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THE 
 
 POINTS OF THE HORSE 
 
 A FAMILIAR TREATISE ON EQUINE 
 CONFORMATION. 
 
 BY 
 
 M. HORACE HAYES, F.R.C.V.S., 
 
 Late Captain The Buffs? 
 
 AUTHOR OF "VETERINARY NOTES FOR HORSE OWNERS," 
 
 "RIDING: ON THE FLAT AND ACROSS COUNTRY," 
 
 "ILLUSTRATED HORSE-BREAKING," ETC. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY 
 
 77 REPRODUCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHS, AND 205 DRAWINGS 
 CHIEFLY BY J. H. OSWALD BROWN. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 W. TRACKER AND Co., 87, NEWGATE STREET. 
 
 CALCUTTA: TRACKER, SPINK AND CO. 
 
 BOMBAY: THACKER AND CO., LIMITED. 
 
 I8 93 . 
 
LONDON: 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, 
 
 STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. 
 
Ha 
 
 lo 
 GEORGE FLEMING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.C.V.S., 
 
 AS A MARK OF RESPECT 
 
 FOR THE BRILLIANT AND USEFUL WORK HE HAS DONE 
 IN MANY FIELDS OF HORSE KNOWLEDGE. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 MUCH as Englishmen pride themselves on being good 
 " judges" of a horse, the fact remains that exact ideas on the 
 important subject of Conformation are current neither in the 
 traditions of our " horsey " people, nor in our literature. The 
 few English authors who have written on it, have done so 
 in a fragmentary manner, and have contented themselves 
 for the most part with laying down rule-of-thumb maxims 
 for the blind acceptance of their readers. The French, on 
 the contrary, have written on ?cxt6rieur> several elaborate 
 books upon which they have expended an amount of scientific 
 knowledge that does them infinite credit. It must be ad- 
 mitted that although they have proved themselves, in this 
 respect, much superior in scientific research to our country- 
 men ; their works seem to show that their experience has 
 been gained more in the study and dissecting room, than in 
 the stable and in the field. Both classes of authors, I venture 
 to submit, have erred in trying to make general rules suitable 
 to all kinds of horses, instead of pointing out that the standard 
 of shape should, to a great extent, vary according to the work 
 demanded. I may mention that illustrations of horses or of 
 special " points " of these animals drawn without the aid of 
 photography, having a bias difficult to be repressed, render 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 the ideas of the artist more accurately than they portray the 
 realities of nature. 
 
 In the attempt to conform to the requirements of truth, 
 I have, as far as practicable, relied on photography for 
 illustration. This art not alone gives exact representations 
 with marvellous minuteness of detail, but has completed the 
 solution (begun by Professor Marey) of the once vexed 
 question of the action of the horse's limbs during the various 
 forms of movement, and has accordingly afforded us, in our 
 present study, data which are as instructive as they are 
 reliable. As I have written this book for non-scientific 
 readers, as well as for those who desire to thoroughly master 
 the subject ; I have placed in small print the few chapters 
 which I have devoted to the anatomical and mechanical 
 details which were necessary to render the work complete. 
 A perusal of the large print chapters will give a good general 
 view of the practical side of the subject, and, in most cases, 
 the reasons for the opinions advanced. The information 
 contained in the small print ones is, however, indispensable for 
 the full comprehension of all the principles discussed, and as 
 it is of a very elementary character, I trust it will not be 
 neglected. We must here remember that the horse is a 
 living machine, the capabilities of which cannot be accurately 
 gauged, without a knowledge of its construction, and of the 
 principles of its working. Having treated on Soundness and 
 Age of Horses in another book, I have omitted these subjects 
 entirely from the present one. I must, however, state that as 
 they are directly connected with the question of a horse 
 "standing" work, it is impossible to judge his capabilities 
 with a near approach to correctness, without a knowledge of 
 veterinary science. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Besides the new features in this book to which I have 
 already drawn notice, I may mention that I have tried to 
 arrive at a knowledge of the respective " points " of speed and 
 strength in the horse, by examining the conformation of other 
 animals that are distinguished by the possession of one or 
 other of these "gifts " in a high state of perfection. Also, I 
 have made a more exhaustive inquiry into the nature of the 
 paces and of the leap of the horse than has previously been 
 attempted ; my object being to obtain from it exact deduc- 
 tions as to the best kind of conformation for various forms 
 of work. 
 
 At the suggestion of my friend, Veterinary Colonel Ander- 
 son, I began, about fifteen years ago, to write a book on 
 the Points of the Horse, which subject I resolved to treat 
 according to the time-honoured methods of my literary 
 predecessors. I worked at it while studying to become 
 a veterinary surgeon, and after that at Newmarket, where 
 I went to reside in order to increase my knowledge of English 
 thoroughbreds. For this, every facility was given me by my 
 kind friends, Mr. John Hammond, Edwin Martin, Jarvis, 
 Tom. Jennings, Junr., Alf. Sadler, R. Sherwood, and others, 
 who were always glad to show me their horses, and discuss 
 their various points. When the book was completed in 1883, 
 I despatched the manuscript to my publishers by the hand of 
 a friend, who, by an extraordinary piece of good luck, lost it 
 so effectually that I have not seen it since. While suffering 
 from the shock caused by the loss of the results of seven 
 years' toil, I happened to read Professor Marey's Machine 
 Animate (Animal Mechanics), and before I got half through 
 it, I grasped the fact that I had been working in an entirely 
 wrong groove, and that my careless friend had, most for- 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 tunately, saved me from publishing a book which would not 
 have satisfied my more matured judgment. In 1884 I gave 
 in London a short course of private lectures on the conforma- 
 tion of the horse, to some of the best known English artists. 
 While endeavouring to convey instruction, I found great help 
 from the use of a few photographs I had by me as illustrations, 
 and accordingly determined to learn photography, and to 
 utilise it in the preparation of the new book on the "shape 
 and make " of horses which I had already begun, though on 
 different " lines" to those on which the lost volume had been 
 completed. On the following year I went abroad on a horse- 
 breaking tour, and have spent the eight years which have elapsed 
 since then, in hard practical work (breaking, training for 
 racing and chasing, and horse dealing) among horses in India, 
 Burma, Ceylon, China, Japan, Egypt, South Africa, England 
 and elsewhere. The facilities afforded by such an active and 
 public life have enabled me to procure for this book a number 
 of illustrations which it would have been impossible for me to 
 have obtained under less favourable circumstances. No one 
 who has not made the attempt oneself, can form an idea of the 
 difficulty there often is in getting horses which have the 
 required " points " (bad or good). For instance, I once 
 examined 600 horses belonging to a dealer, and only obtained 
 one specimen for my camera. Another time, a search through 
 the troopers of two cavalry regiments was fruitless of results. 
 For the photographs in this book, I have " run my eye " over 
 certainly more than 10,000 horses ! From this statement my 
 readers will be able to form some idea of the extreme kindness 
 and forbearance with which I have been treated by my horse- 
 owning friends. Having obtained an animal with a re- 
 quired " point," the next thing to do was to photograph 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 him, which frequently involved the expenditure of much 
 time and trouble on account of the special character of 
 the work. 
 
 Among the gentlemen to whom I am indebted for having 
 granted me permission to have their horses photographed, I 
 have the honour to number : His Grace the Duke of West- 
 minster, Colonel Anderson, Captain Woolmer, Captain Mow- 
 bray of the Black Watch, Mr. W. H. Walker, Mr. A. A. 
 Apcar, Mr. Tom. Jennings, junr., Mr. Spooner Hart, Messrs. 
 Milton and Co., Messrs. Ralli and Co. of Sydney and 
 Calcutta, Messrs. Cook and Co., Mr. Oscar Dignam, Mr 
 E. Gregory, Mr. Vansittart, Mr. Steve Margarett of Mel 
 bourne, Mr. John Stevens of New Zealand, and Colonel Simp- 
 son. I am greatly obliged to Mr. Frank Haes, Major Nott, 
 and Mr. Dixon, 112 Albany Street, N.W., for the negatives 
 they have lent me ; to Sir William Flower for allowing me to 
 take photographs of Figs. 187, 188 and 189, in the South 
 Kensington Museum ; to Professor C. Stewart for similar 
 permission with respect to Figs. 185, 190, 197 and 201, in 
 the Museum of the R.C.S. ; and to the Zoological Society 
 for the loan of Figs. 181, 182 and 183. The action shown in 
 the figures of the paces and of the leap has been adopted 
 from the admirable photographs done by Mr. E. Muybridge, 
 and published in \ti& Animal Locomotion ; although the artistic 
 " treatment" of the horses is original. This matchless 
 American work is solely a collection of photographs, and does 
 not contain any analysis of the movements of the horse. I 
 may also mention that the photographs of Anschlitz, on the 
 same subject, are excellent. 
 
 In order to facilitate comparison, I have tried, as far as I 
 have been able, to get the portraits of the horses, asses and 
 
xii PREFACE. 
 
 zebras which are in this book, done to a uniform scale, 
 namely, i to 20. I have added an index, which I have tried 
 to make as easy of reference and as exhaustive as possible. 
 
 While strictly confining myself to the limits which bound 
 the subject of Equine Conformation, I have had, while writing 
 this book, the fortunate opportunity of throwing light on many 
 points of horse knowledge which I have been, hitherto, unable 
 to discuss in print. I therefore hope that the appearance of 
 this work will help to complete what I have already written, 
 in my books, on veterinary science, riding, breaking, training 
 and stable management ; and that they and it will now form 
 a useful horseman's library. 
 
 Without the skilful aid and kindly sympathy of the late 
 Mr. J. H. Oswald Brown, I would not have been able to 
 have finished this book, even in its present imperfect form. 
 Since the year 1884 we laboured together on this subject. 
 The pleasure in knowing that the work, after innumerable 
 corrections and revisions, is at last done, has lost more than 
 half its charm, from the fact that I cannot share it with him. 
 He had finished the most of the illustrations before his sad 
 and untimely death last autumn. The sketches which he left 
 were completed by Mr. Frank Hobden, to whom I tender 
 my best thanks. 
 
 JUNIOR ARMY AND NAVY CLUB, 
 
 ST. JAMES'S STREET, S.W. 
 
 May, 1893. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE subject of Conformation has been so little studied from 
 an exact point of view, that in default of sound reasons based 
 on a knowledge of anatomy and mechanics, and tested by 
 practical experience, a number of horsey maxims and ex- 
 pressions have been adopted by many people, as un- 
 questionable authority for the soundness of the opinions they 
 advance. Take, for instance, the descriptive terms, " long 
 and low," and " good to follow," which we frequently hear 
 applied in indiscriminate approval to draught animals and 
 race-horses, and which, if suitable for one class, must 
 necessarily be incorrect for the other. Some men who have 
 had experience with horses, but who recognise the fact of 
 their own ignorance, get out of the difficulty of appearing less 
 learned than their fellows by boldly declaring, with reference 
 to racers, that "horses run in all shapes " a remark which 
 has passed almost into an adage. Throughout the animal 
 kingdom, we may see that the possession of speed or 
 strength is associated with certain peculiarities of shape 
 which can be readily recognised by an instructed observer. 
 In this respect, the horse is no exception. He, like other 
 animals that have the power of moving from one place to 
 another, is a locomotive machine, which is constructed 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 according to principles that may be studied with a fair 
 amount of accuracy and with much profit. The value of our 
 investigations in this direction is, however, limited by two 
 restrictions. First : we cannot, except to a small extent, 
 examine the interior of our machine a fact which is not of 
 much moment if we be afforded an opportunity of testing its 
 working powers. Second : we can, from inspection, tell 
 little or nothing of the agency which directs its movements, 
 and which is known as its nervous system. Thus, a race- 
 horse may be of the most fashionable blood, be sound in 
 wind and limb, "fit as hands can make him," be possessed of 
 every galloping and staying " point" ; and, yet, if we be rash 
 enough to predict his success on the turf, he may falsify our 
 too hastily expressed judgment by ''refusing to try a yard," 
 the moment the starter's flag falls. Our carefully selected 
 hunter may persist in running out at the smallest obstacle, 
 and our chosen cart-horse may jib on meeting the first incline 
 which requires him to throw his weight into the collar. I 
 may, therefore, state that the study of Conformation will not 
 enable us to predict absolutely that a certain horse will 
 perform, with credit to himself, the work for which he is 
 intended. It can only permit us to say that an animal 
 possessing the necessary "points" will, in the majority of 
 cases, fulfil the expectation formed of him. It does, how- 
 ever, provide us with an unerring guide in deciding that 
 certain horses are not suitable for certain kinds of work. 
 
 In the study of Conformation, particular points should 
 be rarely taken separately ; for a defect in one is frequently 
 compensated by special excellence in another. 
 
 Also, on the principle that the strength of a chain is equal 
 only to that of its weakest link, we must remember that 
 
INTRODUCTION. xv 
 
 uncompensated inability in any one particular respect may 
 render a horse altogether unfit for the purpose for which he 
 was intended. We may, therefore, see that to make and 
 combine the investigations necessary for forming a sound 
 judgment respecting a horse's capabilities, requires no small 
 amount of special knowledge and reasoning power. Al- 
 though we cannot claim that Conformation is an exact science ; 
 we may be assured that it offers practical advantages which 
 will well repay the time and trouble necessary for its 
 acquisition. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. 
 
 I'AGE 
 
 Animals of Speed and Animals of Strength Comparative Conformation 
 
 Marey's Law ...... 1-5 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 Bones Cartilage Muscles and Tendons Ligaments Connective 
 
 Tissue Nervous System ....... 6-17 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS.- 
 
 Head Neck Breast and Chest Shoulders Withers Elbow Fore- 
 arm Knee Cannon Fetlock Pastern Hoof Back Loins- 
 Ribs Flank Belly Brisket Croup Thigh Gaskin Hock- 
 Dock Height of a Horse Length of the Body of a Horse Depth 
 of Chest at Withers Depth of Body Height at Croup . 18-28 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Definitions Bones Joints and Ligaments Muscles Heart and Lungs 
 
 Nervous System of the Horse ..... 29-44 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 MECHANISM OF BREATHING 45-48 
 
xviii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN THE HORSE'S BODY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hind Limbs Centre of 
 
 Gravity ......... 49-51 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 LEVERS. 
 
 Definition First Order Second Order Third Order Relations be- 
 tween the Power and Weight in Levers Comparisons between 
 Power and Weight in Muscular Levers Directions in which the 
 Power and Weight respectively Act . .... 52-56 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 Displacement of the Centre of Gravity Manner in which Propulsion is 
 effected by the Limbs Direction of Propulsion and Distance 
 through which the Centre of Gravity of the Body is moved Com- 
 parative Speed in the Action of the Limbs Action of the Muscles 
 which extend the Vertebrae Width between each respective Pair 
 of Legs as affecting Speed Effect of Insecurity of Equilibrium on 
 Speed Fatigue from the various Paces Action of the Head and 
 Neck in Locomotion Mechanism of the Fetlock Joint Mechanism 
 of the Hock Joint . ....... 57~7 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT . . . . . . 71-74 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Standing at Attention Standing Collectedly Standing at Ease 
 
 Carriage of the Head and Neck ..... 75-87 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Lying Down and Getting Up Rearing Kicking The Piafter . 88-94 
 
CONTENTS. xix 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Definitions The Trot The Amble The Walk The Canter The 
 Gallop The Passage The Spanish Walk and Spanish Trot The 
 Rein Back Foot-prints of the Horse during various Paces . 95-124 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 LEAPING. 
 
 Definition of the Leap Varieties of the Leap Manner in which the 
 Horse Takes-off in the Running Leap Difference between the 
 Horse's Leap and the Suspension of his Body during the Canter or 
 Gallop Period of Stride at which the Take-off is effected Effect 
 of Pace and Speed on the Leap Taking-off and Clearing a Fence 
 Landing over a Jump Influence of Blood in Jumping The 
 Standing Leap ........ 125141 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF HORSES ..... 142-146 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 General Remarks Limit of Height Length of Limb Length and 
 Depth of Body Thickness of Limb Comparative Length of Fore 
 and Hind Limbs Length of Neck Length of Head Width be- 
 tween the Legs Comparative Weight of Body Comparative 
 Length of the Bones of the Limbs Differences of Conformation 
 between the two Sexes ....... 147-163 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 Size of Head Leanness of Head Profile of Face Front View of 
 Face Size of Brain Top of the Head Ears Eyes Hollows 
 above the Eyes Nostrils Lips Lower Jaw Setting-on of the 
 Head Neck Throat 164-185 
 
 b 2 
 
xx CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE TRUNK. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 General View of the Trunk Chest and Ribs Abdomen Withers 
 Breast Back and Loins Points of the Hips Flank Croup 
 Anus Tail , . . . . . . 186-205 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 General View of the Fore Limb Chief Duties of the Fore Limb The 
 Shoulder Humerus Elbow Fore-arm Knee Cannon Fet- 
 lock Pastern Hoof . . . . . . 206-229 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE HIND LIMB. 
 
 General View of the Hind Limb The Pelvis Thigh and Stifle Tibia 
 
 Hock Cannon and Fetlock Pastern and Hoof . . 230-239 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 SKIN, COLOUR, AND HAIR. 
 
 Skin Colour Colour in Relation to Heat and Cold Hair Hair on 
 
 the Legs of Cart-horses Markings . . . . . 240-248 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS . . . . . 249-254 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 CONDITION AND GOOD LOOKS . . . . .' . 255-261 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 WEIGHT-CARRYING AND STAYING POWER . . , . 262-264 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 BLOOD, SYMMETRY, AND COMPENSATIONS .... 265-269 
 
CONTENTS. xxi 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES. 
 
 PACK 
 
 The Race-horse The Racing Pony The Jumper The Heavy Cart- 
 horseThe Harness-horse The Hack The Lady's Horse The 
 Cavalry Trooper The Officer's Charger The Artillery Horse 
 The Polo Pony ... . . . . . 270-276 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 English and Irish Horses Australasian Horses South African Horses- 
 South American Horses Arab Horses East Indian Horses 
 Burma and Manipuri Ponies Sumatra and Java Ponies Mongolian 
 Ponies Corean Ponies Japanese Ponies . . . 277290 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES. 
 
 Ormonde St. Simon Stepaside Chance Pony Mare Magistrate 
 Heavy-crested Arab The Brat Burma Pony Cob Kathiawar 
 Romance Underbred Horse Mike Dorothy Pony Hannah 
 Favonius Thoroughbred Weed Blue Ribbon Diophantus 
 Caractacus Iceland Pony Shetland Pony Bravo Minden 
 Cremorne ......... 291300 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 WILD HORSES. 
 
 Wild Horses in Australia and America Tarpans Prejevalsky's Horse 
 
 301-302 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 ASSES. 
 
 Differences between the Ass and Horse Hybrids between the Horse 
 and Ass Varieties of Asses The Domestic and Abyssinian Wild 
 Ass The Onager The Kiang The Mountain Zebra Burchell's 
 Zebra Chapman's Zebra Grevy's Zebra The Quagga Points 
 of the Ass ......... 303-317 
 
xxii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ancestry of the Horse Immediate Ancestors of the Horse Conditions 
 which modified the Form of the Horse Points of Speed and 
 Strength in the Fossil Horse The Horse of the Future. . 318-341 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES . . . . . . . 342-344 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE . ; . . . . . 345-348 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 THE PAINTER'S HORSE . . . . . . 349-358 
 
 INDEX ... 359-378 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . .... . 379 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 REPRODUCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHS. 
 
 The Duke of Westminster's Ormonde ..... Frontispiece 
 
 Plate i. Black Buck ...... faring PAGE 2 
 
 2. Cheetah ....... 2 
 
 3. The Indian Buffalo ..... 4 
 
 4. Rhinoceros. . . . . . ... ,, 6 
 
 ,, 5. The Indian Trotting Bullock . . . . .. ,, 
 
 6. Heavy-draught Indian Bull .... 10 
 
 7. The Duke of Portland's St. Simon . . ... 62 
 
 8. An Indian Ecka and Pony . . . ,, 74 
 
 9. Well-shaped Legs (Front View) . . ,, 76 
 
 10. Turned-out Toes . 76 
 
 ii. Turned-in Toes . ' . ,, 76 
 
 12. Well-shaped Hind Legs (Rear View) . 76 
 
 13. Upright Pasterns. . . . ,, 76 
 
 14. Turned-in Hocks (Rear View) . . 76 
 
 ., 15. Mr. Gregory's Irish Hunter, Stepaside . . ., ,, 78 
 
 ., 16. Hurdle Racer " Taking-off" 140 
 
 ,, 17. The Indian Lynx . . . . ,, 140 
 
 18. The Duke of Portland's St. Simon . . ,, 152 
 
 19. Mr. E. Cole's Champion Shire Mare, Chance . .. 154 
 
 20. Pony Mare, very low in Front . . . .. ,, 160 
 
 21. Prominent Forehead . . . . . ,, 168 
 
 ,, 22. Broad Forehead . . . . . ,, 168 
 
 27. Under-bred Head 168 
 
xxiv LIST OF ILLUSTRA TIONS. 
 
 Plate 24. Well-bred Head ...... facing PAGE 170 
 
 25. Under-bred Head . . . . . ., 170 
 
 26. High Occipital Crest . . . . 170 
 
 27. Turned -in Ears . . . . . 170 
 
 28. Mr. Dignum's Arab Pony, Magistrate . . 180 
 
 29. The Mountain Zebra . . . . 182 
 
 30. Heavy-crested Arab 184 
 
 31. Colonel Anderson's Arab Pony, The Brat . 186 
 
 32. Burma Pony . . . . . .,,,,188 
 
 33. English Cob Pony . . 190 
 
 34. Kathiawar Mare . . . . . . 192 
 
 35. Mr. Vansittart's Australian Horse, Romance . 194 
 
 36. Under-bred Horse ..... 200 
 
 37. Burchell's Zebra ...... ,, 202 
 
 38. Colonel Simpson's English Pony, Mike . 204 
 
 39. Mr. W. H. Walker's English Pony, Dorothy . 206 
 
 40. Good Fore-legs of Common Horse . . . 218 
 
 41. Well-bred Horse . . 218 
 
 42. Clean Fore-legs . . . ... 218 
 
 43. Sloping Pasterns . . . . 220 
 
 44. Tied-in below Knee . . . . . 220 
 
 45. Calf Knees. . . 220 
 
 46. Over at Knees . . . . . 220 
 
 47. Tied-in below Knee . , . . 220 
 
 48. Pony with Weak Gaskins and Upright Shoulders 234 
 
 49. Sickle Hocks . . 236 
 
 50. Tied-in below Hock . . . , . 236 
 
 51. Straight and Good Hocks . . . ,, 236 
 
 52. Good Hocks . . . . . 236 
 
 53- ..... 236 
 
 54. Baron Rothschild's Hannah . . . . ,, 256 
 
 55. Favonius . ." . ' 260 
 
 56. Thoroughbred Weed . ... . 268 
 
 57. Mr. Muir's Blue Ribbon . . . . 272 
 
 58. Lord Stamford's Diophantus . . . . ,, 274 
 
 59. Mr. Snewing's Caractacus . . . . 276 
 
 ,, 60. Iceland Pony . . . . . ,,278 
 
 61. Shetland Pony ......,, 278 
 
 62. Mr. A. A. Apear's Bravo . . . 282 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Plate 63. Captain Woolmer's East Indian Horse, Minden facing PAGE 286 
 
 64. Mr. H. Savile's Cremorne . . . 292 
 
 65. The Abyssinian Ass . . . . 308 
 
 66. The Onager . ... 310 
 
 67. The Kiang. . . 312 
 
 68. The Quagga 316 
 
 69. Wall-jumping at Dublin Horse Show, 1892 . last page 
 
 Halftone blocks. Figs. 185, 187, 188, 189, 191, 197, 201, and tail-piece. 
 
