south by the
republican troops, under the command of General Bonaparte,
and was the commencement of his career of military glory.
When he arrived to take the command of the army, he found
it almost destitute of common necessaries, and acting entirely
on the defensive, on the rocky bank of the river Genoa. The
French army amounted to only 60,000 men, while that of
Austria consisted of 80,000 veterans, besides auxiliaries. Bo-
naparte harangued his troops, and pointed out their desperate
situation, from which nothing but a valorous effort could extri-
cate them. Under this impression he led them against the
enemy, and on the 11th of April, at the battle of Montenotte,
obtained a complete victory over the Austrians, under General
Beaulieu, which was followed within five days by two others
of equal importance. The Piedmontese, harassed by repeated
defeats, withdrew into the vicinity of Turin, and the King of
Sardinia was compelled to purchase peace, by the cession of
Savoy and part of Piedmont to France. Bonaparte, at the
head of his victorious army, now pursued the retreating Aus>

24*

258 GENERAL HISTORY OF EITROPE. [cHAP

tri;iiis, ami advniircd I)y rapid marrhos towards Milan. The
Dukf oi rarina, liko {he Kiii<r of Sardinia, was compelled to
sue for peace, which Honaiiarte a^jrced to, on condition of his
paying ToO.OOO livrcs in sjx'cie, besides siipplyinir the Trencli
lroo|)s with idothing and provisions, and allowing twenty pic-
tures to be chosen out ol the gallery of the stale, to be sent
to Paris. On the 11th of May was fought the memorable
battle of Lodi. The French advanced guard attacked and
drove in the Austrian outposts, and j)ursued them full gallop
through the town. The Austrian general, Beaulieu, was
posted on the other side of the bridge, where, with thirty
j)ieces of cannon, and the whole of his army drawn uj) in line
of batde behind the artillery, he kept up a tremendous fire of
round and grape-shot to stop the progress of the French. Bo-
naparte, seeing there was not a moment to lose, ordered the
grenadiers to force tlic passage of the Ijridge witli the bayonet.
This was instanUy executed ; the Auslrians gave way, nor
could Beaulieu prevent their lleeinij from the field and leavin<»
in the hands of tiie French all their artillery. Bonaparte now
pushed forward with his usual rapidity, giving his enemy no
time to rest. On ihe 12th of May, Pizzghitonc; surrendered
to the French ; Cremona yielded without fighting; l*avia also
opened her gates ; and on the 15th, the French entered the
city of Milan. Here they found every thing they slooil in
need of, and halted a few days to refresh themselves. The
castle of Milan, however, still held out for the lOmjJeror of Ger-
many; but Bonaparte, desirous to pursue his conquests, marched
from that city, leaving troops cnotiirh to form the blockade. On
his arrival at Lodi, he was informed that Milan and I'avia had
revolted three hours after his departure, and that the tocsin or
alarm-bell had been rung throughout Lfunbardy, to raise the
people against him. He immediately proceeded to Pavia,
with three hundred cavalry and a battalion of his grenadiers,
broke down the gates of the town, instantly ordered the whole
of the munici|)ality to be shot, and carried off two hundred
of the principal iidiaiiitants as liostag(!s. On the 1st of June,
General M.-issena's division took Verona, and Bonaparte, on
l!ie ;M, established Ids head-quarters there. iMi'anwhilc, the
armistice, which had been concluded on the Bhine, was at
length declared to be at an end, and the army of the Sambre
and the Maese, under (ieneral .Tourdan, after gaining consi-
derable advantages over the A\istrians, advanced into the heart
of th(! empire ; while another armv, vinder (Jeneral Moreau,
passed the Khine at iStrasburg, took the fort of Kehl, and

fUV.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 259

penetrating through Bavaria, nearly to Ratisbon, endeavoured
to form a junction with the army of Jourdan. This attempt,
however, did not succeed ; both armies experienced a reverse
of fortune, and were obliged to retreat till they re-crossed the
Rhine. The situation of General Moreau was highly critical,
and his retreat is acknowledged, on all sides, to have been
conducted with great military skill. The Archduke Charles,
who commanded the Austrian army, followed Moreau in his
retreat, and laid siege to the fort of Kehl, which he took,
after a most obstinate resistance on the part of the French.
To restore the affairs of Italy, the emperor assembled a new
army, composed of the flower of the German troops serving
on the Rhine ; and gave the command of it to General
Wurmser, one of the oldest and ablest of the imperial generals.
This force, on its first arrival, was successful ; the French
were repulsed, defeated, and compelled to raise the siege of
Mantua. Bonaparte, however, soon returned to the charge ;
and after a series of hotly-contested actions, the army of
Wurmser was so reduced and harassed, that he was obliged
to shut himself up in Mantua, where he was closely besieged
by the victors, who, after gaining the battle of Roveredo, and
taking possession of Trent, became masters of the passes that
led to Vienna. The Austrians, at the same time, made a
great effort to rescue the gallant Wurmser and his besieged
army; but the battle of Arcole, on the 15th of November,
completely defeated their design, and Mantua was at length
obliged to surrender, after a siege of six months. The gar-
rison, which consisted of the remains of the Austrian army,
under General Wurmser, amounted to 15,000 men, who were
made prisoners of war. Bonaparte treated the unfortunate
general with great respect, and ordered him to be conducted
to Germany, with an escort of Austrian cavalry. The victo-
ries of Bonaparte compelled the Pope, the King of Naples,
and the inferior princes of Italy, to conclude such treaties as
the French thought proper to dictate. By the treaty of To-
lentino, signed on the 19th of February, 1797, Pius VI. re-
nounced all claim to Avignon and the country Venaissin,
relinquished the legations of Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna,
and also surrendered many of the statues and pictures which
had acquired so high a celebrity to Rome.

In the mean time, after the taking of Mantua, Bonaparte
penetrated into the Tyrol, and directed his course towards the
imperial capital. The Archduke Charles opposed him, but
WDs unable to check his progress. The republican armies

260 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAI

had at lonirth advanced so near to Vienna, that the utmost
alarm and confusion prevailed in that city: the bank suspended
its payments, and the emperor was preparing to forsake his
capital and remove to Olinutz. In this critical situation of
affairs, his imperial majesty opened a negotiation with IJona-
partc ; a short armistice was agreed to, and the preliminaries
of peace between the emperor and the French were signed at
Leoben, in April, 1797, i)y whicli the emperor renounced his
right to the Austrian Netherlands, and acknowledged the
French Republic. Bonaparte had, previously to his quitting
Italy, established the Cisalpine Kepublic, to which he united
Modena, lieggio, Massa, and Carrara. Its independence was
acknowledged and proclaimed on the 2d of July. A revolu-
tion was effected at Genoa, in the month of May, the same
year : the people, after taking possession of the arsenal, set
lip a democratical form of government, under the name of the
Ligurian republic. The ancient republic of Venice, about the
same time, fell under the dominion of France. A tumult
liaving suddenly taken place, in which a number of the French
soldiers were murdered in the hospitals of that city, the French
armies, on their return, abolished the ancient ducal govern-
ment, planted the tree of liberty in St. Mark's place, esta-
blished a municipality, and proposed to annex the city and
territory to the new Cisalpine Republic. The definitive treaty
between France and the emperor was signed at Campo Formio,
on the 17th of October, 171)7. Hy it the emperor ceded to
France the whole of the Netherlands and all his former terri-
tory in Italy. He received, in return, the city of Venice,
Istria, Dalmatia, and the Venetian islands in the Atlriatic : the
French were to possess the other Venetian islands.

While the negotiation which terminated in this treaty was
carrying on, the disputes between the majority of the Direc-
tory and the Legislative (chambers were producing new
scenes of violence in France. The deputies composing the
council of five hundred, who had acquired this year a consi-
derable increase in power, censured and opposed several of
the measures pursued by the Directory, and the laws against
priests and emiijrants were relaxed. But unforlunatcly the
army of Italy took part with the Directory ; and \f liile the
conduct of the opposite party was slow and irresolute, liarras
resf)lved on a prompt and violent measure, which effectually
decided the contest. Having secured the co-operation of a
Bufficient body of troops, under the command of Augereaii,
whom Bonaparte had sent to Paris for that purpose, he caused

XLIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 281

the acts in favour of nonjuring priests and emigrants to be
rescinded ; while fifty-four members of the two councils were
arrested and condemned to imprisonment or exile. Among
the proscribed were included the Director Barthelemy and
General Pichegru, who, with many others, were transported
lo Cayenne, whence they afterwards found means to returr.
to Europe.*

The power of the Directory being now absolute, (1798,)
they projected new schemes of ambition and conquest, in order
to give employment to the armies, and aiford them an oppor-
tunity of enriching themselves by plunder. They found a
pretext to invade and conquer Switzerland ; levied heavy con-
tributions on the inhabitants ; changed the form, and even the
name of the republic into that of the Helvetic Republic, after
dismembering from it the bishopric of Basle, which France
retained for herself.

Our attention must now again be directed to the unfortunate
situation of Ireland, where, irritated by injustice and oppres-
sion, the malcontents resolved to try the fortune of war. A
general insurrection was concerted ; the castle of Dublin, the
camp in the neighbourhood, and the artillery, were to be
simultaneously seized by night, but the plans of the conspira-
tors were defeated. Government having received precise in-
formation, caused fourteen of the delegates to be seized in
Dublin. Lord Edward Fitzgerald, who was one of the num-
ber, made an obstinate resistance, and shot one of the officers
appointed to arrest him ; the wounds he himself received
were so severe as to cause his death. No resource now re-
maining to the rebels but open force, they assembled to the
number of 15,000, and succeeded in taking Enniscorthy and
Wexford. Several actions ensued with various success, till
at length General Lake, having assembled a large body of
forces, attacked the main body of the insurgents on Vinegar
Hill, and after an obstinate contest, totally defeated them, in
June, 1798.

It was fortunate for the British empire that, during this
alarming crisis, the French government neglected to pursue
the plan laid out for them by Lord Edward Fitzgerald and
others of the rebels, and delayed sending any succour to the
insurgents till the month of August, when a small force, under

• That there existed at this time a strong party in the Chambers favour-
able to the restoration, is proved by the fact of Louis XVIII. sending, in
1824, letters of nobility to all the then surviving members who were
trrested on this occasion.

262 GENERAL HISTORY OF El'ROPE. [cHAP.

General lliimberl, laiideil at Killala. Tlio general entered the
bav luuier Eiiolish colours, and at tiie head of alxmt 300 men
advani-ed, hi the evening, towards the town, liilelliffence was
immediately sent oil' to J{allina, and the yeomanry drew up to
meet tlie French advancetl iiuard, Ixit, overpowered hy luini-
bers, were compelled to yield. Leavinir Killala in the posses-
sion of 200 men, Humbert pushed forward and took possession
of Hallina; he was there j<»:ned hy several hundreds of in-
surgents, to whom he distributed arms and uniforms. Tiie
king's forces retreated in disorder to Tuam, about forty miles
from the scene of action. The Manjuis Cornwallis, who had
succeeded Lord Camden as viceroy, determined to march in
person against tiie invader. lie proceeded on the road to
Castlebar, but before he arrived there, he received intelligence
that the enemy had abandoned tliat post, had inarched to Fox-
ford, and was joined by multiludes of the Irish peasantry.
The advanced guard of the French was opposed on the 5th
of September by Col. V^ereker, who had hastened from Sligo
with a small detachment of infantry ; but who, after a smart
action of an hour's continuance, was forced to retreat with his
little army to Ballyshannoii, whither he was closely followed
by the troops of Col. Crawforil and General I^ake ; while
Lord Cornwallis, with the grand arm)', marched into the
county of LongfortI, in order to intercept the enemy in his
way to Oranard. 'I'lius surrounded, Humbert was compelled
to surrender; the Irish auxiliaries, who had accompanied the
French into the field, were excluded from quarter; and about
five hundred of them were slain. The town of Killala was
recovered by a larger body of troops, under the command of
Major-Cieneral French. With the conquest and retreat of
this French army, ended the rebellion of 1798. No certain
estimate can be made of the number of those who lost their
lives in this unfortunate contest; but the accounts received in
the war-oflice make the number of the military who perished
in it amount to 19,700 ; and it is believed that the loss of the
Irish exceeded .')0,000 men.

The Congress of Kadstadt assend)led in January, 1798, to
setth^ the disputes between France and the Ciermanic I'^mpire.
While the discussions were spun out to an immoderate length,
an event occurred in Italy, which endangered the temporal
sovereignty of the See of Rome. Joseph IJonaparte, the
French ambassador in tlu- pajial capital, had long fomented
disturt)ances among ihc populace, who, at lensrlh, became so
mutinous that a small detuchment of the papal troops was one

XLIV.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 263

day called out to suppress a sedition, and, in a contest which
ensued, an individual who had used the most inflammatory
language, and who proved to be the French General Duphot,
was slain. On pretence of revenging this insult to the national
honour of the republic. General Berthier invaded the Roman
territory, which he entered with a formidable army. The
Castle of St. Angelo, in which the Pope and the majority of
the Cardinals had sought shelter, surrendered on the first
summons, and the tree of liberty was planted by the populace
in front of the capitol. The Roman republic having been
proclaimed, General Berthier made his public entry into the
city. On that day, the cardinal ministers resigned the govern-
ment of the Roman state, several having previously fled,
among whom were the Cardinals Albani and York ; and
solemn thanks were offered in the principal churches on ac-
count of this revolution. The Pope submitted to this change
in his fortune, with uncommon resignation. When informed,
that the people having assumed the sovereignty, his reign was
at an end, he appeared solely anxious about his spiritual
dignity ; and being told that this remained inviolate, together
with his person, he expressed himself contented. He was
soon after forced to retire to Sienna, as his presence was
thought dangerous at Rome, and was received there by the
Grand Duke of Tuscany, with all the respect due to his
dignity and his misfortunes. But for fear of irritating the
French, he was ordered to remain incognito in the environ.s
of that city, and the clergy were forbidden to give any demon-
stration of the interest which they took in his altered fortune.
The extortions and depredations of the French officers, and
the insurrections of the adherents to the Popedom, now ren-
dered Rome a scene of wretchedness and desolation. Pius
was still dreaded and persecuted by the French; he was de-
serted even by the principal Catholic princes ; and grief
brought on a dangerous illness. The sufferings of a sovereign,
dignified by his rank among the princes of Christendom, vene-
rable by his great age, and by the patience with which he bore
his misfortunes, rendered him an object of respectful aitention
to Europe. Both Catholics and Protestants united in com-
miserating his condition, and in reprobating the unfeeling
severity of an unpitying conqueror.

The Egyptian expedition, having been planned by Bona-
parte, with the consent of the French Directory, the armament
sailed from Toulon, on the 20th of May, 1798. The first
enterprise was an attack upon the Island of Malta, which sur«

2fi4 GENERAI, msTORV OF riMlOPE, ([CMAP

rendered after a feeble opposition ; it was suspected to have
been won rather by treachery tlian l)y force. However that
may be, the standard of the order was taken, and the town
given up to the French. 'I'o preserve this celet)raled order,
whicli liad subsisted seven hundred years, and defended ntany
of the Euroj)ean tlirones against the Ottoniins and pirates,
the title of (irand-master was conferred on Paul I., Emperor
of Russia, who i)ecanie the protector of the order and assumed
the decoration of its sovereign.

Scarcely had Malta capitulated, than Admiral Nelson en-
tered the Mediterranean with seventeen ships of the line to
pursue the P'rench fleet. It however escaped ; and the troops
having been landed at Alexandria, took that city by assault,
with but a trifling loss on the part of the French. After
several actions, in which tiie Mamelukes and their followers
were constantly defeated, the battle of the Pyramids rendered
the French masters of the country, and Bonaparte made his
entry into Grand Cairo, which opened to him its gates. To
attacli the inhabitants to his interest, it has been asserted that
he professed himself a convert to the doctrines of Mahomet,
and with the officers of his staff, assisted at the religious wor-
ship of the Mussulmans. The conquest of F.^ypt now
seemed complete, when the expedition received a terrible
blow, in the destruction of the fleet, which lay at anchor oflT
Aboukir, and consistr'd of thirteen ships of the line and four
frigates. Admiral Nelson, who w:is in active pursuit of them,
arrived in the road of Aboukir on the 1st of August. Though
the Frencli fleet was anchored as near the coast as possible.
Nelson, by a Iiold manceuvre, brought his ships, with the ex-
ception of one, between the enemy's vessels and the land.
The action commenced at sun-set, and continued with una-
bating fury till nine o'clock, when the Orient, <'ommanded by
the French Admiral Hruix, caught fire and blew up. 'I'he
combat was not suspended until noon of the succeeding day,
when the victory was decisive in favour of the British, who
captured nine ships and burned another.* 'I'iiis triumph w;i8
followed by a new confederation against France, on which,
and the sul)sequent operations, it had a marked influence : it
also rendered the British masters of the Mediterranean. The
intention of the IVtMich in liieir expedition to I'^gvpt, was to
open a communication, l)y which they might co-operate with
the enemies of (Jreat Britain in India. About the time, how-
ever, that they elfected their landing in Egypt, Tijijjoo "^ai^
* This action iii called the Baltic of the Nile.

XLIV.j OENERAL HISTORV Ot EUROPE. 26fc

lost Ins life and dominions, in a war of short duration, but
higlily advantageous to the English, 'i'he active operations
of the army were conducted by General Karris, who besieged
and took Seringapatam, tlie capital of Tippoo's dominions ;
which, with the fortress and island, and part of the late sul-
tan's territories, was united to the British possessions. His
body was found amoug the slain, and interred with suitable
honour.

Bonaparte, in the mean time, retained possession of Egypt,
and in order to secure his conquests, advanced into Syria,
February 9th, 1799. The expedition commenced with the
siege of El-Arych, one of the keys of the Egyptian frontiers ;
it was protected by a camp of Mamelukes, who were defeated
by General Kleber, and the city surrendered, after a siege of
eleven days. The victorious army then advanced towards
Jaffa. Gaza submitted to them on their route, but Jaffa was
strongly garrisoned, and when summoned to surrender, some
of the soldiers struck off the head of the officer who carried
the flag of truce, and fixed it on a pole, in sight of the French
army. The town was then carried by storm, after a dreadful
carnage. Among the prisoners were found many of the inha-
bitants of the mountains and of Nazareth, who had been re-
leased after the siege of El-Aiych, on condition of returning
to their respective homes. These men were, by Bonaparte's
order, on the following morning, drawn out to the number of
five hundred, on a rising ground near Jaffa, and fired upon by
a division of French infantry.* These successes achieved,
the French army formed the siege of St. John D'Acre ; but
after succeeding in dispersing the Mussulmans assembled on
Mount Thabor, and spending sixty days before the place, they
were obliged to raise the siege by an English squadron, under
Sir Sydney Smith, who, acting in concert with the Turks,
compelled Bonaparte to retreat, with the remains of his army,
into Egypt. From thence he took an opportunity to escape
to France, where he became the author of a new revolution in
the government.

The Turks declared war against France, in September,

* This account of the murder near Jaffa, was given by Napoleon himself,
to Mr. Warden, Surgeon, on board the Northumberland, during Bona-
parte's voyage to St. Helena. Mr. O'Meara, who states the same fact,
makes the number of these unfortunate victims, thus wantonly murdered
in cold blood, amount to 12,000. The charge of his having p/isoned his
eick soldiers at Jaffa, Bonaparte absolutely denied. Bourrienne asserts it
to be true, with some extenuating circumstances.

266 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. FcHAP

1798. and tlic Emperor of Russia, with tlic same view, made
luriiiidal)le proparalions by sea and Imid. Tlie Neapolitan
troops entered the papal territory to attaek tlie Frencli, l)Ut
uere defeated at (Mvita Castclhma by the rei)ul)lican (Jeiieral
Championet, who foreed lliem to evacuate Rome, of wiiicli
they liad taken possession. After various successes gained
by the Generals Duchesne, Maeilonald, Rev, and Ticmoinc,
the French estai)lishcil their head-(|uarters at Santo (icrmano,
but were soon after repulsed near Capua. The Neaj)olitans
quicklv rallied, and made themselves masters of the positions
near Tcano, while San (Jermano revolted from the French.
At this critical period, Prince Piirnatelli was desjiatclied by
General Mack, the viceroy, with powers to conclude an ar-
mistice with Championet, on any terms, provided Naples
remained subject to its kins^. Tiie oflTer was accepted ; but
the conditions, though highly advantageous to France, were
disapproved of by the French Directory. The suspension of
arms occasioned equal dissatisfaction at Naples : the Lazza-
roni took possession of the arsenal and fort, and chose Prince
Militerni for their chief. General Mack, in order to save him-
self from the fury of the populace, surrendered himself a pri-
soner to the French.

In January, 17'J9, the Lazzaroni attacked the French army,
but were defeated and driven back into the town. Exposed
to anv invasion by sea, without fortifications on the side of
the land, and abandonod by its sovereign, Naples was del'endcd
for three days by 30,01)0 Lazzaroni, who performed prodigies
of valour, fightinsr in the streets, amidst the si)reading flames
which consumed the editices. At last, after torrents of blood
had been spilt on both sides, the French colours were hoisted
on the new casde and on fort St. Elme. ('hampionet, for the
humanity he displayed on this occasion, would have been re-
wanletl with a civic crown by ancient Rome, but the Directory
of Paris denounced him before a council of war: fortunately
for this general, a change in the government takinjr jdace during
his trial, he was not only saved, but the conimand of the army
of the Alps and of that of Italy was conferred upon him.
Meantime the King of Sardinia was reduced to the humili-
ating nec«!ssity of abdicating the government of Piedmont, t(»
avoid being taken prisoner. In December, 1798, he concluded
an armistice witli the I-'rench fJencral .Toubert, and retired into
Sardinia; the tri-coloured flag was displayed at 'i'urin, and
Piedmont I'ell iindcrr the dominion of P' ranee. Shortly after,
the French entered Lucca, which abolished the aristocratical,

XLIV ] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 267

and assumed a popular form of government. On the otliei
side, Minorca was taken by the Britisli, commanded by Gene-
ral Stuart. In Germany, (1798,) the campaign was opened
by the defeat of the French General Jourdan. A treaty having
been entered into between Great Britain and Russia, the troops
of the latter nation took the field. The dissolution of the con-
gress of Rastadt was marked by the assassination of two of
the French ministers. A strange mystery still hangs over
that event. In their progress through Italy, the French made
themselves ijiasters of Tuscany, but were checked in their
career by the Imperialists, who obtained an advantage over
them in two actions at Verona. The Russian General Su-
vvarrow was so successful in his operaUons, that the allies
■were enabled to enter Milan. The French now evacuated
the Roman and Neapolitan territories ; the disasters which
had befallen their Generals Moreau and Macdonald, brought
about a counter-revolution in Tuscany, which abolished its
democratic form of government. Modena was captured by
the French, who were attacked and defeated by the allies in
three actions on the banks of the Trebbia. In consequence
of these defeats, the cities of Turin and Bologna fell into their
hands, and the surrender of the French garrisons of Alexan-
dria and Mantua followed. In the month of August, Holland
was invaded by an Anglo-Russian army. The first expedi-
tion sent thither, was commanded by the gallant Abercrombie,
who was no sooner landed, than the Dutch evacuated the
Holder. The British and Russian troops, who had penetrated
into the country, were attacked a few days after, by the com-
bined forces of France and Holland, which they repulsed.
The second expedition, commanded by the Duke of York,
reached Holland about the middle of September. After seve-
ral actions, Avhich were fought with doubtful success, the
country being found to be no longer tenable, and the invading
army having been disappointed in its expectations of being
joined by the majority of the Dutch ; a negotiation was
entered into with the French General Brune, in consequence
of which, the combined English and Russian army evacuated
the Batavian territory. In the following year, (1799,) the
aged father of the Catholic Church was torn from his retire-
ment by the French, Avho now yielded to the triumphant arms
of Suwarrow, and was carried by them into Valence : as he
passed thitlier, tliroiigh Dauphine, he was everywhere re-
ceived by multitudes of people, with sentiments of sympathy,
respect, and veneration. After an indisposition of several

268 GENERAL HISTORY Of Kl'HOPE. [CHAP.

tlay?, ho expired at Valonre, Aiipnst lOlli, in tlie eiirhly-se-
cond year of liis age. \i\ order of tlic Freiicli <r()veriuiient,
uiislaekcd lime was thrown into the grave to consume hia
body.*

In tlie view of our doinestie eoncerns, every other conside-
ration was, for the jiresent, absorbed in tlie question of a legis-
lative union with Ireland. Some preliminary diseussion was
introduced in a debate in tlie Knerlish House of Commons on
t!.c 23d of. January, 17!)1), ami llie queslion was more formally
ti:id amply discussed in the Irish I'arliament, which was opened
on the 22d with a speech from the lord lieutenant, indirecdy
announcing the measure. 'J'he union bill was carried in the
House of Lords without a division; and in the House of
(/'ommons by a majority of sixty — the ayes being one hun-
dred and sixty, and the noes one hundred. The summary
of its enactments was, that on the 1st of .January, 1801, the
kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland should be united in
one; that the succession to the imperial crown of these realms
should continue limited and settled according to existing laws ;
that Ireland should be represented in the Imperial Parliament
by twenty-eight lords temporal elected for life, four lords spi-
ritual taking their places by rotation, and one hundred com-
moners ; that in trade, navigation, and commerce in general,
the people of England and of Ireland should possess eijual
rights and advantages; that the pul)lic debt iiu-urred l)y either
kiuL'^dom previous to the union, and the sinking fund for its
reduction, should continue to be separately defrayed by each
kingdom respectively, in the proportion of fifteen parts for
Great Hrilain and two for Ireland, <fec. Disunion and ilissen-
sion, in the mean time, distracted the British councils. The
subject of ("atholic emancipation, which occasioned a division
in her cabinet, was said, by the party who resigned, to be ne-
cessary to complete and give effect to the measures of the Irish
union ; which, without extending the benefit of full freedom
to the ('atholics, would be a lifeless measure. Finding it im-
possil)le at present to attain this object, to which they attached
BO much import^anee, they did not think it consistent widi the
duty they f)wed their country, any longer to maintain res|)on-
eible situations in his majesty's councils. Mr. I'ilt, therefore,
and his colleagues, determined to give in their resignations,
as soon as the state of the pidilic business would allow. 'I'hc

• Dr. Mavor.

The illiiHtrinuH Cifncrol Washington died this year, (1799,) at Mount
Vernon, aged sixly-Hovcn.

XLIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 269

expenses of England this year amounted to £41,000,000:
and a scarcity of corn greatly augmented the general distress.
The conduct of the directorial government of France had
been marked from its earliest establishment by a system of
rapine and fraud, which had brought France to the eve of a
civil war. The forced loan, and the iniquitous law which
seized on the persons and confiscated the property of the rela-
tions of emigrants, had completed the wretchedness of the
subjugated French ; when a sudden revolution, effected by
Bonaparte, the 9th of November, 1799, overturned the Direc-
tory, and setup the Consular government, at the head of which
he placed himself. Cambaceres was second consul, and Le-
brun the third. A senate was composed of eighty members,
a tribunal of one hundred, and a legislative body, which was
not permanent, of three hundred. Bonaparte's first measure
was an ineffectual attempt to treat with Great Britain. In the
pacification of La Vendee he was more successful. Rela-
tively to Egypt, the treaty of El-Arych, by which the French
consented to evacuate that country, was not acceded to by the
British ministry. Meantime, General Suwarrow, who in five
months had gained as many pitched battles, made himself
master of the strongest places in the north of Italy ; but the
battle of Novi, fought on the 16th of August, was the greatest
triumph of this celebrated general. In it, the French com-
mander. General Joubert, was slain ; and of all the conquests
the French had made in Italy, Genoa alone remained to them,
which was now blockaded by Lord Nelson, and ready to yield
to the horrors of famine. But Suwarrow, having with difii-
culty passed Mount St. Gothard, in order to join General
Korsakoff in Switzerland, was defeated by Massena, and re-
tired into the Tyrol. His defeat was fuilowed by that of
Korsakoff, and by the death of the Austrian General Holzs,
which obliged him to seek safety by flight. The events we
have related in Italy, afforded an opportunity to the cardinals
to meet for the election of a Pope. The conclave was held
under the auspices of the Emperor of Germany, at Venice, in
March, 1800. The ecclesiastic honoured with the pontificate,
was Cardinal di Chiaramonti, a man of good sense, exemplary
virtue, and unassuming manners. As it is customary for the
new pontiff to assume the name of the Pope who had promoted
him to the dignity of cardinal, Chiaramonti took that of Pius
VII. The emperor, on his election, presented him with a
sum of money, and soon after delivered up to him the greater
part of the ecclesiastical state. Pius VII. took possession of

25*

J70 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

the see of Rome in July, :intl began to exercise the sovereignty
wilh groat cljiriiitv and iiiodcradoii : he was soon after ackiiow-
ledgeil l)y tin; I-'rcnch. Tlii-y ajjpoiiitcd as ininisicr jilciiipo-
tentiary, M. Cacault, wliose conciliating disposition smoothed
many of tlic diiricidtics that occurred in the negotiations
between the rej)ublic and the holy sec. Tlic Austrian Ge-
neral Melas, having entered Italy in April, possessed him-
self of Savona and Vada, whicli separated Genoa from the
French army; and llie latter, under Masscna, sustained a con-
siderable hjss at Fontana Huona, while tlie imperialists took
possession of Mount Cenis, and repulsed Masscna on his at-
teuiplini: to leave Genoa: famine at length compelled iiim to
surreiiiler the town on honourable terms. Tlic first consul
soon after left Paris, to take the command of the army of re-
serve intended to retrieve the afl'airs of the French in Italy.
He passed Mount St. Bernard on the 7lh of May, and on the
same day, three divisions of the French army, under Moreau,
penetrated Italy by Switzerland. Bonaparte entered Milan
on the 1th of June ; and this step was followed by the batde
of Montebello, gained on the Ulh, and l)y that of Marengo,
which on the 14th decided the fate of Italy. General Melas
liad disputed the field against the French with oljstinate cou-
rage, and had thrice forced them to fall back and retreat, when
General Dessaix came up, and decided the victory in favour
of the republicans. The army rallied and returned to the
charge with such uncommon bravery and resolution, that the
Austrians were all routed : the slaughter was dreadful, nor did
it cease till night had veiled the scene of carnage. It was ten
o'clock when IJcuiapartc quitted the field victorious; but the
French lost one of their best geyerals, Dessaix, who fell at
the moment of victory, 'i'he Austrians next day requested
an armistice, which was granted : eight fortified towns were
successively given up by tlicin to the French, and they re-
tired to Mantua. Bonaparte having ordered the demolition
of all the fortresses in the Milanese and Pitidmonlese, departed
with (General Berthier and his stalf for Milan, where he es-
tablished the ("isalpine Repui)lic, and assisted at a solemn Tt
Drum in tlu; cathedral church. He also re-organized the
celebraleil university of !*avi i, which had been closed since
the invasion (»f the combined powers in 17'.''J, leaving to (Ge-
neral Massena the command of the army. On the 2d of July,
he re-entered Paris, having in fifly-eiirlit days com|)leted a
BiM'ond time the concpiest of Italy. Besides the disasters
which had attended the arms of Austria in Italy, other losses

XUV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 271

compelled her to sue for peace. The preceding campaign had
been attended with very ill success ; and the memorable bat-
tle of Hohenlinden, gained by General Moreau over the Arch-
duke John, in December, 1800, covered that commander with
laurels, wliile General Augereau defeated the imperialists at
Nuremberg. These victories brought on the definitive treaty
of peace between France and Austria, which was signed at
Luneville in February, 1801. By this treaty, the cession of
the Belgic provinces, which had been made to France at the
treaty of Campo-Formio, was renewed, and Austria relin-
quished all that she possessed on the left bank of the Rhine.

The fort and island of Goree surrendered this year to a
small British squadron; in the month of September the
island of Malta passed under the domination of Great Britain,
after having been blockaded during two years; and the Dutch
settlement of Cura^oa was taken in the same month from
the French, who had conquered it. Two expeditions to the
coast of Spain, one against Ferrol, the other against Cadiz,
terminated unsuccessfully. A convention for an armed neu-
trality, directed against Great Britain, was entered into by
Russia and Sweden, and afterwards acceded to by Prussia and
Denmark. In return, an embargo was laid at the close of the
month of January, 1801, on all Russian, Danish, and Swe-
dish ships, in the ports of Great Britain. To exclude the
British vessels from the navigation of the Elbe, the Danes
resorted to the measure of the temporary possession of Ham-
burgh, at the same time that the Prussians seized on Hanover.
These hostile proceedings gave rise to the batde of Copenha-
gen ; Lord Nelson, with twelve ships of the line, attacked the
Danish fleet, (April 2d,) which was defended by formidable
batteries. The action was continued with unabating severity
for four hours, until, at length, the British admiral, to spare
the further effusion of blood, proposed an armistice, which
was acceded to by the Danes, only when all their ships, con-
sisting of seventeen sail of the line, were sunk or captured.
The Emperor Paul died before he could execute the vast and
angry projects he had conceived against England ; he was
found dead in his bed on the 22d of March, having been
carried off by an apoplectic fit, as it was expressed in the
proclamation made on the following day, which announced
the accession of his son Alexander to the throne.* The
Swedes next seceded from the northern alliance, and shortly

* The violent temper of Paul created him many enemies, and he is
supposed to have been strangled.

272 OENKRAL mSTOHY OF EPROPE. [^CHAP

aflrr a convention was signed between Great Britain and
Russia.

War was prorlaimod liv Spain ajrainst P()rtiiij':il, in the
month of Feliniary, 1801 ; and in the followino- April, a Spa-
nish army, headed liy the I'rince of Peace, invaded tlie Portu-
guese territory, and reduced all the fortified places in the pro-
vince of Altcntejo. Hy the treaty of peace which followed
between the two powers in June, Spain obtained die province
of Olivenza; the (luadiana was made the boundary between
the two kiufrdoins, and the ports of Portuiral were closed
against England. By a convention concluded between France
and Spain in the month of Marcli, the states of the Infint
Don liCwis, Duke of I'arma, were placed at the disposition
of France, and Tuscany was ceded to the infante, widi the
tide of King of Etruria. In the month of August following,
the king and queen made their entrance into Florence. Na-
ples shordy after made peace with France. 'iMie treaty of
friendship between the French republic and the Elector of
Bavaria was concluded in August: the latter renovinced by it
all claim to his ancient possessions on the left bank of the
Rhine. Russia soon adopted the same measure; and on the
9th of October, the preliminaries of peace between France and
Turkey were signed, by which Russia and France guarantied
to the Ottoman Porte the rej)ul)lic of the Seven Islands, and
the navigation of the Black Sea was secured to die French flag.

The Britisli expcdilion against Egvpt reached its destina-
tion at the commcncenicnt of March, and a part of the army
of reserve, commanded by Major-general I\loore, landed on
the 8th of that nif)nt!i. Tfie whole of the troops having been
afterwards landed, moved forward on the 12th ; and, on the
following day, the French were brought to action, and forced
to retreat, 'i'he castle of Aboukir surrendered to the F]nglish
on the 18th, and on the 2Ist was fought the ever-memorable
contest, which gave a new lustre to the British arms, i)ut in
which the gallant veteran and commander-in-chief. Sir Ral|)h
AbercTombic, f<ll. The loss of the French in the batU(! of
Alioukir has been calmilated at JJ.OOO men, with many of
their principal oflTicers. That of the victors amounted to
about thirteen hundred in killed, wounded, and missing.
The capture of several inferior posts was followed by the
Murrender of the cities of Cairo and Alexandria to the Pritish,
And these successes led to the evacuation of I'jgypl by the
French. This event and the brilliant victf)ries irained by
(jreat Britain in the naval campaign of 1801, led to negotia-

XLIV."] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 273

tions for peace between that power and France. By the defi-
nitive treaty of Amiens, which was signed on the 27th of
March, 1802, Great Britain ceded all the possessions and
colonies she had acquired during the war, with the exception
of the Spanish Island of Trinidad, and the Dutch possessions
in Ceylon.

The authors who debased their talents by promoting the
progress of irreligion and impiety in France, during the mid-
dle of the last century, have been already noticed. The two
Daciers were celebrated for their translations from the Greek
and Latin authors, and for their commentaries upon them.
M. Dacier belongs properly to the preceding century:
Madame Dacier died in 1720. The learned Benedictine
monk, Calmet, who is noted for his commentaries on the
Holy Scriptures and other works, died in 1767. In England,
Doctor Samuel Johnson, whose efforts to arrest the revolu-
tionary principles of the age, in his Rambler and Idler,
recommended him to the personal notice and patronage of his
sovereign, and who is noted for his philological learning, died
in 1785. Oliver Goldsmith, a poet, and the compiler of many
different works for youth : Young and Cowper, both moral
poets, deserve remembrance. Hume, Robertson, and Gib-
bons, historians ; whose talents, however, did not raise them
above the prejudices of their nation and age, and whose
writings cannot, tlierefore, be recommended to those who seek
for truth, the first quality of an historian. Italy during this
century gave birth to Metastasio, who was poet laureat to the
Emperor Charles VI., and died in 1782. Germany boasts of
Klopstock, the author of the " Messiah." In music, too, tho
first composers and performers were all of that nation. Handel,
patronised by George III., may be almost said to belong to
England, where he composed his celebrated oratorios ; Hamal
died in 1778, Mozart in 1792. Haydn and Beethoven were
still living at this period. Painting is indebted to the same
sovereign for the rapid progress it made in this island during
his reign. George III. founded the Royal Academy in Lon-
don, for the advancement of this art, as well as of engraving,
sculpture, and architecture ; and the names of Sir Joshua
Reynolds and Sir Thomas Lawrence, portrait-painters, and of
Benjamin West, historical painter, stand pre-eminent. His
majesty also erected the Royal Institution in 1800, the grand
object of which is, to render modern improvements applicable
to the conveniences of mankind. Its reputation was at tha\
time enhanced by the discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy in
chymistrv.

J74 OENKRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAlP

CHAPTER XLV.

STATE OF EUROI'E IN GENERAL, AND THAT OF ENGLAND IN PAR
TICULAU, IKttM THE PEACE OK AMIENS TO THE RENEWAL Ot
WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND ENGLAND.

1802. — A SHORT interval of nominal peace, bnt not of ge-
neral tranquillity, followed the ratilication of the treaty of
Amiens. On tiie continent of Europe, in the British dominions,
and in the West Indies, such events took place during tliis in-
terval, as ol)lif»-e the historian still to tell of war, and treason,
and their attendant miseries.

Bonaparte tried to consolidate, during peace, the glory which
lie had ar(|uir('d in war, and his elTorts were not unsuccu'ssful.
The olhce of iirst consul for life, with permission to ai)point
his successor, was conferred upon him. He was empowered
to nominate the senate, to interpret all the articles of the con-
stitution, to suspend the functions of juries, and to appoint the
consuls. The members of the grand council of the J^egion of
Honour* were named meniliers of the senate. The presidency
of the trilmnal of ultimate appeal, and a power of censure
over all the other tribunals, were given to a grand judge of
IJonaparte's nomination. The unlimited confidence reposed
bv the French nation in their new ruler, seemed in a threat
measure justified by the anxiety with which, afu^r the con-
clusion of the treaty of Amiens, he consulted and gratitied
their interests and wishes.

'J'he revival of the arts, the improvement of commerce,
manufactures, and airriculture, plans of education, the remo-
delling and rcpairingof bridges, canals, and highways, alternate-
ly occupied his attention. Findin<j that the re-establishmf-nt
of religion was desired by the nation at large, he concluded a
Convention, usually called the Concordat, with the I*ope, by
which the Catholic reliirion was dcdariMl to lie that of the
great majority f»f I'Venchmen ; it stipulated that a new cir-
cumscription should be made of the French bishoprics, and
for this end demanded from the ancient bishops of France the
resignation of tli(;ir sees, a sacrifice which his holiness firmly

• The Legion of Honour wbh n military ordnr of noliility. It consisted
of fifteen cohorts and a council of a hninislrntion. 'I'lic first consul wa«
rhiiT of the legion and uf the council, and Joscjih Bonaparte wna grand
maater of the order.

XLV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROI'E. 275

expected they would make for Uie sake of peace and unity.*
Tlie Concordat also provided that, the right of nomination to
ecclesiastical sees should be exercised by the first consul, and
that of canonical institution by the Pope ; that the intruded
constitutional bisliops should not be selected, unless they first
made their submission, according to the form prescribed by
the Pope to his legate. Cardinal Caprara;t that the bishops
should swear allegiance to the government, which should pay
them and the inferior clergy an annual stipend ; that none but
native Frenchmen should officiate as ministers of relig-ion in
France ; that these ministers sliould have no connection with
foreign powers ; and tliat the professors, in all seminaries,
should be chosen by die chief consul. The final ratification
of the Concordat was announced by proclamation, on the 17th
of April, and the event solemnly celebrated in the church of
Notre Dame. J In the same month was published a decree
of amnesty, by which the emigrants, with several exceptions,
Avere permitted to return to France, and such part of their

* In reply to this demand, thirty bishops sent in their resignation ; thirty-
eight refused it.

■f Several constitutional bishops evaded this command, and with the Con-
cordat were published organic laws, which had not been approved of by
the legate.

t Bonaparte is said to have conceived the first idea of a Concordat, oq
the battle-field of Marengo ; though he had long before been heard to
exclaim, alluding to the Pope and cardinals — " Why do they not treat with
me] I am the best friend of Rome." He complained much, however, of
what he called the useless delays of the Court of Rome, and wished to in-
troduce into ecclesiastical affairs that celerity which distinguished his mili-
tary operations. Finding the Pope's legate in Paris slow in bringing the
affair to a conclusion, he wrote to the minister, Cacault, desiring him to
demand imperatively a Concordat, within three days, and enjoining him to
quit Rome in case of noncompliance. Cacault, who knew more about ec-
clesiastical affairs than the first consul, persuaded Cardinal Consalvi to
undertake a journey to Paris, and make arrangements with Bonaparte in
person : while, according to his instructions, he himself withdrew to Florence,
leaving, however, his secretary in Rome, so that the official relations re-
mained uninterrupted. The genius and conciliating manners of the car-
dinal disarmed the rising indignation of the first consul, who approved of
what had been done, and the Concordat was promulgated in April. About
this time, Talleyrand, at his own request, received from Rome a brief, dis-
pensing with the performance of his ecclesiastical functions, and allowing
him to reassume the secular habit. It was not signed by the Pope, though
his holiness was aware of its being expedited ; nor did it empower the
ex-Bishop of Autun to marry ; and when the Pope, at a later period, visited
Paris, he particularly stipulated that Madame de Talleyrand should not ba
presented to him.

270 GENERAL HISTORY OF F.ITROPE. [cHAP.

goods and possessions as still remained unsold was restored
to ilicin.

OiR- of the first objects that fixed the attention uf lla- French
government, after it had signed the definite treaty with England,
was the recovery of tlie revolted colony of ISt. Doniingo. As
early as the month of December, 1801, a largo force put to
sea for this service. The French troops were commanded
by Le Clerc, Latouche, and Kochambeau ; the insurgenti", by
Toussaint, Dcssalines, and Christophe. After many rencoun-
ters and massacres, marked, on tlie part of the French, by a
degree of cruelty which reflects disgrace on civilized society,
Christophe, Dessalines, and 'I'oussaint, hopeless of gaining
any permanent advantage over the superior Ibrccs of their op-
ponents, acknowledged the sovereignty of France. Toussaint
retired, with the permission of the French generals, to his
estate at Gonaive, where he purposed to spend the remainder
nf his days, anil to forget the horrors of warfare, in the seclu-
sion of domestic life. But this happiness was denied him by
his conquerors. Le Olerc surrounded his house in the dead
of the nigiit, took him and his family prisoners, and had them
conveyed to France. There Toussaint, whose character, at
once Inimane and warlike, had won the admiration even of
his enemies, was immured and terminated his career in a loath-
some dungeon. The act of treachery was, in itself, a sufficient
Incentive to rouse the Haitians to a renewal of war. 'I'hey
were farther exasperated by a tlccree of the French legislative
body, abrogatinir an enactment of the national assembly, which
had declared slavery in the colonies abolished. Dessalines
and ('hristojihe again asseml)led llie insurgent bands, and re-
solved to exterminate their oppressors or ilic in the attempt.
']'hc French, unawed by the new insurrection, abated none of
their accustomed cruelty. But Providence visited back u|)on
the perpetrators of these wanton acts, part of the miseries tliey
created. A pestilential disease, caused by the putrefaction of
their victims, raged violenUy in the French camp ; Le Clerc
himself fell a victim to it. Before his death, which took place
in October, l'ort-au-l*aix, Fort Daui)hin, anil many other
places, were lost to the French.

Koi'hanibeau, who succeeded liC Clerc in the chief com-
mand, imitated him in cruelly, and inherited his ill-fortune.
Iir the first engagement of imporUxnce, after his appointment,
the Frencli were defeated; and though (ieneral Clausel par-
tially retrieved the glory of the French arms, yet success still
preponderated on the side of the insurgents, and their per-

XLX.'] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 277

severing bravery awakened the apprehensions of the mother-
country, for the total loss of her colony.

1802. — It was not in the West Indies alone that the horrors
of war were felt; Switzerland had again become the theatre
of contending armies. Its inhabitants, still dissatisfied with
their new form of government, took up arms to effect a counter-
revolution, and appointed Aloys Reding their chief. The con-
test between the patriots, or friends of the old order of things,
and the supporters of the government, was maintained for some
time with various success. Zurich was taken by Andermatt,
the French general ; Friburg, Berne, and Soleure, by the in-
surgents. Both parties, with equal urgency, solicited the inter-
ference of France in their behalf. The capture of Berne was
followed by a suspension of arras. On the renewal of hos-
tilities, success still attended the exertions of the patriots.
Their main attack was directed against Lausanne, the seat of
the Helvetic government. Apprehending the reduction of the
city, the government was preparing to remove to Geneva,
when their fears were calmed and their flight prevented, by
the opportune arrival of citizen Rapp, with an offer, in form
of a proclamation, from the lirst consul, to mediate between
the contending parties. The diet, convinced by the entry of
General Ney with 30,000 men into the Swiss territory that
esistance to the will of Bonaparte would prove unavailing,
accepted his preferred mediation, and dissolved itself. The
Swiss troops were disbanded, and die subjection of Switzer-
i:iiid to the influence of France completed, by the appoint-
ment of deputies from the cantons to meet at Paris and arrange,
by negotiation, the diflferences of their constituents. When
these deputies assembled, a letter from the first consul told
them, that to tranquillize Switzerland, the enforcement of three
preliminary points was necessary : a general equality of rights
among all her cantons, a federative organization for each, and
a renunciation of all aristocratic privileges. Thus a new con-
stitution was given to Switzerland ; it was divided into eighteen
cantons, and the Helvetic troops passed into the service of
France.

The daily extension of Bonaparte's power, and particular-
ly his having, within the year, added Piedmont and Parma to
France, caused much uneasiness to the Emperor Francis, and
rendered him unwilling to submit to the German indemnities,
and die secularization of the ecclesiastical sovereignties, gua-
rantied by the treaty of Lunevfllc. The first consul, however,
little regarding the objections urged by him, opened negotia

?78 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cilAP

tions at Paris, for the arrangement of the indemnities, and,
assistcii by tlie Emperor of Russia, drew up a plan, wiiicli, not-
wilhytant\injr stron;; renioiitilrancos from the Hiii|)cr(ir l''iaiicis,
met llie approval of llie Diet of Kalisbon. To llie Elector of
Menlz were given the cities of Ratisbon and Wetzlar: to the
King of (ireat Britain, the bishopric of Osnaherg, in compen-
sation for Hildesheim, Corvey, and lloextcr, and for the re-
nunciation of his rights over Bremen anil llaml)urgh : to tiie
Prince of Orange, the bishoprics of Fulda and Corvey, and
the city of Dortmunil, for his siirrentier of the stadtholderate,
and of other claims in Holland and Belgium. Tiie Princes
of Baden, Wirtemburg, and Hesse Cassel, were made electors.
The Emperor Francis, finding the influence of France to
predominate in the diet, gave a reluctant consent to these ar-
rangements.

B. Maria Clotilda, Queen of Sardinia, died at Naples, March
7th, 1802. Three months after her death, Cliarles-Emmannel
IV. abdicated in favour of his brother, the Duke of Aosle, who
took the name of Victor Emmanuel V. Benevento and Ponto
Corvo were, the same year, restored to the Holy Sec.

In England, a conspiracy, having for its ()i)jecl the assassi-
nation of the king, was planned by a ('olonel Despard, and
twenty-nine associates; it was discovered, and the author,
with six of his accomplices, expiated his guilt on the scallold.

'J'he continuance of peace was as short as its efi'ect had
been unsatisfactory. Angry discussions had arisen, almost as
early as its date, between the contracting parties; and now,
assuming a more serious form, threatened to involve Europe
again in war. 'J'he protracted stay of the English troops in
Malta and Alexandria ; the protection given in I''nirland to
French emigrants; and the abuse j)oured upon Bonaparte by
the English press, formed the chief grounds of complaint, on
the part of France. Great Britain insisted on the necessity
of an explanation relative to a report, made by Colonel Sebas-
tiani to the French government, in which much aiiuse was
levelled at the English army and its commander while in
Ecfvpt; on the temporarv possession of Malta by English
troops, as an ef|nivalt'nt Un the great increasj; of territory
sicquired by France, suiiscquent to the treaty of Amiens; and
on the evacuation of Holland bv the French troops. After
many conferences between Colonel Andreossy on the part of
France, and Ii<trd Hawkesbury on that of England; and be-
tween Lord Whitworth, the I'nglish ambassador, and the
French consul, in which each parly failed to satisfy the other

XLVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 279

the King of England formally issued a declaration of war
against France.

1803. — In the British Parliament, cimtradictory opinions
were entertained on the subject of the intended war. Pitt and
nis adherents pronounced it necessary : Fox thought that no
sufficient grounds existed for involving the nation in the dif-
ficulties which would result from it. The address, however,
in reply to the king's speech, which announced the failure of
this negotiation, and the purposed renewal of hostilities, was
carried in both Houses by a large majority.

CHAPTER XLVI.

FROM THE RENEWAL OF HOSTILITIES BETWEEN FRANCE AND
ENGLAND, IN 1803, TO THE PEACE OF PRESBURG, IN 1805.

War having been thus resolved upon, the attention of the
English government was given to the devising of such means
as seemed necessary to guard against the possibility of a French
invasion ; and to the equipment of such armaments as would
support the established character of the British navy. Bills
to increase the militia and render it efficient, and to arm and
train the whole effective population of Great Britain, to act in
defence of the country in case of emergency, passed both
Houses with unusual rapidity, and received the royal assent.
Supplies, to the amount of £41,000,000 sterling, to be raised
by the imposition of various new taxes, and, among others, by
one upon property, nearly resembling that formerly imposed
upon incomes, were voted for the service of the year. Expe-
ditions were titted out against Demerara and Essequibo, St.
Lucie, Tobago, and St. Domingo, which were crowned with
success. Holland had joined France, and the other powers of
Europe were, for the present, content to be but spectators of
this new struggle.

News of the renewal of war between France and Englanl
reached St. Domingo, at a time when the French, hemmed in
by the negro army, were confined to the immediate vicinity
of Cape Francois, where, dispirited by sickness and want of
provisions, they conceived their case nearly desperate. On
the arrival of the English naval force, the French general con-
cluded a capitulation with its commander. It was agreed that
the French troops should be sent to Jamaica, as prisoners of

280 OENKRAL HISTORY OF KUROPE. [cHAP.

war, and tlirir sick to Frnnre ami Amcrira, The independence
of the I'Vciicli part of thi- island was proclaimed hy the negroes,
and Dessalines was declared its chief.

In Uie mean time, the irovernment of France was not slow,
either in its announcement of war or in its preparations to
carry it on wi\h visjour. A decree was soon after issued,
»vhi( h, contrary to the usa<ies of civilized nations, ordereil the
detention of all Enj^lish subjects resident in France. A strong
detachment of the army of Italy was sent ujxm Tarenlum and
other ports in the Adriatic; and a large naval force, under the
command of Admiral Linois, was despatched to the East
Indies, to secure the dominions of France in that quarter.
Scarcely was the Kins of England's declaration of war pro-
mulgated, when the electorate of Hanover was invaded and
summoned to surrender to the French government, by Gene-
ral Mortier, with an assurance that lionaparte only meant to
occupy it till Malta should be evacuated by England.

In June, 1803, the French took quiet possession of the city
of Hanover, on condition that the Hanoverian army shoidd
retire behind the EU)e, and not serve against France or her
allies, during the war or till regularly exchamied, and that all
the electoral fortresses, arms, ammunition, and artillery, should
be surrendered to the French, The spiritless resistance op-
posed by the Hanoverians to their invaders, causetl the con-
quest of their territory to reflect but little additional glory upon
the arms of France; Init the advaulaires derived from it by the
victors were not inconsiderable. France was now enal)led to
injure the commerce of Great Britain, by prohil)iting British
merchant-ships from jiavigating tiie Ell)e and the Weser; and
Hii order to this effec't was issued by the French government,
(ireal Britain, on her part, took measures to |)revcnt the navi-
gation of those rivers, while her vessels should be excluded
from them. These elForls of the contending powers at mutual
annoyance, proved a hisavy afflirtion to the Haiise towns; for
the l)lockade of their harbours was ruin to their trade. They
invoked the interference of the King of Prussia, but he refused
to mediate in their behalf.

While the King of Great Britain's German dominions were
thus wrested by the French, the existence of disaffection among
his subjects at home showed itself in an insurrection of the
Irisli. Rol)ert Ivnmett, a man of talent and influence, and
brother to the Irish director of 17!)H, was the chief promoter
of this new <Iisturl)ance. Assisted l)v some agents of inferior
birth and ability, he plotted the cstabliahmcnt of a republicau

XLVI.^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 281

form of government in Ireland, and the entire separation of
that country from the sister kiiio-dom. His plans were, ori-
ginally, deeply laid ; but their too hasty development, caused
by a fear of detection on the part of the conspirators, occa-
sioned their total failure. On the night of the 23d of July,
1803, those of the party who were stationed in Dulilin rose,
with the intention of seizing the seat and ministers of the Irish
government. A want of arrangement, the consequence of too
great precipitation, was observable in all their movements.
Emmett sallied forth, brandishing his sword, and was fol-
lowed by an undisciplined mob. The great object failed,
but acts of violence were committed. Among the victims
to the fury of the oppressed, were Lord Chief Justice Kil-
warne/i, who, since the rebellion of 1798, had been an object
of popular aversion, and his nephew, the Rev. Richard Wolfe.
The insurgents were, however, soon dispersed, and tranquil-
lity resiored to the city, by the exertions of the government
troops ; and the rebellion was shortly after entirely suppressed
by the execution of its promoters. From the domestic dis
turbances of Great Britain, we must make a transition to her
distant foreign possessions — her settlements in the East Indies.
There, too, attempts to subvert her dominion were made and
defeated, and the ensuing two months are memorable for the
splendid triumphs achieved during their course, by the British
arms in the Peninsula of Indostan. This war the English
undertook in alliance with the Peishwa, or Mahratta sovereign
of Poonah, against the Mahratta chiefs, Scindia, Holkar, and
the Rajah of Berar, assisted by a French force under General
Perron. The English forces destined for this expedition were
estimated at 55,000, of which two divisions were made ; one,
under General Wellesley, was to oppose the forces of Scindia
and the Rajah of Berar; the other, under General Lake, com-
mander-in-chief of the English army in India, was to act on
the frontier of Oude. General Wellesley, after taking the
fortress of Admenugger, attacked the united forces of the con-
federate chiefs at Assye, where, on the 23d of September, he
gained a complete victory over an army six times more nume-
rous than his own. General Lake was not less successful on
the north-west of Oude, He took the fort of Allyg)uir, the
residence of M. Perron, and the grand depot of all his military
stores, and defeated, near Delhi, the army of Scindia, com-
manded by a French officer ; in consequence of which victory,
the Mogul Emperor, Sha AUum, who had been expelled from
his dominions by Holkar, and detained in captivity by his

26*

282 GENERAL HISTORY OF EITR(»PE. TpHAP.

enemies, was restored to the throne, and placed himself under
the protection of tlic I'lnsrlish. Aura surrendered to CJeneral
Lake, on the I'Jlli of October, and on the last day of the same
month, he gained a furiously-contested battle, over the army
of Scindia, at the village of Laswaree. Tliese victories were
followed bv a peace, which expelled the French from the
Deccan, and made important add.tions to ll;e power and terri-
torial possessions of the East Indii: Company.

Party spirit ran high in die Briusli Parliament, towards the
close of tliis and t!:8 coaimencement of the following year.
The ministry formed by Mr. Addington, was opposed by the
adherents of Mr. Pitt, by Lord Grenville in the Upper, and
Mr. Windliam in the Lower House, and by the whig, or old
opposition, who were incensed against the advisers of a new
war. Mr. Addington, hopeless of successfully contending
against an opposition, which acquired, from day to day, in-
creased strength and consistency, resigned the ollice of prime
minister. (1804.) Mr. Pitt was appointed to succeed him;
but with an express stipulation, that the leader of the old op-
position should fdl no place in tlic new ministry, and that the
Catholic question should not be revived.

The extensive preparations carried on in the ports of Calais
and IJoidoirne, led to the belief that the invasion of England
would hv attempted by Bonaparte, and all necessary measures
of precaution were adopted in consequence ; one of which
was a system of blockade, confining to their own shores the
vessels of France. liills to suspend l\\c. Ilalieas Corpus
Act, and re-enact martial law in Ireland ; to provide for the
maintenance of the volunteer corps, and tlie army of reserve;
to remove the depreciation which had taken place, within the
year, in the price of corn, and prevent its recurrence, were
discussed with much animation, and took the form of law.
Neither did the English Parliament limit its views to the
attainmenlof internal triiKiuillity; an efl'ort to abolish the slave-
trade, showed this assembly anxious to promote the general
well-beinij of mankind ; tlie eflTort, however, proved unsuc-
cessful.

Wliile these legislative enactments were in agitation in
Enghiud, the measures pursued by the French govermuent to
insure its stability, were of an extraordinary and daring nature.
Early in February, a plot against the government was disco-
vered, and announced to the public, through the medium of
B report from the minister of justice to the first consul. The
scheme was said to have originated with Georges Cadoudal,

XIVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 283

chief of the Chouans : it was added that Moreau and Pichegru
were amona^ his accomplices, and that the conspirators had
been landed on the French coast, by Captain Wright, the com-
panion and friend of Sir Sydney Smith. The intentions
ascribed to the conspirators were, the assassination of the first
consul, and the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty. This
report was followed by the arrest of the suspected associates ;
but an act of undisguised atrocity, on the part of the French
government, so preoccupied general interest at this time, as to
render the fate of these popu.ar personages a matter of minor
consideration. A report having reached the first consul, that
the Duke d'Enghien, the heir presumptive to the rights and
titles of the house of Conde, him taken part in the conspiracy
of Cadoudal, orders were issued for his arrest. This unfortu-
nate prince resided in the neutral territory of the Elector of
Baden. On the 14th of March, he and fourteen others at-
tached to his person were seized at Effenheim, and conveyed
to Paris, by a detachment of soldiers under the command of
General Caulaincourt. From Paris, the duke was hurried to
the Casde of Vincennes, where he arrived at five in the after-
noon. Being oppressed with fatigue, he retired to rest, and
instantly fell into a profound sleep. He was suddenly
awakened about eleven o'clock, and led into an adjoining
apartment, where he found eight officers, who had formed
themselves into a military committee, of which Hulin was
president. The deportment of the unfortunate prince during
the trial, which was carried on with the greatest precipitation,
was calm, manly, and dignified. Sentence of death was pro-
nounced the same night, and immediately executed, by torch-
light, in the fosse of the castle. The body was thrown into
a trench which had been dug for the purpose, before the com-
mencement of the trial. This flagrant violation of the law of
nations and of humanity excited the general indignation of the
powers of Europe. Spirited remonstrances from Sweden,
Russia, and Hanover, on the violation of the neutrality of the
German territory, in the illegal seizure of the duke, were pre-
sented to the Diet of Ratisbon, and addressed to the French
minister for foreign affairs.

Josephine had, in vain, exerted all her influence with Bona-
parte, to induce him to alter his design. Throwing herself at
his feet, she entreated and conjured — he flung her from him,
with a violence bordering on frenzy. His council, too, had
vigorously opposed the intended arrest; and the unusual silence
that prevailed among them, during three days subsequent to

284 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAP

the fatal deed, must liave conveyed to Bonaparte a forriljlo
impression of tlie liorror it excited. The motives which in-
lliicnced liim on this occasion have not been clearly ascer-
tained : aiming at sovereign power, he periiaps ihonglit to
intimidate the royalists, who desired, and to soothe the appre-
hensions of the repul)licans, wlio feared the restoration ol the
Bourbon dynasty. One public functionary had, alone, the
courage to express his just indignation. M. de Cliateaubri-
and liad become known to Bonaparte by his literary produc-
tions, and his nan^e had been in consequence erased from tlie
list of emiijrants, in 1800. When Cardinal Fesch succeeded
M. ('acault, as ambassador at Rome, Chateaubriand was ap-
pointed princii)al secretary, but shortly after recalled by the
first consul, wiio named him minister plenipotentiary to the
Valais, with a promise of the next vacant embassy.* Being
on the point of departure for his new destination, he presented
himself in the first consul's cabinet, to take leave ; but receiv-
ing intelligence of the seizure and death of the Duke d'Eng-
hien, he sent in an immediate resignation of liis office. 'J'hc
sensation produced by this event was deep and universal ;
Caulaincourt fainted at its announcement; the aide-de-camp
wlio had aci'ompanied the duke to Ettenheim, lost his reason;
the officer who gave the word to fire, as he was told, on a
brigand of La Vendee, quitted the service : in a word, by this
act, Bonaparte did himself more injury than his greatest ene-
mies could ever have indicted.

In the early part of this year, (1804,) Goree and Surinam
were Uiken l)y the British, and an action between Admiral
liinois and ttie English I'^ast India fleet, commanded by (Jap-
tain Dante, reflected much additional glory on the naval power
<»f (ireat Britain. The French hostile flotilla, stationed at
BouloL'iie, wailed an opportunity of putting to sea, which the
vigilance lif the I'^nglisli guard-sliijjs never affitrdcd it.

The King of Spain, on the renewal of hostilities between
Friiice and Enirlaiid, had declared his intention to preserve a
stri(a neutrality. Intimation, however, having i)een given to
the English government that ships were arming in the S[mnish
ports, and that Spain only waited the arrival of four frigates
laden with sjx'cie from South America, to co-operate with
France, orders were given to Captain Moore to intercept and
detain these vessels. .Moore came up with, and attacked
them, on the .5th of ()ctoI)er. One of the frigates blew up;

* fMiriiii^ tliJH pcriix), h^ dedicaU'iI to Uuriajiarte the tieconJ edition of bii
■CJeriic du t^lirwliani^mc."

ItlVl 3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 285

the other three surrendered and were brought to England. A
declaration of war by Spain against England, was the imme-
diate consequence ot this engagement.

The tone of defiance adopted by France, her refusal to re-
spect the neutrality of the Germanic body, to indemnify the
King of Sardinia (as was stipulated by the treaty of Lune-
ville) for the losses he had sustained, to evacuate Naples, and
to adopt some measures in union with the Emperor of Ger-
many, by which the affairs of Italy should be adjusted, occa-
sioned an alliance between those powers and England ; and
active negotiations, which terminated in a league against
France, were, towards the close of this year, opened between
the courts of St. James and Petersburg.

The aspiring views of the first consul were not checked,
nor their accomplishment retarded, either by the conspiracies
of his own subjects, or by the threatened hostile alliances of
foreign powers. He aimed at the possession of undivided
power, and the senate and tribunals acquiescing in his wish,
voted him the title of emperor, and decreed that the imperial
dignity should be hereditary in his family. These measures
were carried by acclamation, Oarnot alone dissenting ; and on
the 18th of May, a deputation from the senate, with Camba-
ceres, the pi'esident, at its head, waited upon Bonaparte to beg
his acceptance of the honours voted him.* To the congratu-
latory speech of the president, he replied, "Every thing that
can contribute to the good of my country is essentially con-
nected with ray happiness. I accept the title which you think
necessary to the glory of the nation. I submit to the sanction
of the people the law of hereditary succession. I hope France
will never repent having surrounded my family with honours.
At all events, my spirit shall cease to be present with my pos-
terity, the day on which it shall cease to deserve the love and
confidence of the French nation."

This elevation of Bonaparte was accompanied by many
alterations in the existing constitutional code, indirectly tend-
ing to increase his power. All his brothers were named
princes. Joseph Bonaparte was created grand elector; Lewis
grand constable; Cambaceres, arch-chancellor; Lebrun,
arch-treasurer of the empire ; and General Duroc, governor
of the imperial palace. Generals Murat, Jourdan, Berthier,
Moncey, Bernadotte, Augereau, Soult, Massena, Brune, Ney,
Davoust, Bessieres, and Mortier, were named marshals of the

* He assumed the imperial dignity under the title of Napoleoi the Great,
as the proclamation of the senate styled Hm.

286 OENKRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

empire, as were the senators Kt'lk'niiann, Perigiion, Lefevre,
and Sernirier. A few days after this event, bcijan tlie triiil of
the coiispiralons, iinplicattnl in the alleged design of overlurn-
ing the consular government. Those who, at first, had found
means to elude pursuit, were taken shortly afier the execution
of the Duke d'Enghien, and there were now more than one
hundred captives in the 'i'eniple, where all, excepting Moreau,
were treated with extreme severity- I'he separate interroga-
tories that had taken place had drawn from them no disclo-
sures ; Pichegru had undcrirone ten, hut had proH^ssed his
intention of speaking openly, if hrouirhl hcfore a legal tribunal,
when, on the morning of the 6th of April, he was found dead
in the cell which he occupied in the Temple. The government
announced that he died by his own hand, but it is generally
believed he fell a victim to private assassination. The death
of Captain Wright, who ended his life in the same prison, is
involved in e([ual uncertainty and suspicion. Georges Cadon-
dal, whose conduct was marked l)y the most stoical lirmness,
might, however, have saved his life. OlTers of pardon and of
employment under the imperial government were made to
him in prison, which lie rejected, saying, " My companions
followed me into France; I \yill follow them to death." The
regicide, ll(3mart, was named president of the special tribund,
before wliich the trials of fortv-nine prisoners commenced, on
the 28th of May. Uourrienne, who was a witness, describr'S
the anxiety which prevailed, and especially the admiration
with which the victor of Ilohenlinden was regarded. In tlie
midst of tlu! proceedings, (ieneral Lecourbe unexi)ectedly en-
tered the court, holding an infant in his arms, and exclaimed
in a strong vi/ice, which yet treud)led with emotion, "Soldiers,
behold the son of your general." All the military in the im-
mense hall, as if by a spontaneous sympathy, presented arms
to the child ; Moreau niinained ajiparenUy the only uncon-
cerned spectator. Nothing in the evidence proved that he
was implicated in the conspiracy; !»oth his principles and
position rendered it moreover inii)rol)able he coidd have been
connected with the partisans of tlie iioiirbons. Many of these
excited a lively interest, p:irticularlv the two princes, Jules
anil Arnainl <le I'olitrnac, who e.ieh, in turn, implored the
judges to let th(! vengeance of the law fill upon him, but to
spare his brother. Arnaud, the Mar>iuis de Kiviere, Charles
d'llozier, Georges and .lean C'ndondal, with sixteen others,
received sentence of death ; Jules d(! Polignac, Moreau, and
three more, were condemned to two years' imprisonment.

XLIV.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 287

which, in the case of the general, was commuted to exile ; lie
retired to America. Napoleon pardoned Arnaiid de I^olignac
at tlie mstance of his lady, who was introduced to the empe-
ror by Josephine : the same clemency was extended to De
Riviere, and five others ; the rest underwent the sentence of
the law, on the 25th of June, with the same fortitude and
resignation they had displayed during their trial, Fouche had
long been at the head of the police, when, in 1802, Bonaparte
resolved to unite his department with that of public justice,
of which he created a supreme judge. The secret agents of
Fouche had matured the conspiracy we have related, then de-
tected the rebels ; and, almost immediately after their execu-
tion, the minister was restored to his former functions. A
decree issued by Joseph Bonaparte, announced that the cere-
monies of the coronation were to be performed on the 9th of
October, in the Champ de Mars. The event was notified to
the bishops of France, with orders that the Veni Creator and
Te Deum should be sung in the churches. An invitation was
despatched to the Pope to officiate at the ceremony of conse-
cration, and accepted by the aged ponlifli', thougli labouring
under the united pressure of years and infirmity. He thought
that gratitude to Napoleon for the restoration of Catholicity in
France required this concession, and hoped, too, that an inter-
view between him and that sovereign might be productive of
consequences favourable to the advancement of religion. The
coronation was therefore deferred till his arrival. Pius VII.
reached Fontainebleau on the 25th of November. Napoleon
received him with respect, and three days later, they entered
Paris in the same carriage. Josephine had often demanded
that her union with the emperor might be sanctioned by the
blessing of tlie church. Before the coronation she reiterated
her request more forcibly ; and Napoleon, dreading the effect
of her absence on the following morning, gave his consent
that the ceremony should be privately performed. Cardinal
Feseh obtained a verbal dispensation from the Pope, in virtue
of which he married the royal pair, without witnesses, on the
1st of December. He made no difficulty the next day, of
delivering to Josephine, at her request, an attestation of the
deed, at which Napoleon expressed much displeasure, saying
to the cardinal, " Do you suppose, if I had really meant to be
married, I should have gone that way to work ? I am well
aware that all you have done is invalid." Hence the marriage
was not registered, and no notice of it appeared in the Mont
teur. The Pope solemnized the ceremony of the coronation

288 GENEIIAL HISTORY OK KIROPF- [rJIAP.

on the following day, at the churcli of Notre Dame ; he
blessed the rrown, l)ul \a[)ole()n himself ph\c('d it on his own
head, and then crowned his empress, wlio remained iineeling.
The constitutional bishops were not permitted to be pR-sent.
and, in this respect, Naj)uleon was coiKpiered by the iinl)cnd-
ing firmness of the Pope. Pins re-entered his capital on the
18lh of May, and was received at the door of St. Peter's, by
the Cardinal of York, dean of the sacred college. This esti-
mable prelate was the last of the descendants of James II.,
and in him became extinct the unfortunate house of Stuart.
'I'he sums of money exacted by Bonaparte at the treaty of
Tolenlino were so exorbitant, that, to enable the Pope to pay
them, the Cardinal of York sold the valuable jewels he had
received from his maternal ancestors. He had remained in
Paris during the adventurous career of his l)rotlu'r in Scotland,
but immediately after its termination returned to Home.
Charles Edward still lingered at the court of Versailles,
caressed and flattered for a time, then treated with neglect.
On his refusal to quit France, after the treaty of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle, he was seized, ignominiously pinioned, and conveyed
to the frontier. IJefore he returned to Home, in 1750, he
paid a visit to London, and remained there a fortnight unmo-
lested. On the death of liis father, in 176G, he assumed tiie
name of Count Albany, and married, in 1771, the youthful
Princess Stolberg. This union was i)y no means happy, they
had no children, and were often separated. In 1774, they
changed their residence from Home to Florcni-e, wliere the
count died in 1788. His estates in Poland, with much valu-
able properly, devolved upon his brother, the cardinal, who,
notwithstanding, at the ag(! of seventy-five, was reduced to
extreme poverty, by the revolutionary wars which distracted
Italy. Tiiis being made known in England, ir'^vernment
generously settled on him an annual pension of £1,0(10. It
does not appear that he ever took the title of king, though at
his brother's death a medal was struck, on which he is de-
8cril)ed as, " Uci\T]j IX., Ay t/ir ccrare of (iod, but not by the
uill of man.'' ^ He returned to Rome in IHOl, and died, uni-
versally beloved and lamented, in July, 1807. CardiniU
York, named, by will, Monsignor Cesarini, as his testament-
ary executor, eommilting to him the care of several trunks
containing valualjle pa|)ers, correspondence, &c. These, at
the change of ciivernnient, in IHOO, were intrusted to a do-
mestic, who concealed them carefully and died, carrying his
•ecret with him to the grave. They were found, howevci »o

XtVl.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 289

181G, and purchased by an Englishman for the trifling sum
of 170 Roman crowns. The circumstance becoming known,
and the value of the documents ascertained, the pontifical go-
vernment caused the trunks to be seized, and declared the
purchase illegal, the vendor having no right to sell. Many
curious historical records were thus brought to light ; and a
careful examination having taken place, lest any should be
found that might compromise honourable individuals, the col-
lection was given up to the English government, and is still
preserved under the name of the Stuart Papers.

