?c^T^..-^:^,jciT^-^^..«Ar CRIMINOLOGY ARTHUR MAC DONALD ir specialist in Education as Related to the Abnormal and Weakling Classes^ U . S. Bureau of Education; Member of the Aledico- JLegal Society, Neio York, and the Anthropological Society, Washington, D. C, and U. S. Delegate to the International Congress of Criminal Anthropology at Brussels, i8g2 WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY DR. CESARE LOMBROSO Professor of Legal Medicine at the University of Turin, Italy FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY I.0NDON AND TORONTO 1893 ^^'P The Author's Preparation for this Work. University of Rochester : A. B., 1879 ; A.M., 1883. Princeton and Andover Theological Seminaries, 1879 and 1881. Union Theological Seminary, 1880-1883. Harvard University : Post Graduate Courses in Phi- losophy, Metaphysics, and Theology, 1883-1885. Johns Hopkins University : Appointed Fellow in Psychology, 1885. European Training, 1885 to 1889 : University of Berlin, Medicine and Science. University of Leipzig, Psycho-Physics. University of Paris, Clinical and Experimental Medirinr. Universities of ZUrich and Vienna, Psychiatry, Hypnotism, Criminology. Clark University, Worcester, Mass.: Docent in Crimi- nology, 1889-1891. United States Bureau of Education : Specialist in Education as Related to the Abnormal and Weakling Classes, 1892. Copyright, 1892, by the FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY. [Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England.] DEDICATED TO ®e«a«je %oxahxoso THE FOUNDER OF CRIMINOtOQY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/criminologyOOmacdrich * T li ?• INTRODUCTION. BY PROF. CESARE LOMBROSO, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TURIN, ITALY It is well that the problem of the science of crim- inal anthropology has been attacked from its most important side, that of the type. When this problem is once resolved, it will no longer be pos- sible to deny the organicity of crime, its anatomical nature and degenerative source; and then all the new reforms, such as institutions for incorrigible and insane criminals, will become a necessity. This point, as to the type, is scarcely recognized, even by the most respectable savants. The reasons for this are many: Above all, there are the crimi- nals by occasion or by passion, who do not belong to the type, and should not, for in great part it is the circumstances, and often the laws even, which make them criminals, and not nature. And then some have strange ideas concerning the criminal type. No doubt if the acceptation of the idea of type is carried out in its complete universality, it cannot be accepted; but I have already said in my previous Vlll CRITvIINOLOGY. writings that it is necessary to receive this idea with the same reserve with which one appreciates averages in statistics. When it is said that the average of life is 32 years, and that the month least fatal to life is December, no one understands by this that all, or almost all, men should die at 32 years, and in the month of Decem- ber; but I am not the only one to make this restric- tion. In order to show this, I have only to cite the definitions which Monsieur Topinard, himself the most inveterate of my adversaries, gives in his remarkable work. " The type," says Gratiolet, is a "synthetic impression." "The type," says Goethe, is " the abstract and general image," which we de- duce from the observation of common parts and from differences, " The type of a species," adds Isidorus G. Saint-Hilaire, " never appears before our eyes, but is perceived only by the mind." "Human types," writes Broca, " have no real exist- ence, they are abstract conceptions, ideals, which come from the comparison of ethnic varieties, and are composed of an ensemble of characters common to a certain number among themselves." I agree fully with these different points of view. The type is indeed an ensemble of traits, but in re- lation to a group,which it characterizes, it is also the ensemble of its most prominent traits, and those repeating themselves the most often, whence comes a series of consequences which the anthropologist should never lose sight of either in his laboratory or in the midst of the populations of Central Africa. INTRODUCTION. 1^ Isidorus G. Saint-Hilaire says the type is a sort of fixed point and a common center, about which the differences presented are deviations in a diverse sense and indefinite and varied oscillations — a point about which nature seems to play, as an- atomists used to say, and as is said still in the Germanic languages. An example seems useless after a picture so per- fect. Take, however, a series of skulls, a certain one in a good condition of homogeneity, such as, for example, the first series of Auvergnat, which was studied by Broca. This series came from an old mountain cemetery, in a separated locality, reminding us once for all that the skulls represent individuals, with this advantage, that one can handle them at will and measure and arrange them at his ease. Sometimes there are less generic reasons which produce skepticism concerning the type ; and this is ignorance of what the type is really. Thus, it is very strange to see Joly, in his" Young Prisoners," give the portraits of the chief ones, which illus- trate the most complete type, and after this deny the type. Likewise Magnan (" Actes du Congr^s d'Anthropologie Criminelle de Paris") presents two portraits of seven with the most complete criminal type, and yet he denies its existence. Now, he is certainly acting in good faith, otherwise he would not have presented a document which contradicts his assertions. It is evident that he is in error as to what the type is. The same is the case with Manouvrier, who denied the median occipital fossa, X CRIMINOLOGY. in believing that it was a really nutritive depres- sion. I am glad, however, that the subject is treated in North America, where our school has taken such deep root, and has already found prac- tical applications, as at Elmira. And thus, if the new ideas originating in the Old World shall die there, sterilized by the neglect, not of him who created them, but of him who does not compre- hend them, and shall find in the New World those who will perpetuate them by fertilizing and apply- ing them, so the grape, the fruit of the vine, the first consolation, and the first sin of the Asiatic patriarch will commence to return to us from the New World modified and improved. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. In the first edition of this work, issued some three months ago, a full statement of the purpose of the author was not made. A few of the criti- cisms seem to indicate some misapprehensions. The purpose in the general part is to give the most trustworthy opinions and the results of original investigations. In a subject of such recent develop- ment it would be premature to introduce a system or theory of criminology, or to enter into the philosophy of crime or any form of criminological polemics. There is, therefore, no defined theory advocated. Many problems, including that of the criminal *' type," are not considered by the author. In a strict sense, criminology is, of course, not yetf a science any more than sociology is ; but it may! prove to be an important step in the direction of a; scientific study of humanity ; for investigations of normal humanity with scientific instruments and methods can best begin in prison. At least half of the prisoners are as normal as persons outside, and they are much easier reached and much more likely to confess truths that individuals in free life would conceal. The chapter on criminal hypnotism is an en- deavor to present the actual state of the question, which, as might be expected, is indefinite, some- 2 CRIMINOLOGY. times contradictory, and generally unsatisfactory. The autiior has, however, leaned more toward the Nancy than the Charcot school. The latter at first denied that normal people could be hypno- tized ; but it gradually receded for this position. At present it seems to deny criminal hypnotism ; but such denial does not come from those who have made extensive experiments on the crimino- logical side. The author may be allowed to state that his impressions have been formed by a per- sonal attendance on the courses and experiments of leading investigators in both schools. In Part II., description of the individual and his patho-social surroundings has been the main ob- ject. Whether any such study will solve any problems is more important practically than scientifically ; yet it is a general scientific belief that truth is always practical, and that it is the most direct method of solving problems, if such be possible with the inadequate knowledge at present attainable. A complete study of a criminal would include his history, genealogy, and all the particulars con- cerning himself and his surroundings previous to and during his criminal act ; also a study of him in the psycho-physical sense, that is, experiments upon liis mind and body with instruments of pre- cision, measuring, for example, his thought-time, y senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell, press- ure, heat, cold, etc.; also an examination of his organs after death, especially of his brain. It is evident that no one person could make an ade- PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 3 quate study of a criminal. The histology of the brain alone with its physiology is more than the] life-work of many men could accomplish. Thus,! criminology must depend for its advancement \ upon the work of numerous specialists. Scientific research in nervous diseases and in insanity has / taken but a few steps ; yet the close relation of crime to these conditions is well known. Critics who expect definite conclusions in crimi- nology reveal their ignorance of the extent of the subject. It is an initiatory step in the experimental study of individuals themselves and their exact relations to their surroundings. It is the physio- logical side of social disease as well as the ana- tomical. Both a practical and scientific value of criminology may consist in showing more clearly what normal society is or ought to be ; just as the study of insanity by contrast gives an insight into mental health. The growing interest in criminology, and espe- cially in social science, or, more exactly, social pathology, should encourage all serious students to undertake the investigation of the many vital questions that lie directly before them. Washington, D. C, April, 1893. P RE F AC E In Part I. the results of the researches of others mainly have been given. Part II. consists of indi- vidual and typical cases personally studied by the author in penal and reformatory institutions of America. The "type "has been considered from the psychological rather than the physical side. The author takes great pleasure in acknowledging his indebtedness first, and most of all, to Lombroso for his epoch-making work, — " L'Homme Crim- inel.