 LINE DRAWINGS, ETC. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fig. T. External parts of Horse . . . . . . -19 
 
 2. Measurements of Horse . . . . . . .27 
 
 3. Skeleton of Horse ........ 30 
 
 4. Internal organs of Horse ....... 45 
 
 5. Position of Centre of Gravity . . . . . -5 
 
 6. First Order of Lever . . . . . . .52 
 
 7- Second 53 
 
 8. Third .53 
 
 9. Lever of First Order with directions of Power and Weight 
 
 oblique to each other . . . . . . 55 
 
 10 to 12. Displacement of Centre of Gravity by Man when Walking 58 
 131014. Shove-off from Side of Swimming Bath . . -59 
 15 to 17. Forward Propulsion of Man when Running . . . 59 
 18 to 21. in Standing Leap . . 59 
 
 22 to 26. Running High Leap of Man ..... 60 
 
 27. Angle of Projection of Centre of Gravity . . . .61 
 
 28. Lateral Displacement of Body ...... 66 
 
 29. Mechanism of Fetlock Joint ...... 69 
 
 30 to 32 Levers of the Hock ....... 70 
 
 33. Mechanism of Draught . . . . . . -72 
 
 34. Le Placer . . . . . . . . -76 
 
 35. Standing at Attention . . . . . . -77 
 
 36. Collectedly 78 
 
xxvi LIST OF ILLUSTRA TIONS. 
 
 Fig. 37. Rearing . . 9 
 
 38. Kicking .... . 92 
 
 391042. Ordinaiy Trot ..... . . 97 
 
 43 to 47. Fast or Flying Trot. . . . . 98 
 
 481052. Fast or Flying Amble . . . . . . 101 
 
 55 53 to 60. Ordinary Walk . . . . 103 and 104 
 
 6 1 to 66. Long Striding Walk . . . . ..-.- , 105 
 
 55 67 to 73. Short Stepping Walk in Draught . . 106 and 107 
 
 74 to 80. Canter of Heavy Horse .... 1 08 and 109 
 
 8 1 to 89. Canter or Hand Gallop of Light Horse . no and in 
 
 90 to 105. Fast Gallop . . . . . . 113, 114 and 115 
 
 106. The Passage . ... . . 117 
 
 107. The Spanish Trot . 118 
 
 1 08. Foot-prints in Ordinary Walk . . . . . .122 
 
 109. Long Striding Walk . . . . .122 
 
 no. Short Trot . B : 122 
 
 TIT. Slow Trot '..... . . . 122 
 
 112. Fast Trot . .... . . . 123 
 
 113. Slow Amble . B . . . . 123 
 
 114- 55 55 55 Canter . .123 
 
 115- Fast Gallop . .123 
 
 116 to 1 1 8. "Take-off" of Leap . . 126 
 
 ngto 125. Gallop of the Greyhound . . . . 127 
 
 12610 131. Cat . . . . . . 128 
 
 13210137. Heavy Dog . . 128 
 
 13810151. The Horse's Leap . . . . . 129-131 
 
 ,, 15210153. Landing over a Jump . . . . . . 136 
 
 154 and 155. Notation of Run of Man . . . . . 143 
 
 156. Notation of Walk of Man . . . . ' . ,, . 143 
 
 157. Typical Slow Trot . . . .... 143 
 
 158. Ordinary Slow Trot . .. 143 
 
 159. Fast Trot. . . . 144 
 
 160. ,, Typical Slow Amble . . . . . 144 
 
 5, 161. Flying . 144 
 
 162. Typical Walk . . . :. . 144 
 
 163. ., ,, Ordinary Walk . . . . . > 144 
 
 164. Slow Walk in Draught ..... 145 
 
 165. ,, ,, Typical Canter . . . . . .145 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxvii 
 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fig. 
 
 166. 
 
 Notation of Canter of Heavy Horse ... 
 
 145 
 
 
 
 167. 
 
 Fast . .... 
 
 145 
 
 55 
 
 1 68. 
 
 The Gallop 
 
 145 
 
 55 
 
 169. 
 
 The Leap 
 
 146 
 
 55 
 
 170. 
 
 Camel 
 
 151 
 
 55 
 
 171. 
 
 Captain Mowbray's Pony Mare, Skittles ... 
 
 159 
 
 11 
 
 172. 
 
 M. Lefevre's Tristan 
 
 169 
 
 11 
 
 173- 
 
 Coffin Shape of Head . . . 
 
 171 
 
 174 and 175. Curves of different Convexity .... 
 
 188 
 
 176 to 178. Diagrams Showing Different Degrees of Expansion of 
 
 
 
 Chest 
 
 189 
 
 ,, 
 
 179. 
 
 Captain Beddy's Arab Pony, Blitz ..... 
 
 285 
 
 55 
 
 1 80. 
 
 The China Pony, Teen Kwang 
 
 289 
 
 55 
 
 181. 
 
 The Grevy or Somali-land Zebra ..... 
 
 314 
 
 J? 
 
 182. 
 
 Skin of the Somali-land Zebra ...... 
 
 315 
 
 n 
 
 183. 
 
 Burchell's Zebra 
 
 315 
 
 55 
 
 184. 
 
 Abnormal Fore Foot of Horse ..... 
 
 321 
 
 55 
 
 185. 
 
 Front Foot of Pig ........ 
 
 322 
 
 55 
 
 186. 
 
 Hipparion Gracile . . . . . ... 
 
 323 
 
 55 
 
 187. 
 
 Left Fore Foot of Hipparion Gracile .... 
 
 324 
 
 55 
 
 188. 
 
 11 11 55 55 ...... 
 
 324 
 
 55 
 
 189. 
 
 Right Hind Leg ...... 
 
 324 
 
 55 
 
 190. 
 
 Left Fore Foot of 
 
 325 
 
 55 
 
 191. 
 
 Horse . 
 
 325 
 
 55 
 
 192. 
 
 55 55 55 
 
 326 
 
 55 
 
 193- 
 
 Anchitherium ..... 
 
 327 
 
 55 
 
 194. 
 
 Fore Foot of Paloplotherium . 
 
 328 
 
 ,, 
 
 195- 
 
 Left Front Foot of Orohippus Agilis 
 
 328 
 
 55 
 
 196. 
 
 Hyracotherium ........ 
 
 330 
 
 55 
 
 197. 
 
 Fore Foot of Rhinoceros ... 
 
 33 1 
 
 55 
 
 198. 
 
 Left Front Foot of Acerotherium .... 
 
 33 1 
 
 55 
 
 199. 
 
 ,, Brontotherium ..... 
 
 332 
 
 55 
 
 200. 
 
 Left Hind Foot of ... 
 
 332 
 
 55 
 
 201. 
 
 Phenacodus Primaevus ..... 
 
 333 
 
 55 
 
 202. 
 
 Foot of Steinbok ... 
 
 337 
 
 55 
 
 20 3 . 
 
 Cannon-bones of Hipparion . 
 
 339 
 
 55 
 
 204. 
 
 Proportions of Horse 
 
 346 
 
 55 
 
 205. 
 
 Louis XV 
 
 349 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fig. 206. Horse by Alken ........ 350 
 
 207. Horse and I Rider in the Parthenon . . . 351 
 
 208. Napole'on i er - . . . . . . . .3152 
 
 209. "1814" ....... . 353 
 
 210. Horses by GeVicault . . . . . . 
 
 211. Marengo . . 
 
 212. Horse leaping by Alken . . . . . 
 
THE 
 
 POINTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. 
 
 Animals of Speed and Animals of Strength Comparative Conformation 
 Marey's Law. 
 
 Animals of Speed and Animals of Strength.- 
 
 When we speak of the conformation of a horse, we refer to 
 the adaptability of his body for general or special work. We 
 all know, without the aid of science to tell us, that a light- 
 boned thoroughbred would be as unsuitable to carry a 
 fifteen-stone man, as a thick-set cob would be to win a five- 
 furlong race. The "weed" would not fail, necessarily, from 
 deficiency in weight of bone and muscle ; for there are 
 many ponies of thirteen hands or under, which would weigh 
 no more than the slender T. Y. C. performer, and yet could 
 bear the welter burden through a long day's journey, with 
 ease to themselves and comfort to their rider. The failure 
 to carry weight in the one case, and the inability to display 
 a high degree of speed in the other, would obviously be due 
 
FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORM A TION. 
 
 (in the absence of any particular defect) to the fact of the 
 conformation of the animal not being suitable to the kind of 
 work to which he was put. In our study of the " make and 
 shape " of horses, we may profitably begin by taking a 
 comparative view of animals of great speed and those of 
 immense strength, so as to arrive at a knowledge of the 
 principles by which their special characteristics are developed 
 to a high degree of excellence. As the conformation best 
 adapted for the one is different from that for the other, we 
 cannot find both united in the same animal. I need hardly 
 say that the manner in which the proportions of speed and 
 strength are varied in each particular horse, is the measure 
 of the suitability of the animal to the kind of work it is called 
 upon to perform. Thus, a dray-horse which can trot a mile 
 in eight minutes with 3,000 Ibs. behind it, may be quite as 
 useful, in its own way, as a match-trotter which, with a sulky 
 and driver weighing together 200 Ibs., can do a mile in two 
 minutes twenty seconds. 
 
 Comparative Conformation. In this proposed re- 
 search, we shall find that the two classes (those of speed 
 and those of strength) to which I have just alluded, differ 
 essentially in shape from each other, and that individuals of 
 each respective class have a similar kind of conformation. 
 As an example of the gallopers, let us take the Indian black 
 buck (see PI. i), which, for half a mile, could give five 
 hands and a beating to the fastest horse that ever looked 
 through a bridle. Then there is the cheetah (see PL 2), 
 which can give the antelope 100 yards start and catch him in 
 a furlong. It is true that the spotted cat effects his purpose 
 a good deal by surprise but it is equally certain that for a 
 

 PLATE 2 CHEETAH. 
 
SPEED AND STRENGTH. 
 
 couple of hundred yards he can travel with the velocity of 
 an express train. Also, there is the greyhound, with whose 
 speed we are all familiar. In comparison with these fleet 
 of foot animals, let us note the " make and shape " of the 
 buffalo (see PL 3) and rhinoceros (see PL 4), both of which 
 are endowed with vast muscular power. And as the opposite 
 of the "long-tailed dog," let us take the bulldog or dachs- 
 hund. On examining these animals we shall observe that 
 the limbs (especially the hind ones, from which is derived 
 the greater part of the forward propulsion) of the gallopers 
 are much longer in proportion to the animal's height than 
 those of the representatives of strength. We see this fact 
 best illustrated when we compare individuals of the same 
 species, like the greyhound and bulldog. We also obtain 
 good examples among horned cattle, in the Indian trotting 
 bullock (see PL 5), and the Indian heavy draught bull (see 
 PL 6), whose sex is indicated by the large size of his hump. 
 Special length of hind limb is well shown in the hare and in 
 the lynx (see PL 17), both of which are animals of great 
 speed. As it is not the custom to breed men with reference 
 to their physical development, we do not find the difference 
 in question so well marked in them as in the lower animals. 
 Yet, for all that, we may note among " sprinters " and 
 wrestlers the working of this principle. I may explain that 
 the muscles of the limbs of the horse, ox, buffalo and antelope 
 do not, practically, extend below the knees and hocks (being 
 continued by tendons from these joints) ; but in the dog and 
 cat tribe, they go down to the foot. 
 
 From the examples cited of animals of great strength and 
 those of high speed, we may conclude that the former are 
 distinguished by a long body and short legs ; and the latter, 
 
 B 2 
 
FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. 
 
 by a short trunk and long extremities. I am here assuming 
 that the length of the body is taken comparatively with 
 that of the legs, and without reference to the proportions 
 of the body itself. 
 
 We may also observe from the photographs before us, 
 that the limbs of speedy quadrupeds are proportionately as 
 slender as they are long, and that those exhibiting strength 
 are as thick as they are short. 
 
 I may explain that muscles are the active and essential 
 part of the machinery used by animals in locomotion, bones 
 being merely passive agents. In fact, there are myriads of 
 the lower animals which move about with considerable 
 speed by means of their muscles, but which have no bones 
 of any kind. 
 
 Marey's Law. The foregoing observations will prepare 
 us for the law cited by Professor Marey in La Machine 
 Animate, which states that muscles of speed are long and 
 slender, and those of strength are short and thick. This 
 distinguished Frenchman gives as instances the long breast- 
 bones of birds such as the snipe and partridge which can 
 move their wings with great rapidity, and the short ones of 
 hovering birds -such as the eagle and albatross which can 
 overcome the immense resistance of the air upon which the 
 large area of their pinions presses, only with slow, but very 
 powerful strokes. The expanse of the outspread wings of 
 birds of quick stroke such as wild pigeon and partridge is 
 of far less comparative size than is that of those of hovering 
 birds. The relative speed with which these birds can cleave 
 the air does not, of course, affect the question of the form 
 and action of their muscles. 
 
i 
 
MAREY'S LAW. 5 
 
 I may remark that the foregoing principles govern the 
 information of horses as closely as they do that of other 
 inimals. I shall, however, defer their application to horses 
 ;ill further on, when we shall have acquired a certain amount 
 }f exact knowledge of the physical conditions of the horse, 
 kvhich will greatly aid us in drawing accurate conclusions as 
 :o his -'shape and make." 
 
STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 Bones Cartilage Muscles and Tendons Ligaments Connective Tissue 
 The Nervous System. 
 
 THE frame-work of the body consists of the skeleton (see 
 Fig. 3), which is composed of a large number of connected 
 bones that are moved by muscles. In considering the 
 general conformation of the horse with respect tp the purpose 
 for which he may be suitable, we should, generally, regard 
 difference of length in his various parts, as those of muscles, 
 rather than of bones ; for the former are the producers of all 
 movements of progression, the latter aiding only in the 
 application of the force exerted. 
 
 Bones. The chief duties of bones in the act of pro- 
 gression are (i) to bear weight ; (2) to resist the effects of 
 concussion ; and (3) to act as levers. Capability for per- 
 forming (i) and (2) is dependent on conditions of texture 
 (" quality" ), size (" substance"), and arrangement. 
 
 Quality and substance of bone. Whether the animal be 
 intended to carry heavy burdens, or to gallop over hard 
 ground, it is always a matter of the greatest importance 
 that his bones, especially those below his knees and hocks, 
 
BONES. 
 
 should be of strong and compact texture. It has been 
 customary to state, in a vague way, that the bones of Arab 
 horses and English thoroughbreds are denser than those of 
 other breeds. It would, however, be more exact to say that 
 the drier the soil on which a horse has been bred and 
 brought up, and the "harder" the food upon which he has 
 been fed, the better will be the quality of his bone ; for we 
 find that in dry, hot climates in the East, native ponies, which 
 can have little or no admixture of Arab blood, have legs as 
 clean and hard as any that are to be met with in the Desert. 
 We need not test our theories on this subject by the micro- 
 scope, or by determining the specific gravity of various 
 sections of bone taken from different animals ; for we can 
 obtain a far more reliable and practical proof from the fact 
 that, other things being equal, the more porous are bones, 
 the more liable are they to bony deposits, such as splints, 
 spavins, and ringbones. I here purposely omit to add " sore 
 shins ; " for this disease is almost peculiar to immature 
 thoroughbreds that are put into training at an age much 
 earlier than that at which ordinary horses are broken. The 
 nature of a horse's hoofs, which can alw r ays be determined 
 by inspection, or by using the "drawing knife," will generally 
 afford us a safe guide by which to judge of the quality of his 
 bone. Thus we find that animals which have been reared 
 amid damp surroundings and on soft food, will, as a rule, be 
 prone to bony enlargements, and will have flat feet of soft 
 horn. We cannot fail to notice this if we compare the horses 
 of the English fen counties with those bred on high, dry land. 
 In Australia we see the same difference between the horses 
 of the damp Swan River Settlement, and those of the 
 comparatively dry climate of New South Wales ; in India, 
 
STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 between the stock raised in the arid plains of the Punjab and 
 Deccan, and those of swampy Lower Bengal. Hence, if, 
 when judging an animal about the history of which we know 
 nothing, and which does not appear to have undergone 
 enough work to test the soundness of his legs, we find that 
 he has weak, flat hoofs, we shall not err, in the large 
 majority of cases, by concluding that his bone is of inferior 
 quality. I may add, as regards climate, that although dryness 
 is always a favourable condition for horses, the effect of 
 excessive heat apparently is to diminish the size of the bone 
 of the indigenous animals : a circumstance which may, to a 
 great extent, -account for the fact that horses bred in tropical 
 climates, however hardy and wiry they may be, are very 
 rarely of a weight-carrying type, like those met with in 
 temperate countries. 
 
 What is popularly called "want of bone" seriously 
 detracts from the usefulness of an animal, whatever its work 
 may be, as it implies deficiency of muscular development ; for 
 muscles, I may say, cannot act properly unless they have a 
 sufficient surface of bone on which to attach themselves. It 
 would, however, be more correct to state that we cannot 
 have large bones without large muscles ; for the size and 
 development of a bone is directly dependent on the condition 
 and state of activity of the muscles connected with it. This 
 follows from the fact that a bone, like all other parts of the 
 animal system, in order to be strong, requires a plentiful 
 supply of blood for its nourishment, the circulation being 
 quickened by exercise, which can alone be obtained by 
 muscular action. As pointed out by Professor Marey, in 
 cases of paralysis of a limb, the bones of the part become 
 wasted on account of the loss of function of the muscles. In 
 
ST. GATIEN. 
 
 making practical observations on horses, we may often be 
 greatly assisted in our investigations by judging of the 
 muscles by the bones, and vice versa. Thus, if we see an 
 animal in poor condition which has been brought on by hard- 
 ship or want of food, we may, by the appearance of his 
 " bone," form a good idea of what his muscles will be when he 
 " fills out." Even when a horse is "fit and well," a display of 
 large, well-shaped bone (of the body as well as of the limbs) 
 should dispose us to consider that his muscles are more 
 powerful than they appear at first glance. I was much struck 
 with this fact on the first occasion I had an opportunity of 
 closely inspecting the celebrated St. Gatien, whom Mr. John 
 Hammond very kindly showed me in his box, some time 
 before he ran his dead heat with Harvester for the Derby of 
 1884; for I was greatly "taken" with the sight of the 
 large, symmetrically formed bones of his legs, his long 
 back ribs, and his well-developed pelvis, the inner angle of 
 which was so prominent as to make a distinct " rise " in the 
 outline of his croup ; not to mention his long, sloping 
 shoulders, and immense gaskins. On the other hand, if we 
 observe that an animal which is in " dealer's condition " is 
 light of bone, we may, as a rule, conclude that there is not 
 very much muscle in the load of flesh which he carries. 
 Among sound, good horses, " Mr. Morton's " well-known 
 handicap winner, Dalmeny, was one of the lightest below the 
 knee I have ever seen ; but no exception could have been 
 taken to him on that account, for his shape was particularly 
 true and level, and his muscles were of the long slender 
 type which is generally characteristic of the possession of 
 speed. I need hardly say that the bones and muscles of the 
 limbs are not always in keeping with those of the body ; 
 
10 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 for we daily see instances of animals that are too heavily 
 " topped" for their legs, like the one in PI. 30. 
 
 Men of experience know that a horse should have plenty 
 of bone in order to be able to carry weight with ease to 
 himself for long distances and at comparatively fast paces 
 as, for example, when hunting. If we take two horses that 
 can perform about equally well in a long run with a similar 
 welter weight up, one having the " pull " in speed, the other 
 in bone and muscle, we shall usually find that the latter will 
 not feel the effects of the work so much as the former. I 
 may explain this on the reasonable supposition that the 
 weight-bearing muscles of the lighter-built horse, not being 
 so strong as those of the " heavier " animal, will naturally 
 become more fatigued. The objection sometimes advanced 
 against thoroughbreds for hunting, that they cannot " come 
 out again " as quickly as half-bred animals, is valid only when 
 the former are lighter built than the latter ; for, if blood 
 horses of equal bone and muscle were obtained, the difference 
 would be all the other way. 
 
 Large muscles, as we have seen, require large bones. It 
 also goes without saying that the more are bones exposed to 
 the effects of concussion, the denser and stronger should they 
 be. Consequently, we may conclude that the lighter an 
 animal's body is, in comparison to the strength of its com- 
 ponent parts and the amount of its muscular force, the 
 greater will be its powers of rapid progression. Hence we 
 find that the race-horse, like all quadrupeds of which speed is 
 the chief characteristic, has comparatively slender bones of 
 extremely dense texture, and that his muscles make up in 
 strength what they lack in substance. Owing to the law of 
 compensation, which governs the conditions of animal life, it 
 
MUSCLES AND TENDONS. n 
 
 is almost impossible to obtain bone of great volume, and, at 
 the same time, of the finest quality. On this account, as size 
 is indispensable with the cart-horse, we endeavour, with him, 
 to obtain large bone of sufficient strength to meet his 
 requirements. In the intermediate classes of horses, the 
 relations between volume and quality should be judged 
 according to the nature of the work in view. 
 
 Arrangement of bones. The relative position which 
 bones occupy with respect to each other affect their leverage, 
 weight-carrying, and concussion-resisting powers conditions 
 which will be treated in detail when we consider the various 
 points which they affect. 
 
 Cartilage. Cartilage or gristle is a strong, flexible, 
 bluish-white substance which is found in connection with 
 bone, and of which there are various kinds. Articular 
 cartilage covers the ends of bones that form moveable joints. 
 Temporary cartilage is bone in a transition form. The ribs are 
 connected to the breastbone by cartilages which form elastic 
 prolongations. Cartilages also are interposed between the 
 bones of various joints in order to connect or protect them. 
 The cartilage of prolongation forms an elastic continuation 
 of the top of the shoulder-blade. 
 
 Muscles and Tendons. The animal's moving power 
 is derived from miiscles, which form the lean of meat, and 
 which, as a rule, are attached to bones. Muscles act by 
 virtue of the property they possess of being able to shorten 
 themselves on being stimulated by the nervous system. 
 Thus, if we wish to raise, say, our right hand to the shoulder, 
 our brain telegraphs, so to speak, the order, by means of the 
 
12 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 nerves, to the biceps muscle, which is attached at one end to 
 the shoulder-blade, close to the shoulder-joint, and, at the 
 other, to the bones of the fore-arm, a little below the elbow. 
 Hence this muscle, on contracting, draws the hand up in the 
 required direction. 
 
 As muscles are built up of contractile fibres, their 
 strength, other things being equal, is proportionate to their 
 thickness. 
 
 In order to economise space, muscles are generally 
 attached to bones by means of tendons (sinews), which are 
 hard, fibrous cords of great toughness. The tendon at one 
 extremity is firmly united to the end of the muscle, and, at 
 the other, to the bone. 
 
 We find from experiment that a muscle can contract to 
 about two-thirds of its ordinary length, which is, therefore, 
 proportionate to the extent of movement it is capable of 
 producing. If the muscles which move the limbs be compara- 
 tively short, the stride will also be short, and the horse 
 will be slower than he would otherwise be, no matter how r 
 thick and powerful are his muscles. We may, therefore, 
 conclude that speed is associated with length of muscle, as 
 has been stated on page 4. 
 
 As length of muscle is necessarily accompanied by length 
 of bone, we may judge of the former by the latter, which can 
 usually be readily estimated. 
 