One of Napoleon's first imperial measures was a pacific
one. He addressed a letter to the King of England, lamenting
the continuance, and proposing the cessation of hostilities.
Lord Mulgrave, in reply, assured the French government,
that the King of England much wished that a peace, which
should provide for the future safety and tranquillity of Europe,
could be effected ; but added that, as his Britannic majesty
had entered into confidential connexions with the Emperor of
Russia and other continental powers, he could not, until he
should have ascertained the opinions of those powers on the
overture of the Emperor Napoleon, accept his proposal.
Some changes took place in the ministry in the beginning of
the year 1805, Mr. Addington being made lord president of
the council, in the room of the Duke of Portland, after having
been called to the Upper House, by the title of Viscount
Sidmouth. In April, an accusation against Lord Melville,
first lord of the admiralty, respecting the disposal of the
public money, arrested the public attention. An inquiry
into abuses in the naval department had been instituted by the
Addington ministry, and not interrupted by their resignation
of office. Mr. Pitt, the warm advocate of the accused, taking
a different view of the subject. Lord Sidmouth resigned. On
the report of the commissioners appointed to institute an in-
quiry into his conduct, Lord Melville gave up his office, and
his name was erased from the list of privy-councillors. A
motion for his lordship's impeachment was proposed by Mr.
Whitbread and carried ; the trial began in the following April,
before the lords, the members of the House of Commons
being present in a committee of the whole House; the result
was an honourable acquittal of the accused.

New schemes of ambition, successfully pursued by the
French emperor, irritated the allied powers, and gave strength
and energy to their confederation. Li compliance with the
wish of the Italian republic, as expressed by its president*

290 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

Mclzi, Napoleon rcpairccl to IVIihin, ami was there crowned
King of Italy, by tlie Pope's jej^atc, willi the requisite
solemnities. Upon this occasion, the ir>)i croicn was taken
out of the ease, in whicii it liad reposed for ages; Napoleon,
receiving it from the hands of the archbishop, placed it on his
own h(!ad, exclaiming aloud, " D'lo mi 1 l\n dato ; i^uu a chi
la toccar^ which remarkable expression became the motto
of the order of the Iron Crown, founded by the emperor ia
commemoration of this event. Eugene IJeauharnais, the
son of Josephine, was now adopted l)y Napoleon anil declared
his successor, in default of heirs male, on the throne of Italy,
of which kingdom he was appointed viceroy, A request from
the senate of Genoa presented to Napoleon, during his stay
at Milan, that liieir territory might be incorporated with
France, was quickly granted: and the annexation of Genoa
to France was the immediate result of this compliance. The
Emperor Alexander had deputed Mr. Novolodowitz to Paris,
to act upon the overtures made by Napoleon to the court of
London. Irritated by the union of the Ligurian republic
with the French empire, and alarmed by the daily-increasing
power of NapoltMJU, he now recalled his aml)assador and
signed a treaty of alliance with England. Austria, too,
roused by the same reasons from her temporizing system of
policy, made common cause with Russia and England, and
engaged to assist in effecting the expulsion of the French
from Italy, Hanover, and the north of Germany ; in securing
the independ(Mic(! of Holland and Switzerland ; in replacing
the King of Sardinia in Piedmont; in providing for the future
security of the kingdom of Naples ; and in establishing
such an order of things in Europe, as would effectually insure
the safety and independence of its several states. For the ac-
complishment of these purposes, the confederate powers of
the eoMlincnt were to furnish .500,000 effective troops, and
Great Britain was to allow them a subsidv, at the rate of 12.v.
67. per man. Sweden had, on the 3d of December, 180-1,
entered into a secret convention with England, l)y which she
agreed that a depot of Hanoverian troops should be stationed
in Swedish I'omerania, and Eni:land euijaged to advance
£00,000, to be employed by Sweden in the defence of Stral-
suml. (ireat ])rcparati<»us were now made by France on the
one hand, and l)y Hiissia, Austria, I'^iigland, and Sweden on
the other, for the approaching contest. 'J'lie flotilla at Hou-
lo<,'ne was dismantled, .and the army so Ioul'' intended for the
invasion of England, was ordered to the Rhine. Marmont,

XLVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 291

with the troops in Holland, and Bernadotte, with those in
Hanover, were ordered to the same destination. The French
forces were estiaialed at 651,000, of wliom 500,000 were to
serve in Italy, Germany, and Switzerland.

Austria sent large reinforcements to Italy, and ordered that
extensive military works should be constructed in the Vene-
tian territory. Her force was estimated at 250,000 men, of
whom three divisions were made — one to serve under the
Archduke Charles, in Italy ; one under General Mack, in
Germany, and one under the Archduke John, in the Tyrol.

A powerful Russian army was despatched towards the
Danube, to join the Austrians : reinforcements were sent, by
way of Constantinople and the Black Sea, to act jointly with
the English troops in the Mediterranean against the French
in Italy, and to augment the Russian force in the Seven
Islands ; and a peremptory order, from Russia to Bavaria,
commanded that the troops of that electorate should be incor-
porated with those of Austria. England prepared to de-
spatch a formidable force to co-operate with the Swedish and
Russian troops sent to Pomerania, in the recovery of Hano-
ver, and in gaining possession of Holland.

The Elector of Bavaria had hoped to preserve a neutrality,
during the continuance of the approaching conflict. He did
not therefore obey the Russian mandate. The Austrians, to
extort his compUance, crossed the Inn, September 8th, 1805 ;
the Bavarian troops, flying at their approach, took refuge in
Franconia ; and the elector himself retired to Wurtzburg.

The invasion of Bavaria hastened the departure of Napo-
leon from Paris. Having issued a decree for raising 400,000
conscripts, and for embodying the national guard ; and
appointed his brother Joseph to superintend the government
of the French empire, he set out for the frontiers on the 24th,
and on the 26th reached Strasburg. His troops, to the amount
of 140,000, passed the Rhine in six grand divisions.

The Austro-German army arrived towards the end ol
September, on the banks of the Lech. Bernadotte was de-
spatched by Napoleon with 40,000 towards the Inn, to op-
pose them, while he proceeded to attack General Mack in his
positions. Some battalions of the Austro-Italian army, sent
by the Archduke Charles to reinforce that general, were
attacked, and most of them made prisoners by the French.
Memmingen, with its large garrison, surrendered, on the 13th
of October, to Marshal Soult. The Austrian army was con-
centrated in the vicinity of Ulm, and thither the French has-

292 GENERAL HISTORY OF ErROPE. [cHAr

tened, they obliged the Austrians to tnkc refnjre within the
walls of the city, and then, surroundiiisr it, sinninoncd
General Mack to capitidale. The Austrian coniniandcr,
reduced to the alternative of boUlly riiarcliinp out, and
forcing a passaije through the posts of the enemy, or of
surrendering his army, which was 30.000 ' stroiiij, ehote
the lattt'r alternative, and on the 17lh of October terms
of capitulation were selUed. The Austrian ofheers were
permitted to return home on their parole, but the soldiers
were sent prisoners to France. Napoleon then advanced
to meet the remaining forces of the confederates. While
he marched with the main army to Vienna, Mortier was
directed to proceed along the left bank of the Danube, and
lo secure his left; and Ney and Augereau his right. On
the 5th of November the French entered Lintz. Their rapid
advance excited the fears of the Emperor FnuK'is for the
safety of his capital, and he despatched Count Giniay to Lintz,
to propose an armistice. The terms on which it was conceded
by Napoleon, were rejected by Francis, and the French con-
tinued their march. Davoust's advanced guard defeated the
corps of Austrians under General Meerfield. 'I'he Russians,
who had flfected a junction with a part of the Austrian array,
mw passed the Danube at ('renis, and thus abandoned Vienna.
Francis had left that city for Moravia, on the 7lh, after having
implored the lenity of the concjueror for its inhabitants ; and
on the ICilh Napoleon entered it. His troojjs, arriving in
several divisions, passed tiirough the city in pursuit of the
retreating army. Aftei^ having appointed General Clarke
Governor-General of Upper and Lower Austria, he set out
from Vienna to join his army in Moravia.

'J'he Kniperors Francis and Alexander had now united
their armies, which, both together, consisted of about 100,000.
Their head-quarters were at Austcrlitz, a town rendered memo-
rable by the murderous rencounter of the hostile armies on the
2d of December, at which three emperors were present. For
?even hours was victory contended for, with obstinate bravery,
by each armv. i'he French were eventmdly successful, and
the confederates driven olf the field with incalculable loss.
On the 4th of December an interview took place at the French
advanced post-s, between the Emperors Francis and Napoleon;
and an armistice, as a prelude to a general j)eace, was agreed
upon.

The Frcnc.h were equally successful in the Tyrol and in
Italy, as in Germany. The Austrian cabinet had purposed to

XLVl.] GENERAL HlsTORY OF EUROPE. 293

render Italy the chief theatre of war, and had hoped to drive
the French from that country, and restore it to its former state.
By tlie disaster of Mack's army, however, that of Italy lost
its chief support, and was obliged to limit itself to defensive,
in place of otiensive operations. The same circumstance
which dispirited the Austrians, emboldened the French com-
mander, and he prepared to expel the In\perialists from the
Venetian territory. Marshal Massena's first operation was to
force the passage of the Adige, which the Austrians vigorously
but ineffectually disputed. On the 2 1st of October he defeated
them with great slaughter at Caldiero, and having received a
large reinforcement from Naples, under St. Cyr, compelled
the archduke to retreat towards Vienna. The combined
French, armies marched in pursuit of the retreating Austri-
ans ; and having accomplished their object in driving them
out of the Venetian territory, desisted from further pursuit,
and determined to hold their position in Italy, till the whole
of the Tyrol should be evacuated by the Austrians. The
Archduke John had bravely maintained himself in the Tyrol,
till Marshal Ney having entered Inspruck, he retreated towards
Carniola, to form a junction with the Archduke Charles, who
was at the same moment retreating before Massena. The
brothers having united their forces, fell back into Hungary.
The English and Russian troops, instead of arriving, as had
been projected, early in the campaign in the Venetian territory,
were debarked, during November, in the neutral territory of
Naples. The allies suffered a disappointment, in addition to
the general failure of their plans, by the vacillating politics
of the King of Prussia. That monarch, offended by the pas-
sage of the French troops though the territory of Anspach, at
the onset of the German campaign, prepared to resent the
insult offered him, by joining the coalition against France.
But the defeat of Mack and the general success of the French
arms, effected a quick revolution in his purpose, and he sent
Count Haugwits to the French head-quarters to negotiate with
Napoleon.

But, great as were the achievements, and deep as were the
designs of France, all her plans were not attended with suc-
cess. Bonaparte had taken much pains during the preceding
year to strengthen his maritime forces. His exertions had
been seconded by Spain and Holland, and the linited efforts
of these powers had rendered their ships sufficiendy numerous
to dispute wi'h confidence the dominion of the sea. The con-

27*

29 t GENERAL HISTORY OF l.UROPE. [|cilAP

fedorate (loci was stationed in several divisions round the
Frencli and Spanish coast.

Oil the M ot" .May, 1805, the Toidon Hoot, rnmniandcd I)y
Ailniiral VilltMicuvc, |nU to sea, and stcn-cil for ( "artlia^cnu,
thence for C!adiz, and idtimately for the West Indies ; when
leavintr the harlmur of ('adiz, it consisted of eiirjiteen ships
of the line, carryini^^, l)esides their full eoinplenuMit of sailors,
1(»,()()0 land-troops. Nelson left the Mediterranean in purs;;it
of tlie hostile licet, with ten sail of the line, and reacdied liar-
ba(lo<'s on the 4th of June. 'J'he news of his arrival, thouj^h
with an inferior force, alarmed the French admiral, and he
sailed for Europe, without having made any conquest but that
of the Diamond RocU. The hostile fleet fell in with Sir
Robert Calder's squadron six leagues west of Cape Finisterre.
Sir Robert's force was fifteen sail of the line, two frigates, and
a cutter: that of Villcneuvc, which had been augmented in its
cruise by the junction of some vessels, was twenty sail of
the line, fifty gun-ships, five frigates, and two brigs. Sir
Robert attacked the enemy, and after an engagement of four
hours, took two ships of the line. Satisfied with his capture,
he ordered the a(-tiou to cease, and sullered the reuiainiiig
French armament to make the ports of Vigo ami iM-rrol. For
not having made irreater exertions to aiuiihilate the enemy's
force, he was tried and reprimanded by an English court
martial.

Lord Nelson, on his arrival in Tyondon after his fruitless
pursuit of the French lle(;t, was ollcrcd, and accej)ted the
comman<l of an aildilional armament. Fie saih'd, on the KiiJi
of Sei)tember, for Oadiz, and on the 19th reached that port.
To deceive the enemy into a belief that his force was suiall,
and to entice them out to sea, In; stationed but a few ships
before Cadiz, and remained himself with the rest of his forces
off ("ape St. Marv. Findini^ this stratagem inefTectua!, and
knowing that a slronij reinforcement had sailed from Jwigland
to join him, he openly detached fJeneral Louis for stores and
ammunition to Tctuau. Admiral Villcneuvc, supposing the
English fiecjt much enfeebled by this separation, resolved to
j>ut to sea during the absence of Louis, and accordinglv, on
the I9th of October, sailed from Cadiz. On the 21st, at day-
break, the fleets came within siijlit of each otlier off Cape
Trafalgar. Admiral \ illcneuvc formed tlu; ships imder his
command into a dose line of battle. The eniimy's fleet con-
sisted of thirty-three sail of the line, and seven frigates, oume

XLVI.] GENERAL HISrORY OF EUROPE. 295

of which were Spanish vessels, commanded by Admiral Gra-
vina. Lord Nelson's force was twenty-seven sail of the line,
and forty-four frigates. Admiral Collingwood was his second
in command. The action began about twelve, and was main
tained till four. During its continuance innumerable feats of
gallantry were displayed, and great losses sustained on both
sides. The capture of nineteen sail of the line and three
frigates by the British, showed them victorious. But their
loss counterbalanced their victory, and the result of the action
of Trafalgar, like that of the battles of Quebec and of Aboukir,
was to England a sorrowful triumph. Lord Nelson was mor-
tally wounded in the heat of the action, and expired soon after
its close. The ardour of his patriotism was not abated by
the approach of death. Though his wound was of such a
nature as to render his surviving hours intensely agonizing,
his mind still dwelt upon the event of the battle, and he made
no allusion to its attending catastrophe, till Captain Hardy had
assured him that all the English ships retained their colours.
His accustomed self-indifference and care of his soldiers were,
on this trying occasion, eminently conspicuous ; he would re-
ceive no medical assistance, till it had been administered to
such of them as were wounded. " Go," said he to the sur-
geon, who, conceiving him the first object of solicitude, hung
over him with officious tenderness, " attend to those to whom
you may be useful ; for me you can do nothing." When
Captain Hardy apprized him that fifteen at least of the enemy's
ships were captured, he replied, " That's well, but I bargained
for twenty." He repeatedly added, " Thank God, I have done
my duty." These were his last words. He survived the
enemy's fatal aim three hours and a quarter. Of the fourteen
remaining enemy's ships, ten made for Cadiz under Admiral
Gravina, and four took a more southerly direction under Ad-
miral Dumanoir. The latter fell in with, and were forced to
strike to Sir Richard Strachan, oflf Ferrol, after an action of
four hours' continuance.

Peace between France and Austria was ultimately concluded
on the 25th of December, at Presburg. Napoleon was ac-
knowledged King of Italy, to which Venice was united ; his
allies, the Electors of Bavaria and Wirtemberg, were raised to
the regal dignity, and received an increase of territory taken
from Austria; Tuscany, Parma, and Placentia, were added to
the French empire ; Lucca and the principality of Piombina
were given to Elise Bonaparte, Napoleon's sister. Prussia
was included in this treaty ; besides renouncing to her rights

296 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

in favour of Bavaria, over llic marnfravate of Anspach, slie
ceded the ^rand-duchy of Berg to the French emperor, who
presented it to liia brother-in-law, Joachim Miirat. Bv the
treaty of Preshurj^, it was estimat«'d that Austria h»st 2,700,000
subjects, and a revenue of 1 ((,000,000 of llorins. whiUi the ces-
sion of the Tyrol and her exclusion from Italy greatly dimi-
nished her political consequence

CHAPTER XLVII.

FROM THE TREATY OF PRESnURG, IN 1805, TO THAT OF TILSIT,

IN 1807.

The year 1806 opened upon England with melancholy
prospects. The disasters of the Austro-Kussian campai«;n,
and the dissolution of the confederacy, which it had i)een the
masterpiece of Mr. Pitt's policy to effect, were trials which
the enfeebled frame of that celebrated statesman was ill aliln
to support. A fever, followed by a general deliility, comjielled
him, at the close of the year 1805, to wididraw entirely from
pul)lic affairs, and he died on the ensuing 2.3d of January,
leaving the country involved in difficulties of no common
magnitude. Whatever diversity of opinion may exist as to
his political plans, it must at least be admitted, that his bril-
liant talents were exclusively devoted to the public ffood ; and
if the means he made choice of were unsuccessful, their a(lo|)-
lion was rather an error than a crime. Parliament attested its
sense of his services, bv the erection of a monument to liis
memory in Westminster Abbey ; and as he had never attended
to his own emolument, a sum of £40,000 was unanimously
voted for the payment of bis debts. 'I'he death of Mr. Pitt
produced an almost total change in the ministry: the talents
of all the various parties were coml)ined, and the leading men
of each selected, to form the new cabinet, of which Lord
Grenville and Mr. Fox were the principal members. Public
cimfidence thus birgan to revive, anil Parliament n'siimed its
labours with increaseil vigour. The al)olition of the slave-
trade, which had l)een lonir desired by the friends of luimanily
in tliis country, and supported by llie eloquence of Mr. Pitt,
whenever it was broujjht before Parliament, was now pursued
with so much ardour and sincerity, as to give security for the
final result. Two bills, one prohibiting the exportation of

SLVII ] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 297

elaves from the colonies, the other preventing the increase of
British slave-trade in all its branches, passed both Houses and
received the royal assent. An address was moreover present-
ed by Parliament to the king, praying his interference with
foreign powers for the total abolition of that inhuman traffic.
Another important measure, introduced by the new ministry,
limited military service to a fixed term of years ; at the expi-
ration of which, the soldier was to have a right to claim his
discharge. But no part of our domestic policy during this
year excited more lively interest, than an inquiry into the
conduct of one of the members of the royal family. Repre-
sentations to the disadvantage of the Princess of Wales having
been made to the prince, her husband, and communicated by
him to the king, Lords Erskine, Spencer, Grenville, and El-
lenborough were appointed commissioners for the purpose of
investigation: their labours terminated in a full acquittal of
the accused.

A plan for the assassination of Bonaparte was about this
time submitted to the British minister by a foreigner, who
seemed to expect his concurrence ; but Mr. Fox, with his
characteristic generosity, hesitated not to send an immediate
warning to Talleyrand, indicating the assassin's name and resi-
dence. Several communications between the two ministers
were the result of this proceeding ; and negotiations for peace
were entered into and carried on during the whole year, but
led, in the end, to no satisfactory result. An attempt at paci-
fication between France and Russia was equally unsuccessful.
While such was the state of affairs in England, new plans of
conquest and dominion were framed, and partly executed by
the French emperor. The tacit permission given by the King
of Naples to the debarkation of the English and Russian troops
upon his territory during the preceding year, was a violation
of a treaty between him and Napoleon, which stipulated that
Naples should remain neutral during the contest between the
French emperor and the confederates.

Scarcely was the treaty of Presburg signed, when Napoleon
vowed vengeance against what he termed " the perfidy of the
King of Naples," announcing by proclamation that the Nea-
politan dynasty had ceased to reign, and, shortly after, that
Joseph Bonaparte should fill the throne thus vacated, under
whose command a French army was quickly despatched to
effect this purpose. On the 12th of February, Capua was
invested by the French troops. Next day a deputation from
the city waited upon Joseph, and signed a capitulation, by

298 GENERAL HISTOHY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

which Pciscliicri, Gaieta, Naples, and other fortresses were
surrendoreil. Hut tlie Prince of Hesse I'hilippstal, commander
of the trarrison of (iaicta, r('fiise<l to accojle to ihe capitidaiion,
and announced his intention of def('ndin<>[ tlie fortress to tlie
hist extremity. Joseph llonaparte made liis entry into Naples
on the 15lh, the royal fiinilv havinir previously departed for
Palermo. The MuLdish and Kussian troops, whose hmding
upon the Neapolitan shore had caused the rupture I)(;tween
Napoleon and Ferdinand, retreated upon the first demonstra-
tion of Bonaparte's anger; the Uussinns to tlieir own country,
the Enulish to Sicily. Sir Sidney Smith, who had taken the
command of the fleet destined for the defence of that island,
early in April, and had introduced into Gaieta stores and \)vo-
visions, tried incllectually to rouse the C'alalirians ai^ainst tlie
French. At length, at the earnest request of the court of
Palermo, Sir John Stuart, who commanded a hodyof British
troops in Sicily, embarked 4H00 men, and on the 1st of July
elfected a landing in the hay of Eui)hcmia, and invited tlu; in-
hahiumts to join his standard. Reignier, the French general,
advanced from R'^triiio to meet the Ensflish armv, and on the
morning of the 3d reached the plains of .Maida. After a battle
of some hours' continuance in this place, Reignier's troops,
consisting of 7(100 men, were completely routed : 4000 men
fell on their side ; 282 on that of the conquerors. But this
success of the Kuiilish served no object. It did not prevent,
it hardly even retarded, the subjugation of the Neapolitan
territory. The Calabrians were indeed roused by it to a
temporary insurrection ; l)ut Sir J. Stuart, dis«rusted with the
barbarous system of warfare pursued by those insurgents, and
conseious that the force under him was insufficient to eir^ct
tfie lil)cration of Naples, relumed to Messina. The garrison
of Gaieta, after a resistance that fixed the admiration of I''urope
upon its commander, was forced to capitulate. 'I'he C'ala-
brians, despairing of success when deserted by the English,
followed the general examjile, and bowed to the yoke of the
foreigner.

It was not alone in Naples that the French emperor's thirst
for glory, and for the aggrandi/ement of his family, showed
itself. On the 31 si of March, various decrees were presented
for acceptance to the senate. Bv these, Joseph Boniparle
was declared King of Naples; ,\Iurat, (irand Duke of Berg
and Cleves, and the Princess Pauline, Princess of (JuasUilla:
the princi|)ality of Neufchatel was given to Berliner; and
I any other states in Italy were created duchies and bestowed

XLVII,]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 299

upon the emperor's favourites.* On the 5th of June, Lewis
Bonaparte was created King of Holland, with a stipulation,
however, that tliat kingdom should be still considered part of
France, and subject to the control of the French emperor

Anxious to secure the allegiance of all his subjects. Napo-
leon convoked the Jews from all the cities of the empire, to
meet at Paris on the 26th of July; agreed to bestow stipends
on their priests, and gave such a form to their church esta-
blishment, as placed the Jewish rabbi under the influence and
control of government. These arrangements made. Napo-
leon resolved to create an association in Germany, over which
he should preside. The princes destined to compose the
new confederacy, were the Emperor of France, the Kings of
Bavaria and Wirtemburg, the Archbishop of Ratisbon, the
Elector of Baden, the Duke of Berg, the Landgrave of Hesse
Darmstadt, and several of the minor German princes. The
ostensible object of the confederates, as stated in their deed
of union, signed at Paris on the 12th of July, was, to secure
the peace of Southern Germany. They agreed to separate
from the Germanic body, to remain permanently united undei
the designation of the "Confederation of the Rhine," and to
submit their public concerns to a congress, which should si

• List of the principal titles conferred at different times by Bonaparte.

Prince of Essling Marshal Massena.

Prince of Benevento Talleyrand.

Prince of Echmiihl Marshal Davoust.

Duke of Abrantes Marshal Junot.

Duke of Albufera Count Suchet,

Duke of Bassano Maret, Secretary of State.

Duke of Belluno Marshal Victor.

Duke of Uadore Champagny, Minister of Foreign Affaim

Duke of Castiglione Marshal Augereau.

Duke of Dalmatia Marshal Soult.

Duke of Danlzic Marshal Lefebre,

Duke of Elchingcn Marshal Ney.

Grand Duke of Florence. . . .General Bacchioche.

Duke of Montebello Marshal Lasnes.

Duke of Feltre General Clarke.

Duke of Gaeta General Gaudin.

Duke of Otranto General Fouche.

Duke of Parma General Cambaceres.

Duke of Placenza Marshal Le Brun.

Duke of Ragusa Marshal Marmont.

Duke of Reggio Marshal Oudinot.

Duke of Rovigo General Savary.

Duke of Tarento Marshal Macdonald.

Duke ol Treviso Marshal Mortier.

300 OENKRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cilAP.

at Frankfort. They mutually promised In enter into no ser-
vice but that of the ronfederalion ; and that if one member of
their union should be involved in war, all the others sliould
arm in his derencc. Bonaparte was nanuil liead of llie con-
federation, and his command was to be the signal for taking
the field.

The formation of this confcnleracy was followed by a requi-
sition from Napoleon to Francis II. to renounce the tide of
Emperor of Germanv, with which humiliating mandate the
Austrian monarch unhesitatingly complied. To induce the
King of Prussia to acijuiesce in the new arrangements, he was
led to believe that a similar union, under his own auspices,
might be formed in die north of Germany. IJut the hopes of
the Prussian monarch were soon proved delusive, by a decla-
ration of Napoleon that he meant to take the Hanse towns
under his own protection. Nor was this the only instance in
w liich the political plans of Prussia brought disappointment
to their contriver. 'Phe subserviency of Frederic William to
Bonaparte served but to alienate from his cause the powers of
Europe in general, and England and Sweden in particular.
He had negotiated with France after the violation of the ter-
ritory of Anspach ; he had attacked the troops of the King
of Sweden in taking possession of Hanover, which he had
accepted in contempt of the rights of England, and had ag-
gravated his ofTence by prohibiting the navignlion of the Elbe,
Weser, and Ems to British trading or merchant-vessels. Re-
taliatory measures had been taken by lOiigland anrl Sweden.
By l\\v. latter, an embargo was laiil on all I'nissian vessels in
the Baltic ; by the former, on all such vessels in the ports of
tlie United Kiiicrdom, and the ICnglish mission had be(Mi re-
called from Berlin. The Prussian monarch was ill repaid for
the forfeited goodwill of England and Sweden, by him in
ronijiliance with whose wishes he had act('d. In the partition
of territories among Bonaparte's dependants, the duchy of
Berg and Cleves was given to Murat. 'i'he deceit practised
by Napoleon to effect the Rlienish confederation, roused the
long dormant spirit of Frederic Willirun, and he announced
liis intention to revenge the insults oU'ered him by an appeal
to the sword.

While the hostile armies prepared to take the field, Eng-
land sufiered a severe allliction, in the death of oik; of her
most enlightened statesmen. Mr. Fox, whose health had
been declining for some years j)revious to his accession to
the ministry, suidi under tin* fatigues of oflice, and on the

XLVII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 301

13th of September closed his mortal career. His system of
policy, like that of Mr. Pitt, is variously commented upon,
and alternately censured and approved. The pacific politics
of Mr. Fox indicated at least a humane mind ; and the period
of his ministry, however short, will be ever conspicuous ia
the annals of his country, as having contributed to the gene-
ral civilization of Europe by the abolition of the African slave-
trade.

Bonaparte was not slow in accepting the challenge of the
Prussian monarch. He left Paris on the 24th of September
to join his armies, which had already assembled in Franconia,
and now marched in three divisions for Saxony. The Prus-
sian army was stationed north of Frankfort on the Maine ; its
right wing was commanded by Blucher, its centre by the Duke
of Brunswick, and its left by Prince Hohenlohe.

The hostile armies, each consisting of about 150,000 men,
met on the 24th of October, between Jena, Weimar, and Au-
erstadt. An obstinate battle ensued, in which the Prussians
were completely defeated : the Duke of Brunswick, their ge-
neral, received a mortal wound during the action ; and upwards
of 20,000 men were left dead or wounded upon the field.
From 20 to 30,000 prisoners, with 300 pieces of artillery, fell
also into the hands of the French.* Prince Hohenlohe, with

* Napokon entered Weimar the same day, exceedingly irritated against
the duke, who commanded one of the divisions of the Prussian army.
Apartments had been prepared at the palace for his reception, and the
duchess stood at the top of the staircase when he entered. Napoleon
started when he beheld her. " Who are you 1" said he, with his charac-
teristic abruptness. " I am the Duchess of Weimar." " I pity you," he
replied harshly, " I shall crush your husband : let me have dinner at my
own apartment." The following morning, however, he seemed desirous
to atone for the violence of the eve, and when the duchess sent to solicit
an audience, he proposed to breakfast in her company. During the repast,
Napoleon said, " How could your husband, madam, be so foolish as to
make war against me ]" " Your majesty," replied the duchess, " would
have despised him had he not done so. He has been upwards of thirty
years in the service of the King of Prussia, and it was not when that nio-
rjirch had so powerful an enemy to contend with, that the duke could
abandon him." This prudent and complimentary reply was irresistible :
Bonaparte was at once soothed and flattered, and continued his interroga-
tories. " How came the duke to attach himself to the King of Prussia V
"Your majesty will on inquiry find that the Dukes of Saxony, as younger
branches of the family, have always followed the example of the electoral
house; and your majesty knows what motives of prudence and policy have
led the court of Dresden to attach itself to Prussia rather than Austria."
This was followed by further inquiries, and answers so impressive, that
Napoleon exclaimed with warmth, " Madam, you are the most estimable

303 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAH

tlie wreck of the Prussian arniy» retreated towards Stettin, bul
was overtaken at Prcntzlow by Miirat; and foreseeing that a
renewal of cU^feat would be the result of battle, he surrendered
lus forces, anioiiuting to 17,(>0() men. 15,000 I'mssians,
under the command of Blucher, with the corps of the Duke
of Weimar, ert'ected a retreat tlirnuirli Lulieck towards Danish
Ilolstein. At JSavorten, finding the enemy at hand, and know-
ing his forces to be unequal to a contest, Blucher also was
compelled to surrender.

The other divisions of the Prussian retreating army were
severally defeated. All the principal Prussian fortresses opened
their gates to the French ; and Napoleon, after having passed
through Potsdam, where he visited the tonil), and seized the
sword, scarf, and riband of the great Frederic, entered Berlin
on the 27th. There he was waited on by deputations from
the Lutheran and Keformed cluirches, and by amijassadors
from the powers with whom he was at peace; and from
thence he issued a decree declaring the British Islands in a
state of blockade, prohibiting all commerce with England,
and the entry of all ships into Britisti ports, under penally of
exclusion from the harbours under the control of France ; and
ordering the stoppage of all letters addressed to Englishmen
or written in England. The decree stated that these regula-
tions were but retaliatory upon England, for her having vio-
lated the law of nations, in considering every individual be-
longing to a hostile state as an enemy, and in having extended
lur right of blockade " beyond all reasonable limits, to places
before which she had no ship of war, and even to whole coasts
and kingdoms." Nearly contemporary with this decree, was
an imperial act, which conferred upon the Elector of Saxony
the title of King, as a recompense for his having been reluc-
tant to join Prussia against France. For contrary conduct,
th(! fClector of Hesse and the Duke of Br\inswick were de-
prived of their respective territories. Detaclunents of Fr(Mich
troops were sent to take possession of Hanover, Mecklenburg,
Fulda, Cassel, and Hamlmrg. At the latter city all British
property was |)ut under sequestration. Napoleon intrusted
the government of Berlin to the Prince of Hatzfeld, who,
thinking no doul)t that the riffht of coiuinest did not disengage
him from the lidelity he owed to his former master and sove-

wnrnnti I cvor kixnv : you liavp unvcd y'lur hnslmnd." AflJr the rmpiTor'*
Jr|iarliirc from \V'ciiii;ir for Hrrlin, he ol'irn ro(ii'alP(l tliiii euloi;iuin. The
errilory of Weimar was nttrrwanlH doclareil to form pari of the Rhenish
onfederation, and itti inde|>cnJcnce ihuH nominally secured.

XLVII.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 308

reign, profited of the facilities his position afibrded him of
conveying intelligence to the King of Prussia. His despatches
were opened at the frontier post and sent to Napoleon, I)y
whose orders the prince was on the point of being given over
to a military commission to be judged as a traitor, when his
wife came to throw herself at the feet of the emperor, conjur-
ing him not to believe what she felt assured must be a false
imputation. Napoleon, putting the letter into her hands,
mildly replied, " You must know your own husband's writing,
aiadam, be you his judge." While the princess, pale and
trembling, perused the fatal document, the emperor appeared
touched with compassion. "Well, madam," he said, "you
have the letter in your hand, and there is a fire in the apart-
ment ; if that single piece were annihilated, I should have no
other proof against your husband." It may easily be imagined
with what joy and promptitude the princess availed herself
of the significant hint.

The King of Prussia tried, after the battle of Jena, to
negotiate with his conqueror: but the terms laid down by
Napoleon as an unalterable basis were so extravagant, that
Frederic determined to continue the war, whatever might be
its result, and he waited at Kiinigsberg, after the failure of his
negotiation, for the arrival of reinforcements and of the Russian
auxiliaries he had been led to expect. The war, which partly
withdrew the attention of Russia from the general theatre of
action, was undertaken against Turkey. Alexander, offended
by a treaty which engaged the exclusion of Russian ships from
the Dardanelles, ordered General Micholson to invade Walla-
chia. The Turks, in retaliation, declared war in form against
Russia. An English frigate, under Sir John Duckworth,
advancing to mediate between the two powers, served but to
heighten the indignation of the Porte. All British property
at Smyrna and Salonica was put under sequestration. This
war was, however, on the whole, unfavourable to Ti rkey ;
her fleet, in an action which took place between it and that of
Russia, was almost annihilated.

The French now crossed the Oder in two divisions ; one
of which, commanded by Jerome Bonaparte, reduced Silesia ;
the other, under Marshal Davoust, advanced to the Vistula,
and in November entered Warsaw, which the Russians had
abandoned. An important action was fought in the neighbour-
hood of Pultush on the 26th of December. In this engagement
the loss was great on both sides, but the French were victo-
rious. The Russians now retreated towards Ostrolenka, and

304 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAF.

the Frencli iikkIc dispositions for winter-quarters. In the
mean time the t'ortresses of Dantzic, Colhurfr, and Stralsinid
were eloselv liesieijed l)y the French, who under .leronie de-
feated the Sih'sian troops, and reduced tiie lortrcsses of IJres-
lau, Brieff, and Seliweidnitz.

The superiority of the Hrilisli navy was maintained this
year, l)y the (dose hlockade of the enemy's ports, and the de-
feat of such ships as yenlured out to sea. A squadron under
Aihniral Vilhmaux, escaping from IJrest, made for the AVest
Indies in two divisions, one of whicli was shattered hy a storm,
and the other attacked and defeated l)y Sir Jotm Duckworth.
An expedition which had sailed from England in the August
of 180.5, for tin; coiKpiest of tlie Cape of (Jood Hope, ('(pially
attained its oljject. Sir Home Popham and Sir David liaird
commanded the forces sent upon this service. The English
troops elVected a landing at Saldanha Bay, early in .January,
and defeated the troops of GencralJansens, who had assemi)led
to oppose their progress. The surrender of Cape Town wag
the immediate result of this victory; and General Jansens,
who had retired to Hottentot Hollands Kloof, was prevailed
upon to surrender, on condition that he anil his troops should
be sent to Holland, and not consiilered prisoners of war. 'J'he
Enirlish government had heen chiefly insti<rated to tliis expedi-
tion, hy the representations of Sir Home I'ophain. His advice
)iad heen also asked, upon llic policy of making an attack upon
Biieuos Ayres; init l)efore his departure for the Cape, the in-
tention of gaining a position for the British troops in South
Ameri("a had been relinquished. No sooner, however, was
the conquest of the ( 'ape cirected, than the English commander,
elated hy success, determined to employ the fleet, wliich had
sailed widi him for this service, in an attack upon Buenos Ayres.
Having persuaded Sir David Baird into an approval of his plan,
and ol)taiued from him a small hody of land-forces, he made
for Kio IMata, ahout the miildle of April, and reached that des-
tination early in June. 'I"he arrival of the English was unex-
pected, and their landing therefore unopposed hy the Spaniards,
who lied at their approach. Buenos Ayres was taken without
resistance, i)ut the British forces, I(),()tlO men, were insullicient
to retain the conquest. 'I'he Spaidards, soon recovering from
the panic into which they had heen thrown, surrounded the
city, attacked its invaders, and, after a desperate conllici,
obliged them to surrender. During the recapture of Buenos
Ayres, Sir Houu- l'o|tham was riding in safety olT the coast
In October, he made dispositions for the comiuest of iMont*

X1VII.3 OKNERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 305

Video. Satisfied, however, with having effected the debarka-
tion of a body of troops upon the coast, and gained a safe
anchorage for liis ships, he remained inactive during the
remainder of the year. His having undertaken the South
American expedition without authority, was pronounced rash
and censurable, by a court martial.

Differences between the United States of America and Eng-
land had long existed, and assumed, this year, such a character
as rendered negotiation necessary to avert serious conse-
quences. The United States complained of the impressment
by the British navy of persons forced fi oni on board Ameri-
can vessels on the high seas ; of the violation of their rights,
as neutrals, by the seizure of their merchantmen, though en
gaged in what they conceived lawful commerce ; and of an
infringement of their maritime jurisdiction on their own coasts.
Conferences were appointed to be held in London for the adjust-
ment of these differences, 'i'hey terminated in a treaty, from
which the American President withheld his ratification.

During this year, the Haitians rose again; not, as formerly,
to emancipate themselves from the yoke of the foreigner, but
to depose their chosen chief, Dessalines, who had assumed the
title of emperor, and was become an object of popular odium.
He was assassinated, and Christophe appointed to succeed
him. The new chief, whose election was unsuccessfully
opposed by the mulattoes, with Petion at their head, exercised
the authority conferred upon him, in promoting objects of
national utility. He opened to neutral nations the commerce
of his dominions, on liberal terms.

The Parliament of Great Britain having been dissolved after
the completion of the ministerial arrangements, which were
the result of Mr. Fox's demise, met again on the 16th of De-
cember. A new system of finance, suggested by Lord Henry
Petty, was favourably received by the nation ; and, in pursu-
ance of the two resolutions adopted by the preceding Parlia-
ment, relative to the slave-trade, a law was now enacted to
effect its entire abolition. (1807.) A bill brought in by Lord
Howick for the relief of Roman Catholics and Dissenters,
caused the dissolution of the existing ministry. The measure
was conceived in a wise and enlightened spirit of legislation ;
it proposed the attainment of national unanimity, at a period
when the daily-increasing power of England's inveterate
enemy lequired all her united energies for its suppression.
Such, however, was not the view in which it was contemplated
from a quarter whence rejection would be annihilation to the

28*

306 CJENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

I)ill. The kiniT conceived that acquiescence on his part in the
proposed eiiactiiieiil, would be a viohition of his rnroniiiion
oatli. Ministers, thcrclore, withdrew their measure; l)iit,
rather than pledire thcuibelves, as was his majesty's wish,
never ajrain to propose the emancipation of their Catholic
fcliow-siibjects, thev resirrnod their appointments. A new
ministry was (luicklv fdrnuid, in which the Duke of Portland
was first lord of the treasury; Ijord Eldon, chancellor; Mr.
Percival, ehancellor of the excheipier ; Lord ( 'astlereaoh,
secretary for the; war department; Lord Liverpool, for the
home department; Mr. Canning, for foreign affairs, and Lord
Mulijrave, lirst lord of the adiniraltv.

From the day of the battle of Pultnsli, till the end of Janu-
ary, no action of importance took place between the armies
of France and Russia. Napoleon left Warsaw towards the
close of the month. On the 7lh of February, the hostile
armies, endeavonrinir to gain an eminence behind Fylau, which
comruands the entrance into the town, came to a general en-
gaoenient. The Russians, after contending for victory with
a firmness and perseverance which reiulered the issue of the
battle long doubtfid, were obliged to quit the field. After this
battle, the French returned to winter-quart(!rs,an(l the Russians,
retired lo KoniL''sberg. lionaparte covered the line of the
Vistida, and concentrated his army in cantonments t(t the
westward of that river. Great exertions, in the mean tinu!
were made by the French for the reduction t)f (Jraudcniz,
Colberg, and Dantzic ; and by both the grand armies lor the
recruiting of their shatt(!red forces. Reinforcements were
daily arriving at the Russian head-quarters. Bonaparte called
out the cnn-;cripls for IHOH, ordered a new levy of troops to
be made in Switzerland, and those under Mortier, in the north
of Germany and in various other stations, to join his standard
on the Vistula. The Russians, resolving to allow tin; I'-reiicli
no respite, often attacked tlx'ni in their cantonments, and the
«kirmishes which ensued were attended with serious loss to
both parties.

On the 17th of April, the Hmperor of Russia aiul the King
of Prussia arrived at Harlenstein, and proceeded to Ileilsburg,
tin; head- quarters of the allied army. Dantzic was still besieged,
and still d'-frnded with uiKliminished obstinacy. At len;,''!!),
however, all hope of relief fuliuLr, the governor proposed a
conditional surrender. His pni|)os!d was accepted, and the
garrison marehed out with the horioiirs of war.

The partial acli(ms which took place between the 5th and

XLVII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 307

12th of June, terminated in favour of the French, notwithstand-
ing the numerous instances of valour on the part of the Rus-
sians. On the 14th was fought one of the most memorable
bailies that even this age of almost ceaseless warfare has be-
queathed to the record of tlie historian. The field of action
lay to the south of Friedland. The contest was maintained
from a little after five in the morning till seven in the evening,
with doubtful success ; but terminated in the total defeat of the
allied forces. They retreated after the battle through Tilsit to
the Niemen, with Murat in pursuit. An armistice was now
proposed by General Beningsen, which was accepted by the
conquerors and concluded at Tilsit. It was agreed that one
of a similar nature should be concluded with Prussia, within
the course of five days, and that plenipotentiaries should be
appointed by the three powers to adjust terms of peace.

On the 25th, the two emperors, so lately in arms against
each other, had an interview on the banks of the Niemen, and
embraced with all the apparent cordiality of long-established
friendship. Napoleon began the conference by some polite
phrases with regard to the mutability of warlike success. At
this moment the King of Prussia was announced. His emo-
tion, which was perfectly visible, may be easily conceived;
his dominions were overrun, and he had no hope but in the
moderation of the victor. The French emperor seemed
touched with compassion, and invited him and his queen to
dinner. While they were seating themselves at table, Napo-
leon seized the opportunity of telling his fair guest that he
restored to her Silesia, a province which she was very desir-
ous should be allotted to Prussia in the now-pending negotia-
tions. The emperors fixed upon Tilsit as their place of
residence, during the arrangement of preliminaries. Each
occupied his quarter, separated by the Niemen, while the
King and Queen of Prussia had for a time no other habitation
than a windmill beyond the city.

While Russia and Prussia were engaged in the contest
which ended in their desertion of England, the latter abated
none of her accustomed efforts to promote the object for
which she allied with the continental monarchs. But victory
was not always faithful to her standard. The fleet sent
to the Dardanelles, under Sir J. Duckworth, forced the pas-
sage of these straits, (Feb. 19, 1807,) in compliance with
instructions from the English government, which likewise or-
dered that the British admiral should demand the surrender
of all the Turkisli ships and vessels of war, and that the re-

308 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

fiisal of the Porte should be followrd I)y tlio inimrdiate bom-
bardment of Constantinople, 'J'he Mnijlish Heel, in its passajre
between Sestos and Abydos, sustained a heavy fire from the
castles. Overeoming this dilheully, it reached the island of
Princes, within eifriit miles of ('onstantiii()i)le, and thence
despatched a Ihiff of truce to the Seraglio, witii assurances of
friendship, should the Porte accept the proposals of the Hri-
tish government, and of determined hostility should she reject
them. Pacific overtures, and a consequent suspension of
hostilities, continued till the 27th. This interval was em-
ployed by the Turks in strengthening their fintifications ; so
tliat when a decided negative was given to the jiroposed sur-
render, the whole Turkish coast was lined with batteries.
Sir J. Duckworth, conceiving his situation perilous, hastened
to repass the Dardanelles ; not, however, without receiving
much damage by the firing from the castles. This enterprise
was followed by an expedition to Egypt, which also proved
unsuccessful. Alexandria surrendered without resistance to
5,000 men under General Fraser ; i)ut an attemj)t upon Ro-
se tta was repulsed with loss to the English, and the assailants
hearing that the iidiabilants of Cairo were preparing to expel
them from the captured city, proposed to evacuate Egypt, if
the Turks would consent to restore the prisoners taken by
them at Rosetta, 'I'hese conditions being accepted, they re-
emliarked on the 22d of SeptemlxT.

'J'liough the unauthorized attack of Sir II. Popham ujton
tlie Spanish possessions in South America was censured by
a court martial, it was deemed advisable to follow up his suc-
cesses. On the .5th of January, the English troops arrived
at Maldonado. 'i'hey moved (.Ian. lU, 1807) upon Monte
Video, with the intention of taking that town, and attained
their object, though the Sj)aniards, to the amount of (5,000
men, advanced to oppose their progress, and jxiurcd an inces-
sant fire upon them. In llie month of June, a British force
under General Crawford, consisting of .''),000 men, arrived at
Uie river IMata, and was joined I)y all the Entrlish troops in
that part of South America. The command of this force (June
29) was given to General Wliitelock. IJeintr an ived before Bue-
nos Ayres, he divided his army into several brigades, each pro-
vided with cannon and uidoaded nniskctry. Tiie columns were
directed to march thus, without firing, till they t<houId reach
the last s(|uare of the town, where they were to form and
wait for further orders, A heavy fire of musketry, stones,
and missile weapons, from the tops of the houses, which

XLVIII.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 309

were covered by the inhabitants, dealt destruction to the Eng-
lish troops as tliey marched througli the town. They, how-
ever, took the Residentia, and the Plaza-des-Toios. This
advantage gained, General Whitelock consented to relinquish
all further attack upon the town, and to evacuate Monte Video,
on condition that General Liniers should liberate all the Eng-
lish, who had been captured since the arrival of Sir Home
Popham. For subscribing to these conditions, and for gene-
ral misconduct in the plan of attack upon Buenos Ayres,
General VVliitelock was tried and cashiered by a court mar-
tial, and pronounced unfit to serve his majesty in any military
capacity.

The terms of peace were not definitively arranged by the
Tilsit negotiations, till the 9th of July. The treaty between
France and Russia contained litde more than a mutual guarantee
of possessions, and an acknowledgment of the new kingdoms
created by Bonaparte. That between France and Prussia
was of a different nature : it considerably lessened the pos-
sessions of his Prussian majesty. The provinces on the left
of the Elbe were entitled " The kingdom of Westphalia,"
and given to Jerome Bonaparte. The Polish provinces, ex-
cept that part of them situated north of the Bog, which was
to be incorporated with Russia, were given to the King of
Saxony, with the additional title of Duke of Warsaw, and
free access through Prussia to his new dominions. The titles
of the Kings of Holland, Naples, and Westphalia, and of all
the members of the confederation of the Rhine, were acknow-
ledged by Prussia, and she consented to close her ports against
England, till a definitive treaty should be signed between that
power and France. Alexander accepted the mediation of
France, for the conclusion of a treaty between him and the Porte.
By a secret treaty with France he became a party to the mari-
time war against England, and ceded Corfu and the Seven
Islands to France.

CHAPTER XLVHI.

FROM THE PEACE OF TILSIT, IN 1807, TO THE PEACE OF
VIENNA, IN 1809.

1807. — Sweden was the only ally of Great Britain that
was not estranged from her cause by the peace of Tilsit:
Gustavus IV". refused his assent to its stipulations. The de-

810 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPK. [cHAf

fertion of his confederates, however, ohliired him to relinquish
the defence of J'onierania, upon wliieli lie had defcrniined ;
and he wididrcw llie troops, stationed tliere, to JSweden. I'^nj^-
laiid, thus unassisU'd and friunilless, had recourse to a stranj^e
expedient, and oiu', for the adoption of which, even the exi-
gencv (»f licr situation seems not a suflicient excuse.

Denmark had, in the late wars, ol)scrved a strict neutrality.
The daily fall of nations, however, rendering tlie crown-prince
appreliensive that his country also miirlit swell the number of
the French emperor's conquests, he resolved to be prejiared
against contingencies, and stand ready for defensive measures.
For this end, he assembled an army and took much pains to
augment the Danish navy. These precautions were viewed
l)y the English ministry with a jealous eye, because they had
been assured that Denmark was a party to the secret treaty
of Tilsit, and that the Danish fleet would be at the dispcisal
of the French emperor. 'J'hey tliereforc reiiuesled, on ami-
cable terms, the temporary deposit of the Danish ships of
war in some of the Hritish ports, under a solen)n promise of
restitution on the conclusion of peace. In order to give weight
to the negotiation, an armament of twenty-seven sail of the line,
under Admiral Gambier, with a large body of land-forces under
Lord (]athcart, was sent to the lialtic, to protect Denmark
against France, in case of an amical)le result, or to enforce
compliance, should she reject the proposal. Mr. Jackson,
who accompanied the expedition in the capacity of negotia-
tor, failed, as miirht be expecteil, to accomplish tlie ol)ject of
his mission. On the 17th of August, Copenhagen was in-
vested, and on the 3d of September, set fire to, in several
places. 'I'he destruction m( the city seemed at hand, when
a flag of truce, demanding an armistice, was despatched to
the English admiral. 'I'he basis of the capitulation was the
surrt'iider of the Danish fleet, which accompanied Admiral
Gambier to lOugland.

This expedition excited tlie animosity not only of Denmark,
hut of Russia; and was severely commented upon as uncalled
for and dishonoural)lc, by iMiropc in general, and by a large
majority of the English nation. A declaration of war by
Russia, against Entjland, was issued on the 31st of October,
wliich stated as its causes, the insult ofl'ered to Denmark, and
the refusal of I'ngland to accejjt the mediation of Russia, f >r
etfecling a general peace, after that n|" Tilsit.

In the mean lime, the svstiiii of commercial annovancp
adopU'd by France against England, caused ;j> much injury

XLVni.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 811

to nedtral nations, as to the country against which it was
meant t^; operate, Tlie retaliatory orders, now issued by
Great Britain, proved still more injurious. America had been
hitherto permitted to be the medium of commerce between
France and her colonies. The English government, on the
7th of January, issued an order in council, prohibiting neu-
tral nations from trading with any port in the possession of,
or under the control of France; and on the 11th of Novem-
ber, an additional order declared every port, in every country,
from which Great Britain was excluded, in a state of block-
ade. America, in the exigency formed by this novel system
of warfare, adopted the expedient of laying an embargo upon
all her own vessels, and commanded all foreign ships to quit
the American harbours. Her complaints were chiefly levelled
against England ; perhaps because other causes of animosity
towards that country pre-existed in the United States. The
practice of impressing American seamen on board English
vessels was still exercised by England, and still loudly and
indignantly complained of.

Neither the 13ritish orders in council, nor the American
embargo, induced Napoleon to revoke his commercial restric-
tions. On the 23d of November he issued a decree, dated
Milan, ordering that any vessel entering a French port, after
having touched at an English harbour, should be seized and
confiscated. In the following month he further decreed, that
every neutral ship that should submit to be searched by an
English ship, or pay duty to the English government, should
be considered as denationalized, and be seized by French
ships of war. Not satisfied with this, he extended his pro-
hibitory mandate to Portugal, and required that no hostile
vessel should be admitted into a Portuguese harbour, and that
all English subjects, residing in Portugal, should be detained,
and their property confiscated. The prince-regent, willing to
avert the threatened storm, closed his ports against England.
He, however, refused compliance with the other terms of
imperial requisition, and advised the English residents to sell
their property and leave his dominions. These half-mea-
sures failed to satisfy the French emperor; he insisted on the
imprisonment of Englishmen, and the confiscation of their
property. The Portuguese regent prepared therefore to leave
a country, where, should such restrictions be enforced in op-
position to his will, he could no longer act as a sovereign,
and to retire to his transadantic dominions. Hoping, how-
ever, to render this expatriation unnecessary, by conciliating

312 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

Nnpoloon, he at length onlereil tlie seizure of Brilisli properly,
bclieviiiir, wlieii he did so, thai il had all been previously re-
moved. Hut this concession, while it irritated l^uglaiid, and
led her to form the blockade of the Tai^us, came too late.
The French ollicial journals had already j)rorlaimed, that the
house of Brairanza had ceased to rei<rn, anil a French army
was now marcliiuir to Lisbon to verify this denunciation.
The court of fiislion renewed its preparations for llii^ht, which
the English blockading squadron engaged to protect. A re-
gency, consisting of seven nobles, was appointed to adminis-
ter the government during the absence of the prince-regent;
and on the 2yth of November the Portuguese tleet, with the
royal family, sailed for lirazil. Before it cleared the Tagus,
it recognised the French troops under Junot, with their Spa-
nish auxiliaries, on the heights of Lisi)on. Next day, the
latter entered that city without opposition.

Spain too was on the eve of being numbered among con-
quered nations. An alliance between her and France had
long subsisted, and had been lately, in appearance, more
strongly cemented by a treaty, concluded between the two
powers at Fontainebleau, which provided, that the ni)rth part
of the kingdom of Portugal should i)e given to the King of
Etruria, in exchange for ihe cession of his Italian posses-
sions to France; the province of Alcntcjo and liie Algarves to
the Prince of Peace, with the tide of Prince of the Algarves ;
the remaining provinces were to be held in sequestration till
the conclusion of a general peace. The treaty farther pro-
vided, that a stipulated number of French troops should march
through Spain to elTect this partition of Portugal; that they
should be joined in their march by a certain number of Spa-
nianls ; that 10,0!)0 French troops shoidd be asseml)led at
Bayonnc by the 2()th of Nov. to be ready to march for Por-
tugal, should England attempt to invade that country; and that
the fortresses of Pampeluna, St. Sebastian, Figueras, and
Barcelona, should be allowed, as places of security, to the
army of Napoleon. It was in conformity with tlu^ stijiulalions
of tills treaty, that Junot and the Spanish auxiliary force en-
tered Portugal.

While the negotiations for the partition of Pornigal were
pending, occurrences of a singular nature were taking place
at Madrid. Emamiel (iodoy, whose inthuuice with the king
and queen was unljoiindiul, had rendered himself exceediiiirly
odious to the Spanish nation at large. The Prince of Aslurias
sharing the general sentiment, declared himself openly the

XLVIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 313

enemy of Godoy, and a plan was devised to get rid of the
obnoxious minister. But such was the infatuation of ttie
kino-, that he considered as levelled against himself every
attack upon the favourite. Finding that his son had written
to solicit the hand of a French princess, and taken other mea-
sures to strengthen the anti-ministerial party, he published in
November a manifesto, accusing Ferdinand of conspiring
to dethrone him. This the prince denied, but signed, at
the suggestion of Godoy, a paper expressing contrition in
general terms, and a reconciliation took place between him
and his royal parents. These events were but a prelude to
the misfortunes which befell, during the ensuing year, the
Bourbon dynasty in Spain.

The close of the year 1807 is memorable for the entire
destruction of the Dutch power in the East Indies by Sir E.
Pellew. After having defeated the Dutch fleet off Madeira,
he obliged the batteries of Sambalargan to be dismantled.

The English Parliament opened in 1808 under gloomy aus-
pices. Austria had tried to mediate between France and
England, but her proposals not being deemed satisfactory to
the interests of the allies of Great Britain, had been rejected ;
and a declaration of war from the Emperor Francis was
hourly expected by the British ministry. That of Russia
had already been received, and all Europe, Sweden excepted,
seemed in alliance against England. The internal state of
the country was not more cheering. Considerable distress,
caused by the exclusion of British goods from the ports of
Europe, existed in the manufacturing districts; and peace,
the only remedy, as the people conceived, for their sufferings,
was loudly called for, at a period when the attainment of it
seemed impracticable.

The expected declaration of war by Austria was issued on
the 8th of February. The King of England, on his side, re-
solving efficiently to assist his only ally, engaged, by conven-
tion, to pay to Sweden £1,200,000 in twelve monthly pay-
ments, to enable that power to support a respectable naval
and military establishment. He also engaged to send auxi-
liary forces to the Baltic, whenever war might take place be-
tween Sweden and any of the northern powers. The invasion
of Finland by 40,000 Russian troops, under Buxhovden,
quickly followed the signing of the convention between Swe-
den and England. Denmark, too, declared war, stating as
her reason for hostility, the silence obseived by Gustavus on
the capture of the Danish fleet, and his close alliance with

814 OENEIIAL HISTORY OF KirROPK. [cHAP.

Rnirland. Gustaviis sent Count Kliuiispor to oppose the
Kussiaus in Finland, and liamii Ainirtldl to eflVct the con-
quest of iNorway. 'I'lii' tornicr tiiidinjr liis troops not suin-
cienlly nuniurous to arrest the march of Bnxhovden, avoided
a fjeneral cniraircment, and, retrealinjj towards Kast Hoihnia,
formed a junction with ('ount Cronstadl. The Kussians,
after havini^ iiicHt'ctually endeavoured to cut off the retreat of
Klinffspor, retired towards the south of Finlaiul. In tlie
mean time Al)o and liiornoburo-, and shortly after lJleal)urg,
surrendered to the Hussians. Ijuxhovden, after the capture of
the latter city, returned to the north of Fiidand. Tlie Swe-
dish commander, conscious that an enirafrement with the Kus-
sians, who, during tlieir stay in the south, had received con-
siderable reinforcements, would bring; destruction to his army,
concluded an armistice with them, (Nov. 20th,) and enga<red
to evacuate Finland and retire beyond the river Reims. The
attempt upon Norway was productive of equal disappoint-
ment to Gustavus. 'I'he Norwegian peasantry, uniting with
the regidar troops, expelled tlie Swedish force, and, seizing
the j)asses of liie mountains, secured liiein against future in-
cursions. Neidier did the troops which the English govern-
ment sent to the Baltic, in conformity with the convention
between England and Sweden, attain their object, though
amounting to 10,000 men, and commanded by an able and
experienced general. They were rendered inoperative by
the imprudence of the Swedish monarch himself. Wlicn
they reached Ootlenl)urg, (May 18th,) Gustavus proposed to
their commander. Sir John Moore, that they should remain
on ship-board til! some Swedish reiriments could l)e emi)arked
witli them, aiul that, when thus reinforced, they should land
upon and endeavour to conquer Zealand. A force far supe-
rior in number to that under Sir .Tolin Moore, or to any tliat
Gustavus coidd assemble, preoccupied Zealand, and the fort-
resses in the ishmd were strongly garrisoned. Sir John,
therefore, dc(dined making an attempt, which he saw would
be attended with defeat and dishonour to himself and his
army. (Justavus then proposed that iIk; English should make
a descent upon Russian Fin'ind. As the chief Russian force
was concentrated in I'iuland. a descent there coidd serve no
propose but that of insuring a triumph to the enemy. Sir
John as firmly declined compliance with this, as with the
former pruposal of the Swedish infuiarch : upon which Gus-
tavus put him under arrest, and thus lost the support of tho

XLVIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 31S

British army ; for its commander, having with some difficulty
effected his escape, returned with it to England.

The Kini^ of Denmark, who had long laboured under a
mental malady, died this year, and liis title devolved upon his
son, the crown-prince, whom we must henceforth designate
Frederick VI.

A more important change, and one which excited a greater
sensation in Europe, took place in Italy. In order to under-
stand the subject of dispute between Bonaparte and the
Pope, we must retrace in a few words the altercations which
had previously occurred since the autumn of 1805. In the
month of September of that year, the Neapolitan minister at
Paris had concluded a treaty, by which France agreed to
withdraw the forces she had maintained in the kingdom of
Naples since the year 1801. These troops, on their return
through the ecclesiastical state, established themselves at
Ancona, where they amassed provisions, increased the forti'
fications, and made such arrangements as indicated their in-
tention of retaining their situation. The court of Rome
complained of so unexpected an invasion, and addressed
itself on the occasion to Cardinal Fesch, who declared himself
unable to give any information on the subject. The Pope
then addressed a brief to Bonaparte himself, in which he
complained, with moderation but with firmness, of an invasion
so contrary to the neutrality he professed. Napoleon was
then in Germany, and did not answer the Pope's letter till
after the peace of Presburg. In his reply of the 6th of January,
1806, he accused the Pope of listening to bad counsellors, and
after complaining that his Holiness refused all his demands,
even those " the most interesting to religion,* as the depression
of the Protestants in France," he informed him that it was to
protect the church that he had occupied Ancona. t At the
same time he wrote a letter to Cardinal Fesch, in which he
openly avowed his pretensions, and declared that, unless
Rome submitted to his will, he would send a governor thither
and deprive the Pope of all but his spiritual authority. This
intention was communicated to his Holiness, who again (Jan.

* Napoleon had written to the Pope in 1805, begging him to declare the
marriage which his brother Jerome had contracted with Miss Patterson,
in America, null, on the plea that the prince was a minor and the lady a
Protestant. The Pope, after mature examination, wrote him a long letter,
in which he proves the impossibility of acceding to his demand.

■j- Precis des contestations entre le saint Siege et Buonaparte. — Par M.
Bchoell.

816 GENKRAL HISTORY OF F.ITROPE. IcHAP.

29th) addressed the French emperor; and, after representing
to him the littU? foiiiulation of his prettnch'd {rrievances, recom-
mended to liim tlie interests of ruliijion in that part of (he
Venetian states, wliich liad recently l)t'en iniitcd to the king-
dom of Italy, and entreated him not to introduce any innova-
tions in the elcrjfy. In reply Hoiiaparle said, that he was
Emperor of liome, and that CJod had appointed him to wati'ii
over the maintenance of relijrion, (fee. To join eflects to
words, lie ordered his amhassador to demand that all natives
of nations at war widi him should be sent from Rome, and
their vessels refused entrance into the ports of the papal iro-
vernment. During tliis correspondence, the French troops
entered on all sides, and occupied, on the Adriatic Sea, Pesaro,
Sinigairlia, Fano, and other places.

The answer of the cardinal legate to the demands of Bo-
naparte, developed the o<inscienti()US motives which prevented
the Pope from engaging in hostility with other states, and
contained a strong remonstrance upon the difl'erent laws and
ordinances which, to the prejudice of religion and of its mi-
nisters, had been promulgated in the French empire, and in
the other states depending upon his majesty. " 'i'lie his or-
fran'upies pul)lished (without the knowledge of the Pope)
with the concordat, deprived religion, in great measure, of
the fruits which were expected, in France, from the finest
monument of his majesty's love for the Catholic religion.
After them came the uiultiplied onlers given by the ininislre
(III cul/r, and the publication of the civil cotjc, which were
all so many blows, levelled in France against the doctrine
and "general practice of the church." These remonstrances
effected no alteration in the purpose of the emperor. He had
already incorporated Urbino, Ancona, Macerata, and ('ame-
rino, with the kingdom of Italy ; and his Ullimalum, which
was proposed on the 9th of January, IHOH, informed the
legate that if, within five days, the j'ope did not declare to
the French ambassador an entire adherence to his demands,*

•The (Ipmamls made by Napoleon in 1807, an J refused hy the Pope,
were the following :

Ist. He reijiiired that the Pope ulioiild acknowledge a Patriarch in
France, whom he, >i'a|)ole<)n. hml niitncd.

VJd. 'I'hat the Napoleon code should he enforced throughout the eccie-
BiaHtiral Hlate.

3d. That all relii^ionfl ohould be publicly exercised.

4lh. He diinanded n reform in the hii)hoj)ric«, and that the bishopc
should be indejH^ndcDt of the Huly ^:>eB.

XLVIII.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 317

the papal government should definitively lose, not only An-
eona, but also Perugiano, to be incorporated with Tuscany;
half of the Campagna di Roma, to be united to tlie kingdom of
Naples; and that he would take possession of the rest of the
ecclesiastical state, and place a garrison in Rome. The Pope,
in his declaration of January 28th, promised his adherence
to such articles of the Ultimatum as were not inconsistent
with his conscientious obligations, and the rights of his see;
and protested against the occupation of his dominions by the
French ; but his answer was not judged satisfactory, and their
troops entered Rome on the 2d of February, took possession
of the castle of St. Angelo, garrisoned the posts, and sur-
rounded the entrance of the Quirinal Palace, the residence of
a pacific sovereign, who was at peace with all the world.

But the spoliation of the papal territory, and the northern
war, were but secondary objects with Napoleon. The treaty
of Fontainebleau was a remote preparation for an attack upon
the Spanish monarchy ; and no less a visitation than the loss
of his crown and kingdom, was the consequence of the trea-
cherous imbecility, with which Charles consented to tlie pas-
sage of French troops through his territory, for the partition
of Portugal. No sooner were the chief fortresses in the
hands of the French troops, than an angry letter from Napo-
leon complained of seeming unwillingness of Charles to con-
clude a marriage, which had been for some time in agitation,
between a Princess of France and the Prince of Asturias. The
Spanish monarch, arguing from this letter tliat his throne was
insecure, proposed to emigrate. A violent ferment in the capi-
tal and at Aranjuez was the result of this meditated removal.
The house of the Prince of Peace, who, it was supposed, had
advised the obnoxious measure, was forced, and that minister
seized and imprisoned. The king, finding that the popular
fury would not be quieted, and rendered unequal by the pres-
sure of infirmity to sustain the weight of government in so
trying an emergency, resigned the cares of royalty to his son,
Ferdinand.

Ferdinand reappointed his father's secretary, Cevallos, to

5th. The abolition of the pontifical bulls, which regard the collation of
bishoprics and parishes.

6th. The abolition of religious orders of both sexes.

7th. Permission for priests to marry in future.

8th. He demanded lastly that the Pope should crown Joseph Bon»
parte as King of Naples.

See the Tableau Synoptique de I'Hist. de France, vol. ii., p. 241.

29*

818 GENERAL HISTORY OF Et'ROPE. [cil VP.

office, confiscated (ho property of Ciodoy, nominated the
Duke del Inninlado, a popidar nol)lenian, coniinander of the
JSpaniali jfuards, and succeuded by concdialory measures in
gaining the conliilence of his peopU\ He notilied to llin
French emperor Ids accession to the Spanish throne, and
accdmpanied his messaije with assurances of his wish, that
the recent changes in tSpain miirht cause no interruption to
the confidential aUiance which had so long subsisted between
that countrv anil I'Vance. Charles, wiio, in the interim, had
been leil to rejjret the title he had resiirned, wrote on the other
hand to Napoleon, that the alnlication of the Spanish crown was
an involuntary act, which circumstances had rendered neces-
sary, to save both his own life and that of the queen, from
the threatened violence of Ferdinand's partisans. 'I'he French
troops were, in the mean time, concentratins'- in the heart of
Spain ; and their emperor, whom Murat pul)licly aflirmed
to l)e marcliiufr for tiie S])anish frontier, declined makinji^ any
reply to repealed kind messages delivered to him on the part of
Ferdinand." It was, however, intimated to the latter, that
his advancing towards the frontier tc) meet his guest, would
be a sure means of winning his friendship. Cevallos stronirlv
advised his royal master against making this journey, till l5o-
naparte should have at least passed the Pvrenees. But the
faiihful miidster's remonstrances were overruled by the i)er-
suasions of Murat and Savary ; and Ferdinand, expecting at
the end of earh day's journey to meet Najioleon. was ali\n"0(l
from Madrid to Burgos, tlieiice to V'iltoria, and lastly to Uay-
onne. There the royal interview took place, and under such
an exterior of friendship, as seemed to promise l-'crdinand the
immediate recognition of his title. Savary, however, was
soon deputed to say that Napoleon rcqinred him to resign in
his own name, and in that of his family, the crown of Spain
and of the Indies. 'I'iie Spanish monarch expostulated against

• Niipoleon, as it is snid, Hnue)>t Hi first to efTrcl tlir sutijnciition of Spain,
by the marri;ii;(' of his nicrc, Chiirloltc, ilic duui^lilcr of Ijucifn, willi the
hrir to th:it monarrhy. Had he sucrcedct] in this di'sign, F'crdinatxl vvoulil
prohahly havp retainrd his rrown, for which the rmperor had sonin dilTi-
culty in finding ii cnndidule. Hut tlic yoiiiiK lady resolutely dcrhnnd thn
projpcird iir:ion. " ( "i-st im nitjind," snid sho, "jc n'rn vpux pas." Both
Loui^ and Lucicn had ri-fiiscd ihi- Spmiish scf'[)lrc licforc it was ofForcd to
Josrph,to whom tho transition could srarroly have lioen uprccahlc, from a
thmiic. of wliich \w was in ()Pa<'oali|i' [lossrssion, to one which he would
havp to win Uy force of nnuH. Il has heen a<iiiorted that hn came to Hay
oiirip to decline with pro| er courti'sv the [)ro(iosed tiansfer ; hut thin Na-
p<j|eon prevented liy itaiuLng him as King of 8pain.

XLVIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 319

the treachery, and refused compliance with the requisition ol
his ally. But neither his representations, nor those of Ce
vallos, could shake the purpose of Napoleon. The abdicated
monarch, with his queen and the Infantos Don Carlos and
Don Antonio, who had been by similar means decoyed to
seek an interview with the French emperor, now arrived at
Bayonne. The two kings being thus in his power, Napoleon
easily won over Charles to make a formal resignation of his
crown ; while Ferdinand, who was kept in ignorance of this
previous arrangement, was induced to abdicate in favour of
his father. By a second declaration, in which the young
king and his brothers adhered to the cession made by Charles
of the monarchy of Spain and the Indies, the object of the
French emperor in this unprincipled transaction was fully
accomplished.

Charles, to reconcile the Spaniards to this transfer, issued
a proclamation to the supreme council of Castile, to the in-
quisition, and to the junta of government, informing them that
he had abdicated in favour of " his friend,'''' the Emperor Na-
poleon ; appointing Murat lieutenant-governor of the kingdom,
and advising his subjects calmly to acquiesce in the new ar-
rangements. Ferdinand, and the Infmtos Don Carlos and
Don Antonio, addressed proclamations of a similar nature to
the Spanish nation. As a reward for the compliance of
Charles and Ferdinand, to the former was given the palace of
Compiegne and a civil list of 800,000 livres ; to the latter, the
demesne of Navarre, with a yearly grant of 400,000 livres
of appanage-rent, to descend to his heirs, and a grant of
60,000 livres for life. Ferdinand's uncle and brothers were
also allowed a yearly revenue. When these terms were
finally adjusted, the royal family of Spain were sent into the
interior of France.