*' Much assistance has also been derived from Dr. Corre's excellent treatise, " Les Criminels," and some of the writings of the following authors have been freely consulted: Bernheim, von Krafft-Ebing, Aubry, Jilles de la Tourette, Laurent, von Holder, Benedikt, and Tenchini. The author, too, was kindly offered every assistance by those in charge of the institutions in which special cases were studied; and he takes great pleasure in acknowl- edging the same. He was also permitted to be locked up with certain criminals whom it was considered dangerous to allow out of their cells. The endeavor has been to follow scientific methods. 6 PREFACE. All personal names in the caiiaB, otudl^d, and most of the names of places, have been omitted. The first portion of the bibliography (Part III.) is divided according to languages. The English works treat more of the practical side of crim- inology. The second portion, much of which is taken from Ferri*s recent work, "Sociologia Criminale," is arranged under special heads, and refers more directly to the scientific side of criminology. Washington, D. C, December, 1892. CONTENTS. Introduction — By Prof. Cesare Lombroso. PAGES. Criminal type — Type scarcely recognized — Reasons — Criminals by occasion not belonging to type — Strange ideas of type — Idea of type limited — Defi- nitions of Gratiolet, Goethe, Saint-Hilaire, and Broca — Type an ensemble of prominent traits — Skulls easily arranged — Joly's inconsistency — Error of Magnan and Manouvrier — Deep root of school in America — Ideas to return to Europe modified and improved vii-x, Preface 5-6 Preface to Second Edition.: 1-3 PART I.— GENERAL CRIMINOLOGY. Chapter I. — The Evolution of Crime. Absolute impartiality impossible — Descriptive meth- od in science — Embryology of crime — Phenomena closely allied — Taking of life in war patriotic — Nature a synthetic whole — Lower realms explain higher — Acts of nature cruel — Equivalents of murder — Dependence on histological conditions — Equivalents of crime, increase from vegetable to animal — Cannibalism — Infanticide — Irresistible impulse — Influence of weather on animals — Theft among animals— Species of kleptomania — In- fluence of alcohol on animals — Swindling and deceit of animals — Meanness — Sense of property — Punishment of animals — Prehistoric races — Man's progress slow — Crime the rule — Philologi- 8 CRIMINOLOGY. PAGES. cal evidence — Excessive increase of population — Homicides ordained by religion — Abortion com- mon — Ancient Mexican aristocracy — The New Caledonians — Custom in Sweden, New Zealand, etc. — Celebrity of assassins — Idea of property wanting — Crime from point of view of savage — Natural conservatism — Greatest of crimes — Brahmins, Arabs. Abyssinians — Rudimentary jus- tice — Increase of despotism — Theft a serious crime — Murder a secondary offense — Duels first legal forms of punishment — Compensation for vengeance — Power of chiefs increased — Muscular force not sufficient — Germs of crime in infancy — Frequency of anger in children — Ways of mani- festation — Children's lying, love, cruelty, and murder — Impure origin of justice — Vengeance — Lynch law — Extreme egotism of man. — War. . . . 17-35 Chapter II. — The Physical Side of the Criminal. Measurements of children — Anomalies — Physically defective — Criminal children — Effect of education — Minors, normal and criminal — Adults — Weight — Health of different classes of criminals — Physi- ognomy — First impressions — Classification of ex- pressions — Ethnic type — Murderers, thieves, ped- erasts, swindlers, forgers, etc. — Hair — Eye — Physi- ognomical type — Illustrative proverbs — Facial muscles — Difficult to distinguish recidivists — Tat- tooing of sailors, prostitutes, soldiers — Causes of tattooing — Craniology — Comparative study — Cranial capacity and intelligence — Weight of cranium — Semi-horizontal circumference — Auric- ular angles, table — Curves — Cephalic index — Brachycephalic most common — Vertical and frontal indices — Corre's results — Cranial anom- alies, table of asymmetry — Surroundings and heredity — Skeleton and members — Homicides, violators, thieves, assassins, idiots — Cerebrology — Comparative brain weight — Anomalies — Conclu- sion — Inadequacy of present knowledge — Recip- rocal influence of brain and cranium — Pathology — CONTENTS. Regularity of prison life favorable — Feeble health ill thieves — Premature senility, agitated life — Mortality, table — Prostitution — Pathological anat- omy, table — Valvular insufficiency — Liver and stomach 36-69 Chapter III. — Psychology of Criminals. General sensibility less — Meteoric sensibility greater — sight, hearing — Left-handedness — Anomalies of mobility — Blushing — Sphygmography, vascular reaction cases — Violators' feeble reflexes — Lon- gevity of criminals — Effects of insensibility — Moral as great as physical — Peculiar acts of criminals — Sentiments — Instability always present — Vanity, extreme cases — Vengeance — Cruelty and sexuality, lust-murders — Wine and gambling — Other tendencies, fast life — Crime and insanity — Sensibility and passions, savagery, impetuosity — Vulnerability, analgesia — Conduct at execu- tions, fainting, defiant, loquacious — Suicide — Soldiers — Religion of criminals — Glaring contra- dictions 70-96 Chapter IV. — Intelligence of Criminals. Below the average — Lacenaire's testimony — Cred- ulousness, levity, lack of foresight — Specialists in crime — Superstitions — Poisoners, species of thieves, assassins — Idlers and vagrants — Crimin- als of genius — Crime rare among scientists and mathematicians — Education and crime — Poets and artists — Per cent, of education in France, Austria, Italy — Compared with insane — Slang — Insight into criminal mind — Objects by attributes, phonetic disguise — Many synonyms for guards, drunkenness, money — Few ideas of criminals — Cyiminal hieroglyphics and signatures — In Naples and Sicily — Two groups — Writing of the insane, points over letters — Literature of criminals — The ancients — Descriptions of species of swin- dlers and vagabonds — Product of leisure hours — Old friends in prison — ^sthetical feeling — lO CRIMINOLOGY. PAGES " Tiravallura " — Criminal maxims — Songs of ven- geance — Lacenaire, " To my Love " — Bad influ- ence of prison — Novice blushes — First step taken — Bad passions — Literary miasma — Productions of the insane 97-118 Chapter V. — Associations of Criminals. Criminality strengthened — Savage tendencies de- veloped — Vanity — Constant purpose — Sex — Char- acter of association — Division of labor — Criminal idea of punishment — Method of trial — Aid of women — Feigning epileptic fit — The Camorra — Hierarchy — Aspirants for candidacy — Enemy of authority — Exposure of life — Banquet — The " Si " — Distribution of "la Camorra" — Extortions — The tenth part — The poor suffer — Death penalty,— Determination of guilt — Certainty of punishment — The Maffia — Word — Variety of Camorrists — Keeping secrets — Origin of Maffia — Code — Pro- tection of the rich — Vengeance — Anarchy — Thieves and assassins — Argot — "Picciotti" — Avoiding detection — When to use arms 1 19-128 Chapter VL— Criminal Contagion. Reformation — Testimony of Lacenaire — Contagion from the press — Cases — Tropman — Reading of novels — Significant confession — Finer sensibili- ties hardened — Weaklings affected — Contagion by vitriol or revolver — Women — Seduction and abandonment — Approval of the crowd — False heroine — Poisoning less employed — Progress of science 1 29-1 35 Chapter VIL — Criminal Hypnotism. Violation — Lethargic state — Semblence of voluntary action — Memory confused — Simulation — Som- nambulism — Doubtful offenses — Opinion of Jilles de la Tourette — Experimental cases— Post-hyp- notic states — Charcot's case — Subject to hypno- tism — Danger to hypnotiser — Hysterical per- sons — Stemo-mastoid muscle — Analogue states — CONTENTS. II Irresistible force — Experiment of Li6gois— False testimony through fear — Precautions — Duty of magistrate — Danger of suggesting to witness — Determination of suggestibility — Criminal sug- gestions — Cases of Bernheim — Influence of hyp- nosis—Indirect influence on other patients— Expla- nation