 The "give and take" principle, which applies more or 
 less to all created things, holds good with muscles. Hence, 
 in the race-horse, for which the possession of speed is the 
 chief essential of success, we should seek the greatest 
 possible length of muscle, with just sufficient strength to meet 
 his requirements for carrying weight and for sustaining the 
 
MUSCLES. 13 
 
 exertion he may be called upon to undergo. In the cart-horse, 
 on the contrary, thickness of muscle is the great desideratum, 
 always supposing that he has sufficient activity to walk well 
 and on occasion to trot at a moderately brisk rate. As a thin 
 muscle will contract at least as quickly as a thick one of the 
 same length, it follows that an increase in the thickness of 
 muscles is useful only in making the work more easy, and 
 that it does not otherwise add to the speed. Massive 
 muscles, compared to slight ones, have two disadvantages, 
 namely they add to the weight to be carried, both in muscle 
 and bone ; and they necessitate the possession of large 
 joints, which, from increased friction, are not so easily bent 
 and extended as smaller ones ; besides this, it has been 
 proved that they do not respond as quickly to nervous 
 stimulus. Although it is impossible to lay down any exact 
 rules on this subject, we may say, speaking generally, that 
 the thickness of muscle which would be commendable in a 
 weight-carrying hunter, would be quite out of place in a race- 
 horse. We may often observe that horses which were very 
 smart as two-year-olds, lose their ' ' form " after that age with- 
 out any assignable reason, except that as they "thickened," 
 they got slow. I may remark that those speedy animals, the 
 cheetah, greyhound, and antelope, like the race-horse, are 
 comparatively narrow behind, and that the hind-quarters of 
 the cart-horse are very wide. As the great tendency among 
 English thoroughbreds is to undue lightness of bone and 
 muscle, we generally find that our best race-horses are com- 
 paratively strong animals ; although the muscles of their 
 legs are always long, and they have little or no approach to 
 coarseness of limb. Ormonde, St. Gatien, Bendigo, Isonomy, 
 Barcaldine, and Carbine (the New Zealand son of Musket), 
 
i 4 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 for example, were all muscular horses. St. Simon (PI. 7) was 
 a notable example of a horse of the highest class, being 
 of remarkably light build. He had, however, marvellously 
 good shoulders and loins. 
 
 We know from experiment that muscles of the same 
 thickness are stronger in animals of one species than they 
 are in those of another kind ; and we may reasonably infer 
 that even among individual horses the same rule holds good. 
 In fact, we may take for granted that the " quality " of 
 muscle, tendon and ligament, as well as of bone, is better in 
 some horses than in others ; the great factors in producing 
 strong tissue appearing to be : heredity ; residence in a dry, 
 warm climate ; " hard food " ; exercise ; and Eastern blood. 
 
 Ligaments. The ends of the bones that form joints are 
 held together by white ligaments, which are similar in 
 structure to tendons ; but, unlike them, they serve to connect 
 bones with bones, and, in a few cases, bones with tendons. 
 They have no direct connection with muscles. There are, 
 also, yellow ligaments, which, being elastic, aid in supporting 
 weight without fatigue to the animal. 
 
 Connective Tissue. The skin, which covers and 
 protects the body, is largely composed of a strong, fibrous 
 structure called connective tissue, which, proceeding inwards 
 from the skin in the form of, more or less, thick layers and 
 bands, furnishes a supporting network for the component parts 
 of the other tissues. Thus, if we compare a slice from the 
 under-cut of a sirloin of beef with one from a round of beef, 
 we shall see that the relative coarseness of grain of the latter 
 is due to the thickness of the layers of connective tissue 
 
CONNECTIVE TISSUE. 
 
 which run through it. As connective tissue has only the 
 passive action of support, I need hardly say, that the coarser 
 in grain a muscle is, the less powerful will it be ; although it 
 will be better able to resist the effects of external violence 
 than one of finer grain. The protective duty of connective 
 tissue, as regards muscles, may be readily inferred from the 
 fact that the less exposed muscles are to injury from with- 
 out, by reason of their position, the less connective tissue do 
 they contain. This tissue, also, forms ligaments and ten- 
 dons, and ensheathes bones, cartilages, nerves, etc. There is 
 always a large amount of it immediately underneath the skin, 
 in the form of loose fibrous sheets, as we may see in the dead 
 animal. The presence of a great quantity of it in this 
 position will, naturally, cause the underlying parts to be ill- 
 defined, a fact which will be especially noticeable about the 
 tendons and ligaments below the knees and hocks, owing to the 
 absence of muscle about these parts. We may, therefore, draw 
 the following deductions : (i) That, as the thickness of the 
 skin is a measure of the amount of connective tissue it con- 
 tains ; the thicker the hide, other things being equal, the more 
 connective tissue will there be in and about the muscles. 
 (2) That, as its action is only passive, the more of it a 
 muscle contains, the slower will be the movements of the 
 muscle. Hence, we may reasonably conclude that the fact 
 of a horse having a thick skin, and ill-defined suspensory 
 ligaments, owing to natural " fleshiness," would warrant us 
 in supposing that he was deficient in speed. I may remark 
 that, with age, the amount of connective tissue in the body 
 greatly increases. As M. Guerin states : "In the old man, 
 the tendon seems to invade the muscle, so that the portion of 
 the calf of the leg which remains, is placed very high, and 
 
1 6 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 is much reduced in length. The muscles of the loins and 
 back present the same character. In old age they are poorer 
 in red fibre, but richer in tendon." 
 
 I may here mention that the component parts of the 
 body which, respectively, have the same structure, are called 
 tissues. Thus we have bony tissue, consisting of bone ; 
 muscular tissue, of muscle ; nervous tissue, of nerve sub- 
 stance ; connective tissue, of white fibrous material ; and 
 so on. 
 
 The Nervous System. While considering the form of 
 the horse from a mechanical point of view, we must not lose 
 sight of the marked differences which exist in the nervous 
 system of various animals, and which greatly heighten, or 
 may altogether nullify, advantages obtained from good con- 
 formation. We are aware, speaking within reasonable limits, 
 that the amount of contraction i.e. force exhibited by a 
 muscle is proportional to the degree of stimulation given by 
 its nerves. As the nervous system of some animals acts far 
 more energetically than that of others, it follows that the 
 former, other things being equal, will be stronger than the 
 latter ; although no difference in conformation, or in develop- 
 ment of muscle, may be perceptible. Not alone does the 
 amount of nervous force differ much among animals of the 
 same kind, but, also, some have the faculty of stimulating 
 their muscles by means of their nerves quicker than their 
 fellows can do. We see this well exemplified in adepts at 
 fencing, cricket, boxing, and other kindred sports ; at which, 
 so-called quickness of eye is all-essential. I may mention 
 that the brilliant bat, or accomplished mattre d'armes, apart 
 from the possession of the necessary amount of knowledge, 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 17 
 
 judgment, and physique, excels because he has the gift 
 of moving his muscles, in response to the stimulus received 
 by the nerves of his eyes, quicker, as well as in more 
 accurately regulated style, than ordinary men. This asser- 
 tion is in no way based on mere theory ; for we find that 
 among men whose duty it is to record (as in observatories) 
 the exact moment at which they see certain phenomena 
 occur, it is necessary, in order to avoid error, to allow for the 
 difference in time these men, respectively, take ; although it 
 may only be a fraction of a second. To do this, it is 
 requisite to obtain, for each man, his " personal equation,'' 
 as it is termed. We can, therefore, conclude that speed and 
 strength are as dependent on the nature and quality of the 
 nervous system as they are on conformation and muscular 
 development. It also goes without saying that a horse 
 may possess every physical excellence, and yet be worthless 
 on account of having a " soft heart," or bad temper. 
 
1 8 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Head Neck Breast and Chest Shoulders Withers Elbow Fore-arm 
 Knee Cannon Fetlock Pastern Hoof Back Loins Ribs 
 Flank Belly Brisket Croup Thigh Gaskin Hock Dock- 
 Height of a Horse Length of the Body of a Horse Depth of Chest 
 at Withers Depth of Body Height at Croup. 
 
 As the external parts and regions of the body do not, in 
 many cases, admit of very accurate definition, I crave the 
 indulgence of my readers in this attempt to mark out their 
 positions and boundaries. I have omitted mention of some 
 parts which, being known to every one, require no expla- 
 nation. The figures and letters employed in the following 
 list have reference to those on Fig. i. 
 
 Head (i). Looking at the horse in profile, we may 
 regard the head as being divided from the neck by a line 
 proceeding from the back of the ear, along the rear edge of 
 the lower jaw to its angle. 
 
 The forehead (a) forms the upper part of the face. It 
 extends down to a line joining the inner angle (canthus) of 
 each eye, and reaches as high as the fore-lock and the base of 
 the ears. 
 
 The fore-lock is a tuft of hair which lies between the ears, 
 and is a continuation of the mane. 
 
EXTERNAL PARTS. 
 
 The temples are those portions of the head, on each side 
 of the forehead, which lie between the ear and eye. 
 
 The nose (b] is a continuation of the forehead, and ends 
 opposite the nostrils at the angle (c) formed by the line of 
 the face and the line of the muzzle. 
 
 The muzzle is the lower end of the head, and includes 
 
 FIG. i. EXTERNAL PARTS OF HORSE. 
 
 the nostrils, upper (d) and lower lip (e), and the bones and 
 teeth covered by them. 
 
 The bars of the mouth are the bare portions of the gums 
 of the lower jaw which lie on each side, between the back 
 teeth and the tushes, or the place usually occupied by the 
 tushes. 
 
 The chin-groove (/) is just under the bars of the mouth. 
 
 c 2 
 
20 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 It is the smooth and rounded imder-part of the lower jaw, in 
 which the curb chain should rest when a curb bit is used. 
 
 The angles of the lower jaw (g) are the bony angles 
 between which the upper end of the wind-pipe lies. 
 
 The branches of the lower jaw run from the chin-groove to 
 the angles of the lower jaw. 
 
 The occipital crest is the bony prominence which con- 
 stitutes the top of the head, and which more or less rises 
 between the ears. It is particularly high in the head shown 
 in PL 26. 
 
 Neck (2). The neck is separated from the shoulders by 
 a line which goes from the dip that is just in front of the 
 withers, to the depression which is made by the union of the 
 neck and breast. 
 
 The poll (v) is the part which is on the top of the neck 
 and is immediately behind the ears. 
 
 The crest (/) is the upper part of the neck, extending from 
 the withers to the ears. 
 
 T\& jugular groove (u) is the groove which is on each side 
 of the neck, just above the wind-pipe. It is well shown in 
 Pis. 20 and 35. 
 
 Breast and Chest. Among horsemen who are un- 
 acquainted with anatomy, the latter of these two terms is 
 frequently used to express the former. At the risk of 
 employing a word contrary to colloquial custom, I would 
 suggest that the term " chest " be applied exclusively to the 
 cavity which occupies nearly the front third of the trunk, and 
 in which the lungs and heart are situated. It is divided from 
 the belly (abdomen) by the diaphragm. (See Fig. 4.) 
 
WITHERS. 21 
 
 Shoulders (3). The line of union between the 
 shoulders and the neck is well shown in the majority of 
 harness and draught horses ; there being, in such cases, a 
 distinct depression immediately in front of the shoulder. In 
 well-shaped saddle horses, this dip between shoulder and neck 
 will be more or less difficult to find. The withers form the 
 upper boundary of the shoulder. The rear border of the 
 shoulder may be taken from behind the " swell " of the 
 muscle which is just below the withers, to the elbow. 
 
 The point of the shoulder (h) is the prominent bony angle, 
 on each side of the chest, a little below the junction of the 
 neck and shoulder. 
 
 The Withers (4) are the bony ridge which is the for- 
 ward continuation of the back. Its posterior limit is, as a 
 rule, ill-defined ; for the curve made by the withers usually 
 runs into that of the back in a gradual manner. Its anterior 
 termination can generally be easily felt by the fingers ; as this 
 bony ridge ends abruptly in the crest. 
 
 The Elbow, which is a portion of the fore-arm, is the 
 large bony projection at the upper and posterior part of the 
 fore-arm. The point of the elbow (i] is the top of this 
 bony projection. 
 
 The Fore-Arm (5) is placed between the shoulder 
 and knee. Its upper boundary may be taken as a horizontal 
 line drawn across the fore limb, just below the lump of muscle 
 which is at the bottom of the shoulder. 
 
 The castors, or chesmtts () are the horny growths that 
 are above the knees, and just below the hocks, on the inside 
 of the legs. 
 
22 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Knee (6). The upper boundary of the knee may be 
 regarded as a line drawn at right angles to the direction of 
 the leg, above the knee joint, and just clear of the bony pro- 
 minence that is on the side of the knee. The lower boundary 
 of the knee may be taken as a line joining the point where 
 the line of the cannon-bone meets that of the knee, with that 
 where the line of the back tendons is terminated by the bone 
 (the trapezium, /) which is at the back of the knee. 
 
 The Cannon (7). A suitable designation for the part 
 of the leg which is situated between the knee and fetlock is 
 much required. The term " cannon " is apt to give one the 
 impression that only the cannon-bone is meant : it would be 
 more convenient if the back teudons and suspensory ligament 
 were also included. The line dividing the cannon from the 
 fetlock is one drawn across the leg immediately above the 
 prominence caused by the fetlock joint. 
 
 The back tendons (m) or bick sinews are the fibrous cord 
 which runs down the back of the leg between the knee and 
 the fetlock. This cord consists of two tendons which lie 
 closely together. 
 
 The suspensory ligament is a fibrous cord which lies 
 between the cannon-bone and the back tendons, and which 
 can be seen in a well-formed leg that is not unduly covered 
 with hair (vide PL 42). 
 
 The cannon-bone (/) is the bone which lies between the 
 knee and the fetlock. It has two small bones (outside and 
 inside splint bone] at its back. 
 
 Fetlock (8). The fetlock joint is the joint which the 
 cannon-bone makes with the pastern. The term fetlock 
 
HOOF. 23 
 
 signifies the tuft of hair that usually grows behind this joint, 
 and also the joint itself and the enlargement made by the 
 bones which form it. 
 
 Pastern (9). This is the short column of bones which is 
 placed between the fetlock and the hoof. 
 
 The hollow of the pastern is the hollow at the back and 
 lower part of the pastern. 
 
 The coronet is the comparatively soft lower portion of 
 the pastern which is immediately above the hoof. 
 
 The Hoof(io)is the horny box which encloses the 
 lower part of the limb. The front part of the hoof, near the 
 ground surface, is called the toe ; the side portions, the 
 quarters; and the rear parts, on the ground surface, the 
 heels. The outer portion of the hoof is termed the wall, 
 which is divided into a hard, fibrous outer covering called 
 the crust, and a soft inner layer of non-fibrous horn. The 
 designations ''wall" and "crust" are often used indis- 
 criminately. 
 
 The frog is the triangular buffer which is in the centre 
 of the ground surface of the hoof. 
 
 The cleft of the frog is the division in the middle line 
 of the frog. In healthy feet, it consists of only a slight 
 depression. 
 
 The bars of the hoof are the portions of the wall of the 
 hoof which are turned inwards at the heels, and run more or 
 less parallel to the sides of the frog. The sole is that portion 
 of the ground surface of the foot which is included between 
 the wall, bars, and frog. 
 
 Back (n). Anatomically speaking, the back consists of 
 
24 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 that portion of the spinal column to which ribs are attached, 
 and it consequently includes the withers ; but not the loins. 
 The term " back " is, in common parlance, an ill-defined region. 
 Some regard it as consisting of the whole of the upper line of 
 the body, from the front of the withers to the root of the tail. 
 Others would exclude from this the croup. Probably, the 
 majority of horsemen would say the back of a horse is in- 
 cluded between the highest point of the croup and the 
 commencement of the withers. For convenience sake I shall 
 adopt the anatomical definition, with the omission of the 
 withers, which have separate functions, and which I shall 
 consider by themselves. I may, therefore, state that the 
 back is bounded in front by the withers ; behind, by the 
 loins ; and on each side, by the ribs. 
 
 Loins (12). The loins are placed between the back and 
 croup, at front and rear, with the flanks at each side. We 
 may regard the loins as that portion of the spinal column 
 which is devoid of ribs, and which is in front of the highest 
 point (posterior iliac spine, see Fig. 3) of the pelvis. 
 
 Ribs (13). The ribs are bounded by the shoulders in 
 front, by the flanks behind, by the back above, and by the 
 belly and brisket (sternum) below. 
 
 Flank (14). The flank is that part of the side of the 
 horse which is free from bone and which thinly covers 
 the intestines. It is placed between the loins above, the ribs 
 to the front, the thigh and point of the hip to the rear, and 
 the belly below. 
 
 The hollow of the flank is the upper portion of the flank, 
 which is bounded above by the loins, and below by a line 
 
THIGH. 25 
 
 joining the end of the last rib with the lower edge of the 
 point of the hip. 
 
 Belly (15). The belly or abdomen is the large cavity 
 (see Fig. 4) which contains the stomach, liver, spleen, 
 intestines, kidneys, bladder, etc. The term " belly " is 
 applied, in common phraseology, to the underneath portion of 
 the body which is not covered by bone. 
 
 The Brisket (16) is the lower part of the horse's chest. 
 
 The girth place is the rear portion of the sternum (breast- 
 bone) which is just behind the fore legs, and underneath 
 which the girths pass when the horse is saddled. 
 
 Croup (i/). The croup is that portion of the upper 
 part of the body which is situated between the loins in front 
 and the tail behind. Roughly speaking, it may be said to 
 extend down, on each side, to a line drawn from the lower 
 edge of the point of the hip, to the point of the buttock. 
 
 The point of the hip (s) is the bony surface, more or less 
 prominent, which is a little to the rear of the last rib. It is 
 the anterior point of the pelvis. 
 
 The point of the buttock (o) is the bony prominence which 
 is the rearmost point of the pelvis. It is a few inches below 
 the root of the tail. 
 
 Thigh ( 1 8). The thigh is bordered by the stifle, flank, 
 croup, buttock, and gaskin, from which it is separated by a 
 horizontal line drawn from the upper end of the straight line 
 made by the hamstring or tendo A chillis (p}, which proceeds 
 towards the thigh from the point of the hock (^). I am aware 
 
26 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 that this definition is far from being anatomically correct, but 
 it is one which fairly represents the acceptation of the term 
 among horsemen. 
 
 The Stifle (n) is the joint of the hind leg which is at 
 the lower part of the flank. 
 
 The Gaskin (19) is situated between the thigh and 
 the hock, from which it is divided by a line drawn from the 
 point of the hock, clear of the bony prominences of the 
 joint. 
 
 The Hock (20) is placed between the gaskin and the 
 hind cannon-bone, from which we may separate it by a line 
 drawn across this bone at the point at which its head begins 
 to enlarge in order to form a joint with the lower bones of 
 the hock. 
 
 The point of the hock (q] is the bony projection at the 
 back and top of the hock. 
 
 The parts of the hind leg below the hock are similarly 
 named to those of the fore leg below the knee. 
 
 The Dock (r) is the solid part of the tail. 
 
 N.B. The following definitions have reference to 
 Fig. 2 : 
 
 The Height of a Horse (a b) is the vertical distance 
 of the highest point of his withers from the ground, when 
 he is standing with his fore legs nearly vertical and 
 with the points of his hocks in a vertical line with the 
 points of his buttocks. I have qualified "vertical" with 
 " nearly " when referring to the fore legs ; for when the 
 
LENGTH OF HORSE. 
 
 hind legs are placed as in Fig. 2, the weight of the head 
 and neck, which are in front of the fore legs, would cause 
 the animal to stand somewhat "over." I may mention that 
 this figure was drawn from a photograph of a well-shaped 
 
 FIG 2. MEASUREMENTS OF HORSE. 
 
 race-horse, Tristan, who was standing, if I may use the 
 expression, " at attention." When a pony is being measured 
 for racing, his legs should be placed in the position I have 
 described. 
 
 The -Length of the Body of a Horse (d e) is the 
 
 horizontal distance from the front of the chest to a line 
 dropped vertically from the point of the buttock. I must 
 
28 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 explain that this measurement is a somewhat arbitrary one ; 
 but it is, as far as I can see, the best for the purpose. 
 
 Colonel Duhousset, in his book, Le Cheval, takes the 
 length of a horse as the distance from the point of the shoulder 
 to the point of the buttock. As this is not a horizontal 
 measurement ; I prefer to it the one I have just given. 
 
 The Depth of the Chest at the Withers (a c) is the 
 
 vertical distance from the top of the withers to the bottom 
 of the chest. This measurement, being taken for con- 
 venience sake, is an arbitrary one ; for the chest is lower 
 between the fore legs than behind the elbow, which is the 
 spot I have selected. Besides this, the actual height of the 
 withers above the roof of the chest has no fixed relation to 
 the depth of the chest. 
 
 Depth of the Body (/. The best and most uniform 
 point to take this is, I think, the lowest point of the back. 
 
 Height at the Croup (k i) is measured from the highest 
 point of the hind quarters. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Definitions Bones Joints and Ligaments Muscles Heart and Lungs 
 Nervous System of the Horse. 
 
 Definitions. When one bone unites with another bone, or with a 
 piece of cartilage, to form a joint, it is said to articulate with it. The 
 term articulation is used as a synonym for joint. 
 
 A ball and socket joint is formed by the head of one bone resting in 
 a cavity of another bone. The more shallow the cavity, the more ex- 
 tensive will be the power of movement. The horse's shoulder joint and hip 
 joint are good examples of this kind of articulation. A hinge joint is one 
 which works only by extension and flexion, like the horse's knee. 
 
 " A limb," as Professor Huxley states, " is flexed when it is bent ; extended, 
 when it is straightened out." We may adopt this definition, with the ex- 
 ception that the fetlock joint becomes bent when it is extended, and 
 straightened out when it is partly flexed. 
 
 The word dorsal is used with reference to things of, or belonging to, the 
 back, which, anatomically, is limited to that portion of the spine which is 
 connected with the ribs. 
 
 If a muscle is attached, by one end, to a bone which it can move, and, 
 by the other end, to one which is fixed, the former is called the insertion of 
 the muscle ; the latter, the origin. Thus, the origin of the biceps in man (see 
 p. 12) is near the shoulder joint; and its insertion is on the bone of the 
 forearm. When a muscle, on contracting, can move the bones at both its 
 ends, the points of connection are called attachments ; an expression which is 
 also applied collectively to the origin and insertion. I may mention that 
 muscles are not invariably attached to bones, but may, on the contrary, be 
 
SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 connected to cartilages, ligaments, to the fibrous covering of muscles, or even 
 to the skin. 
 
 Bones. The skeleton is composed of the limbs and spinal column, 
 which consists of the head, vertebrae, ribs, and breast-bone (see Fig. 3). A 
 vertebra is one of the short bones which, when united, form the column 
 of bones that extends from the head to the end of the tail. There are seven 
 vertebrae of the neck, eighteen of the back, six of the loins, five of the croup 
 (or sacrum} and from thirteen to twenty of the tail. All the vertebrae, except 
 
 Ligament of /uvX- 
 , Vertebrae of' neck 
 
 Shoulder blcuf* 
 
 S/wtUdcr rcLivt 
 
 Cannon bone 
 Jjmg-pctstem bone^ 
 
 Slwrt.-pii&terrv bone 
 Peil<.iL bone ----- , 
 
 FIG. 3. SKELETON OF HORSE, 
 
 those of the tail, have a canal in which the spinal cord lies. They are united 
 one to another with more or less power of movement, except those of the 
 croup, which, in the grown-up horse, form one solid bony mass. The head 
 may be said to be composed of vertebrae in a peculiarly altered shape. 
 
 The withers are the long spines of the seven or eight dorsal vertebrae 
 which come after the first. Generally speaking, the better bred a horse is, 
 the further to the rear do the withers extend. The spine of the fifth 
 dorsal vertebra forms the summit of the withers. 
 
 There are eighteen ribs eight true and ten false attached to the dorsal 
 
BONES. 3 r 
 
 vertebrae. Both kinds have pieces of cartilage attached to their lower ends. 
 The true ribs are connected by their respective cartilages with the breast 
 bone ; but the false ones are only indirectly connected to it, the cartilage 
 of the first false rib resting on that of the last true one, that of the second 
 false rib on the first false one, and so on. 
 