While the surrender of the Spanish monarchy was in agita-
tion at Bayonne, popular commotions, caused by the indigna-
tion of the Spaniards at the violence offered to their rulers,
prevailed in Madrid. On the 2d of May, the Queen of
Etruria and the Infanto Don Francisco de Paula, who had
not accompanied Charles or Ferdinand to the frontiers, pre-
pared to join their royal relatives at Bayonne. A report hav-
ing gained circulation that Antonio, president of the provi-
sional government, was, by Murat's order, likewise to leave the
capital, the citizens, assembling tumultuously in the principal
streets, resolved to prevent his departure. The Spanish
troof s, confined by order of Murat in their barracks, could

320 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [[cHAP

give no support to the populace, who, notwiilistanding, boldly
attaokod the IVrnch soldiery. The result inavhe easily con-
jecliired. Six lliousaiid arincd and skilful troops triumphed
over the exertions of an undisciplined ra!)hlc. Nunil)crs were
massacred, and those who had been so fortunate as to escape
the carnaiTc in the streets, were pursued intd their houses, and
shot or put to the sword. On tlie follo\viu<r day the surviv-
in<^ insurj^ents were arraigned before a tribunal, of which
Grouchy was president, and sentenced to execution. The
council of Madrid, anxious to prevent a repetition of similar
liorrors, appointed Murat their president. Petitions, in the
name of the Spanish grandees, dictated, as it is said, by him,
and praying the elevation of Josepli Bonaparte to the throne
of Spain, were presented to Napoleon; and the emperor's
brother was in consequence declared successor of Ferdinand.
But neither the addresses of Charles and Ferdinand, nor t!io
advice of the council of the inquisition, nor yet a conciHatory
proclamation from Napoleon himself, could reconcile the
Spaniards to the recent events. Tlie Governor-general of An-
dalusia, suspected of attacliment to the French cause, was
put to death, and Don Morla, a staunch patriot, a[)pointed
to fill his place. The Governor-general of Arragon was, for a
similar reason, supplanted by General Palafox. The juntas
assembled ; the assistance of England to expel the French
from Spain was applied for, and a general insurrection in all
the provinces not occupied by French troops, (juicklv took
place. As Madrid was in the hands of the enemy, the chief
direction of the resources of Spain devolved tipon the junta
of Seville. A declaration of war against France and of peace
with England, as also directions relative to the system of war-
fare to be observed in the approaching contest, were issued ;
all persons from the age of sixteen to forty-five, who had no
chihiren, were firdered to enrol themselves under the banners
of Ferdinand, and the patriots were advised rather to harass
the French, than to engage them in general actions. ICarly
successes aniinateil iIk; Spaniards to vigorous and perseverino'
exertions in the cause of inde|)endt,'nce. A French squadron
of five ships of the line and two frigates, under the command
of Admiral Rossilly, in the harl)()iir of Cadiz, was oliliged,
(June 1 till,) after having sustained a heavy cannonade for
three days, to surrender to General Morla. To prevent
the rapture of this squadron, and to reduce the cities
of Seville and ('adiz, fJeneral Dupont had l)een (les|)atclied
by Murat, with a considerable force, to Andalusia. Duponl

KLVIII.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 321

passed the Sierra Morena without opposition, and entered
Cordova, where he was but feebly nisisted. When apprized,
however, ol' tlie surrender of the Heet, and tliat the Spanisi)
general, Castunos, with the forces of Andalusia and a body ot
troops from Ceuta, was advancing to oppose hiin, he retreated
upon Andujar. In an endeavour to surprise one of the divi-
sions of Caslanos' army, he was defeated and compelled to
surrender. By the terms of the capitulation it was agreed,
that the French should be embarked at Cadiz, and sent to
Ro-ihefort. With this condition, however, the junta of Seville
relused to comply, alleging that Castanos had exceeded his
powers in treating with the enemy.

While the French were thus unsuccessful in the south of
Spain, the emperor remained at Bayonne, where he had called
an assembly of Spanish notables, to deliberate on the forma-
tion of a new constitutional code. Joseph Bonaparte arrived
in thatcity on the 6th of June, and was waited upon by depu-
tations from the council of Castile, and from the grandees of
Spain. When the constitution had received the approbation
of the notables, Joseph set out for Madrid, after having abdi-
cated the crown of Naples in ftivour of Murat, and chosen
ministers to assist him in the discharge of the duties of his
new sovereignty. He made his triumphant entry on the 10th
of July, and was crowned, amidst the plaudits of the grandees
and the undisguised murmurs of the populace, on the 19th,
which was the very day of Dupont's surrender. The news
of this disaster induced him to retreat to Burgos ; not, how-
ever, till he had secured the plate and regalia belonging to the
Spanish crown.

Palafox was as successful against the enemy in Arragon,
as Castanos in Andalusia. General Le Febre invaded that
province early in June, and, repelling the opposition of the
Spanish peasantry, pushed on to Saragossa, and, on the
14th, stationed a detachment of his troops under its walls.
These were repulsed with loss, and General Palafox prepared
the city to sustain a siege. On the 27th, the French advanced
to attack it, but their battering engines were defied by the
Arragonese, who, during a siege of six weeks' continuance,
displayed such unexampled bravery as ultimately to dis-
courage the assailants, and compel them to withdraw their
troops. In Valencia, too, victory declared itself for the
patriot standard. General Moncey, sent by Bonaparte into
that province, succeeded in forcing his way to the capital,
which he prepared to attack. For seven hours the French

322 OENRTIAL HISTORY OK EUROPE. [cHAP.

cannonade was cliret-ted apainst it ; Imt the hesiogers, being
rrpulscd in two utti'rnpts upon tlio ^atts, rcliniiuiislird their
purpose, and retreated out ol llie province.

Great iniportanee was allached, both liy the I'rriich and
Spanish coniniaiulers, to the possession of tlie roail lietween
Uayonne and Madrid. Cuesta was llie Spanish, Lassolles
the French general, deputed to secure this conmumication.
On the 14ih of July these commanders met and foujrht, at
Uio Seco. The patriots were, at the first onset, victorious;
but were eventually forced to retreat to Henavento. 'i'hc loss
sustained by the French, however, in this action, was so
great, ;is to render their victory but a trilling advaiitai.'c.

Upon the departure of Joseph Bonaparte from Madrid, the
council of Castile resumed the administration of government,
and professed attachment to the cause of Ferdinand; but the
junta of Seville conliinu-d to direct the movements and to
possess tlie confidence of the patriots. By its order, a su-
preme government, composed of members selected from all
the juntas of the kingdom, was formed ami installed (vScpiem-
ber 24lh) at Aranjues; and a military junta, consisting of five
generals, among whom were Castanos and Morla, was formed
at Madrid. The defeat sustained by the French on all sides,
ol)ligcd them to retreat northward. 'I'hev repassed the Ebro,
concentrated their forces in Navarre and Biscay, and awaited
the arrival of reinforcements. The chief command of the
French troops was vested in Marshal lUssieres. 'J'he S|)a-
nisli forces under Castanos, Blake, and I'alal'ox approached
the same direction, with the intention of occupying the line of
the Fbro.

'J'he application of the Sj)anish patriots to l^iiirland was
not fruitless. Large supplies of arms, ammunition, and eloth-
intr were sent to the juntas of (Jalicia and Asturias, and
9,000 men, commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley, sailed from
Cork on the I '2th of July for the Spanish coast. They ar-
rived atCorimna on the 20th. Sir Artlmr proposed that they
ghould be employed airaiiist the IVench in Spain ; but the
junta of (Jalicia dccliiud the oiler, and re()uesied Sir Arthur
to employ his fon-e in exi)ellint: the I'Vench from liisbon.
lie llu refore left Calicia for Oporto. The resistance made
by the Spaniards to the yoke of France, roused a correspond-
ing spirit throughout the whole north of Portugal. IVovin-
cial juntas were asseml)le(l as in Sp:iin. That of Oporto was
the most efTicient: by its orders the resources of the kintrdorti
were directed. 'I'he I'oringuese governor of that city »how-

JCLTIII.] GENERAL HISTORY Of EUROPE. 323

ing clisafTection to the patriot cause, was superseded by the
bishop ; and 20,000 men were sent to oppose a body of French
troops, wliich had advanced under General Loison to Ania-
rante. A league, offensive and defensive, with Spain, was
signed on the 14th of July, at Oporto, in the names of the
prince-regent and King Ferdinand. The spirit of patriotism
in the south of Portugal was checked by Junot, who defeated
its rising efforts at Villa Vicosa, Beja, and Evora.

The junta of Portugal having also applied to England for
support, the army of Sir Arthur Wellesley ultimately disem-
barked in Mondego Bay. It was to be reinforced by troops
from the south of Spain under General Spencer, by 5,000
men from England under Generals Auckland and Anstruther,
and by 10,000 men from the Baltic under Sir John Moore. The
command of this united force was vested in Sir Hew Dal-
rymple. The patriots were further encouraged by the pre-
sence of an English fleet, under Sir Charles Cotton, upon
their coast.

Sir Arthur Wellesley being apprized that Junot had de-
tached Loison with 6,000 men to quell an insurrection in
Alentejo, disembarked his troops without waiting the arrival
of the expected reinforcements. He was joined by General
Spencer on the 9th of August, and marched from Mondego
towards Lisbon. As Marshal Bessieres was advancing to
support Junot, Sir Arthur determined to attack the latter
before the projected junction could be accomplished. But
this plan of operations was disconcerted by a coolness, which
arose between the English and Portuguese commanders ; the
latter demanding supplies from the English stores, and the
former refusing to grant them, on the plea that their being
shared in the way proposed, would render the support of the
British troop > scanty and precarious. On the 15th the ad-
vanced guard of the British army came up with and defeated
a party of French troops at Oviedo, and, two days later. Sir
Arthur Wellesley gained a signal victory over General La-
borde, at Roleia. The victorious army then moved to Lou-
rinha, to cover the debarkations of Generals Anstruther and
Auckland ; and on the 21st resumed their march towards Lis-
bon. Junot, resolving to attack the English army, before it
could be reinforced by Sir John Moore, advanced to meet it,
and came up with Sir Arthur in the vicinity of Vimeira. The
contest that ensued was protracted and desperate, and its
result a decisive defeat to the French, with comparatively
alight loss to their opponents. Sir H. Burrard, superior in

324 GENERAL MISTOUY OF EUROPE. fcllAP.

roinmand to Sir A. WcUeslcy, had arrived after llie disposi*
tioiis fur liattlc had l)prn niadr. rorcsrointr that thry were
such as would insure victory to the ]']iiirlisli, lie declined tak-
ing the command, till Sir Arthur Wellesley should have pained
all the advantages wliich seemed to await his rnaslerly arranire-
iiients. 'I'he English army removed to ('intra after the battle
of Vimeira, and, on the following day, Sir Hew Dalryinple,
commander-in-chief of the united divisions, arrived at the
liiitish camp. A flanr of truce was despatched by Junot, with
a proposal fo-r an armistice, preparatory to the arrangement of
a convention, by which the French wouhl engage to evacuate
Portusral. The proposal was accepted, and a convention
.signed ; the chief articles stipulated were, that all such ports
in Portujral as were then in the hands of the French, should
be surrendered to the English army ; that Junot's troops
should be conveyed to France, at the expense of the Hritislj
government, and that no native of Portugal should be account-
able for his political conduct, during the time that the French had
occupied that country. By a separate convention, the Russian
ships in the Tagus were to be sent to Enjrland, under Sir C.
Cotton, and there detained, till peace should be concluded be-
tween llie two nations. The terms of the convention excited
loud murmurs of disapproliation. Cieneral Frcire, the Portu-
guese commander, reprobated its stipulations : and in Eng-
land the call for inipiiry into the motives which had inlluenced
its framers, was so general, as to induce the government to
institute a hoard for that purpose. Sir II. Dalrymple, Sir H.
Hurrard, and Sir A. Wellesley were summoned to attend the
investigation. The board of inquiry partly approved, and
partly condemned the terms of the convention, so that no
further procecMlings were instituted against the generals.

The command of the British troops in I^ortugal was now
given to Sir John .M(jure, who had arrived at his destination,
while the negotiations for the convention of Cintra were pend-
ing. His orders were to advance into Leon and Galicia,
where 12,0(10 men, who had emi)arked under Sir David Baird
at Plymouth, for the Spanish service, were to join him ; and
it was proposed that these united armies should co-operate
with tlie patriots, in expelling the French from Spain. A
cf)rps of 10,000 Spanish veterans, under the command of the
Maniuis de Homana, landed in the north of Spain about this
time, and proved a valuable accniisition to the paliiot cause.
They had been drawn out of the country as auxiliaries, early
ui the year, by Bonaparte, and were stationed in Denmark at

XLVIH.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPK. 325

the epoch of the French invasion. By the assistance of the
Enghsh Admiral Keats, their gallant commander was enabled
to liberate his corps, which was conveyed by a British squad-
ron to the coast of Spain. Napoleon left Bayonne in Sep-
tember for Paris ; and thence, after having called out an
additional force to act in Spain, proceeded to Erfurth, to meet
the confederate German princes and the Emperor Alexander.
Overtures of a conciliatory nature from France and Russia
to England, were the immediate result of this conference ; but
as the King of England would enter into no specific discus-
sion, in which the plenipotentiaries of the Spanish patriots
were not allowed to participate, the prosecution of war was
determined upon by all parties. Bonaparte, therefore, re-
turned to Spain in NovemlDcr with a reinforcement of 12,000
men, and fixed his head-quarters at Vittoria. The whole
French force in Spain now amounted to 200,000 men. The
left wing, commanded by Moncey, was posted along the rivers
Ebro and Arragon ; the division of Ney was at Guardia ;
Bessieres was at Miranda ; and Merlin on the heights of Du-
rango.

The united force of Castanos and Palafox, which formed
the left wing of the Spanish army, was 20,000 men ; it was
posted on the left bank of the Arragon. The army of Estra-
madura and Murcia, under General Cuesta, formed the centre
and opposed the French on the Ebro ; its amount was 30,000.
Blake's force, 25,000 strong, was stationed on the right of
the French army. But the real strength of the patriots lay
in the armed population, continually carrying on an irregular,
but extremely harassing warfare against the invaders. The
trained forces of Spain were wholly unable to contend in the
field with disciplined troops, commanded by the ablest gene-
rals of the age, and fighting under the eye of the emperor.
Hence the campaign which followed Napoleon's arrival, was
marked by a series of victories on the part of the French ; and
the Spanish forces were rendered ineffective, before the Eng-
lish could arrive to afford them succour. Sir J. Moore had,
in effect, marched from Lisbon in October to push into Leon,
as he had been ordered, intending to unite his array with that
of Sir D. Baird, either at Valladolid or at Salamanca. The
latter, however, upon his arrival at Corunna, was refused per-
mission to disembark by the junta of Galicia ; and when, after
much expostulation, the permission was granted, he could
hardly procure necessaries for the march or sustenance of his
troops. The Spanish armies, which for the most part pre*

820 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAF.

eented a niass of wretched, undisripliried peasantry, instead
of trying lo form a junction willi the liritish auxiliaries,
uiarclicd frcuii them, excej)! 12,000 men of llie army of li^slra-
niailura, who were l)Ul newly levied, and cominaniltHl by
Count Belvidcre, a young, inexperienced officer. Tiiese
advanced upon Sir .1. Moore's line of march as far as llurgos.

The French were not slow in taking advantage of these
errors. They resolved to defeat the Spaniards, before the
English co\dd arrive to reinforce them, ami began by attack-
ing, on the 31st of October, the ilivision commanded i)y Hlake.
After skilfully contending, during eight hours, with his assail-
ants, that general was forced to retreat upon Valmaseda.
Thither he was pursued by Le Febre, and, in the course of a
few days, sustained such heavy losses, as compelled him to
withdraw into Asturias, and rendered him unable to take any
efficient part in the sul)se(iuent operations of the campaign.
Against IJelvidere and Castanos the French were equally suc-
cessful. The city of Saragossa, into which the heroic Falafox
had retired, sustained a second sien-e, as memorable as that al-
ready mentioned ; and it was not till 30,000 citizens had fallen in
its defence, nor till the mortality caused by pestilence amounted
daily to 400 persons, that the inhal)itants consented to surren-
der. While Sir .Tolm Aloore awaited at Salamanca the ex-
pected arrival of Sir 1). liaird and General Hope;, he received
intelligence of the defeat of the Spanish armies. His first
impulse was to retreat upon Porlu<:al ; but this resolution was
counteracted l)y letters from Mr. Frere, the British ambassa-
dor at Madrid, and from Castel Franca and General Morla,*
all of whom advised his advance upon that city, and assured
him of the co-operation of the Sjianiards in and about the
eai)ital. Similar representations from Morla, induced ('asla-
nos to march from ('alalaya upon Madrid, over roads almost
impassal)le. His troops had to contend, (hirini: their jiroirress,
with cold, hunger, and nakedness, ami, being pursued by
Bessif.res and Victor, were overtaken by them at Tudela and
entirely defeated. Castanos was shortly after recalled bj the
pupreme junta and superseded by Lapena.

On the 2d of Deceuiber, llonaparte arrived before Madrid.
The citizens resolved upon making a desperate defence, and
Fiibmiiting to every privation rather than caj)itulatc. The
enemy's cannon, which for two days played ujx)!!, and threat-
ened destruction to their city, elfected no alteration in their

• Castel Franca and .Morla were the Governors of Madrid, and traitort
to the patriot cauue.

XlVin.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 327

purpose ; but the governors consented to a surrender, and on
the Sth the French took possession of Madrid.

Sir John Moore, yielding to the wislies of the city authori-
ties, had advanced, after having been joined by General Hope,
towards Valladolid. AVhile on his march, he learned that
Soult was at Saldanha, Junot at Burgos, and Bessieres pursu-
ing the retreating army of Castanos to Valen^a. Fearing
that the near approach of the French might prevent his junc-
tion with Sir David Baird, he made for Majorga, where this
long-projected union was at length accomplished. The Bri-
tish army, now consisting of 25,000 men, advanced with the
intention of giving batde to Marshal Soult, when Sir John
received intelligence that Napoleon had issued orders to his
generals, enjoining them to advance from their respective po-
sitions, so as to enclose the British army, and that Soult had
received considerable reinforcements.

Upon the receipt of this information, he conceived retreat
indispensable, and fell back upon Galicia. On the 26th, Na-
poleon's cavalry, and part of his artillery, came up with the
rear of the British army, commanded by Lord Paget, and
two skirmishes ensued, in which the English were victorious.
When Napoleon reached A-Storga, news that Austria proposed
to take advantage of his absence, to recover the territories of
which she had been deprived by the treaty of Presburg, re-
called him to Paris, and obliged him to leave the pursuit of
the English armies to his generals.

Sir J. Moore, though rapidly retreating, purposed, if pos-
sible, not to withdraw his troops from the Spanish territory.
He hoped to maintain himself in the mountains of Galicia,
and, by avoiding a general engagement, to gain time ; during
which, reinforcements might arrive from England, the Spanish
armies in the south be assembled, and the troops under Ro-
mana, who, upon Blake's defeat, had been appointed com-
mander-in-chief, be equipped aiid reinforced. But accumulated
and unexpected difficulties frustrated the hopes, and marred
the projects of the British general in every stage of the cam-
paign. He had expected much assistance from the Spanish
peasantry, whose enthusiasm in the cause of independence
had become proverbial; he found such mismanagement in the
Spanish councils as to render it unavailing : he had hoped for
the co-operation of the Spanish armies; not one of them
formed a junction with him: the central junta had misled and
deceived him; the provisions of tlie English army were
scanty ; relief of any kind was reluctantly yielded, and in

328 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE [cHAP.

most instances carried o(T hy the peasantry ; the severity of
the season so increased these difficulties, as to make thenn
dniost iiisurni()UiUal)le; the tmops, rendered desjierate l)v want
ot necessaries, were ihsorilerlv antl nnniaiiafreal)le ; and, in
fine, the French armVt far superior to his in number, was in
close pursuit. At Luiro, however, where Sir John arrived on
the 9ih of January, 1801), he determined to (»iler battle, and
chose a judicious position for that purjHise, Hut as S:iult
declined the combat, he resumed his march for the coast,
where he had ordered transports to lie in readiness to receive
his troops. He reached Corunna on the 1 1th : the transports,
detained by contrary winds, had not yet arrived, and, on th€
morniiii: of the 12th, the French were seen approachinsT the
city ; upon which !Sir John took possession of a ridjre of
heijrhts, which seemed the most favourable situation for con-
tendinir with the enemy. Next day, the transports became
discernible from the shore, the French advanced opposite to
the British position, and on the followinfj morninir beirim the
attack. Almost at the onset. Sir I). Haird's arm was shat-
tered, and he was oblitred to leave the field. Not lon<r after,
a cannon-ball from the enemy's batteries carried off the left
shoulder and part of the collar-bone of Sir John Moore, but
caused no alteration in his countenance or manner. His offi-
cers, deceived by his heroic endurance of sulferinir. supposed
him for some time merely stumuMl by the shot. When the
severity of his wound became apparent, they removed him
from the field, and the command of the armv devolved upon
Colonel Hope. Tiic troops, who, iVom the commencement
of the action, had fouirht wiUi determined bravery, were not
dismayed l)y the absence of their irenerals, and maintained
the contest wiih undiminished ardour. The total ilefeat of
the enemy was the reward of their exertions. On the nig^ht
of the Kith, they marched into ("orunna, and the next day
embarked for Fnijland. In die mean time, the jjeneral, to
whom they were indebted for having made as memorable a
retreat as any on historic record, was numbered amonjr the
dead. His officers, recollectin<r, after his decease, that he had
not only desired to dii- in batlle, l)ut that the s|)ot marked l)y
liis fall should be that of his interment, wrapped him, for
want of a cuirin, in a military coal and blankets, and buried
him by ni^hl on the ramparts of the citadel of Corunna.

While the contest for the possession of Spain and Forttiijal
was so vigorously maintained in the Peninsula, the foreign
territories of tiie aggrieved powers made common cause with

XLVIII.^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 329

their parent states. The Spanish West India islands and
many ports of the Spanish main, proclaimed war against the
Frencli emperor. At Buenos Ayres, too, the spirit of patriot-
ism showed itself, and the ports of the Brazilian coast were
opened to English and Portuguese ships.

A sanguinary revolution took place this year in Turkey.
Stlim III. had been dethroned and imprisoned in 1807, by
the .lanizaries, who raised his nephew, Mustapha, to the throne.
The new sultan was deposed, through the agency of Musta-
pha Bairacter, who caused Selim to be again proclaimed empe-
ror. Mustapha prevented his uncle's restoration, by ordering
him to be strangled ; he could not, however, hinder his own
deposition, and the elevation of his younger brother, Mahmoud,
to the throne. This prince made Bairacter grand vizier ; he
distinguished the short period of his ministry by new-model-
ling the army and navy, and introducing various improve-
ments. But, like the late Sultan Selim, who had first
attempted these useful changes, he too fell a sacrifice to the
fury of the Janizaries. On the 15th of November, 1809, an
insurrection broke out among these turbulent troops, who
scaled the walls of the seraglio ; when Bairacter, having first
strangled Mustapha, blew himself up in his own palace, with
gunpowder which he had previously provided for such an
occurrence. Mahmoud continued to occupy the throne.

1809. — The British Parliament assembled on the 19th of
January, and passed a vote of thanks to the officers and sol-
diers, who had served in the Peninsula under Generals Sir J.
Moore, Sir A. Wellesley, and Sir D. Baird. At an early pe-
riod of the session, an inquiry was instituted which excited
considerable interest. Mr. Wardle, a colonel of militia,
charged the commander-in-chief of the army, the Duke of
York, with having permitted a lady named Clarke to sell
commissions at reduced prices, and to appropriate the money
thus raised to the maintenance of the duke's establishment.
During the proceedings on the case, it appeared that the traffic
had indeed been carried on, but unknown to his royal high-
ness ; and the House came to the decision that the charges of
" personal corruption and connivance at corruption," were
wholly unfounded. The duke, however, thought fit to re-
sign his office, which Sir David Dundas was appointed to fill.

England had lo lament, in the early part of this year, the
deposition of Gustavus IV. of Sweden, her old and faithful
ally. Secret discontent had long existed among the subjects
of that monarch, and it began to manifest itself openly, when

30^

880 GF.NF.RAL IIISTORV OF El'ROPE. [cHAF.

the proposals of peace, made hy France, were rejected by the
kinij. The public dissatisfaction was aiignu'iUed l)y the hiss
of I'omeraiiia and I-'inland, and by several iinpopidar mea-
sures. Civil war was on the point of breakinfr out : tiic king
had fixed the lOlh of March for the day of his departure to
oppose the rebels; his soldiers had set out, and the ollicers
had received orders to join them immediately. In tiiat crisis,
after all the council had in vain entreated the kino to conclude
a peace, the Field-marshal Klinsport and General Adler-
creutz waited on his majesty and told iiiin, " that an end must
be put to all the liorrors lie had commanded ; that their duty
as Swedes was to save their country, which was dearer to
them than any other object, and that he must either cci\c to
their entreaties or cease to reign." The king answered that
lie would never yield, anil drew his sword to ])i('rce (General
Adlercreutz; but at the same instant eight or ten other persons
entered, having at their head tlic marshal of the court, SifT-
versparre, who said, " Sire, your sword was given you to
draw against the enemies of the nation, not against loyal
Swedes, who only seek their country's haj)piness and yours,"
and at the same time he seized the sword. The king attempted
to escape by flight, but was overtaken and conducted the same
evening to the caslle of Droltningholm, where he was^dosely
guarded. On the 29th of March, he signed an act of abdi-
cation, addressed to the senate. His uncle, the Duke of Su-
dermania, was j)roclaimcd regent, and shortly after sovereign
of Sweden, by the name of Charles XIII. The Prince of
Augustenburg was elected crown-prince, and a new constitu-
tion was formed for the Swedish, monarchy. By a decree of
the diet of Sweden in the following year, the ex-King Gusta-
vus and his posterity were forever banished the Swedish terri-
tory, and forbidden to re-enter it under i)ain of death. Gustavus
afterwards came into Engluiul, where he travelled under the
title of Count Gottorp.

Shortly after the accession of Charles XIII., a treaty was
coniliiiled between him and the Fni|)eror Alexander, by
which Finland was ceded to the latter. Peace was also
proclaimed between Denmark and Sweden, and between
France and Sweden. IJy the treatv with France, Swedish
Pomerania and the priiicij)ality of Kugen were restored to
Sweden, and Charles agreeil to dose hi.H ports against Hritish
commerce. A treaty of peace and alliance, l)etween the King
ol' lOiigland and the Spanish authorities actinjr in the name
of Ferdinand, was concluded in February, his British majesty

XLVIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 331

engaging to assist in expelling the French from Spain ; and
Sir Arthur Wellesley was despatched to take the command
of the British army in the Peninsula, which by reinforce-
ments had been increased to 34,000 men.

The French, meanwhile, had not been inactive: Corunna,
Bilboa, and all the most important places on the northern
coast of Spain had fallen into their hands. Saragossa had
been subdued, (Feb. 21,) and, after a defence unparalleled in
modern history, compelled to surrender at discretion. Mar-
shal Soult had left Galicia, and having entered Portugal, had
made himself master of Oporto. To dislodge him from that
city was Sir Arthur's first object on reaching Lisbon; where-
fore, having stationed a sufficient force in the neighbourhood
to guard against any attack, he marched in April for Oporto,
drove the enemy thence, and then returned to join Cuesta
and advance with him against Victor, While Sir Arthur was
engaged in the north, that general had taken Alcantara,
whence he drove 600 of Sir Robert Wilson's legion and a
troop of Portuguese infantry. Upon the approach of Sir
Arthur, the French general, who, in taking Alcantara, had
only proposed to make a diversion in favour of Soult, aban-
doned bis conquest, and stationed his army in the neighbour-
hood of Car.ares. The patriot armies were at the same time
equally successful against the French commanders in the
north. After his return from Oporto, Sir A. Wellesley
remained for some weeks at Lisbon, trying to strike out a
plan of co-operation with the Spanish generals. During this
period, Victor's army was joined by that of Sebastiana, and
Ijy 45,000 men, under Joseph Bonaparte; thus reinforced,
they took post on the banks of the Aberche, in the vicinity of
Talavera de la Reyna.

The result of the conferences at Lisbon was, that the
united forces of Sir Arthur and Cuesta should march to
attack the central French forces, and to take possession of
Madrid. On Saturday, the 22d of July, the armies of Victor
and of the confederates were within sight of each other.
Sir Arthur Wellesley made dispositions to give battle on the
following day ; but Cuesta protesting against this intended
violation of the day of rest, the English commander deferred
the execution of his purpose ; and Victor retreated on the
evening of the 23d, to form a closer junction with the other
divisions of the French central army. Cuesta pursued him,
but the British troops, wanting means of transport, were
obliged to remain stationary. The advanced guard of Cuesta

832 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAP.

was attacked on tlio25th at Torrijas, ami the Spanish pcncral,
findiiiff his force much inferior to tliat of the eiu'inv, fell hack
on the Abcrehe. Several partial enffairenients, fouirht during
the course of that day and ni«jht, terminated in favour of the
IJritisli troop*;. At three o'clock next mornini:, July 2Glh,
an eminence held hy General Hill was ineircctually attacked
by the enemy. About noon, the action became general, and
before the close of day, the French were repulsed, with the
loss of 10,000 men. They retreated across the Al)erclie,
leaving twenty pieces of cannon in the hands of the com-
bined army.

The news of this victory excited great joy in England :
its acliiever was raised to the peeratre, and entitled Haron
Douro of Wellesley, and Viscount Wellington of Talavera,
and of Wellington, in the county of Somerset. But the
Spanish central junta, still careless and iuii)rovi(ient, neglected
to supply his army with necessaries ; and the brave soldiers
who had conquered at Talavera, suirered such extreme
want, as led to sickness and consequent dejection. While
in this state of languid helplessness, they were apprized
that Soult, Ney, and Mortier, with an army of 30,000,
were advancing through Estramadura, with the int(>nlion
of falling on tlie rear of the Ikilish army; it was therefore
deemed necessary to commence a retreat. Cnesta was left
at Talavera with the sick and wounded, to the numlx-r of
15,000; the greater part of whom, on being driven from
that position, he was obliged to leave in the hands of the
French. His own ill health and infirmities alfording a
plea for retirement, he resigned, and was replaced by (Jeneral
Eguia. Lord W»?llington continued his retrograde movement
till he reached Badajoz. The remainder of the campaign
was most disastrous to the patriots ; their armies were de-
feated in every direction. The increasing success of the
French awakening the fears of the junta, they issued a
proclamation for assembling the National Cortes on the 1st
of January, 1810.

The alienation which had for some time existed between
Enirland and America, was increased by a mis-statement of
Mr. Erskine, the Euirlish am!)assador to the United States.
He assured the American trovj-rnment, that if it issued a
proclamation for the renewal of intercourse with I'^ngland,
the onlers in council would be repealed. Mr. Madison, who
had succeeded Mr. JellVrson in the ofTice of prrsid-nt, con-
sented to the proposed measure ; but the English ministry

XLVni.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 333

refused to repeal the orders, asserting- tliat they had, indeed,
permitted Mr. Erskine to treat vvitii the American govern-
ment, but on a basis dillerent from that which he had laid
down. The American government, in turn, renewed the
non-importation act,* and much mutual recrimination en-
sued.

Bonaparte, in the mean while, had reached Paris, and found
the intelligence, which had been conveyed to him in Spain, as
to the hostile preparations of Austria, to be correct. Her land-
wehr, or militia, had been called out for the first time ; inde-
pendently of which, the regular troops of the empire, divided
into nine corps, consisted of at least 200,000 men, commanded
by the Archduke Charles in person. Bonaparte, on his side,
assembled troops to an immense amount, by new levies from
the interior of France, and by ordering his generals to advance,
at the head of their respective divisions, towards the Danube.
The Kings of Bavaria and Saxony, and the Princes of the
Rhenish confederation were called upon for their contingents,
and even the Emperor of Russia was induced to assume a hos-
tile attitude towards his late ally. The expected declaration
of war was issued by Austria on the 8th of April, and on the
following day the Archduke Charles crossed the Inn and en-
tered Bavaria. The French emperor left Paris to take the com-
mand of the grand army on the 12th of April, and, with his
usual rapidity of movements, arrived on the 17th at Donau-
werth. On the 20th, he routed a division of 60,000 men, com-
manded by the Archduke Lewis, and General Hiller, at Abens-
burg ; and the next day gained a more important victory at
Eckmiihl over four corps, under the orders of the Archduke
Charles, who, himself, narrowly escaped capture. Resolving
to follow up these early successes. Napoleon advanced with
such extreme rapidity upon Vienna as to defy the archduke's
efforts to outmarch him : the Austrians, therefore, limited their
hopes to gaining the bridges across the Danube, and defend-
ing the city by a battle under its walls. On the 10th of May,
Bonaparte appeared before Vienna. The citizens, stimulated
to resistance by the Archduke Maximilian, sustained a bom-
bardment for twenty-four hours ; but at the expiration of that
time surrendered. The Emperor Francis had previously fled
to Znaym. News of the surrender cf Vienna obliged the

* Previous to the negotiation with Mr. Erskine, the American govern"
ment had adopted a system of non-intercourse and non-importation towards
France and England, and removed the embargo, with respect to all othei
nations.

334 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAF.

Arduhikp riiarirs to alter ]\h plans : lie, therefore, moved
with a lorce of 75,U0U men aloiiff llu- iiorlli side ol'lliu Uaiiiibe,
«o prevent the French from crossing the river. Napoleon, at
the same time, marehed on the south bank to a ph.ce six miles
below the city, where the stream is broken by two islands,
resolving to cross the river at that point. lie passed by means
of pontoons from island to island, almost without interruption,
and secured a position on the; north side ; posting his riirht
winjj at the villaire of Essling, and his left at lliat of Aspern.
The Archduke Charles now resolved to make a general attack,
and ordered his troops to dislodge the French from the two
vilhiges. After a most sanguinary conllict, the Austrians suc-
ceeded in gaining Aspern ; they also defeated the main body
of the Frencti army ; but their cfTorts against Essling were in-
efl'ectual, and the day closed without their having gained that
village. During the engagement, the bridges which the
French had constructed across the Danube were destroyed, as
tlie Austrians sav, by fire-ships sent down the river by the
archduke for thai purpose ; or, as the French assert, by tim-
ber which floated down from Vienna. In the morning, the
battle was renewed; it continued, with various sui-ccss, during
the day ; but at night the French retreated to the isle of Lobau,
abandoning all their positions on the norlli bank of the Danube
and leaving 30,000 men dead on the field of batde. This was
the severest check Napoleon had hitherto met with, in his vic-
torious career; he had been exposed several times to the
greatest personal danger. The risk was once so imminent,
from the heavy discharge of artilhsry around him, that (Jeneral
AV alter was compelled to exclaim, *' Sire, withdraw, or I will
have you carried hence by my grenadiers." The emperor
was much afTected on hearing of the fate of Marshal Lannes,
who had received a mortal wound ; and during the fortnight
that general survived, was constant in paying him a daily visit.
While these events were passing on the Danube, and Dresden
and Ijciz wen; taken l)y tlie Archduke Ferdinand, I'adua and
Vicenza sul)milte(l to tlie Archduk.^ Jolin, who commanded in
Italy. 'I'he last named cities, however, were soon retaken by
the viceroy, Kugenc Heauharnais, wlio forced the Austrians
to rccross the Adige : the archduke retreated into Hungary,
and the viceroy hastened to reinforce the army of Napoleon,
which was considerably weakened by his late defeat. Several
wcr-ks were spent in preparing, on l)oth sides, to renew the
conllict. 'I'lie Isle of Lobau was strongly fortified i)y the
French ; and bridges, one of which was of sixty arches, were

XI.VIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 335

constructed to connect it with the northern bank of the Da-
nube, where the archduke was raising works to prevent the
tjneuiy from passing the river. Napoleon, to deceive the
archduke, made his chief preparations to effect a passage op-
posite the Austrian redoubts ; but on the night of the 4th of
July, he crossed the Danube in another direction, and ranged
his array next morning in order of battle, at the extremity of
the archduke's left, thus rendering the Austrian redoubts use-
less. On the 6th was fought the decisive battle of Wagram,
the success of which was principally owing to the skill of Na-
poleon, who, by directing his chief force against the arch-
duke's centre, drove back that part, and separated it from the
riglit wing, which, being thus isolated, was forced to surren-
der. The Archduke John came up at the close of the action,
but too late to turn the scale of victory, which evidently leaned
to the standard of Napoleon; he therefore retreated, without
having taken any part in the contest, towards Presburg. The
field was covered with innumerable dead, and the French took
20,000 prisoners. The Archduke Charles, in retreating to-
wards Boliemia, was pursued by them, and again defeated at
Znaym. These multiplied reverses induced the Emperor
Francis to sue for peace ; an armistice was signed on the 12th
of July, Vienna and several other cities remaining in posses-
sion of the French, till the conclusion of a definitive treaty.

News of the defeat of his generals by Wellington at Tala-
vera, reached Napoleon at Vienna, towards the end of July.
Shortly afterwards, a German, named Stapps, made several
attempts to gain access to the emperor; but the singularity of
his demeanour excited suspicions which led to his arrest. A
large knife was found upon his person, and he confessed it had
been his intention to kill the emperor, whom he looked upon
as the scourge of his country. The dread of assassination in-
duced Napoleon to hasten the negotiations for peace, which
were brought to a conclusion on the 14th of October ; France,
as usftial on such occasions, acquired a considerable increase
of territory, and the Princes of the Rhenish confederation
shared in the spoils of the vanquished ; even Russia was re-
warded with an additional province for having sent an army
of 39,000 men towards her frontiers. Besides these several
dismemberments of her territory, Austria agreed to pay a con-
siderable indemnity towards defraying the expenses of the
war, acceded to all the alterations already made, or to be here-
after made in Italy and the Peninsula, and concurred in the
{•rohibitory system, by which Napoleon sought to ruin the

396 OENKRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [ciIAP.

commerce of Great Hrilain. Tlio Empnror I'miicis ronsentocl,
luoroovcr, (llioiiijli wiiliout makiiiir :i slipulalion to that vlYcci
in tlifi treaty,) to jrive up the Tyrol to IJavaria. The itihahit-
ants of that district hail tried, durinjj ilu; war, to assert their
national independence in connexion with Austria, under the
lianners of their celebrated chief, llofer. They slili refused to
bend to the yoke of Bavaria, and maintained, for some time,
an arduous and often successful slruii:rle, but were finally sub-
dued, and their patriotic chief was seized and executed.

England, meanwhile, ever ready to extend the hand of friend-
ship to any nation that declared itself llic enemy of France,
liad sought to elfect a diversion in favour of Austria in two
ditFerent quarters. A division of British troops in Sicily was
ordered to embark for Naples and to reduce (Jalabria ; but no
permanent advantage was gained i)y the attempt. An enter-
prise of far greater moment occupied tli3 attention of the na-
tion during the summer. Extensive preparations were made
for filtincr out a formidable armament, consisting of thirty-uine
ships of the line, and liiirty-six frigates, besides a great num-
ber of gun-boats and bomb-vessels, with other small craft, and
near 10,000 land-forces, destined for the purpose of gaining
possession of the islands in the Scheld, and (hsstroying the
French ships in that river, as well as the arsenals of Antwerp
and Flushing. The fleet sailed on the 28th of July, under the
orders of Sir Richard Strachim. 'I'hc command of the land-
forces was confided to I^ord (,'hatliau». On th(! 1st of August,
Flushing was invested, and after sustaining a heavy cannonade
and bombardment, surrendered on the l.'ilh, the garrison, con-
sisting of r),(M)0 men, remaining prisoners. 'I'iie islands of
Schowen and Beveland were taken, and the ZealandtTS seemed
dis|)osed to favour the British cause. But the English com-
mander neglected to follow up these successes. iNIost of the
troops were left on board the transports, instead of being em-
ployed against the forts on the Scheld, till the sickness, which
lisuallv prevails in those parls during the aulumnal season,
seized and disabled them ; and till the French had collected a
large army for the defence of Antwerp, and moved their ship-
ping far up the river. Early in September, the British tronps
evacuated every part of Zealand except the island of W'alche-
rcn, the fortitications of which were repaired with much labour
and expense. A malignant fever, however, made dreadful
ravarres among the troops, and it Ix^came necessary, in order
to jjnvent the entire destructifui of the armament, to ai)an(l(m
Walchcren also. Such was the issue of this expensive and

ILVIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 337

unfortunate expedition. Bat these disasters and disappoint-
ments were not without alleviation: in otiier quarters t)ie
British navy maintained its wonted superiority. Early in
April, a gallant and successful attack was made by Lords
Gambler and Cochrane on a French squadron, of which four
ships of the line were destroyed. In October, Captain Hal-
lowell captured the whole of a French convoy in the bay of
Rosas. The island of Martinico, and the city of St. Domingo,
in the West Indies, the isles of Bourbon, Zante, Cephalonia,
Cerigo, and St. Maura, fell under the dominion of Great Bri-
tain, and the seplinsnlar republic was restored. The colony
of Cayenne was taken by a combined force of English and
Portuguese.

During his residence in Vienna, Bonaparte issued a decree,
announcing that, from the 1st of June, the papal territories
should form a part of the French empire, and Rome be a free
imperial city. The states of the Church, Napoleon averred,
were tiefs granted by his predecessor, Charlemagne, to the
Bishops of Rome ; it was now his pleasure to resume them,
this measure being necessary for the security of his army and
the prosperity of his empire. It was in vain that Pius VII.
protested against this decree, and published a bull, by which,
without naming the emperor individually, he excommuni-
cated the promoters and abettors of so unjust a spoliation ;
this measure made no alteration in the designs of Napoleon.
On the Gth of July, before two o'clock in the morning,
a troop of French soldiers, under the command of General
Radet, beset the palace of the Sovereign Pontiff; and, being
assisted by the gendarmerie and some Romans of the lowest
class, disarmed the papal guard, who had been forbidden to
m^ke any resistance, and got possession of the principal en-
trance. Having broken down the door which led to the apart-
ments of the Pope and of Cardinal Pacca, they advanced into
the presence of his Holiness, who, being awakened by the
tumult of the assault, had dressed himself, and with perfect
composure awaited the issue of this new aggression. Around
him were assembled Cardinals Despuiget and Pacca, toge-
ther with several prelates and ecclesiastics. The general, on
entering, turned pale, and stood for some moments silent, near
the door, in front of his troops : he then advanced, and with
a trembling voice informed the Pope that a very disagreeable
and painful commission had devolved upon him ; but having
tak«;n an oath of fidelity to the emperor, he felt bound to exe-
cute it; that he was charged to demand from his Holiness,

338 GENERAL HISTORY OF EIROPE. [^CHAP.

in the name of his imperial majesty, the renunciation of his
temporal soverci<,rnly ; that, in case of refusal, he had orders
to conduct tiic Pope to the quarters of the goneral-in-chicf,
MioUis,^ who would acciuaint him witii his ulterior destina-
tion. To this address his Holiness calmly replied; "If you
think yourself ohli;,red on account of your oath to execute
such orders from your emperor, do you think we can ahan-
don the riiiht.5 of the Holy See, which by so many oaths we
are bound to oi)tain .' We cannot renounce what does notbe-
loncr to us. The emperor may take our life, hut he will never
obIi<re us to retract what we have done." Then, rising from
his seat, and putting his breviary under his arm, he advanced
towards the door, where General Radet's carriage stood in
readiness; his Holiness entered it, accompanied by Cardinal
Pacca ; it was then about three o'clock in the morning. After
following for some time a circuitous route, tiiey drove out of
Rome by the Porta del Popolo. As they stopped to change
horses, the Pope mildly reproached Radct with having deceived
him. Why, he asked, instead of conducting him to the Pa-
lais Doria, where Miollis resided, had the general thus com-
pelled him to quit Rome, without attendants, and even with-
out other garments than those in which he was actually
attired. Radet attempted a few words of excuse, and replieil,
that his Holiness would speedily be rejoined by his suite,
who would carefully provide every thing that was nccessarv.
On resuming the journey, the Pope asked Cardinal Pacca, if,
in the hurry of departure, he had thought of bringing away
any money. Roth drew out their purses ; in that of his
Holiness they found one pape(to,i in the cardinal's three
gro.i.ti.X Showing his solitary pape/fo to Gom^ral Radet,
the Pope said, smiling, "Of all our principality, see what you
have left us !" He; replied with modest diirnitv to the alfcct-
ing demonstrations of grief and veneration which he met
with from all classes of his subjects ; and often repeated this
simple but sul)limc recommendation, " Courage and prayer !"
On arriving at the Chartreuse of Plorence, he was conducted

• In removing the Pope from Rome, Miollis seems to have acteJ on hi«
own responsibility, without having received precise orders to that efTcct
from Napoleon, who had only charjjed him to maintain tranquillity in
Rome. As Radct refused to act without n written order, Miollis jjave him
one, hut so rovrred with erasures and nlterations ns to he ahnost illetrilile.
In il, Radet was commandrd to arrest (.'ardinal I'acca, the Pope's principal
minister; in case of opposition, bis Holiness also, and conduct them bn\\
V> Florence.

\ About eleven [<ence, | Nearly eight penc*.

XLVni.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 339

to the apartment occupied, ten years before, by his venerable
predecessor. His Holiness was then in a state of great suf-
fering ; the burning heat of a midday sun, in the month of
July, and in a closed carriage, had brought on the first attack
of a serious indisposition. A short period of repose seemed
indispensably necessary ; but Colonel Boisard arriving the
same evening, with orders from Elisa Baciocche Bonaparte,
who then governed in Tuscany, for his immediate removal, the
august captive was compelled on the following day to resume
his journey, unaccompanied by Cardinal Pacca. At a short
distance from Florence, the heat being intense, the Pope re-
quested a glass of water. The multitude who surrounded
the carriage at every halting-place, vied with each other who
should be so fortunate as to supply this demand. " From
me, from me, Holy Father!" was lieardon all sides. " From
all, my childien, from all," replied the venerable old man,
with tears in his eyes. On many occasions a word, a look
would have insured his deliverance : the small troop of sol-
diers composing his escort would quickly have been over-
powered by a numerous and resolute peasantry. A chival-
rous youth who had forced his way through the crowd to
present some choice fruit to his Holiness, made the oiler in
two energetic words, " Vuole ? Dica !" But the Pope would
not run the risk of bloodshed, and, affectionately entreating
the multitude to disperse, continued his route towards Alex-
andria, where he arrived on the 15th. On the 21st he reached
Grenoble, where he was to make a short stay. The heroes
who had so nobly defended Saragossa, and were there detain-
ed prisoners of war, demanded permission to go in a body to
meet him ; their example was followed by the entire popula-
tion of the city and suburbs. At the beginning of August,
Colonel Boisard had orders to conduct the Pope to Valence,
and thence to Avignon. His entry into the latter city, which
had been so long under the dominion of the Holy See,
resembled a triumph ; the inhabitants crowded round the
carriage, which had stopped in the middle of the chief square ;
and so great was the concourse from the neighbourinfif
villages, that the mayor found it necessary, by closing the
city gates, to prevent their entrance. At Nice, arrangements
were made to give his Holiness a suitable reception. On
approaching the Pont du Var, he alighted from his carriage
to cross the bridge on foot : he advanced alone, his attendants
following him at a short distance. The scene was singularly
impressive ; ten thousand persons were on their knees iu

340 OENERA]. HISTORY OK EITROPE. [cHAP.

profoiiiiil silenre on tlie opposite side, each oc(Mipyrni» hia
desliiu'd slalioii, ilie noMe?* wi'uriiiu tlicir (li'coratioiis, llie
ecclesiastics the dress peculiar to their order, 'IMu; jjious
Queen of Elruria, between her two chiliren, implored
his hli'ssinu; with tears. *' llow altered are llic times!" she
exclaimed. "True," replied Pius, "but all is not bitter-
ness : we are no lonjrer, O my daughter, at Rome nor at Flo-
rence, yet see these people, listen to their arclamatiDns !"
The streets of the city were strewed with flowers at his en-
trance every niglit during his stay, the houses were splendidly
illuminated, and sacred hymns were sung in m.isic beneatii iiis
windows. On setting out for Savona, as it was thought ex-
pedient to choose an unfrequented road ihrougli the mountains,
and the Sovereign Pontifl" travelled liy night, a lady of distinc-
tion conceived tlie ingenious idea of sending out servants to
illuminate his path, bv hanging lamps on the trees ; this ex-
ample was followed by others, and finally by order of the
municipal authorities. On arriving at Savona, the Pope wag
at first lodged in the mansion of a family of the name of
Santon ; but five days later, tlie episcopal palace, from which
the bishop removed, was assigned for his residence. lie had
but two small rooms for his own private use; his tal)h', how-
ever, to whicli he was at lil)erty to invite whom he pleased,
was handsomely served, and Count Salraatoris waited on
him daily to take his orders. Su(!h was his position during
the rest of tliis, antl the whole of the two following years.

Though Napoleon appeared to despise the excommunica-
tion issued against the authors and abettors of the recent
spoliations, the indilFi^rence he alTected was not sincere. He
ordered a list to lie drawn up for his inspection, of all the
princes who had been under a similar sentence. A project
of a very important nature, however, now occupied his
thoughts. 'J'he birth of an heir to the widely-extended
empire over which he ruled, seemed alone necessary to give
8tal)ility to the dynasty he had founded, and, for this |)ur-
pose, the dissolution of his marriage with Josephine was
indispensable as a preliminary step. The empress, though
reluctant, was induced to yield her consent ; and all the
princes and princesses of the imperial family being assembled,
with the Arch-chancellor (Jambaccri-s, in the empf^ror's
cabinet, a decree dissolving the marriage was signed by all
present. The senate pass('d a law authorizing the act, in
December: Josephine was to retain tlie title of empress, and
to receive an annual revenue of 2,000.000 francs.

XLU.] OBNERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 34l

In September, some changes look place in the English
ministry, from which the Duke of Portland withdrew on
the plea of age and infirmity. Lord Casllereagh and Mr.
Canning also resigned, and were succeeded, in their respect
ive posts, by the Earl of Liverpool and the Marquis of
Wellesley. Mr, Percival, who was at the head of the new
administration, united the office of first lord of the treasury
with that of chancellor of the exchequer. The 25th of Octo-
ber being the fiftieth anniversary of his majesty's accession,
the day was celebrated throughout the kingdom as a jubilee,
with marked demonstrations of loyalty and affection. To
occasional attacks of his mental malady, was added an al-
most total privation of sight : afflictions wliich rendered the
king an object equally worthy of commiseration and re-
spect

CHAPTER XLIX.

EUROPE, FROM THE PKACE OF VIENNA, IN 1809, TO THE WAR
WITH RUSSIA, IN 1812.

The Parliament of Great Britain resumed its sittings in
January, 1810. The king's speech having been read by com-
mission, a warm debate ensued, relative to the peninsular war
and the expedition to the Scheld ; the usual addresses were,
however, carried, as well as a vote of thanks to Lord AVelling-
ton and his army, for the bravery displayed by them at Tala-
vera. The questions of Catholic emancipation and of Parlia-
mentary reform were again agitated, during this session ; but
the advocates for concession were far outnumbered by their
opponents, and both of these important measures were nega-
tived by large majorities. An incident occurred, not long after
the meeting of Parliament, which attracted for a time the
attention of the public. Sir Francis Burdett published an
address to his constituents, denying the right of the House
of Commons to imprison the people of England. This publi-
cation was voted a scandalous and seditious libel, and orders
were issued to the sergeant-at-arms to take the author into
custody. Sir Francis, however, disputed the legality of the
speakers warrant, and avowed his intention not to submit,
unless compelled by force. On the 9th of April, the sergeant-
at-arms, with a party of police and a detachment of military,
forced an entrance into the baronet's house, and conveyed

31*

342 OENKRAL HISTORY OK EUROPE. [cHAF.

him to the Tower. Tlip escort, on its return, was attacked
by the populace; several sliols were lired, and two or three
persons h)st their lives. At tlie prorotratinn of Parliament,
Sir Francis was liherated, and a triumphal jirocession from
the 'I'ower to his house in Piccadilly was planned by liis
friends; but lie disappointed their exi)ectati(Mis, returning
privately by water, in order to avoid any occasion of furtlier
mischief.

The affairs of Spain, at the close of 1809, seemed almost
desperate. The defeat of the central army, under General
Areizajifa, was followed by that of the left, commanded by the
Duke Del I'arque, and of the riirht, under the orders of Hlake.
'I'he French main army, under Joseph 13ona])arte, Soult, and
Victor, forced the passes of the Sierra Morena in January, and
took Andujar and Cordova, wliil(! a division comnianded by
Sebastiani entered Granada. Malaga was reduced shortly
after, and completed aline of posts in possession of the French.
The approach of the eneiuy induced the Supreme Junta to
remove to Cadiz. 'I'he members of that body were suspected
of a willingness to compromise with Joseph Bonaparte ; and
on the day of their departure, the people of Seville rose
tuinultuoiisly, demanding their deposition, and calling upon
Gcucral Romana to defend the city. Instead of (■<iMij)lying
with the requisition, he proceeded to IJadajoz, and Seville,
unprepared for resistance, surrendered in February to Victor.
Large stores of ammunilion and 200 j)ieces of ordnance fell,
on this occasion, into the hands of the French, who now
becan to make formidable preparations for the siege of ('adiz.
The junta refused to admit 7,000 Hrilish troops fur the
defence of diat city : two regimenta oidy were allowed to enter,
on condition that they should not be employed in the fortress.
The Duke of Albucjuerrpie, at the head of a Sjianish army,
arrived in the Isle of JiCon, before the French couUl reach it,
and made every preparation for a vigorous defence. The
suspicions against the junta induced that body to transfer its
authority to a regency, conij)oscd of five persons, who, how-
ever, were only to act till the Cortes should assend)le, and
who, from tlie out.set, were placed in a very embarrassing
position. Tiiey issued their orders in tlu! name of a captive
prince, and had not the power to enforce their execution, in a
pnuntrv occupied or traversed on all sides by hostile armies.
In the mean while, the I-reneh took possession of a fortress
ai)out two mile.s from Cadiz, where they erected works; and
before the close of the year, they were enabled to throw'shells

XLIX.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 343

into the city ; the distance, however, rendered their effect
inconsiderable.

In the Other parts of Spain the war was carried on with
great activity ; the French were constantly harassed by the
desultory operations of the guerillas; often vanquished, but
never subdued, the hardy mountaineers of the Alpujarras in
Granada, were ever on the alert against the invaders. In
Navarre, Biscay, and Asturias, patriotic insurrections were
organized, and leaders sprang up to train the peasantry.
Under the assumed names of El Pastor, El Manco, Ei
Empecinado, several signalized themselves by turns in this
desultory warfare. A Spanish force captured Ronda, but an
expedition undertaken by the English against Malaga entirely
failed ; and the commander. Lord Blaney, was made prisoner.
On the other hand. Marshal Suchet, after gaining great advan-
tages in Catalonia and Arragon, was defeated with considerable
loss by General Caro.

The disasters of the Spanish commanders in the early part
of the year, had obliged liord Wellington to remove his army
from Badajoz to the north of the Tagus, and to confine his
views for a time to the defence of Portugal. He chose a
strong position at Torres Vedras, whicli having fortified, and
thus provided for retreat and embarkation, should they be-
come necessary, he advanced to watch the movements of
Ney, Soult, and Regnier, who were stationed in Leon. His
army consisted of 30,000 British, and 60,000 native troops.
Ciudad Rodrigo was invested by Ney on the 11th of June.
About that time Marshal Massena arrived with 80,000 men
from Paris, to take the command of the army destined for
the conquest of Portugal. The advanced guard of the
British forces was repulsed, and Ciudad Rodrigo surrendered
to the enemy in July. Almeida, with a garrison of 5,000
men, Eno-lish and Portuw'uese, was next invested, and com-
pelled to open its gates to the invaders in August. Massena
now advanced into Portugal ; Lord Wellington retreated
before him towards Coimbra, purposing to concentrate his
forces in that neighbourhood, and there oppose the march of
the French. He passed to the right of the Mondego, and
occupied, with his centre and right, the Sierra Busaco, a
ndge of hills, extending to that river. Massena arriving in
front of his position on the 26th of August, resolved on an
attack, which he earned into eflfect the following day. The
French pushed up the hill with great resolution, and one
division reached the summit of the ridge ; but they were

344 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHiLP.

rcp\ilsc(l at tlie point of the bayonet. The Portuguese troops,
under Marshal Heroslord, rcntlcrcd ellu-ient aid on this occa-
sion. After tliis action, l^ord Wrllinglon, linihng that
Massena had gained the road from Oporto to Coiml)ra, con-
tinued to retreat till he reacheil the lines of Torres Vedras,
about thirty miles from Lisbon, carrying with him almost the
whole population of the intervening country, including
that of Coimbra. Much individual distress was caused by
this measure, l)ut it was relieved by liberal contributions in
Lisbon and in England, Massena having reconnoitred the
lines of Torres Vedras, and ascertained the impracticability
of fiircinsf them, withdrew to a fortified position at Saiitarem,
where he remained during the winter. His army suHered
many privations and inconveniences, from which the British,
with the capital and an open sea lu'hind tluMU, were exempt.
Such were the respective positions of the invaders and
defenders of Portugal at the end of the year.

The National Cortes of Spain assembled in September, in
the isle of Leon ; tlie regency was dissolved in the following
month, antl the government intrusted to an executive council
of three members. Among other enactments, the ('ortcs
passed a decree in favour of the liberty of the press, and
conferred upon the inhabitants of Spanish America, the privi-
lege of sending members to the national representation. But
this concession did not suffice to secure their alleiriance : and
this year witnessed the first outbreak of that revolt which has
since caused so much disorder and l»loodshed. 'J'lie spirit of
discontent first manifested itself in the colony of Caraccas.
Other provinces joined in asserting their independence, and,
in April, a union was formed, under the name of the
American Confederation of Venezuela. The city and great
part of the province of Buenos Ayres took part in the revolt,
while .Monte Video continued faithful to Spain ; this circum-
stance gave rise to a sanguinary war between the two states.

The conquests achieved by the British navy, in 1810,
were of consideral)le importance, (iuadaloupe, the only
island still remaining to the French in the West Indies, waa
taken in February by Sir J. Beckwith. During the same
month, Ambnyna was taken from tlie nnleh, 1)V a liritish
force from Madras; and in Auirust. the isle of Banda, though
protected by 700 regular troops and 'MM) militia, surrendered
to an En<rlish frigate, the Carolina, a(Tordiii<r a rich bootv to
the f aptors. To this acquisition was added that of the isles
of Bourbon and Mauritius: the French batteries at Madagus-

XLIjC.^ general history of EUROPE. 345

car were destroyed ; and at the close of the year, France
possessed not a single foot of land in the East or West
Indies, nor a ship in the Indian seas. But these advantages
to England were counterbalanced, in a great measure, by the
daily-increasing power of Bonaparte on the continent. Ilis
grand aim at this epoch was to form an alliance conducive to
the stability of his dynasty; and his marriage with Maria
Louisa, the eldest daughter of the Emperor of Austria, to the
astonishment of all Europe, was accomplished without diffi-
culty. The espousals were celebrated at Vienna, on the 1 1th
of March, the Archduke Charles receiving the hand of his
niece as proxy for his late antagonist. The empress-elect
immediately set out for France, and was met by Napoleon at
Compeigne. The civil contract was signed at St. Cloud on
the 1st of April, and on the following day the religious
ceremony took place in the chapel of the Louvre. In order to
proceed to a second marriage, it had been necessary to
declare the first invalid ; for which purpose, the archiepisco-
pal see being vacant, two new ecclesiastical courts were called
into existence, by the sole authority of the emperor, who
positively declined having recourse to the Pope. The
union of Napoleon with Josephine had not been sanctioned
by the church, until the eve of their joint coronation, and
then so privately as to exclude even the presence of wit-
nesses. On this circumstance, and on the absence of the
proper pastor, the first of these courts grounded a decision
favourable to the divorce. All tlie necessary dispensations
had, it is true, been granted by the Pope, at the solicitation
of Cardinal Fesch on that occasion ; but the court might justly
consider as not proved, a fact which rested on the assertion
of one individual, unsupported either by documentary evi-
dence or by living witnesses. The second court came to
a similar conclusion, on the plea that the emperor's interior
consent, as he alleged, had been wanting, and that, considering
the marriage-ceremony performed in his cabinet null, he had
gone through it merely to gratify Josephine. There were,
however, many among the cardinals* whom the reasons of the
two courts failed to satisfy ; and though all, to the number of
twenty-six, assisted at the civil contract, thirteen absented
themselves from the religious ceremony, alleging, as their
only motive, that the dissolution of the first marriage had not
been sanctioned by the Pope. The wrath of the emperor on

* All the cardinals who were not disabled by age or infirmity had been
comjielled to quit Italy and reside in Paris.

846 GENERAI, HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

this occasion \v:is extreme ; he not only forbade thoin to
appear at court, hut ohliired them to lay aside tiie piirpk^ and
assume the black dress worn bv ordinary cicrijvini'ii.* A
few days later they were i)aiiishcd into various towns of
France, and deprived of the revenue that had been assijrued
theui for tlicir maintenance : their slender wants, were, how-
ever, abundaiilly supplied by voluntary contrii)uti()ns.

A remarkable incident took place this year in Sweden.
The Prince of Auirustenl)urn', who, upon the deposition of
Gustavus IV., had l)een declanul heir to that ttirone,died sud-
denly, and a suspicion was excited, that he had been carried
oflT ijy poison. As the deceased prince was very popular,
Count Ferson, who had been his enemv, was drajrijed from,
his carriaire on the day of the funeral, and torn to pieces i)y
the mob. Government, to appease the people, instituted an
inquiry, the result of which was, that the Prince of Auuus-
tenburg had died of apoplexy. In August the diet asseml)led,
to elect another successor to the throne. The candidates
were four in numl)er; the son of the deposed monarch, the
King of Denmark, the brother of the late crown-prince, and
Beruadolle. The reasons which induced the States to give
the preference to the French marshal, are involved in mys-
tery ; ii seems |)roba!)le that the emperor favoured the eh c-
tion, as he generously allowed licrnadolte a sum of 2,(»()0,()00
francs to meet the expenses of his installation. Some mis-
undrrstaniling had, however, occurred between them, relative
to the battle of Ratisl)on fluring the Austrian campaign, ;md
Bernadotte was not unwillinjr to transfer his services where
they were likely to be better appreciated. In his domestic,
as well as in his foreign policy, the views of Bonaparte were
singularly despotic. Pursuing his system of annexations, he
compelled his brother Louis, by a series of insults and en-
croachments, to abdicatf! the crown of Holland ; and the Seven
Provinces were t'orlhwilh added to tlu; empire of France.
Louis, during his short reign, had studied the interests and
gained the alTeclion of his people, and his departure from

• Hence arose the dcKi^nation of hitck and red cardinals, which for
some tirni! ili-<Uii.»ui-.hfil ihi- tlrin from itie more teriiporizinfj. The lihirl! car-
dinals were Mallei, I'ii;rMielh, I,i Sotna^lia, Scotii. iSaluzzo, (laleiri, Urari-
cadoro, (Jonsalvi, Louis HiilTi), Lilla, I)i I'ietro, Opizzoiii, and Cial>rir||i.
Cardinal Pacca was Klill a (irisoncr at Fenestrt'lles, whither he had hecn
conveyed when pep araied from the Pojm- at Florence : he remained in
c«(>tivity three yi'ars and a half; it a.m during his ministry that the hfU
of excuininuuicalion had Itcen published.

XLIX.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 347

among them was a subject of regret to all. The Ilanse
towns, with tlie whole of the coast, from the Elbe to the
Ems, were likewise incorporated with France. The Elector-
ate of Hanover was annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia,
and the conscription laws were extended, as well to that as to
all the other kingdoms of recent creation. While these
arbitrary measures were enforced by the French emperor,
the King of England experienced a return of the malady un-
der which he had suffered in 1789, and of which he had in
1801 and in 1804 transient attacks. The death of his young-
est and favourite daughter, Amelia, caused him such poignant
affliction, as to occasion a relapse into that state of mental aber-
ration which clouded the latter years of his reign and life.
Parliament had been three times prorogued in the hope of his
recovery, when the continuation of his indisposition suggested
to ministers the necessity of vesting the roval powers, with cer-
tain restrictions, in the Prince of Wales. Notwithstanding the
objections raised by the opposition, who wished to invest the
regent with the full exercise of tlie royal prerogative, resolu-
tions for a restricted regency were carried, and a deputation
from both Houses informed the prince of the decision. He
accepted the profTered trust, though not without objecting to
the restrictions with which it was accompanied. The care
of the king's person and the management of his household
were committed to the queen.

1811. — The domestic affairs of Great Britain, during this
first year of the regency, wore a gloomy and unpromising
aspect. The extent of commercial distress, caused by the ex-
traordinary rigour with which tlie continental system was en-
forced, in all the countries where the influence of France
extended, was so great as to induce Parliament to appoint a
committee to concert measures of relief. On its recommenda-
tion, the sum of £6,000,000 was allotted, to be advanced to
such merchants as should apply for it, and give security for
its repayment. In Ireland, the system of domestic policy
adopted by the regent was a source of keen disappointment.
The Catholics of Great Britain in general, and of Ireland in
particular, had hoped that the accession of the Prince of
Wales to power would have brought them a redress of griev-
ances ; yet they found him retaining a ministry, avowedly
hostile to the concession of their claims. They resolved,
therefore, to address Parliament and the regent, on the con-
tinued existence of the disqualifying statutes, and purposed
forming a general committee, to prepare their petitions. The

348 OKNERAL HISIORY OF ETROPE. [cHAP

Irish j^overnment, liowever, issued a proclamation, prohibit
iiiq^ the c'k'clioii of Catholic delegates, and ortlerinj^ the arrest
and prosecution of electors. The Catholics, notwithstanding,
assembled on the 31st of July; uj)on which five persons who
had assisted at the meeting were arrested, and bound over to
stand their trial for the viitlalion of the ('onvention Act. On
that of Dr. Sheridan, who was one of the prisoners, the chief
justice and judges varied with the jury as to the verdict to be
given. 'I'he former conceived that he had, the latter tliat he
had not violated the Convention Act. He was pronounced
" Not guilty," and the Catholics continued to meet; but go-
vernment, jndcring that Sheridan's acquittal was owing to a
defect of evidence, instituted proceedings against Mr. Kirwin,
another of the arrested delegates, who was declared guilty;
whereupon the Catholic committee ceased to exist as a dele-
gated body.

To these scenes of domestic dissension, the ascendency
acquired by Englishmen in foreign countries presents a strik-
ing contrast. In August a splendid acquisition was made to
the British empire in Asia, by the reduction of Hatavia, the
capital of the Dutch setdcments in the East Indies, with the
island of Java, in which it is situated. The Governor-ge-
neral of India, Lord Alinto, j)lanne(l and accompanied the ex-
pedition. The IJritisii troops huiiled unopposed, and liaving
lodged themselves in the suburbs, the burghers surrendered
the city, which had been previously evacuated by the garri-
son. The Dutch army, amounting to 1(»,000 nun, was great-
ly superior in numbers to the English, and lay entrenched in
a strong position, between the river Jacatra and an artificial
canal, neither of which was fordable ; s(!ven redoubts and
many batteries mounted with heavy cannon, occu|)ied the
most elevated grounds within the lines. The Dutch com-
mander-in-chief, (Jcneral Jansen, was in one of them, when
the assault was made l)v the British: the seven redoidils were
carried at the point of the bayonet, and the assailants rushing
in at every point, the whole of the Dutch army was killed,
taken, or dispersed ; the loss of the English scarcely amount-
ing to 900 men. General Jansen, with about 50 hs»rse, the
remnant of his 10, 000 men, made a feeble attempt at resist-
ance, which terminated in the surrender of himself and his
troops, with the islanil of Java and all its dej)cnilencies. This
imporUint conquest being completed, not a vestige remained
of llie CJallo-Hatavian diuninioii in the East.

In the Peninsula, the war was carried on with gnat activity

XLIX.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 349

and with various success. Early in the year, Soult reduced
the strongly-fortified town of Olivenza, and defeated a Spa-
nish army under the orders of Mcndozabel, who, the Marquis
de Roinana being dead, had succeeded to the command. The
French general then laid siege to Badajoz, which surrendered
in March with its garrison of 7,000 men, not however with-
out having for some time braved the efforts of the besieging
army. Massena, meanwhile, maintained his position at San-
tarem, till the difficulty of procuring provisions obliged him
to retreat towards the Spanish frontier. In the night of the
5th of March, he broke up his fortified camp; and by the
skill with which he directed the movements of his army,
preserved it, though closely pursued by Lord Wellington,
from any material disaster. But the French marshal and his
soldiers tarnished their military fame, by the cruelties they
exercised on their march. On the 4th of April they passed
the Portuguese frontier, and, entering Spain, continued their
retreat across the Amieda.

After Massena's retreat, Lord Wellington, leavinc the com-
mand of his army to Sir Brent Spencer, with orders to block-
ade Almeida, went to visit Marshal Beresford, who commanded
a united force of English and Portuguese in Estremadura.
He then took a position from whence he could invest Olivenza
and Badajoz, which he was extremely desirous to recover
from the French. Olivenza surrendered to Marshal Beresford
in Aprd, and Lord Wellington, having concerted measures
with him for the blockade of Badajoz, returned to his own
head-quarters. That city was accordingly invested on the
I2th of May; but the news that Soult was advancing to its
relief, induced Beresford to withdraw his army from its walls,
and march towards the Albuera to meet the enemy. Having
been joined by the Spanish corps of Blake and Castanos, he
posted his troops on a ridge of ground which overlooks that
river. Here he was attacked on the mornino- of the 16th;
the battle was maintained for five hours with such coolness
and bravery as to exalt either army in the estimation of the
other ; but the French were eventually defeated, and Soult
retired toward Andalusia. The allies being inferior in cavalry,
did not think it prudent to hazard a pursuit. The renewal
of the siege of Badajoz was the immediate result of this
brilliant, though hard-earned victory. Lord Wellington, who
nad not been able to reach that city in time for the engage-
ment, arrived before it on the 19th. The siege was now
vigorously pushed ; the trenches were opened and a breac.*^

350 OENER.VL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

was made in fort St. Chrisfoval. On the Gth of June the
assault was bo^un : l)iit tlie clforls of the assaihmts were ren-
dcrtnl unavailinir hv tlie bravciv of tlie I)esio<rod. A second
assault on the nii,rht of the *Jth liaving also failed, and intelli-
gence arriving that Soult and Marniont (to whom Massena,
beinj^ recallerl to Paris, liad resigned the ronimand) were
advancing with their united forces. Lord VVelliuirton judged
It expedient to raise the siege, and wiliidraw the allied army
across the Guadiana. In August he made an unsuccessful
attack on Ciudad Rodrigo, and shortly after cantoned his
army, which was sutlering greatly from si(;kn('ss, within the
Portuguese frontier : the French, under Soult, fell back upon
Salamanca, where they remained during the winter months.
The vicinity of Cadiz was the theatre of an engagement
highly honourable to the British arms. General Graham,
commander of the English forces in that city, (inding that
part of the besieging army had quitted its environs for IJada-
joz, which Soult was then i)lockading, fitted out an exjied.
lion in February, consisting of 4,000 British and 7,000 Spanish
troops; the command of which was given to Don Manuel
Lapena, under whom (General Graham consented to serve.
The troops embarked on the 18lh, and landeil on the 23d, at
Algcsiras. On the 4lh of March, General Lapena having,
by a well-directed attack on the enemy's position at Sanli Petri,
succeeded in forming a communication with the isle of Leon,
ordered General Graham, whom he had left on the heights
of Barossa, to descend, and commit the defence of that post
to some Spanish regiments. When the British troops had
proceeded halfway down the hill, they were apprized that
the Frencli under Victor were makinij for the heights. The
British general, considering that position as the key to Santi
Petri, immediately ordered a countermarch, in order to sup-
port the troops posted for its defence. Some of his men
became entan<{led in a wood, and before he could extricate
them, he saw the Spaniards retiring, and the left wing of the
French ascending the heights. 'I'heir right still stood upon
the plain, and (ieneral (Jraham, to prevent their gaining any
further advantages, resolved on making an immediate attack,
with the troops under his command. A gen(;ral battle wa."
the result of this determination : the number of the French
engaged in it was H.IKIO, nil well appointed and al)ly i om-
manded ; that of the iMijjlish was only 3,000; yet in less
than an hour and a half Marshal Victor was comixllcd In
retreat, after havinir sustained consi(lfral>le loss. But the

XLIX.] GENERAI, HISTORY OF EUROPE. 351

English and Spaniards reaped more glory than advantage
from their victory ; the blockade of Badajoz, which it had
been the chief object of the expedition to interrupt, was not
impeded by it. The disappointment which resulted from tlie
failure of this enterprise, was aggravated by the death of the
Duke d'Albuquerque.