of noted case — Chambige — Subconscious state in love — Suggestion, passion irresistible — Idio-dynamic automatism — Case of young lady and physician — Confession of love during som- nambulism — Suspicious pregnancy — Case of sug- gestible lawyer — Double personality — Past exist- ence forgotten — Arrested for swindling — Normal persons at times capricious — All degrees of trans- formation — The r61e of suggestion in morality — Greatest criminals not always most guilty — Case of Laurent — Krafft-Ebing's case of theft — Auto and experimental hypnosis — Case of romance — Simulated hypnotism 136-154 Chapter VIII. — Recidivation. Crime a profession — Reformation rare — Prison or asylum — Defective prison discipline deepens criminality — False names, coarseness, audacious plots— Necessity of severe punishment — First stage of insanity — Alcoholics seldom thieves — Persecu- tive hallucinations — Von Holder's classification — Crime and insanity, distorted manifestations of mind — Criminal inclinations common — Civilization and recidivation increase — Statistics in Belgium, Prussia, Austria, France — Persistency of habitual crime — Criminal purposes — Prostitutes seldom reform — Cellular system in Prussia, Belgium, France — Legal notions of crime — Increase of crime in young — Moral sense — Point of view of criminals — Moral sense feeble — Feelings of crimi- nals — Idea of honor — Deep remorse a myth — Table — Confession to justify — Lacenaire — Confes- sion of the Marquise of Brinvilles — Inconstancy and voluptuousness — moral metamorphosis — Crimi- nals' arguments — Two kinds of justice, natural and artificial — Thieves' meeting in London — Divi- sion of booty — Mutual jealousy 155-166 12 CRIMINOLOGY. PAGES, PART II.— SPECIAL CRIMINOLOGY. Method of Investigation. Details — Insight into typical cases — Repetition the rule — Value of single cases — Visiting reformato- ries — Pure theft, murder and meanness — The worst cases — Prison environment known — Signifi- cance of complaints — Order of procedure — Pre- vious knowledge of prisoner important — Method of interview — Abnormal cases — Each case pre- sented so as to leave reader independent — Im- portance of siigiit offenses — Knowledge about prisoners after leaving prison — Advanceinent — In- stitutions useful to society for study — Knowledge of causes' first step — Degree of cure important — Exact knowledge rare — Need of exact methods — Psychologv of criminal at moment of crime im- portant — Beginning of scientific sociology 169-173 Chapter I. — Pure Murder. Case " A." Characteristics of murderers — Heredity — Cause of murder — Unconscious of repulsion — Cases — Hero- ism and ferocity — Autobiography of " A " — Evil home surroundings — Drunken father — Teasing of animals — Tendency to kill animals — Roving in- stinct — Interest in seeing things — Stoning of old lady — History of " A." from records of institution — Family verv poor — Facts confirmatory of auto- biography — Weight, height, etc. — Previous edu- cation — Complaints against " A " — Making dis- turbance, doing poor work — Stealing — Assaulting with knife — Punishment — Release from institution — Testimony of officers; disagreeable to boys» strikes them ; does not care how he works — Attempt at suicide — Good scholar — No me- chanical ability — Not vicious, not hilarious — Has spells, and stares — Sometimes silly — Not with other boys much — Hardly knows what he does when excited — Bright and bad — Letter of " A " — Testimony of farmer — Examination of " A " — ^ Idea of his home — His account of stoning old* CONTENTS. 13 woman — Anger — Idea of retaliation — Cruelty — Dizzy feeling. Lack of self-control — Intended to murder — Did not feel to blame — Attempt at Sui- cide — Physiological examination — Craniology — Conclusion : not epileptic — Want of repulsion to taking life — Allowed freedom too soon 1 74-203 Chapter II. — Pure Theft. Idea of theft — Incorrigibility — Liberality and popu- larity — Case " B," history — Father intemperate — Previous arrests — Complaints — General disorder — Burglarizing — Insubordination — Filthy habits — Impudence — Generally pleads guilty — Testimony of officers — Good at trade, bad in school — A good soldier — Proud of knowledge of evil — Indomitable will — Sincere in religious desires — Behavior dur- ing punishment — Seldom cries — Interview with " B " — Not talkative — State when very young — Father whipped him — Results unfavorable — Phy- sical and craniological examination — Asymmetry of head — Conclusion — Strong passion for stealing — Hereditary influences — Reformation doubtful — Case " C " — Records of institution — Antecedents — Good family — Conduct report — General willful disobedience — School record — Letters — Signing false name — Forged check — Craniology — Physi- cal examination — No special abnormality — Good risk for life insurance — Testimony of officers — Stealing shoes — Good workman — *' Slick fellow " — Interview with "C" — Put obstruction on rail- road — " Devil in me " — Living with a woman — Stole apples when young — Bad associates — "C's" idea for improving prison discipline — Lying at school — Excuse for bad behavior — Visited places at night — Played pool — Loose girls — Parole — Conclusion — History of Case " D " — Testimony of officers — Conduct in another reformatory — Es- caped on way to prison — Threatened to kill a detective — Parents orderly people — Ingenious in crime — Interview with "D " — Whipping — Intends to quit crime — Cause of stealing — Injustice to him — Inventor — Genius for escaping — Electrocution ^1 14 CRIMINOLOGY. PAGES. — Reformation — Prison experience — Ill-will of prisoners — Returns to crime — Conclusion — Crimi- nal genius — Untruthful and crooked — Cause of his criminality 204-256 Chapter III. — Pure Meanness. Term — Miss "E" — Records of institution: child- hood — Complaints — Very disorderly — Appropriat- ing things — Vulgar talk — Breaking things — " Tantrum " — Beyond control — Testimony of officers — Obscene — Open and defiant — Abandoned life — Religion — Interview with Miss "E" — Mother a "run-about" — Very bad home — Crani- ology — Physical examination — Autobiography — Conclusion — History of " F " — Records of institu- tion — Complaints — Impudent and surly — Testi- mony of officers — Home poor — Father drunkard and criminal — Interview — Whipped by father — Treated well by grandparents — Easily angered — Craniology — Physical examination — Conclusion — General practical conclusions — Society making experiments — Release only on reasonable proba- bility of reformation — Indeterminate sentence best — Danger to society the basis of punishment — Publications in newspapers of details injurious — Foolishness of crime 257-272 PART III.— BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CRIME. English , 275-287 Proceedings of the Congresses of the National Prison Association of the United States 287-303 Periodical and Press Literature 304-331 French, German, Italian, Spanish, other languages -.332-371 Craniology 372-37 5 Criminal statistics 376-390 Cerebrology 391-393 Psycho-criminal pathology 394-400 Pathological anatomy 401 Anthropometry 402-403 Physiognomy 404 Congresses of Criminology 405-408 Index 409-416 PART I, GENERAL CRIMINOLOGY GENERAL CRIMINOLOGY. CHAPTER I. THE EVOLUTION OF CRIME. The most impartial individual we can conceive of would be one coming from another planet, who has no special interest upon this earth, except to see things exactly as they are. But such absolute impartiality is impossible ; nevertheless, it has been one of the efforts of science to endeavor at least to approximate to such an ideal. A large part of the most rigid science consists in simple and exact description, which should be given, of course, without regard to any views that one may con- sciously or unconsciously hold. We shall attempt in this chapter to describe certain phenomena in all stages of the animate world, which, if occur- ring in the sphere of man, would be called criminal. \ Such a description constitutes what is meant by the evolution, or the embryology, of crime. Our purpose is to show how that seemingly unrelated phenomena are from the point of view of nature closely allied. If it be said that we can- not compare the action of a plant or animal with that of man, it may be said also that a comparison of actions of savages with those of civilized men is 2 l8 CRIMINOLOGY. questionable, for the greatest of crimes in one can be the greatest of virtues in the other; even in our present civilization the taking of life in war is a patriotic act, and is therefore regarded as a virtue. The plant, the animal, the savage, the child of rcivilized man, and civilized man himself, are stages fin nature, which pass imperceptibly one into the other, and form one synthetic whole. According, then, to the natural-history method nature may be t studied in her lower realms in order to gain an 1 insight into her more developed stages ; for , ' although the processes of elimination may be more direct and severe in the beginnings of nature, yet they are in essence the same throughout her whole extent, reaching into the highest spheres of action and thought. From these points of view, many of the acts of nature are the most cruel and immoral. The insectivorous plants commit the equivalents 1 of murder. When insects light upon a leaf of the utricularia neglecta^ it allures these insects by its appendages, plays with them, catches them in an elastic valve, which closes in behind, and imprisons them until they die. Did we not know that these phenomena depend on histological conditions we might suspect