 The fore limb consists of the shoulder blade, humerus, bones of the fore- 
 arm, bones of the knee, cannon-bone, splint bones, long pastern bone, 
 short pastern bone, pedal (or coffin) bone, two small bones at the back of 
 the fetlock, and the navicular bone, which lies at the back of the joint formed 
 by the small pastern bone and the pedal bone. 
 
 The shoulder blade (or scapula) is a broad, thin bone, which is flat on its 
 inside surface and has a narrow ridge of bone (the spine of the scapula) on 
 its outer surface. This spine serves as a partition to divide the muscles 
 which extend the shoulder joint from those that flex it. 
 
 There are two bones of the forearm, namely, the radius, which makes a 
 joint with the humerus and with the bones of the knee ; and the ulna, which 
 is united to the back and upper part of the radius, above which it projects. 
 The free part of the ulna is called the olecranon, the top of which is termed 
 the point of the elbow. 
 
 There are two rows of bones of the knee, at the back of which a bone (the 
 trapezium) is placed. It is curved inwards so as to form a groove for the 
 passage of the back tendons of the fore leg. 
 
 The two splint bones are placed at the back of the cannon-bone, one on the 
 outside, the other on the inside. They form a groove in which lies the 
 upper portion of the suspensory ligament. 
 
 There is a joint between the cannon-bone and the long pastern bone, 
 between the two pastern bones, and between the sfiort pastern bone and the 
 pedal (or coffin) bone. The navicular bone articulates with both the short 
 pastern bone and the pedal bone. It and the two bones behind the fetlock 
 (the sesamoid bones] serve as pulleys for one of the back tendons. 
 
 The pedal bone is surrounded by a membrane, which secretes the horn 
 of the wall of the hoof, sole and frog, in somewhat the same manner as the 
 skin which covers the bones of the head, secretes the hair of that part. 
 
 The pelvis, which rests on, and is firmly attached to, the sacrum, appears 
 as a single bone in the adult animal, although it really consists of two halves, 
 which we may regard as the respective shoulder blades of the hind quarters. 
 Each half furnishes a socket for the head of its respective thigh bone. The 
 point of the hip, on either side, is the front and outer corner of the pelvis. 
 The two inner corners of the pelvis are firmly connected with the sacrum, 
 
32 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 upon which they rest. They form the highest point of the bony framework 
 of the croup. In the absence of a recognised popular term, we may call the 
 rearmost points of the pelvis \htpoints of the buttock. 
 
 The head of the thigh bone makes a ball and socket joint with the pelvis; 
 while its lower end articulates with the tibia to form the stifle joint, in front 
 of which the patella (knee cap) is placed. The patella serves for the attach- 
 ment of muscles which extend the stifle joint. It is kept in position by 
 strong ligaments. A portion of the thigh bone projects, from the outside, 
 above the hip joint. The tibia articulates, at one end, with the thigh bone ; 
 and, at the other, with the astragalus, which is one of the bones of the hock. 
 The part of the astragalus which makes a joint with the tibia, is formed 
 like a pulley, the grooves of which have an outward and forward direction. 
 The os calcis is placed behind the astragalus, and projects above it; its 
 summit being called the point of the hock. The small bones of the hock are 
 interposed between the astragalus and os calcis, and the cannon-bone and the 
 two splint bones. The fibula is a rudimentary bone, which is attached to the 
 tibia, and which corresponds to the ulna. According to Chauveau, the 
 patella has no analogue in the fore extremity. The bones below the hock 
 are similar to those below the knee. 
 
 Analogies between the bones of man and the horse. The horse possesses no 
 collar bone, consequently there is no bony connection between his fore 
 extremity and trunk. The humerus, elbow and forearm are the same in 
 both, except that the ulna is, comparatively, far more developed in man 
 than in the horse. The knee of the latter corresponds to the wrist of the 
 former. The five bones between the wrist and the first row of knuckles are 
 represented by the cannon and splint bones ; two of these bones having dis- 
 appeared in the evolution of the horse (see Chap. XXX.). The fetlock is 
 analogous to the first row of knuckles of our hand. The long pastern bone 
 corresponds to the first row of bones of the fingers ; the short one, to the 
 second row ; the coffin bone, to the third row ; and the hoof, to our nails. 
 The navicular bone is a detached bone which has no counterpart in our 
 frame. In the hind limb, the stifle represents our knee ; the tibia, the 
 shin ; the hock, the ankle ; the point of the hock, the heel ; and so on. In 
 man, the fibula is a fully developed bone. We may thus see that the 
 horse is an animal which moves on the tips of his fingers and toes (unguli- 
 grade) ; and that he has only one toe (or finger) to each leg. 
 
 Joints and Ligaments. Joints may be divided into those which 
 admit of more or less motion, and those which are immovable. The ends 
 
LIGAMENTS. 33 
 
 of the bones which form them are, in both cases, held together by strong 
 inelastic ligaments, of which there are various kinds. Capsular ligaments, 
 for instance, loosely encircle their joints in order to protect the apparatus 
 which lubricates the ends of the bones. Lateral ligaments are placed on 
 each side of the joint, and, being attached both above and below it, keep 
 the bones together, while admitting often of considerable play. Annular 
 ligaments form protecting sheaths for the passage of tendons ; and interosseous 
 ligaments bind bones closely together. Besides these, we have suspensory 
 and check ligaments, which, as far as we are at present concerned, are 
 respectively represented by the structures, bearing these names, which are 
 found in the legs, below the knees and hocks. 
 
 The ligaments to which I have referred are, like tendons, composed of 
 white fibrous tissue (a variety of connective tissue, see p. 14), which is 
 hard, strong and inelastic. Yellow ligaments are, without going into minute 
 differences, to be distinguished by the fact of their yellow colour, and by the 
 possession of considerable elasticity, which enables them to passively bear 
 weights which would otherwise fall on the muscles. A familiar instance of 
 the manner in which elastic ligaments mechanically save the expenditure of 
 muscular force, is afforded by the arrangement which keeps the claws of a 
 cat retracted without entailing exertion on the animal ; for each claw is kept 
 back by a small elastic ligament, which becomes stretched when the digits 
 of the paw are extended by then: muscles. As soon as these muscles 
 cease to act, the ligaments, by their power of contraction, regain their 
 natural length and retract the claws. An enormously powerful elastic liga- 
 ment is attached to the withers, and goes straight from them, in the form 
 of accord, to the top of the head (the bony prominence between the ears), to 
 which it is inserted. At about a third of the distance from the head to the 
 withers, a broad sheet of elastic tissue is given off from the corded portion, 
 and is united to all the spines of the neck vertebrae, except the first. This 
 sheet accordingly acts as a partition between the muscles on the respective 
 sides of the upper part of the neck. The entire ligament, therefore, by its 
 strength and elasticity greatly aids the muscles in supporting the weight of 
 the head and neck. The amount of stretching which it can undergo in 
 ordinary circumstances may be approximately estimated by comparing the 
 length of the neck, when the head is held up in its usual position, to that 
 when it is lowered to allow the animal to feed off the ground. In the first 
 case, with a horse 15.3 high, it will probably not exceed 28 inches in 
 length ; but in the latter it must be over a yard long, supposing that 
 the animal does not unduly bend his knees. Any depression or elevation 
 
 D 
 
34 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 beyond the position occupied by the head when the horse is asleep 
 standing, has to be obtained by muscular force. This ligament is popularly 
 called the pack ax. Without being pedantic, we might, I think, more 
 appropriately term it the suspensory ligament of tJie head and neck. I may add 
 that it is continuous with the strong, white fibrous ligament which commences 
 on the spine of the sacrum and runs along the top of the spines of the 
 vertebrae of the loins and back, binding them together, until it nearly reaches 
 the summit of the withers, where its fibres assume the character of yellow 
 elastic tissue. On the top of this large ligament there is a layer of fat, which 
 in entires (especially if they be coarsely bred) often increases to a great size, 
 and consequently gives them a high and thick crest (see PI. 30). The 
 intestines of the horse are supported by the abdominal tunic, which covers the 
 muscles of the lower part of the belly, and consists of a broad, strong sheet 
 of yellow elastic tissue. It acts like an elastic abdominal belt. 
 
 There is considerable power of movement between the head and the first 
 vertebra of the neck (the alias), and between the different neck vertebra 
 themselves ; but there is hardly any play between the dorsad vertebra. 
 The loin vertebra can be flexed and extended to a limited degree on each 
 other ; but are capable of only very slight motion from side to side. The 
 sacrum, as before mentioned, forms a single bone, on which the pelvis rests, 
 and with which it is connected by powerful ligaments that greatly restrict its 
 movements on the spine. We have also seen that the thigh bones articulate 
 with the pelvis. The bones of the tail possess considerable mobility. The 
 solid connection thus afforded to the hind limbs, with the trunk, enables the 
 former to transmit to the latter the forward impetus given during progression 
 with the least possible loss of power. The capability of the loins to be flexed 
 and'extended is necessary in order to facilitate the action of the loin muscles, 
 which are important agents in locomotion (see p. 64). The mobility of the 
 head, neck, and, to a much lesser degree, of the tail, acting as they do 
 as balancing poles, is extremely useful in enabling the animal to perform 
 with ease and precision many of the varied and difficult movements 
 demanded of him. We may see that any power of lateral motion which the 
 trunk (not counting the head, neck and tail) may possess, however much it 
 may make the horse quick and " handy " at turning, will militate against his 
 speed in a forward direction. 
 
 The respective ends of the first eight ribs form movable joints with the 
 spine and breast bone ', the first articulating with the last neck vertebra and 
 first dorsal vertebra ; the second with the first and second dorsal vertebrae, 
 and so on. They are rigidly connected to their cartilages, of which those of 
 
THE RIBS. 35 
 
 the first eight, or true, ribs form movable joints with the breast bone. 
 Commencing from the spine, " the ribs pass outwards and backwards, and 
 then in an arched direction downwards, their cartilages inclining inwards and 
 forwards " (Strangeways). Owing to the peculiar manner in which the ribs 
 are curved, and to the fact that the ends of the true ribs can pivot round in 
 the joints which they form with the spine and breast bone, while the false 
 ribs also form movable joints with the spine; the capacity of the chest is 
 capable of becoming much enlarged when the middle portion of the 
 ribs are pulled forward by muscles that are attached to them. The 
 mobility of the ribs, which is all but absent in the first one, gradually 
 increases as they go backwards. They also increase in rotundity in the same 
 manner, the first one being the flattest. The first rib is the shortest, and 
 each succeeding one is longer than the one next in front of it, till the eighth 
 or ninth rib, the ribs behind which gradually decrease in length up to the 
 last one, which is nearly as short as the first rib. Owing to the direct 
 connection which the first eight ribs have with the breast bone ; their power 
 of movement and, consequently, their action in increasing the capacity of the 
 chest is less than that of the false ribs. Hence, when seeking for signs of 
 good breathing power in a horse, we should attach far more importance to 
 rotundity of the rear portion of the chest than of the front part. As a 
 practical guide I might say that the former region might, in the saddled horse, 
 be regarded roughly as the portion of the ribs behind the saddle flaps, and the 
 latter as that covered by them. " It can be proved by observation, that the 
 middle false ribs are those which have the greatest power of being drawn 
 forwards and outwards. The ribs behind them successively lose more and 
 more their power of displacement up to the last one, the lower end of which 
 can be raised and lowered a little, without appreciably altering its distance 
 from the point of the hip" {Colin). 
 
 The fore limb is connected to the trunk by muscles, to which I shall allude 
 on page 37. 
 
 The shoulder joint is a ball and socket articulation, which possesses 
 considerable power of motion. 
 
 The elbow is a hinge joint, which can be bent and extended. 
 
 In the knee we have three hinge joints, of which that between the radius 
 and first row of bones is capable of a large amount of motion ; that between 
 the two rows of much less ; while that between the second row and cannon- 
 bones possesses hardly any power of movement. 
 
 The bones at the back of the knee are united together by an extremely 
 strong ligament, one of the bands of which closes up the gap left between 
 
 D 2 
 
3 6 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the point of the trapezium and the inside of the knee, so as to form a channel 
 for the " back tendons " to pass through. 
 
 The sesamoid bones are fixed immovably to the back of the fetlock 
 joint. 
 
 The fetlock, pastern, and coffin joints are hinge joints, which possess 
 more or less play. 
 
 The hind limb is connected to tJie trunk, as we have already seen, by 
 the pelvis. 
 
 The hip joint, formed by the head of the thigh bone and cavity in the 
 pelvis, is a ball and socket joint. 
 
 In the stifle we find two articulations one with the thigh bone and tibia, 
 the other with the thigh bone and patella, which is firmly attached to the 
 tibia by ligaments in order to enable it to resist the action of those muscles 
 of the thigh which are inserted on it. 
 
 The true hock joint is formed by the tibia and astragalus. It is a 
 hinge joint, which, owing to the oblique manner in which its grooves are 
 placed, causes the foot to be turned slightly outward when the joint is 
 either flexed or extended. The other joints of the hock possess hardly 
 any power of movement. 
 
 The astragalus, os calcis, small bones of the hock, hind cannon, and splint 
 bones are firmly connected together by ligaments. 
 
 joints below the hock are similar to those below the knee. 
 
 Muscles. I shall now consider, in the briefest possible manner, 
 the principal muscles which are used in locomotion. 
 
 A broad sheet of muscle (\hzpanniculus) lies immediately underneath 
 the skin that covers the neck, sides of the chest, and abdomen. In thin 
 horses, its rear border is usually defined by an irregular line (see pp. 256 
 and 257) which runs along the side downwards and backwards towards the 
 groin. This muscle is attached, round its borders, to the skin and 
 superficial muscles by sheets of fibrous tissue. By quickly contracting and 
 relaxing alternately, it causes the skin to twitch, and thus gets rid of flies, etc., 
 that may have alighted on the surface underneath which a portion of this 
 muscle lies. It is principally found on those parts which the horse has 
 difficulty in reaching with his lips, tail, or mane. As the process of training 
 for racing purposes appears to largely develop this muscle, I cannot help 
 thinking that it aids in forced expiration expelling the air from the lungs 
 during the quickened breathing entailed by fast work ; although anatomists 
 do not ascribe such action to it. 
 
CONNECTION OF FORE LIMB WITH BODY. 37 
 
 The neck, back, and loins are flexed by muscles which lie immediately 
 underneath the spine. The head is bent by muscles that proceed one on 
 each side from the breast bone to the lower jaw, and by others which 
 connect the neck and head together. The head is extended by muscles that 
 are attached to the poll and bones of the neck and by others that proceed 
 from the poll to the withers. The neck is extended by the last mentioned 
 muscles, and by those which connect the spine of one vertebra with the 
 body of the one in front of it. The back and loins are extended by muscles 
 which are similar in action to the ones just alluded to, and by the longissimus 
 dorsi, which is the most powerful muscle of the body, and is the chief 
 extensor of the spine. It forms the principal portion of the fleshy mass 
 which lies over the loins and back. It is attached to the pelvis, sacrum, all 
 the loin and dorsal vertebrae, the last four bones of the neck, and to the 
 ribs. As the spines of the vertebrae (including the withers) form a part of its 
 attachments, it follows that the more they are developed, the more powerful 
 will be the extension of the loins and back. 
 
 Muscles which connect the fore limb to the body. The shoulder blade is 
 connected to the trunk principally by a very strong, fan-shaped muscle, 
 which is attached at its middle to the inside of the shoulder blade. Its 
 front end is connected to the last five bones of the neck ; and its other end 
 to the first eight ribs. When the front portion contracts, the shoulder blade 
 is drawn forward ; when the rear portion contracts, this bone is pulled back. 
 This muscle, from the manner of its attachment, acts as a sling for the fore 
 limb. The upper part of the shoulder blade is connected to the trunk, from its 
 inner extremity by a muscle which has one end attached to the suspensory 
 ligament of the head and neck, and the other to the withers. Hence, on 
 contracting, it draws the shoulder blade forwards and upwards. The outside 
 of the sJwulder blade is connected to the trunk, at about its upper third, by a 
 muscle which has one branch going to the withers, and the other to the 
 suspensory ligament of the head and neck. It can thus raise the shoulder 
 blade, or work it backwards or forwards. TJie fore limb is drawn forward 
 chiefly, however, by the action of a muscle which is attached, at one end, to 
 the top of the head and first four neck vertebrae, and by the other to the 
 middle of the humerus. We may see from the foregoing remarks, that 
 length of neck and height of withers are favourable conditions for the firm 
 attachment of the shoulder blade to the trunk and for the free action of 
 the shoulder. 
 
 The fore limb is connected to the breast bone by a muscle which is attached 
 to the breast bone and humerus. 
 
38 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The fore limb is drawn back, principally, by two muscles, one of which is 
 attached, at one end, to the abdominal tunic (see p. 34) and breast bone ; 
 and at the other, to the humerus and shoulder blade, close to the shoulder 
 joint. The other muscle (the latissimus dor si) has its origin on the vertebrae 
 of the loins and back, and is inserted on the humerus, which it consequently 
 draws backwards and upwards when it contracts. The first mentioned 
 muscle tends to draw it backwards and downwards. 
 
 Muscles of the fore limb. When the fore leg is advanced, the shoulder 
 joint is extended and the elbow joint flexed. When it is drawn back, the 
 opposite to this takes place. Agreeably to these actions, we find a powerful 
 muscle attached, by one end, to the front part of the shoulder blade, just 
 above the joint ; and by the other end to the front of the radius immediately 
 below the elbow joint, so that, when it contracts, it extends the shoulder and 
 flexes the elbow. Another muscle, being attached to the rearmost corner of 
 the shoulder blade and to the point of the elbow, flexes the shoulder and 
 extends the elbow. Besides these muscles, there are various others which 
 respectively aid in the flexion and extension of these joints. The chief 
 muscle that extends the knee, has its origin on the front part of the humerus, 
 just above the elbow joint, and running down the forearm, is joined to its 
 tendon, which passes over the knee, and which is inserted on the head of the 
 cannon-bone. The three muscles which bend the knee take their origin on 
 the back part of the humerus, just above the elbow joint, and are inserted on 
 the trapezium and splint bones. The two muscles which extend the fetlock, 
 pastern, and coffin joints, run down the front of the forearm. One of them has 
 its origin at the head of the radius, and is inserted on the front part of the 
 long pastern bone. The other commences on the humerus, just above 
 the elbow joint, and ends on the front and upper part of the coffin bone. 
 The muscles which flex the fetlock, pastern, and coffin joints (the flexor muscles of 
 the foot}, and aid in bending the knee, take their origin on the back part of 
 the humerus, just above the elbow joint, and proceed down the back of the 
 forearm. A little above the knee they are joined to their tendons (the back 
 tendons}, which pass through the sheath formed by the trapezium and the 
 annular ligament at the back of the knee. From thence they run down the 
 back of the cannon-bone. The front one, which lies next the suspensory 
 ligament, goes over the sesamoid bones, which form a pulley for it; 
 down the back of the pastern ; over the navicular bone, which also acts 
 as a pulley ; and is finally inserted on the base of the coffin-bone. The rear- 
 most tendon, which lies between the front one and the skin, forms a sheath 
 for its fellow at the back of the fetlock, and, dividing in two, is inserted on 
 
MUSCLES OF THE HIND LIMB. 39 
 
 the short pastern bone. There are two small muscles which assist the front 
 one of these two muscles, but which I need not further allude to. As the 
 action of the suspensory and check ligament is closely connected with that 
 of the flexor muscles of the foot, I may appropriately describe them here. 
 The suspensory ligament lies at the back of the cannon-bone and between the 
 two splint bones. It has its origin at the head of the cannon-bone and lower 
 row of the small bones of the knee. At about two-thirds of the distance 
 from the knee to the fetlock, it divides into two branches, which are 
 respectively inserted on the summits of the sesamoid bones. They then 
 extend downwards and forwards, and unite together, at the front and about 
 the middle of the pastern, with the tendon of the muscle which extends 
 the foot. The suspensory ligament is composed of white fibrous tissue, with 
 a few muscular fibres in it, and acts in supporting the fetlock. It is 
 generally considered to be inelastic, although MM. Goubaux and Barrier 
 entertain the opposite opinion. They remark that " its obscurely muscular 
 structure, and the manner in which its fibres inter-cross, render it a true, 
 elastic brace, which counteracts the effects of weight, as long as they do not 
 overcome the resistance and strength of the tissues." In omnivorous 
 and carnivorous animals this ligament is replaced by a muscle which 
 has similar functions. The check ligament has nearly the same origin 
 as the suspensory ligament and joins the front back tendon, at a point 
 about half-way down the cannon-bone. Its office is to aid in supporting 
 the fetlock and to relieve the muscles of the tendon, with which it is con- 
 nected, of weight. 
 
 Muscles of the hind limb. The hip is extended by the great croup 
 muscle, and also by some of the muscles which lie at the back of the 
 thigh bone. One end of the great croup muscle is attached to the upper 
 surface of the front portion of the pelvis, and, proceeding along the side of 
 the sacrum, reaches as far as the last rib. The other end is inserted to the 
 summit of the portion of the thigh bone which projects above the hip joint. 
 The muscles at the back of the thigh bone have their origin, chiefly, on the 
 under surface of the pelvis, from behind the hip joint to the point of the 
 buttock; and are inserted principally to the lower part of the thigh bone 
 or to the upper portion of the tibia. 
 
 The hip is flexed by muscles that have their origin on the under 
 surface of the loin vertebrae, and are inserted on the thigh bone ; and also 
 by muscles which are attached to the under surface of the pelvis in front of 
 the hip joint, and to the thigh bone, patella, or tibia. 
 
 The stifle is extended by one muscle which has its origin on the under 
 
40 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 surface of the pelvis, just in front of the hip joint, and is inserted on the 
 patella, and by two others which are attached to the upper part of the thigh 
 bone and to the patella. The first mentioned muscle flexes the hip at the 
 same time that it extends the stifle. 
 
 The stifle is flexed chiefly by a muscle which is attached to the portion 
 of the pelvis behind the hip joint, and to the tibia. 
 
 The hock is extended, for the most part, by muscles which form the rear- 
 most portion of the gaskin (" second thigh "). They have their origin on the 
 lower end of the thigh bone, and are inserted to the point of the hock by 
 their tendons, which lie one over the other, and constitute the tendo Achillis. 
 The underneath tendon terminates at the point of the hock ; but the 
 other is continued down the back of the leg as the rearmost one of the 
 two back tendons, and is inserted on the short pastern bone, as in the 
 fore limb. Owing to the double insertion of this tendon, the hock can- 
 not be extended without the fetlock being flexed at the same time ; hence 
 the success of the expedient, for the prevention of kicking, of securely 
 fixing in the hollow of the pastern some hard object of suitable shape, 
 so as to prevent the joint between the two pastern bones from becoming 
 flexed. 
 
 The joints below the hock are extended by muscles which take their 
 origin near the stifle joint, run down the front of the hind leg, are con- 
 tinued as tendons down the front of the cannon-bone, and are inserted on 
 the bones of the pastern, and to the front and highest point of the coffin 
 bone. 
 
 The joints below the hock are flexed by a muscle of the gaskin, which 
 muscle originates at the back of the upper portion of the tibia, behind which 
 it runs down to a little above the hock joint, when it is continued as a 
 tendon that passes over the groove formed on the os calcis. It then proceeds 
 down the back of the cannon-bone, as the front one of the two back tendons, 
 and terminates in the same manner as in the fore limb. The muscle of the 
 rear back tendon, as we have already seen, also aids in flexing the fetlock 
 and pastern joints. 
 