While so large a part of the French armies was thus em-
ployed in watching and preventing t!ie designs of the allied
troops in the south and west of Spain, another, and not an
inconsiderable force, endeavoured to gain the Spanish fort-
resses in the east. In April, however, that of Figueras, occu-
pied by them, was surprised by a body of Catalonians, and
taken without firing a shot, the garrison remaining prisoners.
Tarragona was invested by Suchet on the 4th of May ; an
obstinate defence only protracted its fall. On the 28th of
June it was taken by storm, and its brave defenders were
massacred by their victors. Every species of outrage and
cruelty was suffered on this occasion by the unfortunate 'J'ar-
ragonians. The city was set on fire, and numbers of the
inhabitants thrown into the flames. Suchet himself relates,
in his official account of this transaction, that 4,000 persons
were killed within the walls, and of those who endeavoured
to escape, 1,000 were either sabred or drowned, and 10,000
made prisoners. Figueras was, about the same time, retaken
by the French under Macdonald. From Tarragona, Suchet
entered the province of Valencia and laid siege to Murviedro.
General Blake, who had advanced to its relief, was defeated,
and the city compelled to surrender. Following up his suc-
cess, Suchet next besieged Valencia, into which Blake had
retreated ; after a bombardment of three days, the Spanish
general agreed (January 9th, 1812) to a capitulation, by whicli,
though defended by 18,000 troops of the line, that city was
surrendered to the French, a great number of officers of rank,
with Blake himself, remaining prisoners. Pensacola, a fort-
ress of great strength, a Gibraltar in miniature, was shorUy
after taken by the French, through the treachery of the go-
vernor.

These triumphs of Napoleon's generals failed to bring sta^
bility to the throne, or happiness to the mind of him in whose
name they were effected. Joseph Bonaparte, wanting the
affections of liis subjects, and destitute of such pecuniary
succours as were necessary to support his regal dignity, fled
from Madrid to Paris in a fit of sudden despondency, and,
failing to obtain from his imperial brother means to recrui/

352 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cTIAP.

tlie Spanish treasury, solicilrd permission to retire to a private
station. A fresh supply of troops and orders to retain his
sovereiijnlv were i{iven him by Napoleon. The ('ortes con-
tinued to sit in the isle of Leon, and to make important
ehani^es in the ancient and fundamental laws of the Spanish
inonnrehy. Their South American colonies, in tlie mean
while, persevered in asserting their iuilependenee, and holilly
contended with the royalists, though they failed, duiing this
year, to gain any signal advantage over them. In Mexico,
a series of sanguinary engagements terminated in the discom-
fiture of the patriot!^.

Amidst the variety of affairs which occupied the attention
of tlie Emperor Napoleon, those of the chureh were liy far
the njost important and intricate. He had triumi)hed over the
chief continental princes, but the invincible constancy of the
feel)le and aijed Pontiff, whom he still held captive at Savona,
placed a barrier to his projects of universal dominion, which
he could not remove at the point of the sword. Threats,
spoliation, privations of every kind, solitude, and a total sepa-
ration from all who could advise or console, had been resorted
to by the emperor to enforce compliance with his wishes, yet
Pius remained rirm in his refusal to compromise his conscience
and tiie rights of the Holy See, or to enter into any neiroiiations
with the spoliator, till allowed to take tlie advice of his spiritual
councillors, and restored to the independent exercise of his au-
thority in the city of Home. The rigours of his captivity
weie therefore redoubled. On the 11th of January, while
taking the air in the garden adjoining the episcopal palace,
his a|)artinents were entered by thi! emperor's emissaries, and
searched with the most minute exactness. The seals were
set upon every oi)ject that bore the slightest trace of hand-
writing; the Pope's despatches, public as well as private,
even his breviaries, were seized, carried aw;iy, and sent off to
Paris, ('omit Mertliier, who had hilherlo filled the olhce of
master of his |)alace, suddenly disappeared : his |)lace was
supplied i)y a steward, who announced that each Italian com-
posing the household, the I*ope includt;d, was in future to
receive from the imperial treasury no more than five paoli
(about twenty pence) a day. This absurd regulation was
enforced for seventeen days, during which the inh.iliilants of
Savona enjoyed the advantage of testifying their allachment
and veneration for the illustrious captive, by an abundant sup>
plv of every thiiiL' twedfnl. As these testimonials of respect
did not meet the cinjicror's views, things wi;re re-established

XLIX.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 363

on their former footing ; a splendid dinner was daily provided,
at which the Pope never appeared, and other necessary ex-
penses duly defrayed from a sort of civil list assigned for the
purpose, over which he declined exercising any control.
Among the papers seized in January, were found a brief con-
ferring extraordinary powers on the Cardinal di Pieto, and
another addressed to Cardinal Maury. From that moment
the use of pens and paper was denied to his holiness, and all
communications with persons from abroad expressly prohi-
bited ; Cardinal Doria, his confessor, and his Maestro di Ca-
mera, Moiraghi, to whom he was singularly attached, were
removed and sent to a distant prison. The Pope endured all
these outrages with heroic firmness, and without the slightest
mark of pusillanimity or discouragement.

Napoleon, meanwhile, continued to nominate to the vacant
sees in Germany, in Italy, and in France. Cardinal Maury
was named to the archbishopric of Paris, on the refusal of
that dignity by Cardinal Fesch, to whom it had first been
offered. The Bishops of Faenza and Nancy, whose subservi-
ency to the will of the emperor earned them this distinction,
were respectively appointed to the patriarclial and archiepisco-
pal sees of Venice and Florence. But as the Pope refused
to give canonical institution to any of these nominees, the
chapters in most instances refused to acknowledge them, and
thus drew down on themselves the vengeance of Napoleon,
which was seldom braved with impunity. Eight fortresses,
converted by him into state prisons, were crowded with per-
sons of every rank, chiefly ecclesiastics, who were immured
there on the slightest suspicion, and detained for weeks,
months, or years, at the pleasure of the despot. In this state
of aflairs. Napoleon inquired of the Ecclesiastical Commis-
sion, which he convoked anew in March, from whom his
bishops were to obtain canonical institution, in case all com-
munication should be interrupted between the Holy See and
the subjects of the empire. To discuss this question with
greater solemnity, he called together unexpectedly the members
of the commission, with the principal theologians, the coun-
cillors of state, and the grand dignitaries of the empire. The
emperor opened the sitting by declaiming violently against
what he termed the obstinacy of the Pope : on a sudden, by
one of those abrupt transitions, so familiar to him, he turned
to M. Emery, the superior of the Oratorians, then nearly
eighty years of age, and said, " What is your opinion of the
authority of the Pope?" "Sire," replied that venerable

33*

854 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROrE. j^CHAF.

ecclesiastic, "I can have no other opinion than tluit which is
contained in the catechism ta\ifriit hy your orders in all the
rluirches of l-'rance. In answer to the question, ' What is
meant hy the Pope?' I lind this reply, ''i'iie head of the
Church, the Vicar of Christ on earth, to whom all Ciiristians
owe ohedirnce.'" Napoh'on a]i|)care(l surpi iscd : :in(l, afier
muttering tiie word ('(itic/ii.stii, coMtiniicd, " I do not contest
the spiritual power of the Pope ; hut his temporal power
was conferred on him hy Charlemaj:ne, and I, who am the
successor of Charlcmaiine, am resolved to deprive him of it."
The Abbe ?]mery cited JJossuet, who asserts the independ-
ence and full liberty of the head of tlie Churcli to be essen-
tial to the exercise of his spiritual ])0\ver. 'J'o this Napoleon
replied,"! do not reject the authority of Bossuet : all that
was very true in his time, when Europe was sui)ject to many
rulers ; but what inconvenience can there l)e in the Pope's
submission to me, now that the continent acknowled<res no
other master ?"* This question was of too personal a nature
not to excite a momentary embarrassment ; yet the Abbe
Emery liad the noble courajre to reply, that affairs mipht not
always continue in their actual position, and that the incon-
veniences foreseen by IJossuet miglitat some future day occur,
wlierefore it was better not to change an order of things so
wisely established, 'i'he emperor appeared convinced, and,
on rising to withdraw, noticed no one else, but saluted the
Abbe Emery with visil)le marks of esteem and veneration.
The counsels of the courageous Altbc were however soon
disregarded for the more agreeable dictates of flattery. The
idea of ap[n'aling to an assembly of prelates, incorrectly
termed a national council, charmed the vanity of Napoleon,
who, witli this view, in his newly-assumed character of em-
peror of the west, called to Paris the greater part of the bi-
shops of France and Italy. This assembly, which consisted
of six cardinals, nine archbishops, and eighty bishops, held
its first and only session lui lb*- 17th of .fune. After the usual
preliminary ceremonies. Cardinal Fesch, who presided, took

• The rolrliralpd srulptiir, Pnnovn, w;is called to Paris this yrar to model
a staliu' of the EmprcKK Marin I.nnisa. Napoleon fre(|iienlly assisted at
the KittiriKK, ronverHinu rnimliiirly with the artist, and wax not displeased
when that fuilhful Huljeet of his Indine.ss ex|iostulated with him nn the
detention of his sovertiKii. " How !" said Napoleon, '• he would not
expel the EnKlish from his Htatrs ! he resisted my will, who am the sovc-
reicn of sixty millions of siilijeets !" Thi" statue was no sooner rom-
lileteil than (-atiova set out for Kotnc, refusing the dignity of genator, offcreif
nim by the emperor.

XLIX.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE, 355

the oath of fidelity and true obedience to the Holy See : his
example was followed by all the other members. This com-
mencement of proceedings was so displeasing to the emperor,
that he substituted to the council a commission of twelve bi-
shops ; eight of that number continuing to oppose his views,
he dissolved the commission and imprisoned the Bistiops of
Troyes, Ghent, and Tournay, who had most strenuously sup-
ported the authority of the Pope. Cardinal Fesch also fell
into disgrace witli his imperial nephew, and was advised to
withdraw to Lyons, of which city he was archbishop. The
object of Napoleon, in convoking the council, had been to
dissolve the Concoi-dat of 1801, and to take from the Pope
the right of confirming, or of refusing to confirm, the nomi-
nation of bishops, thus preventing the intrusion of unworthy
persons into the government of the Church. The emperor
also hoped to intimidate, by the eclat of tlie proceedings and
the numbers whom his fiat had assembled, tlie meek and
peaceable Pontiff, on whom personal motives could make no
impression. But, in all these projects, he was singularly
unsuccessful : the convocation of the council only served to
render the authority of the Holy See more resplendent ; and
though a verbal acceptation of a decree presented to his holi-
ness, by a deputation of six prelates, was, by dint of earnest
entreaties and exaggerated statements of the danger of a
schism, extorted from him ; a few hours' reflection sufficed to
sliow him the error into which he had been inadvertently be-
trayed, and he sent to recall the prelates, but they had already
set out for Paris. The concessions thus obtained, were, how-
ever, to the inexpressible joy of the good Pope and of all
sincere lovers of religion, rejected by Napoleon as insuffi-
cient. Pius was left tranquil in his solitude at Savona during
the winter months, and the affairs of the Church, after so
many plans and so much agitation, remained unaltered.

Besides the occupation thus afforded him, the emperor was
intent on raising a navy, which might in time dispute with
England the empire of the sea. For this end, the military
conscription was changed, in the thirty maritime departments,
into a naval one, and seamen from Denmark and various
parts of the French empire were sent to man the fleet fitting
out at Antwerp. During the summer months, Napoleon
made a tour of inspection, and visited the shipping and fortifi-
cations of the principul sea-ports. The large and commercial
Rity of Hamburg now formed part of the French empire, to
which it had been annexed at the beginning of the year.

•50 GENERAL HISTORy OF EUROPE, fcHAr.

Anotlicr of Napolcon'ss fuvouriic plans tended to lessen the
nunilxT of jjiivate seminaries, \vhic;li were suhject to the
bishops, and to anjrnient that of the universities, where
much pains were taken to give the youth of France a military
character. " 'I'hese priests," said he, in one of his moments
of skepticism, " oidy think of fitting men for the other wcmUI:
I want soldiers for this." On the 2d of April, his empress
gave hirth to a son, who was named Napoleon, and entitlej
King of Home.

1812. — The Parliament of the United Kingdom assembled
on the 7th of January ; the regent's speech was delivered i)y
commission. The king being still unable to resume the
cares of royalty, and the j)eriod allotted for the continuance
of restrictions upon the regent's power having expired, the
full exercise of the royal prerogative, though not the title of
sovereign, devolved upon the latter, and the civil list was
triinsferred to him. A new establishment was set up for the
king, to support which, £170,<K)0, including £50,000 re-
signed by the regent, were allotted; i3lOO,000 were granted
to the prince, and £9000 a year to each of the royal prin-
cesses, exclusive of the £4000 per annum allowed from the
civil list. 'I'hc regent, after some clTort^i to form a ministry,
m which Lords Grey and Grcnville might be included,
retained Mr. Percival and his colleagues in office. The seals
of llie foreign department were resigned by Manpiis
Wellesley, and shortly after commilUMl to Lord (,'asllereagh.

Distress and consequent riots continued to prevail in the
maiiuricturing districts of England; and so organized a
system was adopted by the maleconlents, as led to a belief,
that their views were not confined to tlie attainment of imme-
diate relief, but partook of a revolutionary nature. Govern-
ment endeavoured, by rigorous measures, to suppress these
disturbances; but the manufacturers, and the country in
general, attributed their origin and continuance to the opera-
lion of the orders in council. So general a dissatisfaction at
last ongag<"d the legislature to institute an inquiry into the
state of commerce and manufactures ; but the labours of the
committee appointed in April for that purpose, were sfs-
pended, and the adininistralion depriv(!d of its leader, by the
assassination of .Mr. I*t;rcival, who was sliot, in the lobby of the
House of (Jomrnons, !)y a person named Hellingham. To
protract the lil(!, and sootlu! the aniruish of the dvino' n)iuister,
was the first impulse of the l)y-staii(lers : their ( ll'orts were
however unavailing; Mr. Percival expired after a short perioi

3CIIX.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 357

of intense suffering. Bellingham, after having taken his
deadly aim, fearlessly remained among the spectators of its
fatal efficacy, and hesitated not, when called for, to ac-
knowledge himself the perpetrator of an act, to which, he
judged, no infamy or punishment could be attached. When
brought to trial, he alleged in his justification, that having
been wrongfully imprisoned in Russia, and reduced from
comparatively affluent circumstances, to extreme indigence,
he had often ineffectually applied for redress to the English
ambassador there ; and that having, on his return to England,
found the ministry equally deaf to his complaints, he had ta-
ken revenge for their neglect in the assassination of their
leader, without being influenced by personal feelings of ani-
mosity towards his victim. He was sentenced to death,
and suffered the awarded penalty on the 18th of May.

After a protracted discussion between the members of the
old cabinet, and the whig parly, relative to the formation of
a new ministry, a conciliation of parties being found im-
practicable, Lord Liverpool was appointed prime minister ;
Lord Sidmouth, secretary for the home department; Lord
Harrowby, president of the council ; and Mr. Vansittart,
chancellor of the exchequer.

Catholic affairs, and the orders in council, continued to
occupy Parliamentary and general attention. Mr. Canning
proposed, and carried, that the Commons should, during the
next session of Parliament, take into consideration, the laws
affecting the Roman Catholics of Great Britain and Ireland.
A similar motion, made by Marquis Wellesley, in the House
of Lords, was lost by one voice ; but the Catholics found con-
solation for present disappointment, in the conviction that
their course was at least progressive, and in the hope that its
triumph was but deferred. The result of the inquiry into
the state of commerce and manufactures, was a repeal of the
orders in council, as far as they regarded American vessels.
But this concession came too late to avert war between
England and America. Angry feelings had long existed in the
latter country against the British, and had been aggravated dur-
ing the preceding year by an unfortunate collision which took
place between an English sloop of war, and an American fri-
gate. The former had 32 men killed or wounded in the affi-ay ;
the loss of the Americans, who were greatly superior in force,
was inconsiderable. The governments of the two countries dis-
avowing any hostile orders given to the two comman(.ers, this
affair produced only a temporary exasperation : other event*

868 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

now widened the breach, and the Americans issued a dechira-
lion of war against En-jlaiid, on the 17th of June, live days
previous to the ri-peal of thi; orders in council.

At an early period of the year, Lord Wellington, finding
his troops sulFicicntly recovered from sickness and fati<^ue,
atrain laid sieije to Ciud id Rodriiro, and, in the evening of the
19th of .lanuary, carried tliat important fortress by storm.
The garrison was considerably reduced in numbers, and tiie
loss of the besiegers was also groat, esperiallv in olRcers,
among whom was General Crawford, who fell, mortally
wounded, as he was mounting the breach at the head of his
troops. This brilliant alfair o'otained for TiOrd Wellington a vote
of thanks from the Cortes, with the rank of a grandee of Spain
of the first class, and the title of Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo. The
Prince Regent of Rnirland created him an earl, and I'arliament
voted him a giant of 1^20, 000 per annum. The Urilish com-
mander now prepared to invest Badajoz ; a fire from twenty-
six pieces of cannon was opened on the place, March 31st,
and, notwithstanding the skill and perseverance with which
it was defended by General Fiiilopon, it was carried, April
6th, partly by assault and partly by escalade. An immense
quantity of ammunition and implements of war, witli 133 brass
cannon, fell into the hands of the victors. The reduction of
Badajoz shed an additional lustre on the arms of the allies;
but the triumjdi was pundiased with the loss of .'i.OOO Ilrilish
and Portuguese, killed or wounded in the sieije and assault.
Soult, who was advancing to rcdieve the fortress, on hearing
of its surrender, retreated into Andalusia; upon which, FiOrd
WeHiiigioii detached General Sir R. Hill to de-^troy the l)ridge
of Almare/, which otlereil tlu; only g(»od communication across
the Tagus. The enterprise was, in every respect, successful.
The reduction of Ciudad Rodriiro and Badajoz enabled T/ord
Wellington to advance into the interior of Spain. Having pro-
ceeded, almost without opposition, to Salamanca, he entered
that city amidst the joyous acclamations of the inhabitants;
while Marmont, retrealin;r l)efore him, took up a position on
the eastern bank of the Tormes. After much tiuje spent by
both armies in a variety of evolutions, a general battle took
place, .July 2"2d. which was iniiiutained till nigbtrdl,and ended
in the total defeat of tin- French. Although the darkness of
the night was favourable to the retreating enemy, the number
of j)risoners taken amounted to 7,000, among whom a large
proportion were officers. Two eairles, six standards, eleven
pieces of cannon, and several ammunition-wagons, fcrmed

ttlX.'J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPK. 359

part of the spoils on this occasion. After the battle of Sala-
manca, Joseph Bonaparte retired from Madrid, which was en-
tered by the allies on the 17th of August. Early in Septem-
ber, liOrd Wellington marched upon Burgos, through which
city the French had retired, leaving a strong garrison in the
castle ; having failed in an attempt to carry this strong fortress
by storm, and receiving intelligence that the united forces of
Soult and Victor were advancing towards the Tagus, he broke
up the siege, and, in the night of the 20th, commenced a re-
trograde march to the Douro. The allied troops were, conse-
quently, recalled from Madrid, and, on the 2d of November,
the French re-entered that city. Lord Wellington displayed
consummate abilities in conducting his retreat before an ene-
my gready superior in numbers, and, November 24, again
established his head-quarters at Freynada, on the Portuguese
frontier. The effects of the battle of Salamanca had, in the
meanwhile, been felt in the south of Spain ; the French raised,
in August, the siege of Cadiz, and withdrew, after blowing
up their forts and batteries, leaving behind them a numerous
artillery, mostly rendered unserviceable. They also evacu-
ated Sevdle and their other possessions in that part of Spain.
The Cortes testified their gratitude for the distinguished ser-
vices of Lord Wellington by appointing him Commander-in-
chief of the Spanish armies ; a measure which led to that
union of efforts, the want of which had been so often felt
during this memorable contest. The victory of Salamanca
was celebrated in England with illuminations and public re-
joicings. Lord Wellington was created a Marquis of the
United Kingdom, and Parliament voted a sum of ^100,000
to be laid out in the purchase of estates for him and his heirs.
At the beginning of this year (1812) a change was made in
the Spanish regency, General O'Donnel being named presi-
dent, and the Duke del Infantado vice-president. The Cortes
put forth a new constitution, which, as well as the former one
of 1810, had a revolutionary and irreligious tendency, though
published in the name of the king. The Pope's nuncio and
the Bishop of Orense were banished, and many other Spa-
niards were sufferers on account of their attachment to the altar
and the throne. The regency and Cortes were acknowledged
by several foreign powers : England, Russia, and others, con-
tinned to treat with this assembly, which acted in the name
of Ferdinand,

860 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cnAP.

CHAPTER L.

THE RUSSIAN' CAMPAIGN.

The aspect of foreign aiTairs was allercd this year bv ihe
defection of the Emperor Alexander from the maritime system
of Najjoleon, and hy the war which ensued between tliese
inonarchs. Aicxandor bad issued an ukase* at the close of
1810, by which English produce, in neutral ships, n\iirht be
imported into the Russian dominions ; and ihough Napoleon
proclaimed tliat he woulil turn his arms against every nation
whose ports should be opened to British merchandise, or de-
nationalized vessels, Alexander did not revoke the permis-
sion. In reply to the remonstrance made by the French mi-
nister, early in 1812, {]w Russian ambassador required, as the
conditions upon which Alexander would forego a direct trade
with England, and adopt thf; French system of license, thai
Prussia and Swedish Pomerania should be evacuated by the
French troops. The seizure of the duchy of Oldenburg, in
violation of the treaty of Tilsit, was an additional sul)ject of
complaint on the part of Russia; she was, however, willing
to conclude a treaty of exchange for that duchy, should France
accede to her other proposals ; but to these Bonaparte returned
no reply. Remote preparations for war had been made by
both parlies, during the preceding year; and no sooner was
the inelhca'-y of n<-gutiation apparent to Napnleon, than he
left Paris for the Russian frontier. Previous to his departure, he
concluded a treaty with Austria, which bound each of its con-
tracting parties to assist the other, if attacked, and guarantied
the integrity of the Ottoman Porle, in Europe. Overtures of
peace were also made by the French emperor to Great Bri-
tain ; but as one of the articles proposed " that the present
dynasty in Spain sluiuld be recognised and the nation
governed according to the constitution of the Cortes," Lord
CasiUreagh replied that the proposal was inadmissible.
Alexander, on his side, concluded a treaty of amity and mu-
tual defence with (ireat Britain and Sweden, and having thug
acipiired two |)owerftd allies, he set out from St. F'etersburg,
and joined the general-in-chief, Barclay de 'I'olly, at Wilna.
80,000 men, divided into seven corps, and forming the centre
of the Rvissian forces, were there assembled under his orders.
To the south of CJrodno. Bairration, with (').'). 000 men, was
posted, and at Krowno, Wittgciistien, with 20,000.
• An imjic-rial order.

t-j

GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 861

Nsrpoleon quitted Paris on the 9th of May ; from that city
to Dresden, whither he was followed by the empress and a
nnmerous court, his route was one continued triumpli. The
different divisions of the invading army were stationed along
the sliores of the Vistula, and Napoleon had no sooner passed
that river, than he was hailed by the Poles as the restorer of
their national independence, A deputation from the diet of
Warsaw craved his protection for " the cradle of reviving
Poland," and the majority of the nation warmly espoused
his cause. The forces which were called together for the
invasion of Russia, surpassed in numbers, in equipment, and
in discipline, any that had been brought into the field since
the ages of barbarism. They amounted to 600,000 men,
among whom were Germans, French, Italians, Prussians,
and Poles, and were divided into ten corps; the Austrian auxi-
liaries being commanded by Prince Schwartzenburg; the ca-
valry by Murat; the old guards were led by La Febre, the
new by Mortier, and the advanced guard by Jerome Bonaparte.
These different divisions entered the Russian territory by vari-
ous routes. Macdonald, who commanded the left wing, and
was opposed to Prince Wittgenstein, rested his invasion on
the Baltic, and threatened Revel, tlien Riga, and, lasdy, St.
Petersburg itself. Though thrice defeated by the Russian gen-
eral, he carried on the war with judgment and valour under
the walls of Riga, which city was ably and successfully de-
fended by General Essen, and held out till Macdonald, at
Napoleon's command, withdrew his army. With regard to
his right wing, the French emperor relied on the support of
Turkey, and in this he was disappointed. He had concluded
that the Russian army of Volhynia, under Tormasof, would
follow the movements of Alexander, whereas it advanced in a
contrary direction. Tormasof was defeated ; but the peace of
Buchares, which was then concluded between Russia and the
Porte, left the army under 'J'schigakoff at liberty to join in
the contest against the invaders of the empire, and to march
from the Danube against Prince Schwartzenburg.

Between these two wings, the grand army marched tow^ards
the Niemen, in three separate masses ; Jerome Bonaparte,
with 80,000 men, took the direction of Grodno ; Prince
Eugene, with 75,000, that of Piloni ; Napoleon, with
200,000, that of Kowno. On the 23d of June, the imperial
columns reached the Niemen; on the following night, bridges
were thrown across the river, and three successive days were
•mployed in effecting the passage of the troops. They wer^

362 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. fcHAP

provided with provisions for twenty days, in wliifh time Na«
poleon hoped to reach Wihia, and to have grained at least one
decisive victory. Tlie ohjcct of the Russians was to eflecj
the dt'struction of the invadc^r, not hy attempting liis defeat
in tlie early stage of the campaign, hut hy hiying waste tlie
country hefore him, and by opposing his progress only in
such positions as miiiht insure his defeat with trifling loss
on their sitle. IJy these means it was foreseen that his
strength would be inscnsil)ly diminished ; and, should he ad-
vance into the heart of the country and winter overtake him
there, liis entire ruin would he accomplisiied. It was in con-
formity with this plan, that the Russians, witli their emperor,
retreated from the Niemen to the Dwina. A considerable
disadvantage, however, resulted from this plan. IVince
Bagration was separated from the army of the centre,
and Poland was abandoned to the enctny. Alexander had
given orders that the diflVrent divisions of the Russian forces
should assemble at Drissa. 'J'hc wliole niain l)ody reached
the place of concentration without loss; and a corps under the
orders of Doctorof, wiiich had been left at Grodno, found
means, though with difticulty, to force its way thither.
Prince Bagration, for the same end, inarched first upon Wilna,
and afterwards upon Minsk ; but finding both these places
preoccupied by the French, he advanced towards Slontsk,
with llie iutcnlion of proceeding from thence to Witei)sk.
To efi"(ct llie junction of the two armies, Barclay de Tolly
quitted Drissa, and, arrivinif liefore Witepsk, took »ip a posi-
ti(»n with a view of giving battle to the French, who were
advancing towards it ; but, on receiving intelligence that
J'rince Bagration had been compelled to fall back ui)nn the
road to Smolensk, he altered his intention, and resolved to
retire in the same direction, liis troops effected their retreat
on the night <if tin; 27th of July, in such order as to leave
the enemy no indication of the road they had taken. Prince
Bagration, wiio had l)een joined by Ilctman PlatofT, at the
head of a large body of ('ossacks, crossed the BeresinSv at
Bohreush ; ami, cutting his way throuirh the divisions of
Davoust anil Mortier, which were suuioned on the Dnieper to
intercept his progress, reached Smolensk on the 7th of
Auirust ; the united force of Barclay ami Baifration amounted
to 1:j(),()()0 men. When Napoleon had sulhciently refreshed
his trof)ps, and had been apprized that reinforcements were
advancing from Tilsit to his assistance, he ordered Murat and
Beauharnais to force the passage of the Dnieper. News of

t.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 363

this movement caused General Barclay de Tolly to retire to
the heights above Smolensk, which was strongly garrisoned.
Prince Bagration was stationed on the Moscow road, anc'
every necessary precaution taken to arrest tlie progress of the
enemy.

Bonaparte arrived before Smolensk on the 16th of August,
and ordered the assault of tlie suburbs, and the destruction of
the bridges, by which a communication was maintained be-
tween the garrison and the army on the heights. Ney com-
manded the French left, Davoust the centre, and Prince Po-
niatowsky the right; the cavalry, under Beauharnais and
Murat, and the guards, commanded by Napoleon in person,
formed the rear. In the etforts of the French to gain their
object, and of the Russians to prevent its attainment, thou-
sands fell on both sides. The Russians, having disputed every
point, were driven into the city, and the French advanced to
its walls. A destructive fire from th-: outworks retarded for
a while the farther progress of the besiegers ; but breaching
batteries were quickly raised, and the Russian left was forced
to retire within the ramparts. The contest raged Avith undi-
minished fury till long after sunset; at length, the Russians,
finding die works no longer tenable, set fire to the city in
several places and retreated. At two o'clock on the follow-
ing morning, the French mounted a breach, which they had
made on the evening of the 16th: their progress was unre-
sisted, except by widely-extended flames. The defenders of
Smolensk had retired, and to its conquerors, who had hoped
that it would afford them remuneration for the fatigue which
they had sustained previous to its capture, wrecks of life
and greatness, flaming palaces and blackened skeletons were
alone discernible. Napoleon, as he viewed the vast scene
of desolation before him, exclaimed, " Never was a war prose-
cuted with such ferocity; never did defence put on so hostile
a shape against the common feelings of self-preservation.
These people treat their own country as if they were its ene-
mies." He ordered the immediate pursuit of the retreating
army, which, however, made good its march through Viasma.
This city, like Smolensk, was destroyed, and presented to
its invaders ruin and desolation.

On the 28th of August, General Barclay de Tolly resigned
his command to Prince Kutusoff". The new commander-in-
chief took up a position, with the intention of giving battle
at Borodino, four wersts in advance of Mojaish, on the .Mos-
cow road. On the 4th of September the French arrived, in

804 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CHAF

great forro, in the viciiiitv. On the inornin<j of the 7th, Da-
voust and I'oniaDwsky attarkcd the Hussian left ; Nay of».
posed their centre, and Beauharnais their riijht. The hatde
poon became <jeneral; it rasped till ni<:ht rendercil thecontcnd-
in<r parlies no lon;rer visiltle to each other. Victory was
claimed by both parties; and Bonaparte and KutiisotF, in their
several bidielins, announced it as trained by tlicir respective
armies. The Russians retained j)ossessic)n of the held u( Bo-
rodino, but tlieir loss was immense, and the French were not
arrested in their progress.

Kutusofl'. fiiulinir iliat tlie enemy was advancincf upon the
capital, and jmli;iiig that his army, until the arrival of expect-
ed reinforcements, would fijrht under disadvantageous circum-
stances, passed through Moscow, which lie determined to
abandon, and took a position on the Kaluga road. He or-
dered that the arsenal and all the puiilic and private treasures
of Mosv^ow should be secured, and the city left an empty
waste, incapable of atlbrdinsr spoil or refreshment to the in-
vading army. " The sacritice of Moscow," he said, " was
necessary for the preservation of Russia: it was an immola-
tion of a part for the wliole."* He added that, had he per-
sisted in retaining this city, he should have abandoned the
rich |)rovinces of Toula and Kaluga, the store-houses of the
Russian empire; that, by relinquishing it, he was enabled to
cover these provinces ; to maintain a cmnmunication with
the corps of Tormazof and Tschitrakotf; to intercept the
enemy's line of operations, and to cut off supplies from their
rear. (General Winzinirerode was ordered to occupy Twer,
and to jtlacc a reiriment of (Jossacks on the road to Yarraw-
slotf. Rostopchin, Governor of Moscow, after having se-
cun'<l its treasure, given orders for its total m'acuation, and set
fire to it, advanced at tlie head of 40,000 of the inhal)itants, to
join the army of Kutusoff.

The French marched upon the capital in three columns ;
Napoleon by the route from Smolensk, Poniatowsky by
Kduga, and Beauharnais by ZweniLdioro<l. Privations and
desolation awaited them in every stage of their progress; the
Russian peasantry lied at their a[)proaeh, and burned the
liou'^es, grain, and forage, along their whole line of march ;
and when at length they reached Moscow, for the possession
f)f which they had cheerfully nndertnine want and peril, il
presented to their view a vast and awful conflagration, and
furnished no materials wherewith the intention of its destroy*
• K'itusoff's letter lo Airxonilcr, daletl Scptemltcr 16th.

L."] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 365

ers could be counteracted, for all fire-engines had been
removed by Rostopchin's order. The French, however,
made their way to the Kremlin, which a body of Russian
soldiers, who had refused to abandon the city, tried ineffect-
ually to defend ; and there Napoleon fixed his head-quarters.
On the 16th a violent wind caused the flames to spread on all
sides ; they extended to the emperor's residence, and obliged
him to retire to Peterskoe. After a lapse of four days, during
wliich the city appeared enveloped in smoke and flame, the
fire subsided, and Napoleon returned to the Kremlin. Not-
withstanding the orders of Kutusoff, Moscow afforded con-
siderable spoil to the enemy. But this spoil was of such a
nature as, by enervating the French soldiery, rather to impede
than to promote the purposes of their emperor. Silver and
china wares, wines of the most delicious flavour, silken stuffs
and costly furs, were the hourly prey of the invaders,
who, during their stay in Moscow, at once wanted necessa-
ries and rioted in luxuries. Neither had the city been quite
abandoned by its inhabitants. Many of them had refused to
adopt the Russian commander's plan, and these, during the
enemy's stay, suffered the extreme of human misery- Bona-
parte, seeing himself cut off fi-om all means of supply, and
his troops sinking under famine and disease, tried to nego-
tiate with Alexander. He sent General Lauristan to the
Russian head-quarters, to propose preliminaries of peace.
But his overtures, which were renewed three several
times, were as often contemptuously rejected by Prince
Kutusoff. To the earnest solicitations of the French
envoy, the Russian general replied ; " The French have,
indeed, proclaimed the campaign terminated at Moscow ; but
on our part we are only beginning." Retreat, therefore,
became imperative, and Napoleon prepared to abandon his
enterprise. Previously to leaving the city, he ordered the
destruction of such of its buildings as had escaped the ponfla-
gration, and the trial of twenty-six Russians, who had been
taken in the act of spreading the flames. Ten of these were
sentenced to death, and sixteen to imprisonment. Napoleon
then told his troops, that he was about to lead them to winter-
quarters, and ordered Murat to drive back the Russians who
guarded the Kaluga road, by which he intended to retre-tt ;
that of Witepsk and Smolensk having been rendered, by ihc
former march of the French and Russians over it, nearly i*n-
passable. Murat, however, was defeated by Kutusoff'; a»'d
General Winzingerode havinsr repulsed Delson, who iiad be> u

33*

366 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

ordered to lake tlie way of Dimitrof, marched upon Moscow
which ho rntcri'd on the 2-3(1 and drove llie FrtMich under tlie
walls of the citadel. Anxious lo prevent hlood.slied, he and
his aid-de-camp rode up to the enemy's lines with a (lair of
truce, and pioposed a capitulation. The French, disregarding
the signal, seized and imprisoned them in the Krendin. 'J'he
Russian (icneral lUouviasky, to save this quarter of the city,
whicii the enemy had resolved to level, forced its gates, and
seized the incendiaries hefore they had sprunir the second
mine. On the following ilay the French left Moscow.

In the mean time, the Russian generals stationed in die
neiijiihourliood of Riga, conlinu(;d to repel the attacks of the
enemy in that quarter. General Essen took Miltau ; and
Wittgenstein, having succeeded in preventing Macdonald
from marching upon Petersliurg, advanced to meet the armies
of Tormazof and TschigakolT, which ha<l formed a junction,
on the 17th of Sejitember, at Sloutsk, and had so overawed
Scliwartzenburg and Regnier, as to induce them to retreat
precipilalely to Hiastofl*. The united forces were ordered to
Minsk, to co-operate with the movements of KutusofT, and
arrived there on the 1st of November. The Russian com-
mander-in-chief posted divisions of troops on every road,
over which he su|)posed the enemy might seek a passage ;
and he rjnlercd the Cossacks to be dispersed in all directions,
where there might l)e a possibility of intercepting the ene-
my's march. 'JMie Russian corps of Doctarof comini: '"l^ ^^''di
three divisions of the retreating army, (November 22(1,) an oij-
stinalely-contested battle was fought: the French proclaimed
its result a victory to their arms, but they were compelled
by tlu! Russians to make towards the wasted Mojaisk road,
now become their only line of retreat. Deep, broken ways,
the want of every necessary, and the harassing and close pur-
suit of the Cossacks, rendered the French retreat a scene of
extreme and daily-increasing wretchedness. Their sulTerings,
however, were not yet hopeless ; they still looked forward
to their arrival at Smolensk as the term of their miseries.
The grand Russian forc^e marched in a parallel direction with
the retreating army. General Miiloradovitch, commander of
KutusofTs advanced iruard, pressed upon their left, ami a
corps was stationed at Dorogobouche to pr(!vent their
passing the Dnicjper. As they drew near to V'iasma, the
hostile forces came in contact, and an engagement ensued
beUveen the R issian <reneral and the corps of Heaidiarnais,
Nev, and Davoust, in which the French were defeated.

I..J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 367

When the fugitives were within a few days' journey from
Smolensk, sucli tempestuous wcatlier arose, accompanied by
sniw and piercing cold, as beiuimbcd their limbs, and pre-
vented their distinguishing the roads. Hundreds perished of
cold, or were lost in the deep, impassable snow. Insubordi-
nation resulted from these additional hardships : the regiments
marched in disorder, and spread desolation on their path, set-
ting fire to the towns, as they passed, and ill-treating the
inhabitants.

When Bonaparte reached Smolensk, (November 9th,) he
found there none of the comforts anticipated by his army : the
supplies were hardly sufficient to satisfy the immediate wants
of the advanced guard ; and when Beaaharnais's corps arrived,
their astonishment and rage were excited by the news, that
the provisions were already exhausted. On the 15th of No-
vember, the grand army was again in motion, and Bona-
parte expressly commanded that each corps should be
attended by its train of artillery. KutusofT, foreseeing that
the French would advance upon Krasnoi, hastened to inter-
cept their progress, and attacked and defeated the corps of
Davoust. A body of 12,000 men, disabled by cold and
hunger, advancing in the same direction, was compelled to
surrender ; Ney, himself, having with difficulty escaped, fled
under cover of night across the Dnieper. Another division
of the retreating army surrendered to Milloradovitch. The
Russians waited some days at Krasnoi, for the arrival of
their stores : Bonaparte, taking advantage of this circum-
stance, hastened to the Beresina, which he hoped to pass
without molestation. With the remnant of Victor and Oii-
dinot's corps, (which had formed a junction with the retreat-
ing army,) and some other regiments, he advanced on the
right of the Beresina, towards Minsk. Tschigakoflf was in
his front, Kutusoff on his left and rear, and Wittgenstein on
his right. On the 25th, he threw two bridges across the river
at Strudzianca, over which, he, with Oudinot's corps, effected
a passage. The greater part of the French army, enfeebled
and dispirited by their sufferings, were yet on the eastern
bank when Prince Wittgenstein reached it, November 28.
A scene of indescribable confusion and horror ensued. The
crowds that rushed together upon the bridges broke down
one, and rendered a passage over the other impracticable.
Many of the fugitives were drowned, others were suffocated,
and some perished by the hand of their comrades ; anxiety
for self-preservation, stifling the dictates of compassion in the

3f58 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

minds of the stronger, sujrjrested to them the inluiman expe-
dient of trampliiiij on or drowninir tlinse whom weakness or
intirniity reiulered iinahle to contend for a passage. After a
most santjuinarv action, in which the Russians took 4000
prisoners, the PoUiiiesc corps, commanded by Girard, elfected
the passarro of the Heresina, and then, to prevent the fartiier
pursuit of the Russians, set fire to the bridge, rcganliess of
the fate of thousands who were yet on the left bank of the
river. 'I'hese made tlieir way, with cries of indiL^nation
against the inhumanity of their countrymen, to tlie burning
bridge; a few succeed in passing it, but a far greater numl^er
perislied in the flames. After the passage of the Heresina,
Napoleon made for Wilna, with the intention of repairing,
without delay, to Paris, where a conspiracy, formed during
his absence, by three ex-generals of the republican party, had
l)een discovered and suppressed. Having appointed Murat
lieutenant-general, he pursued his journey, travelling incognito,
on a single sledge, to Warsaw, and, passing rapidly through
Dresden, Leipsig, and Mentz, arrived in Paris, at midnight,
on the 18th of December.

After the departure of IJonaparte, no trace of subordination
was observable amonij his followers. 'J'he chiefs abandoned
their rcfiiments ; oflicers and soldiers alike limited their views
to the attainment of individual safety. 'I'liis irreirularity,
however, defeated its object, as it renden'd the fugitives a
more easv prey to the Russians, who had reconstructed a
bridge across the Bercsina, and now closely pursued and cap-
tured many of the imperial legions. The French passed
throujrh Wilna on the lOlh ; the Russians took that town on the
11th, and on the 14lh advanced to Kowno. iMacdonald, who
had hitlierto maintained himself in Courland, hearing of the
discomfiture of the grand army, prepan^d to abandon Kiinigs-
heru, and the line of the Niemen ; but Wittgenstein, who
advaiUM'd into East Prussia, stationed detachments to ])revent
his escape. General d'Yorck, finding himself unsupported,
signed a convention, by which it was agreed, thai tlie Prussian
troops should retire into their own territory. On the 4tli of
January, 1813, Memel capitulated to the Russians, and Kijnigs-
berg, in spite of Macdonald's viirorous eflorts to defend it, sur-
render(Ml. To reach the cities still L''arrisoned liy tlieir country-
men, was the only object that now animated to exertion the
feeble wreck of Napoleon's army. Many of these foriressea
•"urrend Ted to the Kussi:ins, diiriM«; the inonlli of .Iiinuary,
1813. Mnrienwerder was t iken by Tschigakoll'; .Marienburgby

LI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 369

PlatofF; and KutusoflT fixed his head-quarters in the capital
of Russian Poland. All that the French had so proudly con-
quered in their advance to the Russian frontier was now lost
The plunder of Moscow had been abandoned in their retreat,
and recovered by their pursuers. Of the mighty host that
had passed the Niemen, for the conquest of the Russian
territory, it is computed that only 50,000 men, including
Prussians and Austrians, repassed that river.

CHAPTER LI.

FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR WITH AMERICA, IN
1812, TO THE INVASION OF FRANCE BY THE ALLIED POWERS,
IN 1814.

The declaration of war issued by the United States against
England was soon followed by active hostilities. The Ameri-
can General Hull on the 12th of July crossed Detroit river,
erected the standard of the Union in Upper Canada and issued
a proclamation, offering to the Canadians the alternative of
peace, liberty, and security, if they would separate their
interests from those of Great Britain and decline taking
part in the approaching contest; but as his invasion had been
expected, measures were already taken for the defence of the
province, and the command of the forces collected for that
purpose given to Major-General Brock by Sir George Pre-
vost, the British Governor. General Hull, whose proclama-
tion had produced no effect, advanced on Fort Maiden, but
soon retreated to Detroit. Brock followed him, and in an
engagement gained a slight advantage, which he used to excite
the fears of the American General. On summoning him to
surrender. Brock to his own surprise obtained the capitulation
of the place on the 16th of August. For this shameful sur-
render Hull was afterwards tried and condemned to death.
The fall of Detroit was a severe blow to the Americans. Their
Indians were in revolt, and the English had now formed a line
of communication with them, and threatened the whole west-
ern frontier of the Republic. An army of national militia as-
sembled in Western New York. To retrieve their cause a
detachment of the American army crossed the Niagara in Oc-
tober, and, in spite of a resolute opposition, gained the heights.
The sanguinary battle of Queenstown followed, in which Brock

370 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE, [ciIAP

was defeated and slain : but the small American force, unsup-
ported by tiio main Ixxly, wjismxiu siirroundtMl ami ct)m|)ellcd
losurrciidi'i' to General Sheatilj. These triumphs of the English
on land were more than counterbalanced by their reverses on
the element over which they had hitherto held luirivalled do-
minion. On the 17lh of August the Guerriere of f )rty-ninegun3
was forced to strike to the American frigate G>nstitution. i'ho
American l)rig Wasp was indeed captured by Sir .John Beres-
f(;rd, but the English lost two other ships before the end of
the year.

The levity of conduct imputed to the Princess of Wales in
1800, became ajrain a topic of discussiou in 1813 ; the sub-
ject being revived liy a letter from the princess to the regent,
complaining that she was debarred from the society of her
daughter. This letter and the papers relative to the former
investigation were suhmilled to the meml)ers of tlie privy-
council, who were required lo decide wheth(!r the intercourse
between the Princess of Wales and the Princess Cliarlotte
ought to be subject to restrictions. The privy-council having
decitlcd in the anirmative, the princess appealed to (he House
of Commons, by which assembly she prayed her cause might
be iuvestiiraled. iMr. Stuart Wortley made a motion lo that
elTect, hut failed to carry it, and the business rested for the
present.

The charter of the East India Company, which had nearly
expired, was renewed, with some modilications, and Parlia-
ment was again called upon to discuss the policy of conceding
equal rights to a large class of British subjects. A bill was
introduced by Mr. Crattan, (April liOih,) enal)ling (Catholics
lo hold, with some few exceptions, any militarv or ( ivU ap-
pointment, and to sit and vote in either House of Parliament,
after taking a sjiccilied oath, of which the chief provi-
sions were, allegiance to the king, support to the Protestant
succession and existing church establishment, a renunciation
of all belief in the temporal jurisdiction of the Pope within
the United Kingdom, or of any power possessed by him to
depose princes at pleasure. In the course of the discussion,
the bill was newly modelled, so as to give to the crown a
I'rtn in the appointment of the Catholic bisl)o|)s, and the
inspection of all bulls and dis|)ensalious from Rome. On
the subject of the vrlo, much dilference of opinion for some
lime prevailed among th(! Icadinir uninbcrs of the Catholic
body. In England, apprehensions were not generally enter-
tained, that any inconvenience would result from the interfc-

LI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 371

rence of the state in ecclesiastical matters, till Dr. Milncr,* a
prelate equally distinguished lor his zeal and erudition,
raised his voice in opposition, and tlie Irish hierarchy and
people joined in rejecting concessions if fettered by such a
clause. In order to insare its omission, or, should that bo
found impracticable, to prevent the bill from passing into a
law, Mr. O'Conor, of Balenagare, with two other gentlemen,
was deputed from Ireland. The House was in committee on
the subject, wlien the speaker rose, (May 24,) and, after a
variety of observations, moved and carried by a majority of
four voices, that the words " to sit and vote in either House of
Parliament," be left out of the bill : \ipon which Mr. Pon-
sonby said, that as without that clause it was neither worth
the acceptance of the Catholics, nor the support of their
advocates, he should move " that the chairman do now leave
the chair." This motion being carried, the bill was aban-
doned ; but the propriety of conceding or refusing the right
of veto to the crown, continued for some time longer to form
a topic of discussion between the advocates and opponents
of the measure.

While the Catholics of Great Britain were thus struggling
unsuccessfully for the recovery of their civil rights, tlieir
chief earthly pastor had to contend with difficulties of a
nature unprecedented in the annals of the church. From the
date of the rejected brief already mentioned, Pius VII.
continued undisturbed in his solitude at Savona, till, in June,
1812, orders were issued for his immediate transfer to Fon-
tainebleau. The journey was to be performed with all possible
secrecy and expedition : a few hours only were allowed for
indispensable preparations, and the Pope was compelled to
lay aside the attire peculiar to his rank, that he might not be
recognised on the road, nor received with honours similar to
those which had formerly attended his progress. He travelled
alone, (his attendants quitted Savona several hours later;) and
on arriving at the monastery of Mount Cenis, fell dangerously
ill ; yet the journey was continued, Pius remaining shut up
night and day in a close carriage, which he was never allowed
to quit. Thus, rapidly traversing France, he arrived (June
13th) at Fontainebleau, where apartments were assigned him
in the ancient palace of the Kings of France. From that time
forward, he was treated with greater deference and courtesy,

* Author of a " History of Winchester," "The End of Religious Con*
troversy," and many other works. He died in 1836.

S72 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

and allowed to receive occasional visits. Rut the cardinals,
in whose foiinsfls and synipalliy he miuht have found conso-
lation, were (ns|)eise;l in their various places of exile ; and
the conversation of those who were now ahout his person,
served only to increase the irksonieness of his captivity.
They placed before his eyes in vivid colours the desolate
condition of the universal church, which they said might
bo justly termed "Acefala," or without a head, since the
faithful were debarred from all communication with the chief
pastor; they dwelt on the particular hardshij)s of numerous
sees, so long vacant in Italy, (Germany, and France; on the
exile and imprisonment of so many cardinals, prelates, and
other ecclesiastics, dragged from city to city, from prison to
prison; and pointed out, in conclusion, a reconciliation with
the emperor, or, in other words, a condescension to his unjust
demands, as tlic only remedy for so many evils. It may
readily be conceived how sorrowful an impression these
reiterated representations must have made on the mind of
Pius, worn out with afflictions, and now reduced, l)y illness,
to a state of extreme debility. Seven months had elapsed in
this manner, since the Pope's arrival at F'ontaineblea\i, when
Napoleon, defeated, but not disheartened, njturned from his
disastrous camj)aign in Russia, and vigorously applied him-
self to collect the last resources of his widely-extended era-
pin; for a fresh contest.

At this important crisis of his affairs, a reconciliation, either
real or simulated, with the Sovereign PonlifV, apj)eare(l to him
a measure of sound policy, not to be neglected. The pro-
longed captivity of a veneralilc old man, revered bv the ma-
jority of Eiir(»j)ean nations as the head of their rehirion, and
reverenced by all for his personal virtues, iiad, he well knew,
alienated frf»m his L'^overnment the hearts of many, as well in
France, as in Poland and (iermany, where the powers whom
he had crushed or humbled made use of this motive to inflame
the popular indignation against his person. To remove these
impressions. Napoleon took advantage of the new year, to
send his cliamlierlaiu to l'\)nlainet)leau, charged with comj)li-
mcnUiry messages to the Pope, from himself and the empress,
'i'his renewal of intercourse was followed by the unex|)ecle(l
arrival, January lUlh, of Napoleon himself, who, repairing
instantly to the Pipe's apartment, saluted him with all the cor-
diality of long-eslalilished frieudsiiip. Slranire as such con-
duct miirlit ajtpear from one who had despoiled, insulted, and
imprisoned him, Pius received these exterior demonstration!

LI.] GENERAL HISTORV OF EUROPE. 373

of kindness with his usual sweetness : the goodness of his
heart had, indeed, always inclined him to attribute the ill-
treatment which he had so often experienced, rather to inferior
agents, than to the emperor whom he had so highly obliged
But if the courtesy of this first meeting induced him to augur
favourably of Napoleon's dispositions, he was soon unde-
ceived. During the succeeding days, other interviews took
place ; the plan of a new concordat was again brought forward,
in which several provisions, injurious to the rights of the Holy
See, were intermingled with promises on the part of the em-
peror to restore to liberty the exiled and captive cardinals, and
to make other arrangements for the welfare of the church.
These latter motives had great weight with the Pope. Yield-
ing to the personal solicitations of Napoleon, and the earnest
entreaties of the prelates who seconded his views, he con-
sented, January 25, to affix his signature to a series of articles
which were to serve as a basis for a future concordat, with
the express stipulation that they should not be made public,
nor considered valid, until examined and approved, according
to the customary forms, by a consistory of cardinals. Napo-
leon promised all that was required, and, while a pen was hur-
riedly thrust into the Pope's hand, stood by to sign after him ;
yet, without any regard for this express reserve, hastened to
publish the articles as a definitive treaty, and to declare, in
announcing the conclusion of a new concordat throughout the
whole French empire, that all the differences which had so
long subsisted between France and the Holy See were satis-
factorily settled. In proof of this, the disgraced cardinals were
recalled, and invited to appear at court. Cardinals Consalvi
and Pacca arrived at Fontainebleau before the end of the month,
and his Holiness, who now saw cause to regret the confidence
he had placed in the emperor's good faith, conferred with each
upon the subject of the premature publication of the articles,
in the crude and imperfect state in which they were drawn
up.* After mature consideration, it was concluded, that, be-
ing simple preliminaries, they were open to future amend-

• The third article was chiefly objectionable, and was as follows: — " The
demesnes which his Holiness possessed, and which are not alienated, shall
be exempt from every species of tax ; they shall be administered by agents
or charges d'aflaires. Those which are already alienated shall be made good
to (he amount of 2,000,000 francs." Hence it might be inferred that, in
signing this article, the Pope consented to be indemnified for the sove-
reignly of the Ecclesiastical States, already seized and still retained by th«
French emperor.

874 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

ment or rejection. Ills Holiness, therefore, addressed an au-
tojjrapli letter to Napoleon, in which he declared the |)re-
tended concordat null and of no value. Ilavinsj doHpalched
this formal revocation to tiie emperor, i)y ("oloncl Lairorsse,
he communicated a copy of it to all the cardinals and prelates
at Fontainehleau, authoriziiiir dicm to make il known, in every
way that circumstances would jjcrmit. This precaution was
not superfluous : the letter was suppressed by Napoleon,*
who, notwithstanding the Pope's ener<rclic remonstrances, by
a second decree, issued on the following day, declared the con-
cordat, styled of 1813, binding on all archbishops, i)ishops,
and chapters, throughout the countries subject to France.

The publication of this decree excited fears that Napoleon
would enforce it^ execution by violent measures :t l)ut the
moment was not favourable to excite a schism in the church,
or to redouble the murmurs of tlie people ; and he appeared
willing to defer his projects till his return from the important
campaign on which he was about to enter, lie had now col-
lected a sufficient force to enable him, notwithsiandiuii the
disasters of the preceding year, to take the field with undi-
minished confidence. Hy a decree, dated January 11th, the
senate placed 350,000 men at his disposal. 'J'o complete this
number, the conscription was enforced with unusual rigour;
mere children were carri(>d oil' from tlicir homes, to swell the
ranks of the imperial legions, and to dye the soil of Germany
with their blood, as their elder brothers had perished amidst
the snows of ilussia. Napoleon also published a flattering
account of the French finances, attributing his late reverses to
the rigour of an inhospitable climate, and assuring his people
that a continuation of the war would soon restore France to
her military attitude, and terminate in a glorious and advan-

• Il is not positively known what cflect the Pope's letter pro»luce(l on
Napoleon. Il was assorted at the time, that he exrlaimed in treat ancjer at
the council of state — " If I do not cut oil the heads of some of these priests
at Fontainehleau, I shall never come to any arrangement." One of his irre-
ligious flatterers replied, that il was lime for him to follow the example of
Henry VIII., and declare hirnwlf absolute head of the religion of Ihe state.
"No," paid, iS'apoleon, using a familiar comparison, "Ce serail casscr lc«
vilrea."

f The French hishnps were ordered to quit Fontainehleau, and no one
was admitted to see the Pope hut the cardinals. During the night of the
.Sth of April, ('ardinal di Pietro, then confessor to his Holiness, was seized
And carrieil olF to Aiiroiinc, nndi^r ihf custody of a gendarme. .\ great
ntiioher of ecclesiastics, for refusing iilicdience to ihe new concordat, wer«
baniibcd to Corsica, and suhjecU-d to lliu luont inbuuiaa Ircali lenU

LZ."] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 375

tageous peace. Having thus endeavoured to revise the con-
fidence of his subjects, he appointed the Empress Maria
Louisa to act as regent during his absence, and quitted Paris,
to take the command of his army, on the 15th of April. Ar-
riving at Erfurth on the 25th, he issued orders for all his
forces in Germany to march towards Leipzig. They con-
sisted, independently of the imperial guard, of twelve corps,
formidable in numbers, though few veterans were to be found
among them, and commanded by marshals of long-standing
renown for military skill: their right wing was led by Mar-
mont, the centre by Ney, the left by the Viceroy Eugene
Beauharnais, the old and new guard were under the immediate
command of the emperor, with Marshal Berthier as chief of
his staff.

Russia, in the mean time, prepared to add fresh wreaths to
the laurels she had gained, and to annihilate the force which
her armies had shown was not unconquerable. Not satisfied
with opposing to France her individual exertions, she tried to
rouse the long-dormant energy of the European powers, and
induce them to join with her in the approaching contest. Tiie
Prussians earnestly besought their sovereign to accept the
proffered alliance of Alexander. Frederic William answered
the appeal of his subjects by an effort to mediate between
France and Russia; and with this view proposed, that the
French troops should retire beyond the Elbe, and the Russians
behind the Vistula. But Napoleon rejected the proffered me-
diation, and a treaty, offensive and defensive, was immediately
concluded between Alexander and Frederic William. A war-
like attitude was now assumed, and great military preparations
were made by Prussia ; the landwehr was ordered out, and
numerous volunteers enrolled themselves in their country's
service. The continental system was abolished in the Prus-
sian states, and the importation of French merchandise pro-
hibited. Sweden, too, made common cause with the coa-
lesced powers, and signed a treaty with England on the 3d
of March, by which she engaged to furnish the allies with
30,000 troops, to be commanded by the crown-prince ; Great
Britain engaging, on her side, not to oppose the annexation
of Norway to Sweden, to cede to the latter power the island
of Guadaloupe, and to pay her a million sterling for the ser-
vice of the campaign.

These arrangements being made, the Russians, under Witt-
genstein, crossed the Elbe for the purpose of driving the
French back unon the Maine; a second army, under Tschi'

376 GENERAL HISTORY OF EDROPE. [cHAP.

pakofT, was formed into two divisions, one of which, under
Phuofl', laid siege i(» I):iiitzig, wliiU' tlie other remained on the
Vistula; a tliird, undir W inzingiirode, moved on the Elbe;
General Bhicher, with 25,(H)U men, passed that river at Dres-
den ; CJeneral d'Yorek M'as at IJerliu with the main I'russian
army, and a large Sweiiish force, under the crown-prince,
liernadoltc, was stationed al Slralsund. 'J'ii«; Kus-sians and
Prussians, headed by their respective sovereigns, having
united their forces, which, together with those of Sweden, were
computed at 2Ul>,()U0 men, a sharp coiillict look jjlacc at
Weissenfels, (May 1st,) in which the French had the advan-
tage. On the following day. Napoleon advanced to Liiizen
on his way to Leipzig ; but, being met and attacked by the
allies, a general action began at noon, and was maintained
with various success during the rest of the day. Having in
vain attempted to dislodge the FVench by an attack during the
night, tlie allies, covered by their numerous and excellent
cavalry, retreated through Altenberg and Colditz to Bautzen;
and thus Napoleon was enal)led to march through Leipzig to
Dresden, where he was met by the King of »S;Lxony, who
united his troops to those of France. The French continued
to advance, through a series of bloody and well-contested
actions, into Silesia, marking their progress with llames and
devastation; and on the 1st of June, one of their divisions,
under General Lauriston, entered Breslau. The Swedes,
meanwhile, were not slow in fulfilling tlu; cnffaL^emenls they
had contracted with the allies ; they threw a body of troo|)S into
ILimburg. which the Russians, after having taken, had aban-
doned, and which was now threatened by Marshal DavousL
'i'lie Swedish garrison was, however, soon recalled to act
against the Danes ; and that unfortunate city again fell into
the power of the French, and being shortly after besieged l)y
the allies, had to sulfer alike from its enemies and its de-
fenders.

NotwiUistanding the temporary success of his armies. Na-
poleon, through the medium f»f his father-in-law, transmitted
to the lOmperor Alexander jiroposals for an armistice, prepa-
ritory to arrangemenLs for a general pacification, which i)eing
accej)ted, it was siLnied and ratified on the 4th of .lune.
Though negotiations for peace were immeiliately set on foot,
Germany still resounded with preparations for war. Napo-
leon ordered r(Mnforcements, from every territory uiuler his
control, to rally round his sUandard. i'russia and Kussia
called all their resources into action; and Austria, i)i whosn

U.'] OENEKAX HISTORY OF EUROPE. 377

assistance each of the contending parties was equally ambi-
tious, made such mighty preparations, as seemed to promise
victory to whichsoever party should obtain her co-operation.
The armistice terminated on the 10th of August, without
having opened the way to peace. A declaration of war by
Austria against France, and a treaty of alliance with Russia
and Great Britain, were the immediate results of the failure
of her mediation.

Of the allied forces three divisions were now made : the
first, consisting of the whole Austrian force and some large
Prussian and Russian detachments, was stationed in Bohe-
mia ; the second, composed of Russian and Prussian regulars
and militia, under the command of Blucher, was posted in
Silesia ; and the third, under the crown-prince of Sweden,
was stationed in Prussia and the north of Germany. Gene-
ral Moreau, who had recently returned from America to visit
his old friend and companion in arms, Bernadotte, was pre-
vailed upon by the Emperor Alexander to give the assistance
of his military talents to the cause of the allies. He arrived at
Stralsund on the 4th of August, and thence hastened to meet
the allied sovereigns. Notwithstanding the defection of Aus-
tria from his alliance. Napoleon, with whom Denmark, Hol-
land, Italy, Saxony, Bavaria, and all the other states of the
Rhenish confederacy were united, mustered a force superior
in numerical strength to that of his opponents ; the main body
of his army alone was estimated at 300,000 men. This
force occupied Bautzen : part of it retreated to defend Dres-
den, near which the allies encamped on the 26th. The French
had expended much time and labour in fortifying the city,
and the force within its walls amounted to 130,000 men,
headed by Napoleon in person. On the same day the con-
federates attacked the redoubts, silenced one of them, and ob-
liged the enemy to retire from the outworks. Next day the
French became the assailants. After a heavy cannonade had
been maintained for some hours by the hostile enemies, the
confederates were apprized that Napoleon had detached a large
force to attack their rear, and cut them off from Bohemia.
This intelligence, and a conviction that Dresden was impreg-
nable, caused the allies to retreat. The contest of the 27th
cost them their newly-arrived and much valued general, Mo-
reau, who having lost both his legs by a cannon-shot, expired
on the 3d of September. The allies were in full retreat,
closely followed by the enemy, when an unlooked-for event
gave a new turn to affairs, and rendered the victory of Dres

34*

378 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

den comparatively unavailing to the conqueror. General
Vandaniine, at the head of ID, 000 men, was in j)nrsuit of llie
Au>siri:ins under Prince Sch\vartzenl)urir, wlicn the Prussian
General Kliesl, l)y takinjr a cross-road, fell ui)on his rear;
Vainlamme, llius surrounded, was compelled to surriiidcr.
When the allies retreated from Dresden, Honaparle sent
iMarslial Ney to act against Ik-rnadotte, who was moving
towards the Elhe in the direction of Leipzig. The two ar-
mies met at Denevilz. The crown-i)rince, assisted by the
Prussians under Bulow, succeeded in routing the French and
obliirinir them to retreat on Torgau.

The prospects of the allies, thenceforth, wore every day a
more cheering, those of Napoleon a more gloomy aspect.
Keinforcemenls were unceasingly arriving to the former, while
tlie numerical strength of the latter was decreasing, and many,
on whose supfjort he counted, were beginning to desert his
cause. Early in Octol)er, the allies, having been joined by
the Polo-Russian army, under General Benningsen, and by
Hetman Platoll", resolved to execute a plan they had long
contemplated : to interpose their forces between Dresden and
the Khine, attack the French army in the rear, and cut olF its
retreat. Prince Schwartzenburg advanced for this purpose
from Bohemia towards Leipzig, and formed a junction with
Blucher and Bernadotte ; the position of the allies, in rear of
the enemy, extending from Dessau to the Bohemian frontier.
A seasonable support here awaited them. Bavaria having
formed a treaty of alliance with Austria, united her forces to
those of the allies. Napoleon, apprized of the def(!Ction of
Bavaria, recalled his troops from the direction of Berlin, and
moved upon Leipzig, wliicli city he reached on the l')lh of
Oetdber. 'I'lie cont'e(lerat«-s were posted round it, and on the
20t!i two great, and several less considerable engagements
simultaneously took place. Of the greater actions, the one
between Prince Schwartzenl)urg and part of the French force,
under the personal command of Napoleon, seemed at first
favourable to his standard ; but, towards the close of the day,
the allies retrieved their losses: the others were iiulecisive.
The 17th was spent by both armies in making dispositions
for a renewal of hatUe. On the 18th, the allies, in three
columns, marehed at an early hour upon the positions c)irisf!n
by the French emperor. iJatlle was niaintaiiu;d with doul)ii'ul
success, till the Saxons, by deserting to the allies, turned thp
scale against their old confederates. Niirht parted the com-
batants ; the allied army bivouacked oa the field of balUe,

LI.]] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 379

and Napoleon returned to Leipzig. The French, although
not driven from the field, had lost 40,000 men in killed,
wounded, and prisoners ; their ammunition was exhausted, and
the means of supplying themselves with this necessary article
were at a distance. Under these circumstances. Napoleon
resolved to retreat, by a route which he had opened, on the
17th. On the night of the 18th, the heavy baggage and part
of the artillery, cavalry, and guards, moved for Weissenfels ;
next day orders were given for a general retreat. The allied
army advanced early, on the 19th, to take Leipzig, the defence
of which had been committed to Macdonald and Ponia-
lowsky. A Saxon officer, deputed by the city magistrates,
requested from the sovereigns a suspension of hostilities, pre-
paratory to a capitulation. Alexander, in person, received
the officer, but denied his request ; the King of Saxony, with
as little success, sent flags of truce to the allied monarchs, to
avert a bombardment. Leipzig was carried by assault, and
the allies entered it two hours after the departure of Napo-
leon. The conquerors effected their entrance with as little
individual damage as possible ; but the sanguinary conflicts
of the 16th and 18th had left to the inhabitants comparatively
nothing worth preservation, in Leipzig or its environs. Their
superb buildings, their gardens, parks, and groves, all presented
a vast scene of ruin and pestilence ; putrid carcasses, fallen
or deserted mansions, and human suffering in coundess forms,
met the view of the confederates on all sides. Many French
officers, who had remained behind, were taken prisoners ;
amongst them was Bertrand, commander of the city. The
number of those who perished, or were made prisoners, on
the 19th of October, may be computed at 29,000 or 30,000.
During the efforts of negotiation already noticed, extreme
confusion prevailed among the retreating troops ; baggage,
cannon, horse, foot-guards, and droves of cattle, all inter-
mingled, impeded each others' progress, and rendered it hardly
practicable. The Pleisse, the Elster, and some lesser rivers,
over which the fugitives had to pass, heightened the difficulty
of their retreat. Bonaparte ordered the grand bridge between
Leipzig and Lindenau to be blown up, as soon as the French
should have effected a passage over it ; the soldiers appointed
to execute this service, misunderstanding the orders given
them, blew up the bridge before the rear-guard, under Mac-
donald and Poniatowsky, had passed. Numbers, whose
retreat was thus cut off, were taken prisoners ; many perished
in the waters ; Macdonald swam across. Poniatowsky

i60 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. []CIIAF

boldly plunffod into the flood, whore itd l)ank.s were marsh)'
and liiu'd by Russian and Saxon rilliMncn ; his horse sank
and with it its gallant rider, and neitlu-r rose again. Many of
ficers who followed, .shared his fate. The Bavarians, under
Wrede, took post at llanau, as did IMuchcr at ('ohlentz, to
intercept tlic retreating army. Wrede, alter having obsti
nately disputed, was obliged to permit their passage. They
advanced to Frankfort, and, passing the Rhine at Mentz, ren
dered liluchrr's precaution unavailing. On the Uih of No-
vember Napoleon entered Paris, and convened the senate
By a senatorial decree, 300,0(10 men were placed at the dispo-
sal of the war-minister, to retrieve the faded glory of the
French arms.

The Austrian, Bavarian, and part of the Russian and Prus-
sian armies, marched towards the Rhine, and fixed their head
quarters at Frankfort, (November 5lh,) while Bernadolte
with the army of the north, advanced into Hanover, restored
the former government, and took Lul)eck and Cliickstadt. A
division of the French army, under Marshal Goiivion St. Cyr,
which Napoleon had left in garrison at Dresden, being closely
blockaded by the Russians, and reduced to a state of great
misery by famine, consented to surrender in November, on
condition of being allowed to return to France. They had
already begun their march, when the terms of the capitulation
were annulled by the allies, and they were detained j)risoners,
to the nund)er of 40,000. The French garrison at Stettin
was compelled in like manner to capitulate.

From Frankfort the allies issued a proclamation explanatory
of their political views : they sought not to conquer France,
for they were willing to allow her a greater extent of territory
than she had ever possessed under her kings, but to restore
to other powers that peace and independence of which Na-
poleon had depriveil them : on ihe^-e terms they oll'ertd peace.
Napoleon, by rejecting it, gave the death-blow to his power;
the allies prei)ared to cross the Rhine, anil entered France.
Nor was it the eastern frontier of his empire alone that was
menaced by hostile legions : the French arms were as unsuc-
cessful in Spain as in (iermany, and the Rhine and the Pyre-
nees were e(jually ineflicient barriers against Furope, coalesced
to elT(!ct his downfall.

At the close of 1812, the French main army, considerably
we:iken«(l by the withdr.iwal of several divisions to reinforce
the army on the lOlbe, was in canlonmenl-s in the vicinity of
^laiiianca and Valladolid. Soiilt was ;:t Toledo, and Josc^ph

U."] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 381

Bonaparte at Madrid. In the March following they moved,
as if to concentrate themselves in tlie northern and north-east-
ern provinces, and in April advanced closer upon the Douro.
It was not till the month of May, that Lord Wellington, at
the head of considerable reinforcements, moved from his
head-quarters at Freynada, and, having chased the enemy from
Salamanca, re-entered that city on the 26th. The French,
under Joseph Bonaparte in person, evacuated Valladolid, aban-
doned the capital and their positions on the Douro, retreated
to Buro-os, and thence across the Ebro to Vittoria, with the
English in close pursuit on their rear. The allied army
passed the Ebro (15th) and marched upon Vittoria, which
city they reached on the 20th, and on the following day gained
one of the most complete victories recorded in the annals of
war. Sir Rowland Hill, at an early hour, took the heights
of Puebla and the village of Subigena d'Alava. The Earl of
Dalhousie and Sir Thomas Picton, who held the centre of the
allied army, moved against the heights which command the
valley, while Sir R. Hill attacked the French left. The latter
abandoned the valley, and fled in the direction of Vittoria.
The left of the allied army, under Sir Thomas Graham, had
intercepted the retreat of the French army upon the high
road into France, and they were obliged to retire by that of
Pampeluna, upon which they could hold no position ; nor,
consequently, wait for the drawing off of their artillery and
baggage. They saved but one gun. The allies lost nearly
4,000 men in the battle of Vittoria ; the French double that
number. A large French force took up its position on the
road from Pampeluna to Bayonne, but was dislodged from
thence, and compelled to retreat to Tolosa ; Castanos defeated
the enemy on the Bidassoa, and Sir R. Hill conquered the
army of the centre, which had hitherto remained in the valley
of Rastan, and obliged it to cross the Spanish frontier. The
English legislature voted its thanks to Lord Wellington for
the splendid victory achieved at Vittoria ; the prince-regent
named him a field-marshal, and the Spanish government con-
ferred upon him the title of Duke of Vittoria, and a landed
property of great value,

Bonaparte, who had withdrawn Soult, one of his ablest
generals, from the Peninsula to the Elbe, now directed him to
return to Spain, with the title of " Lieutenant de I'Empereur,"
and sent him reinforcements to repair the losses which the
late reverses had caused in the Gallo-Spanish army.

The Anglo-Sicilian army, which had arrived on the eastern

383 GENERAL HISTORY OF EVROPE. [cHAP.

coast of Spain, in 1812, remained inactive in Alicant till the
April of the jircsentyear. After the takinif of Fort St. l*!iilii)pe,
Sir John .Murray, by order of Lord \V(llini;ton, laid ^'wgc to
'J'arrajTona. He acted in concert with a British squadron,
commanded by Captain Hallowell, and for some days main-
tained the siege with vigour and a prospect of success ; but
when apprized that Suchel was advaniinu^ with a large force
to relieve the town, he desisted from further operations, re-
ernl)arke(l his troops, (June 17th,) and sailed to Alicant.
Lord William Ikntinck took the command of the forces, and
prepared to renew the siege ; being compelled by Suchet to
retreat, he (in Septemlier) resigned the command to Lieutenant-
general Clin, and embarked to Sicily. IJut the chief efforts
of the allies were made on the side of the western Pyrenees,
of which they possessed the principal passes; and the sieges
of Pampeluna and St. Sebastian were vigorously maintained.
On the 21th July, Soult ordered an attack upon the positions
occupied I)y Generals Hill and Byng, in which he succeeded.
Sir Laurie Cole and Sir Thomas Picton fell back to cover the
lilockade of Pampeluna, before which Soult arrived on the
27th. Next day the hostile armies fought a general battle
along the heights, in which the allies were victorious. On
the .'{0th the French renewed the contest ; but they werf
ultimately repulsed, and driven in confusion towards their own
territory. 'J'he efforts of Sir T. Graham to take St. Sebastian
weri! long luisucressful ; its defence was protracted from the
beginning of July till the 18th of September, wlien it was
finally reduced. On the 7th of October, the allied f^nglish
and Sj)anis!i army entered France, by crossing tlie Bidassoa;
attacked the enemy's entrenchments, and took eight pieces
of cannon. Next day the French positions were carried.
The surrender of ]*ami)eluna to Don (^arlos d'Espana, shortly
after, haviuL"^ |)laced an additional force at the disposal of Lord
Wellington, he attacked the entrenchments on the Nivelle,
drove tlie French from their central position, pursued them
across that river, and conipelled them to retire (Novendic'r 1 1th)
to their fortilied camp near Hayomie. Although the bad state
of the roads prevented the immediate advance of the English,
they had at least secured a firm footing in France, from which
the French made many fruitless ellorts to dislodge them.
Finding this impracticable, they aI)andoncd their line of
defence, and withdrew into their own territory. Napoleon,
being now convinced that any further attempts to retain poa-
•ession of Spain would be ini Ifectual, concluded a treaty (L)e

U. J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 383

ceinljor 6lh) with Ferdinantl, whom, on certain conditions, he
agreed to restore to liberty and the possession of the Spanish
crown. This treaty was invalidated by a decree of the Cortes,
which annulled all acts signed by the king during his captivity.