premeditation, ambush, and liberty of choice ; for very small insects are refused by this plant. It may be possible that some human crimes likewise depend upon histological conditions. As we pass from the vegetable to the animal, the number of equivalents of crime increases in variety. Thus taking of life in order to procure food or to THE EVOLUTION OF CRIME. I9 command the tribe has been observed among horses, bulls, and stags. It is a familiar fact that cannibalism is sometimes practiced among wolves; field mice when they fall into a trap devour one another ; rats do the same ; porpoises and rabbits have been known to do likewise even when they have plenty to eat (Lacassagne) ; once in a while a dog will eat another dog. But with cannibalism goes infanticide ; the female of the crocodile some- times eats those of her young who do not know how to swim. As among barbarous peoples, so among civilized, there has been infanticide on account of bodily deformity. Lombroso saw a hen abandon the weak and lame of her brood and start off with the robust ones. There are birds who break their eggs and destroy their nests ; monkeys who dash the heads of their young against a tree when they are tired of carrying them. Cats, hares, and dogs furnish the equivalents of infanticide, and the young of foxes practice parricide. There is in animals, as in men, an irresistible impulse for over-excitement of passions. The patient drome- daries when agitated become furious, trample those who trouble them under their feet ; but having satisfied their vengeance they become quiet again ; in such cases the Arabs throw their clothes at the dromedary and let him vent his rage on these. In certain species of ants, the warriors, after a combat, are possessed with a sort of fury, and fight everything in their way ; they even attack the slaves who strive to calm them by seizing them by the legs and holding them firm until their anger is 20 CRIMINOLOGY. over. In a quarrel between the bears in a zoologi- cal garden at Cologne, the female becoming exhausted, the male held it under water until it was drowned, and then dragged it around to make sure of its death. In northern Scotland, troops of cows have been known to put their guilty compan- ions to death. Magnan has seen the most docile dogs, by continued use of alcoholic drinks, become mischievous. Lombroso has observed a parallel case in roosters poisoned with foul meal. Ants narcotized by chloroform become paralyzed, except in the head, by the moving of which they bite everything in reach. It is known that in a sect of assassins in the Orient the homicidal fury is excited by a mixture of hemp and opium. (Pierquin.) Meteoric conditions have their influence; thus animals of the same species, or related ones, are fiercer in the torid zone than in the less warm regions of America (Rousse); the lions in the Atlas mountains are much less formidable than those in the desert. Cattle have been known during the warm season, and especially at the approach of a storm, to be taken with an attack of fury and rush against persons and trees until the storm bursts and the rain calms them. Theft is a common vice among animals. In stealing to satisfy hunger the passion is generally irresistible. There is a selection of suitable objects; the dog or cat confine themselves to food; there is, as a rule, no hoarding or hiding, but the food is used at once. But in the stealing of useless arti- cles practiced by magpies, rats, and monkeys, the THE EVOLUTION OF CRIME. 21 method is often systematic, or at long intervals, hoarding or hiding being the rule; this is a sort of kleptomania, perniciousness, or a love of stealing for its ow^n sake. As the magpie is notorious for stealing glittering objects, so we find the parallel among savages, who have been known to help themselves on shipboard to all the movables, being fascinated by mirrors, cutlery, and jewelry. Some- times bees, in order to save trouble, attack in crowds well-furnished hives and carry off the pro- visions; they gradually acquire a taste for this, and form companies and colonies of brigands. If bees are given a mixture of honey and brandy, they can acquire a taste for it, and become irritable under its influence, drink and cease to work, and, like men, fall from one vice into another, giving them- selves, without scruple, to plunder and theft. (Buchner.) Swindling and deceit are known among animals. In military stables horses are known to have pre- tended to be lame in order to avoid gbing to mili- tary exercise. A chimpanzee had been fed on cake when sick; after his recovery he often feigned coughing in order to procure dainties. The cuckoo sometimes lays its egg in the sparrow's nest, and to make the deception surer it takes away one of the sparrow's eggs. Animals are conscious of their deceit, as shown by the fact that they try to operate secretly and noiselessly; they show a sense of guilt if detected; they take precautions in advance to avoid discovery; in some cases they manifest regret and repentance. Thus bees which steal, hesitate 22 CRIMINOLOGY. often before and after their exploits, as if they feared punishment. One describes how his mon- key committed theft: while he pretended to sleep the animal regarded him with hesitation, and stopped every time his master moved or seemed on the point of awakening. Such, and many more well-known facts, may be due, perhaps, to fear of punishment, which naturally follows a misdeed, just as is observed among habitual thieves. Cases of meanness are not so numerous among the animals; a surprising one is the innocent dove, which sometimes hides under her wings food for which she has no need simply to deprive her com- panions. The sense of property is manifested in the com- petition for prizes, as in the struggle for the female, or for food, rank, territory, or nests. The dog distinguishes the property of his master, and even discriminates between objects belonging to differ- ent members of the same family. It is well known that, by a wise employment of punishment, animals can be trained and improved. There are, however, instincts that it seems impos- sible to change. The cat, in spite of a long domes- ticity and repeated punishments, never loses its habit of stealing; and a curious coincidence is, that, among criminals, a thief is the most difficult to reform, and is generally incorrigible. Severity may help feeble animals sometimes, but it renders the more vigorous vindictive. In the case of crim- inal man the same idea is true; less brutal means of punishment have better results. THE EVOLUTION OF CRIME. 2$ In passing from animals to man we find, as is I natural to expect, the lowest degree of savagery in / prehistoric races. Without discussing tertiary ( man, we know in general the manner of life of quartenary man; it was the lowest degree of sav- agery; stones, roughly split, were used as weapons; / hu nting^ was the main occupationj^ those on the Coast^ate moUusks, but were not fishermen; they j located on certain points of the shore as indicated by the piles of rejected shell-fish and debris of kitchen. The bow was for a long time unknown; spears of wood, with flint fastened to them, were their weapons; they knew fire; they lived under rocks, but rarely in caverns, which were too often inhabited by carnivorous animals, with which man would not voluntarily fight. The animals known in this period show how much prudence was nec- essary to man; how he was as much hunted as he was a hunter; thus his progress was slower than in later days. Among the savages crime was the rule. There I [/ is philological evidence to show that in Sanskrit ' the word for crime is the word for action; there are ten or more roots which express the idea of killing or wounding; in criminal slang the same is true; one explanation is that synonyms abound for acts that are repeated very often. All lan- guages agree in representing plunder and murder as the first source of property. Even mythology makes crime triumphant in heaven. Ravuvavu was the god of assas sins am ong the Fijis; Laverna was the goddess^^^UUiVJ!^te|g the Romans, and 24 CRIMINOLOGY. the Peruvians had the goddess of parricide and infanticide. All these were held in adoration. The large number of homicides in savage life is explained by the fact that excessive increase of population, in comparison with natural means of subsistence was a constant peril. Such homicides were often ordained by morality and religion, and furnished a title to glory. Abortion, unknown to the animals, is common among savages. Some tribes in Central Africa frequently used their chil- dren as a bait to catch lions. The aristocracy of the ancient Mexicans had as a precept that a woman rearing a child should be expelled with the stigma of " baby-carrier." The sick and aged were murdered, as is sometimes the case among animals. The New Caledonians found such customs natural, and requested death; their religion taught that they entered the future life in the same state in which they left the earth. On entering a city no man over forty was found. Such customs were not confined to savages, but were practiced in Europe before morality and law had reached a sufficient degree of development. Strabo says that the inhabitants of ancient Bactria trained their dogs to devour the aged and sick. In Sweden they preserved the large clubs (until 1600) with which they killed the old and sick; such cruelty was a solemn act, performed by the relatives them- selves. In funeral rites it is a common practice among most diverse races to sacrifice the relatives and slaves of the deceased. In New Zealand the woman who refuses to live after the death of her THE EVOLUTION OF CRIME. 