 Heart and Lungs. The heart is a hollow muscle which acts as a 
 force pump in sending the blood through the arteries to the various parts 
 of the body. The arteries commence on the left side of the heart, by 
 one large trunk which splits up, as it goes on, into an innumerable number 
 of small branches, that, as a rule, terminate in a microscopic network of 
 minute canals called capillaries. These canals, which probably do not 
 
THE HEART. 41 
 
 exceed a fortieth of an inch in length, gradually enlarge on the side away 
 from the arteries, and open out into small veins, which, uniting with each 
 other as they approach the heart, enter its right side by two large branches 
 and a few small ones. The heart now forces this venous blood through 
 the pulmonary artery to the lungs, which return it by a system of capillaries 
 and veins to the heart. We must remember that the network of capillaries 
 runs through every tissue which contains blood. Thus, for instance, the 
 blood which goes to the foot of the horse, and that which proceeds to the 
 substance of the heart itself, flow to their respective parts through certain 
 arteries, pass through a very short network of capillaries, and return to the 
 heart by the veins j a long circuit being made in the first case ; a short one, 
 in the second. 
 
 The necessary amount of nutritive matter and water is taken up from the 
 food and drink contained in the stomach and intestines by small vessels 
 which carry it into the veins, and is thus finally brought into the capillaries, 
 the walls of which are so thin that it exudes through them, and in this 
 manner nourishes the various tissues. I may mention that, before food 
 can be taken up by the system, it is necessary that it should be thoroughly 
 dissolved. As the tissues are being constantly broken up as well as 
 repaired, the capillaries also serve to take up the waste matters and carry 
 them into the veins. When this impure or venous blood is pumped by the 
 right side of the heart into the lungs, it is acted upon, there, by the oxygen of 
 the air that is taken into the chest at each breath, and is returned from the 
 lungs to the left side of the heart in a comparatively high state of purity. When 
 the blood leaves the lungs, it carries with it a certain amount of oxygen, 
 which, uniting with the broken-up material in the various tissues, converts it 
 into products which can be readily removed. I need not dwell longer on 
 this subject ; for it is fully explained in every elementary book on physiology, 
 as, for instance, that by Professor Huxley. 
 
 In order that a muscle may work i.e., contract on being stimulated by its 
 nerves it is necessary that it should be supplied with oxygen. Also, the 
 severer the labour, the more oxygen is used up in the muscles and the larger 
 is the supply required. As the blood has a shorter distance to travel in order 
 to make a complete circuit in the blood vessels of a small animal, than in that 
 of a large one of the same kind ; we might infer that the blood of the former 
 passes more frequently during a given space of time through the lungs, than 
 that of the latter. The truth of this supposition is fully borne out in 
 practice ; for we may observe, on an average, that the pulse of a heavy cart- 
 horse beats about thirty-five times a minute ; that of a small pony, about forty- 
 
42 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 five times. Hence we find that, speaking generally, small horses can " stay " 
 better than large ones ; for the power of " staying " is dependent on the 
 capability, possessed by muscles, of retaining for a long time their contractile 
 power. Also, they recover quicker than big horses from the effects of severe 
 work, owing to the fact that repair of worn out tissue and removal of waste 
 matters from the system is carried on at a faster rate. In fact, they possess 
 more " vitality." Again, the larger the lungs other things being equal the 
 greater will be the amount of oxygen taken into the blood, and of impurities 
 given off from the blood into the air. 
 
 Nervous System of the Horse. The nervous system of the horse 
 is the power which stimulates and directs the action of his muscles in locomo- 
 tion, and is the source of his mental capacity. We may regard it as divided 
 into nerve centres and conducting nerves. To employ a well-worn simile, we 
 may look upon a nerve centre as a telegraph station to which and from which 
 messages are sent and despatched. The nerves (the sensory nerves) by which 
 the horse sees, feels, hears, smells, and tastes, conduct the impressions they 
 receive to some nerve centre, which may do one of three things, (i) It may, 
 in response to the message received, send, on its own authority, by another 
 line of nerves (the motor nerves), an order (or stimulus) to certain muscles to 
 move. Such a movement will be by reflex action that is, the impulse will 
 be immediately reflected back. (2) Instead of acting on its own account, it 
 may merely transmit the message on to another and more important nerve 
 centre to decide what answer will be given. (3) It may use a portion of its 
 transmitting power in reflex action, and a part of it in reporting the matter 
 to head-quarters. 
 
 Besides the power which nerve centres have of exciting the muscles to 
 move in response to a stimulus received from the sensory nerves, they can, by 
 their own initiative, make their motor nerves stimulate to movement the 
 muscles which are supplied with these particular motor nerves. 
 
 The chief nerve centres that are connected with the muscles of loco- 
 motion, are grouped together in a long column which fills the brain cavity and 
 spinal canal, and may be divided into the brain and spinal cord. 
 
 The spinal cord, though it is formed of a number of nerve centres, is the 
 chief conducting medium by which impressions received by the senses are 
 conveyed to the brain, and is the means by which orders from the brain are 
 transmitted to the muscles of the limbs. 
 
 We may divide the brain into the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, and 
 the cerebrum. 
 
THE BRAIN. 43 
 
 The medulla oblongata connects the other two portions of the brain with 
 the spinal cord. It is the nervous centre of the function of breathing. 
 Animals, for purposes of experiment, have had their spinal cord, and the 
 whole of their brain, except the medulla, removed, and yet they have continued 
 to breathe and live. But were the medulla injured, death from inability to 
 breathe would at once ensue. 
 
 The cerebellum appears to be the organ of muscular sense and of combined 
 muscular effort. By its muscular sense the animal can tell, from experience, 
 the amount of muscular force required in performing its various voluntary 
 movements. We cannot, by an effort of will, move any one particular muscle 
 of our body; but we can cause our limbs to perform definite movements 
 which will require the combined action of various muscles, and which are 
 under the control of the cerebellum. 
 
 The cerebrum is the organ of intellect, thought, and will. " Removal of 
 the cerebrum in the lower animals appears to reduce them to a condition of 
 a mechanism without spontaneity. A pigeon from which the cerebrum has 
 been removed will remain motionless and apparently unconscious unless 
 disturbed. When disturbed in any way, it soon recovers its former position. 
 When thrown into the air it flies " (Kirke's Physiology). The cerebrum 
 appears to be the organ in which a conclusion or thought is formed from a 
 message or number of messages proceeding from the senses. If, for instance, 
 a man standing near a horse's hind quarters touches him with a stick, and 
 if the animal kicks the stick, he will perform, more or less, a reflex action. 
 If, however, the horse recognises who the real offending party is, and kicks 
 the man ; he will have drawn a conclusion from the message received from 
 his sense of feeling and of sight, and will have acted on such conclusion, 
 which would certainly be an effort of reason. 
 
 Among the intellectual faculties, of which the cerebrum is the special 
 organ, we have, prominently, reason and memory. Although the horse is 
 greatly deficient in the former, which is by far the higher faculty of the two, 
 he possesses the latter in special excellence. 
 
 The cerebrum is placed immediately underneath the forehead, at the 
 centre of which it is covered by only a thin plate of bone. The cerebellum, 
 which, in the horse, is a great deal smaller than the cerebrum, lies below the 
 (occipital crest) top of the head, when the face is held at an angle of about 
 45 with the ground. 
 
 The proportion which the weight of the brain bears to that of the 
 spinal cord, is regarded by many as a fair guide to the intellectual 
 capacity of an animal. The following is a list of a few examples of the 
 
44 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 average number of times the brain is heavier than the spinal cord in certain 
 animals : 
 
 In man . ' . . . . . 33 
 
 dog . . 5-14 
 
 cat . 375 
 
 ass . 2-40 
 
 pig 2 '30 
 
 horse . .... 2-27 
 
 ox . . . . . . 2*18. 
 
 The order of intellectual capacity given in the above table, agrees with 
 the conclusions I have drawn from my own experience with these animals. 
 
( 45 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MECHANISM OF BREATHING. 
 
 THE body of the horse (see Fig. 4), viewed apart from his 
 head, neck, limbs, and tail, may be divided into chest and 
 
 Larynx 
 ' Gullet 
 
 Kidneys 
 
 Ureters 
 
 .Rectum, 
 
 Posterior cwrta> 
 
 Lungs 
 Stomach 
 
 FIG. 4. INTERNAL ORGANS OF HORSE. 
 
 abdomen (belly), the former containing the lungs and heart ; 
 the latter, the stomach, intestines, liver, bladder, and other 
 
46 MECHANISM OF BREA THING. 
 
 vital organs. This division is effected by a broad and some- 
 what bell-shaped muscle, the diaphragm or midriff, which is 
 attached, round its margin, to the ends of the last twelve ribs, 
 to the rearmost extremity of the breast-bone, and to the spine 
 under the loins ; while its apex or centre projects forwards. 
 When it contracts, it tends to become flat, and thus enlarges 
 the capacity of the chest by pushing back the contents of the 
 abdomen. Its action, especially during forced breathing, is 
 aided by that of another muscle, which is attached by one 
 end to the last four neck vertebrae, and by the other to the 
 first rib, which it pulls forward on contracting, and in this 
 manner helps to increase the size of the chest. 
 
 Air is taken into, and expelled from, the lungs by means 
 of the alternate increase and diminution of the capacity of 
 the chest. When the former act occurs, the air contained in 
 the lungs becomes rarefied, and consequently the external air 
 rushes in through the animal's nostrils to restore the balance 
 of pressure. When the latter takes place, a portion of the 
 air which is already in the lungs is forced out. It is evident, 
 therefore, that the power of taking a large volume of air 
 into the lungs at each breath, is more dependent on the 
 difference between the respective capacities of the chest when 
 expanded, and contracted, than on the actual size of the chest 
 itself. 
 
 The act of breathing is called respiration ; that of ex- 
 pelling air from the lungs, expiration ; and that of drawing it 
 in, inspiration. 
 
 The chest is enlarged by the diaphragm, as we have seen ; 
 and also by muscles which pull the middle pieces of the 
 ribs forward, so as to make the cavity wider from side to side, 
 and consequently to increase its size. The ribs are drawn 
 
FORCED BREATHING. 47 
 
 forward by muscles which cover them, and by others which 
 are situated between the successive pairs of ribs. The lower 
 ends of some of the ribs are also drawn up during the act of 
 inspiration. On page 35, I have remarked on the power the 
 ribs have of pivotting on their ends. I may point out that 
 when the air which is within the chest becomes rarefied at the 
 commencement of the act of inspiration, the lungs themselves 
 passively dilate, and thus allow the incoming air to gain 
 ready access to the bronchial tubes and air-cells. 
 
 When the animal is at rest, the elastic recoil of the ribs 
 and lungs is sufficient to expel the tidal air, as the amount 
 changed at each breath is called. The volume of air which 
 remains in the lungs after expiration greatly exceeds perhaps 
 five or six times that of the tidal air. 
 
 In forced breathing, as during active movement, several 
 muscles which are not employed for tranquil respiration, are 
 called into play, particularly those used in forced expiration, 
 as we may see by the heaving flanks of an animal which is 
 " blown." The muscles that cover the ribs and belly, aid in 
 forced expiration by compressing these parts, and thereby 
 causing the walls of the chest to " fall in," and the contents of 
 the abdomen to project forward into that cavity. Quick 
 work naturally develops the muscles of forced respiration. 
 
 I may point out that the muscles of the flank (known 
 to anatomists as the great and small oblique, and the trans- 
 verse) aid in respiration. Consequently, when they are well 
 developed, the flank is not so hollow as it would be if they 
 were weak. 
 
 I may mention that no hard and fast line can be drawn 
 between tranquil and forced breathing ; although the broad 
 differences between them are clearly marked. 
 
48 MECHANISM OF BREA THING. 
 
 In order that the horse may have his breathing power 
 fully developed, it is necessary that the capacity of the chest 
 at the end of an act of expiration, should differ as much as 
 possible from what it will be at the termination of the act of 
 inspiration. For this reason the chest should be deep, the 
 ribs well arched, and, at the same time, they should have a 
 good inclination to the rear. The back ribs should be long, 
 so as to augment the size of the chest ; and the muscles which 
 move the ribs, as well as the muscles of the belly, should be 
 largely developed. I shall further allude, in Chapter XVII., 
 to the shape of the chest and ribs. 
 
( 49 ) 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN THE HORSE'S BODY. 
 Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hind Limbs Centre of Gravity. 
 
 Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hind Limbs. 
 
 General Morris, of the French Army, appears to have been the first to make 
 experiments as to the distribution of weight between the fore and hind limbs 
 of the horse. He found that, taking one animal with another, it is as five is 
 to four ; and that the fact of the neck being long, as in the thoroughbred, 
 causes more weight to be thrown on the forehand, than when that part is 
 short and massive, as in the heavy cart-horse. The proportion which he 
 obtained from an average of eleven horses that had light heads and necks 
 the latter being presumably long was as four is to three. M. Colin puts the 
 average at fully three to two. MM. Goubaux and Barrier have proved by a 
 number of careful trials, that the lower the withers are, as compared to the 
 croup, the greater is the proportion of weight supported by the fore limbs ; 
 and vice versa. This is agreeable to what we might have inferred from the 
 manner in which the horse raises his croup to kick, or his withers to rear. 
 As the hind half of the trunk is, in all classes, heavier than the fore half, it 
 follows that the extra weight in front is mainly due to the fact of the head and 
 neck being in advance of the fore legs. The longer the body, and the heavier 
 the belly, the more will this distribution of weight be equalised. 
 
 Centre of Gravity. The centre of gravity of a body is an imaginary 
 point in that body, so placed that if the body be supported immediately 
 underneath the centre of gravity, it will be in equilibrium (or rest). Con- 
 sequently, if a body be balanced at a point on its surface, a perpendicular 
 line drawn from that point will pass through the centre of gravity ; and the 
 intersection of two or more such lines will determine the position of the centre 
 of gravity. If the body be of uniform density, the position of the centre of 
 
 E 
 
So DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN THE HORS&S BODY. 
 
 gravity will be the same as that of the centre of the figure ; but if it be 
 heavier at one side than at the other, the centre of gravity will be nearer 
 the former than the latter. For instance, in ships, with the view of 
 obtaining increased security from an upset, the centre of gravity is placed 
 below the centre of the hull. If, for example, we want to ascertain the 
 position of the centre of gravity of a loaded club, we may take one line 
 through its axis, and another across it, at the point where it balances, when 
 placed horizontally. The lower the centre of gravity of a body, the more 
 
 FIG. 5. POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 
 
 stable will be its equilibrium, as we may see by experimenting with a loaded 
 stick of uniform thickness ; firstly, balanced on its light end, and, secondly, 
 on its heavy extremity. 
 
 In the living animal, the position of the centre of gravity is constantly 
 changing, on account of the manner in which the respective positions of the 
 various parts alter, especially during movements of the head and neck. 
 
 Professor Colin, the well-known author of Physiologic Comparee des Ani- 
 maux Domestiques, remarks that " the centre of gravity, the exact position of 
 
POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRA VITY. 51 
 
 which has never been determined, nearly corresponds, in the horse, to the 
 intersection of two lines one, vertical, falling behind the xiphoid appendage 
 [cartilage at rearmost point of the breast bone] of the sternum ; the other, 
 horizontal, dividing the middle third from the lower third of the body." 
 Fig. 5, which I have taken from MM. Goubaux and Barrier's work, is drawn 
 in conformity with M. Colin's remarks. The point of intersection of the two 
 dotted lines in this figure, shows the position of the supposed centre of gravity. 
 We may readily see that the less deep is a horse's body, compared to his 
 length of leg in other words, the more "daylight" he has under him the 
 higher and more unstable will be his centre of gravity ; and vice versa. Taking 
 the foregoing remarks with those on the effect which instability of equilibrium 
 has on speed (see p. 67), we may conclude that the faster the horse, other 
 things being equal, the greater will be the proportion of weight on his 
 forehand. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 LEVERS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 LEVERS. 
 
 Definition First Order Second Order Third Order Relations between the 
 Power and Weight in Levers Comparisons between Power and Weight in 
 Muscular Levers Directions in which the Power and Weight respectively 
 Act. 
 
 THE movements of the limbs are due to the working of various levers, formed 
 by the bones and acted upon by the muscles. 
 
 Definition. A lever is a rigid bar which has a fulcrum, or fixed point, 
 so arranged that movement can be communicated to a weight at another 
 point on it, by a power acting on a third point on the bar. Agreeably to the 
 relative positions of the fulcrum (F), weight (W), and power (P), we have the 
 three following orders of levers. 
 
 First Order. P.F.W. (see Fig. 6), as when two persons make a 
 see-saw by sitting on the opposite ends of a plank which rests on some 
 convenient fulcrum. We have this order of lever in the bones from the 
 
 W F P 
 
 W P 
 
 FIG. 6. FIRST ORDER OF LEVER. 
 
 point of the hock to the foot, when a horse kicks out with a hind leg (see 
 Fig. 30). 
 
 Second Order. P.W.F (see Fig. 7). A wheel-barrow, when lifted in 
 the usual manner, furnishes us with an instance of this lever ; the ground on 
 
THIRD ORDER OF LEVER. 53 
 
 which the wheel rests being the fulcrum ; the barrow, the weight ; and the 
 arms of the person who lifts the handles, the force. We have another example 
 in an oar employed to row a boat ; the water being the unstable fulcrum, 
 and the rowlock being the point through which the weight (the boat) is 
 pushed forward. The bones and muscles which I have taken to illustrate 
 
 a 
 
 FIG. 7. SECOND ORDER OF LEVER. 
 
 the first order of lever will serve our turn here, if we imagine the power to 
 be exerted in propelling the body to the front, through the tibia (the bone 
 that is situated between the hock and stifle), while the toe rests on the 
 fulcrum formed by the ground (see Fig. 31). 
 
 Third Order. W. P. F. (see Fig. 8). This form of lever occurs in a fish- 
 ing rod, with which a man tries to lift a heavy trout out of the water. The 
 weight is at the point of the rod ; the fulcrum, at the butt, is formed by one 
 hand ; and the power is supplied by the other hand, a little above the butt. 
 We have this lever in the bones below the hock, when the horse bends that 
 
 w 
 
 FIG. 8. THIRD ORDER OF LEVER. 
 
 joint by lifting his feet off the ground (see Fig. 32). Here, the power is 
 derived from the muscle which is placed in front of the tibia ; the weight is 
 that of the limb below the hock ; and the fulcrum is formed by the tibia. I 
 may remark in passing that the os calcis does not come into this lever, except 
 in counterbalancing, to some slight extent, the weight of the leg below the 
 hock. 
 
54 LEVERS. 
 
 Relations between the Power and Weight in Levers. 
 
 The farther the power is from the fulcrum, the greater will be the mechanical 
 advantage at which it will act ; and vice versa. Thus, if one arm of a 
 see-saw is longer than the other, a comparatively light weight at the 
 end of the former will counterbalance a heavy one at the extremity of the 
 latter. Also, the longer an oar is " in-board," as in an outrigger, the greater 
 will be the power which a rower will have. If we apply this principle to the 
 horse, we shall see that the longer is the os calcis (see Figs. 30 and 31), 
 the greater will be the mechanical advantage at which the muscles of the 
 gaskin will act in kicking or propelling the body forward. As length of os 
 calcis gives increased leverage in the hind limb, so does length of trapezium 
 afford it in the fore leg. 
 
 If we wish to express these relations mathematically, we have the 
 following proportions for the three orders of levers. 
 
 Here, w F is the distance of the point of application of the weight from 
 the fulcrum j and p F, the distance of the power from the fulcrum. 
 
 Comparisons between Power and Weight in Muscular 
 Levers. We may observe that the power always acts at a mechanical 
 disadvantage in levers of the third order. As the majority of the levers 
 which are used in animal locomotion, act at a mechanical disadvantage ; I 
 shall now investigate the cause of this apparent anomaly. I may first remark 
 that the measure of work done by a force is found by multiplying the 
 weight by the distance through which it has been moved. Thus, suppose 
 two men are engaged in raising weights, one having a single block pulley 
 to lift a weight of 25 Ibs., while the other, to raise 100 Ibs., uses a multiplying 
 block which increases the power fourfold; the former will raise his 25 Ibs. 
 4 ft. oft" the ground in the same time and with the same expenditure of force 
 as the latter will lift his 100 Ibs. to a height of i ft. In fact, what is gained 
 in power is lost in distance. This law holds equally good with levers, as 
 we may see from the fact, for instance, that a small amount of contraction of 
 the muscle which bends the hock, causes the hind foot to move through a 
 considerable space. Were the hock bent, for example, by a muscle that had 
 its two points of attachment at the stifle and fetlock (instead, as is actually 
 the case, at the stifle and a little below the hock), such muscle would act at 
 
POWER AND WEIGHT. 55 
 
 far greater mechanical advantage than the present flexor of the hock; but 
 it could not bend that joint to anything like the same extent, because 
 muscles cannot contract to more than about two-thirds of their normal length. 
 Besides, such an arrangement would be extremely inconvenient for every- 
 day work, and would increase the liability of the limb to injury. Although 
 there is, therefore, a very large expenditure of muscular force in the action 
 of the levers of the limbs; there is an equally large gain in flexion and 
 extension, and consequently in speed. This arrangement, also, enables the 
 body to be made of a compact form, and to be suited to its surroundings. 
 
 Directions in which the Power and Weight respectively 
 Act. In the theoretical levers which I have given (see Figs. 6, 7, and 8), I 
 have assumed that the power and weight acted at right angles to the lever, and 
 that they were consequently parallel to each other. In the actual levers 
 (those of the hock) which I have taken into consideration, we may see that this 
 is not the case. I may mention that the nearer a force is to being at right 
 angles with its lever, the greater is the mechanical advantage at which it will 
 work. If, in a lever of the first order, for instance, we have the power and 
 weight, as in Fig. 9, acting in directions which are not parallel to each other, 
 
 Q 
 
 w 
 
 FIG. 9. LEVER OF FIRST ORDER WITH DIRECTIONS OF POWER AND WEIGHT 
 OBLIQUE TO EACH OTHER. 
 
 such forces (if the lever be in equilibrium) will then be inversely propor- 
 tionate to the length of the perpendiculars drawn to their respective direc- 
 tions. Thus in Fig. 9 we have P : W : : F d\ F*. We therefore see that W, 
 which is nearly at right angles to a b, acts much more advantageously than 
 P, which is in a much more oblique direction to it. This would be equally 
 true in the other two kinds of levers. I need not stop to prove the foregoing 
 well-known mechanical law, as its solution can be found in any book 
 <:n elementary statics. 
 
56 LEVERS. 
 
 Acting on the principle just enunciated, the cart-horse, with the view of 
 obtaining all the mechanical advantage he can when trying to draw a heavy 
 load, will naturally endeavour to move the levers of his limbs (when 
 straightening them out) with the power, as nearly as possible, at right angles 
 to each respective lever. Hence he will obtain his results by only slight 
 bending of the joints, and consequently his steps will be short. We may see 
 this action of the levers of the hind limbs well shown by the manner in which 
 he will crouch down behind when he makes a strong effort with his hind 
 legs while exerting the fore legs but little, as may occur when the roadway is 
 slippery. The galloper, on the contrary, will require the power of straightening 
 out his limbs to their utmost extent (see p. 63), and will thus obtain speed 
 at a lavish expenditure of muscular effort. This is especially well shown 
 in the action of the fetlock joint (see Fig. 29) ; for if the pastern be long 
 and sloping, the mechanical disadvantage will be great, but the gain in 
 speed will be equally large. If the pastern be upright, the fetlock will 
 work advantageously as far as the weight to be moved is concerned ; but 
 it will contribute little to the attainment of speed. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 Displacement of the Centre of Gravity Manner in which Propulsion is effected by 
 the Limbs Direction of Propulsion, and Distance through which the Centre 
 of Gravity of^the Body is moved Comparative Speed in the Action of the 
 Limbs Action of the Muscles which extend the Vertebrae Width between 
 each respective Pair of Legs as affecting Speed Effect of Insecurity of Equili- 
 brium on Speed Fatigue from the various Paces Action of the Head 
 and Neck in Locomotion Mechanism of the Fetlock Joint Mechanism of 
 the Hock Joint. 
 