The reverses of Napoleon encouraged the Hollanders to
throw off the yoke which, in his days of conquest, he had
imposed upon them. Disaffection to the French government
had long subsisted amongst this people, and the malecontents
now organized a plan of counter-revolution, and compelled
the French authorities to leave Amsterdam, On the 15th of
November, the inhabitants of that city appointed a provisional
government for the administration of public affairs; and, to
render the counter-revolution complete, two envoys were
deputed to the Prince of Orange, then in England, to inform
him of the recent occurrences, and to solicit his acceptance
of the sovereignty of Holland. With this request the prince
complied, arrived at Schoevingen on the 30th, and on the 3d
December, made his entry into Amsterdam, amidst the joyful
acclamations of the inhabitants. He was proclaimed William
1st, sovereign Prince of the Netherlands.

The war between Great Britain and America, though pro-
secuted with vigour, had, during this year, no decisive result.
The American General Winchester was surprised and taken
at Fienchtown by a party of English and Indians under Proc-
tor, who tarnished his victory by the horrors of an hadian
massacre, committed after a promise of protection. Attempt-
ing to pursue his advantage, Proctor laid siege to Fort Meigs,
on the Miami: but that post was resolutely defended by
General Harrison, who at last compelled Proctor to raise the
siege, and retreat to Canada. Meanwhile hostilities took
place on Lake Ontario. Sir George Prevost crossed and sur-
prised Ogdensburg, but the Americans soon fitted out a flotilla
which made them masters of the lake. Under the command
of GeJieral Dearborn they took Toronto in spite of the vigor-
ous opposition of a large British and Indian force under Gen-
eral Sheaffe, who failing to arrest their progress retired to
Kingston. Dearborn encouraged by this success proceeded
to attack the British posts on the Niagara and took two of
their forts. In September the American and English flotillas
on Lake Erie engaged, and the former, under Commodore
Perry, captured the whole British force. Harrison, now re-
lieved in the west, crossed the Deti'oit, and on the 5th of Oc-
tober completely defeated Proctor in the bloody battle of the
Thames, where Tecumseh, the soul of the Indian confederacy,

384 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [ciIAP.

fell. This restored peace to the west. In the east General
Hampton made aji ineirectual attempt on Montreal, but ou
the repulse of his van at Chateangay, fell back. At the
close of the year neither party had gaini-d any advanta<»e.
The British Parliament met in the month of November,
and a siipplen)entary loan of £20, 000, 000, with S(!vcral fo-
reign subsidies, was agreed to wiUiout a single dissentient
voice. It adjourned on the 20lh of December, and did not
again assemble till the ensuing 21st of iMarch. This interval
was one of intense anxiety; the confederated armies entered
France in various directions, and the affairs of tlie continent
were evidently drawing to a crisis; yet it still remained a
problem, if the warrior, who had carried his victorious eagles
through the several kingdoms of Europe, could be subdued,
even by the united efforts of all, in his own.

CHAPTER LIT.

FROM THE INVASION OF FRANCE BY THE ALLIED POWKRS, TO
THE TREATY OF GHENT, IN 181 i.

The allied powers divided the forces, destined for the in-
vasion of the French territory, into seven grand armies. The
first was commanded by Prince Schwartzenl)urg ; it consisted
of seven troops of Auslrians, the Russian divisions of Bar-
clay de Tolly and Wittgenstein, the Bavarians, under Count
Wrede, and the Wirtfml)urghers, under their prince-royal.
The second army was commanded ]>y Blucher ; it was formed
by the united divisions of d'Yorck, Klicst, and Bulow, four
Russian corps, and the Saxons, utuler the Duke of Saxe Wei-
mar and Baron Theilman. The third army was command-
ed by Bernadotle ; it was composed of the Swedish and five
Russian corps, the Ilanseatic troops, the contingents of the
•states of the Rhenish confederation, and an Auglo-(ierman
corps. The fourth was the Anglo-Batavian army, under Sir
Thomas Graham. The fifth, tlie Anijlo-Spaiiish army, on
the Pyrenean frontier, cfunmanded by Loril Wellington. The
sixth, the Austro-Ilalian army, commanded by Count B-elle-
garde. The seventh was composed of deserters from the
French cause: it was that of M\irat, who signed, .January
11th, a treaty of alliance with the coalesced powers. At the
beginning of the year, this overwhelming force was already

Lll.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 385

in motion, and advancing, with rapid strides, into the terri-
tory of France. The army of Silesia had passed the Rhine
towards the norh; the English had forced the Pyrenees, ta
the south; the Austrians, by the capture of Geneva, had laid
open the road to Lyons, and were advancing on the east; the
Crown-prince of Sweden, having overrun Holstein, and com-
pelled the King of Denmark to sue for peace,* was penetrat-
ing through Holland and Belgium into France, when Napo-
leon, committing his empress and her son to the care and
fidelity of the Parisians, set out (January 26th) to take the
command of his army, which was posted between the Seine
and the Marne. Though his forces were far outnumbered by
those of the allies, he commenced a series of well-directed
attacks against the hostile corps by which he was surrounded,
and in these he was for the most part successful. On the
29th he defeated, at Brienne, 40,000 Prussians, under Blucher ;
but that general being reinforced by the Austrians, the com-
bat was renewed on the 31st, at La Rothiere, when the
French, repulsed in their turn, were forced back upon Troyes
in disorder, and harassed by the Cossacks in the'yr rear. Find-
ing his numbers unequal to oppose an effectual resistance to
the allies in so many different quarters. Napoleon resolved,
by concentrating his forces at particular points, to cut off their
communication and defeat them in detail. In pursuance of
this plan, Blucher, who was now marching upon Paris by
way of Chalons and Meaux, became his first object of attack.
On the 10th of February a corps of communication between
the grand army and that of Silesia, under the Russian Gen-
eral Alsufieff, was routed at Champ-Aubert, the general
himself being taken prisoner. Though Napoleon was so
much elated with this victory as to exclaim — " Another such,
and I am upon the Vistula!" it was but the prelude to one of
far greater importance. The hostile armies met on the 13th
at Montmirail ; the fortune of the day, though long undecided,
was at length favourable to the French ; and Blucher was
compelled to retreat upon Chateau-Thierry, with the loss of
10,000 in killed and wounded, and a complete interruption of
his communication with the grand army. Under other cir-
cumstances, the victories of Champ-Aubert and Montmirail
would have been decisive; but Napoleon was now so com-

* The King of Denmark, the last and most faithful of Napoleon's allies,
acredeJ to the continental confederation, and signed a treaty of peace
with Great Britain and Sweden, at Kiel, (January 14th,) by which Norway
was ceded to the latter, in exchange for Poincrania and the island of Rugen

386 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

pletely surroundccl by tlio foroos of the coalition, that even
while tlie caniuui d' die Hotel des Invaliiles was thuiulering
forth the ai'cl:iiii;iii()iis of victory, the roll of hostile artil-
lery antiouiiced that the enemy was apjiroaching the very
gates of the capital. In efTect, while Napoleon liad heen
einploved against Bhicher, Schwartzenbiir<r had taken Sens,
Nogent, Hray, and Monterau ; Wittgenstein and Wrede had
moved towards Mehin, and Hianciii (Febrnary 16) was in
possession of Fonlaineblean. But the energies, the activity,
and the resources of the French emperor seemed inexhausti-
ble. By a variety of skilful manceuvrcs, and by successive
victories at Vauchamp, Nangis, and Monterau, he compelled
the allies to abandon these positions, and retreat once more
behind tlie Aube.

Amidst the brilliant success which attended his arms, where-
ever he command(!d in person. Napoleon was not entirely
fearless of his impending ruin. Anxious to avert it. if pos-
sible, by negotiation, the allied armies had no sooner entered
France, than he despatched Caulaincourt to the sovereigns,
with propos^ for an armistice, offering an immediate surren-
der of lii(! German fortresses still occupied by his troops.
As this was evidently a device to gain time and recruit liis
army wilii the rtUurning garrisons, the allies refused a suspen-
sion of arms, but agreed to name plenipotentiaries to treat
of conditions of peace. Negotiations had been accordingly
carried on for some time at Chatillon ; Lords Aberdeen,
St(!wart, and Cathcart, assisting as representatives of his
Britannic majesty, and Counts Kazoumowskv, Stadion, and
De IIiiml)oldt, as the respective envoys of Russia, Austria,
and Prussia,

A draught of the treaty, agreed upon by the plenipoten-
tiaries in congress, was presented to Napoleon on the 18th.
Thev proposed that France should lie limited to tlie extei\t of
territory which she had held under her kings, and that I'ari'^
should be occupied by the allied troops, till the conclusion of
the definitive treaty. Napoleon, whom recent victory had
elated, was not in a temjMir to submit to these conditions.
Exclaiming, in a tone at once ironical and angry — " Occupy
Paris! I am at this moment nearer to Vienna than they are
to Paris," he tore the draught submitted to his ap|)roval.
But while Napoleon had been einplove<l against th(! grand
army, Bbn^her had gained time to recruit his forces, and had
nitakfu ('halr)ns, Vitry, and Chateau- Fhifrrv. He now
marched to form a junction with liul-jw and Winzingerodo,

Lll.^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 387

who had advanced through Belgium, and, having freed it
from the yoke of France, vi^ere in the neighbourhood of
Rheims and Soissons. Napoleon, called alternately to oppose
the progress of Schwartzenburg and that of Blucher, left
Troyes (February 17) to meet the Prussians and impede the
projected junction ; which, however, was effected near Sois-
sons, in spite of the joint efforts of Marmont and Mortier, who
commanded under the empeior.

The allied sovereigns, anxious to give renovated vigour to
their exertions, signed a quadruple alliance, on the 1st of
March, at Chaumont. They engaged, should Napoleon per-
severe in rejecting the proposals made to him by the congress
of Chatillon, to bring 150,000 men each into the iield, Great
Britain furnishing a subsidy of five millions, to be equally
divided among the three continental powers, and to continue
their alliance for twenty years.

Schwartzenburg, induced by Blucher's success again to
advance, defeated Oudinot and Victor at Bar-sur-Aube, and
entered Troyes ; while Platoff seized Arcis-sur-Aube and
Sezanne, and, by means of detached columns of horse, main-
tained a communication between the two armies. Napoleon
arrived on the 6th of March at Laon, near which the united
forces of Blucher, Bulow, and Winzingerode were strongly
posted. On the 7th, he attacked and drove them from the
field. They retreated to Laon ; he pursued, and, on the 9th,
again attacked them; but the battle ended in the defeat of the
French, with the loss of 5,000 men and 48 pieces of cannon.
Napoleon renewed the contest on the following day, and was
again unsuccessful. Finding his troops cut down, without
gaining any advantage, he ordered a retreat, and his worsted
legions fell back upon Soissons. Threatened, however, in
that position, by the Count of St. Priest, who had taken
Rheims, Napoleon marched upon that city, recovered it, and
fixed there his head-quarters. Rendered confident by these
partial successes, he now demanded of the congress at Cha-
tillon, as the only conditions upon which he would accede to
peace, that the French empire should extend to the Rhine and
the Alps, and that Antwerp, Nimeguen, and Flushing should
be incorporated with it ; that Italy and Venice should be
allowed to Eugene Beauharnais ; and that indemnities should
be given to Joseph Bonaparte for Spain, to Jerome for West-
phalia, and to Louis for Berg. His conditions were rejected
by the allied powers, as subversive of the very principle for
which they had taken up arms, — the re-establishment of a

888 OEMERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

just equilibrium anions the states of Europe; up.>ti which,
the congress, on the 18lh of March, was (inally dissulvcd.

Proclamations were now adilresseil to tlie French nation :
one, from the emperor, ordered a levy f'l wjrtvap, and pro-
nounced all Frenchmen traitors who shoulil endeavour to
prevent the expulsion of the invaders; while one, from the
Austrians and Prussians, tiireatened with certain di^slruction
all who should oppose their progress, or who, not being
soldiers, sliould be taken with arms in their hands.

While the Russian, Prus-sian, and Austrian armies were
contending with Napoleon on the Seine and Marne, the An-
glo-Spanish force, under Lord Wellington, was advancing in
an opposite direction. On the 24th February, General Sir J.
Hope ami Admiral Penrose crossed the Adour below Hayonne.
Soult, to arrest their progress, took, a strong position in front
of Orthes ; upon which Lord Welliuijton ordered an imme-
diate attack. The French, being turned on all sides, retreated
towards St. Sever, and thence towards Bordeaux, but fell
back ujjon Tarbes. An anxiety for the restoration of the
Bourbon dynasty, and a secret association to promote this ob-
ject, had long existed in the south of France, and particularly
at Bordeaux, whitiier Lord Wellington was now advancing.
The royalists in those parts deputed envoys, early in the
year, to Louis XVIII., (who since 1800 had resided in
England, under the assumed name of Comte de Lille,) inviting
him to return to France. The Duke d'Augouleme, his
nephew, and husband to the daughter of Louis XVL, issued
a proclamation, empowering Lord Wellington to act for the
exiled monarch, till his arrival in the French territory. A
detachment of I.'), 000 men, under Marshal Beresfurtl, entered
the large and popidous city of Bordeaux, at the reipiest of
the mayor, the Marquis de la Rochejaquelein, and the princi-
pal inhal)itanLs, who, having hoisted the while flaL'', went out
to meet the English troop.s ami accompany them iuU) the city.
The archbishop congratvdated the Duke d'Angouleme in the
name of the citizens, and a solemn TV Deum was sung in the
cathedral.

In the mean time. Napoleon, ignorant of the dissolution of
the congress, and encouraged by his success at Rheims,
coimted upon the expulsion of his enemies. Mis confidence
of ultimat<! success was further excited by the ca|iture of
Chalons, which surrendered to Marshal Ney on the 13lh of
JMarch ; but the allied monarchs were preparing to make
% general attack upon the whole French line, and with tliLa

III.] GENERAL HISTORV OF EUROPE. 389

intention repassed the Seine on that day. Bonaparte moved
to Epernay on the 16th, and thence to Fere Champenoise,
where he was apprized of the dissolution of the congress.
The allies concentrated their forces in front of Arcis, to give
him battle. The attack was begun by Napoleon, but his
troops were repulsed at the first onset. To support their
drooping courage, he placed himself at their head, and, to the
anxious expostulations of his staff, replied, " Fear not : the
ball which will be fiital to me is not yet in existence." The
battle was maintained till night. During its continuance, re-
inforcements arrived to both parties : at its close, neither
army was driven from the field. The allies, during the night,
concentrated themselves on the heights of Mesnil-la-Com-
tesse. Bonaparte, on the following day, reconnoitred their
position, and prepared to attack it ; but suddenly formed the
singular design of passing between the armies of the allies,
intending to cut off their communication with the Rhine, and,
at the same time, to liberate the garrison of Metz, for which
purpose he retreated upon Vitry and St. Dizier. The corps of
Oudinot and Sebastian! formed the rear-guard of his army, and
to them he committed the defence of the bridge of Arcis ; but
they were dislodged, and the grand army hastened to post
itself between the emperor and his capital, and to form a
junction with the army of Silesia. This was effected at
Chalons, on the 24th ; and the united allied force, now
amounting to 200,000 men, began to move by rapid and con-
tinued marches upon Paris. The combat of Fere Champe-
noise took place on the 26th, in which Marmont and Mortier
were defeated, and driven back upon Paris ; the allies also
captured a convoy of ammunition and warlike stores, on its
way to the French head-quarters. On the 20th, the two
sovereigns crossed the Marne, at Tripot, and the next day at
Meaux ; the remainder of the 29th was employed in pre-
paring for an attack on Paris.

Reverses, in the mean time, attended the French arms in
other quarters. The north of France was invaded, and many
of its towns taken, by the Duke of Saxe Weimar. Count
Bubna entered Lyons, (March 21st,) notwithstanding the ex-
ertions of Augereau ; and in Italy, Count Bellegarde, though
vigorously opposed by Beauharnais, established himself on
the Mincio. The Dutch, however, failed to give the allies
the warm support which their first insurrection seemed tc
promise; and an attack made by Sir T. Graham upon Ber-
gen-op-Zoom was unsuccessful.

35*

390 OKNERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

^^'hen NapdU'on was apprized that tlie allied sovereigns
were within five leagues of Paris, and that Marmont and
Mortier were preparing to (Iffcnd it ; anxious to avert the
threatened ruin of his eapital, he despatrhed Count Weissem-
burg (lately taken prisoner) to the Emperor Francis, to advo-
cate the cause of Maria lionisa and her son ; hut neither the
representations of the count, nor those of M. Gaihois, whom
Napoleon sent upon a similar errand, effected any alteration
in llu' purpose of the Austrian emperor.

Tlie united armies continued their marcli by three different
roads, those of Meaux, Soissons, and Lagny ; while Mortier
and Marmont fell hack to take a position on the lieights which
cover Paris towards the east. Within that city, tliese events
excited fear, exultation, and defiance; but fear was the pre-
vailing sensation. The partisans of the Bourlions, few indeed
in number, but strong in zeal and in the goodness of their
cause, rejoiced at the approach of the allies, who, they hoped,
would restore the ancient dynasty ; yet calculated, with me-
lancholy forebodings, the numbers who might fall, before the
desired object could be accomplished. The adherents of Na-
poleon, on the other hand, while they affected to disbelieve the
near approach of the allies, tried to rouse the Parisians to
repel the threatened attack. Crowds of peasants, from the
neighbouring villages, rushing into the capital, increased the
general confusion, which was further augniented by the pre-
cipitate departure of the empress, with her son and the princi-
pal officers of state.

Early on the 30th of March, two officers, deputed by the
allied sovereigns, appeared at the advanced posts of Mortier
and Marmont, with a proclamation to the inhabitants of Pa-
ris, informing them, that the only olijcct of the allies was
the establishment of such an authority in France, as should
"join in cementing the union of all nations and govern-
ments ;" and that, in the choice of a government of the
nature specified, the Parisians would be supported by the
confederates. The officers were denied admittance, and both
armies prepared for l)attle. Joseph Bonaparte, having under
his orders Marshals Marmont and Mortier, took a position on
the heights near the city ; his right wing rested on Belleville ;
his left reached from Mousseaux to Neuilly; his centre was
protected by redoubts, and loO jiicces of cannon were placed
along the line. 'I'he arrival of Napnlecm being hourly ex-
j)cc>te(1, the allies resolved on an iimmdiate attack. At eight
o'clock tiie heights of Belleville and Komainville were attacked

UI.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE 391

by General Rayesski, The combat was sanguine on the
heights between Romainville and Pantin, and victory seemed
to incHne to tlie French standard, the artillery making dreadful
havoc among the allies ; but Barclay de Tolly, arriving with
the Russian and Baden guards, made the advantage preponde-
rate on the side of the allies. Joseph Bonaparte still hoped
to save the capital, when, not long after, the confederate ar-
mies were seen in full force on the plains of St. Denis, and
orders were issued for a general attack. Finding that the
French troops could not hold out more than an hour and a
half, Joseph empowered Marmont to capitulate, and fled from
the city ; yet it was not till they had been forced from all
their positions and driven to the barriers, that the marshal,
judging any further resistance would be but an unavailing ex-
penditure of the lives of his soldiers, solicited a truce, pre-
paratory to a capitulation. The proposal was accepted without
hesitation by the allied monarchs, and the capitulat on was
concluded on the morning of the 3 1st.

Napoleon, in the mean time, was making hasty striles to
prevent the fall of his capital. When he was first apj^rized
of the march of the allies upon it, he ordered that it s.iould
not be sacrificed by an obstinate defence. At a later I our,
however, he sent General Gerardin to the city authori ies,
with a command that Paris should be defended to the utmost
extent of their power and ability, and with an assurance that
he and his army would follow in twelve hours the arrival of
his despatches. But this counter-order was received too late:
the capitulation was already signed, and Marmont, at the head
of his troops, had retired to Essonne. The passing events
operated variously on the minds of the Parisians ; many of
them having assembled on the 31st, at the Place de Louis
Quinze, M. de Vavineux read to them the proclamation of P.
Schwartzenburg ; after which white cockades were exhibited,
and cries of "Live the Bourbons," " Down with the tyrant,"
were vociferated on all sides, except where a few faithful ad-
herents of Napoleon still ventured to name him with reve-
rence, and to expostulate with their fellow-citizens upon their
altered sentiments.

The two sovereigns made their triumphant entry into Paris
on the 31st, about noon, amidst cries of " Long live Alexan-
der and Frederic William, our deliverers ! Vive Louis X VIIL !
Ies Bourbons !" "We come not as your conquerors, but as
your allies," was the reiterated reply of the sovereigns. About
a quarter past one they arrived at the hotel Talleyrand, where

392 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

the Emperor of Russia was lo reside, and immediately en-
tered upon those important political discussions, by which the
destinies of France were to he decided. 'I'hree projects; were
successively brought under consideration. 1st. 'i'o make
peace with Napoleon, under all possible securities. 2dly. To
esuiblish a regency. 3dly. To recall the Hourltons. Alex-
ander took, for some time, no decided part in the debate, in
which the Parisian statesmen were actively engaged, but con-
tinued walking up and down the salooji, with some appearance
of agiUition. At length, on liis intimating that the choice of
the nation might fall on Bernadotte or Eugene Beauharnais,
Talleyrand energetically replied, " Sire, there are but two
possible alternatives; Bonaparte or the Bourbons." On an-
otlier occasion, he added, " Bernadotte, Eugene, a regency,
each of these is an intrigue; Louis XVIII. is a principle."
These words produced a great effect on the assembly, and
induced Alexander, as head of the coalition, to sign a decla-
ration, by which he announced that the allies would no longer
treat with Bonaparte, nor with any member of his faniily ;
" that they would acknowledge and guarantee the constitution
which the French nation should adopt for itself;" to which
end, they invited the senate to choose a provisional govern-
ment, " which might provide for the wants of the administra-
tion, and prepare a constitution suitable to the French nation."
Upon the issuing of this proclamation, whicii was printed
and placarded throughout Paris within an hour, the municipal
coimcil abjured the authority of Napoleon; and many rej)re-
sentations of his tyranny, and of the horror in which he was
held by the people of France, were presented to the .sove-
reigns. On the following day, (April 1st,) Talleyrand, in his
quality of vice-grand elector, convoked the senate. That
assembly declared the throne forfeited by Napoleon, and the
French army and nation released from tlieir oath of fidelity
to him. They next nanu d, :us memlx^rs of the provisional
government. Prince Talleyrand, General Beurnonville, the
Comte de .Iaucf)ur, the Due dc DalI.erg, and M. de Montes-
quiou. The legislative body assented, on tlie ',i(\, to the decree
of the senate, as did the l)0(ly of advocates and Court of Cas-
sation. 'I'he Duke of Ratnisa (Marmont) signified to Prince
Schwartzenburg his readiness to acijuiesce in the decree of
the senate, anil quit the service of the eni|)erf)r, on condition
that his troops should be permitted to pass into Normandy,
and that life and liberty should be jruarantied to Napoleon, if
taken prisoner, in a territory fixed upon by the allied powers

lll.^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 393

and the French government. The marshal's proposals were
accepted ; but his pledge was afterwards restored to him, at
his own request, by Prince Schwartzenburg.

These adhesions frustrated the hope which Bonaparte had,
till then, cherished, of retrieving his losses. On the morning
of the 30th, while the battle raged most fiercely on the heights
near Paris, he quitted Troyes at an early hour, and hastened
in advance of his army, with a feeble escort of cavalry, towards
the capital. He arrived, about an hour after midnight, at a
village within twelve miles of Paris, where he received from
General Belliard the unwelcome news of its surrender, and im-
mediately despatched Caulaincourt* to the Emperor of Russia,
with unlimited powers to treat and to conclude upon whatever
conditions should be demanded. But Alexander, in the name of
the allies, refused to enter into any negotiations, and Caulain-
court repaired to Fontainebleau, where Napoleon had established
his head-quarters. Marshals Macdonald, Oudinot, and several
other general officers, arrived there on the 31st, and a council
was held to deliberate on the course to be pursued. Napoleon
talked of marching upon Paris, though the wrecks of his
army assembled at Fontainebleau, did not then exceed 25,000
men. To this the marshals would not consent, adding that,
should he persist in that determination, not a sword would
be drawn from its scabbard to assist him in the attempt. The
project of abdicating in favour of his son, suggested by Cau-
laincourt, was, after some hesitation, adopted by Napoleon,
who, having drawn up and signed the act, charged Ney,
Macdonald, and Caulaincourt to be the bearers of it to the
Emperor Alexander. The three envoys, on their way to
Paris, called upon Marmont, at Essonne, and invited him to
heir them company. He assented, and they went together
to Prince Schwartzenburg's, to withdraw Marmont's act of
adhesion, that he might unite his efforts to those of his com-
panions in arms, in behalf of their vanquished chief. They
arrived late in the evening at the hotel Talleyrand, where
several members attached to the provisional government, fear-
ful lest the arrival of Napoleon's commissioners should cause
any change in the decision of Alexander, had assembled ; and
were admitted to an immediate audience. Macdonald spoke
with great warmth in favour of a regency, and was answered

* Caulaincourt seems to have acted a doubtful and ambiguous part. He
has been accused, perhaps unjustly, of having, in conjunction with Talley-
rand, urged Napoleon to his ruin, by flattering him with vain hopes, and
persuading him to reject the most reasonable proposals on the part of th»
•Hies, while acting as his envoy at the Congress of Chatillon.

394 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. (]cHAP.

with equal cncrpy by General DessoUcs, who liad warmly
espoused the cause of tlie Huurhons. AlcxantUr |)r(»uiis((l,
in ronj unction with his allies, to eive the subject liis serious
coiisiileration, and, in a lew iiours' time, to make known to
them his final determination. Takinfj leave of the llussian
emperor, the envoys passed into the saloon, where tiie mem-
bers of the provisional government were asscmbltd ; and Tal-
leyrand remarked, that should they succeed in their object,
they would compromise all who liad entered that room since
the 1st of April: "as for myself,"' lie added, "think not of
me ; I wish to be compromised." On arriving at Ney's hotel,
there to await Alexander's decision, Marmont was apprized
that Napoleon, immediately after the departure of the envoys
from Fontainel)lcau, had sent to Essonne, commanding his
immediate attendance : a second and a third messenger had
reiterated the order. Marmont, as has been seen, was then
in Paris ; the generals wiio commanded under liim, and had
with him given in their adhesion to the provisional government,
alarmed at this rapid succession of expresses, and dreading
Napoleon's vengeance, had resolved to march for Versailles,
where, on their arrival, the troops, not seeing the marshal
at their head, had broken out into open insurrection. This
intelligence induced Marmont to set out with all speed for
Versailles. He w;is met by his generals, who vainly entreated
him not to expose liis life in the midst of a rebellious soldiery.
'I'he rei,riments beinir drawn up by his orders, he advanced
alone on horseback, " How," he exclaimed, " is there trea-
son here ? Do you disown me? Am I no longer your com-
rade ? Have I not been twenty times wounded anu)ng you ?
Have I not shared in all your fatigues, your privations ? and
am I not ready to do so again ?" The soldiers interrupted
liim with loud shouts of " Vive le Marechal !" and all returned
to their duty.

While these events were passing at Versailles, Ney, Mac-
donald, and Caulaincourt hastened to obtain Alexander's
answer before the iiisurroctionarv movements amonsj Mar-
mont's corps could i)e known. 'I'lie emjieror had gone on
foot, at six in the morning of the 5lh, to the King of Prussia's
residence, and the two sovereigns returned together to the
hotel Talleyrainl. Alexandei then informed the envoys that
a regency was impossible, and that the allies could be satis-
fieil with nothing less than a prompt and uncondiiional
dixlicalion. " Three days airo," Alexander observed, " Paris
declared itself; since then ailhcsions have poured in from all

IJI ] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 895

quarters. If the army is not satisfied, why were not its wishes
made known?" Macdonald replied, that the opportunity had
not offered, since none of the marshals were in Paris. Upon
his adding that Napoleon demanded nothing for himself per-
sonally, Alexander rejoined, "Assure him that he shall have
a provision suitable to the rank he has occupied ; that should
he wish to retire to my dominions, he shall be well received,
though he carried desolation into the midst of them ; tliat I
shall ever remember the friendship that united us." An ar-
mistice of forty-eight "hours being then agreed to, the commis-
sioners took leave of the sovereigns, and reached Fontaine-
bleau an hour after midnight. Napoleon, on the 5th, reviewed
his troops, and found the enthusiasm they manifested two
days before, exchanged for a degree of coldness which sensi-
bly affected him. The commissioners made their report;
Napoleon heard them calmly, though not without emotion,
and despatched them on a second embassy to Paris. On
arriving in that city, Ney gave in his adhesion to the provi-
sional s-overnment, so that Macdonald tliis time returned
alone, and presented to Napoleon a copy of the treaty agreed
to by the allies. The emperor signed it, without making
any remark. He then desired the sabre, given to him in
Egypt, by Mourad Bey, to be brought out, and presented it
to the marshal as a token of gratitude for these his last and
valuable services. The treaty was ratified on the 11th: by
its provisions an annual income of 2,000,000 francs, with the
sovereignty of the isle of Elba, was secured to him for life ;
400 volunteers were to accompany him thither ; the Polish
troops to return home retaining their pensions, titles, and de-
corations he had bestowed upon them ; the duchies of Parma,
Placenlia, and Guastalla were settled on Maria Louisa,
reversible to her son ; all the members of the imperial family
were to retain their titles during life, and an ample pension
was secured to each. These conditions having been guaran-
tied by the allies. Napoleon signed, on the same day, the
act of formal abdication, for himself and his heirs, of the
thrones of France and Italy. In this latter kingdom an army
of 30,000 men was still under the orders of Eugene Beauhar-
nais, who, on receiving intelligence of the events in Paris,
signed, (April 10th,) with Marshal Bellegarde, the Austrian
commander, a convention, which allowed the French troops to
retire unmolested into France. General Grenier conducted
them across the Alps ; the viceroy awaited in Italy the deci-
sion of the allies, hoping, perhaps, that the son-in-law of Ba-

396 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cJIAP

vari:i nii^lit obtain nn indcpemlent sovoreio^nty. Rut the
French troops were not tliree days' niarcli from Milan when
that city hrolio out into open rebellion ; l*rina, the Freni^h
minister of finance, was assassinated; and Eugene tliought
himself fortunate in being able to reach, almost unattended,
the court of his father-in-law, at Municli.*

Tlu^ emi)rcss and Napoleon's brothers, who on their de-
parture Irom Paris had established a regency at Blois, re-
HKivcd on the 10th of April to Orleans. Thence Maria Louisa
proceeded to Germany: Joseph and Jerome also quitted
France. Napoleon left the country over which he had so
long presided, on the 20th of April, accompanied by Hcrlrand
and Drouct, by four commissoncrs, and an escort of 150 fo-
reign soldiers. In a farewell harangue to his guards, he exhort-
ed them to be faithful to their new sovereign ; and asserted
that, with their assistance, he could have protracted a civil war
for three years ; but that, consulting not his own, but his peo-
ple's happiness, he had forborne to do so. On his route from
Fontainebleau to Avijrnon,the attachment of his late subjects,
expressed in enthusiastic cheers, seemed ratlier to have de-
rived increase than diminution from his altered fortune. But
from the day of his arrival at Avignon, (April 25th,) till he
reached the frontier, the coarsest invectives, wherever he was
recognised, assailed him. Alarmed by the increasing rudeness
of the populace, and a surmise that the new government had
ordered his assassination, he, from Orgon to La ('alade,
travelled upon a post-horse, disguised as a courier; and from
La Calade to Frejns, personatetl an Austrian colonel, and sat
in General Koller's caleche. At Fnjus, findinsr himself jiro-
ttM!ted l)y an Austrian escort, he ventured to reoccu|)y his own
carriage. On the 28th, he embarked in the harbour of St.
Raphor, nn board an Knirlish brig, and, on the 3d of May,
arrived ofT the coast of Fill)a.

In the mean time an unnecessary effusion of blood took place
in the south of France, where the English and French com-
manders, ignorant of the surrender of Paris and the events

• He was not lonp; after siimmoiird to Paris liy the illness ami death of
his mother, the ex-empress Josephine. On this orcasion, he was prescnied
to Louis XVIII. nn X'inroiint Hrauharnais. The king received him prn-
ciciusly, addresKed him l>y ttie tilh* of prince, and oU'ered him a residence
in France-, with hia rank of prince and marKhai. 'i'hese favours were
respectfully declined. Josephine had heen vi.sited at Malmaison l)y the
allied HovcreiKiis, during; their occupation of Paris, in lRi4,and died there
lowards the ciiise of that year. Her twn was creat«5«l Duke of I.ruclten-
b«rg, and died in 1 824.

UI.l GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 397

which followed it, fought a sanguinary and long-contested
battle. Soult, after his defeat at Orthes, fell back towards
Tarbes, and, being thence dislodged, was obliged to retreat to
Toulouse. In the contest vvhicli ensued, and which was of
twelve hours' continuance, the utmost skill and bravery were
displayed, and numbers fell on both sides. The English ul-
timately succeeded in compelling the enemy to retreat, first
into the city and thence to Castelnaudary. At Toulouse, as
at Bourdeaux, the conquerors were received with loud plaudits,
and with cries of " Vive Wellington ! Vivent les Bourbons !"
On the following day, both armies received intelligence of the
surrender of Paris; Soult and Suchet for some time hesitated
to believe the account of the emperor's overthrow ; but when
convinced of its certainty, they entered into a convention
similar to that already concluded at Paris.

The last trophies of the war were won by Lord Williart
Bentinck, who captured Genoa by a combined operation of
the Anglo-Sicilian land troops under his command, and of the
sea-forces under SirJosiah Rowley. The two forts of Riche-
lieu and Teela were carried by storm, while the gun and
mortar-ships silenced the enemy's batteries, and, having forced
him to desert them, took possession of, and turned them
against the place. The French commander retreated into the
town, and, having vainly endeavoured to gain time by negotia-
tion, was compelled to capitulate. The allied troops entered
it on the 21st of April, and found there 293 pieces of cannon;
the British squadron sailing at the same time into the harbour
where they captured two seventy-fours and four brigs of
war. These advantages were gained, with the comparatively
trifling loss to the allies, of 220 killed, wounded, or missing.
Genoa, by a decree of the Congress of Vienna, was annexed
to the kingdom of Sardinia, and thus that ancient and far-
famed republic ceased to exist.

One of the first acts of the provisional government, was a
decree, addressed to the civil and military authorities, ordain-
ing that no obstacle should be raised to the Pope's return to
his dominions, and that he should be everywhere received
with the honours due to his exalted rank. The adhesion of
Murat to the continental alliance, in virtue of wliich he had
marched an army to Rome, and still occupied, in defiance of
the Viceioy Eugene, the western part of the ecclesiastical
state, had caused, in the early part of the year, a marked
change in the affairs of Italy. Napoleon, who chose rather
to see those provinces under t!ie mild sway of Pius VII., thau

398 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cUAP.

•n the hands of the ambitious soldier who liad deserted his
cause, tried to enter into fresh negotiations witli the Pope,
and sent (January 18) to propose to hini a treaty, l)y which
Rome, and the territory as far as Perus^ia, should lie restored
to the Holy See. Pius replied widi ditrnity, that the restitu-
tion of his states, being an act of justice, could not be made
the object of a particular treaty ; that, moreover, any arran<re-
nients concluded out of Rome, would be looked u\H)n as the
efTcct of violent proceedings : all that he demanded was to
return to his see ; no obstacle shoidd then prevent him from
promoting general tranuuillity by all the means in his i)()wer.
" It is possible," he added, emphatically, " that in our own
person we may not bo found worthy to revisit Rome, b\it
our successors shall assuredly recover the territories which
belong to them." Four days later. Napoleon, who was on
the point of leaving Paris to oppose the armies of the coali-
tion, wliich were even then at no verv considerable distance
from Foutainel)leau, sent for Colonel liagorsse, and ordi^rcd
him to set out on the morrow, and conduct his Holiness, with
as little delay as possible, to Rome. On receiving intimation
of the emperor's will, Pius expressed his earnest desire to be
accompanied by at least one of the members of the sacred
college, but was respectfully informed by Colonel fiagorsse,
that the request was incompatible with his instructions. At
an early hour, therefore, on the following morning, having
assembled around him all the cardinals then at Fontainebleau,
the Pope took leave of them with an air of calm resignation,
stating that, as he was lluMi al)out to quit them, to go he knew
not whither, nor whether he should ever again have the con-
solation of seeinij them, it was his desire to make known to
them his intentions and will. He expressly enjoined lliein
(a form of speech very unusual with him) to refuse their
assent, individually and collectively, to every species of treaty
or stipulation ; addinir, that he had left with the Cardinal
Dean a paper, written entirely with his own hand, contain-
ing instructions for their conduct, under any emergencies that
were likely to occur. Precautions had already been taken
for the election of his successor, in case of his demisi;. 'J'lie
cardinals were deeply alTected, and all promised fidelity
and obedience. Intelligence of the Popci's imm( diate dejiarl-
urc having quickly spread through the town, hundreds of
the inhabitants scaled the walls of the palace-court, and were
wailine in the snow to receive his last faniwell and blessing.
His carriage took the direction of Orleans ; the road to

Ill ] GENFRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 399

Lyons being occupied by the allies, and he reached Savona
early in February, where he received the first intimation of tho
decree which restored to him the two departments of Rome
and Trasimene. By the respectful attentions of the Viceroy
Eugene, he was enabled (March 25th) to pursue his journey
to Parma, and thence to Cesena, his native city. Having
sent forward a delegate to take possession in his name of the
city of Rome, he resolved to await the issue of events and
the return of the cardinals, who were now hastening to Italy
from various towns in the south of France, to which they had
been sent, under the custody of gendarmes, the day after his
departure from Fontainebleau. During his residence in the
city of Cesena, Joachim Murat requested an audience, and
was immediately admitted. After the first compliments, he
aflfected ignorance as to the intended term of the Pope's jour-
ney; and, on being informed, asked his Holiness how he
could think of returning to Rome against the will of the Ro-
mans, Producinsf at once a memorial addressed to the allied
sovereigns by some of the nobles of that city, praying that
they might in future be governed by a secular prince, he said,
"that he had sent a copy to Vienna, but had reserved the
original, that liis Holiness might see the signatures." Pius
took the memorial from his hand, and, without opening, threw
it into a stove that stood near, where it was instantly con-
sumed ; he then added, "Is there any thing now to prevent
us from re-entering Rome ?" After which, he mildly dis-
missed the arrogant soldier, who, in 1809, had sent troops
from Naples to assist in the violent seizure of his person,
and who, if, as it was asserted, he had solicited the signatures,
was deeply implicated in the conspiracy which he denounced.
Difficulties soon arose as to the marches of Ancona, which
Murat, supported, as he alleged, by Austria, insisted on
retaining : to settle this matter by the intervention of the
allies. Cardinal Consalvi was sent to Paris by his Holiness.
The sovereigns, he learned, on his arrival there, had pro-
ceeded to London, whither he followed them, and obtained
an audience of each, as well as of the prince-regent, by
whom he was received with distinction. In the mean while,
the Sovereign Pontiff" made his entry into the capital of his
states, (May 24th,) having in his carriage the Cardinal Dean,
whom he had left at Fontainebleau, and Cardinal Pacca, who
had been arrested with him at Monte Cavallo. Charles IV.,
of Spain, with his queen and the Infanto Don Francisco ;
tlie ex-King of Sardinia, the Queen of Etruria, and numerous

400 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

Other (lislinfTui.sh'd personages, foriiieil part of tlio cortege.
The inciilent at Ceseiia hail transpired, anil was then known
in full detail at IJnine, where all, iiicliidiiiii those who had
siijnid the memorial, were now unanimous in receiving their
sovereign with unfeigned demonstrations of joy and attaeli-
ment. An address of ronii;ratulalion was presented by
(General liord Win. lientinek, in the name of the Priiiee-
regent of Kngland, aeeompanied with a blank exchecjiier-
bill, signed by that sovereign, which he requested his Iloli.
ness to accept and fdl up, to any amount he might stand in
need of. The I'ope was so overcome with siirj)rise and
gratitude, as to be for sonic minutes unable to speak ; at
lenirlh, he expressed his thanks in the most lively terms, and
requested Lord W. IJenlinck to be the bearer of diem to iiis
royal higfiricss.* By a bull dated the 7di of August, the
eclel)rateil Society of the Jesuits, at the unanimovs request
of the Catholic wnrl<l,i was solemnly restored. Cardinal
Pacea, whohad imi)ibe(l early prejudices against the institute,
from the writings of Pascal, of which he had since learned
the fallacy, was among the first to advise the Pope to this
measure ; and he was seconded by die pressing solicitations
of numerous archbishops, bishops, and other persons of dis-
tinction. Various religious houses were reopened in Rome,
and such of their possessions as had not been alienated were
returned to them.

In the mean time, the restoration seemed consolidated in
France: in virtue of a new constitution, ad<ipled by the senate,
on the .5th of A|)ril, Louis Stanislaus Xavier was, by that
name, called to fdl die vacant throne. Indisposition prevented
him from selling out immedialely for l''rance ; he therefore
appointed his brotiier, the Count d'Artctis, to be lieutenant-
general of the kingdimi till his arrival ; and Uiat prince
entered Paris on the 12th, amidst the enthusiastic cheers of
the inhabiuints. Three days later, die Emperor Francis
made his entry with great military pomp : Alexander and
Frederic William met him at the barrier, and Uie three
Kovereitrns traversed the city in company. Louis XVIII.
was al)le, on the 2(Uli of April, to rei)air to London, where
he was received by the riigeiit with regal honours. The two
Bovereigns interchanged, on this occasion, the orders of the

• A full-longth jinrlrait of fJcorRc IV., in Tinwrpnrc'* brst Btvin, still
«(li>rnR one of thr K;illfrios of the Vuliran. It was ordcriil vliortly after
ihix iricidrnt by Piox Vll., as a token of his gratitude.

f Word* of thtJ bull.

LILJ general history of EUROPE. 401

Holy Gliost and of tlie Garter; this being the first lime the
former decoration was ever conferred on a Protestant prince.
The king's arrival at Calais was announced by the discharge
of artillery, and followed by shouts and reiterated acclama-
tions. On the 2d of May, he arrived at St. Omer, where he
received the members of the provisional government, with
deputations from various bodies of the state, and issued a
proclamation, approving the basis of the proposed constitu-
tion ; but as it had been unavoidably drawn up in haste, he
convoked the members of the senate and the legislative body
to frame a charter, which should concede a representative
government, consisting of peers and deputies ; guaranty the
inviolability of national and individual liberty, the mainte-
nance of military and civil honours, liberty of conscience and
of the press.

On the 3d of May, Louis entered Paris, preceded by the
marshals, the generals of the army and officers of the court,
attended by the national and royal guards, and detachments
of regular troops. Countless multitudes thronged from the
city to meet the royal procession, and its entry into the
capital was hailed by such enthusiastic demonstrations of
joyful gratulation, as were calculated, could they silence the
recollection of irrecoverable losses, to compensate for past
neglect and exile.

The decline of Napoleon's power also enabled Ferdinand
of Spain to emerge from the obscurity in which he had been
so long detained in the chateau of Valencey. On the 24th
of March he arrived at Gerona, from whence he proceeded to
Saragossa and thence to Valencia, where he issued a decree
abolishing the Cortes, and annulling the constitution which
they had published. The royalists of the old stamp, who
wished the crown to be invested as formerly with absolute
power, were supported by the king ; and many of those who
had most distinguished themselves during the reign of the
Cortes, by writings or speeches in favour of liberty, were
placed under arrest. Ferdinand entered Madrid on the 14th
of May, and was received with marked demonstrations of
respect and loyalty ; the tribunal of the Inquisition, with
some alterations as to the form and method of its proceedings,
and all other ecclesiastical and civil establishments, resumed
their former position ; Ferdinand also recalled the Jesuits to
Spain, and restored to them their college of St. Isidore.

On the 23d, the allied powers signed a convention, which
Hipulated that their armies should evacuate France in fourteen

36*

402 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [ciIAP.

davs ; that tlio fleets should remain in their present stations ;
but that all bloekatles .shoiihl he raised, and all jjrisoners mu-
tually restored. A delinitive treaty of peace between the
Kinij of Enirland and his allies (in the one part, and Louis
XVIll. on the other, was eoneludcd on the 30lh of May. Its
chief stipulations were, that France should retain her limits
as they were in January, 1791, with some small addition of
territory ; that the colonies wrested from her by l^nirland
sinee 17l)'2, should be restored, except Tobajro and St. Ijiieia,
which, with the Isle of France and its dependencies, were
kept by Enjrland, and the port of St. Domingo ceded to
France by the treaty of Basle, which was to revert to Spain ;
that Guadaloupe should be restored by Sweden to France;
that the States of Germany should be independent and united
by a confederative bond ; that the Swiss republic should be
restored; that Italy, beyond the limits to revert to Austria,
should be composed of sovereign states; that Malta and its
dejiendencies should remain in the possession of I'^nirland ;
(hat Holland should l)e sui)ject to the house of Orange,
and its sovereignty not be held in any case by a prince wear-
ing, or destined to wear, a foreign crown ; that no individual,
in the countries restored or ceded by the treaty, should be
prosecuted or molested for liis political opinions. By this
treaty the allies and the French monarch reciprocally re-
nounced all claims to sums advanced by either party to the
other, since 1792. All tlie pow(;rs engaged in the late war
were to send plenipotentiaries to Vienna, to conclude in con-
gress all necessarv arransjements.

In this general treaty Norway was not included; and Eng-
land, in conformity with a promise made by her to Sweden,
prepared to force the Norwenfians to submit to the Swedish
yoke. This meditated translV'r, for which their consent had
not been asked, was exceeilingly (lisj)leasing to the Norwe-
gians, who, encouraged by their governor, Christian, the
hereditary Prince of Denmark, took up arms to assert their
national indej)endencc. The Crown-prince of Sweden en-
tered Norway in the beginning of August, at the head of an
army of veleians, to enforce submission ; after some skirmish-
ing, the Norw(;giaiis, being nearly surrounded, agreed to a
convention, by which the Prince of Denmark resigned his
authority, and the King of Swr'den accepted a constitution to
be framed bv the Norweirian iliet. 'I'hat assembly met on
the 2l)lli of October, and the; union of Norway with Sweden
was ratified by a large majority. A free constitution was

III.^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 403

also conceded to the Dutch ; and tlie ten Bclgic Provinces
formerly subject to Austria, were united to Holland ; the
whole to form one kingdom, under the sovereignty of the
Princu of Orange and his descendants. The city of Ham-
burg, after its long and severe sufferings under the tyranny
of Davoust, was restored to its former privileges and inde-
pendence. Joachim Murat, having seasonably abandoned
the fortunes of his brother-in-law, and signed a convention
with the Anglo-Sicilians in February, was allowed by the al-
lies to reign in Naples, and continued to form schemes of
aggrandizement, proving a troublesome neighbour to the Holy
See, The King of Sardinia recovered his Italian territories,
and made his entry into Turin in May.

On the 3d of May, Mr. Wilberforce, the humane advocate
of the Africans, again represented their case to the legislature.
His exertions, seconded by the voice of both Houses, caused
representations to be made to the continental powers to induce
them to assist in the abolition of the slave-trade. Lord Wel-
lington, for the victories achieved by him against France,
was created Duke of Wellington and Marquis Douro ; and
£400,000, in addition to former grants, were voted to him.
He took his seat in the House of Peers, and received its
thanks on the 28th of June. A deputation from the Com-
mons congratulated him upon his late arrival in England ;
and when he waited upon the House to return thanks for the
honours it had awarded him, he was loudly greeted by the
members, who rose upon his entry. Public sympathy was,
during this year, again excited by the case of the Princess of
Wales. The allied sovereigns proposed to visit the Englist
metropolis, and splendid preparations were made for their
reception. The queen notified to the public, that she intend-
ed holding two drawing-rooms during their stay in England.
From these assemblies, which it was anticipated would be
the most brilliant that had been witnessed in the British do-
minions, the prince-regent desired that his consort should be
excluded. The princess, " to avoid," as she stated, " adding
to the difficulty and uneasiness of the queen's situation,"
consented to absent herself from the drawing-rooms ; she,
however, addressed an expostulatory letter to the prince, and
laid her case before Parliament, through the medium of a
letter to the speaker. The discussions on this subject termi-
nated by the passing of a grant for the increase of her annual
income to £50,000 per annum ; which sum was, however,
ov her own desire, reduced to £35,000. The Princess Char-

404 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE [cHAP.

lotle took a lively interest in the afllictions of her roval mo-
ther ; she refused to accept the alliance of the Prince of
Orange, alleging; her dislike to leave Enjrland, where she
thnui,fht her presence necessary to soothe the HutlVriiigs of
the I'rincess of Wales, The prince-rcijcnt, oin-iuled hy her
determination, and ascrihing it to the influence of her attend-
ants, dismissed them, and appointed others in their stfad.
While he and the IJisliop of Salishury were employed in
chArging the latter closely to ohserve her conduct, she made
her way into the street hy a private staircase, hurried into a
hackney-coach, and drove to Coiinanght House, the resi-
dence of her mother. She was, however, prevailed upon to
return on the following day, and was removed to her father's
mansion, and, not long after, to Cranhourne Lodge.

A fraud practised upon the stock-exchange by Lord Coch-
rane and several associates, occupied, for a short time, public
attention. By the circulation of a n-port that Hoiiaparte was
dead, they caused a rise in the price of stocks, of which the
reporters profited. They were tried by the Court of King's
Bench, found giiilty, and sentenced to a line and imprisonment.
Lord Cochrane, who represented the city of Westminster,
was expelled his seat by a majority of the House of ('om-
mons, but re-elected by his constituents. These events, as
well as every otlicr object of interest, was soon forgotten in the
rejoicings caused by the arrival of the Emperor Ah.'xandei
and the King of Prussia, with their respective suites, in the
metropolis of Enirland. The court, the universities, the cor-
poration of London, and the po|nilace, all vied with each other
in showing them attention ; and the city, during their stay,
presented a scene of unexampled splendour and festivity.
They remained till the 27th of June, and on that day embark-
ed at Dover for the Coruinent.

At the suggestion of Mr. Peel, a bill was passed this ses-
sion of Parliament, emijowerinir any two justices, in any
county of Iielantl wliich should be ilisturl)ed, to call an ex-
traordinary session of the county, to report its stale to the
lord-lieutenant, who might issue a proclamation, ordering the
residents of the disturbed county, undiT penalty of seven
years' transportation, to remain in their houses from sunset
»o sunrise. He was further <'mpowered to convoke a special
session of the peace in reported counties, for the trial of of-
fenders against this law ; and, if necessary, tf) dispense; with
the trial by jury. These rigorms measures were the conse-
quence of outrages committed in some p iris of Ireland. Iiy

111.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 405

persons calling themselves Carders and Caravats ; for the
purpose, as was supposed, of lowering the price of land.

The Congress of Vienna was installed on the 1st of No-
vember. The Emperors of Austria and Russia, the Kings
of Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, and Wirtemburg, and ambas-
sadors from all the states of Europe were assembled there.*
The annexation of a part of Saxony to Prussia, with a pro-
viso that the remainder should retain the title of kingdom of
Saxony, and the erection of Hanover into a kingdom, were
among the first subjects discussed by this assembly. The
Swiss cantons signed, on the 8th of September, a federal
compact, which stipulated that no class of citizens should
enjoy exclusive privileges ; that each canton, in case of danger,
should be assisted by the others ; and that no alliance between
particular cantons, to the prejudice of the common interest,
should be formed. The armed force of the confederates was
to be 30,000 men; the contribution for its support, £21,000.

The war between England and America was carried on and
happily brought to a conclusion this year. Fresh troops wei-e
sent over, but the Americans under Brown crossed the Niagara
in July, and a detachment under Scott defeated General liinU
and his veterans at Chippewa, and soon after at Lundy's Lane,
and though compelled to fall back to Fort Erie, defied all effi^its
to dislodge them. Prevost now moved upon Plattsburg, which
he purposed to attack both by land and water. The action upon
the lake proved disastrous to the English : their vessels, which
were four in number, were forced, after a severe conflict, to
strike to the enemy, and their gun-boats escaped, only because
the American vessels were, at the close of the action, too nuuh
injured to capture them. The British land-forces, while the
fleets were engaged, succeeded in passing the Saranac ; but
when Sir George heard that the American squadron was vic-
torious, he ordered his troops to retreat. The defeat of Platts-
burg created disappointment and mortification in England,
proportioned to the expectations of victory which had been
raised by the departure of the reinforcements. Another ex-
pedition was sent out in August, against the middle states of

• In this celebrated Congress, the chief diplomatists were—

For Austria Prince Metternich,

England Lord Castlereagh,

France Prince Talleyrand,

Russia Count Nesselrode,

Prussia Prince Hardenburg,

the Pope Cardinal Consalvi.

100 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

America. The British Athniral Cochrane entered the Pa-
taxiint on the 27lh, to co-operate with liear-adiniral Cock-
bnrn, in an attack on the enemy's (U)tilla, coninianded l)y
Commodore Harnc y ; intending, if it proved snccestiful, to
proceed against Washington. Tiie land-troops, under Ge-
neral Koss, were diseniharked on the IDth at Benedict. On
the 22d, the expedition reached I'ig I'oint, w liere the national
flotilla, consisting of seventeen ships, was stationed, 'i'he
Americans ahandoned their vessels ; sixteen of which, before
the English could capture them, blew up. The British com-
manders now proceeded against the capital of the United
States. About five miles from the city, they found the enemy,
strongly posted on the opposite side of the eastern branch of
the Potomac. From this position the Americans were, after
a severe contest, dislodged. They moved upon Washington ;
but their generals, judiriiig the defence of the city impracti-
cable, ordered them to (Tcorgetown. 'J'he English troops
quickly advanced to the capital, and destroyed all the public
biiiliiiMg-:, with the records, library, and national monuments,
and after this disgraceful act re-embaikcd. The fleet wuw
plundered Alexandria, but one of their parties under Sir
Peter Parker was defeated and wounded at Bellair, and Ross
himself killed in an attempt on Baltimore, which entirely
failed. The South became the theatre ofwar. In November
Jackson drove the British from the Spanish town of Pensa-
cola, and learning that Admiral Cochrane inlemlcd a descent
on New Orleans, he proceeded to that city. The British
landed on the 22d of December, and took post below the
city. Failing in an atteinjit to dislodge them, Jackson en-
camped. Sir Edward Packenham resolved to storm his camp.
BalHed twice, he led up all his force to a general attack on the
8th of .January, but when he fell, his troops, thinned by the
loss of 2,r)00 mill, retreate<l to their ships. Previous to
this, and on the 2tLh of Decemb'er, 1811, the commissioners,
who during the whole year had been negotiating at Ghent,
broutfht their discussions to a close. In the treaty then con-
cluded, the chief olijects for which the war had originated,
the impressment of American seamen and the limits of block-
ade, were not menlioned. The principal stipulations were,
that commissioners shoidd i)e a|)|)oiiUed to lix a boundary-
line between Canada and the I'nilcd Slates ; and that all the
po.ssessions, rights, and privileges which the Indians had held
before the war, should be restored to them. Both the contract-
ing parties agreed to contribute their eH'orta towards the abo-
lition of the slave-trade.

LIII.j GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 407

CHAPTER LIII.

FROM THE TREATY OF GHENT, IN 1814, TO THE TREATIES OF
VIENNA AND PARIS, IN 1815.

Subsequent measures, on the part of Louis XVIII., tended
to counteract the impression which the charter had at first
produced in favour of the restoration ; the establishment of
restrictions upon the press, and the circulation of a report that
the king woukl invalidate the purchase of national property,
alarmed the nation in general ; an order for the reduction to
half-pay of officers not in actual service ; the recall of the Swiss
guards to the capital, and the removal of the imperial guard,
incensed the army ; an order for the erection of a monument
to the memory of the emigrants who had fallen at Quiberon,
and for the removal of some public functionaries to make room
for known ultra-royalists, confirmed the nation in a belief, that
the abus^, as well as the principles of the ancient monarchy,
would be shortly restored.

The formation of plans for the restoration of Bonaparte was
the result of the national dissatisfaction. A conspiracy for
that purpose was quickly organized, and the violet became the
secret symbol of recognition. A rumour that the allied sove-
reigns, still in congress at Vienna, purposed to remove Bona-
parte from Elba to a more secluded residence, precipitated the
development of the plans formed in his favour. To induce
him to attempt the resumption of sovereignty, required but
little persuasion ; an assurance that the French army and na-
tion sighed after his return, was, to his daring mind, a suffi-
cient stimulus to undertake the hazardous enterprise. After
an exile of eleven months, during which, his time had been
chiefly given to the improvement of the isle of Elba, and to
mineralogical and agricultural studies, he embarked with his
army, consisting of 900 men, for the coast of France. His
fleet, which was composed of the Inconstant, of 26 guns,
and six small vessels, put to sea on the night of the 26th of
February ; Sir Neil Campbell, the British commissioner to
Elba, being then in Italy, and no ships visible from the island.
On the morning of the 27th, the adventurers, having been be-
calmed, had advanced but six leagues. The captain and crew,
fearing detection, advised, but could not persuade the emperor
to put back to Elba. His detevmination, though hazardous,

408 GENKRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

was not iinfortun;ito: his fleet escaped the observation of some
Freiu'li eniisers wliieli were in sight : it met and spoke the
yj('])}iyi' without exeiting tiie suspieion of her eaptain, and
anchored on the 1st of March, at three o'clock, in the hay of
St. .Iiian. " Voihi le Coiigrcs dissoiis," exuhingly exchiimed
Napoh'oii, as he set his foot on the French sluire. His litde
troop bivouacked upon the coast, in a vineyard surrounded by
olive trees, and lliere remained till eleven o'clock on the night
of the 1st; they then moved to Cannes. On the (Uii they
reached Gap, whence Napoleon issued two proclamations, cal-
culated to rouse the army and the people to sup[)ort his enter-
prise, lie had hitherto advanced without opposition, but wag
here met by 0,000 men coming from (Trenoble to arrest his
progress, who seemingly only waited orders to fire upon him.
Advancing fearlessly towards lliem, he exclaimed, " JSoldiers,
you have been told that I fear death; if there lie one among
you who would kill his emperor, let him plunge liis bayonet
into this bosom." " Vive V Einprrnir'''' was tiie instantaneous
reply of the detachment, as it rallied round the imj)erial stand-
ard. Colonel Labcdoyere, with his regiment, joiiiud the in-
vading army as it approached Grenoble. Colonel Marchand,
the commander of the city, not swayed by the prevalent
example, prepared to resist Napoleon's entry, liut to liillo
purpose ; the garrison and inhabitants re-echoed the flias of
the imperial troops, and, j)ulling down the cilv g.ites, allowed
the emperor a ready entrance. 'I'iie imperial army, swelled
by the Grenoble garrison, marched to Lyons, Napoleon pre-
ceding them in an open carriage, escorted only liy a few hus-
sars, and sometimes quite unguarded, 'i'hc peasantry, as he
passed, surrounded and cheered him, and in the towns upon
his route, congratulatory addresses were presented.

In the mean time, mrasiires were taken by the French
authorities to arrest the invader's jirogress ; but as slowly as
if no pressing necessity required their execution. Inttdligence
of Napoleon's return was not known at the 'I'uileries till the
5th, nor by the Parisians till the 7th. 'I'he Chamlters were
then convened, and a royal ordinance pronounced Napoleon
and his adherents traitors, and authorized his appreluinsion
and trial before a council of war, which, on proof of his iden-
tity, was to award him the i)unishin(iit of death. Addresses
from the inhal»itanl.s and municipality of Paris, and from the
Chambers, assured Louis of their adVction to his government.
Numerous volunteers enlisted in tlie roval cause, and the court
Was lulled into k belief of the impotence of the invader'f

tlll.n GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 409

enterprise, till its triiimpliant termination was nearly on the
eve of accomplishment. Monsieur, the Duke of Orleans, and
Count Danias, were, however, despatched to Lyons, and the
Duke d'Angouleme proceeded to INismes. The defence of the
city was intrusted to Marshal Macdonald. While this gene-
ral inspected tlie fortitications and barricaded the bridges of the
Rhone, Monsieur harangued the troops on the virtues of Louis
XVIIL and the tyranny of Napoleon, but without attaching
them to the royal standard ; for, though his personal guard
replied " Long live the king," the troops of the line remained
repulsively silent. On the 10th, Napoleon's advanced guard
reached the suburbs of La Guillotiere, and Macdonald pre-
pared to dispute its progress; but his troops, meeting, in their
passage over one of the bridges, with a reconnoitring party
of the Grenoble soldiers, embraced and joined them with
reiterated cries, as greeting to the emperor as they were
appalling to the royal princes. The former triumphantly
entered, while the latter fled from Lyons. One only of his
attendants accompanied Monsieur. The other soldiers of the
royal guard of honour entreated the emperor's permission to
become his personal escort ; but he indignantly rejected their
proflered service, assigning, as the cause of his refusal, their
cowardly abandonment of their late master. To the dragoon
who remained faithful, he ordered that a cross of the legion
of honour should be presented. From Lyons, Napoleon
issued various decrees ; he left it on the 13th, and on the 17th
reached Auxerre.

His triumphant march was, through the treachery of the
government agents, unknown at the Tuileries. Marshal Ney,
however, was despatched to Lons-le-Saulnier, to direct an
attack by the army stationed there, against the rear of the
enemy ; and preparations were made to arrest his progress
between Fontainebleau and Paris. Ney pledged himself to
bring Napoleon to Paris " dead or alive," adding that he ought
to be brought "in an iron cage." Possibly the marshal's
expressions were sincere, but his loyalty was short-lived.
Upon his arrival at Lons-le-Saulnier, he harangued his staff* in
favour of the Bourbon cause; but, finding, by the gloomy
silence with which his warm eulogy of the existing govern-
ment was received, that he spoke to disaffected auditors, he
retired, seeming-lv labouring- under a severe internal conflict.
The assurance of some emissaries of Napoleon, who arrived
there during the night, that the emperor's enterprise had been
Mndertaken with the concurrence of Austria and the connivan*^e

.37

410 OENKRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP

of Kii2:l;.ii(l, tliat tlio oinpross and lier son had set out for Paris,
uiui llial Mural was ailvauciiiir to asisisl Napoleon on the sido
of Italy, decided iho French marshal's wavcrnig purpose.
On the 13th, he atldrcsscd a proelamation to his army, an*
nouncino' tiie cause of the Bourbons forever lost, and advising
them to rally round the standard of the nation's ehoiee, that
of Napoleon. He joined the emperor on the 17th at Auxerre,
advanced with him to Fontaiiiehleau, and thence to Paris.
The national guard, under the Duke de Herry and Marshal
Macdonald, was placed at Melun to arrest the progress of the
imperial forces. The last hopes of Louis rested on its loyalty ;
after some hours spent hy this chosen hand in watchful expec-
tation of the advance of the hostile troops, an open carriage,
conveying the emperor, Bertrand, and Drouet, and escorted
by a few hussars and drajroons, drove rapidly up to their
advanced posts. " J'ive V Enipereur ! five iV(ij)ol<0)i le
grand .'" exclaimed the royal army, and Napoleon passed
throuiih their opening ranks, and drove to Paris without
molestation. Louis left the capital on the night of the lUlli,
escorted by the household troops : the citizens wept for his
departure. Napoleon entered it on the night of the 2()th,
with an escort of twenty men, and was received by the same
citizens with joyful enthusiasm.

The king retired to Lisle, where he was joined by many
distinguished royalists and emigrants. The Duke and Duchess
d'Augoulcnie made strenuous exertions in favour of the roval
cause in the western and southern departments, but the efforts
of the duchess were counleraded by the arrival of General
Clausel, at Bourdeaux ; and the duke, after having held pos-
session for some days of Montpellier and Nismes, was sur-
rounded ijy the troojis of C»en('r;d ttilly, and forced to capitulate
The duke, by Napoleon's order, was conducted safely to the
plac^e of his eml)arkation. The Duke of Bourl)()n, after having
roused the royalistii of La Vendee, judging that their exertions
coidd not efTeetually support the royal cause, accepted a safe
conduct, for himself and forty of his f(jllowers, to Nantes, and
embarked for England.

The Congress at Vienna had drawn its deliberations to a
close, when the news arrived of Napoleon's enterprise. It
reassembled on the 13th of March, and published a declara-
tion, purporting that Bonaparte, by invading France, in viola-
tion of his compact with the allied powers, had forfeited the
protection of the law, and shown that no truce couh' hp
made wiih him. They pledged themselves to mzke common

LIII.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 411

cause in enforcing the observance of the treaty of Paris, and
in preventing every attempt whicli niiglit be made to replunge
the world into the disorders and miseries of revolutions.
Preparations for war were made on so extensive a scale as
to ensure the co-operation of 1,100,000 men. Napoleon, on
his side, addressed a letter (dated Aprd 4th) to the sovereigns
of Europe, announcing his re-establishment upon the throne
of France, by the affection of the French nation. " France,"
he said, " would henceforth know no other rivalship than the
advantages of peace, no other strife than a sacred contest
for the happiness of mankind." This letter remained un-
answered. Napoleon, therefore, thougiit only of justifying
his conduct to the French people: of uniting all parties in his
favour ; and of kindling the enthusiasm of the soldiery. He
published a manifesto, representing the treaty of Fontaine-
bleau as violated, not by him, but by the sovereigns, since
they had refused passports for Elba to Maria Louisa and her
son. In the selection of his ministers, he tried to unite the
constitutional and republican parties: Cambaceres was made
arch-chancellor ; the Dukes of Gaieta, Decres, and Otranto,
Count MoUieu and Carnot, ministers; the Prince of Eckmiihl
(Davoust) had the war department ; the Dukes of Bassano
and Vicenza, secretaries ; he exerted himself to recruit his
army and to collect a formidable artillery ; to rouse the mili-
tary ardour and national pride of the soldiery ; and in order
to attach the people to his interests, he published an additional
act to the constitution of the empire, in which he promised to
combine the highest degree of liberty, with the vigour ne-
cessary to secure the national independence. This act ex-
cluded the Bourbons from the throne of France, even should
the imperial family become extinct. It was published on the
23d of Aprd, but the meeting which was to sanction it was,
from various causes, deferred tUl the 1st of June. On that
day, a vast multitude, consisting of the deputies, t:itizens,
merchants, agriculturists, magistrates, and warriors of France,
assembled in what was called the Champ de Mai. The
arrangements were of a most solemn and imposing nature.
The arch-chancellor, having calculated the votes for and
against the additional act, proclaimed it accepted by the
French nation : Napoleon gave it his signature, and ha-
rangued the assembled multitude upon his attachment and
gratitude to his people, his solicitude for the welfare of
France, upon the unjust intentions of the allied sovereigns,
and the necessity of union, energy, and perseverance on the

41S GENERAL HISTORY OF EimOPE. [cHAF.

part of tlic Ffcncli. Loud plaudits followed the conclusion
of his address. \Vh<'H these subsided, he swore to ohserve,
and cause to he oi)served, the consiiluirDus of the empire. A
solemn TV Dcitm announced the olfjects of the meeting ac-
coin|)lislied. 'J'he imperial eagles were then presented hy
the ministers of the interior, of war, and of the marine, to
Napoleon, and by Napoleon to the soldiery, with a (;hart>;e to
rally round and defend thcni. " We swear it," exclaimed
the troops ; and the asseml)ly dispersed.

On the 2d of June, the emperor named the peers, and on
the 7th installed the legislature : when the members of both
Chambers had taken an oath of obedience to the constitution
and of fulelily to their sovereign, he addressed them from the
throne. The replies of the Chambers to his speech, which
were four days in preparation, breathed a spirit of indepen-
dence at once novel and appalling to Napoleon ; he was not
unmindful that the retention of his crown depended upon the
event of battle, and his exertions were proportionate to the
greatness of the object which called them forth. Fifty
thousand men were cipiipped early in .lune, and marched for
the frontier, whither the emperor, at the close of his speech
to the d(;piiti(;s, announced that he p\irposed following th(>m.
But his forces did not amount to one-lhird of the number
which formerly he had at command, and the general aspect
of his alTiirs was gloomy and unpromising. During his
residence in Elba, an active corrcsponilence had been carried
on between that island and Naples, where King .Ioa<'liim,
though professing fidelity to his alliance with Austria, had
been levying troops and makintr other warlike; preparations.
With a view to conliru) his usurped dignity, he hail made! re-
|)eatcd olTers to the Holy See of presenting the tribute as was
formerly the custom of the IcLntimali! sovereiirns of Naples,
in acknowledgment that the kingdoni was held i)y them in
fief; i)Ut his proposals had been steadily rejected. Intelli-
gence of Napoleon's rapid and successful advance upon Paris
induced him to throw oil' the mask, and ftpenlv to avow that
lie considered the cause of his brother-in-law inseparable from
his own. On the 19ih of March, he demanded a free pas-
saire f(}r his troops throut'^h the Itoman stales ; disregarding
the refusal of the papal govcrnmeut, he advanced to AiUMuia,
and, proceeding through the marches, attacked the imperial
forces under (Jeneral Ilianchi. and compelled them to retreat.
On the approach of the .Neapolitans, the INtpe withdrew to
Fl( rence and afterwards to Genoa ; and, meeting \liere M. de

LIII.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 413

Pressigny, the French ambassador, whom he admitted to an
audience, he said to him, in presence of several persons at-
taclied to tlie embassy, " Signor ambasclatore, non dubbi-
tafe di niente: qiiesto e un temporale che durerci tre mesi."'*
Miirat, however, was still advancing ; he had made himself
master of Ferrara and Florence, and forced the Grand-duke
of Tuscany to quit his capital. The aim of King Joachim
was to revolutionize Italy, and unite it into one monarchy,
under his own sceptre. But his efforts to rouse the Italians
were unsuccessful; the Austrians having collected their forces,
he was driven back in his turn by Generals Bianchi and Fri-
mont, and his army cut olT, in a series of engagements near
Tolentino. Naples was invested by land, while an English
fleet entered the port and compelled the Neapolitans to sign a
convention, (May 20th,) of which the chief article was the
deposition of Murat. The city Avas occupied by the allies till
the 17th of June, when Ferdinand IV., returning from Sicily,
regained peaceable possession. The ex-king retired into
France.! All Napoleon's hopes of co-operation from abroad
were thus frustrated ; and in the interior of his empire, loyalty
to his person was not general : the Vendeans, too, were again
in arms for the support of the ancient dynasty. The allies
proposed to invade France in three divisions, named from
their respective situations previously to their entering the
French territory, the army of the Upper Rhine, commanded
by Prince Schwartzenburg; the army of the Lower Rhine,
by Marshal Blucher : and the army of the Netherlands, under
the Duke of Wellington. The Russian armies, under Bar-
clay de Tolly and Wittgenstein, were to form the reserve.
Upon the defeat of Murat, the Austro-Italian army advanced
towards the south of France : that under Blucher arrived in
the neighbourhood of Namur, in May ; the Duke of Wel-
lington's head-quarters were at Brussels. The force under
his command was 94,000 men, 38,000 of whom were
British: the remainder consisted of Hanoverians, Bnmswick-
ers, Belgians, &c. Napoleon left Paris (June 12) and pro-
ceeded to Laon. At the head of a numerous and well-
appointed army, he entered Belgium, with the hope of sur-
prising the Prussians in their cantonments, and cutting off the
communication between Blucher and Wellington. After

* "Mr. A nbassador, fear not; this is a storm that will last three
months."

|The Sicilians had obtained a free constitution in 1812, through the in
lervention of Lord William Bentinck.