25 husband is greatly admired. In Central Africa i( is a religious belief that the ghosts of the ances- tors drink the blood shed, and so as much blood is offered as possible. The Pauras in India had a caste whose duty it was to carry off men and chil- dren as booty for sacrifice. The ancient Greeks calmed the winds by offering children. The Aus- tralians did not value the life of a man much more than that of a toad. For a Malay, homicide was*a sort of a joke; it was not uncommon to test weap- ons on the first comer. In a Kassago tribe, the Csesarean operation was performed to satisfy curi- osity. For a savage a stranger was an enemy, whom to kill was a glory. With the Fijis it was a great ambition to become a celebrated assassin. In Borneo a young man was not able to marry unless he had killed at least one man. For the Australian natural death was a rarity. Cannibal- \V ism is the highest degree of human savagery. The most common form is caused by necessity, and has gone so far that the Australians have even exhumed bodies. They have an epoch called "the season for eating men." Among many other causes, there is the belief that one assimilates the courage of his enemy by eating his heart, his sagacity by eating his eye, and that his vengeance is prevented by devouring the whole body. In the Sandwich Islands, when a good prince dies a natural death his body is eaten, to keep it from being profaned; this is called '' eating the chief for love." There are some peoples who wage war simply to eat the conquered. Cannibalism is so ingrained in 26 CRIMINOLOGY. the Fijis that they cannot praise food better than by saying " that it is as tender as a dead man." The inhabitants of the seashore were regarded by some as having *' an old fishy taste"; the Euro- peans were ^* too salty." In cannibalism there has been a gradual diminu- tion in cruelty and a development of natural sen- timents and judicial forms. It was first the whole body, then a part which was eaten, then man was replaced by animals, and at last symbolic figures are employed. The primitive peoples did not have property, nor the idea of property, and much less of theft. In Egypt the profession of a thief was recognized by the State; he was required to inscribe his name and designate the place where those from whom he had taken things could obtain them by paying a certain sum. The Germans desired their youths to practice stealing on their frontiers to keep them from languishing in idleness. Thucydides says that among the Greeks on the islands piracy was a glory. In Sparta theft was permitted; punish- ment was administered in case of maladdress. In Central Africa thieves are held in general esteem. Real crimes, from the point of view of the savage, are small in number, and have been distinguished late and in an irregular manner. Crime consists in failures to conform to established usages, and to whatever, through religion, may have been made sacred by continual custom. The Hindoo must not drink certain beers intended for the Brahmin alone; the young man in Australia must THE EVOLUTION OF CRIME. 27 not taste of the flesh of the "emou," which is only- permitted to the aged and the chiefs. Wliile man takes pleasure in a slight innovation, he struggles against radical ones; he likes inertia or repetition of the same movements. So the domestic animals protest at first against great novelties, as gas or steam. Even children are furious when there is a change of house or apartments; they desire to see the same things; they like to hear the same stories over and over again in the same words. Man is naturally conservative, and it is doubtful if he would have progressed had there not been innovations which were necessary to en- dure in order to escape still greater pains; progress has been forced upon him by extraordinary men with exalted altruism, a superior mental activity, foreseeing events, urging the people on, who in turn have often taken vengeance by killing the reformer. Savage races, whose minds are less active, react with the greatest force against any innovation, re- garding the innovators as criminals. Gradually the guardians of religion, priests, wise men, and phy- sicians, sorcerers, etc., became chiefs of the tribe, country, and section, and were considered as sa- cred, so that any offense against them was the greatest of crimes. A Brahmin commits a slight offense when he kills some one, but to kill a Brahmin is an atro- cious crime. Ambition of despots, intrigues of priests, joined with the blind fear of the populace and the worship of ancestral customs, have given 28 CRIMINOLOGY. rise to some of the most strange laws: In Oceanica it is a crime to touch the body of a chief, or for a woman to touch her hand upon the head of her husband, or to enter into a canoe. A Saxon law punished with death whoever burnt a body instead of burying it. In the code of Manou, whoever scatters a heap of earth, or cuts a blade of grass with his fingernails, or pares his fingernails is lost, just as much as if he was a slanderer or impure man. Among savages there was little idea of crime; vengeance was a duty. The Arabs did not allow the homicide to be punished by the sover- eign; they fought for him and family. The Abys- sinians give the murderer over to the nearest rela- tives of the victim, to be by them disposed of at their.pleasure. The Kourraukos punish homicide by death, but the guilty can always free himself by paying damages to parents or friends of the victim; this is regarded wholly as a private affair. The rudimentary idea of justice somewhat general in Africa is, that there is no crime, but only damage to some chief or particular person. In Australia each one applied his own penal sanction; later he consulted with the tribe, and vengeance became civil and religious; death or retaliation was the re- sult generally reached. (To-day children strike back again, and are often not content until they strike just where they were struck.) Murder was of little consequence except in case of a chief, priest, or if committed by a stranger. Among the Ashantis in Africa, the murder of an important person' was punished by death, the culprit being THE EVOLUTION OF CRIME. 29 allowed to kill himself; but the son of a king could not. suffer the death penalty. The Fijis regarded the gravity of a crime according to the social posi- tion of the guilty; so in the laws of the Middle Ages, a theft by a common man was much worse than by a chief. With the increase of despotism and the force of arms in invasions, the chiefs be- came proprietors instead of the tribe, and theft, as it was against them, became a crime, and one of the greatest of crimes; worse than assassination, which did not involve the property or interests of the chief. The code of Manou defines murder as a secondary offense, but ordains to cut to pieces with a razor a goldsmith who deceives his customer. In Asia, among the Mongolians, theft was consid- ered worse than murder. With the Germans, when theft was announced by a horn, it was not considered a crime. Punishment and vengeance finally became con- fused ; the idea was to kill or to wound sufficiently to give compensation to the victim or his friends for the damage incurred or pain endured. Among the Germans and Australians, one should kill his adversary, but loyally ; he must veil the corpse and indicate to the relatives where it lies. Such pun- ishments were more like scuffles and duels ; thus a tribe warns another tribe beforehand and furnishes it with weapons ; at a given signal arrows are shot, and after a number of deaths, they shake hands and close with a ball (Tylor). The first legal forms of punishment were duels or combats by several men against an individual presumed guilty. As 3© CRIMINOLOGY. life and property became more valuable, compen- sation was sought, which the tribe would guaran- tee ; and this varied according to the social posi- tion of the offender. \The custom of compensation for vengeance and murder being once introduced, the intervention of a third person with authority naturally followed ; he should fix the amount. Thus, by the increase of wealth and the possession of property it was. possible to repair damage more equitably. This increased in turn the power of the chiefs, who were both judges and executive magistrates. This system was extended to all other crimes or offenses, which were considered from the point of view of damage to the king. Naturally the chiefs and priests endeavored to maintain laws so advantageous to themselves ; yet it may have been by this means that morality pen- etrated into society, which otherwise might have been discouraged by a too severe and absolute vir- tue ; and thus punishments which were introduced at first for selfishness became profitable for all humanity, for with no other protection than mus- cular force it is doubtful if humanity would have been capable of acquiring a veritable organiza- tion. The germs of crime are met with, in a normal manner, during the first years of infancy. It is a familiar fact that if many embryonic forms should cease to develop, they would become monstrosi-* ties. So a child if it retained some of its charater- istics would become either a criminal, or a person with little moral sense. The frequency of anger in THE EVOLUTION OF CRIME. 