 THE remarks made under this heading should be taken in connection with 
 those in the following five chapters. Some which are here given are necessary 
 for the proper comprehension of the movements of the horse in his various 
 paces ; but others, in order that they may be understood, have been kept 
 back, until the paces and draught have been discussed. 
 
 Displacement of the Centre of Gravity. The actions which 
 give rise to locomotion in the horse may be summed up as follows : 
 Advancement of a limb in order to bring a new base of support under 
 the centre of gravity. Let us suppose that the man represented in Fig. 10 
 is standing with one foot advanced more than the other. His base of 
 support (a b) will then be the area bounded by his feet and the lines joining 
 them at each side. As long as the perpendicular (/) dropped from the 
 centre of gravity falls within the base of support, the equilibrium of the 
 body will be maintained. If the man, in this example, brings the centre of 
 gravity of his body forward by straightening his left ankle joint, so that the 
 perpendicular from the centre of gravity shall fall beyond the base of support 
 (see Fig. n); it will be evident that in order to prevent the body from 
 falling, he will have to bring the rear leg (which in this case is the left one) 
 beyond the perpendicular dropped from the centre of gravity (see Fig. 12). 
 Precisely the same actions take place when the horse starts from the halt into 
 the walk ; for, by the straightening of one or both hind legs, he brings the 
 
MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 centre of gravity of his body beyond the toe of the most advanced fore foot, 
 with the result that the other fore leg has to be carried forward in order to restore 
 the equilibrium. In doing this, the first foot to quit the ground will usually 
 be a fore one. I may remark that a succession of these displacements and 
 
 ..a 
 
 FIG. ii. 
 
 FIG. 12. 
 
 P 
 
 FIG. 10. 
 DISPLACEMENT OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY BY MAN WHEN WALKING. 
 
 recoveries will constitute the walk, run, or other pace. The same movements 
 occur in leaping, except when the spring is made vertically upwards from 
 a state of rest, in which case the centre of gravity is not displaced beyond 
 the base of support. 
 
 Manner in which Propulsion is Effected by the Limbs. 
 
 The displacement of the centre of gravity, in the propulsion of the body, 
 is accomplished by the straightening out of the limb or limbs, as the case 
 may be. We can readily see how this gives the required impetus, if we 
 consider the manner in which the shove-off is done by an expert swimmer in 
 a bath, when he comes to the end of it, and wishes to touch, turn, and strike 
 off without loss of time. He, as we all know, will, as much as possible, draw 
 up the leg with which he is going to give the shove-off, and having applied it 
 to the side of the bath (see Fig. 13), will suddenly straighten it out, with 
 the result that his body will be shot forward (see Fig. 14). Here, the 
 drawn-up leg, which acts as a spring, is placed between two objects : one 
 (the body) movable, the other (the side of the bath) immovable. When 
 the leg is extended, the movable object is naturally the one to be displaced. 
 Identically the same action occurs in the various progressive movements of 
 the horse. We may see it, also, in the run of the pedestrian, which is depicted 
 
FORWARD PROPULSION OF BODY. 
 
 59 
 
 FIG. 13. FIG. 14. 
 
 SHOVE-OFF FROM SIDE OF SWIMMING-BATH. 
 
 FIG. 15. FIG. 16. FIG. 17. 
 
 FORWARD PROPULSION OF MAN WHEN RUNNING. 
 
 FIG. 18. FIG. 19. FIG. 20. FIG. 21. 
 
 FORWARD PROPULSION OF MAN IN STANDING LEAP. 
 
6o 
 
 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 in Figs. 15, 1 6 and 17 ; for the right leg, which is a good deal bent in Fig. 15, 
 is nearly straight in Fig. 16. The straightening of the limb or limbs, in 
 effecting the forward propulsion of the body, is even better shown in Figs. 18, 
 19, 20 and 21, which depict the standing leap. 
 
 I may mention that the propulsion of the hind limb of the horse takes 
 place through the hip joint and pelvis. The impetus from the fore leg at the 
 various paces may be regarded as through the elbow joint and humerus. 
 
 FIG. 23. 
 
 FIG. 24. 
 
 FIG. 25. 
 RUNNING HIGH LEAP OF MAN. 
 
DIRECTION OF PROPULSION. 
 
 61 
 
 Direction of Propulsion and Distance through which 
 the Centre of Gravity of the Body is Moved. The direction 
 of the propulsion given by a limb is necessarily through its column of bones. 
 If we examine all the illustrations of the progressive movements of the 
 horse, from Fig. 39 to Fig. 151, we shall see that in every case, just before 
 a limb leaves the ground, it is directed backward and downward, as, for 
 instance, the near hind in Fig. 54, and the off fore in Fig. 101. Hence the 
 direction of propulsion in these cases must be forward and upward. The 
 speed at which the body is moving will greatly influence the direction of 
 the propulsion. Thus in Fig. 23, which is one of the series (Fig. 22 to 
 Fig. 26) that shows the running high leap of a man, the impetus from the 
 right leg is given vertically ; yet the centre of gravity is projected forward at 
 about an angle of 45 to the ground. The reason for this is, that in this 
 case there are two forces of projection, namely, that derived from the 
 
 a 6 
 
 FIG. 27. ANGLE OF PROJECTION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 
 
 extension of the right leg, and that due to the speed at which the pedestrian 
 ran up to the jump before he " took off." We have here the operation of 
 " the parallelogram of forces." Thus, if the line a b in Fig. 27 represents the 
 horizontal force (derived from the speed) and a c the vertical one (obtained 
 from the right leg), and if we draw c d parallel to a b, and b d parallel to a c, 
 we shall have the resultant force -represented by the line a d, and the angle 
 of elevation, equal to the angle dab. 
 
 The upward motion given by the limb to the body is necessary to keep up 
 the centre of gravity, which, if we wish the labour to be accomplished with a 
 minimum amount of muscular effort, should be maintained as nearly as 
 possible at one uniform height from the ground ; for the distance through 
 which the centre of gravity is moved, will be a measure of the work done. 
 Let us suppose at each step of a yard long by a horse, that the centre of 
 
62 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 gravity falls 4 inches, and that the animal has to go a distance of 1000 yards 
 on a horizontal plane. It is evident that, in this case, the muscles of the 
 horse's limbs would not alone have to carry the weight of the body 1000 
 yards, but would also have to raise it 333^- feet (1000 x 3-), which would be 
 approximately equivalent to going over a hill that was 333 J feet high and 
 whose base was 1000 yards broad. I need hardly say that the less the fall 
 and rise at each step, the lower this supposititious hill would be, and, 
 consequently, the easier it would be to walk over. 
 
 Although the duty of forward propulsion is chiefly performed by the hind 
 limbs ; the greater part of the work of adjusting the position of the centre of 
 gravity during ordinary locomotion, falls on the fore limbs. When a horse, 
 for instance, performs the high -school feat of cantering to the rear, the 
 respective roles would obviously be reversed. The question of the adjustment 
 of the centre of gravity of the body, so that the muscles of locomotion may 
 act to the best possible advantage, will be considered further on. 
 
 Comparative Speed in the Action of the Limbs. The 
 
 speed with which the body is projected forward, is directly proportionate to 
 the speed with which the limb or limbs are straightened out, and has 
 nothing to do with the strength of the muscles that move the parts. Hence, 
 any excess of muscular development beyond that required for the due 
 working of the limbs, will tend to diminish the speed by unnecessarily adding 
 to the weight to be carried. For this reason, we never see great race- 
 horses of the weight-carrying hunter build. Some of the best (St. Simon and 
 Tim Whiffler, for instance) have been slight horses. In fact, the son of 
 Galopinand St. Angela (see Pis. 7 and 18) had singularly light hind quarters. 
 Even Ormonde, who was very muscular for a race-horse, was anything but 
 broad when viewed from behind (see Frontispiece). 
 
 The question of the speed of muscular contraction is an abstruse one 
 which still remains unsettled. We know that if a muscle be stimulated by a 
 shock of electricity, it will contract throughout its entire length at (practically) 
 the same moment. Hence, under this condition, a long muscle would 
 contract very nearly in the same time as a short one. When, however, a 
 muscle is stimulated by the nerves which act in obedience to the will, the 
 contraction of its various parts does not take place simultaneously, though 
 at such a brief interval that we may regard the delay as unappreciable. 
 Hence, in two limbs which resemble each other in every particular, except 
 that one is short and the other long, the respective extension of both will be 
 accomplished in very nearly the same time, and consequently, the speed of 
 
STRAIGHTENING OF THE LIMBS IN LOCOMOTION. 63 
 
 the propulsion derived from the long leg will exceed that from the short 
 one in nearly the proportion which their lengths bear to each other. This 
 conclusion is in accordance with M. Marey's statement (see p. 4), that 
 muscles of speed are long muscles. Besides this, physiology teaches us 
 that the thicker muscles are, the slower, other things being equal, do they 
 contract on becoming stimulated ? We should content ourselves with taking 
 a broad view of this subject ; for conditions vary so much in individual cases, 
 that it is not safe to dogmatise on it. 
 
 I need hardly say to those of my readers who have followed me so far, 
 that the greater the ability to straighten the leg, the higher will be the speed 
 of propulsion, and vice versd. Hence, if a horse is, for instance, unable from 
 peculiarity of conformation to straighten his hocks (a condition called " sickle- 
 hocks," see PL 49), he will not be so fast as he would have been, had he 
 greater freedom in these joints. We may test the truth of this principle in our 
 own selves; for if, when swimming in a bath (see p. 58), we wanted to touch 
 and turn, but were unable to straighten our knee on account of an injury 
 or from some other cause, we would be capable of giving only a comparatively 
 poor kick-off. The great beauty of a " straight dropped hind leg " (see PL 
 51), in the horse, as a conformation favourable to speed, will again be 
 alluded to on p. 236. 
 
 The action of the fore limb in raising the forehand, which is essential for 
 the regulation of the position of the centre of gravity in locomotion, is also 
 dependent on its difference of length when bent and when straightened out. 
 It is manifest that this difference is mainly due to the action of the shoulder 
 joint and of the fetlock. Hence, oblique shoulders and sloping pasterns are 
 " points " of speed and of leaping power. If the shoulder-blade and pastern be 
 already upright, the limb will be capable of but slight extension. 
 
 In heavy draught, full straightening out of the limbs is not desirable ; for 
 the last part of this action is accomplished at a great mechanical disadvan- 
 tage, to which I have alluded on page 56. At present it is sufficient to 
 compare the action of the limbs to that of the oars of a boat, in which the 
 practically useful work is finished after the oars have passed the line at right 
 angles to the length of the boat ; the remainder of the propulsive effect being 
 obtained by a wasteful expenditure of force. Consequently, an increase of 
 speed is procured by an amount of work that is greatly out of proportion to 
 the result. Thus, to double the speed during a certain period of time, it may 
 be necessary for the horse to do five or six times the amount of muscular 
 exertion. For instance, it may be more fatiguing for a horse to go twenty miles 
 in one hour, than fifty miles in five hours. The cart-horse, when in heavy 
 
64 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 draught, moves his load with his hind limbs in a more or less bent condition 
 (see Fig. 72), which will give his hind quarters the crouching appearance 
 which must be familiar to us all. Sloping pasterns from a load-pulling point 
 of view are objectionable in the cart-horse ; for the more oblique they are, the 
 greater is the mechanical disadvantage at which they work (see p. 69). 
 Sloping shoulders, also, from the same point of view, are undesirable. 
 
 Action of the Muscles which extend the Vertebrae. 
 
 When a horse prepares to kick, he, as a general rule, lowers his head and 
 arches his loins (" puts his back up " ), by doing which he relieves his hind 
 quarters of weight and puts it on his forehand. When, on the contrary, he 
 prepares to rear, he raises his head and neck and more or less hollows his 
 loins, so as to lighten his forehand and put more weight on his hind quarters. 
 If we examine Figs. 81 and 82 of the canter, Figs. 90 to 94 of the gallop, 
 and Figs. 140 to 144 of the leap, we shall see that the muscles which 
 enable a horse to rear, greatly aid the forward reach of the fore legs in 
 the canter and gallop. Also, the heavier the forehand, the greater difficulty 
 will they have to raise it In the leap, they assist the leading fore leg in 
 raising the forehand. If the horse carries a rider, these muscles will have an 
 increased amount of work to do on account of extra weight being put in front, 
 and will tire in a proportionately rapid rate. On examining the drawings 
 of horses in Chapter XII. at the various paces, we shall see that the faster 
 the movement, the more will these muscles be taxed, on account of the greater 
 distance of the centre of gravity from the hind feet, while one or both of which 
 support and propel forward the weight of the body. Hence we find that to 
 gallop fast or to jump " big," a horse must have good " rearing muscles," which 
 consist principally of those which straighten the hock, draw back the thigh, 
 and extend the vertebrae of the loins. These muscles also help to " lighten " 
 the forehand in the flying trot and fast " pacing," in both of which there is a 
 period of suspension, which will vary in length according to the weight that is 
 on the forehand. From these considerations I may lay down the law that the 
 faster the speed required, the stronger should the " rearing muscles " be. The 
 pair of them (one on each side) that is most readily noticed, is the loin 
 muscles, which in the ox constitute the upper cut of a sirloin, and which, in 
 the horse, we may see just behind the cantle of the saddle. I need hardly 
 say that the heavier the shoulder, the sooner will these muscles become tired ; 
 the shorter will be the stride ; and the slower will be the pace. Consequently, 
 horses for fast work ought to have light shoulders. Carrying out the same 
 train of reasoning, we may see that the longer a horse's body, the greater will 
 
WIDTH BETWEEN THE LEGS. 65 
 
 be the mechanical disadvantage at which these muscles will work ; hence, a 
 short body is a desirable point in the race-horse and jumper. 
 
 The combined working of oblique shoulders, w r ell-sloped pasterns and 
 strong rearing muscles, by preventing the forehand going down at each 
 stride, aids in obtaining the much admired " level " action in the race-horse. 
 An animal which has a long body, heavy shoulders, upright pasterns, and 
 weak loins (showing deficiency in the points just advocated), will, if he 
 be put to a gallop, go in an up-and-down style ; because his rearing muscles 
 will be over-taxed by the weight of the forehand at the end of the long lever 
 made by his body, and because his fetlock joints will have deficient " play." 
 
 I may remark that, although the loin muscles appear to be almost 
 quiescent during easy walking and gentle trotting, they may be observed to 
 act energetically in flexing and extending the loins when the animal is 
 leaping, galloping, and when his powers are taxed in drawing a heavy load. 
 Any one who has ridden races or gallops on speedy thoroughbreds, wdll know 
 from experience the immense power behind the saddle possessed by animals 
 of this class ; for the rider cannot fail to feel the vigorous " lift " given by 
 the loins at each stride. 
 
 It is a popular fallacy to imagine that the muscles over the loins are 
 propellers. They have no propelling power at all; for they are not con- 
 nected either with the thigh bone, or with any of the bones of the limb below 
 it ; their office in locomotion being merely to regulate the weight on the 
 forehand. I may mention that the muscles (those which constitute the under- 
 cut in a saddle of mutton, or in sirloin of beef) under the loins draw the thigh 
 forward. 
 
 "Width, between each respective Pair of Legs as affecting 
 Speed. Let us suppose that the rectangle abed (see Fig. 28) diagram- 
 matically represents the body of the horse ; that the fore limbs are placed 
 at the angles a and b ; that the hind limbs are at d and e; and that 
 the centre of gravity is at c. Were both fore legs and both hind legs to 
 act respectively at the same moment, we would have the centre of gravity 
 moved in a straight line, and in the direction in which the animal's body was 
 placed. In the amble (see p. 101), the propulsion is given through a and 
 </, and through b and e alternately, with the result, in the former case, 
 that the centre of gravity is displaced to the right, and in the latter to the 
 left. In the trot (see p. 97), the alternate strokes are through a and ^, and 
 b and d. If these respective propulsions, in the trot, were equal to each 
 other, and if the centre of gravity were midway between the fore and hind 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 legs, there would be no displacement of it from side to side. As however the 
 impetus derived from the hind limb is greater than that from the fore leg, 
 and as the centre of gravity is nearer the latter than the former, there is a 
 certain tendency to lateral displacement, which has to be corrected by 
 muscular effort. This tendency to a rocking movement from side to side is 
 naturally greater in the amble than it is in the trot. In the gallop there is a 
 strong tendency to lateral displacement ; for at this pace each leg gives its 
 own separate stroke (see p. 112). When either of the near ones act, the centre 
 of gravity is canted to the right ; when the off ones make their respective 
 effort, it is thrown to the left. The retention of the centre of gravity in a 
 more or less straight line, entails a certain expenditure of muscular w T ork, and 
 consequent fatigue. 
 
 It is evident that the nearer (see Fig. 28) a is to , and d to tf, the less 
 
 FIG. 28. LATERAL DISPLACEMENT OF BODY. 
 
 will be the lateral displacement of the centre of gravity, and the smaller 
 the loss of speed from this cause. Hence we find that in animals of great 
 speed, like the cheetah, antelope, greyhound, and race-horse, both the fore 
 and hind legs are respectively placed much closer together than in animals of 
 comparatively greater strength, but of slower movement. The faster the 
 pace (seep. 124), the more do the footprints of the horse tend to come into 
 the line of the direction in which movement is taking place. This principle 
 is well exemplified in man ; for all fast walkers, runners, and skaters try to 
 place the feet, at each step, as nearly as possible, in one straight line. 
 
FATIGUE FROM THE VARIOUS PACES. 67 
 
 As I have already said, this tendency to lateral displacement of weight 
 is corrected to a certain extent, in his various paces, by the horse, who has, 
 however, to do it by a muscular effort, which is a lost force as regards 
 propulsion. 
 
 Effect of Instability of Equilibrium on Speed. The more 
 unstable the equilibrium is, during each step of the horse at any particular 
 pace, the greater will be the speed which can be developed at that pace, 
 whatever it may be. This follows from the fact that the more insecure is the 
 equilibrium, the quicker, when it is displaced, will the new base of support 
 have to be formed. Thus, in the walk of the horse (see p. 102) there are 
 never less than two feet on the ground ; three as often as two ; and 
 sometimes even four. In the canter (see p. 109), we have respectively in 
 three steps, a support of one foot, of two (or of three) feet, and of one foot. 
 In the trot and amble, there are two feet on the ground during each step. 
 From this we may conclude that the canter is a faster pace, naturally, than 
 the trot or amble. I am aware that this is not the case with many horses 
 which have been specially trained for match-trotting and match-pacing ; but 
 that fact does not bear on the subject in question. Of all paces, the gallop 
 is the one in which the equilibrium is most unstable ; for during each stride 
 of it, the centre of gravity is carried farther beyond the base of support (see 
 Fig. 10 1) than at any other pace. Besides, at each step in it, there are 
 fewer feet together on the ground than at any other pace. 
 
 As it is imperative that the body of an animal intended for speed should 
 be as light as possible, provided he has sufficient bone and muscle to meet 
 his requirements ; the preponderance of weight on the forehand should be 
 obtained by conformation, and not by any approach to " heaviness " in that part. 
 
 Fatigue from the various Paces. In comparing the fatigue 
 undergone during certain paces, we must be guided by the consideration of 
 the respective distances through which the centre of gravity of the body has 
 to be moved. Let us first of all consider its vertical, and afterwards its 
 horizontal, displacement out of the straight line of the direction in which it 
 has to travel. In the walk and at all other paces in which there is no 
 period of suspension (see p. 96), it is carried nearly parallel to the ground, 
 with only a slight fall when each fore leg is taken up. At paces in which 
 there is a period of suspension, the centre of gravity will have to be raised 
 just as much as it will fall during that time. This fact is best marked in 
 jumping ; for in making even a long leap, the centre of gravity will have to 
 be raised a considerable height. Thus, when Howard of Bradford, the 
 
 F 2 
 
68 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 famous jumper and sprinter, leaped over a full-sized billiard-table lengthwise, 
 he was computed to have cleared a height of five feet four inches. Hence, 
 animals like the antelope . and cheetah, which adopt, when going at full 
 speed, a leaping style of gallop (see p. 128), can keep it up only for a short 
 time. This fact is particularly well marked in the case of the kangaroo. For 
 the same reason, a horse can go a distance with more ease to himself at 
 a slow trot (which has no period of suspension), than at the flying trot 
 (see p. 98) or gallop (see p. 112), in both of which there is a period of 
 suspension. Not alone does the consideration of the comparative rise and 
 fall of the centre of gravity give us an idea of the relative fatigue undergone 
 during the various paces; but it also furnishes us with a guide to judge 
 of the comparative ease with which different horses move at the same pace. 
 Consequently, we may conclude that the more " level " a horse goes, whether 
 at the fast trot, gallop, or other pace, the less will he fatigue himself : a fact 
 which proves how thoroughly reasonable is the admiration every good judge 
 has for a " level " style of movement that is, one in which there is the least 
 possible rise and fall of the forehand at each stride. I have purposely used 
 the word " forehand " here. When noting whether the action of a horse is 
 level or not, we are usually guided by the presence or absence of up-and-down 
 motion in the forehand ; for the special prominence of the head and neck 
 will more or less rivet the attention of the eyes. Besides this, the centre of 
 gravity of the horse's body is nearer his fore legs than his hind ones. 
 
 I may mention that as soon as fast antelopes, like the Indian Black Buck 
 and South African Springbok, get tired in their bounding kind of gallop, they 
 " settle down " to one resembling that of the horse (see Figs. 90 to 105). 
 When the cheetah who, as far as I can make out, gallops like the cat 
 (see Figs. 126 to 131), in a succession of leaps becomes tired of that pace, 
 he drops into a walk or trot. 
 
 On page 66 I have alluded to the effects of the lateral displacement 
 of the centre of gravity in causing fatigue. 
 
 The pace which is the speediest, is also the most fatiguing ; for, as in fast 
 paces, the centre of gravity will be carried further beyond its base of support 
 than at slow ones, a greater muscular effort will be required in them to form 
 a new base of support. We may see this if we compare, one with another, 
 Figs. 42, 45, 55, 79, and 101. 
 
 Action of the Head and Neck in Locomotion. During 
 movement, the head and neck act as a balancing pole in changing the 
 position of the centre of gravity from one side to the other, and in raising or 
 
MECHANISM OF THE FETLOCK JOINT. 
 
 69 
 
 depressing it. Certain muscles of the neck draw the fore limb forward and 
 upward ; other muscles of the neck straighten out the head and neck, and 
 a third group bend them. 
 
 Mechanism of the Fetlock Joint. As Lecoq explains, " the weight 
 of the body, transmitted by the cannon-bone upon the upper articulating 
 surface of the long pastern bone, is the resistance to be overcome. The 
 fulcrum is the ground at the toe of the foot, and the power acts upon the 
 sesamoid bones, which are at the back of the pastern ; the shortening of the 
 flexor muscles being the cause of the straightening of the angle formed by 
 their tendons." The diagram given in Fig. 2 9 will show how this lever (one of 
 the second order) acts. In it we see that the distance between the power 
 and weight remains constant; but that their respective distances from the 
 fulcrum vary according to the slope of the pastern and hoof, and according 
 to the length from the fetlock to the toe. Hence (see pp. 52 and 54), the shorter 
 
 FIG. 29. MECHANISM OF FETLOCK JOINT. 
 
 is this line, the greater will be the mechanical advantage at which the back 
 tendons will act ; and vice versa. On the other hand, we .may see that the 
 more is the mechanical gain, the worse will the fetlock act as a spring, which 
 function is all-important in saving the limb (especially the fore one) from 
 the injurious effects of concussion. It is evident that the distance of the 
 weight (or power) from the fulcrum (F) is influenced by the length and slope 
 of the pastern ; it being greatest when the pastern is long and oblique, 
 and least when that part is short and upright. I may point out that 
 increased growth of hoof, either at the toe or heel, will affect the slope 
 in question, and that the thickness of horn at the toe will, of course, 
 influence the length from the fetlock to the toe. As a practical point I may 
 remark that the toe (except in the treatment of some forms of disease) should 
 
MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 always be kept " short," and that shoes should be no thicker at the toes than 
 what would be sufficient to enable them to stand " wear." I need not allude 
 
 further to this subject, as 
 Horse Owners. 
 