37*

41i GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. []cHAP

fon-iniT tlio passage of tlie Sainl)re, (June Ifxli,) he marched to
intorciipt the troops garrisoned at Charleroi, slioidd they
attempt to retreat by that route. About noon Bonaparte
entered the town. 'J'he Prussians stationed there retreated to
Fleurus, wliere the main Prussian army was conrrntrating.
In this retreat they W(>ri' liarassed by the enemy, and siiveral
of th(Mr number were taken prisoners. Lord Wellington was
apprized, early in the evening of tlie l.'jlh, of that day's
conlliet ; but judging it to have been but an alTair of outposts,
he delayed ordering the advance of his troops till the receipt
of further intelligence. At midnight, he learned that Char-
leroi was taken, and that the French had marched upon
Fleurus. In a few hours after the arrival of this intelligence
at Brussels, the English troops were in full march for Quatre
Bras, a village so called from its being the point of intersec-
tion of the roads from Charleroi to Brussels, and from Aivelle
to Nannir. The Prussians were now posted on the heights
between Bry and SomI)ref, and occupied the villagers of St.
Aniand and Ligni. While Napoleon marched with the
French right wing and centre upon Blucher, he ordered Ney
to dislodge the English from Qualre Bras, and, this eifccted,
to co-operate with him against the Prussians, Ney deferred
making a vigorous attack upon tiiiatre Bras till three o'clock
in the afternoon, by which time the British and Belgian troops,
in full force, had reached that villasre. 'I'he confederates
gallaiuly maintained their position, and many of their most
distinguished officers fell in its defence, among whom were
the Duke of Brunswick and Sir Thomas Picton.

While the British were thus attacked l)y Ney at liuatre
Bras, Crouchy's division acted against the Prussians in the
villages of Ligni and St. Amand. The whole of Blucher's
forces were not assembled, and the French, being greatly
superior in cavalry and artillery, succeeded in establishing
themselves in the village of St. Amand. In an effort to retain
possession of a hollow ditch near Ligni, Blucher's horse was
killed, and in its fall so enUmglcd its rider as to prevent his
rising; the enemy's cuirassiers and the Prussian general's
own troops passed over, without observing him, and some
minutes elapsed before he was extricated. The battle of
Ligni (June 16th) only terminated with the fall of night. The
French retained the field ; the Prussians retreated in good order,
but with the loss of l.'j.OOO men in killed and wounded, and
of sixteen j)icces of cannon, to the neiirhljourliood of Wavre.
The Duke of Wellington moved in a direction parallel with

tlll.^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 41ft

(heir liiie of retreat, and fell back by the road of Genappe,
upon tlie forest of Soiffnies. Napoleon now made two di-
visions of his forces, with one of which he marched in pur-
suit of Wellington. Bad roads and heavy rain prevented him
from much harassing the retreating army. The French lan-
cers, who pressed upon the British cavalry, were attacked, at
the pass of Genappe, by Lord Uxbridge, and repulsed. The
English retired thence, unmolested, on the 17th, to the en-
trance of the forest of Soignies, three miles in advance of
Waterloo, where their commander established his head-quar-
ters, and sent to apprize Blucher that he purposed to accept
batde on the following day. The morning of the 18th pre-
sented to the French the English army, posted with their
centre on the village of Mount St. John, supported on the
right by the farm of Hougoumont, and on the left by La
Haie Sainte : by a road which runs from Fer la Haie to Ohain,
and by the woody passes of St. Lambert, Lord Wellington
communicated with the Prussian army at Wavre.

Bonaparte, having sent orders to Grouchy to push the Prus-
sians vigorously, and to draw near the grand French army
and support its operations, prepared to attack the Anglo-Bel-
gian troops. He placed his first corps opposite the centre of
their position, with its left on the Brussels road ; his second
corps opposite the woods that surround Hougoumont ; he
then took a station for observation on a small hill, in front of
the farm of La Belle Alliance, — the Duke of Wellington,
under a tree, near the top of Mount St. John.

About noon. Napoleon ordered the signal for battle to be
given. On the right, left, and centre, it was maintained till
five o'clock, with undiminished obstinacy, but with doubtful
success, when news arrived that the Prussians, under Blucher,
whose advance had been impeded by an attack from Marshal
Grouchy, were advancing in rear of the French army. Na-
poleon then called into action four regiments of the imperial
guard, which he had hitherto kept in reserve on the heights
of La Belle Allimice. The charge made by this chosen band
was of so impetuous a nature, as to incline the victory to
their side, but even they were, eventually, repulsed. When
the main bod/ of the Prussians arrived, Wellington ordered
his whole lini to move forward : he led the centre in person,
and formed the flank regiments into hollow squares, impene-
trable to the enemy's cavalry, and to this judicious arrange-
ment may be mainly attributed the success of the day. The
French lines were soon penetrated ; their right was broken

41ft OEHERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

in three places by the Prussians, who rushed forward to
complete their ovorthrow. A i^eneral panic now seized the
French soldiers, and the exchiniatioii, " All is lost," echoed
through their ranks. Yet the battalion of guards, commanded
by (Janihronne, refused to surrender. " I^a jfarde menrl et ne se
rend pas," was the reply of their t^allant leader to the sumnjons
of his opponents. Even this chosen corps was finally sulxlued,
and Wellington and IMucher remained masters of the field.

'I'he French retreated in disorder by the Charleroi road,
closely pursued by the Prussians, who came up with them at
Genappe, where they had made a stand, but were soon routed.
Genappe was taken, and with it Napoleon's carriage, |iat,
sword, casket, and travelling library. The Prussians, gallop-
ing through the streets, cut down without mercy their now
unresisting enemies. The retreat of the French, thenceforth,
resembled in its tragic scenes the memorable flights from
Moscow and from Leipzig. The seemingly dauntless war-
riors who had so recently assembled to contend with the con-
federated legions of Europe, were now nerveless fu<ritives,
shrinking at the very rumour of their pursuers' approach :
though these constituted but an inconsiderable portion of the
countless multitudes whom Napoleon had ventured to oppose.
So firmly, indeed, had he relied upon success, that he had
appointed no rallying-place for his troops, in case of retreat.
They now, therefore, separated into straggling parties, almost
all of which gradually disptjrsing, left their emperor, com-
paratively speaking, withoit an army. Grouchy, to whose
non-arrival at Waterloo Bonaparte attributed the (l(;feat of
the French, was preparing to march thither on the 19th, when
an aid-de-camp brought him news of the disaster of the pre-
ceding day. On the morning of the 20th, his rear-guard was
assailed by the enemy, but he repelled the charge, and his
troops, without further molestation, retreated to Namur.

The loss of the British and Hanoverians in the batde
of Waterloo is estimated at 10,<»78 killed, wounded, and
missing:* among whom were l.^OO olHcers: that of the
Prussians, 0,001): that of the French incalculable. Ney stated,
in the Chamber of Peers, that Soult, who had been appointed
by Napoleon to rally the French troops, had not been able to
collect more than 10,000, iuchnling Grouchy's corps.

In England, tlie victory achieved at Waterloo excited nmch
exultation. Thanks and rewards, commensurate with their

•Ail tlic Diiko of Weliimjlon's niiln»-ilo-rainp wore oitlirr killed or wound
• I, cicejit Major Percy, who carried to London the ncw« of iho victory.

tll.3 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 417

services, were voted by the British Parliament to the English
trooj)i5, who had been engaged in this action. Thanks were
also voted to the allies of Great Britain in general, and to the
Prussians in particular, for the part they had taken in the war.

Napoleon reached Paris on the evening of the 20th of
June, while the Parisians were yet rejoicing for the victory
of Liu^ni, and the general success attendant upon the imperial
armies ; for Suchet had taken Montmelion, and driven the
Piedniontese from the passes of the Alps and Mount Cenis;
Dessaix, on the side of Jura, had repelled the enemy's ad-
vanced posts, taken Carrogne and all the defiles ; and the
Vendean chieftains, after various successes and reverses, had
sustained so signal a defeat, as obliged them to sue for peace.
Napoleon, on his arrival, convoked a council at the Tuileries
to devise measures for rescuing France from its present peril-
ous situation. He was recommended by Count Regenault
and his brother Lucien to assume the office of dictator, and
dissolve the Chambers; but this advice was disapproved of by
Fouclie, and declined by the emperor.

In the mean time, the Chambers assembled. The deputies,
at the instigation of La Fayette, declared the independence
of the nation threatened, and the sitting of the Chamber per-
manent. In compliance with a second invitation of the depu-
ties, Napoleon's ministers, Carnot, Caulaincourt, Fouche, and
Oavoust, repaired to the Chamber, with Lucien, whom tJie
emperor had vested with the power of extraordinary commis-
sioner, and charged with the delivery of an imperial message.
A member observed, in reply, that there was but one man
between the country and peace, and that one man was the
emperor. An animated debate ensued ; the result of which
was, that Napoleon, finding lie no longer possessed the confi-
dence of the nation, declared that his political life was at an
end, and that he had come to a resolution of " offering him-
self up a sacrifice to the enemies of France, and of abdicating
in favour of his son."

On the 23d, the deputies appointed a provisional govern-
ment of five persons, declared them responsible to the nation,
and proclaimed Napoleon II. Emperor of France. In a few
days after, however, a proclamation, signed by the five, an-
nounced that the decrees and judgments of courts and tribu-
nals, &c., should be provisionally intituled In the name of the
people. The new government chose for president the Duke
of Otranto, and appointed deputies to treat with the allied
powers, who left Paris for that purpose, on the evening of

418 GENERAL HISTORY Of EUROPE. [cHAP.

the 24tli. Davoiist, niiiiiyler of war, was ordered to prepare
for the defence of Paris, and great pains were taken to reor-
ganize the arniv. Tlie iMiglish and I'nissians were, how-
ever, rapiilly marchinn; upon the capital ; and the Aiistrians
and Russians, though not sharers in the victory of Waterloo,
were advancing towards the same destination. 'J'he English
and Prussians moved in a parallel line ; l)ut the conduct of
'the armies was very dissimilar ; that of the Prussians indi-
cated a desire of revengeful retaliation upon tlic former invaders
and devastators of Prussia: that of the Knirlish, a wish to
fuhii the ilulies of friendly alliance. 'I'he Duke of Wellincr-
ton, who had spent the whole of the lUth in solacing his
wounded soldiers, moved on the 20th to Hinche, and there
issued orders to his army, to prevent their extorting contri-
butions from the French, (who, he reminded them, were their
allies,) or seizing any thing without payment during their stay
in France. Louis XVil. left CJhent on tlie 22d, and, on the
27th, entered Caml)ray, which the English had taken by
escalade, amidst the acclamations of the inhabitants, who
drew him in triumph to the maiisioii-liouse.

In tlie mean time. Napoleon, who had lieeii so recently the
object of similar acclamations, after having lingered for some
days at the palace Elysee, and made a fruitless request to be
permitted to head the French army in the capacity of general,
was invited by the provisional government, first to retire to
Malmaisnn, and, shortly after, to eml)ark for the United States
of America. On the 25th, he applied for two frigates and a
brig to convey him and his suite to America; on their being
allowed him, he left Malmaison on the 29ih for Itochefort.

The commissioners di'puted to treat with the aihcd powers,
reached tln! Prussian head-quarters on the 2.'Jth ; they de-
manded a suspension of arms, which IJlucher refused to
grant. 'I'wo I'russian officers accompanied them back to
Paris, but \vA them by so circuitous a route, as prevented their
reaching the capital before the .5lh of July. The allied sove-
reigns arrived, on the 2iMh of June, under the walls of Paris.
To prevent their fiirlher progress, the citizens, o-uards, sol-
diers, ill a word, all Paris seemed in arms. Soult and (Jiou-
chy, with their armies, were within the city; Vandamme
arrived on the HOth. The forliUcations begun by Napoleon
liad been completed. That the I'rench were actuated to resist
the entry of the allies into Paris, as much by aversicui to the
restoration of the Hourbons, as by anxiety to prevent the dis-
grace which would result fri)m a second capture of their city.

LIII.^ GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 419

was obvious. An address from the army to the people depre-
cated the return of this dynasty, which, they said, had been
rejected by the great majority of the French nation ; no po-
pular cry dissented from the address, and in neither of ttie
Chambers was the restoration even proposed. Two procla-
mations issued by the king, (June 25th and 28th,) in which
he promised oblivion of the past, yet vowed vengeance against
the instigators and supporters of the plot which had reseated
Napoleon on the throne of France, had excited the alarm and
indignation of the French people, and rendered the prospect
of his return one of interminable proscription. Paris was
now invested on all sides. A desperate conflict took place at
Versailles, and terminated in favour of the allies, who esta-
blished themselves on the heights of Meudon and in the valley
of Issy. At three o'clock on the morning of the 3d, the
French attacked the Prussians, but they were repulsed and
driven back to the city gate ; and the provisional government,
judging that their further resistance could only delay, but not
prevent the surrender of the city, demanded a suspension of
arms, preparatory to a capitulation : commissioners from both
parties met in the palace of St. Cloud to arrange the terms.
They concluded a convention, the chief stipulations of which
were, that there should be a suspension of arms under the
walls of Paris ; that the French army should retire behind
the Loire : that the suburbs and barriers of the capital should be,
within three days, given up to the allied troops, and that the duty
of the city should be still performed by tne national guard. By
the inhabitants of Paris, the news of tha city's having surren-
dered, as it saved them from pillage, was joyfully received :
by the army with leelings of anger and despair, and com-
plaints of treachery. In defiance of the orders given them,
they rushed on the allied columns, and many skirmishes dur-
ing the 4th indicated their dissatisfaction. They were, how-
ever, by the persuasion of their commanders, induced to
submit to the terms of the convention, and to retire behind
the Loire. The Chambers still continued to sit and to de-
liberate upon the constitution. They issued a proclamation
addressed to the French people, in which v/eie specified the
principles which ought to characterize the future governmeni
of France ; but what this government would be, or who was
to be at its head, was still a mystery. The allies had pro-
mised the French nation to allow them a free choice of govern-
ment ; yet Louis XVIIL was advancing to the capital, and in
many places the invading army had proclaimed him sovereign

420 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. QcUAP

On the Gill, the goner.nl suspense was terminated, by the
Duke of Wellington's apprizing the Duke of Olranto (Fou-
ehe) that the alli(>s IkuI (Iclerniincd upon the restoration of
Louis. In the afternoon of that day, tlie capital was surren-
dered to the Hritish army. Tiie following morning, the
niciultfrs of the provisi<MKil government, finding that foreign
troops occupied the Tuilerics, and that tiieir delil)erations
could be no longer free, resigned their post. The peers, fol-
lowing their example, separated without hesitatit)n. The
deputies, on tl)e contrary, athrmed that the bayonet alone
slioidd compel them to alnindon the olhce assigned them by
the nation ; and they continued to debate till six o'clock on the
articles of the constitulion ; but on the following morning,
when they repaired to the hall of the legislative body, tiiey
found its gates closed and guarded by soldier?, who refused
tliein admission : after having j)rotested against this proceed-
ing, they, too, separated. On the same day that the national
representation was thus dissolved, Louis XVIIL re-entered
Paris. No murmurs announced to him that his return had
been deprecated by his subjects ; the barriers were thrown
open to him ; seemingly general acclamations greeted his
entry, and the municipal bodies addressed him in terms as
flattering, as if the nation's happiness had hung upon his resto-
ration.

In the mean time, he who had been so lately hailed the
chosc^n sovereign of P'rance, prepared to leave forever the
scene of his long ;«ii(l brilliant career. Napoleon reached
Ro(;hefort, where he j)urj)OS('d to emi)ark for America, on the
3d of July. He <lelayed making any attetnpt to sail for some
4iys, and tliiis allow<'d time to the Hritish cruisers to block-
It; the port, and render his escaj)e impracticable. After an
"terval of irresolution, during which he alternately purposed
escaping in a small French vessel, and in two half-decked
boats he had purchased at Roidielle, he projiosed, through
two of I. is suite, to surrender to Captain Maidand, of the Eng-
lish ship liclU r()])linn, on condition that his person and pro-
perty should be held sacred, and that he should be permitted
to retire to some spot of his own selection. 'J'he caj)tain re-
plied, that he was not authorized to enter into terms with the
ex-emperor, but that he would unilertake to convey him to
Eniiland, to l)e ther*; received and treated as the prince-regent
miirht deem expedient. On the I.'ith, lionaparle and his suite
eml-.iirked in the liilh niphon . News of this ev.'Ul was quickly
f(>r\».ird<d to England. In tlie frigate which bore it, sailed

till.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 421

also General Gourgaud, with a letter from Bonaparte to the
prince-regent, announcing that he had terminated his polilinal
career, and had thrown himself on the hospitality of the
British people.

The English government, in conjunction, with its allies,
fixed upon the island of St. Helena for the future residence
of the ex-emperor. The Northumberland, commanded by
Rear-admiral Sir George Cockburne, was the vessel destined
to convey him thither ; and orders were issued by die prince-
regent to the admiral and to the Governor of St. Helena, to
allow their prisoner every indulgence compatible with his safe
detention. A hope, as strongly as it was vainly cherished,
that he would be permitted to reside in England, had almost
reconciled Napoleon to his reverse of fortune. His anger,
when apprized of the decision of the allied powers, was com-
mensurate with the strength of the expectation which it sup-
planted. He expostulated at much length, and entered a
written protest against the " cruelty and injustice" of which
he was the victim, and for some time refused to go on board
the Northumberland. He, however, at length complied, and
embarked on the 5th of August. Few of his friends being
permitted to accompany him, he selected Count and Countess
Bertrand and their family, Count and Countess Montholon,
Count Las Casas, General Gourgaud, Lieutenant-general the
Duke of Rovigo, Lieutenant-general Lallemaud, &c. Main-
gauld, Bonaparte's surgeon, refusing to make the voyage, his
place was voluntarily supplied by O'Meara, surgeon of the
Bellerophon. The Northumberland reached its destination
on the 17th of October.

Joachim Murat, ex-King of Naples, had resided at Toulon
from the period of his resignation of sovereignty, till the
battle of Waterloo. The defeat and abdication of Napoleon
seeming to render his departure from France a necessary pre-
caution, he retired to the island of Corsica. But a restless-
ness or thirst of power similar to that which led Napoleon
from Elba, impelled Joachim to descend upon Naples, (Octo-
ber 8,) in the hope of recovering that kingdom. Addressing
himself to the Neapolitan peasantry, he announced himself
their sovereign, and claimed their allegiance ; but being soon
convhiced of the hopelessness of his cause, he took refiige
in the mountains, where he and his partisans* were surrounded
and made prisoners ; Murat was tried by a military commis-
sion, and shot on the 15th of October. Such was the tragi-
• Some adventurers who-+rad accompanied him from Corsica.

422 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

cal end of liim wlio liad been surnanied " the bravest of the
brave."

The traiKiiiillity of Italy bf.in^ rc-cstablishod, the Pope, for
the fourth tune, rctunuKl to his capital : Cardinal (.'onsalvi,
wtioni he sent to V'ieniia, supported the interests of tiie Holy
See with so much prudence and al)ilily, that the inarches
of Ancona, with Canicrino and tlieir dependencies ; Hene-
vento and Poiil«' Corvo, with the three legations of Bologna,
Ferrara, and Romagna, were restored ; the right of prece-
dence before all the ambassadors of temporal princes, even
those separated from its communion, was confirmed to its
nuncios, and the Pope, after so many tribulations, had the
consolation to see liis states in a more secure and flourishing
position tlian they had ever been, since the days of Charle-
magne.

The beginning of Louis XVIII. 's second restoration is
memorable for the ])u)>licalion of a series of proscriptivc ordi-
nances. One, dati'd July 13th, dissolved tiie Chamlier of
Deputies and called a new one, to sit on the 14th of August,
with an increase of 133 inembcrs. That of the 24lh of Jtdy,
pronounced that the peers who had accepted seats, or who
had retained them in the Ciiamber of Peers during the late
interregnum, had forfeited their right to the peerage of France.
Anotlu!-, of the same date, prescribed that tlie generals and
officers who, before tlie21st()f March, had betrayed Louis,
or taken up arms against the French government, or obtained
power by violence, should be arrested and carried before the
councils of war in their respective divisions. Hy this ordi-
nance, several individuals were required to retire from Paris
within three days after its publication, and to remain in such
places as the minister of p(dice might assign for tlieir resi-
dence, till the alternative of their removal from France, or
their trial before the trilninals, should l)c decided by the Cham-
bers. A commission of censorship was appointed to take
cognisance of all periodical writings. Louis furlhc^r ordered
that the army, which had passed over to Napoleon, should be
disbanded, and that a new military force should be organized;
the command of the army of the Loire was given to Macdo-
nald, in place of Davoust. The Duke of Richelieu was ap-
pointed minister of foreign affairs, and the Duke of Feltre,
(ficneral Clarke,) of war. Fouche and 'I'allcyrand resigned.

The first victim of the proscriplittn ordinances was ('olonel
Labcdoyere. He was tried before a military tribunal, pro-
nounced guilty of treason and rebellion, and sentenced to bo

Llll.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 423

degraded from liis military rank, and to lose his life. The
sentence was confirmed by the council of revision ; and the
entreaties of Madame Labedoyere, who implored the exertion
of tlie royal clemency in his behalf, proving fruiUess, he was
executed on the plain of Grenelle. He heard his sentence
read with calmness, and suffered with fortitude.

The trial of Marshal Ney was of three days' continuance,
and terminated in his condemnation to receive the fire of
sixty muskets, of which twelve took effect, and he died with-
out a struggle. General Count Lavalette, director of the
posts at the period of Bonaparte's return to France, was the
next person of note arraigned ; and he, too, was condemned
to execution, but was saved by the ingenuity of his wife.
Madame Lavalette, having in vain solicited the king's pardon
for her husband, repaired to his prison, weeping, as she went,
over the seeming hopelessness of his fate, and there habited
herself in his clothes, giving him hers. Thus disguised, he
passed out, not without some suspicion of connivance on
the part of his keepers, and she personated him till his recap-
ture became impossible. His escape from Paris was effected
by three Euglisbmen ; Sir Robert Wilson, Mr. Bruce, and
Capt. Hutchinson, who were arrested and sentenced to three
months' imprisonment.

The revival of all the English war-taxes was a necessary
consequence of the return of Napoleon, and the fixed deter-
mination of the allies to oppose his enterprise. The com-
mittee, to which the corn laws had been submitted during
the last session, had recommended that corn, meal, and
flour siiould be freely exported at all times ; but imported
and taken out of the warehouses for home consumption, only
wlien the average price of wheat was 80s, per quarter. The
bill which sanctioned the adoption of these measures, excited
mucli puidic dissatisfaction, and various riotous acts, during
its discussion, were the result of its unpopularity ; it, how-
ever, passed both Houses, and received the royal assent.

A revolution was effected this year (1815) in Ceylon, which
rendered the whole of that important island dependent on die
British crown. The tyranny and cruelties exercised by the
King of Candy, had rendered him so obnoxious to his sub-
jects, that at length Lieutenant-general Brownrigg resolved
to assist them, early ia the year, in throwing off the yoke ;
the British troopi- advr.nced into the interior, where they were
joined by all the adegars or nobles ; and finding Candy, the
capital, deserted, entered it on the llUi of February. The

424 GENERAL HISTORY OK EUROPE. [cHAF.

king, witli a small mimherof his atllicrents, had taken to flight;
but, a few days after, was surrounded and made prisoner by
his sul)jecls, who Icstiliud the utmost diitostiilioii of the tyrant.
A sok'iun conferenc-e was lu:ld hciwien the iJritish governor
and the Candian chiefs; antl the king, being judged unworthy
of the crown, was deposed, and a treaty conciuiled, by wliich
the wliole ishmd submitted to the Uritish government. The
king was ke|)t a sliite-prisoner in his own j)al;ic'e for the re-
mainder of his life. The religion of the inhabitants was pre-
served to iheni l)y the treaty, as well as the authority enjoyed
by their chiefs.

Various arrangements, too voluminous to be more than
cursorily noted here, were the result of Napoleon's downfall.
By a general treaty, signed on the iith of June, in congress,
at Vienna, the additional title of King of Poland was given
to the Emperor Alexander; the duchy of Warsaw, excejjt a
few of its j)rovinces, was united to Russia ; and, to reconcile
the Poles to this union, representative constitutions were pro-
mised to the Polish subjects of Russia and Austria; Cracow
was declared a free, indcpiMulent, and neutral city, under the
protection of Austria, ]{ussia, and Prussia, and a complete
amnesty was granted to all individuals for participation in
past political, civil, or military events in Poland; lartre ces-
sions of territory were made to Prussia by Austria, Saxony,
and llaiuivcr; the 'I'yrol and the northern part of Italy were
given to Austria; the territory of (Jeneva and the principality
of Neufchattl wore united to Switzerland; the King of (Jreat
Prilnin was conlirmed as King ol Hanover, and the Prince
of Orange, Kinir of die Netherlands; to the Arch-Duke Fer-
dinand of Austria was restored the uraud-duchy of 'J'usc:my
and its dependencies; the ducliy of jyucca was given to the
Infanta of Spain, Maria Louisa (formerly Duchess of Parma,
anil afterwards Queen of Ktriiria) and her d("<cendanls in the
male line ; and French Ciuinea was restored by J'ortugai to
I'Vance. Various other provisions were made by this treaty.
Upon the seirond restoration of liouis A'VIII., a new treaty
was siffned between the allies and France, by which the
limits allotted to her in 1H14, w('re lessened, and th(; boinida-
ries of the kingdom reduced nearly to what they were in
1700. She was to retain Avignon, die Comtc V'enaissin,
and Mount IJelliard. IVance, too, was compelled to restore
to the original proprietors, thosi! maslfirpieces of art, of
which she had stripped foreitrn naiious to adorn the Louvre.
She also engaged to pay to the allied jxiwers an indeumily

LIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 425

of 700,000,000 francs, and to allow 150,000 of the allied
troops, commanded by a general appointed by the allied sove-
reigns, to occupy seventeen of her frontier towns for five
years. By a supplementary article, the coalesced parties
bound themselves to concert, without loss of time, the most
effectual means for the universal abolition of the African slave-
trade. The treaty was signed on the 20th of November. A
military convention, subsequendy concluded, stipulated that
part of the sura to be paid by France, should be expended
in erecting fortresses on the frontiers of the states adjoining
that kingdom, and that the remainder of the sum should be
divided between England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria.*

CHAPTER JAY.

PROM THE TREATY OF PEACE, IN 1815, TO THE SWISS REVOLU-
TION, IN 1844.

A CONTINUATION of the history of Europe up to the present
year, would swell this work to a size far exceeding oui
limits ; it will be better executed by the future historian, who,
placed at a greater distance from men and their actions, can
form a more impartial estimate of both ; but a rapid sketch of
the principal events which have occurred since the peace of
1815, will, it is believed, prove a useful addition to the pre-
sent volume.

1816. — The brilliant anticipations held out to the nation,
by the speech from the throne on the opening of the British
Parliament this year, exhibited a striking contrast with the
domestic condition of the people. Great Britain had fought
for the general interests of Europe, till she had reached the
summit of national glory; but she retired from the contest load-
ed with an enormous debt ; her foreign trade diminished, and
her agiicultural interests proportionably depressed. Discon-

• Increase of the national debt to the beginning of the year 1816.

DEBT. INTEREST.

1793 £233,733,609 £8,176,336.

1803 £601,411,080 £20,735,968

1816 £1,112,417,432 £42,149,850

Revenue, IS 15 £75,324,084.

Expenditure 126,489,946.

38*

420 GENERAL HISTORY OF ErROPE. [ciI.VP.

tent generally prevailed, and pul)lic. nieelings were hold, in
wliich parliaincMtarv reform l)c<>;aii to be discussed. On the
28i!i of the following January, the glass of the j)rinc<:-
regent's carriage was broken l)y a stone, or hall from an air
gun, as he was returning from o|ienin!r the session of Parlia
ment. Several acts of outrage and tumult occurretl in diirercni
places, and particularly in the northern and midland counties,
in which the existenc(> of a traitorous cons])iracy was afiirined,
in ihe report of the committee appointed to examine into this
all'air. The Ifdheds C irpiis act was suspended, after consi-
deral)le opposition ; antl several severe laws, relative to
tumultuous meetings and secret societies, were enacted.
These did not prevent the parly, now first called " Radical
Reformers," from spreading rapidly among the lower orders;
at Birmingham they chose Sir Charles WoLseley for their
delegate, hut he was soon after taken into custody. In spite
of a royal proclamation against numerous meetings, the
reformers assembled at St. Peter's field in Manchester, Au-
gust IGlh, 1819, avowedly for tlie legal purpose of petitioning
for a reform in Parliament. Their numbers are variously
estimated, from 40,000 to 60,000 ; Mr. Hunt, a favourite
orator, was haranguing the multitude, when the appearance of
the Man(;hesler yeomanry interru])ted the proceedings.
Much confusion ensued ; a few persons were killed, and
aI)oul 100 are said to have been wounded by the sabres of the
military, or otherwise hurt. Mr. Hunt and some others were
arrested, and the magistrates received the thanks of the
government for the efficient means they had adopted to pre-
serve the public trancpiillity.

During the first year of ireneral peace, the British navy was
called upon to exert its valour, in a cause equally dear to
humanity and reli<rion. Tin; ferocious outrages of which
the piratical states of Barbarj' had been guilty, had long l)ecn
a disgrace to the southern nations of Europe. Great Britain
unilertook to efface the stain, and procure the abolition of
(Mirisiian slavery. 'I'ripoli and Tunis agreed to discrontinue
it in their states; but the Dey of Algiers not oidy refused his
assent to this treaty, but imprisoned the English consul;
while about the same timi- some coral fishers, acting under
the supposed security of the (Jritish (lag, were cruelly massa-
cred at Bona. Lord Exmouth was, therefore, sent out with a
fleet, to chastise these un])rincipled barbarians. Beiiii: joined
at (Jihrallar l)y a Dutch Heel, the united armament reached
the bay of Algiers, August 27th, 1816. > flag of truce was

LIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 427

immediately despatched, with the demands of the prince
regent; but no answer being returned, a tremendous fire,
wliich continued without intermission for six hours, and,
partially, for two hours longer, was opened on the fort. The
batteries, though very strong, and gallantly defended, were
destroyed ; nearly all the Algerine navy, the arsenal and mi-
litary stores, were consumed by fire, and several thousands of
their men killed or wounded. On the day following, the dey
was obliged to accept the terms of peace imposed by the con-
q\ieror. These were, the perpetual abolition of Christian
slavery, and the immediate delivery of all slaves detained in
bondage, with the sums which had been paid for their ransom,
since the beginning of the year : pardon was also to be asked
by the dey of the British consul, in the presence of his offi-
cers. The captives thus rescued were conveyed to their own
countries, and the sums recovered were transmitted, untouch-
ed by the captors, to the courts of Naples and Sardinia. The
conditions of this treaty were not observed ; the dey, not long
after, fell a sacrifice to the resentment of his soldiers, and Al-
giers recommenced her former piracies.

The Chancellor of the Exchequer had been obliged, by the
vote of a majority against its continuance, to relinquish the
property -tax in the session of 181 G, anti he soon after surprised
the House, by voluntarily surrendering the war-tax on malt.
The marriage of the Princess Charlotte of Wales, with his
serene highness. Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg, took place
on the 2d of May. Parliament granted them £60,000 by way
of outfit, and the same sum was settled on them for their joint
lives, with this proviso, that if her royal highness should die
first, i^50,000 should be continued to the prince. The royal
pair had enjoyed their domestic felicity but eighteen months
in the agreeable retreat of Claremont Lodge, and an heir to
the British crown was anxiously looked for, when the prema-
ture death of the princess, after giving birth to a still-born male
child, November 5th, 1817, occasioned general disappointment
and regret. The Princess Mary had, in the preceding year,
been united to the Duke of Gloucester, nephew to the king.
In 1818, the Duke of Clarence married the Princess Adelaide
of Saxe Meiningen ; the Duke of Cambridge, the Princess
Augusta of Hesse-Cassel ; and the Duke of Kent was soon
after united to the Dowager-princess Leiningen, Victoria of
Saxe Coburg, sister to Prince Leopold. To each of these
royal dukes, as also to the Duke of Cumberland, married in
1815, Parliament granted for life an additional income of

428 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [ciTAP.

^6,000 per annum ; to be continued as a jointure to each of
their respective duchesses.

From these domestic concerns, we rctuni to some occur-
rences of a more sreneral nature. Soon after the peace of Paris,
the sovorriorns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, (h-rading the
progress of revohitionary principles in tlicir dominions, entered
into a treaty, which they called the Hohj ^lllianre. Lord
Casllereairl), in the House of Commons, admitted, that the
prince-regent having been urged, by a joint letter of the diree
sovereigns, to accede to it, had, in reply, expressed his ap-
probation of the nature of the treaty, and had given an assur-
ance, that the British government was disposed to act upon its
principles. These were soon understood to be, the mainte-
nance of the authority of the allied sovereigns against the
revolutionary movements, which they apprehended in their
own states.

In Spain, a conspiracy, having for its object the establish-
ment of a free constitution, was speedily suppressed, and its
authors executed : but the party remaining dissatisfied, were
not long before they organized a fresh insurrection. Ferdi-
nand VII., on returning to his dominions, liad resumed his
authority as ai)solute king; he had refused to acknowledge the
legality of many of the acts of the Cortes, enacted during his
captivity ; in particular, of the foreign loans they had con-
tracted ; and hence the einuity to his government, excited by
strangers, whose interest it was to overturn it. lie aj)j)lied
himself to remedy the disorders of his kingdom, to encourage
trade and manufactures; but found himself involved in a war
with the colonics in South America, which for many years
drained Spain of men and money, without being productive
of any rcjsult advantageous to the mother-country. Chili pro-
claiuKid its independence, March 3d, 1818; Mexico followed
the example : Columbia, freed by the victory of Bolivar,
styled the Liherador, at Carabobo, asserted its independence
in J 821, and Peru dates its freedom from the same year.
Spain at last sib-ntly relinquished the stru;igle, and aliandoned
the provinces to a slate of anarchy, in which they long re-
mained. ICngland acknowledtrcil the independence of the
dillerent repul)lics in 1824, appointed consuls to reside in their
ports, and assisted them with loans, the interest of which was
never rcjrularlv paid, and soon cea;-!rd altogether, to the ruin
of n\nid)erless individuals in this country.

In the parliamentary session of the year 1817, Mr. CJrattnn
again brought forward his motion on the claims of the Irish

LIV.] OBNERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 429

Catholics, which was defeated by a majority of only twenty-
four. A treaty for the abolition of the slave-trade was con-
cluded with Spain the following year. In consideration of the
sum of £400,000 received from Britain, Spain agreed to relin-
quish that nefarious traffic on all the coasts to the north of the
equator. By subsequent treaties with other European states,
England endeavoured to effect the total abolition of this trade
among Christian nations, and finally emancipated the negro
population in her own colonies, at the sacrifice of a loan of
£20,000,000 sterling, paid to the proprietors. The Pope, in
the year 1818,* concluded concordats with the courts of Turin
and Naples, and, in the following year, with Russia for
Poland ; and, at length, after many obstacles, which the diffi-
culty of the case presented, with Louis XVIII. for France.
In the preceding year, a concordat had been signed at Rome
by the ministers of their respective courts, the Comte de
Blacas and Cardinal Consalvi, by which that of 1801, as like-
wise the Lois organiques, which had been, without the
knowledge of his Holiness, added to it, were abrogated, as far
as they might be contrary to the doctrine and laws of the church.
The other articles, respecting the archiepiscopal and episcopal
sees, were now in part modified ; most of the present incum-
bents were retained, but the limits of the sees were newly
defined, and the number of them raised from fifty to eighty.
Some partial insurrections arose, and were at different times
repressed, by the government of Louis XVIII. That which
broke out at Grenoble in 1816, and is called the "Didier Con-
spiracy," from the individual who ostensibly headed it, was
widely extended; but being discovered by the premature
movements of some of the conspirators, was arrested by the
vigour of Col. Donnadieu, commander of the military station-
ed in that city, and the chiefs, with many others, paid the for-
feit of their lives. The object of the intended insurrection
appears to have been little understood at the time, and is still
a subject of doubt and suspicion.

At the congress held at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the autumn of
this year, the plenipotentiaries of Austria, Russia, England,

• As a means of evading the claims of the papal government, relative to
the investiture and tribnte, the king, by the advice of his ministry, changed
his title of Ferdinand IV. of Naples, for that of Ferdinand I., King of the
two Sicilies, publishing, at the same time, a formal protest against any
rights possessed within the territory of Naples by the Sovereign Pontiff,
except those exercised by him as head of the church over all the Catholic
irorld.

430 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [ciIAP.

and Prussia, came to the resolution of witlulrawiiiiT tlieir troops
from all the fortresses tlirv had ocnipieil in tl»e French terri-
tory, ami sijjnitied their (leteriiiinalioii in a idler addressed to
the Duke de Ricludieu, minister of foreiffu allairs to Lewis
XVIII. This declaration was received with lively joy hy the
French nation. The kinjj not only paid the instalments due
to the allied sovereigns for the expenses incurred hy them
duriniT the war, hut also placed XM, 000, 000 in the hands of
the prince-recent, to indemnify those among his suhjects,
whose property in France had heen sequestrated in the year
1793. The very short time which had heen allowed for the
presentation of claims, prevented many of the creditors from
heing ahle to suhstantiate them satisfactorily. In 182G, there
remained a halance of £.500,000, and the lords of the treasury
directed another examination to I)e made ; hut no puhlicity
having heen given to their insiructions, few were ahle to avail
themselves of the indulgence. The residue, about i330(), 000,
was paid over to the commissioners of woods and forests ;
through the interference of Parliament it was, however, repaid,
but tlie money appropriated to the liquidation of the debts of
another class of claimants, who were not entitled to it; ami,
with the exception of six or seven cases, tlie original creditors,
owing merely to a technical ol)jection, viz : the neglect of
former presentation, have been refused their due. It is under-
stood that there still remains a surplus of from £50,000 to
£100,000; but the commission is closed. Among other
sufferers, the loss of the Catholic clergy, who possessed a
college at Douay, was very ccmsiderahle, as it formed tlu; only
fund for the education and maintenance of tlie English mis-
sionaries.

Queen Charlotte died November .5th, 1818, in the 75th year
of lier age. The custody of the king's person was then in-
trusted to the Duke of York, and .110,000 voted to him hy
Parliament on that occasion. In the following month, the ex-
Queen of Spain, Maria Louisa, paid the debt of nature at
Rome; and so poignant was the allliction of (Jharles IV. at
her loss, that he survived her only fourteen days : about the
same time died Isabella of Portugal, wife to Ferdinand VII.,
leaving no issue. The king soon after married for his third
wife a princess of the house of Saxony. Tlie death of ('harles
XIIL of Sweden, in 1819, made room for the accession of a
new dynasty, in the person of the Crowp-jjrincc Hernadotte,
who ascended the throne without opposition, under the title
of Charles John XIV.

LiV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 431

The yoar 1820 is remarkable for the several rpvolutionary
aJteinpts which disturbed the soiuheru kingdoms of Europe.
(Sicily first set the example, whence the spirit of insurrection
soon spread to Naples. Ferdinand I. yielded to the wishes
of his subjects, and promised them a free constitution, (in July ;)
but Austria having quelled a similar spirit in her Italian pos-
sessions, and concerted measures with the Emperor of Russia
and King of Prussia, at Troppau, soon determined to under-
take olfensive operations against the Neapolitans. The Em-
peror Francis proposed to meet the King of Naples at Laybach,
and agree upon a plan for governing their respective states.
Ferdinand left the prince-royal to command in his absence, and
attended the congress at the time appointed. Entering there
into the views of his imperial majesty, he permitted the
entrance of the Austrian troops into his dominions. An army
of 77,000 men was concentrated between the Adige and the
Mincio, and demanded permission to occupy Rome. This
request was refused ; but, without entering the city, the army
passed through the Ecclesiastical States ; attacked the Neapo-
litan array, commanded by General Pepe, in the valley of
Riete ; forced it to a speedy retreat ; and, advancing upon
Naples, re-established Ferdinand I. in his former authority.
(1821.) Benevento and Ponte Corvo, the restitution of which
the Pope had in vain demanded on his return to his dominions,
were now restored to him ; and his Holiness, at the instance
of Austria, published a bull against the Carbonari, a secret
society formed in 1812, from which all these revolutionary
movements emanated.

Meantime, another column of the Austrian army appeased
an insurrection in Piedmont. Victor Emanuel of Savoy, un-
willing to yield to the demands of his subjects, had resigned
his crown to his brother, Charles-Felix, whose authority, un-
der tlie protection of the allied powers then assembled in con-
gress at Laybach, was maintained; the Milanese insurgents
were immured in the state-prisons of Austria, where many
of them remained during all the rest of the reign of Francis
II., and peace was finally restored in all the Peninsula. The
Emperors of Austria and Russia bound themselves by a fresh
treaty, to oppose every change of government effected in fo-
reign countries by the military ; but the court of the Tuileries,
dissatisfied with the conferences at Laybach, recalled its mi-
nister, the Counte de Blacas, to Paris.

Spain, in the mean while, was engaged in a similar struggle
wiih as little success: in most places the constitution was

432 GENERAL HISTORY OF rcUROPE. [CHAP.

proclaimed without bloodshed, (January 1st, 1820;) but at
Cadiz, a horrible massacre tciok j)lac(', by tiie mililary, who,
uuder the command (but it is believed without tiie participa-
tion) of General Freyre, fired upon the unarmed inhabitants,
when assembled to the nmnber of about 50,000, to witness
the ceremony of laying down the first stone of the <-i>usli-
tutional column, by the civil authorities. The ii.quisi»'in
was abolished ; and many convents of reii^ous suppressed.
The king took the oath required by the constitution ; the
royalist General Elio was executed; still the parly opposed
to the new order of things continued in arms, and a neigh-
bouring power, who viewed these revolutiomuv jiroceedings
with anxiety, was preparing a force to deliver ["irdinand from
the thraldom in which he was supposed to be held, and rein-
state him in his former authority. 'I'he Duke of Angouleme,
as yet unknown to arms, but having under him several able
generals, entered Spain, at the head of 70,000 men. It soon
appeared, that the constitution was not popular with the bulk
of the nation; no batdes were fought to maintain it; the
duke traversed the whole of Spain without oj)i)osition : Ma-
drid, Seville, &c., opened their gates on the approacli of the
French; INIorillo and other Spanish ofUcers were imiuccd to
abandon the patriotic cause; these, after reducing C'orunna,
obliged General Ballasteros to submit ; Riego was taken pri-
soner, and Mina driven into exile. The Isle of lieon, whi-
ther the king and the de-puties of the Cortes had retired, alone
offered some opposition to the march of the i'^rench ; and the
storming of the fort Trocadero, an outwork of ('adiz, was
the only military exploit that marked the route of the duke.
Having restored the king to liberty, and re-estaltlished his
absolute power, he demanded from Ferdinand an amnesty for
past political offcn<'cs. 'i'lie promise was made, but not kipt.
Riego was j)ut to death, and many, as well on account of this.
as of the last insurrection, imprisoned.

Portugal had beeji emulating the revolutionary steps of
Naples and Spain, but met with less opposition on the part
of her well-meaning, mild sovereign, John VI. This prince,
having lost his mother, the late (iuecn Maria Francis Isabella,
in Mrazil, (May 10, 1810,) had relumed with his family to
Portugal, in 1821, and confirmed the usurpations made on his
authority in that kingdr)m during his absence. The idtra-
royalisls were, however, dissati-sfif d with the chantrc ; and
ihe loss of Brazil, in the following year, increased their dis-
content. This country had been rais^'d to the dignity of a

LIV-] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPK. 433

kingdom, by John VI. in 1815; and, determined no longer
to remain a province dependent on Portugal, the Brazilians
made a tender of their crown to Pedro, Prince of Brazil,
whom his father had left to govern them as viceroy. With-
out the king's permission, he accepted the offer, and as-
sumed the tide of Emperor of Brazil. (1822.) He afterwards
made his submission to his father, and, through the mediation
of Sir Charles Stuart, the British ambassador, was reinstated
by him in his former authority. The Portuguese constitution
was but a servile imitation of that of Spain ; and after tlie abro-
gation of the latter, King John quietly regained his authority.

A tragical event which occurred to an illustrious individual
in France, in the beginning of the year 1820, excited perhaps
a deeper interest than these revolutionary changes, which af-
fected the lives and fortunes of thousands. Louis XVIII.
had married, in 1818, his nephew, the Duke of Berry, young-
est son of Monsieur, to Caroline, eldest daughter of the
hereditary Prince of Naples. On the 10th of February, the
duke was conducting his young duchess from the Opera-hous9
to her carriage, when he was pierced to the heart by the two-
edged poignard of an assassin, named Louvel. Being con-
veyed to an adjoining saloon, to the great surprise of the
medical men in attendance, he survived above six hours, dur-
ing which he received the last rites of the church, forgave
his murderer, and, with his dying breath, entreated the king
to confirm his pardon, a request it was not thought proper to
grant. Louvel afterwards suffered the just punishment of his
crime. The duke left one daughter. Mademoiselle ; and his
afflicted widow, on the 29th of the following September, gave
birth to a son, named Henry Dieu-donne, Duke of Bordeaux.
Suspicions having on this occasion assailed the character of
the minister M. Decases, he resigned, and was succeeded by
the Duke de Richelieu, and some efforts were made to repress
the democratical party. But the royalists were dissatisfied,
and thought that the conduct of the Stuarts in England was
too closely imitated by the actual Sovereign of France.

This same year, (1820,) in England, January 23d, died the
Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III., and father to her
present majesty, who was born the 24th of the preceding
May. Scarcely had the grave closed over his remains, than
the demise of the king was announced ; it occurred on the
29th of January, almost without suffering; his majesty hav-
ing attained the eighty-second year of his age, and the six-
tieth of his reign. However differently the political character

434 GKNKRAI. HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cn AP.

ct' this monarch may be viewed hy opposite parties, all must
respect liis jirivale and domestic virtues; the simj)licity of liis
liahils, and tiiinncss in what he iielieved to he his duty. The
Catholics will remember with gratitude that he liist relaxed
the barbarous penal code witli which they were oppressed,
and allowed them a participation in some few of the rights
enjoyed by other British subjects.*

On the accession of Georsje IV., the Princess of Wales,
now become queen, returned to England. Alter the augmen-
tation of her income, granted by Parliament, in 1812, she,
with the prince-regent's permission, travelled into Greece ;
then visited Tripoli, Tunis, afterwards resided near Como,
and, on being obliged to leave her villa in tiiat beautiful spot,
resided some time in Milan. The conduct of the princess,
watched by spies among her own domestics, was made the
subject of grave accusations against her, on her return to
England, whither she had hastened to claim her rights as
queen-consort; a trial in the House of Peers, at which she
was usually present, ensued, by the king's command ; the
minister, Lord laverpool, brought in a bill of "pains and
penalties," which, when it had passed the Iturd reading, he
withdrew, the majority for it being only nine, and the pub-
lic voice decidedly adverse to its taking the form of law. In
fact, the queen's cause was made a parly-question; addresses
poured in to her from all quarters, and her name l)ecauie a
tool in the hands of the disalTected, to increase the unpopu-
larity of the government. But though the obnoxious bill was
withdrawn, the privileues of her station were denied her;
and in the following year, when his majesty's coronation was
performed, with great splendonr, (July 19th,) at Westminster.
Queen Caroline was not c)nly denied any participation in the
ceremony, but rej)ulsed from the door when she sought to
obtain an entrance into the abbey. A short illness, pro!)ably
induced by mental anguish, terminated her life, on the 7th of
the followinji month. Slie directed that her remains should
be conveyed to Brunswick, and tlie following words inscril)ed
on her tomb: "Here lies Caroline, the injured (Jueen of
Ensrland." George IV. was on his road to Ireland when the
news of her death reached him ; his arrival in that kingdom

• Ireland, this year, lost hor talented and indefatigable drfender, the
Ki(;t]t HonouraMe Henry (iraltan, whose sfirvices in hehalf of the (^'atho-
licn will rause his name to i)e ever f;riitrfully reeallfd liy all Uritish sub-
'yec\n. of that relit^inn. He died in England, and liis reniainn were depo-
«ile<\ ill \N estininster Abbey.

LIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPK. 435

was hailed with the most lively cnlluisiasm, as he was the
first sovereign of his race who had visited the sister isle.
The liberality of those whom he had honoured with his
friendship, while Prince of Wales, made the Catholics believe
him inclined to favour their claims : they were mistaken, as
subsequent events showed; but nothing then occurred on the
part of the king, to mar their hopes and damp the general
festivity. A dreadful famine desolated Ireland soon after, and
a change in the currency, effected by a bill brought in by Sir
Robert Peel, (1821,) occasioned a great depression in prices
and consequent distress in England. The difficulties which
embarrassed the commercial world, owing to the numerous
failures that took place in the years 1825 and 1826, made
Parliament endeavour to establish the banking system on a
more solid foundation ; and, with this view, it passed a bill for
the gradual withdrawing of small notes from circulation.

A plot was at this time discovered, in which Thisdewood
and several other notorious characters were engaged, having
for its object the assassination of his majesty's ministers.
The informant, one Edwards, is supposed to have urged the
conspirators to commit some treasonable act, which might
lead to their apprehension, as the peace of the city had
of late been often endangered by numerous meetings in
Spitalfields : be that as it may, nine of them were seized in
an upper room in Cato street, after a desperate resistance, in
which Smith, the police-officer who first entered, was
slain ; five of the number were afterwards executed for high
treason.

The king, after his return from Ireland, visited his Hano-
verian dominions, travelling through France under the title
of Count Munster. To Hanover he gave a more popular
form of government, and placed his Catholic subjects on a
level with their Protestant brethren. In the following year,
(1832,) his majesty, after the parliamentary session, went to
Scotland.* The festivities which took place in Edinburgh
during his visit, were interrupted by the melancholy news of
the suicide committed by the Marquis of Londonderry ; ex-
cessive fatigue, during the preceding session, was supposed
to have occasioned an aberration of mind. After a short in-

* The first baronet made by George IV. was the celebrated Scotch
poet, Walter Scott. (1821.) In 1824, the forfeited titles of Marr, Ken
mure, Perth, and Nairn were restored by the king to their respective claim-
ants, and, four years later, the attainder on the barony of Lovat was re-
versed.

♦ 36 OENFRAL IHSTORY OF ErROPE. [cHAP.

tcrval, Mr. Canning was named secretary for foreign afTairs,
just as lie was on llic point of 8ettin<r out for tlio <rovornnuMit
of India, to which Lord Amherst was appointed in his stead.
The Duke of Wellington had been sent to supply Lord Lon-
donderry's place at the congress of Verona, wlieie tiie affairs
relative to tSpain were discussed ; and in the same yf'^r, com-
missioners appointed by the two powers met at Cilhent and
fixed the boundary line between Canada and the United
States.

Previous to the last occurrences we have thus cursorily
related, happened an event which, a few years before, would
have arrested the attention of all l']uro|>e — the death of Bona-
parte. We have not noticed the illustrious exile since we
left him on board a British man-of-war, under the command
of Admiral Sir George Cockburne, to whom the government
of St. Helena, and of the squadron, was confided, till the
arrival of the new governor. Sir Hudson Lowe. With Na-
poleon were conveyed commissaries from the allied powers,
Austria, Russia, and France ; Cotmt Montholon, (iencral
Bertram! and his lady, with a few others, composed the suite
of the ex-emperor. English ships, stationed near the island,
guarded the access to it, though it is a kind of natural prison,
and, as viewed from the sea, looks like a square bastion of
solid rock. Napoleon landed on the 18th October, 18 1 5, 'under
a salute from the batteries, and at the moment of debarkation,
the drimis beat, and the troops presented arms. 'I'ill his
house at Longwood could be completed, he resided, by his
own request, in a small but pleasant villa, belonging to Mr.
Balromb, called the Briars. At the end of two months, he
removed to the dwelling which had been prepare 1 for iiim, in
a situation neither agreeable nor healthy. Beyond the inclo-
sure of IiOn<r\voo(l, a strict watch was observed over him, to
prevent ttie possibility of escape; at first, the liberty of riding
over the island, which is nearly thirty miles in circumference,
was granted to him ; but as it was required that he should be
accompanied by an English officer. Napoleon woulil never
Bubmit to this condition, and retrenched his usual ex(!rcise.
Sentinels were posted at short intervals ; they demanded the
pass of every stranuer who was permitted to land, and, on
arriving at the gate of the avenue which leads to Ijongwood
house, it was presented to the lieutenant on guard, who sum-
moned the officer in attendance on Napoleon, to sliow him
ihrou^fh the grounds. " (iardenitig," writes a trav(dler from
Ihe information he collected on the island, " is the occupatioa

LIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 437

in which he ajjpears to take peculiar uelight. A squflre patch
of ground of about an acre in extent, enclosed with a mud wall,
is the principal theatre of his labours. Through this plot runs a
straight gravel walk; atone end of which is fixed in the ground
a rustic wooden chair, painted green, and before it a stone
tal)le ; at this he frequently dines alone upon the plainest food,
withdrawing afterwards to a bower at the other extremity, to
take his coffee. He keeps aloof from all but his own suite ;
and one-half of the garrison have never seen him."* Bona-
parte complained heavily of the subsequent reduction in his
salary; but appeared sensible of the attention of the prince-
regent, in ordering a house to be so constructed for him in
England, that it might be taken in pieces for the voyage, and
put together again on its arrival. He, however, was not
benefited by the intended kindness : it was finished only a
short time after his death. Of Sir George Cockburne, he
spoke in honourable terms ; unfortunately, the same good intel-
ligence never subsisted between Napoleon and Sir H. Lowe.
It appears from Bourrienne's Memoirs, that even from the date
of his elevation to the imperial throne, the emperor had
suffered much from the hereditary malady which afterwards
terminated his life.t In the month of May, 1818, a sensible
change for the worse took place. He petitioned this year for
a Catholic clergyman of the Pope, through Cardinal Fesch,
and his Holiness immediately concerted measures with the
English government for acceding to his request. The Abbe
Bonavista quitted St. Helena, in March, 1821, leaving there
M. I'Abbe Vignali, who was treated with deference and re-
spect. This ecclesiastic had remarked the progress of reli-
gious sentiments in Napoleon, and had obtained the intimate
confidence of the Holy See.t On the 2d of April, a servant
announced that a comet had been discovered in the east.
"A comet," cried Napoleon, eagerly, " that was the forerun-
ner of the death of Cesar." The Gallic Cesar thought
himself warned, but he prepared to meet death differently
from a pagan ; sending for M. Vignali on the 24th, he said
to him ; " I was born in the Catholic religion ; I wish to fulfil

• Notes on the Cape of Good Hope and St. Helena, (1820,) by Edward
Blonnt,

■\ This malady is also supposed to have occasioned the premature death
tf Napoleon's son, who was created Duke of Reichstadt, by the Emperor
of Austria, and died in the 1 6th year of his age.

t This account is taken from the " Histoire du Pape Pie 7," by M. It
Chevalier Artaud.

39*

438 OENKRAL HISTORY OF El'ROPE. [cHAP.

the duties it imposes on me, and to receive the succours it
inipartj= " He received them in elFect, willi respect and
recollertion ; on the 2d of May, his fever rcthjulded, and on
the 5lh he expired ; testifying his respect for, and gratitude
to, the Sovereign Ponlifl', whose n;nne he often pronounced
during his ilhiess.*^ His remains, iiabiled in the ch»;ik he h;id
worn at the hatde of Marengo, were, by his generals, placed
on liis camp-l)cd, an hour after liis decease ; all the troops of
the girrisun deliUil in order before the corpse, each man
touching the ground with one knee. The naval force, witli
the permission of their commander, suhsequenUy paid the
same liomage, in spite of the opposition of the governor. The
body, after lieing opened, was buried in the sj)ot chosen by
Napoleon, beneath a willow tree, enclosed in diree coffins ;
tlie gnive, which was fourteen feet deep, being firmly secured
by si)iid brickwork, closed with bars of iron.t

Pope Pius VH. closed a life full of years and merits, by a
holy death, Aiigiist 20th, 182IJ. Cardinal Consalvi survived
him only five months : in his Avill he ordered the rich pre-
sents which, as minister, he had received, to be sold, and the
produce expended in finishing the facades of several churches
in Home, and in erecting a monument to die late Pope.
Cardinal ddla Cenga was raised to the pontifical chair, under
th(! title of Leo XH. He reigned till 1829, and was suc-
ceeded by Pius VIII., who dying the following year, made
room fi)r the election of tin; present PonlilT, Gregory A \ I. 'Die
short pontificates of the last-mentioned Popes have been re-
markable onlv for their |)ersoiial virtues and strennons elTorts to
revive the spirit and practice of religion ; and for the progress
which die Catholii" faith has made in North Americaand in infidel
countries ; to which desirat)h; object the excellent InstUution
for the propagation of l/ir Foitli, established at Lyons in die

• Two of (lip KtnnzaK if Mnnzoni's po«*m on ttiia subject, copied frcn
the aliovo. may W iiiUTcstini; to many of our readers:

" Hella, iinmortal, tienrfica Tu dalle stanche ccneri

Fede, ai Irionfi avvczza, Sprrdi oc;ni ria parola ;

Srrivi ancor (juosto: allegrali, II Dio rlie (ttlcrra e suncita

Clie pill Ruprrlia alu-zza Che (iffnunn e die consola,

AKlisoner di Golijota, Sulla desrrta cullricc

(iianimai non di ctiino. Accanto a liii posci."

I The Frenrh ('hnrnhers have rerently voted 1, 000, 000 f. to defray the
exjtenfM^s of conveying .Napulcon's rctnains to l*aris, where they are to b»
deponiled uixler a mausol.'uiii, surmounted liy the arms which he wore at
the biUli; uf AuKlerlitz, and which he be((Ucathrd to his son.

LIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 439

year 1822, and now spread over nearly all Catholic Europe,
has very greatly contributed.

The Grecian states began their struggle for independence
in the early part of the year 1821 ; a war distinguished by
singular bravery on their part ; disgraced by horrible acts of
cruelty on both sides. At the same time, the provinces of
Walachia and Moldavia rose in arms, under the standard of
Prince Ypsilanti, a son of the hospodar, who was long a refugee
in Russia. The prince was afterwards arrested and impri-
soned by Austrian emissaries. The cruel massacre of the
unoffending population of the isle of Scio, in 1821, engaged
in the Grecian cause the sympathies of Europe ; among
those whom a chivalrous veneration for classic land enlisted
to aid it in person, was Lord Byron,* who, however, died at
Missolonghi, in 1824, before he was able to realize his in-
tentions, Mehemet Ali, formerly Pacha of Albania, and then
Viceroy of Egypt, came to a rupture with the Porte in 1820,
and his son Ibrahim carried the war into Turkey, in 1825,
where he committed dreadful ravages. The French espoused
the cause of the Greeks, and fitted out an expedition to assist
them, under the command of General Maison. The fort of
Modon surrendered to General Durieu on the 7th of October,
1828, and Coron, on the same day, when nearly reduced to a
heap of ruins, to General Sebastiani. A treaty for the paci-
fication of Greece was signed at London, July, 1827, by the
representatives of England, France, and Russia; and the
combined fleets received orders to force the Turkish squadron
to retire from the port of Navarino, which it blockaded.
Their offers of peace on this condition having been rejected.
Sir Edward Codrington gave the signal of attack, October
6th. The French, under Admiral Rigny, received the first
fire ; but, before five o'clock in the evening, the enemy's fleet
was anniliilated : a few abandoned frigates and brigs only re-
maining of this formidable Turkish armament. Ibrahim Pacha
was not present at this engagement, but was laying waste
Messenia as he traversed it, crucifying the priests and mur-
dering the population. A large Russian array advanced upon
the Turkish territory, and soon put to flight the undisciplined
hordes which opposed its progress, though, in some places,
the loss of the invaders was very considerable. Before Bra'i-

* The works of this too celebrated poet should be avoided by youth, as
the empoisoned source of intidehty and immorality. The remains of Lord
Byron were, on this account, refused the honour of burial in Westminster
Abbey.

440 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

Ion it amounted lo 5,000 men. Their advance was likewise
impodrd l)y irrcat iialiind ol).st:K'lrs, wliich wore, howovrr, siib-
diU'd ; the l);inul)e was crossed; the hciL^hls of die IJalkan
were no protection to the capital ; Varna, Silistria, and Adri-
anoplc fell into llieir hands ; and the Ottoman empire seemed
threatened with final destruction, wlum a peace was signed at
the latter city, l)ctween Nicholas and Mahmoud, in 1829.
The independence of Greece was acknowledged, and her
boundaries fixed ; Ibrahim evacuated Turkey, and returned to
Kjrypt; tlie provinces of Wahu-hia and Moldavia were placid
under the protection of Russia, whose empire was enlarged ;
and the fortress of Silistria remained in her hands, till slie
should receive the payment, l)y instalmeiils, of a large sum
from Turkey. The grand seignior had, previously to this
epoch, provided for his own security b}'^ destroying the .Jani-
zaries, who would probably have opposed his intended im-
provements. Mehemet AJi had, in like manner, massacred
the .Mamelukes in 1811; and, having freed Egypt from the
Turkish yoke, appears to have rendered the exercise of the
most despotic tyranny gready conducive to the general im-
provement of that country. He also conquered Syria by the
arms of his son, Ibrahim ; St. John d'Acre fell into his
power; Natolia was invaded, and he continued to extend his
dominions, till the allied powers undertook to restore peace
between the sultan and his rel)ellious vassal. Malimoud died
before this was elFected, in 18^9, leaving die succession to his
eldest son, Al)diil-Sedjin, aged seventeen years, under a re-
gency. The reign of the late sovereign forms a remarkal)le
era in the Turkish history, on account of the mnnv innova-
tions he introduced, and the vast diminution of his empire.
The crown of Greece having been refused by Prince Leo-
pold of Saxe Coburii, it was, with the consent of the allied
powers, olFcred to Prince Otho, second son of the King of
Bavaria; (18.33;) a regency was appointed during his mi-
nority, and a loan guarantied to support the credit of his go-
vernment.

Louis XV'III. expired on the lOdi of September, 1821, and
transmitted the sceptre of France to his l)rother, (/harles X.,
who was crowned at Rheims with the usual solemnity, and
took tlu! oalli to oliserve the charter jrranted by th(> late king.
He acknowledged the indepcndeiict! of the kingdom of Ilayti,
on condition of the payiirnt of a considerable sum, l)v instal-
ments, to indemnify those among his subjects who had lost
tlieir property in the insurrection at Si Domingo. He also

LIV.]

GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 441

obtained from the Chambers pensions for the sufferers by the
French Revolution, which were paid only as long as he
reigned. Wilh more liberality than prudence, he removed the
censorship over the press, established by his late brother ;
stereotyped editions of the worst productions of Voltaire and
Jean J. Rousseau, which had never been permitted in the time
of Napoleon, immediately inundated the country, and pro-
duced the effect that might have been anticipated ; the news-
papers, and particularly the Constitutionnel, of which 15,000
copies were daily sold, became the constant vehicles of satire
against religion and the government, and the republican party
increased each year in strength. In 1829, the establishments
of the Jesuits in France were sacrificed, by the pusillanimity
of the French court, to clamours as extravagant and absurd
as they were groundless and void of all truth, raised by the
liberal party, with the view of furthering political purposes
of their own. These establishments were twelve in number,
and devoted exclusively to the civil and religious education
of the youth of the higher classes. By a singular coincidence,
the returning twelvemonth beheld the monarch driven from his
tlirone and country by the same party.

Alexander, Emperor of Russia, died in 1825, without issue ;
and the crown, being rejected by tlie second brotlier, Constan-
tine, descended to Nicholas, the third, who was married to a
daughter of the King of Prussia.

The English soldier had to combat this year on a field
where victories are never won without severe suffering from
heat and fatigue. The campaign in India, of 1819, which we
have not noticed, ended in the destruction of the Pindarris, a
fierce banditti, who had ravaged the Madras dependencies
with circumstances of unexampled cruelty, and in the annexa-
tion of Poonah to the British empire. The war undertaken
in 1824 against the Burmese, was distinguislied by similar
atrocities on the part of these barbarians. Their army was
destroyed by Sir Archibald Campbell ; and Rangoon, with
several other places, being taken, remained in the hands of the
victors by the treaty that restored peace. Oar African settle-
ment on the Guinea coast was this year (1825) threatened by
the Ashantees, an inland tiibe, who, after conquering the Fan-
tees, advanced towards Cape-coast. The governor, Sir Charles
Macarthy, having unwarily separated his army, suffered him-
self to be drawn into an ambuscade, and was slain ; but his
death was soon after avenged by Major Chisholm.

The demise of John VI. of Portugal, in 1826, gave rise to

442 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [t'llAP.

important events in tliat country. By will, ho empowered
his eldest son to choose between the kinirdoni of PorUiifal and
the empire of IJrazil. Don I'cdro preferred the hitter, where
he then was, and renounced his ri^^lit to I'ortugal in favour of
his eldest daughter. Donna Maria da Gloria, intendinjr that
she should espouse her uncle, Don .Mi<ruel, to whom he
ofrcred tlie regency, when he should come of age. With this
document he sent to Europe a constitution, which, it was said,
he had himself very hastily drawn up, for Portugal. Don
Miguel, who had been at Vienna since the discovery of a trea-
sonable conspiracy, in which he was imj)licated, during the
life of his father, accepted his brodier's proposal. In the
mean time, his sister Isabella assumed the rcL^ency, and en-
deavoured to pronuilgatc the new constitution ; being foreign
to the habits and feelings of the nation, it excited consideral)le
discontent. To maintain her authority, she demanded some
Enirlish troops, and 5,000 men were sent over by Mr. Can-
ning for that purpose. With these she supported the existing
state of things, till Don Miguel, having attained his majority,
returned to Portugal. He there took the oath to the constitu-
tion, and assumed the p()wers of regent; l)Ut liiidiiig a strong
party desirons of making him ahsnlute king, he accepted the
title, and alirogated the constituticni. 'i'o extenuate this act,
his partisans assert, that, by a fundamental law of the mo-
narchy, if the elder brother iidierit another kingdom, the
crown of Portugal devolves on the second. Miguel rulct!
apparently to the satisfaction of the majority of his sul»jeets,
till Don I'cdro, having lost the empire of Brazil, through a
revolution in that country, which raised his son to the throne,
came over to Europe, to con(]uer Portuiral for his daiiirhter.
Tiiis he hail just ellrcted, by the means o|" I'^nglish and French
mercenaries, when he died, in 18:M. Donna Maria was then
declared of age ; she married the brollier of the ex-empress,
Augustus of Leuchtenberg ; and he soon dying, in 1836,
Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-('oburg, by whom she has two sons.
'I'o liquidate the debts of the state, much of the church-pro-
perly was seized and sold ; in consequence of which measure,
tlic Pope's legate was recalled, and the relations with the Holy
See suspentled. Don Pedro's charter, not being deemed
siidicicntly liberal by i\u' asrendency party, the queen has
been oblig{;d to clnuige her miinstrv, and acijuiese in the
alterations demanded.

Death, in the mean lime, had been elTcctiuL'' great chan<rc9
in Enghuid. On the 5th of Jaiuiary, IH27, died the Duke of

UV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 44J^

York ; and, on the 7th February, the Earl of Liverpool was,
by a paralytic attack, incapacitated from conducting the govern-
ment. Mr. Canning was appointed his successor, but his
declining health soon gave way. The last effort of his
eloquence was exerted in an unsuccessful support of the
Catholic claims ; he died at Chiswick, having been premier
only five months. Lord Goderich was then empowered to
form a cabinet; he soon made place for the Duke of Welling-
ton, who, with Sir R. Peel, and some members of the Liver-
pool administration, composed the new ministry. It was
remarkable for several important measures. The Catholic
disabilities had been almost annually brought before Parliament,
and had, in 1828, on the motion of Sir Francis Burdett, passed
the House of Commons ; but had been, as usual, rejected by
a large majority of the Lords. Mr. Canning had not even
been able, when in the ministry, to carry a bill to permit the
few Catholic peers of England to take their seats in that
House ; yet the question progressed ; most of the talent ol
the Lower House was exerted in its favour ; the Protestant
Irish aristocracy presented a petition, numerously signed, in
behalf of their aggrieved countrymen, and tlie Catholic asso
ciation, revived under a new name, whenever its death-blow
had been decreed, with the indefatigable O'ConncU at its head,
laboured strenuously to attain its object. To the exertions
of this distinguished individual was the speedy success of their
endeavours principally due. His election for the county of
Clare, in the place of a cabinet minister, Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald,
embarrassed the government ; they saw the necessity of con-
ceding what could not be furdier withheld without danger to
the state. The abolition of the Test and Corporation Acts,
which had been effected by a bill brought in by Lord John
Russell, the preceding year, had o^)ened the pale of the con-
stitution to all Christian dissenters: the Catholic Emancipa-
tion Bill was, after much difficulty on the part of the king,
introduced by a speech from the throne, carried by the two
leading ministers of each House, and received the royal asseijt,
April 13, 1829. By this act, Cadiolics, on their taking a
prescribed oath, were rendered eligible to all civil offices,
except those of Lord-lieutenant of Ireland and keeper of the
great seal. It, however, disfrancliised the 40s, freeholders
of that kingdom, and prohibited the Catholic bishops from
bearing the names of their respective sees. An ungenerous
clause, annexed to the bill, prevented Mr. O'Connel) from

4 i i GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

lakiniT his seat for Clare; but lie was re-elected without
Dj)|)(isiii()ii.

'I'hf kiiiffdid not very lon<^ survive tliis important measure ;
his incrcajsiiijr indisposiiioii was lor some lime concealed from
the pul)lic ; but at lenjfUi it was ascertained tiiat an ossifuation
of the heart l)alfled all medical skill, and limiUv brouirhlon his
death, which occurred on the iJGlh of June, 1830, in the sixly-
eiffhth year of his age and eleventh of his reign. During the
last few years, George IV. led so secluded a life, as to be visible
only to his ministers, family, and private friends, by whom
alone he seems to have been regretted. He was succeeded by his
brother, the Duke of Clarence, under the title of William IV.,
who having recently, when lord high admiral, Ijeen opposed
by the Duke of Wellington, was not expected to retain him
in the ministry ; the king, however, made no alteration in the
cabinet on his accession to the throne.