3I children is notorious. In the first few months it is manifested by movements of the eyebrows or hands ; at the age of one year the child strikes other people, breaks objects, and throws things at those who displease it. Obstinacy and impulsive- ness predominate, as those who wash and care for children often observe. Certain children cannot wait a moment for what they have asked for ; to- morrow is as long as eternity. Some become furi- ous when they cannot reach a thing. Some bite when they are washed or when angry. It is not rare to see a child scratch and bite its nurse when withdrawn from the breast. When a request is re- fused in the street, children not infrequently strike their parents. As in animals, so in man, jealousy is not only excited by love, but especially by the instinct of passion. In children it is sometimes violent ; they break objects rather than see their playmates have them. Like animals they do not like to see others petted. Lombroso saw a little girl at Turin who would not nurse when it saw its little twin sister at the other breast. Perez says the first cause of children's lying is the habit which many parents have of deceiving them in order to quiet them. Children lie often to avoid a reproach or to obtain that which has been refused them, or to show themselves strong, or because they wish to deceive themselves as to the humility of their situation, or on account of jeal- ousy, as when a little girl, seeing her mother caress her little brother imagines that he has struck the 32 CRIMINOLOGY. parrot. After the age of three or four years chil- dren lie for fear of being punished, or are assisted to it by the way we question them. They feign sickness to escape doing anything, similar to the case of the military horse feigning lameness. Impulsiveness and a shallow sentiment for truth are not infrequent, so that dissimulation is prac- ticed for the slightest motive. A little girl will sometimes say to her mother: *' The lady next door said I wasn't dressed very nicely." Children generally detest injustice, especially if they are the sufferers; the injustice consists in the want of accord between the habitual manner in which they have been treated and that which they experience accidentally. Affection is rare among babies; they manifest sympathy for pretty faces or for that which gives them pleasure. Too much novelty they do not understand, or are frightened at it. A child's ]ove may often be caused by gifts and the hope for more, and when not realized the love often fades. Cruelty is common among children; they delight in breakings inanimate objects, tearing things, hit- ting animals, smashing caterpillars; tramping on anything to kill it. Among the lower classes boys from 5 to lo years of age are notoriously cruel. But murder, no less than anger, vengeance, and cruelty, is found in children. Caligula at 13 had a slave cast into an oven for a slight offense. Two children, the one 13 and the other 10 years of age, having a spite against a comrade of 7 years, met him in an out-of-the-way place, threw him into a THE EVOLUTION OF CRIME. 33 deep hole, and stoned him to death. A boy in the State of Iowa (ii years of age) went early in the morning into the room where his grandparents were sleeping and shot them both; seeing his grandfather move he finished him with an ax. He told the boys afterwards. " I did it all alone." The occasion of his deed seems to have been a refusal to allow him to do something. Another boy of 13 stabbed his comrade in the heart because he refused to pay a debt he owed him for a game. Such crimes in the case of children, if less cruel than in the case of adults, are so from the lack of force rather than ferocity. We have seen how theft commenced to be punished when the era of conquests opened, when the chiefs held on to what they had acquired and refused to divide with their feebler companions. In this instance it would seem morality and punish- ment of crime developed in a measure out of crime; | that is, were crimes themselves. Such a theory of the impure origin of justice may explain the in- equality with which it is distributed ; to-day the ' poor sometimes find difficulty in obtaining justice, and riches do not infrequently make punishment milder. The instinct of vengeance is at present quite deep-rooted in humanity; thus the compla- cency with which the public consider the condem- nation of an insane culprit for a murderous act, as in the case of Guiteau. This impatience against regarding, the criminal as a patient is a sentiment which is latent in each of us. We desire vengeance, although we may have changed its name and ap- 3 34 CRIMINOLOGY. pearance. A form of this is reproduced in our Western and Southern States as " lynch law," which is an explosion of popular anger. Some- times this has for a cause, as in cannibalism, a bar- baric satisfaction, a cruel pleasure to see an execu- tion, and a passion to participate in shedding blood or a love of excitement. Looking at man from a scientific point of view, he exceeds all others in criminality ; he kills not only his own species, which the animals rarely do, but beings of all other species with impunity ; those which it is not an advantage to kill he sub- jects to slavery. The egotism of the human species surpasses that of all others. The basis of this egotism is a combination of psychic and physical force, not moral force. At present the bloody idea of war still remains in the whole human race. Modern Europe, where the highest civilization exists, has at least 12,000,- 000 men trained for war, while Rome, with her vast empire, had only 300,000 legionaries ; and this is the state of the world which, at present, is in its commercial glory, and yet, in the face of this, it is claimed that commerce and war are an- tagonists ; but it is said that war has the advantage of purging the race. To accomplish this, however, cholera is much more effective, for the lower strata are preeminently the sufferers, while in war much of the best blood of a nation is sacrificed. The savage instinct of murder is still deeply rooted. War from the natural-history point of view is universal murder, an extension and develop- THE EVOLUTION OF CRIME. 35 ment of universal homicide. In primitive times it was terrible in character, exceeding the ferocity of the wildest beasts ; in the next stage of develop- ment one did not eat his enemy, but mutilated and tortured him, and modern civilized war is the same in essence, though different in form. For inven- tive genius is at present exerting itself to its utmost to discover how to kill and mutilate the enemy at great distances, and, to the disgrace of the 19th century humanity, it seems to have suc- ceeded. And, while we look with horror upon the cannibal, the words of Montaigne are not inappli- cable when he says that " it is more barbarous to kill a live man than to roast and eat a dead one." ^^■^ r; Of CHAPTER II. THE PHYSICAL SIDE OF THE CRIMINAL. Anthropometry of Children. FroM 79 children less than 12 years of age confined in houses of correction, among whom were 40 thieves, 27 vagabonds, 7 homicides, and 3 whose crime is not stated, Lombroso finds as predominating anom- alies: 30 with deformed ears, 21 with small, retreat- ing foreheads, 19 plagiocephalic, 16 with projecting cheek bones, 14 with prominent jaws, 7 with raised frontal sinuses, 6 hydrocephalic, 5 crosseyed, 14 with facial asymmetry, 10 with physiognomy of cretins, 9 goitrous, and 9 with deformed nose. The striking thing is the large number of anom- alies among children which subsequently disap- pear. A little less than half of the children (44 per cent.) present abnormal moral tendencies, such as extreme irritability, love of vagabondage, persist- ence in lying, an odd propensity to move oneself continually, and to tear clothes. The morbid physical characters in criminal children are 69 per cent., or double those without any moral anomaly; here the physical anomalies [are 30 per cent. The semi-delinquents, masturbators and thieves have 72 per cent, to 83 per cent, of physical anomalies; morbid heredity reaches in THE PHYSICAL SIDE OF THE CRIMINAL. 37 these children 70 and 66 per cent. Out of 100 rich pupils in the International College at Turin, 53 were absolutely normal physically and morally. Of 44 with evidences of physical degeneracy, only 6 had immoral tendencies. The very srfiall propor- tion of psychical anomalies is due to the selection of pupils and to superior training. In general, the moral anomalies, which in adults would constitute a criminal, are much larger in proportion inchil-/V' dren, but disappear through education. The men- tal anomalies are double in proportion in criminal children, and reach a still higher figure in these chil- dren when they are immoral. The researches of Ferri, Bischoff, Bom, Corre, Biliakow, Troyski, Lacassagne, and Lombroso ^ive the following results: Minors. Comparing 188 young criminals with 437 normal young men of the same age and same manner of life, the stature in the criminals was a little superior at the age of 10 to 13; equal from 13 to 16; superior from 16 to 18, in the proportion of 1.54 to 1.51, and inferior from 19 to 21. As to weight, the criminals were superior in every Feries, except from 13 to 16, where the two were equal; but cranial circum- ference in all the young criminals was inferior. The minimum frontal diameter of 12 criminals from 12 to 14 (107-108 mm.) was inferior to that of 12 normal (iii mm.). Adults. In all regions of'Italy the stature of criminals is 38 CRIMINOLOGY. superior. This is in contradiction with the figure* of Wilson Thompson, but agrees with Biliakow (100 homicides); especially the highway robbers and homicides are superior in comparison with the violators, forgers, and thieves. As to weight, in general the criminals are superior; the violators and thieves giving the minimum weight. The finger- reach of the criminals is superior. Of 567 homicides, 53 were in delicate health and 3 ill-formed ; 143 thieves, 19 were in delicate health and 10 ill-formed; 21 violators, 4 were in delicate health and 3 ill-formed ; 34 forgers, 5 were in deli- cate health and I ill-formed; 23 incendiaries, 2 were in delicate health and 2 ill-formed. The brigands, homicides, and incendiaries are slim, and in good health, while the thieves and violators are frail ; especially the latter, probably due to solitary pleasure, the traces of which are in the face. The homicides are larger and stronger ; but they need their strength and use it more than the thieves. Physiognotny. The face is the expression of the individual. Whether we will or no on seeing a person for the first time we form an opinion of him, and, though we may be mistaken, still, on the whole, we are much more often right than wrong in our first impressions. A distinctly honest face is much more likely to be what it appears than otherwise. The platitude that appearances are deceptive is only a partial truth. How such a statement can be so easily believed is seen from the fact that we THE PHYSICAL SIDE OF THE CRIMINAL. 