 I have considered it in my Veterinary Notes for 
 
 
 Mechanism of the Hock Joint. Figs. 30, 3 1 , and 32, show the three 
 actions of this joint as a lever. 
 
 Besides flexion and extension, this joint has an outward motion, due to 
 the outward and forward direction of the pulley formed by the astragalus. 
 
 FIG. 30. IST ORDER. 
 
 FIG. 31. 2ND ORDER. 
 LEVERS OF THE HOCK. 
 
 FIG. 32. 3RD ORDER. 
 
 We find, contrary to what we might have expected from an inspection of this 
 bone, that this oblique play of the hock joint does not affect the direction in 
 which the hind foot is carried ; its object being, as explained by M. H. Bouley, 
 to allow the stifle to clear the belly, when the hind limb is brought forward. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT. 
 
 DRAUGHT in the collar or breast-harness is, as explained by M. Colin, an act 
 of pushing, and not one of putting. The only kind of draught I have ever 
 heard of, which could be put under the latter heading, is that of making a 
 horse draw by attaching the weight to his tail, like what farmers in some 
 countries used to do long ago, when they wanted to plough ! 
 
 Propulsion in draught, like in other forms of locomotion, is effected by 
 placing a series of levers, bent on one another, between a fixed point and a 
 movable one. In locomotion of the body itself, the series of levers are those 
 only of the limbs. The movable point, in the hind limb, is the portion of 
 the pelvis against which the head of the thigh bone rests ; and in the fore 
 extremity, the lower end of the humerus. In harness, on the contrary, 
 the series of levers is that between the spot against which the foot rests and 
 the centre of pressure on the inner surface of the collar, which, in this case, 
 is the movable point. 
 
 In Fig. 33, the line A B represents the direction of the propelling force 
 given by the hind leg which is on the ground ; and E B, that by the fore 
 limb ; B being the assumed centre of pressure. The resultant of these two 
 forces must pass somewhere between the points A and E, and through the 
 point B. But it is impossible to fix its exact direction ; as we cannot deter- 
 mine the respective amounts of these two forces, and as the proportion they 
 bear to each other continually varies. If two hind feet, as in Fig. 70, were 
 engaged in pushing against the collar at the same time, the direction of their 
 resultant would naturally pass between them and between the two points 
 occupied by the respective centres of pressure on each side of the collar. 
 From a practical point of view, we may assume that this centre of pressure, 
 on each side, is on a level with that portion of the harness to which each 
 respective trace is attached. This would place it somewhere between the 
 middle and lower third of the bearing surface of the collar. 
 
72 
 
 MECHANISM OF DRA UGHT. 
 
 The force applied to the collar by the animal is obtained in two different 
 ways, first, by the weight of the animal, and second, by the force of propulsion 
 to which I have just alluded. 
 
 The weight of the animal acts on the collar by reason of the centre of 
 gravity being placed in front of the base of support (see p. 57), the anterior 
 limit of which is marked by the position of the toe of the fore foot which is 
 on the ground. It is evident that the further a perpendicular dropped from 
 the centre of gravity falls in front of the base of support, the more effectively 
 
 FIG. 33. MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT. (From Colin's Physiologic 
 
 will the weight of the body act in propulsion. This forward translation of 
 the centre of gravity with reference to the position of the base of support, is 
 influenced, first, by the degree of slope which the fore leg makes with the 
 ground immediately before it quits it, and before the other fore leg is brought 
 down ; and, second, by the lowering of the head and neck. I need hardly 
 say that horses with toe-pieces to their fore shoes can bring the centre of 
 gravity farther beyond the base of support, by the slope of the fore leg which 
 rests on the ground, than they could do with flat shoes ; supposing, of course, 
 
PROPULSION IN DRA UGHT. 73 
 
 that the surface of the ground was not abnormally smooth and hard, like wood 
 or asphalte. From the foregoing considerations we may draw, with respect to 
 cart-horses that are required to exert their strength to the utmost, the following 
 deductions, which are fairly self-evident to practical men. 
 
 1. Bodily weight, especially in the forehand, is an advantage in draught ; 
 for the greater it is, the more effective will be the push against the collar 
 caused by the centre of gravity falling beyond the base of support. Agreeably 
 to this fact, the experienced driver of a heavily-laden two-wheeled cart will 
 endeavour to place a fair share of the burden on the animal's back, so that 
 the horse may pull to the best advantage. The experiment of a man 
 succeeding in pulling along a stronger man than himself, by trying to do so, 
 while carrying a heavy weight on his back, is another familiar instance of this 
 principle. The gain in power from increased weight on the forehand is, also, 
 well illustrated by the practice, which is not very uncommon among drivers 
 of one-horse carts, of the driver mounting his animal and getting well forward 
 on its back, when he finds that it is unable to pull its load up a hill. 
 
 2. The cart-horse ought to have a heavy neck as well as massive shoulders. 
 As a natural corollary to this proposition, which infers the lowering of the 
 head and neck, we must condemn the use of bearing reins with the class of 
 horse which we are now considering. 
 
 3. The shoes of the horse should have toe-pieces when the ground is 
 favourable to their employment. 
 
 On the other hand, when the horse, on account of the slippery nature of 
 the ground, is unable to use his fore legs, except to a very slight degree, as 
 propellers, the forehand should be light and the head carried high. Thus, 
 the weight has to be kept almost entirely off the shafts of London hansom 
 cab-horses, which would be rendered very liable to fall down on the greasy 
 wood pavement and glass-like asphalte, if a fair proportion of the load were 
 to be put on their backs. Not alone is weight kept off their backs, but as a 
 rule it is so distributed as to cause the backhand to exert on the " girth- 
 place " an upward pressure, which, naturally, will more or less aid in " lighten- 
 ing" the forehand. 
 
 The force of propulsion given by the hind limb is dependent on a series of 
 levers which extends from the toe of the hind foot, along the bones of the 
 hind leg, pelvis, spinal column, up to the centre of pressure on the inner side 
 of the collar. It is manifest that the flatter this irregular line of levers is, 
 with reference to the line of propulsion from the toe of the hind foot to the 
 collar, the greater will be the mechanical advantage at which the hind limb 
 will act. Consequently, we may infer that the cart-horse should be long 
 
74 MECHANISM OF DRA UGHT. 
 
 in the body, as compared to his height ; that he should be lower over the 
 croup than he is at the withers ; and that he should not have a horizontal 
 croup. We should not, however, desire his hind quarters to be so drooping 
 as to cause him to be actually " goose-rumped " (see p. 233). 
 
 The amount of forward propulsion given by the fore limb varies according 
 to the position of the humerus ; for the more horizontal is this bone, the 
 more effective will be the push. As its degree of slope with the ground is 
 directly affected by that of the shoulder blade, it follows that the shoulders of 
 the cart-horse which has to fully exert the powers of his fore legs in propulsion, 
 should be more upright than sloping. 
 
 It is a well-known mathematical fact that the most advantageous direction 
 for the pull in draught to be, is one which makes an angle with the ground 
 equal to the angle of friction. I may explain that if, for instance, 10 was the 
 greatest slope of ground upon which a body could rest without sliding down, 
 its angle of friction would be equal to 10. The best direction then of the 
 traces would be at an angle to the ground equal to the angle of friction. In 
 many cases the pull of the traces is not at a sufficient angle to the ground, and 
 the work is consequently performed at a mechanical disadvantage, which might 
 be remedied by the employment of a taller horse than the one used, by having 
 smaller wheels, or by a change in the harnessing arrangement. For instance, 
 in such a case, instead of attaching the traces to the hooks on the shafts of a 
 dog-cart, they might be connected, as is sometimes done, to the axletree. 
 In the Indian ecka (see PL 8), the slope of the shafts, which act as traces, 
 appears to have been made with due regard to the angle of friction of this 
 cart with the ground. 
 

( 75 ) 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Standing at Attention Standing Collectedly Standing at Ease Carriage 
 of the Head and Neck. 
 
 Standing at Attention. When a well-shaped and sound 
 horse stands at attention, if I may use the term, he has his 
 head and neck raised, ears pricked forward, the profile of the 
 face at an angle of about 45 to the ground, and at about a 
 right angle to the upper line of the neck (the crest) ; the 
 weight proportionately distributed on all four limbs ; and, as a 
 rule, the fore foot of one side not so far advanced as its 
 fellow, and its hind foot more to the front than the other hind 
 foot (see PL 35). If the hind feet be equally advanced, a 
 perpendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock will, 
 on the respective sides, about touch the point of the hock. 
 If one hind foot be placed in front of the other hind foot, 
 the vertical line will, more or less, divide the interval 
 between the points of the two hocks. As the weight of the 
 horse's head and neck is beyond the base of support formed 
 on the ground by his feet, he would " stand over " on his fore 
 legs that is, their direction would be downward and 
 backward if they were equally advanced, and if each of the 
 limbs was bearing its due share of weight. Hence, when one 
 
7 6 
 
 A TTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 fore leg is advanced more than its fellow, and when it is 
 vertical, the animal will be somewhat over on the other fore 
 leg (see PI. 15). 
 
 French writers consider that when a horse stands with 
 the weight properly distributed on all his limbs, a line 
 dropped from each point of his buttock will coincide with the 
 posterior edge of his hind leg, from the point of the hock to 
 the fetlock ; and that the direction of the front legs will be 
 vertical, as in Fig. 34, which I have taken from MM. Goubaux 
 
 FIG. 34. LE PLACER. 
 
 and Barrier's UExterieur du Chevai. It may be possible to 
 make a horse assume this attitude (Fr. le placer] ; but I must 
 say I have never seen a horse adopt it. Fig. 35 is the near- 
 est approach in a well-bred horse to this position that I have 
 been able to get in a photograph, of which this illustration 
 is an exact copy. 
 
 In the front view of the horse when he is standing in an 
 unconstrained position, with his feet equally advanced and a 
 little distance apart the forearms will slightly converge, and 
 
PL.9-WELL-SHAPED FORE LEGS. PL. 1O-TURNED-OUT TOES. PL. 11-TURNED-IN TOES. 
 
 PHOTO. BY M.H.HAYES 
 
 PL. 12-WELL-SHAPED HIND LEGS 
 
 PL. 13-UPRIGHT PASTERNS. 
 
 TO FACE PAGE 76 
 
 PL. 14-TURNED-IN HOCKS. 
 
STANDING AT ATTENTION. 
 
 77 
 
 the cannon-bones will be about parallel to each other (see 
 PL 9). A vertical and longitudinal plane passing through 
 the centre of the knee and fetlock of each leg will cut the 
 centre of the toe. In PI. 10 the toes are turned out, and in 
 PL 1 1 they are turned in. 
 
 The rear view of the horse is shown in PL 12, in which 
 we can see that the hocks are slightly turned in and the toes 
 
 FIG. 35. STANDING AT ATTENTION. 
 
 a trifle turned out. The hind legs here depicted were 
 symmetrically shaped. Although I have devoted much care- 
 ful study to this subject, I can apply no geometrical rules to 
 determine, as some have done, the correct shape of the legs 
 from this point of view. It can, in my opinion, be judged 
 only by the trained eye of the observer I mean in deciding 
 whether the hocks are correctly placed, turned in, or turned 
 out. In PL 14 the hocks are, to a marked extent, turned in. 
 
78 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Standing " Collectedly." This is the position (see 
 Fig. 36) a horse assumes when he makes ready to move 
 quickly away from the place in which he is standing. His 
 hind feet will be well in front of a perpendicular line dropped 
 from the points of the buttocks, his fore feet will be brought 
 back more than usual, and he will stand more or less over 
 on them. His head and neck will be raised, and he will be 
 looking to his front, with his ears pricked forward, if he be 
 one of the quick, observant class. 
 
 FIG. 36. STANDING COLLECTEDLY. 
 
 Many persons who hold decided views on horse con- 
 formation, maintain that a true shaped horse will, when he 
 stands, have his hind legs " well under him," as in Fig. 36 ; 
 such a position being regarded by them as a point of con- 
 formation, and not as an attitude. To prove the fallacy of this 
 idea, I may mention that the same mare, photographed on 
 the same day, is shown in Fig. 36 and PL 15. In the former, 
 her hind legs are well under her, in the latter they are a little 
 

STANDING A T EASE. 79 
 
 behind her ; the difference being merely one of position or atti- 
 tude. With reference to this subject, I need hardly say that 
 a horse may assume many attitudes, but he has only one 
 kind of conformation. On the other hand, however, we must 
 not ignore the fact that if a horse is unable to bend the joints 
 (the hocks, fetlocks and pastern joints are the ones which are 
 usually affected) of his hind limbs properly, he will naturally 
 refrain from bringing his hind feet forward, when standing or 
 moving to the front, as freely as he would do were his hind 
 limbs in good working order. In judging of this, we should 
 form our opinion more from the action of the animal during 
 movement, than from the position he takes up when 
 standing ; although both should of course be considered. 
 
 Standing at Ease. The sound horse will, almost 
 always, when standing at ease, have both fore feet equally 
 advanced, and with his weight chiefly on them ; for he can 
 obtain this support in front, without muscular effort on his part 
 (to which fact I shall presently again refer), and consequently 
 without fatigue. His head will be lowered, and will be sup- 
 ported by the suspensory ligament of the neck, the action of 
 which is also accomplished without fatigue (see p. 33). As the 
 hind limbs are unprovided with an apparatus by which they 
 can bear weight without fatigue, their muscles have to obey 
 the law which requires, for the health of muscular tissue, alter- 
 nate periods of rest and work. Hence, one hind limb is rested 
 by its joints being bent and its heel raised, while its fellow 
 supports the weight of the hind quarters. When the work- 
 ing limb becomes tired, the other one takes its turn of work ; 
 and so on. 
 
 The fore limbs of the horse are furnished with special 
 
8o A TTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 fibrous bands (ligaments) which, during rest, take the weight 
 off the muscles that straighten the various joints. I may 
 here remind my readers that these ligaments are composed of 
 hard, inelastic, fibrous tissue, and act simply as strong cords 
 in connecting the parts together. The work they do being 
 entirely of a passive nature ; they do not get tired, like mus- 
 cles, the work of which is of an active form, and cannot be 
 continued without suitable intervals of rest. As an instance 
 of this "bracing" function of ligaments, I may mention that 
 the fetlock is passively supported during rest (taken in a 
 standing position) by an inelastic fibrous cord, which goes 
 behind the fetlock point, and is attached by one end to the 
 head of the cannon-bone, and by the other to the base of the 
 pedal bone. Not alone are the fore legs provided with these 
 special ligaments, to prevent the limbs from "doubling up" ; 
 but most of the muscles which straighten these limbs during 
 work are composed of a large amount of ligamentous fibres. 
 Such muscles, therefore, during their periods of rest, can 
 assume to some extent the functions of ligaments. In fact, 
 one powerful muscle in the fore leg of the dog is represented 
 in the horse by a ligament. Besides this, the muscles which 
 straighten the fore limb are not single, but multiple muscles, 
 one of which can take its turn at work, while its fellows rest. 
 
 This mechanism enables the horse to sleep standing 
 without extraneous support. It is clearly and exhaustively 
 described in Colin's Physiologic Comparte. 
 
 Carriage of the Head and Neck. The attitude 
 which the head and neck assume is determined by the 
 following considerations : ( i ) For the horse to be able to see 
 in the required direction. If we regard a horse that is stand- 
 
CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD. 8t 
 
 ing at attention (see p. 75), and is looking straight in front 
 of him, we shall, as a rule, note that his neck is held in an 
 easy position, being neither stretched out nor drawn back, 
 and his head is placed so that the line of his face will make 
 an angle of about 45 to the ground. We may, therefore, 
 consider that the axis of each eye is at about that angle 
 to the line of the face. In man, the angle is about 90, 
 the difference between the two being chiefly one of brain 
 capacity. In the horse, the occipital crest, which is the 
 highest point of the horse's head, may be regarded as a 
 continuation of his forehead. In man, owing to the bulging- 
 out condition of the brain, it is placed at the back of the 
 head. When a horse wishes to take a good view of the 
 ground in front of him, he will, by the adjustment of his neck, 
 adopt a lofty carriage of the head, while keeping the line of 
 the face at an angle of about 45 to the ground. If he re- 
 quires his line of vision to be at about that angle to the 
 ground in order to see, for instance, an object six or seven 
 feet in front of his feet, he will bring the line of his face 
 perpendicular, or nearly so, to the ground. Of course, the 
 axes of the eyes can be altered, more or less, without the 
 head being moved ; but the horse possesses such mobility 
 of head and neck that, when he is free, he will adjust his 
 line of vision principally by the movement of these parts. 
 
 It is therefore evident that if we want a horse, when 
 riding or driving him, to have a good look at the ground 
 over which he is about to go, we should allow him, or 
 endeavour to induce him, to carry his head at an angle of 
 about 45 to it. A more perpendicular carriage of the head 
 would be permissible only for school work, or for evolu- 
 tions in which freedom of movement has, to some extent, to 
 
82 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 be sacrificed for obtaining thorough power of control. If the 
 angle which the face makes with the ground be much less than 
 45, the animal will not be able to see where he is going. 
 
 (2) To permit of free movement of the fore limbs. My 
 readers will remember that the shoulder-blade of the horse, 
 on each side, is connected to the body by muscles which 
 allow it to work backward and forward on the chest. The 
 shoulder-blade and humerus (see Fig. 3) being drawn forward 
 and upward by muscles of the neck ; it follows that the direction 
 of this pull will be regulated, to a great extent, by the direction 
 in which the horse carries his head. Hence, if we require 
 "lofty" shoulder action, we must get him to carry it com- 
 paratively high. If he carries it low down, only a slight 
 upward lift can be given to the shoulders. In such a 
 case, to make up for want of shoulder action, the horse 
 will probably increase his knee action, which is obtained 
 by muscles that have no power to move the shoulders. 
 Thus, we may see a horse who has free shoulder action and 
 gallops with a straight knee when he carries his head fairly 
 high, go in a " round " and cramped style, if he be permitted 
 or induced to carry his head low down. I may here explain 
 (as we may see by reference to the figures in Chapter XII.) 
 that in all paces, and especially in fast ones, in order to obtain 
 good forward reach, it is requisite that the fore limb should be 
 drawn upwards as well as forwards. The defect, as regards 
 want of safety, in the fore feet not being lifted sufficiently 
 off the ground by the play of the shoulder, may be com- 
 pensated for by increased knee action, which, however, 
 will have no effect in lengthening the stride ; but will, in 
 causing loss of time in putting down the fore feet, tend to 
 diminish the speed. As practical points directly connected 
 
CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD. 83 
 
 with this subject, I may mention that the use of the curb bit 
 has been found to injuriously affect the action of race-horses 
 by, as a rule, making them carry their heads low down, and 
 consequently to gallop " round." Trainers of match-trotters 
 employ an " over-draw check-rein" (bearing rein) with horses 
 which do not carry their heads high enough, and which, on 
 that account, have too low action. The bearing rein is also, 
 in many cases, necessary for the attainment of that "extrava- 
 gant " action which is greatly sought for among fashionable 
 carriage horses : a fact which accounts for its retention in the 
 stables of the rich, despite the adverse criticism that is being 
 constantly directed against its use. As a rough guide to the 
 direction of the neck (supposing it to be straight or only 
 slightly bent) when the line of the face is at an angle of 
 about 45 to the ground, I may say that, at ordinary paces, 
 the upper part of the nostril should not be lower, or only 
 slightly so, than the top of the withers. In the fast gallop, 
 the horse will carry his head lower down than this, so as to 
 bring his weight forward, and thus to increase his speed (see 
 p. 67). This difference in the carriage of the head will be 
 evident, if we compare Figs. 8 1 to 89 with Figs. 90 to 105. 
 A fairly high carriage of the head, with the face at the 
 angle just mentioned, is a most desirable point in the cross- 
 country horse, who requires to obtain a good view of 
 the ground or obstacles in front of him, and to have free 
 shoulder action ; in other words, to be " light in front," 
 which implies that his hind legs are well "under him." 
 If, on the contrary, we want a horse to rein back (see 
 p. 119), we should make him lower his head and bring 
 it perpendicular, or nearly so, to the ground, in order to 
 put weight on his fore legs and lighten his hind ones. 
 
 G 2 
 
S4 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Those of my readers who have studied high school riding, 
 will remember that, according to the teaching of Baucher, who 
 introduced many valuable improvements in military equitation, 
 the normal position of the head of the school horse was 
 perpendicular to the ground ; and that the head was carried 
 comparatively low. That admirable exponent of the modern 
 haute tcole, M. Fillis (see his Principes de Dressage], having 
 wisely rejected, even in the most elaborate airs de manege, this 
 artificial style, teaches that the school horse should carry his 
 head high and the muzzle well advanced out of the perpen- 
 dicular. If the head be carried too high ; forward reach will be 
 proportionately sacrificed to upward shoulder action, with con- 
 sequent loss of speed. Hence, jumpers, animals that require 
 to be clever over bad ground, such as pig-stickers and Colonial 
 stock horses, and those in which showy action is sought, such 
 as chargers, school horses, and park hacks, should carry their 
 heads higher than animals in which speed is the chief 
 consideration. The more the lift to the fore legs is obtained 
 by the play of the shoulders, and not by the mere raising of 
 the knees ; the safer, more brilliant, less fatiguing, and faster 
 will the action be in every class of horse. 
 
 The chief muscle which draws the fore limb (of each side) 
 forward and upward, is attached by one end to the humerus 
 and by the other to the top of the head. Other muscles that 
 draw the shoulder-blade forward and upward, are attached 
 to it and to the ligament of the neck, which stretches from 
 the withers to the top of the head. As muscles act 
 best when their points of attachment are wide apart ; the 
 horse, during rapid movement, regulates, under normal 
 conditions, the amount of the extension of his neck, according 
 to the speed at which he is going. In this case, the head 
 
REGULATION OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 85 
 
 and neck are the fixed point ; the fore limb, the movable one. 
 As long, therefore, as the speed of any particular pace remains 
 uniform, the length of the neck (measured roughly from 
 withers to top of head) should continue unchanged. Con- 
 sequently, when riding or driving, if we desire the horse to 
 maintain a uniform rate of speed, we should keep a uniform 
 tension on the reins (note, for instance, the fixed position of 
 the hands of a capable lad from a racing stable when he is 
 riding a steady training gallop), and should not "give and 
 take" with them. If the speed be increased, the hands, 
 supposing their hold on the reins remains unaltered, should 
 be advanced, as may be required ; if it be decreased, they 
 should be drawn back. Thus, any alteration by the rider, of 
 tension on the reins which might impede the legitimate 
 movements of the neck, is avoided. As the joint which the 
 head makes with the atlas (first vertebra of the neck) is 
 situated some distance below the top of the head, it follows 
 that if the muzzle be unduly stretched out, the occipital crest 
 (top of the head) will be brought back, and the tension of 
 the ligament of the neck lessened, with consequent decrease 
 of power to the muscles which are attached to this ligament. 
 The muscle which is attached to the humerus and top of 
 the head, also would work to disadvantage if the muzzle were 
 stretched out to a greater extent than would bring the line 
 of the face to a right angle with the direction of this muscle, 
 which forms the upper border of the jugular groove. Even in 
 the fast gallop (vide Figs. 90 to 105), the horse rarely carries 
 his head at a less angle than 45 to the ground. 
 