The situation of the French monarchy was becoming
every day more critical. His Christian majesty, with a view
to counteract the revolutionary tendency of the deputies
elected in 1827, had commissic»ned M. le Prince Polignac to
form a new ministry, of which he was to be the president.
Two hundred and twenty-one of the deputies presented an
energetical address, in which they expressed their opposition
to tli(! new cabinet; their remonstrances were met by tiie dis-
solution of the chaml)er. Every etfort was made by the
Court to prevent tin; re-election of men who had n-fuscd to
vote the budget before they separated ; l)Ut, in spile t)f these
elTorts, diey composed the majority of the new chamber.
'J'he nationiil guard having demonstrated an opposition to
the governmenl, was 8U|)pressed. The French navy, in ihe
m(!an while, was rendering essential service to humanity in
general, by completing the conquest which Lord Exmouth
liad left imperfect. 'I'iie Dey of Algiers, having pid)licly
affronted tin; IVench consul, and refused to make any repa-
ration, war wiis innnediately declared against him. The
minister of war, (icneral Coinle de IJourmonU", left Faris
atul joined the tleet at 'I'oulon, consisting ui' 500 sail, under
the command of Admiral Duperre. On the 13th of June, it
anchored in the bay of Sidi I'eratdi. After driving the emimy
from their positions, the while flag was hoisted on the Turetta
Chica, and Aljjiers capitulated. Tiie lleet emulated the bra-
very of the land-forces, and powerfully contributed to tlie re-
duction of the j)l:ice, by a niai.<ruvre wliich was considered
Unpraclicalilc. The dey obtained ]»ermission to retire with

LIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 445

part of his troops, his arms, women, and private property ;
but the treasure found in his palace called the Cassaba,
amounting to 50,000,000 francs, was secured to pay the ex-
penses of the expedition. The fort of the emperor held out
to the last extremity, and then exploded. The opposition
papers in France had omitted no eflort to mar the success of
the expedition ; and the general, on his return, could not even
carry his own election : affairs in that country were drawing
to a crisis. Relying on the fourteenth article of the charter,
which permitted the king to amend or modif)s if necessary,
he published two ordinances, by the first of which he sus-
pended the liberty of the press, and established a censorship
over the public journals and periodical writings ; and, by the
second, altered the law of elections ; these ordinances were
countersigned by the ministers Polignac, Peyronet, Chante-
lauze, Guernon-Ranville, Montbel, and Capel. The editors
of the papers protested openly against the ordinances ; their
presses and types were ordered to be seized, (July 27th ;) but
when the police attempted to execute the mandate, they found
nearly 20,000 men prepared to defend them. No precau-
tions had been taken to insure success to this coup d'etat ;
Marshal Marmont was named commander of the first military
division ; he was left without orders, his men without a sup-
ply of cartridges or rations.

The deputies who were in Paris, to the number of about
fifty, then assembled, and sent a deputation, with M. Lufitte
at their head, to Marshal Marmont, entreating him to stop
the further effusion of blood, by obtaining the conditions
they demanded ; these were, the revocation of the ordinances
of the 26th of July, the dismissal of the ministers, and the
convocation of the Chambers for the 3d of August. The
marshal consented to request for them an audience of M. de
Polignac. He returned in a quarter of an hour, and told
the deputies the prince had replied that the nature of the
conditions rendered any conference useless. " Nous avons
done la guerre civile?" said M. de Lafitte ; the marshal
bowed, and the deputies retired. The combat soon became
general, and after three days' sanguinary fighting^ in different
parts of Paris, in which the youths of the Polytechnic school
particularly distinguished themselves, the royal cause was
lost ; the tri~coloured flag floated on the public buildings of
the capital, and the fleurs-de-lis were everywhere effaced.
While Paris was in a state of siege, and blood flowed on all
sides, Charles X., with his family, at St. Cloud, remained in

440 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAl'.

ignornnce of the insurrection. lie had been informed of tlio
disturbance on Monday morninfj, had ordered the arrest of
the rcvohitionary leaders, (,'asirnir Perricr, I)\ipin. Lafitle,
and a few others, and he beheved tlie nuasiire liail been ac-
complished, because his minister, supposing, as he afterwards
said, tliat it would be done before his despatch reached
the king, informed liim thai it iras effected. The report of
the cannon and view of the tri-coloured flag, perceived by the
Duchesse de Gontault, who lodged in one of the highest
apartments of the castle, and whose terrors were awakened
for her royal charge, the yovmg princess, could not rouse the
king to a sense of his danger : 15,000 men were near him at
St. Cloud, without receiving any orders to march >ipon Paris,
till, at length, liie arrival of tlie ministers revealetl the truih ;
they held a council, and announced to his majesty that all
was lost: that the mob were advancing towards St. Cloud,
and that he must save himself by immediate flight. In less
than half an hour the royal family were in their carriages on
the road to Rambouillet.

Meantime the Chamber met, and invited the Duke of Or-
leans to exercise the functions of lieutenant-general of the
kingdom. He consulted the king how he should act on this
emergency; his majesty empowered the duke to accept the
proffered title, with the regency for liis grandson, the Duke
of Bordeaux, in favour of whom he renounced his right to
the throne, and the Duke d'Angoulcme did tlie same. He
even proposed to leave the young prince with the Duke of
Orleans, on whose attachment and iidclity he fully relied ;
but the commissioners deputed by the Chambers to escort tiie
king into exile, and who were present at Ramiiouillet, refusing
to acknowledge him for their sovereign, tlu; project dropped.
An oflVr of the crown was made to the Duke of Orleans,
when he met the Chambers, and he accepted it: the cere-
mony of his accession, by Uiking the oath of adherence to
the charter,' took place on the 9lh of August, when he as-

• The charier, when amended by the Chamber, decided that the Roman
Catholic rchgiori was no lunger the religion of the state. It aitio abolished
the horetliiary peerage.

Talleyrand, on taking the oath of allegiance to the new sovereign, is
•aid lo have remarked, ihal it was the ihirlcenth time he had Hworn to ad-
here lo a change in the government, arid he hoped it would be ihc last.
The veteran <liplornatist was a|i|iiiinte(l to the Kn-^Iish embaHHy, an! filled
this post till I8:i.'j. He d^t•<l jit the age of eighty-four, May I7lh, ' H'.iA,
having on the morning of that day cITeclcd a rcconciliuliun witW the
• /'hurck.

LIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 447

Bumed the title of Louis Philippe I,, King of the French.
The national guard was reorganized, and La Fayette called to
the chief command of it.* 'Die ex-king and royal family of
France, accompanied by the commissioners, the Duke of Ra-
gusa, with a numerous stafT, and several companies of gardes-
du-corps, left Rambouillet on the 3d of August, and readied
Cherbourg on the 10th, being everywhere received on the
route with respectful silence, without any manifestation of
triumj h or regret. The many private virtues and acts of
public beneficence that adorned the characters of the royal
fugitives, and the state from which they were fallen, excited
apparendy no commiseration ; the recent popularity of the
Duchess of Berry seemed equally forgotten. They left
Cherbourg the same day they arrived there, and set sail for
England, on board the Great Britain, an American ship, in
company with two others, and the next day reached the har-
bour of Portsmouth. The court of St. James's had recog-
nised the government of Louis Philippe, and Charles X.
could not land till permission for that purpose arrived. The
princesses and their suite, however, disembarked at Cowes.
When the necessary leave came, the king, his son and grand-
son, through the generous attention of the proprietor, met
with a polite reception on their landing, and hospitable enter-
tainment at Lulworth CasUe. In this noble mansion they
resided, till Holyrood House had been provided for their
reception ; they arrived in Edinburgh, October 21st. There
the old king continued to indulge in his favourite sports of
shooting and coursing, and, by his liberality to the poor,
gained the good will of all around him. The royal family
afterwards removed to the dominions of the Emperor of Aus-
tria, residing chiefly at Goritz, near Prague, where, after a
very short illness, Charles X.t closed his checkered life, in
the same sentiments of resignation and charity that he had
uniformly displayed during his misfortunes, November 6th
1837, in the 80th year of his age. His unfortunate minister,

• This celebrated man acted a prominent part in the present, no less
than in the first revolution ; being united with those who, opposed to a
republican form of government, wished to call the Orleans dynasty to the
throne. He died in 1834.

-f Charles X, is supposed to have fallen a victim to the cholera morbus.
This dreadful dsease had, during the several preceding years, alternately
spreid over all the countries of Europe, and it partially broke out again
Ihis year, in some of the towns of Germany.

448 ''OBNERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

Poli^nac, who sippcars lo have deceived his master, because
he was himself hliiided to the state of events, was, with
tliree of his late collcatrues wlio had eiiriiod the fatal ordi-
naiufs, arrested soon after the exile of the kin^^, tried and con-
demned to death. 'I'hcir sentence was commnted to perpetual
iinprisoiunent ; after seven years' detention in the prison of
Ham, where the prince's health was much impaired, they
were released in 1837.

The souUicrn provinces of the Netherlands, which had,
contrary to the will of the inhabitants, been united to llulland
by the Congress of Vienna, now followed the exaini)le of the
Parisians, and shook oil' the Dutch yoke, 'i'he grievances
they had to complain of, were neitiier few nor trivial, but
they were mosdy such as mijilit have been anticipated from
the ascendency of a Calvinistical church over a Catholic po-
pulation, 'i'he national guard seized the military ])osts in
IJriisscls, on the 'Zikh and 2t>lli of August, 1830 ; the Prince of
Orange, after vainly endeavouring to restore harmony, intro-
duced, on the 24lh of the following month, 7,(KHt Dutch
troops into the park: a furious combat ensued, which termi-
nated in favour of the people. At the same time disturl)ances
occurred in several other towns, particularly Antwerp and
Liege. The Dutch troops, under the command of General
Chasse, retired into the citadel of Antwerp, which town they
bombarded ; a provisional government was established ; the
separation of Helgium and Holland decreed; and this arransre-
ment having been acceded lo by France and England, the
crown of Helgium was, Uirougli the influence of the latter
power, ollered lo Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, and ac-
cepted by him.

The King of Holland having rejected the terms oflered by
the allied powers, General Gerard set out from Paris, at the
head of -10, 000 French troops, to reduce the citadel of Ant-
werp. On the refusal of the commander to deliver it up, their
arlillery bombarded it during twenty-four days; at the end of
which term, (Jeiieial Chasse and the garrison surrendered at
discretion, October 23d, 1832. Peace between Holland and
llel<.Mum was not signed till 1837.

Hrunswick, about the same time, expelled its sovereign,
Duke Charles, for having infrintriil the articles of the consti-
tution irriinted by his uncle ;iiid tjiiardian, George IV'. of I'lng-
land, during his minority, and, in many ways, trespassed on
the rights of his subie(rt3. In this insurrectioti, the ducal
palace was burned down, except a part of the left wing. The

LIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE 449

duchy was afterwards offered to Prince William, who stiU
retains the jroverjiment, his elder brotlier having been judged
incapable of the charge.

Poland, it will be recollected, was placed under the domi-
nion of the Emperor Alexander, by the Congress of Vienna,
which guarantied to it a constitutional charter. This treaty
also promised to the ancient Polish provinces "a representa-
tion and national institutions, regulated according to the
mode of political existence, which each of the governments
to which they belong, should judge useful and fitting to grant
them." These conditions were never fulfilled with respect to
the Polish provinces dependent upon Russia, though promised
by the Emperor Alexander in the first diet held at Warsaw
after the treaty: and the appearance of constitutional liberty
granted to the kingdom of Poland, was almost immediately
infringed upon, by arbitrary ordinances and acts, which soon
revealed the intention of reducing the nation to a state of ser-
vile dependence. To this end, the liberty of the press was
abolished; public discussion prohibited; the budget never
voted ; heavy taxes imposed ; monopolies created to exhaust the
wealth of the countiy : and courts-martial, which inflicted the
most degrading and cruel punishments, erected, to assume the
functions of civil tribunals. The exasperated feelings of the
whole nation were ready to break out, when the death of
Alexander, and the oath to maintain the constitution, taken
by Nicholas on his accession to the throne, inspired a hope
that the liberties of the kingdom would be restored ; but an
insurrection which burst out at St. Petersburg, in which many
distinguished Poles were supposed to be implicated, served
to augment tenfold all the calamities which this unhappy
country had previously endured. The prisons of Warsaw were
thronged ; at length, after the delay of a year and a half, and
after tortures and other means had been ineffectually applied
to draw from the prisoners a confession of guilt, they were
legally tried by the senate, and, almost unanimously, pro-
nounced innocent. Upon the publication of this sentence, the
judges were imprisoned in Warsaw during the space of a year,
and the accused, conducted into Russian dungeons, have never
since been heard of. The sale of the national domains, which
was ordered after the coronation of Nicholas, (November 29th,
1829,) enabled the government to place the Polish array on
the war establishment, with the intention, as it was reported,
that it should advance against France, while Russian troops
would occupy its place : the youths of the military schools

40*

•450 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [tII\P.

and of tlio iinivrrsitv, in coiiiiinrtioii with a lar^e portion of
the g;irrison of Warsaw, gave the signal of a grni-ral rising.
On the night of the 29lh November, 1830, the insurrection
became general. It rccinired but one day to deliver the capi-
tal: in a few more, every division of the army united in the
same cause; the nation was in arms, and the fortilied towns
surrendered. The Grand-duke Constantine (commander-in-
chief of the ariuv) willulrew; General Clopicki was made
dii'lator, and the diet declared that the Russian czar had
ceased to reign in Poland. After bravely struggling during ten
months with llie superior forces which Riissia brought :i<r;iinst
tlu'ui, and gaining the victories of Uembewidkie and Wawr,
overpowered at last by numbers, at the battle of Ostrolenka,
the Poles were forced to retreat, leaving 10,000 dead upon
the field. Warsaw was soon invested; l)atlles were fought
under its walls on the .^th, 6lli, and 7lii of Sei)teml)er, 1831 ;
and, on the following day, it fell again under the dominion of
Russia; the Polish army entered the Austrian and Prussian
territories, and laid down their arms. 'J'iicy afterwards re-
tired chiefly into France and England, where they still remain
in exile. Since that epoch, Poland no longer exists as a
nation;* her language is suppressed; many noble youths have
been torn from their parents and transported into Siberia, and
every engine is put in action to extirpate the United Greek
Church, and completely subjugate the Catholic reliirion.
Their bishops are reduced from the numl)er of eight to four;
the Bishop of Cracow, being deprived of his see, has retired
into the doiniuiniis of tlie Emperor of Austria, whf)se troops
occupy that independent and neutral republic ; the IJishop of
Podlachia has, during the present year, by order of Nicholas,
been banished to Mochilcw; whither a great number of the
clergy, after having been cruelly treated, were sent in 1833,
for refusing, without the approbation of their ecclesiastical
superiors, to read from the pulpits the ukases respecting re-
ligion, which had been sent to them by the government for
that purpose. The \iniversily and a great many schools
have been suppressed ; the order of the Piarists, with their

• Onn instance may Fuflire to bIiow the state to which this country ia
reducpij. On the evening of the 17lh of May, IS32, when the inhal)ilanta
of Warsaw hail sent thfir chiMron out for nvrfation and cxprcisc, 450 of
them wore nchcd by Russian rmiasariPN anil hurri*-<l to a ihstant fort. Only
150 rcarhnl tin; spot, the rcinainiic-r havitii; ilii'il of fatijuc anil ill treat-
ment during the Journey ; but the deficiency was suiiplicd by the aeiEura
of olberi.

UV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 451

colleges, those of St. Alphonsus, under the title of Redemp-
lionis Christi, totally abolished. Still more oppressed are
the Catholic inhabitants of the ancient provinces, as well
those dependent on the Emperor of Russia, as those which
are subject to his Prussian majesty. The imprisonment of
the Archbishop of Posen affords a notorious proof of the un-
just policy of the late King of Prussia. It is painful to con-
trast the prudence and moderation which characterized the
general government of this sovereign, with the conduct he
observed towards his Catholic subjects, whose religion, never-
theless, he was pledged to maintain in those provinces, which
the Congress of Vienna placed under his sway. We have
not room to particularize the systematic oppression to which
he subjected them; nor to describe the destitute state of the
Catholics in many of the towns of Prussia Proper. The
Prussian code, published in 1803, which militates against
the rights of the Church, was, in 1825, extended to the pro-
vinces of the Rhine and Westphalia. It formed the chief
ground of the accusations against the Archbishop of Cologne,
who, for obeying the brief concerning mixed marriages issued
by Pius VIII. at the request of the king and the bishops, in
1830, has been, during the last three years, confined in the
fortress of Minden. Frederic William III. died on the 7th
of June, 1840, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Fre-
derick William IV.

Lithuania contained 4,740,000 of the United Greek Church.
These Nicholas (by a law, confirmed July 5th, 1839) has
united to the Russian Church, and forced to receive the Greek
ritual. Their temporizing bishops, three in number, have
complied with the imperial mandate, having been first induced,
by worldly considerations, to abjure the authority of the
Pope. According to recent accounts from Wilna and Kiow,
upwards of 200 priests, who would not renounce the religion
of their forefathers, have been sent to Russian monasteries,
where, regarded as heretics, and sustained on bread and water,
they are employed in the menial offices of the house. A
number of Polish ladies have, in like manner, been conveyed
from Kiow and domiciliated with Russian nuns, to be simi-
larly treated ; and schools for the education of Catholic young
ladies have been established at Wilna, Kiow, &c., under the
direction of Russian governesses.

The death of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, (September 29th,
1833,) involved anew that unfortunate country in a civil war,
which is not yet terminated. He had married for his fourth

462 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [ciUt

wife, Christina, dauglitcr to Francis I. of Naples ; and having
only two daughters, dotennincd to abrogate the Salic law,
■which had been in force since the succession of the house of
IJoiirboii to the Spanish throne, that his crown nii^ht descend
to the elder of these princesses, named Isabella. Having
drawn up an instrument for this purpose, he called an assem-
bly of the Cortes, and procured their adhesion to it: his brother,
Don Carlos, who had long been considered the presumptive
heir to the crown, refused to concur in the measure, and,
with his family, retired into Portugal. The will of Ferdi-
nand was accepted by the Madrid authorities and chief no-
bility, and Christina took upon herself the regency for her
daughter, Isabella II. lint the Basque provinces, strongly
attached to Don Carlos and to their ancient privileges, which
they knew it was not the intention of the existing government
to maintain, flew to arms. Don Carlos, who, out of respect
to his brother, had, during his life, adopted no means to
strengthen his party, was then a fugitive in Portuiral : with
difiiculty he, with his wife and children, escaped falling into
the hands of the ferocious Kodil, who was pursuing him, by
taking refuge on board an English ship, which conveyed them
to England : whence the prince, finding that Navarre and
Biscay were all up in arms for his cause, privately departed,
and, travelling through France incognito, joined the brave de-
fenders of his rights. The historic page will record the
many sanguinary rencounters that have taken place between
the hostile ])arties ; the campaigns of Zumalacarregui, of Ca-
brera, Espartero, and many others ; the ineflleient assistance
rendered to one party by English and French auxiliaries, by
which means the struggle has been indefinitely protracted ;
the embarrassment of the Spanish treasury, and the subsei^uent
seizure of church-property to recruit its resources ; the de-
struction of religious foundations and massacre of many of
tlieir inmates; frecjuent change of ministry; renewal of the
charter; and, finally, the treaty of Bergara, which, without
terminating the war, has made the Prince Don Carlos a state
prisoner.

The Emperor Francis II. closed his eventful life, (1835,)
in the same religious sentiments which had ever supported
liim during the many vicissitudes he had experienced ; he left
liis dominions extended and tranciuil, and Prince Metlernich
still at the helm. His eldest son, the King of Hungary,
married to Anne, daughter of Victor-Emanuel of Sardinia,
TOcccctded, under the title of Ferdinand I. of Austria. He

LIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 453

was successively crowned emperor at Vienna, King of Bohe-
mia at Prague, and King of Lonibardy at Milan, on which
latter occasion he granted a pardon, with some exceptions, to
all the poliucal offenders, who were still detained in prison,
and he has this year (1840) extended it to all.

We revert to England, which, during the year 1831, was
not free from internal commotions ; the declaration of the
Duke of Wellington against reform disappointed the hopes
of the liberal party ; the discontent of the lower orders mani-
fested itself by nightly incendiarisms ; and so great became
the unpopularity of the government, that the king, in Novem-
ber this year, was obliged to relinquish his intention of din-
ing at the Guildhall, it not being considered safe for the duke
to accompany his majesty. The ministry resigned; Earl
Grey was then made premier ; the seals with a peerage were
given to Mr. Brougham ; and Lord Althorp, as Chancellor of
the Exchequer, was the leader of the House of Commons.
During this ministry the reform bill was passed in 1832 ; the
slave emancipation bill the following year ; the municipal corpo-
rations bill for England and Scodand in 1835 ; the Irish church
reform bill, by which ten bishoprics were curtailed, and the
value of small livings augmented ; the East India charter re-
newed, with several alterations, by which the commerce to
China was thrown open, &c. A dissension in the cabinet
occasioned the resignation of Lord Grey; he was succeeded
by Lord Melbourne, who, with a very short interruption, has
continued at the head of government ever since ; the chief
acts passed during this period have been, the tithe commu-
tation bill for England, and another for Ireland ; the poor law
bill for the latter country ; the new registry act for births and
marriages, the penny postage bill, &c.

William IV. died June 20th, 1837, in the seventy-second
year of his age, and seventh of his reign, regretted by his
subjects, whose interest he seemed always to have at heart,
and respected for his integrity and moral virtues.* The
Princess Victoria Alexandrina, the object of the nation's fond-
est hopes, was proclaimed queen, and, having attained her
majority the preceding month, immediately assumed the reins
ol government. Her coronation was performed wi:h great
solemnity on the 28th of June, 1838; and on the 10th of
February, 1840, she was married to Prince Albert of Saxe
Coburg, in the Royal Chapel, at St. James's, amidst the joy-

• The Duke of Cumberland, at the same time, became King of Hario
ver, the crown of that kingdom not descending t( females.

4.-) I GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHaP

fill acclamations and heartf.lt conctratulations of every das*
of luT niiijcstv's sul.joots. The principal events of her rcitrii,
not alieaiiy alluded to, arc the insurrection in Canada, which
was, however, soon subdued by the military force, assisted
bv 'the loyal inhabitants of tliat country; the equally ill-
concerted risings of the t'harlists in England ; the victories
achieved by the Anglo-Indian army, under Sir John, now
Lord Kean, in the compiest of Cabul, (4huznee, and Kelat, ir.
Aflghanistan •, the war in China and the intervention between
Turkey and Egypt. The first of these broke out in October,
IfSaO, at the Liike of the Two ]S[ountains, and the Canadians
in many parts rallied around Papineau and other eminent
leaders. A collision took place near Longueuil, and the
stiindard of revolt was raised. Colonel Gore, was repulsed
at St. Denis, but Colonel Wcthcrall, more fortunate, do
feated the insurgents under Brown, at St. Charles. On this,
the leaders fled to the United States, and the insurrection
was soon quelled.

Soon after, however, similar troubles occurred in Upper
Canada, in which the insurgents were aided by citizens of the
United States. An attempt to take Toronto had well nigh
succeeded, l)Ut the insurgents at last retired to an island in
Niagara liver, and fniaUy dispersed.

The Chartist riots began in April, 1839, at Devises, and
were followed up in Noveni1)er, at Ncwjiort, where 10,000
miners, headed by an ex-magistrate, for some time defied all

authority.

In India the English still cariicd on their conrjucsts, daily
addiiiii to their enormous possessions in the East. In 1839, the
Atfglian war commenced, and an English force under Sir John
Kcan entered Aflghanistan, and laid siege to Ghuznec. This
strong place was (li'fended by the son of the ex-King of Cabnl,
and a force of 3.r)00 men. Imt after a hard light, in which r)00
Aflghans and 200 English fell, it was taken, Cabul surren-
dered on the .')th of August; on the. 13th of November, Kelat,
the capital of Bclooehistan, was taken, and Mehrab Khan, the
chief of the Heloochees, fell defending his capital, and in
December, 1840, Xussecr Khan and 4,000 men were defeated
at Kotriah by Lieut. Col. Marshall.

These eouiitries were now reduced, and the war seemed at
an oiKJ, but in January, 1842, the Aflghans rose in arms. Sir
Williiiio McNaghteii an<l (),000 Knglish troops were sur-
rounded and cut U> pieces, only on(! ofli(%r escaping toamiounce
|he disaster. Their triumj)h was, however, of short duration :

LIV.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. * 455

in September, Akbar Khan and his Aflghans, to the number
of 18,000, were defeated by General Pollock; Cabul
again fell into the hands of the English, and peace was
restored.

Still carrying out her plans of conquest in the East, England
next came in collision with China. Opium was an article
prohibited by the Chinese tariff: the English merchants had
long smuggled it in. In March, 1839, the Chinese Commis-
sioner Lin required the surrender of the opium, and the
departure of two firms extensively implicated in the trade.
After some discussion 20,283 chests, valued at $10,000,000,
were surrendered. In November a collision took place at
Bocca Tigris between two English ships, which attempted to
enter Champee, and some Chinese junks, in which the natives
lost 900 men. War was declared by England in the follow-
ing year, and a fleet of 30 sail proceeded to Macao. Canton
was now blockaded, Chusan taken by Burrell, Amoy by
Pollinger, and then a suspension took place and proposals
of peace were made. The armistice was. however, soon
broken. Ningpoo was ineffectually attacked by the Chinese,
in March, 1841, and after losing Chinkeangfoo, in July, they
concluded a treaty in August, by which they agreed to pay
$21,000,000 for the opium which they had so properly de-
stroyed, to cede Hong Kong to Great Biitain, and to open
the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochoofoo, Ningpoo, and.
Shanghai.

In America, no important event occurred in the English
colonies except the troubles which arose, in 1839, on the bor-
ders of Maine and New Brunswick, which, though apparently
dangerous, were soon arrested by the conciliatory measures
of the two governments. To prevent a recurrence of the
difhculty, the long disputed boundary was finally settled by
the treaty of Washington, in 1844.

In Groat Britain itself the state of affairs was by no means
quiet. The Chartists, calling for a written constitution, a real
representation of the people, and a due application of ecclesi-
astical property, joined by numbers of discontented miners
and artisans, had already proceeded to riotous measures, but
their forces never proved dangerous, and on the trial of their
leaders the movement was stopped for a time.

Scotland was meanwhile much disaffected on religious
grounds : a large party seceded fi'om the law-kirk, and set up
a free church independent of government influence.

The greatest troubles were, however, those of Ireland.

450 GENERAL JU8T0RY OF EUROPE, [cFIAP.

A=criliin2 many of the miseries which had visited that eountrv
to the ligislative union of 1801, ( )'('nnnell earnestly demanded
a repeal of the. obnoxious act. To eflect this a system of
«<;italion, similar to that which led to the Enianci|>ation Act,
was adopted. Ili-peal associations were formed in Ireland,
and also in England and the United States : large sums of
money were raised, and by constant ineetingM and appeals the
excitement at last became so great that meetings were held
in the open air, which, from their immense size, were Ciilled
the monster meetings. The chief of these were held at
Miillachmast and Tara, where half a million are said to have
assembled. The government meanwhile steadily o|)posed the
movement, and when a new meeting was called at Clontarf,
in 184'i. occnpied the ground by a military force. In Octol^er,
O'Connell, his son, and several others, were arrested, and after
a long and exciting trial convicted, in February, 1846, and
sentenced to imprisonment. The Irish did not, however,
despair : the case was carried up to the House of Lords, who
reversed the judgment of the court, and O'Connell was borne
in triumph from his temporary prison. The agitation was
not however icsumed ; division ensued among ihc popular
leaders in Ireland, and many now called for an attempt to
obtain by force, what agitation had failed to acquire. Amid
this uneasy state of afl'airs O'Connell died at Genoa, in May,
1847, while seeking in the south some relief for his health,
now shattered 1)V his loni; labours for his country.

France had. in l!^30, passed through a revolution, by which
Louis Philijipe was raised to the throne. lie carried on the
Algerine war with success, and after many sanguinary con-
flicts, Abdel Kader. the chief of the natives who opposed the
French, fell into their han<ls. This war, which lasted through
the most of his reign, and cost France many lives and great
Bums of money, gave rise to a short war with Morocco, in
l*j4<), in which M"gadore was bombarded by a French fleet,
under the Prince de Joinville, and a Moorish army defeated by
Marshal liugeaud.

With this exception his reign was generally peaceful, and
though tiiany attemfds were made on his life, and strong
parties ojiposed him, he conducted the affairs of France with
great ability. In connection with England he interfered in
the affairs of Belgium and Holland, in 18;i2, and with the
otht>r great pf)wers, in 18;i9, in the war between the Sultan
of Turkey and his rebellious pacha, Mchemet Ali, of Egypt.
About the same time hostilities began with Mexico, but after

LIV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF KUIiOPE. 457

the capture of the fortress of Sun Juan de Uloa and the city
of Vera Cruz, a treaty was made, in March, 18o9.

France, herself, meanwhile enjoyed a comparative tran-
quillity. Though the revolution of 1830 was in fact the
triuuifih of the infidel or irreligious party, the new king
maintained order and conducted the administration with great
vigour. Gradually, religion recovered tone, and even the
banished religious, Jesuits and others, returned to France,
although no colleges were opened. A great excitement was
at last created by various publications directed against the
Jesuits : the members were required to abandon their
houses, but they, claiming the rights of French citizens,
refused to leave their homes unless expelled by force, assert-
ing their readiness to appear at the tribunals of their country
to meet any direct accusation, but denying the right of govern-
ment to proscribe any set of men on merely vague chai'ges
and surmises.

This bold stand produced its eftect, and no action was taken :
the I'eligious proceeded as before, and even their enemies
respected their conduct. Louis Philippe sought to identify
himself with the anti-Bourbon party, and in 1840 procured
permission to remove Napoleon's body to Paris. His lonely
grave was opened in October, and his corpse, deposited in new
coffins, was conveyed to Paris in the frigate La Belle Poule.
Soon after a funeral procession of 500,000 escorted
it to the Invalides, where it still reposes.

At this very time, an able scion of the Napoleon family
lay in the Castle of Ham, after a rash attempt at Boulogne to
raise the people in his favour. This was Louis Napoleon,
whose subsequent career we shall have occasion to detail.

Spain, even after the treaty of Bergara, was fir from enjoy-
ing calm. Christina, who had so successfully conducted the
war against Don Carlos, becoming obnoxious, resigned the
regency in October, 1840, and Espartero became Regent.
Many attempts were made to unseat him, but all failed, and
he held the reins of government with a firm hand. A rebellion
arose, in 1841, at Pampeluna and Madrid, in which the Queen
nearly fell into the hands of the insurgents, but the insurrec-
tion was soon quelled. Imitating the conduct of Christina,
be, too, persecuted the Church, which had now been stripped
of all its possessions. The ministers of religion were promised,
but not paid, a salary, and most of the bishops were driven
into exile. After a vain endeavour to obtain justice. Pope
Gregory XVI. proclaimed a jubilee, and invited all the chit

458 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUKOPE. [cilAP

dren of the Church to unite in invoking the aid of heaven foi
the (listiessed cliurch of Spain. Soon after this, in 1843, a
new L'lrort was ma^le to ovt-rthiow Esparterc^ and that ahle
man, without striking a blow, fled to Cadiz and embarked foi
England. The Queen was soon after declared of age, and by
her marriage with her cousin gave some stability to afiiiirs.
Prosperity now began to dawn on the Peninsula, and nego-
tiations with Rome gave every prospect of a reconciliation.

In Germany some changes had taken place. Frederick
William III., of Prussia, died in June, 1840, after a long reign
of 43 years, and was succeeded by his son, William I., King
of Holland, aI>out the same time resigned in favour of his son,
in order to marry a Catholic lady.

Germany was at this time in an unsettled state. The party
which had raised Louis Philippe to the throne of France had
many sympathizers in Germany, Switzerland and Italy, who
all jianted to overturn the altar and the throne. For a time
no overt acts occurred ; the various powers, by a strict sys-
tem of vigilance, maintained their authority, but all perceived
that a grtat revolution was at hand. The first scene opened
in Switzerland, in 1844.

CHAPTER LV.

FROM THE REVOLUTION IN SWITZERLAND, IN 1844, TO THK
CLOSE OF THE YEAR 1852.

RwiTZERLAsn was a federal republic, in which each canton
was absolutely independent as to local matters. Some were
Protestant, some Catholic; the latter of which had their con-
vent-^, colleges, religious orders, and all that springs from the
Catholic fiith. In thi- state of po|nilar feeling that pnivailed
these cstahli^hments became obnoxious, and the revolutionary
party cjdled first for the expulsion of the Jesuits : this ths
Catholic cantons refused. Rallied, but not defeated, their
antagonists had recourse to arms ; a body of troops, called
the Free Corps, raised in the Protestant cantons, attacked
Lucerne, in March, ]^ir>, but were signally defeated by the
hanly des(;endants (u the first lil)erators of Switzerland, now
combating not merely for civil, but for religious liberty.

After the defeat of the Free (Jori)s, the canton of Pxrno
intervened, and by a treaty agreed to indemnify Lucerne,
bu" at the noxt scKsion of the federal diet this was ordered to

LV.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 459

be pair], not from the treasury of Berne, but from that of the
general guvernment, Tliis, and the approval of the pillage
of the convents in Argau, showed the Catholic cantons that
they could expect nothing from their enemies but open force
or fraud. They now formed a league for mutual defence, called
the Sonderbund, but the council of state dissolved the league,
and continued the mockery of fair dealing by a promise of pro-
tection to the cantons composing it. Even this promise, futile
as it was, displeased the radicals, and a revolution in Geneva
took place. In November the diet passed resolutions against
the Sonderbund or league. Hostilities were now renewed.

In November, 1847, Fribourg was taken by the federal
troops, and a new government forced on the canton, and the
people disarmed. The tyrants now marched on Lucerne, after
expelling all the religious from Fribourg. Two engagements
took place, in which Sonderbund gained a slight advantage,
and occupied Tecino. On the 23d the invading army reached
the bridge of Gislikon, the key of Lucerne, and in attempting
to carry it were twice repulsed : but General Gureer and the
division of Zurich at last carried it. The neighbouring heights
still held out, but as the invaders had 60,000 men, and the
Lucernese 15,000, the latter, after a series of sanguinary con-
flicts, were at last driven from Roth, Dieriken, and Honau.
Lucerne now sought to make terms : these were refused, and
on the 25th it surrendered, and a new government was forced
upon it by the Protestant cantons. Schweitz capitulated the
same day, and the rest soon followed, and the rights of the
cantons were sacrificed to the will of the majority. The diet
now ruled supreme ; all the religious houses were suppressed,
and, to the disgrace of Switzerland and England who abetted
the centralists, even the monks of St, Bernard were driven
from their Alpine convent.

The excitement in Germany and Italy still continued.
Two objects seemed to be universally desired, liberal govern-
ments, and a national union, so that Germany and Italy should
each be consolidated into a single government, under a single
head. This was to be effected in Germany by the restoration
of the German Empire ; in Italy, by the union of the several
states on a similar plan. During the ensuing years both these
ends were pursued, though in ditlerent ways. A German
parliament, to restore the empire, and break down the
barriers between the states, was soon granted. The lib-
eral constitutions were obtained by a series of revolutions
more or less bloody. In February, 1847, the Prussian

4G0 OKNKRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

monarch granted a constitution : in October troiibles arose in
Tuscany and Lucca; J^ardinia protested against Austrian
inlcrt'crcnce, and Bavaria demanded freedom of the press,
whilst almost at the sjime time refomi dinners wore held in
France, to complete the unnnished work of 1830. Louis
Philippe resorted to stringent measures to cheek this spirit,
and hetbrc any rupture took pl.ace, the Sicilians opened the
chapter of revolutions by an insurrection at Palermo, in Jan-
uary, 1848, during which a battle took place and the city
was bombarded by the Nrajxilitan troops. Concessions were
prolTered but rejected, and though a constitution was issued,
pcAce was not restored. Messina then revolted ; The
island soon afterwards declared itself independent, and a few
months after the Sicilians elected as their king the Duke of
Genoa. Na[iles itself revolted in May, and was reduced only
after a most sanguinary conflict with the Lazzaroni, in which
nearly two thousand were killed. The revolted cities in Sicily
were bombarded, and with Syracuse and Catania were all at
last reduced by the Neajiolitans.

The outbreak in Sicily hastened the crisis in France. A
banquet, appointed for the 22d of February, was prohibited
by the government. On that day mobs paraded the streets,
constantly collisions took pluce, and much blood was shod.

Barricades were now thrown up, and the third legion of
the National Guards, and even one legiment of the line, joined
the insurgents. Louis Philippe trembled for his throne;
he endeavoured to form a j)opular n)inistry, and by a concilia-
tory proclamation avert the catastrophe, but all failed. On
th^' 21th he left the city, having abdicated in favom- of his
grandson, the Count of I'aris, and made his escape with the
queen to England. The claims of the young Count were how-
ever rejecteil, and a republic proclaimed. Thus in a fey;
hours, and alfno><t without a struggle, fell a monarch, who was
deemed the ablest of his time, one who had for nearly twenty
years guided the most turbulent people in Europe.

G<*neral risings now took [)lace throughout Gennany. The
Kingi'f I'russia left IJ, rlin, and restored calm only by a pro-
clamation advocating German union, liberal measures, and a
freedom of speech and of the press. Ilolstein, a German
duehy belonging to Denmark, next rose and annexed itself
to the great German nation, and being sustained by Prussia,
involved that cfunitry in a war with Denmark. In the smaller
German states the peofde demandetl concessions, which were
In moi'.t ca.sc3 granted, while in others the ruling prince abdi

LV.j GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 415 1

cated. Among those who about this time retired was Louis,
King of Bavaria, who deserves more than a passing notice.
His early career had b^sen distinguished by the economical
spirit which directed his policy. A patron of religion and art,
he devoted his surplus revenues to these objects, and Bavaria
owes to him her celebrated University of Munich, founded to
enable a Catholic to acquire science without prejudice to faith,
and to be grounded in his faith without detriment to learning.
By his encouragement arose the Dusseldorf school of paint-
ing, which has dune so much for Christian art. Besides these,
he erected' several magnificent edifices as receptacles for col-
lections of painting, and the Walhalia, a kind of national
pantheon. These had won him the esteem and love of his
people, but forsaking the paths of morality, he became ob-
noxious, and in those times of trouble was forced to abdicate.

Meanwhile the great German parliament was assembling
to restore the Empire. It met on the 18th of May, and a
straggle at once arose between the Austrian and Prussian
party, both of which aspired to the imperial title; the former
resting on her ancient rights, the latter relying on the support
of the popular party. After a long contest the Parliament
on the 29th of June elected as Lord-Lieutenant, or provisional
paramount head of the Empire, the Archduke John of Austria,
by a vote of 176 to 85, and the German Empire was thus
nominally restored.

While the House of Austria M'as thus aspiring to the Ger-
man Empire, its own possessions were in great disorder.
Lombnrdy and Venice rose, and, expelling the Austrians,
proclaimed independence. Austria called for a constitution,
while the Sclaves in Bohemia, in Croatia and the other Hun-
garian states, demanded civil rights.

The Emperor Ferdinand made concessions in Lombardy,
which were announced in I\Lareh but on the ISth Milan re-
volted, and the Austiians fell back to Mantua, while Charles
Albert, the ambitious King of Sardinia, who aspired to the
Kingdom of all Italy, entered the city as the ally of the
Lombards. The retreating Austrians were pursued and de-
feated ; all Lombardy, with Venice, Trieste, and Tyrol, was
now in open revolt. Parma joined them, Modcna revolted,
and even the States of the Church joined the Italian paily.
Pope Gregory XVI., respected for his firmness, had steadily
adhered to former ideas, and repressed all insurrectionary
movements during hia reign, and was consequently impopular
with the revolutionists. On his death, on the 1st June, 1846

41*

4fi2 GENERAL HISTORY OF EIROPK. [ciIAP.

much anxiety was felt, and a general revolution was feared,
but hy the lOth of the same month t^e Cardinals had elected
a successor, in the person of Cardinal Mastai Feretti, whc
flssunied the title of I'ius the Ninth. Unlike his predecessor,
the new pontiff favoured the progressive party and the cause
of Italian nationality. On the IGtli of July he proclaimed a
general amnesty for all political ollcnces, and in spite of the
opposition of his Cardinals began a system of political reforms.
A popular government was formed, in which more was volun-
tarily conceded by the Pope, than the Germans afterwards
wr\uig from their reluctant princes. His popularity now
knew no bounds, and his name was pronounced with honour,
even in the I'niled States, where the papal power is by no
means |io])ular. Wluii the Lombards rose, all his sympathies
were with the Italians, and before Charles Albert set out to
join the insurgents, I^ius sent him a sword with this inscrip-
tion, "To the mngnanimous King Charles Albert, the sword
which shall make Italy free," and ordered a Roman army of
observation to the frontier. All Italy, except Naples, was
thus really united against Austria, but that power now
prepared to subdue the revolt. Saidinia had declared war,
and the King had advanced to Pavia and taken Lodi. In
April, however. Marshal IJadetsky ami his Austrians still
holding Mantua, Verona and Peschiera, b»"gan a series of
manoeuvres between Painia and Placenza, but the Sardinians
advanced on Verona, invested Peschiera, and forcing the
Au>trian line in three places, advanced to \'alKggio and
crossiid the Adijje. Peschiera even was attacked. Meanwhile
Kadetsky. having elVected a junction with another army luider
General Nugent, entered Verona, and on the )l4\h of May
attacked \'iceiiza. IJepulsed here, tht-y engaged the Italians
at Goito, but were driven back to Mantua after a three days'
hard light. Peschiera now surren(l(at<l, antl the Lombards,
saiigtiine of success, annexed their country to the Kingtlom of
Sardinia.

Here, however, their sucress ends. I'adetsky invested
Viecnza on the 10th of .lune, and afler a bombardment of
eighteen hours General Durando capitulated. Padua soon
after surniudered to the Austrians, who next attacked Rivoli,
but were at fnst checke<l, and Charles Albtrt transfeired his
headcjuaiters to Marmerola. Hetween the 22d and iiTth. a
series of engagements took f)lacc at Hivoli, Volta and other
points, by which the Il.'dians were driven from all the country
be'.wcen the Adige and Mincio Mantua was now relieved,

LV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 463

Peschiera retaken, Milan capitulated, and the Italians were
soon in full retreat into Piedmont, leaving the Austrians com-
plete masters of Lonibardy, Thus ended the campaign of
1848, in which the Austrians lost 2,700, and the Sardinians
about 4,000 men, the remainder of the Italian army being
almost entirely prostrated by disease.

The Sclaves in Bohemia were reduced, but as the Magyar
Hungarians refused all concession, the Croats joined the Aus-
trians; the Magyars revolted and killed Lamberg, the Im-
perial Commissioner, at Pest. On this and other demonstrations
of hostility, the Emperor dissolved the Hungarian diet, pro-
claimed martial law, and appointed the Croat Jellachich to the
supreme government. The diet refused to submit, created a
defence committee and appointed Louis Kossuth President.

The revolutionary party at Vienna showed great dissatis-
faction with the Emperor's conduct in regard to Hungary,
and when troops were ordered to join the imperial army, the
National Guard prevented their departure, and the troops,
after two attempts to proceed, fraternized with the National
Guard and returned to the city. Vienna was now in open
revolt ; a part of the National Guard which still declared for
the Emperor was posted in St. Stephen's Cathedral, but this
was soon taken ; the War Office was next carried, and Count
Latour, the Minister of War, murdered, stripped and gib
betted. The Arsenal was next besieged ; it held out, though
the fortress surrendered. The diet now assembled, and elect-
ing a committee of safety, sent in a series of proposals to the
Emperor, requiring an amnesty for themselves, a change of
ministry, a revocation of his proclamation against Hungary,
and the removal of Jellachich from the supreme government.
This he declined to grant, and as a change of ministry alone
would not quiet disorders, he left Vienna.

A part of the Austrian army, amt)unting to 20,000 men,
lay without the walls, but the commander, Count Auesperg,
stood neutral. Meanwhile, Jellachich refused to obey the
Hungarian diet, who now consideiing his presence as a Croat
invasion of Hungary, sent the Hungarian army under the
Austrian General Moge to expel him. The first engagement
between them took place at Pakozd, on the 29th of Septem-
ber, 1848, and led to an armistice of three days. During the
armistice, Jellachich, finding his force too inconsiderable, be
gan a retreat to the Austrian frontier through Paab, leaving
behind a corps of his army under General Roth, which was
surrounded and forced to sm-render to the Hungarian Perczel.

414 GENKRAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHAP.

Jellaohich s(»on reaohe<l, and crossing tliL' TTungarian front-
ier, took post beyond the I^ajtha ; the Hungarians halted at
thr tVontitT and hi'sitatod as to invading foreign territory;
thcv tit last, however, crossed, and advanced so ncjir \ ienna
that thc'ir videttes were seen from the city. Both armies now
lay for some time in face of each other without coming to an
engagement or acting on the city. At last the Iliniuarians,
who had fallen back, were roused by the eloquence of Kossuth,
and crossing the Lajtha, once more came up to the Croat
arniy at Schwechat, but were repulsed on the 30th of October.
\\ hile these two armies were marching and countermarching
and Auesperg stood neutral, the Emperor gave the command
of his tbrces to Prince Wiiidischgratz, and declaring Vienna
in revolt left that (ieneral to reduce it. The city was soon
surrounded by the imperial armies, and as all hope of Hun-
garian aid had vanished the diet sought to make terms;
nothing, however, was concluded. Windischgral/ occupied
the island of Lobau, summoned the city and bigan the attnck.
The town-council now resolved to surrender, but as Win-
dischixratz entered, he was attacked by a part of the insur-
gents under General Bcm, and a series of bloody fights ensued,
but the city was at hvst reduced on the 2d of November,
Several military executions now took place, and peace was
restored, but Ferdinand, weary of the long struggle, carried
out a long projected design and resigned the thionc to his
nephew, the Archiluke Francis Joseph. Pursuing the plans
of his predecessor, he continued the Hungarian war with
vigour. Both parties now made active preparations forafuial
struggle. In L)eci-mber, the Austrians, under tSimonich, at-
tacked and dctVated the Hungarians at Nadas, and soon aller
at ,M<K>r and Hodrics, 'Jhe insurgents now retired on Kaab,
and this ihey proclaimed was to be the giave of Hungarian
freeilom. This p<ist was, hosvever, a))andoned, and the new
commander, l)enil)inski, after a three days' fight at Ka[)olna,
was again obliged to fill back. The Hungarian forces, in
S'p'.tc of their numbers and bravery, were now driven back,
and not even the signal victory of Naszeg, in April, could
re'j-i'*ve their tottering nalioiuility. This advantage was well
followed up, however; Waiser was taken, the Austrians
checked at Los-;f»nc7,. aid the Hungarians crossing the ( Jran
jigain under (ieneral Damjanies, d'feated the Austrians at
Niigysarlo, and relieved the f irtiess of Komorn on the Danube.
Ofen was ?iixt besieged, and tjiken on the 21st of May. after a
biege of 17 days, in which the Au^slriaii commanler, Hent2i,

LV. ] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 465

was mortally wounded. This was almost the last triumph of
the TTungariaiis, who had now thrown ofT the Austrian yoke
entirely and piocJuimed a republic. The Austrian Ileiss was
defeated and killed at Csorna by General Kmety, but the
Russians were now advancing to the aid of the Austrians, and
the Hungarians after a general battle at Pered again began to
fall back. A series of defeats, not only of the main array,
but also of the divisions under Dembinski and Bern, con
vinced all parties that the struggle was hopeless. Haynau
had now succeeded Windischgratz, and his severity gave the
leaders little hope of personal safety. On the 1 1th of August,
Kossuth accordingly dissolved the provisional government,
and committed all power, civil and military, to General Gorgei.
He then, with several others, fled across the frontier into Tur-
key. Two days after, Gorgei, who had for some time been
treating with the Russians for a surrender, capitulated at Vil-
lages, and the w-ar was thus brought to a close.

The renewal of the Lombard war, was one reason why the
Austrians were so long in reducing Hungary, and eventually
succeeded only by the aid of Russia. An arniistice had been
Concluded under the Emperor Ferdinand with Charles Albert.
A rupture occurred soon after the accession of Francis, and
the Sardinian again took the field in March, 1849, no longer
buoyed up by ambitious hopes, but driven by public opinion
to what he now saw a desperate game. Radetsky soon
crossed the Tecino, with a victorious army of 40,000 men,
and after a slight resistance advanced to Mortara. Turning
thence with his main body to Vercelli, he separated the two
divisions of the Sardinian army and attacked that commanded
by the King. The Sardinians, though almost destitute of
artillery, fought bravely, but were defeated with great loss,
and Charles Albert retired almost in flight on Turin. On the
following day, March 2od, the Austrians attacked them again
at Novara. Charles Albert, now driven to despair, fought
with the most determined courage, but after losing neaily
15,000 men, beheld his army routed in every direction. His
kingdom lay at the feet of the Austrians, and he who but
a abort time before had been hailed King of Italy, abdicated
the throne of Sardinia in favour of his son, Victor Emanuel,
and fled to Switzerland, to die so^n after unnoticed at Lisbor

W^e must now resume the affairs of Fiance, which we lei^
under the provisional government formed after the flight of
Louis Philippe. While the new government was attempting
to organize public affairs in the inteiior, the Socialists, fearing

160 GENERAL IlISTOKV OF EUROPE. [cilAP

rest iiflor all the new government might not be sufficiently ultra,
and as unfavourable as the last to their ideas, resolvt-d on a
urw revoiutitiii and a reign ol" terror. The first manifestation
in April, 1848, was easily suppressed, but ii. the course of
May, processions of workmen moved through the streets and
at la-<t entered the Chamber of Deputies. Here a scene of
confusion ensued: Louis Blanc, and otlier deputies of the ultra
or Red liepuhlican party, sided with the mob, and a new pro-
visional government was jyroclaimed; but as the mob retired
in triumph, they were surroundt-d by troops, their leaders
arrested, and order restored. General Cavaignac was now
uj)[)ointed Minister of War.

The time for the elections having arrived, they took place
in great trancjuillity. Louis Napoleon was elected a member ;
but a still more striking feature was the election of several
members of the clergy. From the outset they had as a body
sided with the new government, and as citizens taken their
part in puldic atliiirs. Many now presented themselves as
camlidates, and several bishops and priests — among others,
the Dominican Lacordaire, in the habit of his order — took their
seats in the House with their fellow deputies. This frank and
manly course did more than <iny previous step to ili>pel pre«
juilicc — religion and its ministers, already respected, now
gained a new title to public esteem.

The Assembly, once in operation, began to draw off the
workmen in the national shops, in order to diminish the dan-
ger. Three thousand were detailed to the provinces; but they
immediately returned to Paris and the revolt began.

IJairicades were thrown up on the 22d of June, and a new
civil war began. The lirst blood was shed at the Porte St.
Denis, where the National Guard was twice repulsed. By
the '24lh one half of Paris was fortitlid In' the insurirents,

1 7

and the Assembly, iiive^ling Cavaignac with dictatorial powers,
declared itself in permanent session. The battle now ct>m-
mcnccd ; the troops, aldy commanded, gained ground, though
but slowly. A bloody tight to<ik place at the l'aiUh(M>n and
Clos St. j.,azare, and the left bank of the Seine was at last
subdued, but not before Af e, Archbishop of P.iris, who had
gone to the barricades fo urge the |>eople to desist, hafl fillen
a victim to his zeal. The Faubourg St. Antoine still held
out, and was reduced only by shells and red-hot balls, for
Cavaignac, finding it usc-lcss to confine the .attaek to the barri-
aitles, bombanlcd the houses. 'J'he insurrection was thus at
la.st quelled, but only at a frightful loss of life; seven generalt

LV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 4G7

and four members of Assembly were killed, and at least four
thousand men killed or severely wounded.

The vigour displayed by the provisional government in this
crisis raised the confidence of all, and the remainder of the
year passed unmarked by any event of moment. All atten-
tion was meanwhile devoted to the framing of the new consti-
tution, which was adopted in November. By its provisions
the fcxecutive power was vested in a President, to be chosen
every four years, and an election was almost immediately
.leld. I'hree prominent candidates appeared : Louis Napoleon,
.rusting to his family name ; Cavaignac, the deliverer of Paris ;
«nd Ledru Ivollin, the candidate of the Red Republicans. Of
these, the rii'si was elected by a majority of nearly four mil-
iions, and entered at once on the duties of his office.

About this time troubles began in Ronie. Pius IX., once
the idol of the liberal party, had now become an object of
their hate. In vain had he granted a constitutional govern-
ment, investing the people for the first time with a share in
the direction of affairs. In vain he had sympathized with the
Lombards and prevented the Austrians from entering his
territory. There was a fever for republics, and nothing could
save him. Determined to leave him merely nominal power,
his enemies began by assassinating his prime minister, Rossi.
The mob then entered the palace and stabbed Caidinal Palma
in the presence of the Pope, and demanded a war of inde-
pendence against Austria and a constituent assembly. He
gianted a new ministry, but was now a prisoner in his palace,
closely guarded l)y the insurgents. This state of affairs con
tinned till the 24th of November, when after a week's con-
finement, Pius IX., by the aid of the Bavarian envoy and his ,
wife, assisted by the French ambassador, escaped in disguise
from the palace and Rome to Gaeta, in the Kingdom of
Naples.

The revolutionary party now ruled at Rome, and a scene
of pillage and assassination followed. Disregarding the com-
mission left by the fugitive Pontiff, they dissolved the Roman
Chamber and convened a constituent assembly. The scum
of Italy now gathered in at Rome, and these men, who sought
only blood and rapine, sullied the name of Republic by giving
it to their government. The name need not deceive us;
there is nothing in common between these would-be founders
of republics and the calm and dignified flithers of our own
commonwealths.

The French public had maintained public trant^uillity by ita

4G8 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cHlP.

firmness and energy. After subduing the Socialists of Paris,
it K)ul<cd witli no kindly eyes on Mazzini and the StK'ialists of
Ilaly. Early in IJSJO the French Kepublic resolved tu restore
I'ius IX. to Ivoine ; by the middle of April a French force
landed at Civita Vecchia and advanced on Home. The revo-
lutionists, con)manded by Garibaldi, resolved to defend the
city to the lust. ISo vigurously did they c^irry out their
res.olve, that the French, in the first altick on the 29th of
April, were repulsed with the loss of ()00 men. The city was
now rcguhirly besieged, and the revolutionists, when Hulogna
was taken by the Austrians, al^J another foreign army was thus
within the territory, saw the hopelessness of a cause which had
never received the general suj){iort of the lloman people. The
city accordingly surrendered to General Oudinot on the 2d of
July, and Gaiibaldi escaped with some three or four thousand
men. In August the French resigned the direction of affairs
ti> commissioners deputed by the l^ope, and Pius IX. soon
after issued a manifoto, promising reform, and when peace
was finally restored, returned to Ivoine, in April, 1851.

Every state on the Continent, from the Pyrenees to Russia,
had been racked by civil dissensions, except Belgium and
Holland, where the sovereigns, by the readiness which they
evinced to meet the wishes of loyal citizens for refonr), dis-
armed all oppo.sitiuu.

Spain was n(jt disturbed within, but attempts were made in
the summers of \ii'>0 and 1851 to excite a revolution in
Cuba, the ri«hest of her colonies. The parlies in these at^
tempts were Spanish refugees and .sympathizers in the I'nited
Sta<e'<, luaded by Xaniso Lopez, formerly a (general in the
SpaMi>h scivire. The I nited Stales had just concluded a suc-
cessfid war with Me.xico, and from her disbanded armies
many were easily drawn into schemes of revolution. In the
second attempt, Lopez and his parly, after repulsing one
Spanish detachment, were finally dispersed, and most of the
leaders taken and executed at Havana.

During all these troubles the British Isles enjoyed a com-
parative calm. Famine and disease desolated Ireland and
drove many into voluntary e.xile, while a spirit of disatfection,
fomented by a few, at last «-ndc(l in an attempted rebellion, in
1n4w, in e4>nsequence of which William Smith O'Brien, M. P.,
and some others, were arrested, tried, convicted, and sentenced
U) death, l)Ut traiisportetl for life. The only other topic of
public interest was the establi'-hniciit of a regular hierarchy in
liu: C-utholic (.'hureh iu England, instead of the provisional one

LV.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 4C9

which had been continued since the period of the Reform*
tion. This step on the part of Pope Pius was merely a change
of names, as far as the people at large were concerned, while
it secured the English Catholics a regular, instead of a provi'
sional, hierarchy. Dr. Wiseman, long known for his scientific
works, republished for the use of Protestant seminaries in
this country, was honoured with the rank of Cardinal. On this,
an excitement ensued, which, to sensible men at a distance,
seemed perfectly at variance with the good sense of an intel-
ligent people. Yielding to the public clamours, new penal
laws were passed : the Catholic bishops were made liable to
fine and imprisonment, convents to searches at any hour of the
day or night, at the mere whim of a magistrate, and all pub-
lic demonstration of the Catholic faith forbidden under severe
penalties. Thus England, while aiding all the revolutionary
parties on the Continent as the guardian of civil liberty,
showed her love of it by depriving her own subjects of reli-
gious freedom.

In the English colonies affairs were by no means tranquil.
At the Cape of Good Hope a desolating w^ar was carried on
by the Hottentots, Boers, and Caffres, which has continued to
the presient, and been attended w'it*h great loss of life and pro-
perty, and proved a great detriment to the colony. In India,
the war against the Sikhs was still carried on. They were
defeated by Lord Gough at Ramnuggur, in November, 1848,
and after an indecisive battle at Chillianwallah in January, again
defeated at Goojerat, in February. In this battle, which lasted
from seven in the morning till four in the afternoon, the
English lost a thousand men, but Sherefingh was so broken
in his resources, that the residue of his army surrendered.

The German troubles, which continued latest, were those
in Holstein. Denmark had manfully resisted the combined
German armies, and after a number of severe battles at
Dappeln, Eckenforde, Frederica, Rastadt, Idstedt, the war
was at last closed by the treaty of Olmutz, in December,
1850, by which Denmark retained her provinces.

Prussia had, as we have seen, aspired to the imperial dig-
nity. After the resignation of the Archduke John, as para-
mount head of the Empire, and the virtual dissolution of the
parliament, a league was formed at Erfurt in which Prussia
had the controlling influence. At this, Austria took umbrage,
and a war nearly ensued. The opposite armies were actually
in sight of each other in November, 1850, and the Prussian
monarch called out the whole disposable force of his king-

470 GENERAL niSTORT OP EUROrE. [CH.

dom ; hut lie at last complied with the demands of
Austria, the league was dissolved, and peace restored.

All rcniaincMl quiet in France till December, 1851,
when Napoleon dissolved the National Assembly and
Council of State, and, restoring universal suffrage, called
for the voice of the peo])le on his project for a new
government, the chief features of which were an execu-
tive for ten years, with power to choose his ministers, a
council of state, legislative corps, and second assembly.
The voice of the peoj)le a])proved his step, and delegated
to him the powers necessary to frame a constitution.
Re-elected President, Napoleon spent the ensuing year
in visiting the various departments, to ])rcpare for his
next stej), the restoration of the empire, which he ellected
in December, 1852, and assumed the title of Napoleon
III.

Most of the German states had already annulled the
constitutions of 1848, and thus all Eurojte had fallen back
into nearly the same position as before the great politi-
cal tornado.

CHAPTER LVI.

FROM THE RESTORATIOX OF THE EMPIRE IK FRANCE, 1852,
TO THE Ol'ENlNG OF THE COUNCIL OF THE VATICAN,
DECEMnER, 18G9.

Napoleon at once proceeded to consolidate the new
cmj)ire : in deiault of direct heirs, his uncle Jerome Avith
his descendants by liis second wife were to succeed,
ignoring his ohihlren by his real wife, Miss Patterson
of ]Jaltimore. JJiit on the 29th of January, iH^n, the
Emperor married Eugenia de Montijo, Countess of Teba,
a Spanish lady, who soon won the hearts of the best

IKjrtion of the French ])eople. The birth of a Prince
nvj)erial gave hopes of the continuance of the dynasty.
In the government of the empire Napoleon sought to
make France the arbiter of Europe. Among his objcets
were the expulsion of Austria from Italy ; the union of
the various Italian powers into a confederacy; a check
to the influence of Pussia, and the extension of the
French frontier to the Rhine. In internal affairs he de-

LVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 471

voted himself wisely to develop the industrial forces,
commerce, and material wealth of his people ; but the
intense republicans of France did not forgive his assump-
tion of royalty, and those of Italy, never grateful for
what he did, hated him with an intensity of hate for hia
constant protection of the Pope. This led in 1858 to an
attempt made on his life by Orsini and other Italian
refugees at Paris.

Napoleon from the outset cultivated harmonious rela-
tions with England, and was ably supported in this wise
policy by Lord Palmerston. In most of the great move-
ments of this period England and France fought side by
side, a spectacle seldom witnessed except in the days of
the Crusades. Meanwhile Russia, claiming a protectorate
over the Greek Church throughout the East, began a
series of demands upon the Turkish government of a
most imperious character. The Sultan, having in May,
1853, declined to yield, the Russian Emperor announced
in June his intention of invading the principalities of
Moldavia and Wallachia. France and England had not
however been indiiferent spectators of this project of
Russian aggrandizement. Representatives from those
two countries, as well as of Austria and Prussia, meet-
ing in conference, agreed upon propositions, which were
submitted to the Czar, and accepted by him. The Porte,
however, declined to accept the A^ienna note without
certain modifications, to which the Czar declined to ac-
cede, and on the 1st of November he formally declared
war against TurkeJ^

The first engagement took place at Oltenitza, on the
4th of November, and gave the Turks fresh courage,
though they subsequently fell back across the Danube,
holding the Russians in check. The Russians then
besieged Silistria; but after a siege of 39 days, in which
they lost 12,000 men, retreated across the Danube, pur-
sued by the Turks, who lost their commander, Moussa
Pacha, in the moment of victory. The barbarous destruc-
tion of the Turkish fleet at Sinope, and of the town itself
by the Russians, on the SOth, led to a remonstrance from
France and England, who insisted that their combined
fleet should have the command of the Black Sea. On
this the Russian fleet retired within the defences of Sebas-
topol, a strongly fortified port in the Crimea. An in-
eflectual af tempt to avert a general war failed, and all

472 GKXKBAL HISTORY OF KTJnorH. [cH.

proparcrl to act with vicror. An Entjlisli floot under Sir
Cliarlos Napier proccerled to the Haltic in IMareh, bom-
hardc'tl SwfahorLT, and eapluved Homarsiind, but obtained
no deeinive advanta^re. Tlie real operations were con-
ducted on the ]ilack Sea. A French army under Mar-
plial St. Avnand, and an Entrlisli army umh-r Lord
liacchin, proceeded to tliat quarter. After bombarding
Odessa, tlie two armies, losing severely by cholera at
Sarna, were joined by the Turkish army, and landed on
the 14th of Se])tember, 1854, in the Crimea, a few miles
north of Sebastopol, the real object of the war, and the
key to Russian power on the Black Sea. In the bloody
battle of the Alma, on the 20th, the Russians, forced from
a strong ]»osition by the English, lied, leaving 4,000
killed and TOO wounded on the field, and 700 prisoners.
At this unexpected reverse they sunk their fleet at tho
entrance of the harl)or of Sebastopol, ensuring it from
ea))ture, and preventing the entrance of the allied fleet.
Sebastopol was, liowever, comi)letely invested.

On the 25th of October the Russians made an effort
to raise the siege. They moved out in force to attack
the allies at Balaclava, but though they renewed the
attem)»t on tlie following day, were defeated on both
occasions, and comj)elled to retire with severe loss. This
battle is famous in English poetry and history for the
famous charge of the Light lirigade, undi-r Lord Cardi-
gan, who in obedience to a mistaken order, charged the
liussian batteries under the cross-fire of the enemy, and
captured the guns, losing, however, 409 out of 607 men.

Not disheartene<l by their failures, the Russians, on the
5th of November, moved out in full force to the niimber
of 50,000, covered by their guns, and attacked the allies
at Likerman, but after a terrible struggle, in which the
allies lost over 4,000 men, and the llussians nearly three
times as many, the Russians sullenly retreated across
the bridge of Inkorman.

Nor were the Russians more fortunate in their attack
on Eupaloria (February 17th, 1855). After a combat of
four hours they withdrew, the Turkish general, Omar
Pasha, gaining a decidc<l victory.

L'mlcr this k»ad of disasters the Czar Nicholas sank,
dying on the 2d of March, of pulmonary apoplexy. His
reign had been signalized by his fanatical sjiirit, evinced
in liis j)ersecuti(;n of his Catholic subjects of the Latiu

LVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 473

and United Greek Chnrchea, and in his pretensions to
direct all the Oriental Christians. He was succeeded by
Alexander II.

The change of sovereign made no alteration in tlie
war. The allies, joined now by Sardinia, continued the
siege of Sebastopol, the French being commanded by Gen-
eral Canrobert, after the death of Marshal St. Arnaud by
cholera. On the Yth of June, General Pelissier, who
succeeded Canrobert, attacked and carried the Maraelon,
capturing all the Russian guns and many prisoners ; but
a combined French and English attack on the Malakoff,
on the 18th, was repulsed by the Russians with severe
losses on both sides. This Avas followed by the death of
Lord Raglan, who was succeeded in command by General
Simpson, Sir George Brown as a Catholic being unable
by law to assume command of an army.

On the 5th of September the French attacked and
carried the Malakoff, at a loss of 7,500 men in killed,
wounded, and missing, on which the English attacked
but failed to carry the Redan, losing about 2,500 men.
During the night, however, the Russians gave up the
contest, and blowing up their arsenals, with Fort Alex-
ander, and the Grand Magazine, retreated. The siege
had lasted 349 days.

Soon after the Russians suffered a severe repulse be-
fore Kars in Asia Minor, Colonel Williams, commanding
the Turks, defeating General Mouravieff with the loss
of 5,000 men ; but Mouravieff continued the siege, and
though Omar Pasha, marching to the relief of Kars, de-
feated the Russians at the passage of the Ingour, he
could not save the place, which surrendered on the 28th
of November.

This was the last active operation, and peace was
concluded at Paris, March 30th, 1856. By its provisions
Turkey was to be admitted to participate in the public
law and system of Europe ; the Black Sea to be thrown
open to commerce, and no war flag permitted on it. All
the boundaries were to be restored as before the war.

England has seldom been at peace abroad. The
Caffres attacked the colony at the Cape of Good Hope,
and were not reduced till 1853. In the same year the
outrages of the govej-nor of Rangoon on British subjects
led to a war with Burmah, in which England wrested
Pegu from that kingdom. In India the extensive king-

43*

4*74 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cU.

(loin of Oncle Avas aiiiioxtMl in lsr)G, and llie next year
war was made on Persia, for allcired infractions of a
trf'atv. An Kntilisli army under Oiitrani d'-ft'ated the
Shall at liarazjoon, and compelled him to submit to Eng-
lish dictation.

]>ut while thus extending her power on all sides in
India, its veiy existence was impcMiUrd by a terribly un-
expected l)lo\v. A large jiart ol'the army in India con-
Bisted of natives, Hindoos, and Mahomedans, wlio were
styled Se))oys. v\niong these suddridy great discontent
])revailed, chiefly in regard to thcEniield cartridges which
were greased with the fat of liogs and cows, and being
thus according to their religion unclean eoidd not be
handled or bit off. As the English authorities instead
of atteinjiting to satisfy tlieir prejiulice, resorted to liarsh-
ness, a widespread revolt was ])lanned. On the 10th
of ^lav, 1857, the Se))oys at ]\Teeiiit mutinied and butch-
ered all the English they could lind, men, women, and
children. Having been driven out by the carabineers
they fled to Delhi, where others joined them, and similar
massa(!res ensued. I>y the end of June the Sepoys
had revolted at twenty-two stations in the laengal jjresi-
dency.

The Ent^lish commander-in-chief. General Anson, at
once marched on Delhi, but dying on the way, his suc-
cessor. Sir II. ]?arnard, laid siege to the ])lace. The
commander at Cawnpore, Sir Hugh Wheeler, seeing a
mutiny imminent foimed an intrenched camp, into which
he retired with all the Englisli residents. When tlie
Sepoys niutinicfl they jiroceeded to the camp of Nana
Saliib, Chief of JJithoor, tlie head of tlie insurgents.
Tlial able but cruel prince at once invested (ieneral
Wheeler, and failing to reduce him by force, on the 24th
of .lune olfered to allow him to witlxlraw to Allahabad,
The troops lured out by this device were massacred while
embarking, and some days after the women and chihiren
were butcliere(l with the utmost cruelty. In Lucknow,
Sir Henry Lawrence*', and on his fall Colonel Inglis, held
out bravely against terrible odds; (general Havelock,
who marched to his relief with 1,100 men, and eight
guns, defeated the rebels at I'nao, on the "JOlh of .July,
but was ■nable to reach Lucknow, his force having,
in nine engagements with the overwhelming mimbera
of the enemy, been reduoid to 700 men. Having been

LYI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 475

re-eiiforccd by General Outram he again advanced, de-
feating the enemy at Mungulwar and Alumbagh, and
on the 25th of September relieved Lucknow, which had
been besieged for eighty-seven days. In the final attack
on tlie enemy, General Neill, an able officer, was killed.

Just previous to this General Wilson laid siege to
Delhi, and after a severe fight took it, capturing the
king, who fled with the rebels after the action. On the
17th of November, Sir Colin Campbell, after a series of
severe engagements, relieved Havelock, who had been
shut up at Lucknow, and who, joining his forces with
Sir Colin's, completely defeated the enemy. This enabled
them to carry out safely the numerous non-combatants,
ladies, families, civilians, etc., in the place, but Have-
lock died of dysentery the day before Sir Colin quitted
Lucknow.

A number of minor engagements followed in which
the Sepoys were steadily defeated, and many chiefs in
the massacres punished, some being blown from the
mouth of cannons. Sir II. Rose, on the 1st of April,

1858, while besieging Jhansi, was attacked by Tantia
Topee, but without abandoning the investment he de-
feated the relieving array, capturing all the elephants,
artillery, and camp-equipage, and closed his brilliant
victory by taking the town. His capture of Gwalior
in June was attended by nearly similar circumstances.

The mutiny was announced as finally suppressed iu
December, the insurgents having been hopelessly driven
beyond tlie mountains into Nepaul.

Terrible as the Sepoy outbreak was, it strengthened
English power, and convinced the native chiefs of the
hopelessness of resistance. The English government
now, however, put an end to the sovereign authority of
the East India Company, and the anomalous rule it had
exercised for so many years.

Sardinia had long been ambitious of controlling Italy,
and again panted to begin the struggle by endeavoring
to drive out Austria from Lombardy and Venice. Victor
Emmanuel, who could now rely on French aid, collected
so large an army on the Lombard frontier, in April,

1859, that Austria demanded a disarmament, and on
the refusal of Sardinia pushed her army across the Ticino
into Piedmont, on the 2Vth April. Almost at the same'
moment a revolution broke out iu Tuscany, the Grand

470 GENERAL UISTOKY OF EUROPE. [CH.

Duke fled, and a provisional ijovomment was formed
wliicli 80t)n gave place to Sardiiiinn officers.

On his side, the Kin])eror Napoleon sent forward an
army to Genoa, and joined it in person on the 13th of
Ma}'. A short but decisive campaiiin followed. On tho
20th of May, the Austriaiis, 15,000 strouor, attacked
tho French van under ^Marshal Barat^uay d'llilliers
at Montebello, but were repulsed after an obstinate
fight of four hours. Another Austrian attack at I'ales-
tro, on the 31st, failed, and the French and Sardini-
ans crossed the Ticino at Turbigo in spite of the resist-
ance of the enemy, and the French under McMahon
occupied Magenta, repulsing the Austrians at all jioints.
The loss of tlie allies was 2,000, as they reported, that of
the Austrians much greater.

The French Emperor and the King of Sardinia pushed
on to Milan, and entered the cajjital of Lombardy on
the 8th of June. The Austrian army was again defeated
on the 11th, and retired within the Quadrilateral, a
strong strategic position. On the 25th of June they,
however, crossed the Mincio, and again gave the allies
battle at Solferino. This was » most important action,
the allies having 145,000, the Austrians 170,000, in the
field. The former lost 16,800 in killed and wounded,
the Austrians 21,000. Here too the latter were again de-
feated, although they rejiulsed the Piedmontese."

Finding it useless to jnolong a struggle against Buch
odds, the Austrian emperor, by the treaty of Villafranca,
on the nth of July ceded Lombardy, excej)t Mantua
and Feschiera, to France, who at once conveyed it to
Sardinia. Venice was to remain subject to Austria as
)art of the proposed Italian Confederation, the (irand
)uke of Tuscany and the Duke of Modena were to
return to their states. A treaty at Zurich, in November,
formally embodied these conditions.

The peace was, howev,'r, a hollow one, and Sardinia
at once commenced her intrigues to annex the duchies
and the Papal States. Sardinian rule was virtually
maintained over the <luchies, and the Legations weie in-
duced to revolt from tl»e J\»pe ; on which Napoleon IIL
wrote, urging the Pope to renounce them, so as to obtain
a guaranty i'or the peaceful possession of the rest of liis
Plates. Tlie motive was soon apparent: a vote taken in
the Duchies and the Legations decided in favor of anne.\a

LVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE, 477

tion to Sardinia, and Victor Emmanuel then ceded to
France the duchy of Savoy, the orio-inal possession of
his fomily, and from which the arms of Sardinia were
derived. The Pope and the Emperor of Austria both
protested, but in vain, a^rainst the apjcression of Sardinia.