39 remember much more easily those cases in which we were deceived than those in which we were not, for a jar to our minds, produced by a disappoint- ment, is more tangible for the mind to hold in memory. Mantegazza has classified the facial expressions into physiological, moral, intellectual, and aesthetical. In the physiological, we have the condition of health indicated, assimilation of food, the marks of disease or suffering, the general func- tioning of the body. The moral characteristics are the most difficult to interpret, for they influ- ence and are influenced in a large measure by the others. There is the open, frank, generous, genial face, although not beautiful, it is attractive; there is the dull, unsympathetic countenance. Then there is the intelligent expression, the intellectual characters being anatomically indicated in the forehead, eye, and mouth. The aesthetical charac- ters are indicated in the symmetry or asymmetry of the features; the color of eye, skin, and shape of nose have, as a resultant, beauty or the opposite. The clergy have generally a distinct physiognomy, so in the case of actors, teachers, and literary men; all those who give their lives to intellectual work of any kind can be distinguished from the modern business man ; it is not difficult in a college town to distinguish the students from the town boys, simply by their faces. The veterans of the army have a well-marked physiognomy. If one walks through a prison, he certainly will see something common in most of the faces that is characteristic, however unable he may be to describe it ; one has 40 CRIMINOLOGY. a similar experience in visiting an insane asylum. The criminal, as to sesthetical physiognomy differs little from the ordinary man, except in the case of women criminals, who are most always homely, if not repulsive ; many are masculine, have a large, ill-shaped mouth, small eye, large, pointed nose, distant from the mouth, ears extended and irregu- larly implanted. The intellectual physiognomy shows an inferiority in criminals, and when in an exceptional way there is a superiority, it is rather of the nature of cunning and shrewdness. The inferiority is marked by vulgarity, by meager cra- nial dimensions, small forehead, dull eyes. The moral physiognomy is marked in its lowest form with a sort of unresponsiveness ; there is little or no remorse ; there is sometimes the debauched, haggard visage. In the lesser forms of crime there is difficulty in making out much that is special, as the individual is capable of concealing his motives and impulses. Lombroso gives the results of his study of 220 men and 204 women of different nationalities: Twenty men have the ethnic type out of 211 ; 8 Jews preserve their Semitic type. Those without the ethnic type are of inferior intel- ligence, or are criminals by occasion. In the men a large jaw, rarity of beard, hardness of visage, and abundance of hair are predominant ; project- ing ears, receding forehead, squinting eyes, and a deformed nose are to be noted. Those guilty of rape (if not cretins) almost always have a project- ing eye, delicate physiognomy, large lips and eye- lids ; the most of them are slender, blond, and THE PHYSICAL SIDE OF THE CRIMINAL. 4I rachitic. The pederas ts often have a feminine ele- gance, long and curly hair, and, even in prison garb, a certain feminine figure, a delicate skin, child- ish look, and abundance of glossy hair, parted in the middle. Burglars who break into houses have, as a rule, woolly hair, deformed craniums, power- ful jaws, and enormous zygomatic arches, are cov- ered with scars on the head and trunk, and are often tattooed. Habitual homicides have a glossy, cold, immobile, sometimes sanguinijTy and dejected look ; often an aquiline nose, or, in other words, a liooked one like a bird of prey, always large ; the jaws are large, ears long, hair woolly, abundant and rich (dark) ; beard rare, canine teeth, very large ; the lips are thin, A large number of forgers and swindlers have an artlessness, and something clerical in their manner, which give confidence to their victims. Some have a haggard look, very small eyes, crooked nose, and face of an old woman. It is a common custom for brigands to wear tresses as a sign of terribleness. Archaeology shows us Tiberus with projecting eyes, facial asymmetry, and large jaws. Caligula with a wicked, cruel, and defiant expression, a menacing expansion of the upper lip, palor, thin lips, fixed and terrible look, strong asymmetrical jaws; the left side of the zygo- matic fossa is the most developed. Nero has a striking asymmetry of face, strong jaws, large eyes, somewhat far apart, very projecting sinuses and a low forehead. Lombroso, with the aid of Marro, finds as to the hair (comparing 500 criminals with 500 normal 42 CRIMINOLOGY. men) that the incendiaries and thieves reach the maximum (57 per cent.) for black hair; the vio- lators the minimum (23 per cent.); the idlers, high- way robbers, and thieves attain the maximum for brown hair. The violators and swindlers form the majority of the blonds. Dark hair (black and brown) is predominant among criminals in general, as compared with normal men, in the proportion of 49 per cent, to ^^ per cent.; light hair (blond and red) in the proportion of 16.5 to 6.85 per cent. Marro among 507 criminals found 10 per cent, with little hair, 44 per cent, with thick hair, with a maximum of 53 per cent, in vagabonds, 47 per cent, in assassins. From 4,000 criminals Bertillion finds 33.2 per cent, with brown iris; 22.4 per cent, with a dark brown; 32.4 per cent, yellow or red iris. While it is true that many of these characteristics are often seen in ordinary men, yet the large jaw, the masculine appearance of the women, bad look, projecting ears, strabism, thick hair, and receding forehead are much more frequent in criminals. Although there are the doubtful points in the case of criminals, yet in the case of the so-called normal men there is much greater uncertainty; for we know little or nothing of their lives; some of them, as among all men, need the aggravating occasion to become criminals. Easy circumstance and agreeable surroundings in life can protect some, whom severe adversity might turn into criminals; we may say that most every individual has his limit beyond which he would commit a criminal act. Poverty, misery, and organic debility THE PHYSICAL SIDE OF THE CRIMINAL. 43 are not infrequently the causes of crime. The physiognomical criminal type is very rare among normal men, but frequent among criminals. The popular mind, though often unobserving, has not failed to notice many criminal characteristics. A few proverbs (collected by Lombroso) will illustrate this: " There is nothing worse than scarcity of beard and no color." " Pale face is either false or treacherous" (Rome). "A red-haired man and bearded woman, greet them at a distance" (Ven- ice). *• Be thou suspicious of the woman with a man's voice." " God preserve me from the man without a beard " (France). " Pale face is worse than the itch " (Piedmont). " Bearded woman and unbearded man, salute at a distance " (Tuscan). ** Man of little beard, of little faith." " Wild look, cruel custom." " Be suspicious of him who laughs, and beware of men with small and twinkling eyes " (Tuscan). There are not a few women, who, although igno- rant of the lower side of life, are instinctively suspici- ous of persons unknown, but criminal in character. There may be a heredity element here, as in the case of our little house-birds, who strike their cage with wing and beak, when a bird of prey passes over them, which enemy was only known to their ancestry. There is little doubt but that physiognomical characteristics can be modified by the criminal. Lombroso has observed that when a murderous man is made to make a violent effort, his physiog- nomy, especially his face, takes the ferocious look peculiar to the criminal at the moment of the crime. 44 CRIMINOLOGY. Physiognomy stands in close relation with facial and cranial signs of degeneration. It must not be forgotten how great an influence habits have over the mimical facial muscles, how gradual the pas- sage is from harmonious features to prison physi- ognomy, which is caused in part by passions tem- porarily changed. Also the unconscious influence of the style of hair, beard, look, demeanor, and clothing is to be noted; in prison garb, for example, a face makes quite another impression from that in ordinary dress. Von Holder, from 1,022 por- traits of recidivists of both sexes, found it im- possible in many cases to pronounce one a criminal from his physiognomy. Physiognomy, though uncertain, gives us valuable hints sometimes. Tattooing. Following is a table of statistics from Lombroso; Proportion^ Ne. Tattooed, per cent. Condemned for murder and violence 80 16 20 Condemned for theft . . . 141 20 14 Condemned for forgery, swindling . 54 6 11. i Condemned for rape ... 11 i g Deserting or rebellious soldiers .4 i 25 Criminals who are not recidivists .99 4 4 Criminals who are recidivists . . 191 50 20.9 The largest number who tattoo are found among the recidivists; the smallest number, omitting crimes against decency, are the forgers and swin- dlers. Perhaps their superior intelligence enables them to see the disadvantage of tattooing. As a rule women tattoo very little. Men who are not THE PHYSICAL SIDE OF THE CRIMINAL. 45 criminals tend to give up the custom; while among the criminals the usage reaches large proportions. Almost all tattoo the fore-arm and the palms of the hands; a smaller number tattoo the shoulders, chest (sailors) and fingers (miners). Those who tattoo the back and the private parts have generally been in Oceanica, or lived in the prisons. The symbols of war are naturally most frequent among the soldiers. Parent-Duchatelet has seen quite extensive tat- tooing among the lowest prostitutes. In men, symbols of love consist ordinarily in the name or initials of the woman loved, or in the date of the first love, or in one or more hearts transfixed by an arrow or two clasped hands. Obscenity is suffi- ciently common as indicated by the symbols over the abdomen and genital parts. The pederasts are very fond of tattooing. Parent-Duchatelet never found any obscene symbols among the prostitutes. A parallel characteristic of prostitutes is that they seldom read obscene literature. As in the case of sailors and savages, criminals tattoo all parts of the body, which indicates among them all a low degree of sensibility to pain. Of 89 adult criminals 66 were tattooed between the ages of 9 and 16. Of 89 criminals 71 were tattooed while in prison. The causes of a custom of so little advantage, and frequently harmful, are found in: (i) Religion; to engrave the image of a saint on one's own flesh was a proof of love; the Phoenicians engraved on the forehead the sign of their divinity; the early Christians engraved the name of Christ 46 CRIMINOLOGY. upon the hand and arm. Sailors had still another motive which was that they might be recognized if they perished in the sea. (2) In the desire of imitation. Often a whole company of soldiers have the same symbol tattooed. (3) In the spirit of ven- geance, as indicated by the symbols. (4) In lazi- ness, as in the prisons where they amuse themselves for nothing else to do; inaction being more diffi- cult to endure than the pain itself. (5) Vanity has very great influence; thus the savages go naked, having signs upon the chest; others tattoo the parts most exposed; the soldiers do it to show their courage in enduring pain. Among the " Birmans " of New Zealand tattooing indicates social position. (6) Feeling of association and of sect, as among the Camorrists of Naples, was a cause. (7) Noble passions also were influential; thus the image of a friend or the souvenirs of childhood give courage to the soldier. (8) Atavism and erotic passions, as shown by obscene symbols, are, perhaps, the most frequent causes. Tattooing is one of the charac- teristics of primitive man. In prehistoric caves, and in ancient Egyptian sepulchers, are found the instruments used for this purpose. Tattooing among the insane indicates criminality, if the)' have not been sailors or soldiers. Cram'o/ogy. Cranial Capacity, — By a comparative study of 121 criminals and 328 normal men, Lombroso finds that craniums of small volume exceed, and those of very large volume are rare, in the case of criminals, THE PHYSICAL SIDE OF THE CRIMINAL. 47 although the criminals were larger of stature than the normal men ; he also shows from his own statistics and those of others, that in general, when a large cranial capacity is not due to hydrocepha- lus, it is concomitant with a developed intelligence. Ranke makes the cranial capacity of criminals equal to that of other men, with variations in the minimum and maximum capa'cities; but, as Lom- broso remarks, those results relate only to assas- sins ; in addition cretinism is somewhat extensive where (Bavaria) Ranke made his researches. Bor- dier and other observers find in a number of assassins a capacity superior to that in normal men. Manouvrier explains these divergences by the probable difference in method, and the insufficient number studied. Weight of Cranium. — The average weight of the cranium is superior to that of the ordinary indi- vidual according to Lombroso, who examined 21 Italian assassins; on the other hand, Manouvrier, on examination in France of 44 assassins and 50 nor- mal men, found the weight of cranium inferior. As to the relation of the weight to the capacity, it may be true, as Corre suggests, that the weight of the cranium is less related to the brain develop- ment than it is to the osseous system ; thus the skeleton and the length of its members would be a fact to consider. Corre, Bordier, Lombroso, Ferri, Weisbach, and Lauvergne find the horizontal cir- cumference in criminals inferior to that of ordinary men. Semi-horizontal Circumference. — Almost ali 48 CRIMINOLOGY. measurements give a slight predominance to the semi- posterior circumference over the semi-ante- rior. In such cases, in which the predominance is in the anterior circumference, the muscular mass of the temporal bone, the most powerful moter for the jaw, must be taken into consideration. Broca's method of measuring the auricular an- gles, by which, through the use of the sterepgraph, projections of the cranium are obtained, is as fol- lows : O, is the apex of the auricular angles, A, is the alveolar point, B^ sub-orbital, C, bregma, Z>, lambda, £, inion and T^ophisthion. The first angle (A O B) represents the facial region ; the second (B O C) the frontal cerebral region ; the third {C O D) the parietal region ; the fourth {DOE) the occipital cerebral region, and the fifth {E O E) the region of the cerebellum. The size of these angles does not depend upon the size but upon the form of the cranium; this gives the angles special value. Corre measured 150 craniums of widely differ- ent categories, and confirms the value of these angles. THE PHYSICAL SIDE OF THE CRIMINAL. 49 From this table we see that the frontal angle increases as we rise toward the superior races, but that the criminals stand comparatively low (50.9'). Cranium.^ Gorilla Chimpanzee Microcephalics Idiots (not microcephlics) — New Caledonians..] ^J.^^-i;- African Negroes French assassins (22 in number). . . Modern Parisians.. -j^^^"^- 1 e rt c c (« iJ u . 5'^. Hi si u rt 5 :§•,; Z'^ W^ y-M t% y. u. 0! < Degs. Degs. Degs. Degs. Degs. 6i 35 58 .... 59.5 35 54 19 43 52-5 41.2 59-3 30.5 35-7 47-5 44 62.5 .38.3 32 3 49 63 36 30 .... 52 61 32 27 43-3 51-4 6,. 7 36.6 351 51.8 50.9 67. T 40.9 29.9 50.3 54-t) 59-7 40. t 30.6 48-5 55-4 59.8 37.7 30.1 22 Degs. 108 '37 144.8 148 145 149.7 T58.9 154.4 152.9 1 Quatrefage and Hamy's table. 2 The nasal orbital angle corresponds to facial projections. • The total cerebral angle includes the frontal, parietal, and occipital angles, which correspond to the cerebral cranium. In the French assassin the frontal angle is smaller than in the African negro. Orchanski and Heger agree in according to the normal man a superior anterior projection of the cranium. Curves. — Bordier concludes that the parietal region is larger in criminals; Benedikt and Lom- broso find no appreciable difference. Cephalic Index. — This expresses the general form of the cranium; it is less in proportion as the length is greater, and more as the length is less. With some variations, the brachycephalic 50 CRIMINOLOGY. cranium is the most common among criminals. Lombroso considers this an indication of a tendency to exaggerate ethnic indices. Corre interprets this more in the sense of arrest of development approaching that of the child. Vertical Index (diameter drawn from the base to bregma). — Lombroso finds no notable differ- ence; d'Ardouin, d'Orchanski, and Bordier make it greater in criminals (comparison in the same race); on the other hand, Heger and Dellemagne find it less. Frontal Index. — Lombroso again finds no no- table deviation, Bordier and Corre find it larger in assassins. (The frontal index expresses the transversal development of the anterior cranial region.) 1^ Under the total length of face there is a large predominance in favor of the criminal; this exceeds the simple length, but this is in connection with the development of the jaw, for, according to Ferri, the length of the face, in relation to the height of the vertex to the chin, is much greater in criminals ; this height indicates the relation of the face to the development of the cranium. Also the bizygomatic (maximum breadth) breadth of face is larger in criminals. According to Lombroso, the lowest nasal indices are twice as rare, and the highest are twice as fre- quent in the criminals. Lombroso, Ferri, Orchan- ski, Manouvrier and others agree as to the greater development of the lower jaw among criminals ; THE PHYSICAL SIDE OF THE CRIMINAL. 5» ■0 111 cr Is' S3- go CO %1 00*. 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