But the ambition of Victor Emmanuel was not sated.
On the 5th of May, 1860, Garibaldi, a native of Nice, a
sailor, an adventurer in South America, whose native
"Nice had just become a French province, sailed from
Genoa with 2,000 men to raise a rebellion in Sicily
against Francis II. He landed at Marsala on the 10th,
and at once assumed the title of Dictator of Sicily, in the
name of Victor Emmanuel of Italy. He immediately
attacked Palermo. He was joined by volunteers, and
finally defeating the royal troops at Melazzo, soon re-
duced the various places garrisoned by the royal troops.
On the 19th of August he left the island, and landed at
Spartevento. After defeating the troops of Francis II.
at Reggio and San Giovanni, he entered Naples on the
8th of September, the king having already retired to
Gaeta.

Meanwhile the Pope, menaced in his remaining states,
raised forces to defend them, under the command of
Lamoriciere, a French general of ability, Napoleon
averring his intention of resisting any Sardinian aggres-
sion ; but a Sardinian army under Cialdini suddenly in-
vaded the territory with such overwhelming forces,
that in spite of the most heroic defence, Pesaro, Fano,
Urbino, Perugia, and Spoleto, the last garrisoned in
part by Insh volunteers, were taken by assault. Victor
Emmanuel then put himself at the head of his araiy, and
crossing the frontier into the Abruzzi, eifected a junction,
between Teano and Speranzano, with Garibaldi, who
hailed him as King of Italy.

Except the small district around Rome, and the camp
of Francis II. at Gaeta, all Italy was thus reduced to
the sway of Victor Emmanuel. Austria, Prussia, Rus-
sia, Spain, and even France, censured the action of Vic-
tor Emmanuel ; but unheeding them all, that monarch
entered Naples, and eifected an election, giving him
sovereign power over Naples and Sicily, which, with the
Marches and Unibria, he formally annexed to his domin-
ions, December 26th, 1S60.

Francis II. continued the struggle for a time at Gaeta,

478 GKNERAL IIISTORT OF EUROPE. [ca

a FrcMK'li floot ^ivinijf liini some moral snp])ort, and liis
Gt'iifral T.ovora tk-ii-atini; the Sartliiiians at TaLxHaco/zo ;
but on tlie ]3tli of FcUniary, ISOl, (iacta surroiKlereJ
to Cialdini, wlio in ]\Iarch rt'duccil Messina, and the
last shadow of o]ii)Osition to Victor Enunaniud dis-
apjicared.

Tliis wondcrfnl siiocoss, mainly the fruit of the ])lans
and sfhemc'S of Count Cavour, was but just attained
when that statesman died at Turin, on the Gth of June,
ISOl.

For a time the ailditions thus made to his kin<j;dom
satisfied the ambition of the kin<x, but the turl)ulent still
clamored for Venice and Home, and in 18G1 Garibaldi
bt"_ran o]>erations against the Po|>c, which Victor Kninian-
nel checked at Aspromonte. liut Napoleon could not
be indifferent to the Holy See. Victor P^mmanuel, by
a convention concluded on the 1 5th of Se])t('mber, 1864,
etiixatri'd not to attack the territory of the Holy Father,
and even to ])revent any attack beiiiii; made, as well as
to offer no opposition to the orujanization of a Papal
army of forei<_jn Catholics to maintain order and defend
his state. In view of this the French were to witiidraw
at the end of two years. Florence now became the capi-
tal of the new kintrdoin of Italy.

The affairs of the utiiversal church had eni,'an^ed the
attention of Pope Pius IX. amid all the troubles that
disturbed Italy, and threatened his own security. De-
voted especially to the hotior of the IJlessed Virgin, ho
■wished to si<,'nalize his j)ontilicate by a solemn delinition
of her Immaculate Conception. The doctrine was treated
with the utmost fulness by PassaL,'Iia and other theologi-
ans; the bishops tliiouifhout the world were invited to
transmit the belief that had obtained from time imme-
morial in their dioceses, and with tliis concurrent expres-
sion the Pope, on the nth of December, lsr)4, in the pre-
sence of fifty-four cardinals, and one hundred and ibrty-
eight arc]d)ishoj)S and bishops, by a formal bull declared,
pronounced, and defined, that the doctrine which holds
that the Blessed Nirgin .Mary, at the Hrst instant ol' her
concej)tion, by a singular privilege and grace of Almighty
(iod, r»y virtue of the merits ot.ft-sus Christ the .Saviour
of mankind, was jtreserved immaculate I'rotn all stain of
original sin, has been revealed by (iod, and thereforo
should be firmly and constantly believed by all tli«

LVI.J GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROrE. 4V9

faitliful. This solemn act was received by the whole
church with feelings of joy and devotion.

On the ISth of August, 1855, a concordat was con-
cluded with Austria, by which the Church in that em-
pire was virtually delivered from the enslaving institu-
tions of Joseph II. It restored free communication be-
tween the bishops and clergy in Austria and the Pope ;
enabled the bishops to regulate the affairs of their dio-
ceses, superintend the education of the young, and of
ecclesiastical students.

For a number of years the Pope remained tranquilly
at Rome, and in 1867 celebrated with great pomp and
solemnity the eighteenth centennial anniversary of St.
Peter. The next year Garibaldi made another attempt
on Rome, covertly favored by the unprincipled king of
Italy. The Papal troops were checked at Monte Rotondo
on the 26th of October, but the French intervened, and
entered Rome on the 30th : the Papal troops, supported
by them, totally defeated the invaders at Mentaua, on
the 4th of November.

Soon after, the Pope convoked a General Council of
the Church, to meet at the Vatican at Rome on the 8th
of December, 1869, to consider the wants of the Church
and its position under the various political revolutions
which since the Council of Trent had so altered the
relations of the Church to the State.

Greece, dissatisfied with King Otho, expelled him in
1862, and, after establishing a provisional government,
chose Prince George of Denmark as their sovereign.
In 1866 the Cretans, encouraged by Greece and Russia,
revolted, and for more than a year maintained a des-
perate struggle for freedom. Rut as no foreign state
aided them, they were at last reduced.

P'rance and England acted in concert also in regard
to Chinese matters. The unjust attempt of England to
force the opium trade upon China, against the dictates
of morality and sound policy, led to constant troubles,
and the arrogance of the Chinese officials often gave
plausible pi'etexts for attack or extoi'tion. The seizure
by the Chinese authorities, on the 8th of October, 1856,
at Cantrn, was made out to be a grievance demand-
ing reparation. The vessel was Chinese built, Chinese
owned, and though registered for a time at the British
consulate, her registry had expired, and she had no

480 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cil.

right, as was admittecl, to carry tlic British flatr, winch
she used merely as a cover for j)iracy and sinuLijgliiiijf.
Yet ou the plea that the imperial commissioner Yeh
paid too little attention to the remonstrance of the lirit-
ish consul, Admiral Seymour on the '2;?d attacked the
forts on the river. As this did not intimidate Yeli, pre-
parations were made to capture Canton. A large force in
boats defeated the Chinese M'ar-junks at Fatshan Creek.
English attention was then for a time engrossed by In-
dia, but Canton was attacked on the 29th of December,
1857, by the British and French forces, and caj)tured
■R-ith little loss. Soon after Yeh fell into their bauds,
and was sent to Calcutta, where he died.

The allied fleet then proceeded to Tientsin, on the
Pciho, where a treaty of peace was signed (June 'JGth,
1858). The Chinese renewed the treaty of Nankin,
made in 1842, agreed to receive ambassadors, to permit
travellers to enter the country, and to allow merchant
shios to ascend the Yangtsekianc: to trade, to open tivu
additional ports, and to pay ibur millions of taels for
the expenses of the war.

The next year, however, as difficulties were thrown in
the way of Mr. Bruce, who wislu'tl to proceed to IVkin as
English ambassador, Admiral Hope, in order to aid him,
attacked the forts erected by tiie Chinese at tlie moutli of
the I'eiho, l>ut after losing u70 men killed and wounded,
and three of his gunboats, was compelled to draw off.
Mr. ]>ruce then addressed the Chinese government from
Shanghai, deiiumding an aj)ology for their tiring on the
gunboats, and a ratification of tlie treaty of Tiuntsiu.

In August a French and English force advanced into
the country, defeated the Chinese army at Tangku with
little loss, capturing forty-live guns. The Taku forts
were then taken, and the allies advanced on I\kin.
Mcanwh.le tin- Chinese seized a number of English and
French sul^jects, and i)Ut several to dt-ath with great
barbarity. When the allien entered IV-kin (Oct. l^lh)
the Eni])eror lied, and, as the massacre of the jirisoneru
■was noT known, liberal terms were ollered ; but as soon
as that was discovered, the Summer Palace of Yuen
Wing Yuen, where some of the cruelties were perpetrated,
■was pluiidired of its ri<h and valualilc ji.rticles, and then
totally destroyed. Wry stringenl conditions were then
imposed, to which the Chinese submitted.

LVI,] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 481

The Emperor Ilienfuno; died in Ausjust, 1861, and
was succeeded by liis son Tsaisun, to whom Canton was
restored in August.

In her home affairs England during this period made
some steps in progress. A disposition was evinced to
allow inmates of prisons and public institutions to re-
ceive the ministrations of ministers of their own religion,
it being at last seen that to alienate men from a religion,
which had a moral power over them, could not tend to
make them better citizens. The affair of the Sheffield
Trades Unions, in 1867, showed too that the English
working-classes were completely demoralized and famil-
iarized with crime, and-that a gi'eater religious influence
was needed to save the country from scenes like those of
the French revolution.

The people, too, were clamoring for Reform, and for
a parliamentary system in which the population should
be really represented, and really choose the members.
Several bills were introduced into parliament, but none
met with general appi'oval, till that prepared by Mr.
Disraeli, which received the royal sanction August 15th,
1867.

During this period the Church of England became
more and more the slave, as it was the creature of the
State. In the Gorham case, the Privy Council compelled
the Bishop of Exeter to induct a clergyman held by the
bishops to be heretical ; and as the members of the
Privy Council would naturally be of the most lax reli-
gious ideas, and future appointments to episcopal sees be
of clergymen likely to share the most latitudinariau
views, all hope was taken from that party in the Church
which hoped to make it once more Catholic. A similar
case arose in regard to Bishop Coleuso of Natal, who
had been depiived of his see for heretical doctrines in
regard to the Scriptures. He was restored to his see in
1808, in spite of the episcopal body. On the death of
the Bishop of Exeter, in 1869, a clergyman was appointed
to the see whose writings had been of a most rationalistic
order.

The episcopacy, by a Pan Anglican synod, in 1867,
comprising bishops from England and her colonies, and
from the U^nited States, endeavored to form an organi-
zation and e^oke a new life, but with the real power in
the hands of the State to make articles of faith, forms

482 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [CH.

of )>r.iyer nml worship, rccftilate rites and ceremonies,
they coiihl really I'tlect iiothini;. The aet ])assod in 18G9,
discstablishiiii; the C'hureh in Ireland, seemed to fore-
shadow a like treatment of the Clmreh in Eii<j^land.

When the Southern States atlemjtted to secede from
the United States, in 18G1, Entjland very hastily recog-
nized them as bellii^erents, and, notwithstanding the
closing and blockade of the Southern j)orts by the
American government, eonlinned steadily to throw in
arms and supplies to the insurgents. Vessels of war
were also fitted out in English ports, which sailed forth
and destroyed great numbers of Anu'riean ships; and
when the Alabama was sunk olf Cherbourg by the
American steamer Kearsarge, an English yacht carried
oft'Semmes, the commander of the Alal)ama. The dep-
redations of these vessels formed the basis of what are
known as the Alabama claims, for the settlement of
which a convention was signed Nov, 10th, 18G8, but re-
jected by the United States Senate.

During this j)eriod England exj)erienced trouble in
Jamaica. An outbreak occurred there in October, isof),
which was put down so summarily and cruelly by Gover-
nor Eyre, that he was j)Ut on trial in Englaiul, but
ac(juitted. In New Zealand also constant hostilities
were kept up by the Maories, involving enormous ex-
pense to the government without inflicting any severe
punishment on those savage but brave and crafty tribes.

England, while ever fostering insurrection in other
laiuls, soon had to exi)erience a similar state of affairs.
Ireland continued in an agitated condition. A new and
widespread revolutionary organi/ation, known as the
Fenians, was forme(l in Ireland, with afliliations in Eng-
laiul and in the United Stales, where many soldiers and
orticers, who had gained experience in the civil war,
eagerly joined it. The English government proceeded
in the old way to ])Ut it down by arrests and by sham-
trials, where j)aid inlbrmers ga\c liieir testimony to hired
judges and packed juries. Such a course could only in-
tensify the feeling of hatred, and give strength to the
secret society from which the clergy, encouraged by the
Pope, sought to divert the faithi'ul. James Stephens,
the head of the Fenians, was captured Nov. Hth, IbOo,
but escaped at once from IJielimond Prison, Dublin
Tlie English government suspended the Habeas Coijmu

LVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 483

Act, and sent to Ireland Sir HujtIi Rose, an officer
frained in tlie Sepoy war. Tlie whole movement of the
Fenians was, however, ill concerted : no outbreak of
any moment took place in Ireland; a few attacks being
made on the police stations in February and March,
1867, an attempt was made to seize the castle at Chester,
in England, and some Fenian prisoners were rescued at
Manchester. This led to some executions in November,
1867, and a reckless effort to liberate the prisoners in
Clerkenwell jail, by exploding a barrel of powder at the
gate, caused the death of many in the neighborhood
without effecting the object intended. One Barrett, con-
victed of this crime, was subsequently hung. In America
the Fenians raised a force which invaded Canada, and
at first gained some advantage, but was finally defeated
and driven back into the United States. Several were
taken, tried, and condemned to death ; among the rest,
the Rev. Mr. McMahon, a priest, who attended the dy-
ing of both parties on the battle-field. To hold a person
acting as chaplain to be a party to the guilt of his peni-
tents is unexampled in all the annals of history, but the
Judge charged that giving absolution to men in rebellion
was encouraging them to violate the laws of the land.
After a long imprisonment he was at last released. The
movement, marked in 1868 by an attempt to assassinate
the Duke of Edinburg, a son of Victoria, in Australia,
may be said to have closed with the assassination in
Ottawa, Canada, of the Hon. Thomas D'Arcy McGee,
a member of the ministry, long known as an Irish
patriot, orator, historian, and poet, but a strong op-
ponent of Fenianism.

The barbarous conduct of Theodore, segos or king of
Abyssinia, to a number of English and other European
missionaries, travellers, and agents in his country, whom
he arrested and put in prison, led to a brief but brilliant
war. An army under Sir Robert Napier landed at Lulla,
October 21st, 1867, and advanced into the interior, hav-
ing formed an alliance with Kassai, prince of Tigre.
Meanwhile Theodore had collected his forces, and taken
up a strong position at Magdala ; but when his army
covering that place was defeated on the heights of
Islamgie, he gave up the prisoners, and sought to propi-
tiate his enemy. Sir Robert insisted on an absolute sub-
mission, and when this was evaded, attacked and cap-

484 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE, [cH.

turc I Alasrilala, April intli, 1808: Theodore liimsdf
bcin^ killed at the second harricade endeavoring to atone
by a jxalhint di-ath for a life of enielty and oppres-
sion. The P'nixlish forces soon withdrew iVoin tl)e coun-
try, carryinir with them Theodore's son and heir, who
was sent to Entrland to he educated.

KiiLcland in 1 S(j5 lost two of her illustrious men, Lord
Palmerston, so lont; Prime Minister, a man of undoubted
ability and wonderful tact, a fomenter of discord in other
lands, but a tirm represser of all movements for freedom
at home; and Cardinal Wiseman, whose learninix and
ability made Enijlish statesmen reo^ret their short-siijhted
folly in treatinir as an insult to the country the l\>|)e's
wish that England should exercise an inlhienee in the
Colleije of Cardinals, the rulinij body of the whole
church. In the same year died Leopold, kiiijic of lU-lixium,
uncle of (pieen Victoria, and son-in-law of George IV.

()n the 21st of May, 1 807, the British IVovinces in
North America were erected into the Dominion of
Canada, by royal proclamation, as a step to a separate
government under Jjritish })rt)tection.

The attemj)t to lay a telegraphic cable across the At-
lantic, connecting England and these colonies, failed in
18iJ5, but was successfully carried out July 27th, 1807,
making the transmission of intelligence almost iustau-
tanc(jus.

1-Jy the abolition of the old German empire, Austria
had lost the imperial power, and exerted only an indirect
influence by the weight which her size and population
gave her in the ('oidedcrate Diet, where she was slill
recognized as the leading power in Germany. Prussia
had constantly aspired to attain this pre-eminence, and
with this view constantly fostered the feeling of (iermau
nationality. The c<tndilion of Cieiniauy was strange.
Austria hud Italian, Hungarian, and Slavonic provinces,
besides those in which (iernian wa« spoken, while Slet-
wick and llolsteiu, Cierman stales, belonged to Den-
mark, and Luxemburg to Jbjlland. Sleswick and llol-
steiu revolted, but tailed to elfect a separati(jn from Den-
niaik, although the German diet constantly fomented
truuhlo there. On the ileath of Frederick VII. of Den-
mark the throne dev«»lved on Christian IX., but his
claim to Sleswick and Ilolslein was opposed by I^'n-dcrick,
Duke of ^Vugusleuburg, although his lather, liom whom

LVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. iSt

he pretended to claim, had actually for a large sum re
nounced all rights to them. Christian, following out the
plans of his predecessor, resolved to make the provinces
as Danish as possible, and to resist any attempt to wrest
them from him. This was the opportunity sought by
Prussia, and having induced Austria to join her, these
two powers, on the IGth of January, 1864, required
Christian within forty-eight hours to suppress a constitu-
tion promulgated by him. On his peiemptory refusal
an allied army under Marshal Wrangel entered Plolstein
on the 2l8t, and on the 3d of February bombarded and
burned Missunde. The main reliance of the Danes was
the Dannewerke, a sti'ong line of fortifications on the
north side of the Eider. This was now abandoned, and
the main force attempted to hold Duppel. After a
month's siege this foi'tress fell, and by the final defeat
at Alsen, Denmark was completely humbled, her only
victory being the defeat of an Austrian fleet by the
Danish ships. By the treaty of Vienna, signed on the
30th of October, Denmark ceded to Austria and Prussia
the duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg. Dis-
regarding the claims of the duke of Augustenburg, in
whose interest they had ostensibly acted, the two powers
divided the duchies between them.

The diet jarotested against the action of Prussia, which
virtually -jontrolled them all, and Austria soon found
that she had been merely made the dupe of Prussia, and
that that power, under the guidance of the great states-
man Bismarck, was not only aiming to detach the minor
German powers from her, but also negotiating with the
kingdom of Italy to attack her. Prussia had in fact
long premeditated the movement she was now to make.
Her army was in a fine condition in point of organi-
zation and discipline, and was armed with the needle-
gun, the most effective musket yet introduced. Austria,
distracted by the Hungarian revolts, and demoralized
by the Italian defeats, was not in a position to cope
with her rival.

Prussia acted with the rapidity of lightning. Treat-
ing the censure of the diet at Frankfort as a declaration
of war by the minor powers, Pi'ussian armies, on the 15th
of June, 1866, simultaneously invaded Saxony, Hanover,
and the smaller states north of the Maine. Another
army entered Bchemia, and, on the 26th, met the Austri-

480 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cH.

ans at T?oiolienhor£j, driviiif; them hack on Munchen-
<jfriit/. Still anotlicr army, oomman<lcd hy the Crown
Princo, at lacked tho Aiistrians at Nacliod, ami thoiifjh
for a time lield in clieck, finally, hy frcsli troops, suc-
ceeded in defeating them witli the loss of 4,000 men.

On the 20tli the Austrian Archduke Leopold engaged
the l*russians hefore Skalitz, but was comjielled to retire,
and the Count Clam Gallas was di'iven hack hy tho
IVnssian Prince Frederick Cliarlcs. As this exposed his
flanks, General P)enedek, the Aiistiian commander, at-
temjited to fall hack on Kuniggriitz, but the Prussians
had not only gained his rear, but were actually hurling
another army doAvn upon liiin. Tie instantly wheeled
liis left and centre, and retiring his right, took up a new
position.

On the 3d of July, Prince Frederick Charles opened
the terrible battle of Sadowa by a fierce attack on P>ene-
dek's line. The Austrians fought desperately, and were
pressing the Prussians back, when tlie Crown Prince of
Prussia came on the field with the first army, and took
the Austrian right and reserves in flank ; and though the
Austrians stul)bornly held their ground, and used their
artillery as elfectually as the position admitted, they
could not free their centre, and their right was driven
back on Koniggriitz, covering their retreat with their
cavalry and artillery.

^J'liis defeat decided th(> war. Austria, f)bli<_red to keep
a large army in Italy, had hieii unable to meet Prussia
with e<iual forces; but in reality she overrated the
Italians. Victor Emmanuel had indeed crossed tho
]\lincio, on the 2-U\ of June, with nearly 00,000 men, but
■was utterly routed at Custozza by the Archduke Al-
bert, not having Iteen able to contest the field more than
two h()ui"s. Nor were the Italians more successful on
the water, A;I;niral Persano with a well-ajtpointed
fleet was utterly defeated by the Austrian Admiral
TegetliolT. Persano was subse<jnentlv tried and con-
victed of cowardice. Even (iaribaldi was defeated by
tho Austrians at Monte Snello.

In less than a fortnight aitiT the commencement of
lioslilities the emperor of Austria was comjtelled to sue
for peace. l>y the treaty of I'rague, on the '2'.Ul of
August, Austria acceded to the union of Venice with
the kingdom of Ital^, recognized the dis.«olution of tho

LVI.] GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 487

Germanic Confederation, and consented to a new orp^ani-
zation of Germany without the participation of the
Austrian empire. Austria would not, however, directly
cede Venetia to an enemy whom she had defeated by
land and sea ; she conveyed it to the Emperor Napoleon,
by whom it was transferred to Italy, and Victor Em-
manuel thus acquired through the jealousy entertained
of Austria by Prussia, what his own power could not
have accomplished.

Prussia did not strip Austria of any of her territory,
but annexed Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and
Frankfort ; which, with the Duchies taken from Den-
mark, gave her all Northern Germany. She was now
the great Protestant power, and evidently aimed at this,
avoiding any territorial addition that would bring in a
large Catholic population.

Russia during this period was not the scene of many
interesting events or changes. A Polish insurrection
broke out in 1863, against a general Russian conscrip-
tion, designed to sweep off the best of the Polish youth
into Russian armies ; but against the overwhelming
power of Russia, there was no hope. The insurrec-
tion was crushed, and the bitter chains more firmly
riveted than ever. Europe looked on, but gave the
Poles no aid beyond idle sympathy. As the West was
closed to her by the Crimean war, Russia pushed for-
ward in Asia, capturing Samarcand in March, 1869, and
soon after overrunning much of Independent Tartary,
Bokhara being virtually a tributary to the Czar. The
Russian territory in America, as being too remote, was
sold to the United States, and became the territory of
Alaska.

Spain had never secured a state of permanent internal
peace, being torn by constant revolutionary changes.
Still a certain progress was attained, and religion was
once more beginning to regain its influence throughout
the peninsula. This arrayed against the Queen all the
infidel and irreligious party. lu 1859 difficulties with
Morocco resulted in war, and an army under O'Donnell
invaded that empire. Tetuan was taken, on the 4th of
February, 1860, and the emperor completely humbled.
By a ti-eaty, signed on the 27th of April, he agreed to
pay twenty millions of dollars, Tetuan to remain in the
hands of Spain till all the conditions were fulfilled.

488 GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. [cn.

In December, 1861, Spain united with England and
France in operations aijainat Mexico ; but sliortly after
occujiyinf; ^ era Cruz, Oenoral Prim, the S])anish com-
mander, witlidrew. P^nghmd soon fullowiMl tlie exam)»le,
and tlie Freneli alone continued the oj>crations, now
avowedly to overthrow the government of Juarez, and
establish an empire, as a barrier to the jironrress of the
United States. The Frciuch army under Lorencey was,
however, repulsed at I'uebla with severe loss by General
Zaragoza, but re-enforeements being sent out, General
Forey at the head of thirty thousand men occujtied
I'uebia and Mexico, Juarez retreated to Potosi, while
an assembly of notables declared for an emj)ire, and of-
fered the throne to the Austrian Archduke JMaximilian,
For a time the French maintained this frail enij)ire, and
Maximilian endeavored honestly to establish a well-
conducted government. In March, 18(37, however, the
French army left Mexico, — the United States, now re-
covered from the civil war, protesting against its pres-
ence. This left the high-minded Maximilian to his fate.
While conducting a campaign against Juarez, he was
betrayed by one of his own generals, taken prisoner, and
on the 19th of June, 1867, barbarously shot by order
of Juarez, against the remonstrances of England and the
United States. For a time even his body was detained,
but was finally given up to his countrymen, and con-
veyed to Austria. His empress, Charlotte, daughter of
Leopold, king of Ijclgium, who had gt)ne to Euroj)e to
seek aid for her liusband, lost her reason, from over-
excitement, or from the eflects of poison, administered
to her while in iNIexico.

Spain had other troubles in America. Difticultiea
having arisen with Peru, she seized the Chincha islamls
in iVpril, 1804, and by holding those islands, valuablo
for their deposits of guano, obtained a treaty ol' pi'ace,
signed at Callao in February, 1805. Tliis was not, how-
ever, jtermarient, and as Chili had manifested a sympathy
with Peru, the Spanish lleet boml;arded V^alparaiso.

Meanwhile Marshal IS'arvaez, whose stern ri^or had
repr<;ssed all turbulence in Spain, died, and Queen Isa-
bel saw the precarious position in which hIk; stood. In
1808 slie crossed the front iiir into Prance, to confer with
the Emperor Xapoleon at Piarrilz. JJurinj; her absence
from the capital a revolulicju broke out, headed by

LVI.] GENERAL UISTORY OF EUROPE. 489

Marshal Serrano, General Prim, and Aclrairal Topete.
Almost all the military and naval forces, controlled by
secret societies, joined the revolt, and the people were
overawed. General Novaliches with a part of the army
attempted to save Spain, but was defeated by Serrano,
September 29th, 1868, and all was lost. The next month
the Provisional government was recognized by several
European courts. Serrano was made regent, and a king-
dom having been resolved upon, the Cortes became em-
barrassed as to the choice of a king.

The first and only real work of this new regime was
to oppress the Church, and harrass it in all possible ways.
They even sent to the Bishops forms for their pastoral
addresses to their flocks, and forbade them to attend the
General Council without the sanction of this self-created
government.

But while thus valiant toward venei-able prelates, they
showed no disposition to allow others to adopt new
ideas of government. Cuba, long oppressed and plun-
dered, claimed freedom, but the republicans of Spain
resisted fiercely. The war lasted for a long time, and
desolat sd most of Cuba.

490

TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS

Acces-

sion.

ENOLAND.

FRANCE.

OEIt.MANY.

NAPLES.

ROMB.

A. D. 1

14<)3

••

Maximilian

••

Ferdinand 11.

1496

Frederic II.

IVJS

Lewis Xll.

1501

' •

Ferdinand
the Catholic

DIED

1503

■ •

Pius HI.

150S

150U

Henry VIII.

1513

Julius H.

1513

1515

Francis I.

Charles V. of
Austria.

1516

• ■

1519

Cliarles V.

1521

' * 1

Leo X.

1.521

1523

Adri:in VI.

1523

1533

(^Icuienl Vll.

1534

1517

Edward VI.

Henry 11.

Paul HI.

1549

1553

Mary

1556

Ferdinand

Philip II.

Julius HI.

1555

1557

Marcullus 11.

1555

1558

Elizabeth

1559

Fr.incis 11.

Paul IV.

1559

1560

Chiirles IX.

1561

Maxitnil. 11.

Pius IV.

1.565

1574

Henry III.

•

St. Piu3 V.

1572

1576

Rodolph 11.

•57S

156 J

firecory XHI.

1.585

1589

Henry IV.

Sixtus V.

l.Mt0

15<)0

Urbii.i VII

1590

1591

. ,

•

Gr.pory XIV.

1.591

I.VJ8.

Philip III.

Inniicftit IX.

1.591

1603

Jamea I.

ClBuxnt VHI.

1005

. ,

Leo XI.

l(i05

If.lO

Lewis Xlll.

Ifill

•

612

Malhias

1013

•

1019.
1021

Ftidi. 11.

Philip IV.

Paul V.

1621

1025

CharloB I.

Uregory XV.

1623

1630

[beheaded

1632

1637

Ferdl. 111.

1C40

••

1643

, ,

Lewis-XIV.

, ,

1045

Urban VHI.

1014

1648

'"i-rreg-

1654

1656

Innocent X.

1C5S

1657

Lcopnld 1.

1660

Charles 11.

I6fi5

Charles 11.

1668

Alexnndrr VII.

1067

1670

Clement IX.

1600

1675

1676

Clement X.

1676

1692

1685

Jnines II.
dep'iBr'd

16«9

Wm. 4c Mary

Innocent XI.

I6tl0

Alexander VHI

1091

1097

•

1 ••

•

OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES OF EUROPE.

491

Acces-

sion.

PORTUGAL.

SPAIN.

DENMARK.

SWEDEN,

TURKEY.

A. D.

1495

Emarael

Ferdi. the C.
1472. and
Isab. 1479.

John, 1481.

••

DIED

1496

1497

, ,

1498

•

1501

.•

1504

1509

Bajazet H.

1512

. .

Selim I.

1513

Christ. II.

• •

1516

Emperor
Charles V.

• •

• '

1519

Soliman II.

1520

1521

John III.

1525

Frederic I.

Gust. Vasa

. .

1533

Christ. III.

1548

1553

1556

Philip II.

1557

Sebastian

1558

•

1559

•

15(50

•

1564

1573

Amurath III.

1574

1576

John HI.

1578

Henry Card.

1580

Philip II. of
Spain.

' '

• •

1588

Christian IV.

Sigismund

1591

1592

1596

Mahomet III.

1595

1598

Philip HI.

Philip III.

Selim II.

ia9fr

1604

Charles IX.

Achiiiel I.

1610

1611

Gust.Adolph.

1012

1013

Mustapha dep.

161/

1019

Osman I.

1021

Philip IV.

Mustapha restored

1625

Amurath IV.

1623

1630

1632

•

Christina

1637

•

1640

John IV.
Braganza

' '

' •

Ibrahim

1643
1645
1648

••

•

••

•

Frederic III.

Mahomet IV.

164*

deposed

1687

1654

•

Charles X.

1656

Alphonso VI

••

1657

•

1660

Charles XI.

1665

Charles II.

1668

Peter 11.

167C

Christian V.

••

1675

1676

•

* •

" •

1682
1685

, ,

. ,

Soliman III.

1687

1689

••

1696

, .

Achmet II.

1691

1697

■•

••

Cliarles XII.

402

TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS

Acc«s-

~"^^

•ion.

BNOLAND.

FRANCE.

OERMANT.

NAPLEM.

ROMI.

k. D.

1699

, ,

BIRD

1700

■ '

■

Philip V. of
Bourbon

Innocent XII.

1700

1702

Aone

, ,

1705

Joaeph I.

1706

I7II

Charlea VI.

1713

1714

George I.

1715

LewiaXV.

1718

K-JO

. ,

Clement XI.

1781

1725

Innocent Xlll.

1724

n/1

George II.

1730

Benedict XIll.

1730

1740

Charles VII.

Clement XU.

1740

1741

1745

•

Francis I.

1746

Charles III.

1750

751

••

• •

•

■•

1759

, ,

Benedict XIV.

1768

1760

George III.

1762

1765

• •

Joseph II.

• •

1766

1771

Clement XIII.

176g

1773

1774

Lewis XVI.

Clement XIV.

1774

1777

* '

[gi/illutiiied.

■

Ferdinand I.
of the two
Sicilies.

■

17R8

•

17 'to

Leopold II

•

179-2

•

FraiiCia II.

17U3

France, Re-
public.

17'.»6

Plus VI.

1H(I|

IHO'2

1804

N'lpoleon
Cinperur

• •

1807

1808

1W)9

1810

. .

INU

I^ewisXVllI

1816

•

1818

••

•

182C

George IV.

18'23

Pius VII.

1&24

Cliarici X.
dclhroned.

■

1825

1826

Francis 1.

1830

. ,

Lewis Philip

. ,

Ferdl. II.

UoXH.

Iran

IH31

William IV.

Pius VIII.

IRW

1833

Gregory XVI.

iH-ia

1835

Ferdinand 1.
of Aimlria.

1*>37

Victoria

•

1839
IHM

iPlualX. ■

iMH

L Napoleon.

Fr. Joseph.

1800

1 ••

■•

•

Annexed to
bardinia.

«•

OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES OF EUROPE.

493

Acces- 1

sion.

POnTUOAL.

BPAIJf.

DENMARK.

SWEDEN.

TUBKEr.

A. D.

1699

, ,

Frederic IV.

, ,

Mustapha II.

1700

• *

Philip V.

•

DIED

1702

•

Achmet III.

1703

1705

• •

■ .

.706

John V.

• .

• •

■ .

1711

• •

••

1713

• •

••

1714

• •

—

J715

■

• •

1718

• •

Ulrica

> •

1720

■ •

Frederic

1725

1727

.•

1730

•

Christian VI.

Mahomet V.

1740

• •

1741

1745

• •

. •

1746

Ferdi. VI.

Frederic V.

. .

1750

Joseph

- ■

1751

• •

Adolphus
Frederic

Osman II.

1757

1759

• .

Charles III.

Mustapha III.

1760

•

1762

• •

" •

•

1765

•

' •

1760

Christi. VII.

1771

• •

GustavuslII.

• •

1773

. •

[assassin.

•

1774

• •

Achmet IV.

1777

Mary Fran-
ces.

• «

• •

u •

1788

, ,

Charles TV.

• •

, ,

Selim III.

i78«

1790

• .

[abd.

• •

•

1792

• •

GustavusIV.

••

1793

•

• •

•

[dep.

• •

1796

• •

•

• •

1801

■ •

• •

. •

1802

• •

1804

••

« .

1807

• •

Frederic VI.

, ,

1808

. .

Ferdi. VII.

Charles Xlll

Mahmoud II.

1809

• ,

• •

a •

• •

1810

• •

. •

1814

•

••

■ •

• •

1816

John VI.

• •

•

1818

• •

• '

Charles John
XIV.

• «

1826

Maria da
Gloria

• •

• >

• •

«•
4

1830

•

■ •

• •

••

1831

• •

1833

Isabella II.

•

• •

1835

•

■

•

1837

, ,

18;f9

. •

Christ. VIII.

Abdal-Sedjlm

1844

• •

Oscar L

•^

1848

• •

Frederic VII.

, ,

*«-

1863

, ,

, _

Charles IX.

1868

••

Revc

(Intion.

••

t •

494

TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY SOVGREION0

Acc«i

■Ion.

RUSSIA.

POLAND.

PRUSSIA.

SARDINIA.

■OLLAaS.

A. D.

1G13

Michael FcB-
(lurowitscli

•

••

• •

1632

Ladidlaua V.

•

1015

Alexis Micb

• •

IfrW

John Cnsi-
mlr.

• •

• .

1609

MichaelCorl-
but.

■ •

• •

1673

•

John 8obi-
eski.

••

• •

1676

FffiJor

1682

I wan

• «

1665

Peter the
Great.

* *

• •

1696

Frederic Au-
gustus U.
Elector of
Saxony

• •

I'.OO

Frederic I.

• •

1705

* *

Stanislaus
Lec/inski

■ •

• •

1709

AuguetUH
restored

' '

• •

1713

• *

■

Frederic
William I.

Victor Ama-
de\i8ll.
I'jrut King

1725

Catherine 1.

•

ITSI

Peter II.

• •

1730

Anne

•

1732

Chas. Eman-
uel III.

•

1740

Iwan III.

Frederic II.

•

murdered

the Great

1741

Elizabeth

■•

1762

Pelei III.
murdered

■ •

' •

1764

Catherine II.

Staiiislaus

Poniiitowski

dcp. 1798.

1772

Ist Partition

•-■

1773

Victor Amad.
III.

1786

•

Frederic
William 11.

• ■

1703

2d Partition

1795

3d Partition

1796

Paul niurd.

■■

Charles

Emanuel IV.

abdicated

• •

1797

••

Frederic
Wllliapi III.

1801

Alexander

••

Victor Eman.
V.ulxlicated

• •

1803
1806

••

, ,

Lewis NapoleoB

1»15

••

Alexander

William 1.

1821

Charles
Felix.

1825

Nicholas

•

.■•ETIIKB-

i.ANns.

DELOlUa

1831

, ,

Charles

Will. 1.

LeopoM

Albert

1840

Frederic

IR40

William IV.

Victor Eman.

Wnilsm IIL

185«

AlcxauUerll

Alcxundcr I

Kini'Dl llalj
In I860.

1SG6

Lcop. II.

OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES OF EUROPE.

Acces
sion.

SAXONT.

BAVARIA.

WIRTEM-

BERQ.

HANOVER.

TIJSOAMT.

A. D.

IG79

■•

••

■•

Ernest, First
Elector.

••

1696

Frederic Au-
gustus,
Elector of
Saxony

• •

1698

••

• •

George

•

1727

• •

•

George

• •

173.-J

Augustus II.

• •

1760

"Frederic
Christian
Frederic

••

• •

George I.

• •

1763

Augus-
tus III.
King in
. 1806.

1767

Charles

• •

^ ,

1700

Charles.

• •

FerduuaiL, Bake.

1795

• •

Max. Joseph
King (1805).

••

• -

1797

F'rederic
William L
King in
1806.

• •

1815

' •

• •

Erected into
a Kingdom.

• •

1816

• •

Frederic
William II.

• •

1820

•

George II.

1824

.•

Leopold IL

1825

Lewis
Charles

•

• •

1827

Anthony

• •

1830

• •

William 1,

• •

1836

Frederic Au-
gustus II.

' •

• •

1837

Ernett

••

1848

• •

Maximil. IL

, ,

#«

1851

George III.

1859

••

• •

••

Annexed to Sar>
dinia.

18C8

• ■

••

Annexed to

Prussia.

INDEX.

IHAPTfRS. A.D. '*"■

1.— 150S. League of Cambray .------ -i

Hatlle of jJi^nndci -------- 3

1511. Ferdinand conquers Navarre .... - S

1512. War between France and England -----»

1513. Battle of OuinegaU --------4

of Flodtletifield -------- 4

1515. o( Mariynan ..------5

Milan surrenders to Francis I. ------5

II.— 1519. Charles V. elected emperor -------7

1520. Diet of Worms— Lutlier condemned ----- 9

1521. League acainsl France --------JO

1522. Isle of Rhodes taken by Hie Turks - - - - " Jj

1523. Conspiracy of the Conslabin Bourbon - - - - ■ •»
Battle of Bia/rrd.i.ta— Death of Bayard " " * " In

1525. Rippe of Pavia— Francis taken prisoner- - - - ■ '*

1527. Holy l.eacue. Siege of Home - - - - - " '^' } j

IIL— 1532. Henry VIII. divorces Queen Catharine - - - " J5

1534. Assumes the title of Head of the Church ' ' ' ' \1
1536. Religious houses suppressed """""""!?

Anna Bullen beheaded """"""" on

IV.— 1,')29. Diets held at Spire and at Augsburg - - - - -20

1535. Expedition against Tunis -"""""" ?i
1530. Invasion of France - - - - - - " oi o2

1538. Treaty of JVicc. Battle of £ss«A - - - . "^'•g„

1541. Expedition against Algiers - - - - - ' „'• „

1512. Battle of Cerwo/cs. Treaty of Crespy - - - "^'''rl

v.— 1517. Change of religion in England - - - - " "27
Battle of Pi7ikey ---------28

1552. Duke of Somerset beheaded '"""**",,

1553. England reunited with the see of Rome -"""*''
1550. F'xcculinn of Archbishop Cranmer - - - - "33

VI.— 1540. Death of Luther. War in Saxony - * " " " ^'

1552. I'eare of Pannau -""""'"'*,?

I.'i53. Battle at Siverhausen --"-■""""5

1555. Abdication of Charles V. -""'"'"'I

1556. Battle of .S/. Quin/in. Loss of Calais " " * * ^

1558. Death of Charles V. ""li

1559. Treaty of CAa'ca«Cam6««i* ------ 411

VIL— Introduction to the history of Norway - - - - -45

^of Sweden and Denmark - 45

of Russia, Poland, and Prussia, 47, 48

VlII— 1563. Council of Trent closed - - 4*

1505. M.ilta besieged .--------50

1570. Cyprus taken by the Turks """""" Xo

1571. Battle of /.rpnnfo ---"""*'",,
IX.— l.'"''!). <.'ivil war in France --""■"'"■'?

1503. Duke of fJuise aHSiissinated -""**"" ^5

1.560. insuireitioii iti Scotland ""*"***?2

1507. Murder of Darnley 56

1568. Mary Stuart arrested in England ' " ' * ' ^o

Battle of Sr Z^fFiw '''X«

JSOO. n( Jarniu—n( MonUonlour ' " ' * * iS

1572. Eve of St. Bartholomew -------59

N. B. The date of the accession and death of each Sovereign miy be found io
the preceding Table, and is not repeated here.

INDEX. 497

CHAPTERS A.D. PAOE

X.— 1576. Catholic League formed by the Duke of Guise - - - CO

1579. Union of the Seven Provinces ------ 60

1581. Portugal conquered by Philip II. - - - - - - 61

1584. Antwerp reduced liy the Dulie of Parma - - - - 62

1586. Mary Stuart beheaded ---.-..-67

1588. Defeat of the Spanish Armada - - - . . . 69
Persecution of llie English Catholics ----- 70

1589. Assaosination of Henry III. ----.. 70
XI. — 15S9. Accession of the House of Bourbon ----- 71

1590. Battle of /uri -... 71

1593. Dreux talien. Abjuration of Henry IV. - . . - 72

1597. Battle of Tournhout ----..-- 72

1598. Treaty of Vervins .-. 73

XIL— 1000. Battle of JVewport -------- 74

1604. Siege of Ostend ---.--.--74
1609. Truce concluded at the Hague - ----- 75

E.xpulsion of the Morescoes from Spain - - - - 75
XIII.— 1594. War in Ireland 76

1599. Essex lord lieutenant --.----.76
1601. returns — is executed ------ 77

Lord Mountjoy defeats Tyrone ------ 77

XIV. — Associatidn called TUe Evangelical Union - - - 79

1609. Opposed by the Catholic League ------ 79

1610. Assassination of Henry IV. .----- 80
XV. — 1603. Accession of the house of Stuart to the English throne - 80

1605. Gunpowder Plot -- 82

1618. Sir Walter Raleigh executed 85

Persecution of the English Catholics - - - - 86
XVI.— 1618. War in Bohemia ---------88

The Elector Palatine defeated near Prague - - - 88
1627. La Rochelle besieged by Lewis XIII. and Cardinal Richelieu 90

Situation of the northern kingdoms - - - - - 91

League in Saxony under Gustavus Adolphus - - - 93

1632. Battle of iaJzere 93

1635. Treaty of Prague ---------94

XVII. — 1628. Petition of Right \)re?.en\.eA. Duke of Buckingham murdered 95
1638. Covenant formed in Scotland ------ 97

1640. ion^ Parliament. Irish Rebellion 97,98

1641. Earl of Stafford beheaded -------98

1642. Civil War. Battle of £d^e-/fi7Z ----- 9^

1644. Ba.n\e of Marston Moor - --99

1645. Archbishop Laud executed. Battle of JVaaeJj; - - -99,100

1647. Charles I, imprisoned -------- loi

1649. tried and executed 102, 103

XVIIL— 1636 Battle of Uidock - 104

1638. Siege of Rhinfeld— of Brisac 104,105

1640. Revolution in Portugal -------- 105

1643. Death of Richelieu and of Lewis XIII. - - - -106"
1645. Battle of Thahor - 106

1648. Peace of IVestphalia - - - 106

XIX. — 1649. Commonwealth in England. War in Ireland . - - lO?"

1650. Death of Montrose. Battle at Dunftar - - - 108,109

1651. Battle of Worcester -------- 109

War with the Dutch — Blake victorious - - - . 110

1653. Barehones' Parliament -------- 111

Cromwell Protector of the Commonwealth - - - m
XX.— 1651. Civil War in France 112

1659. Treaty of the Pj/re7ifes 113

1650. Abdication of Christina of Sweden - - - - -114

1660. Peace of O/ii-a - - 114

XXL— 16tj0. Restoration of Charles II. - - 116

1665. Naval victories gained over the Dutch. Plague in Lon. 117, 118

1666. Fire of London - - - - 119

1667. Peace of firedffl. Triple Alliance 120

Campaign in Flanders — Victories of Lewis XIV. - - 121

1368. Feaceof Mx-la-Chapelle ------- 121

XXII.— Test Met .---..--.. 124

Titus Gates ---------124

Meal-tnb Plot 125

Rye-house Plot 127. IW

XXI II.— 1669. Candia taken by the Turks ------- i2f

498

CBAPTEI<«. A.D.
1072.

1674.

1676.
167'j.
XXIV.— lf.81.
16S.-?.
1()S4.
1685.
lt)87.
1686.
XXV.-16S5.
16!»7.
1688.

1690.

XXVI.— 1690.

1692.

-txvii.

1697.

1699.

-1700.

1701.

J.XVllI.

-l-M.

1706.

XXIX.

-1707.
1708.
1709.

XXX.

-1713.
1714.

1715.

XXXI.-17I0.
1711.
171.1.
1715.
1718.
1721.
1725.
XXX1I.-17I7.
1718.

1710.
1725.
1726.

1735.

17.19

-1710.

1711

X.XXIII.

1742.
1743.

INDEX.

PAOK

Diikc of York's nnv«l victory over Dp Riiyter - - I.IO

Lewis XIV. inv.-idea the L'nited Provinces - - - - l:<0
Friinchc Conit/- conquered by him - - . . . l:<i

Datlle of Senrffe - - \21

Naviil battle of .4ii^u«(a ---.... i;j3

Peace of Jf)meguen - - . - . - . -133
Slrasbiire taken by Lewis XIV. ..... 134

Siege of Vienna— relieved by Sobieski - . - - 135

Liixeinbiirc surrenders to Le\vi.s XIV. Genoa bombarded 130
Edict of Nantes revoked ---.... i3f

Battle of Miihati ----..... yjn

League of .lugsburg ....... 137

Rebellion and execution of the Duke of Monmouth . . 138
Koyal edict for liberty of conscience .... 139

Invasion of England by the Prince of Orange . . -HO
King James retires to France ...... \\'l

Battle of the Ruyne --.-....143

Surrender of Limerick ....... 1 13

Battles of S«a^ara(/a ;ind of F/eunw . - . . .114
Belgrade taken by llie Turks -.---. 1 15
English and Dutch lleet defeated by the French . - - 145
Mastiacre in the vale nf Glencoe ..... 146

Naval combat off La Ilogut ....... 146

Battle of ■N'etrwinden - - ..... j 47

Treaty of Hysicick - - - . . . . .148

Battio of Zeiila. Peace of Carlawili .... 148

Tonningen besieped by the King of Denmark - - - 150
Copenhagen bombarded by Charles XII. of Sweden - 150
Philip V. crowned at Madrid ...... 151

Grand Alliance signed ....... 151

Battle of Blenheim ------.. 155

Gibraltar taken by the English under Admiral Rooke . 155
Battle of Katnilie.i -.--..... l.-iO

Battles of Glisgaic, PuUaush, and JVarva - - 156, 157

Union of Enj;land and Scotland ------ i^

Battle of Jihnania ........ 159

of OuUenarile ........ 15H

of Malplaquet ....... ]co

of Pullowa -....-... 160

Peace of Ulrecht ........ \^s<^

Treaty of Radstadt ....... 102, 1^3

Accfssion of the house of Hanover to the English throne ' 156
Character of Lewis XIV. Science and literature - Itil— 166

Jansenism lOj^ 105

In.xurrectlon in Scotland under the Earl of Marr - - 167

Prince Jamcsi landed in Scotland— his troops defeated . 167
Triumph of Peter the Great -.-.... 169

Peace between Russia and Turkey ..... 170

Victories of the c/.ar in KinlanrI . - . . . .171

Wirtiiiar and Stralsiind surrender - . - . . 173
Sieg.' of >V«Jcric</ia/i and death of Charles XII. - . - 173
Peace between RuHsia and .Sweden .... 174

Accession of Catherine I. ....... 174

Victory over ilnr Turks at Pelertearadin and siege cf Belgrade 175
Peace of Pofsarotcitz -----,.. 175

Quadruple Alliance ........ 175

Rise of ilie .South Sea scheme ...... nfl

Treaty of f'unnn ........ 177

of Hanover .-.--... 177

Siege of Ph>ll>pfh,tTg—1i<-!i\\\ of the Duke of Berwick - 178
Peace between France and Germany - - . . . 179
f)czakiiw laki'n by Russia ...... 179

Treaty between (;erinany and Turkey, at fie^/^Tiufs - -180
Death of Emperor Clias. VI. War fur Austrian succesiion 180
Baltli! of J/.z/wir:— Reduction of Silesia ... 18J, 182
Rcvoluli>>n in Russia ....... \^%

Siege of Pragiie ---...... (83

Batilc <if V-.aflaw ........ \m

Treaty of Hrrflau -----.... 1S5

Battle of Dmingen ........ |H7

Treaty of Wgrmt j^

SIlAPTERa. A.D.

1745.

1746.
XXXIV —1746.

1747.
1748.
XXXV -1751.
1735.
1752.

1756.

1757.

XXXVI.— 1758.
1759.

1760.

XXXVII.—

1763.
XXXVIII.-1764.

1768.

1772.
XXXIX.— 1773.

1772.

1T75.
1776.

1780.

1782.

1784.
XL.- -1779.

1783.

1787.

1791.
XLI.— 1789.

1790.
1791.

1792.

1793

XLI!.- 1792

1793

1794.
179&

INDEX. 499

PAtiC

Treaty of Frankfort ..--...-190
Datlle of Fonlenuy - . ...... 191

of Preston Pans --....--193

of Cidloden 191

Campaign in the Netherlands -...-. 195
Battle of St. Laiaro -----...196

of Vol. Siege of Bergen-op-Zoom .... 1!<6

Treaty of j3ii-/a-CAap«He .--... 197

New Style introduced into England - . - - - 198
Earthquake at Lisbon ------- 198

War in India — Arcot taken by Mr. Clive - - . -200
Fort-William surrendered to Surajab Dowlah - - 201
Jansenism condemned ----.--. 202

The Jesuits expelled from France, (1764) - . - 203

King of Prussia enters Dresden ------ 204

Convention of Closter-seven ...... 205

Calcutta and Chandernagore reduced ----- 205

Minden and Embden conquered ----- 206

Louisburg, Fort Lewis, in America, and Goree, in Africa,

reduced ----..----206
Battle of Minden --.-.----206

of Cunnersdorf ....... 207

Conquest of Quebec, by General Wolfe - - . 207, 203
Berlin, Leipzig, Torgaw, &c., taken by the Imperialists - 208
Pondicherry taken by England ------ 209

Family Compact- ........ 210

Silesia conquered by Prussia .-.--- 212
Battle of Freyburg --..----212

Havana and the Philippines taken by England . - - 212
Treaties of Paris and Huberlsbiirg ----- 213

Warsaw invested by the army of Catherine II. - - - 214
War between Russia and Turkey ----- 214

First partition of Polar.d ------- 215

Suppression of the Society of Jesus - - . 215 — 217
Revolution in Sweden - .----.- 217

in Denmark ------- 218

War with the American Colonies ----- 218

Boston bombarded — thirteen United States fficoiince their

allegiance to the British crown ----- 219

Riots in London ..-..--- 220

Naval victory gained by Edmund Rodney - . - . 222
The Spaniards defeated at Gibraltar - - - . 222

Peace proclaimed between England and America - - 223

Treaty of Teschen 224

The Crimea and part of the Kuban conquered by Russia - 224
Peace between Russia and Turkey ----- 225

Pius VI. visits Vienna -------- 226

War against Russia, by Sweden and Turkey - - - 228
Battle of Rimnik—Ocza.kov and Tutukay captured by Russia 229
Ismail taken by assault ------- 229

Belgrade taken by Marshal Laudohn ----- 229

Peace between Russia and Turkey ----- 230

Meeting of the States-General at Versailles - . -230
The National Assembly constituted, June 17 - - - 232
The Bastile carried by storm, July 14 - - - - - 233

Meeting of the Champ de Mars ----- 236

Treaty of Piliiitz 237

Constitution accepted— Legislative Assembly - - - 238
10th of August— 2d of September - - - - 238, 239

Invasion of France— Retreat of the Prussians - - 241

Battle of Jcmappe --------- 242

National Convention succeeds the Legislative Assembly 242
Execution of Lewis XVI. .---..- 2-13
Gustavus HI. of Sweden assassinated - . . - 244
France declared war against England - - - . 245

Insurrection in La Vendee. Battle of J^Teerwinden - • 245
French fleet defeated by Earl Howe ----- 246

Execution of Marie Antoinette, of France ... 246
Toulon bombarded -.--.... 247

Battle of Fleurits 250

Prince of Orange quits Holland - - - ... 251

600 INDEX.

CHAPTERS. AD. FAOB

1795. Treaty of BatU. Directory eslaWished . - - 251, 2.Vi
Kvpcclitlon of Uuiliurnn -.-.-.. 253

XLIII.— roe. Second piirtilion of Pulanil 2:')3

Conciucsts in I'lthju by lliiasia ----- 25t

1797. Naval victory off Cape S(. finrenf, hy Sir J Jervis - -256

at Caiiiperiloicn, by Ailniiriil Diinc.in - 250

XLIV. — 1796. Canipnicn in Italy, under Bonaparte ; battle of Montenotte - 257

llattle of Lodt 258

of liiivrrido and Creole ------ 259

1797. Treaty of r,>lentino 259

of Campo Formio ------- 200

Switzerland revoliitioiii/.ed and called Helvetic Republic 2(!1

1798. Insurrection in Ireland, battle of ymrgar Jlill . - - 261

Congress of Hadstadl - - 202

French enter Home, and take the Pope prisoner - - - 263
Bonaparte lakes Malta and Alexandria - - - • 264
defeated by Admiral Nelson in the battle of the

JVile 264

1799. .Seringapatam taken by 8lorni, Tippoo slain - - -265
Naples and Sardinia subdued by the French - - - 206
Russians and .\uslrians victorious in Italy - - - - 267

1800. Union of EnRland and Ireland 2tW

1799. Directory overturni'd—Uatlle of JVuci - . - . -209

1800. Uiiitles of Montebello and Marengo ----- 270

1801. Treaty of LuncvtUe 271

Battle of Cnpevhanen --..--. 271
of jJAuiifcir or Alexandria ------ 272

1602. Treaty of ./JmicTti 273

XLV. — Concordat between France and the Pope - - - - 271

Counler-revolntion in Swif/.erlanl ----- 277
Declaration of war against France by England - - -279
Hanover taken by the French ------ 2«0

Hattle of jJ*».i/» 281

Duke d'Enghien CJteciited ------ 283

Bonaparte crowned empi'ror ------ 2*^5

Meinuiingen and Ulin surrender to the French - - 291

Battle of JJnsterlUz -------- iifi

of Trafatrrar - - 2iH

Treaty of Pn-.-burg- 295

Death of Rit'lit lion. William Pitt 296

Battle of. Vui</.., in Calabria 298

(Confederation of the Rhine ------ 290

Death of Right Hon. C. J. Fojl - .'tOI

Battle of Jena ...-301

1805. Cape of Good Hope Burreiwlered to the English - - - :((il

1807. Baltics of Kv/fiu and of JPrieJ/and - - - - 306,3(17
Treaty of Tihit 307

XLVUl.— Copenbagcri bombarded and the Danish fleet surrendered 310

War between France and Portugal— The royal family emi-
grate to Brazil -.--.--. 311

1808. The French enter Rome 315

Ab. of Chag. IV and Ferd. VII.— Massacre in Madrid 318—320
Joseph Bonaparte, King of .''pain — Dupont surrenders with

his army to (.'astanos, ami llie French fleet to Morla 320, .321

Murat, Klnc of Napli-8 321

Battles of /fo/eia and fimeii-n ------ 323

1809. of Curunnu and death of Sir J. Moora - - - .T.i8

Insurrection in Turkey ------- .329

Rev(dution In .Sweden -------- '.i'M)

Battle of Tiilavera -------- 331

of yiipern an<\ Ettlin/r ------ 331

of lya/frdm and Znaijm ------ 335

Pence of Vienna --------- 3.35

British expedition to the island of Walchcrcn - - 336
The UU'n of .Martlnico, Bourbon, Zante, &c., and ttie colony

of Ciyenne, taken by Britain ----- 337

Rome annexed to the Fren<h empire ----- 3.17

Pope Pius VII. conducted to Savona - - - - 310

XI. IX. — Successes of the l"reiicli in Spain ----- 3)2

of .Masxena, In I'uringal, till bis retreat - - 313

1810. Conquesta by the Btitiah, in the east - - . . - 314

XLVI

-1803,

1804.

1805

1806

SLVIl.

—

INDEX. 501

CHArrERa. A.D. , PAOB

1813. Marriage of Napnieon with M. Louisa of Austria - - 345
Election of Gen. Bcrnadolte as Crown-prince of Sweden - 346
Prince of Wales declared regent . - - . - 347

B-dUleofjSlbuera ...349

of Barossa -..--.-- 350

Right lion. Mr. Percival shot ..... - 3S6

Ciudad Rodrigo taken by Lord Wellington ... 358

Lord Wellington takes Badajoz by storm .... 358

L. — Battle of Salamanca -------- 358

, oi Smolensk a.nA Borodino ...... 363

The French enter Moscow ---... 364
Battle of £or!so7i ......... 366

of the Beresina ...--.. 367

Ul.— War between England and the United States - - - 369

1813. Concordat of Fontainebleau ...... 373

Battle of ia(ze?i -.-.-.--. 376

of Dresden -------- 377

oi Leipzig --------- 378

Leipzig carried by assault ...... 379

Battle of ri^oria, June 21st - - - - - - -381

Pampeluna surrendered to Don Carlos d'Espana - - 362
Counter-revolution in Holland -.-.-- 383

LIL— 1814. Tiesity of Kiel 385

Battles of Champ-Hubert and Montmirail - - - .385
Congress of Chatillon ...-..- 386
Napoleon defeated before Laon ...... 387

Battle of Orlhes ........388

ofArcis 389

The allies enter Paris, March 31st 391

Napoleon abdicates the throne of France - - - - 395

Battle of Toulouse -------- Z°n

Genoa capitulates to Lord W. Bentinck - - - - 397

Pius VIl. returns to Rome ...... 398

Lewis XVni. enters Paris, May 3d - - - - - 401

' Ferdinand VIl. is re.<!tored to his dominions - - - 401

Definitive treaty of peace signed at Paris .... 402

Union of Norway and Sweden . - . - . 402

Congress of Vienna installed ...... 405

Attack upon the city of Washington .... 406

Treaty of Ghent between England and the United States - 406

UII.— 1S15. Napoleon returns to France ..-.-- 407

Lewis XVIII. retires to Lisle - - - - - - 410

C/ia»«p de JUai, June 1st -..---- 411

Murat defeated near Tolentino, and deposed - - -413
Battle of Q_ualre Bras - - - - - - -414

ofZ-J^ni, June IGth -.---.. 414

of IVaterloo, June 18th 415

Paris invested by the allies, capitulates, Ju!y 3d - - - 419

surrendered to the British army, July 6th - . 420

Lewis XVIII. re-entered Paris on the 8th July ... 420
Napoleon embarked for St. Helena, August 5th - - 420
Joachim Murat shot in the Neapolitan territory - - - 421
Colonel Labedoyere and Marshal Ney tried and executed 423
King of Candy, in Ceylon, subjected to the British crown - 424
Treaty of Vienna, signed November 20th, 1815 - . 424

LIV.— 1816. Debt of England ^25

Kiots in England *^°

War -n-ith Barbary States 42b

England enters Holy Alliance 42«

1818. Treaty for abolition of the slave trade 42a

Congress of Aix-la-Cliapelle— Allies leave France - - 429

1820. Revolt of Naples and Piedmont— suppressed by Austria - 4ai

Revolt in Spain— suppressed by France - - - - i-ii

Assassination of the Duke of Berry 4*J

182^ John Vr. returns to Portugal - - - " / , " Tii
Brazil declared independent under the Emperor Pedro 1. - 4.«
Accession of George IV.— Trial of the Queen ■ " " fx?
Cato street plot --------- 4-30

Death of Napoleon ^ - " 4^

Succession of Popes from Pius VII. to Gregoi-y XVI. - • 4^S
Revolt of Orsece— massacre of Scio ----- *3»

60-

INDEX,

CBAprrKs.

A. D.

1527.
1829.

1S30.

1&33.

ISSC.
1839.

1843.

1830-40.

LV.-1S45.
1S4S.

1849.
1843.

ISM.
1&4S.

JA'I.— 1S.W.
1854.

1855.
1856.

1867.

1868.

1869.

EncHsh wnrs In India 44J

Iiiurvontioii of the allies In Greece— Battle of JV.ifrtriix

>>ct Oth 4«9

JesiiitNexpclloil from Franco ■141

Don Mij,'iiel, liopcnt ami king cupelled by Don Pedro - 443

Cnlholic einanciimtion act past 4IH

J-'rencti uxko Algiers 444

C'liarliiB X. pnblislios lils ordinances. July - - . . 4.^,'i

Tlie tbrco days' llij,'lit of tiie kind 4-16

Dukt'of Uiliansbocoines Louis I'tiilippe, King of the French 447
lievoll of Bolgiuin— August 25, Siege of Antwerp— Leopold

, K1"S.' 448

Ineffectual revolution In Poland, Nov. 29 - - - - 449
Persecution of tlie United Greek Cutliolics In Poland - 4.')0

Itoinau Catholics in Prussia - - - 4,',i

Civil war In Spain 4,')!

KeinriM bill and other acts in England • ■ ■ . . 453
Kobellion in (Canada -----... 4,%j

War with .Mf^ilianlstan 4.',4

Cliina 4^

Scotch free kirk 455

Kepeal movement In Ireland i^S

AH'airs of France ......... 4;,q

Tlio Uepents in Spain ....... 4;,7

lievoluiion in Switzerland ....... 455

National inmeiiicnt In Germany and Italy ... 459

Kevolt (if Sicily 400

Overthrow of Louis Philippe — Republic In Franco - . 4i;o
Holstein war — Denmark and Germany .... 400

lieviilta in Germany ........ 4f,Q

German Empire restored ....... 4(;j

Kevolt of Loinbardy, supported by Sardinia - - . 403
Defeat of Cliarles Albert ....... 45JJ

Kevolt of Hun},':iry— of Vienna - ... . 4ftj

Ku.sfiian intervention In Iliincary. End of the war - - 4C,.l
Second Lombard war — (lel'e:it and abdication of Ch. Albert 465
Kevolt of the lied-repub!ic«ns ot Paris ... .4(5,')

Death of the Arclibisliop — 15lo<>dy engagements. June - 4C6
Louis Napoleon electeil I*ru.s|i|ent ..... 4^7

Flleht of Plus IX. from liome 4fi7

Franc*; resolves to rentore the Pope — successful expedition - 46S
Attempt at revolution in Cuba ....... 4(53

Ireland ...... 403

(Catholic hierarchy established in England - . - 46s
New penal laws ......... 4c,()

EiiKll.sh operation.s at Cape of Gootl 1Io|k; and in India - 4(19
Close of the troubles In Germany .... - 4r,'i

Thr I'^ipipir.' nslori-d in l''raiice 470

Katturution ol aUtolutu power In Europe .... 47Q
Kii^^iia (Iccl.'ircs war at,'iiiii'l 'I'lirkry .... 471
EiiL'land and Fraiiri; Huitimrt Turkey ... .471

Battle of the .-!///((/, S<-|it. '-"O 47a

of Ilulnclain, Oet. 25-C 472

of liikiriiHitin.'Sa\.T) 473

Definition of the Immacniate Conception by Pope Pius

IX.. Dec. 8 478

Battleof Malakoir. Sent. 5 47.3

Concordat with Austria, Anp. IS 473

Treaty rjf parlw b'^twuen Entrland, France, and RuPBla,

IMaroli .30 473

War between Knt'land and China .... .473

between Er.<.'laiid anrl Persia 474

Indian mutiny begins at Mecrut, Way 10 474

Liif know rnlleved, Sept. 25 47.5

Sir H. UoHe defeats Tantia Topee, April 1 - . .475

Mutiny dippressi'd. Dee. 475

Treaty ortienlMn between Knpland and Clilna, Jnne 26 475
^\ ar in Italy l)e;,'un by Auhtria, Sardinia being eupported

bv Krancf' 475

Battle of ilonUbello, May 20 476

INDEX.

•HAPTKiai. A D. PAGE

1«559. Battle of Mnocnta 476

of .S'oy'e?'i/io, June 25 476

Austria gives up Lombardy by treaty of Villafranca,
July 11 476

English repulsed at Pciho, China - ... 480
Spanieh war with Morocco 487

1860. Garibaldi invades Sicily, May 10 - - - - 477

lands in Italy, Aug. 19 477

enter? Naples, Sept. 8 477

Legations overrun and conquered by Cialdini - - 477
Victor Emmanuel annexes the Duchiesi, Legations,

Naples, and Sicily, Dec. 26 477

Pekiu taken by French and English, Oct. 12 - - 480

1861. Gaeta surrenders to Cialdini, Feb. 13 - - - - 478
Vera Cruz occupied by French, English, and Spaniards 487

1862. Greeks expel Otho, and choose George of Denmark - 479

1864. Au^tro-Prussian army invades Holstein - - . 485
Danes defeated at Missunde, Alsen - - . . 485
Denmark 3iirrenders Holstein, Sleswig, and Lauenbnrg 485

Treaty of Vienna. Oct. .SO 485

Chincha Islands, Peru, seized by Spain ... 488

1865. Outbreak in Jamaica, Oct. 482

1866. Cretans revolt against Turkey - - - . . 479
Austria attacked by Prussia and Italy .... 486

defeats Italians at Custozza .... 486

at Lissa ..... 486

Prussia overruns Northern Germany .... 485
defeats Austuia at Sadowa ...... 486

1867. French troops leave Mexico, March ... - 488
Maximilian, emperor of Mexico, shot at Queretaro,

.June 19 488

Atlantic cable laid, July 27 484

Reform bill passed in England, Aug. 15 - - - 481
Garibaldi invades States of the Pope .... 479
BsLMXeot Monte Hotondo, Oct. 'io - - - - 479

ot Mentana, and defeat of invaders, Nov. 4 - 479

Fenian troubles in Ireland, England, and Canada - 482
England makes war on Abyssinia 48-3

1868. Magdala taken, and Theodore killed, April 13 - - 484
Revolution in Spain — Isabella II. deposed - . - 488

Novaliches defeated, Sept. 29 489

Convention for Alabama clainrr , Nov. 10 - - - 482

1869. Irish church disestablished 482

Cuban war ---- . ... 489

Council of the Vatican, Dec. 9 - - - - 479

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l<y" Any of al)ovo book-* kmU frci- liy ninil on rooplpt of frirr. A;:<ril»
minti'd everywhere to Ktll nljovc books, to >vlioni liberal lcrni8 will bogiveo-
Addri'Mi

P. J. KEXF-OY. Kxrel-iorrnfhollc Publishing lIouBO,
S ISurvluy htrvct, Acw Xitrk.

Publications of P. J. Kenedy, 5 Barclay St, N. Y. 3

Irish Fireside Stories, Tales, and Legends.
(Magnificent new book just out.) About 400 pages
large 12mo, containing about 40 humorous and pa-
thetic sketches. 1'3 fine full-pago Illustrations.

Sold only hy subscription. Only $1 00

Keeiter of the Lazaretto. A Tale 40

Ki^ivan Unmasked. By Archbishop Hughes 12

King's Daughters. An Allegory 7,5

Life and Lfgends of St. Patrick 1 00

Life of St. Mani of Egypt 60

" Winefridc GO

" " Louis 40

" " Alphowius J[. Liguori 73

" " Ignatius Loyola. 2 vols 3 00

Life of Blessed Virgin 75

Life of 3Iadaine de la Peltrie SO

Lily of Israel. 23 Engravings 75

Life Stories of Dying Penitents 73

Love of 3Iary 50

Love of Christ 50

Life of Pope Pins IX. 1 00

Lenten Manual 50

Lizzie 3Iaitland. A Tale 75

Little Frank. A Tale 50

Little Catholic Hymn-Book lO

Lyra Catliolica (large Hymn-Book; 75

Mission and Duties of Young Women 60

Maltese Cross. A Tale ." 40

Manual of Children of 3Iary 50

Mater A dm irahilis ." 1 50

Mysteries of the Invar nation. (St. Liguori.) 75

M'>nth of November 40

Month of Sacred Heart of tiesus 50

" Mary 50

Manual of Controversy 75

Michael Dwyer. An Irish Story of 1798 1 00

Milner's End of Controversy 75

May Brooke ,• or, Conscience. A Tale 1 00

New Testa)nent 50

Oramaika. An Indian Story 75

Old Andrtiu the Weaver 50

Prexyaration for Death. St. Liguori 75

Catholic Prayer-Books, 25c., 50o., np to 12 00

^^~ Any of above "books sent free by mail on receipt of price. Ao^ents
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4 Publications of P. J. Kenedy, 5 Barclay St,, N. Y.

l*rai/er. By St. Lip:uori $0 4*0

l*ojtist Misrcpvcsrnted 25

l*o<n' Ma II 'f< L'dtfrli ism 75

IkOSiWff Jiooh'. 15 J lliist rations 10

Home: lis Churclics, t'liaritit'S, ami Schools. By Rev.

Win. H. Xeh^ran, L1..I) '. J OO

Jlo<fri{/ucz\'i C'/iristiait I'erfcctiou. 3 vols.

Onljj comphte edition 4 00

Jiiffe (if IJfe. St . Ijijrnoii 40

Sure }l'(t If : or, Fotlicr and Soh 2I>

Scapu/ar Jioo/c JO

Spirit af St, Ijiffuori 75

Stations of the < 'ross. 14 Illustrations 10

Spiritaaf Mft.rims. (St. Vincent do Paul) 40

Saintfif Characters. By liev. Wni. 11. Kcligan,

L I -.1 ) 1 00

Seraphic Stajf. 25

Ma II ua f, iry vi^.io 3 00

Sermons of Fatlier Uii rhe, i)lain 2 OO

pilt edges :i OO

Srh m id's Exgnisife Tales. G vols 3 00

Shi/iirrech. A Tale 50

Sa raije-s I'oems 2 OO

Sijliil : A Drama. By John Savage 75

Treatise on Sixteen Karnes cf Ireland. By

Kov. J. O'Lcaiv, DA).. 50

Two Cottaf/es. Bv Lady Fnllcrton 50

Think Well On'f. ' Large type 40

Thornhem/ Ahhey. A Tale 50

Three lllcdnors. A Tale 75

Triji to I'ranee. Ivov. J. Donclan 1 00

Th ree K inr/s of Cologne 30

■ JJn irersal Header 50

Visi'in of ithi Andrew the Wearer 50

Visits to the lileysed Sacrament 40

Will If lieill ij. i'apcr covfr 50

Wa If €if the Cross, 14 llhistralions 5

ll'cstern M issions and ]\1 issionaries 2 OO

Ifalker's Dirtionarif 75

Yon nif Ca fit ires, A Tnle 50

Youth's in rector 50

Young Crusaders. A Tale 50

Calhn'ic Pmyn--Ii'ifkf!. 2.')r , ^Or., vp to 12 00

fW Any of above brKikf fciit free by mnll on rocoint of price. Ajjnita

WflnU'd evorywhcre to nell above bookH, to whom liberal terraH will be givea.
▲ddrcs*

P. J. KKNFI>V, KxrplBiniC«tbolic rubliEhlnglloneo,
S liarciuy Slreit, Ken' York.

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