 (3) To regulate the position of the Centre of Gravity. 
 The more the head is advanced to the front, the more 
 unstable will be the equilibrium, and the greater will be the 
 
86 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 speed during progression (see p. 67). Hence, the race- 
 horse, when galloping at full speed, will bring his head 
 forward as much as the other conditions which affect its 
 carriage will allow him to do. As I have before remarked, 
 the angle which his face makes with the ground will seldom 
 be less, even at the highest speed, than 45. The cart-horse, 
 if he has good foot-hold, will also, when pulling a heavy load, 
 lower his head and stretch it out, so as to bring the centre 
 of gravity forward as much as possible. Here I assume 
 that the ground is soft enough to allow him to "dig his 
 toes " into it, or, if it be rough, that he is provided with 
 toe-pieces on his front shoes. If, on the contrary, the 
 roadway is slippery, like the London streets which are 
 covered with asphalte or wood, the cart-horse in heavy 
 draught, being afraid of falling down if he throws his weight 
 into the collar, will try to keep the centre of gravity back by 
 holding his head high, while trusting almost entirely to his 
 hind legs to push the body forward. When a horse rears, 
 halts suddenly, or reins back in heavy draught (see p. 119), 
 he will raise his head and neck so as to bring the centre 
 of gravity back. Any one who has ridden much "over 
 a country," will know the great use a horse makes of his 
 head and neck for regulating the position of his centre of 
 gravity when jumping, and especially when he makes a 
 " mistake." When a horse turns, or " circles," he ought to 
 have his head and neck bent in the direction he is going, 
 in order to see where he is proceeding, and to increase his 
 stability by shifting the centre of gravity towards the side 
 to which the turn is being made. 
 
 (4) To enable the Mouth-piece of the Snaffle to act effi- 
 ciently on the "bars" of the Mouth. I may explain that 
 
ACTION OF THE MOUTH-PIECE. 87 
 
 the "bars" of the mouth are those parts of the gums of the 
 lower jaw which are bare of teeth, and which are situated 
 between the back teeth and the tushes of the horse or 
 gelding, or the spots which they would occupy, were these 
 canine teeth developed in the mare. As the "bars" are 
 much more sensitive to pressure than the corners of the 
 mouth ; we should, when using the snaffle, endeavour to make 
 the horse carry his head so that he will not shift the 
 mouth-piece off the former and on to the latter. The 
 mouth-piece will, naturally, act best when the head is 
 carried perpendicularly to the ground ; but it can also 
 act efficiently if the line of the face is not at a less 
 angle to the ground than about 40. The apparent anomaly 
 of the mouth-piece of the snaffle not slipping off the "bars" 
 and on to the corners of the mouth in this case, may be 
 explained by the fact that the well-broken horse, when 
 being ridden or driven, keeps the joints of his lower jaw 
 in a more or less relaxed condition, so that the "bars," as 
 a rule, will make a greater angle with the ground than the 
 line of the face will do. When a horse which is ridden in a 
 snaffle, is made to carry his head in a more or less perpen- 
 dicular manner, he may, as a " defence," relax his jaw, with 
 the object of letting the mouth-piece slip down in his mouth as 
 much as possible, in order that a certain amount of the pull 
 of the reins may be transferred from it to his poll, over which 
 the crown-piece of the bridle passes. Any " defence " which 
 a horse makes by opening his mouth, may be counteracted 
 by the use of a properly applied nose-band. 
 
88 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. 
 Lying Down and Getting Up Rearing Kicking The Piaffer. 
 
 Lying Down and Getting Up. When a horse prepares 
 to lie down, he will bring all his feet well under his body, 
 while resting his weight chiefly on his hind feet. After 
 making a few tentative movements with his fore limbs, he 
 will gently lower his forehand until his knees lightly touch 
 the ground. He will then give his body a twist, and will roll 
 over, and rest, partly on his side and partly on his breast 
 bone. M. Colin describes as follows the position of the horse 
 when lying down. If, for instance, he is on his right side, the 
 right fore leg will be under the chest, with its foot facing 
 the inside of the left elbow. The other fore, equally bent, 
 but clear of the body, will have its foot close to its own 
 elbow, and there will be a space of about twelve inches 
 between the two knees. The hind limbs will be bent up 
 under the body, with the feet carried to the front. The near 
 hind, far removed from the side, will have its hock on a line 
 with the hip joint, and the hoof with the point of the hock. 
 The neck will be raised and the head will be inclined to the 
 left side. Sometimes the animal rests his lower jaw on 
 the ground. He may even, at certain moments, support 
 
SLEEPING. 89 
 
 his head on the flank or hock, which is a favourite position 
 with cattle, buffalo and deer, when they have stopped 
 ruminating, and appear to want to go to sleep. They cannot, 
 however, long maintain this position. 
 
 As the suspensory ligament of the neck can support the 
 weight of the head and neck without giving rise to the sensa- 
 tion of fatigue ; a horse can sleep comfortably on his side 
 and breast bone and with his head turned to the opposite 
 side. When a horse is very tired, or even when he feels 
 secure from disturbance, he may sleep entirely on his side, with 
 his cheek resting on the ground. On rare occasions, a horse 
 will repose lying down on his breast bone, with his knees 
 advanced and his heels more or less close to the points of his 
 elbows. This position is considered apt to give rise to 
 " capped elbow," on account of the pressure of the heel of the 
 doubled-up fore leg on the point of the elbow. This is not 
 an easy position for the horse ; for the sharp keel of his breast 
 bone will be liable to be hurt by contact with the ground. It 
 is, however, the natural sleeping position of horned cattle, 
 which can rest at ease in this manner ; as the keel of their 
 breast bone is flat. 
 
 In getting up, the horse straightens his fore legs out to 
 the front, and with a strong effort places his fore feet on the 
 ground and raises his forehand, so as to sit up like a dog. 
 With another effort he raises his hind quarters and stands on 
 all four feet. 
 
 Rearing. When a horse prepares to rear, he will get 
 his hind feet well under him and will raise his head, so as to 
 "lighten" his forehand, which he will lift off the ground by 
 the straightening out of one or both fore legs, and by the 
 
90 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 action of his " rearing muscles " (see p. 64). He will then keep 
 his fore legs bent at the knees and his head high (see Fig. 37). 
 In guarding against the rear, the rider should, therefore, lean 
 well forward. If he wishes, by inflicting punishment, to stop 
 the horse from rearing, he may hit the animal on one of the 
 
 FIG. 37. REARING. 
 
 hind legs, so as to prevent him from fixing them on the 
 ground, in order to "get up ; " but he should on no account 
 strike him on the shoulders ; for doing so would tend to 
 make him raise his forehand. We may break a horse of 
 rearing by teaching him to rein back in a " collected " manner 
 
REARING. 91 
 
 (see p. 119, et seq.). By doing this, we "lighten" the hind 
 quarters and accustom him to lift them and move them freely. 
 In the rear, the horse usually keeps one hind foot advanced 
 more than the other, and his hind feet more or less apart, 
 so as to widen the base of support. 
 
 The rear is a particularly insecure and fatiguing attitude 
 for the horse to maintain ; as the column of bones formed by 
 the body and the hind legs has to be kept in position, 
 at its joints (or angles), by the exercise of muscular force. 
 In a biped, like man, this column of bones can be brought 
 into a nearly vertical position, so that its component parts 
 can rest on each other, with but little muscular exertion 
 to maintain them in that position. Owing to the large 
 amount and continued nature of this muscular effort, there 
 will be a very appreciable backward and forward sway 
 (caused by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the 
 opposing muscles) at the various joints. This, added to 
 the narrowness of the base of support (formed by the hind 
 feet and the respective lines which join their toes and 
 heels), will render the rearing position so insecure that, to 
 support it, the horse will have to keep frequently changing 
 it. The danger of falling backwards which the animal incurs, 
 if he gets too erect, will naturally help to deter him from trying 
 to assume a comparatively vertical position. Hence, he will 
 have to keep the joints of his hind limbs more bent than 
 if he was not exposed to this risk of falling backwards. 
 
 The hocks are particularly liable to injury from rearing, 
 owing to the great strain thrown on them when the animal 
 assumes an upright position. "Curbs" and other enlarge- 
 ments are of frequent occurrence among circus horses which 
 are trained to walk on their hind legs. 
 
92 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Kicking. The term " kick " is usually restricted to a blow 
 given by one or both hind legs (see Fig. 38). A horse is 
 said to " strike out" with one or both fore legs. We may 
 regard both these movements as kicks. 
 
 A horse can kick in three ways : ( i ) To the rear with 
 one or both hind legs ; (2) to the front with a hind leg ; and 
 (3) to the front with one or both fore legs. Unlike horned 
 
 FIG. 38. KICKING. 
 
 cattle, a horse is unable, without moving the body, to kick to 
 one side, except to a slight extent, owing to the presence of a 
 ligament which connects the thigh bone to the pelvis, and 
 which greatly restricts the side action of the limb. If a horse, 
 therefore, wants to kick a man who is standing a little away 
 from its side, it will have to turn round to do so. For this 
 reason, if a person wishes to stand in safety by the side of a 
 horse's hind quarters, as for instance when examining its 
 
KICKING. 93 
 
 hocks, he should get an assistant to stand on the same side, 
 and to draw the head round to it a little, so that the animal 
 will not be able to turn round to kick if so inclined. If the 
 horse be a vicious kicker, the advisability of getting the fore 
 leg of the side at which one is standing, held or tied up, will 
 be self-suggestive to any one who has had experience with 
 horses. The forward kick with a hind leg (called a cow kicK) 
 has a good deal of range ; as a horse can, in this manner, hit 
 a man who is standing at its shoulder. 
 
 When striking out in front, the horse will generally do so 
 with one foot ; for the blow can be delivered with greater 
 speed when the other fore foot is on the ground, than if 
 both were off it. If he strikes out with both fore feet, he will 
 do so with a quick, short effort, with the object of giving 
 a blow ; or he will make a greater or less attempt at rearing, 
 so as to bring his feet or legs on the top of the offending 
 person or animal with the view of knocking it down. The 
 governing idea, more or less developed, of thus overthrowing 
 his enemy is, evidently, to kneel on him and to bite him. 
 This mode of attack is seldom seen in its complete form, 
 except in the case of entires, which are more prone to bite 
 and strike out with both fore feet than are mares and 
 geldings. Mules usually kick out behind with greater 
 freedom than horses, but are not so much inclined to bite or 
 to strike out in front. Mares, from sexual causes, are more 
 inclined to kick with their hind legs than are the other two. 
 Horses sometimes kick with a hind foot in a good-tempered 
 way, not with the purpose of inflicting pain, but merely to 
 push the object of the attention out of the way, as we may 
 occasionally see a dam do to her foal. Horses often kick 
 in play without any vicious intention. I am convinced that 
 
94 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 many apparently vicious kicks which miss their marks, are 
 delivered, not with the desire of sending the blow home, 
 but to warn the intruder against nearer approach. 
 
 When a horse kicks out behind, he will put extra weight 
 on his forehand, and, as a rule, will lower his head. When 
 he cow-kicks or strikes out in front, he will raise his head and 
 bring his weight back. 
 
 In almost all cases, just before a horse kicks, he will draw 
 back his ears, and more or less show " the white of his eye." 
 If the suspicious object be behind him, he will bring his head 
 slightly round so as to see it, and will prepare for his attack 
 by bending the fetlock and raising off the ground the 
 heel of the hind leg of .that side. I may mention that a 
 horse cannot kick with the hind leg upon which he is resting 
 his weight ; for he has to transfer the weight to its fellow 
 before he brings it into play. My readers will observe that I 
 have used the word " slightly " with reference to the extent 
 the animal turns his head when he gets ready to "lash out ; " 
 for if he brought it round a good deal, he would be obliged to 
 throw more weight on the hind leg of the side to which he is 
 looking than on its fellow, and would consequently have a 
 difficulty in using it. 
 
 The Piaffer. This is an air de manege, which is simply 
 a passage (see p. 117) without gaining ground. The most 
 brilliant kind of piaffer is when the movement is slow, lofty, 
 in true cadence, and with a well-marked pause when each 
 leg is raised to its highest point. 
 
( 95 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Definitions The Trot The Amble The Walk The Canter The Gallop 
 The Passage The;Spanish Walk and Spanish Trot The Rein Back 
 Foot-prints of the Horse during various Paces. 
 
 I MAY remark that there is no such thing as absolute 
 uniformity in the paces of the horse. 
 
 Definitions. To simplify explanation, we may, when 
 speaking of the limbs, call the near (left) fore and near hind, 
 the left pair ; the off (right) fore and off hind, the right 
 pair; the off fore and near hind, the right diagonals ; and the 
 near fore and off hind, the left diagonals. The meaning of 
 both fore and both hind is evident. 
 
 We may use the word support to signify the fact that the 
 weight of the body is borne by one or more limbs, as, for 
 instance, left support, when only the left pair are on the 
 ground ; and right diagonal support, when the right diagonals 
 alone prevent the horse from falling. 
 
 A stride is the distance from the foot-print of any one leg 
 to the foot-print of the same leg, when it next comes to the 
 ground ; or it is the action of the limbs while that distance is 
 being covered. 
 
 A step is the forward or backward movement of one foot ; 
 
96 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 or it is the distance one foot is removed from its fore or hind 
 fellow. 
 
 The term, period of suspension, will serve to designate 
 the time during which the animal is completely off the 
 ground at any particular pace, or when jumping. 
 
 Natural paces are those which the horse adopts of his 
 own accord, without any teaching from man ; artificial paces, 
 those which he performs only after special training. 
 
 Time (as applied to the rhythm of a pace) is the number 
 of separate steps in each stride of that pace. Thus, the 
 amble, in which the right pair and left pair move alternately, 
 is a pace of two time ; and the walk, in which each limb 
 moves separately, is a pace of four time. 
 
 To prevent any chance of confusion, I shall limit, in this 
 chapter, the meaning of the word pace to particular and 
 distinct methods of progression, and shall not use it as a 
 synonym for the word speed. 
 
 The Trot. We may select the trot to begin with, as 
 it is the simplest of all ordinary paces. Although it is 
 essentially a natural pace, some horses which have been 
 trained to amble, require a good deal of teaching to give up 
 the amble and to trot in true style. It consists of the 
 alternate action, in progression, of the two diagonals, in each 
 one of which the fore and hind leg move in the same manner. 
 Thus, in Figs. 39 and 41, we have the left diagonal support 
 and right diagonal support shown, as the diagonal pairs of 
 feet come alternately to the ground. Figs. 40 and 42 depict 
 the position the limbs occupy, just before the feet quit the 
 ground. I need hardly say that it is a pace of two time. 
 
 We may divide the trot into three kinds : (i) The short 
 or slow trot, in which the prints of each respective hind 
 
THE TROT. 
 
 97 
 
 foot do not reach as far forward as those of the fore foot 
 of the same side; and there is no period of suspension. 
 (2) The ordinary trot (see Figs. 39, 40, 41, and 42), in which 
 the hind feet more or less cover the fore feet, or even go 
 slightly beyond them, in which case there will be a brief 
 period of suspension. (3) The flying or fast trot, in which 
 
 FIG. 39. BEGINNING OF LEFT 
 DIAGONAL. 
 
 FIG. 40. END OF LEFT 
 DIAGONAL. 
 
 FIG. 41. BEGINNING OF RIGHT 
 DIAGONAL. 
 
 FIG. 42. END OF RIGHT 
 DIAGONAL. 
 
 ORDINARY TROT. 
 
 there is a well-marked period of suspension between each 
 stroke of the diagonals (see Figs. 43 to 47) ; the movements 
 represented being those of alighting, support, quitting, sus- 
 pension, and alighting on the opposite diagonals. 
 
 The trot is the least fatiguing pace to the horse, by which 
 he can go a long distance continuously at a fair rate of speed ; 
 because both fore and hind limbs, respectively, have the same 
 
 H 
 
9 8 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 FIG. 43. COMMENCEMENT OF RIGHT DIAGONAL. 
 
 FIG. 44. RIGHT DIAGONAL. 
 
 FIG. 45. RIGHT DIAGONAL. 
 
 FIG. 46. SUSPENSION. FIG. 47. LEFT DIAGONAL. 
 
 FAST OR FLYING TROT. 
 
THE TROT. 
 
 99 
 
 amount of work to do ; the body can be maintained in a state of 
 equilibrium by a diagonal support, which would not be the 
 case with a side support, as in the amble ; there is but little loss 
 of power in keeping the centre of gravity (see p. 49) level ; 
 and because the pace is a tolerably fast one. It is more suit- 
 able for draught, than for saddle. First of all, it is very 
 fatiguing to the rider, especially if he bumps up and down d 
 la militaire. Consequently, we find that men who are 
 accustomed to go long distances on horseback, as in the 
 Colonies, almost always combine the canter and walk instead 
 of adopting the trot. Although rising in the stirrups will 
 make this pace much more easy for the rider, it will not 
 benefit the animal to the extent one might imagine ; for, 
 strange to say, almost every horseman, when rising at 
 the trot, invariably comes down on one particular pair of 
 diagonals. Thus, some will put their weight only on the right 
 diagonals ; others, only on the left. I may mention that, when 
 rising in the stirrups, the rider's weight is borne by only 
 one pair of diagonals. As each pair has to do its own 
 allotted work, it is nearly as well to have both tired, as 
 one fresh and the other fatigued. The chief advantage 
 which rising in the stirrups has to the horse, is that the man 
 who adopts it, conforms better to the movements of the 
 animal than one who bumps up and down. Men who ride, 
 might with advantage learn how to change their time of rising 
 in the trot, so that, after having made one pair of diagonals 
 bear their weight for a time, they might be able to change 
 it on to the other pair. Ladies whose stirrup is on the 
 near side, and who rise in the trot almost always do 
 so during the left diagonal support, and come down 
 during the right diagonal support. As the weight at the 
 
 H 2 
 
I00 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 trot is distributed between one hind and one fore leg, it (or, 
 possibly, the amble) should be used, when practicable, for 
 going over hard ground, in preference to the canter, and still 
 more so to the gallop. 
 
 The Amble. A few horses naturally adopt this pace 
 in preference to the trot ; but it is an artificial one with 
 the majority of amblers. MM. Goubaux and Barrier tell us 
 that some foals begin at the amble, and that they do not 
 learn to trot until later, when they have acquired age and 
 strength. These eminent French authorities also point out 
 that it sometimes happens that horses which were formerly 
 good trotters, take to ambling at the decline of their life, on 
 account of their legs becoming worn out. 
 
 The amble is a pace of two time, and consists of the 
 alternate movement, in progression, of the right and left (or 
 left and right) pair of legs. In Figs. 48 to 52, which depict 
 what we might call the flying amble, there is a period of 
 suspension between each stroke. This fast amble is known 
 in America as "pacing." There is little or no period of 
 suspension in the ordinary amble. The amble is a very easy 
 pace for the rider, but is unpopular (why, I cannot tell) in 
 England. The slow amble (the " tripple ") is the favourite pace 
 among the Dutch farmers in South Africa. Baron de Curnieu 
 (Lemons (T Hygiene Hippique Generate) tells us that Napo- 
 leon I. was accustomed to ride amblers during his campaigns, 
 when he had to go long distances at a fast pace. If a horse 
 takes readily to the amble, his rider will find it a comfortable 
 method of travelling. The remarks I have made on page 97 
 et seq. with reference to the merits of trotting, apply equally 
 well to ambling, with the exception that the equilibrium of 
 
FLYING AMBLE. 
 
 101 
 
 FIG. 48. BEGINNING OF RIGHT SUPPORT. 
 
 FIG. 49. MIDDLE OF RIGHT 
 SUPPORT. 
 
 FIG. 50. END OF RIGHT 
 SUPPORT. 
 
 FIG. 51. SUSPENSION. FIG. 52. LEFT SUPPORT. 
 
 FAST OR FLYING AMBLE. 
 
102 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the animal's body is not maintained as easily in it as in the 
 trot, which, consequently, is the less fatiguing pace to the 
 horse. The amble is a natural pace of the camel. 
 
 The amble is, probably, a slightly faster pace than the 
 trot ; the apparent cause being that the equilibrium is more 
 insecure (see p. 67) in the former than in the latter. 
 
 The Walk. This is a movement of four time, and is a 
 pace in which all the limbs move, respectively, one after the 
 other. If, for instance, the off fore leads, the sequence is : 
 i. off fore (see Fig. 54), 2. near hind (see Fig. 55), 3. near fore 
 (see Fig. 58), 4. off hind (see Fig. 60). If the near hind begins, 
 it will be : i. near hind, 2. near fore, 3. off hind, 4. off fore. 
 Each foot comes after the one which precedes it, at an 
 interval of about half the time occupied in taking one step. 
 The result of this is that we have the following order of 
 supports : i. left pair (see Fig. 53), 2. left diagonals (see Fig. 
 55), 3. right pair (see Fig. 57), 4. right diagonals (see Fig. 60). 
 As a rule, a horse begins the walk with a fore leg. 
 
 We may divide this pace into : ( i ) The short stepping walk, 
 in which the prints of the hind feet do not come as far 
 forward as those of the fore feet of their respective sides. 
 (2) The ordinary walk, in which they more or less cover 
 them. (3) The long striding walk, in which they go clear 
 in front of them. (4) The high stepping walk, which is 
 generally an artificial pace, and in which the feet are raised 
 off the ground higher than usual. (5) The walk in heavy 
 draiight, which is a short stepping walk, and which has 
 peculiarities that I shall presently consider. 
 
 Figs. 53 to 60 give an example of the ordinary walk ; for 
 the hind feet cover, as nearly as possible, the prints of the 
 
THE WALK. 
 
 103 
 
 FIG. 53. LEFT SUPPORT. 
 
 FIG. 54. END OF LEFT SUPPORT. 
 
 FIG. 55. LEFT DIAGONAL. FIG. 56. END OF LEFT DIAGONAL. 
 
 FIG. 57. RIGHT SUPPORT. FIG. 58. END OF RIGHT SUPPORT. 
 
 ORDINARY WALK. 
 
104 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 FIG. 59. FIG. 60. RIGHT DIAGONAL. 
 
 ORDINARY WALK (continued). 
 
 fore feet of their respective sides, and there is no exaggerated 
 knee action. 
 
 The long striding walk is shown in Figs. 61 to 66. As 
 an example of the high stepping walk, we may take the 
 action of Napoleon's horse in Meissonier's great picture 
 "1814" (see Fig. 209). 
 
 In the various forms of the walk except in heavy 
 draught on the level or up an ascent, or when going up an 
 incline without having to pull a heavy weight the healthy 
 horse brings the heel of the foot first on the ground, or the 
 flat of the foot. When the heel precedes the toe in touching 
 the ground, the interval is so short that it is all but 
 imperceptible. In cases suffering from certain diseases, 
 especially laminitis (fever of the feet), this interval is so well 
 marked as to be characteristic of the ailment. In heavy 
 draught which taxes the pulling powers of the horse (we 
 have in Figs. 67 to 73 a representation of this pace), and 
 particularly when going up a steep hill, the toe will be first 
 brought down, as in Fig. 68. In Fig. 67, the right diagonals 
 bear the weight of the horse. In Fig. 68 the near fore comes 
 to their aid. There is a brief left support (see Fig. 69). As 
 the off fore is quitting the ground, the off hind comes down, 
 
THE WALK 
 
 105 
 
 FIG. 61. 
 
 FIG. 62. 
 
 FIG. 63. 
 
 FIG. 64. 
 
 FIG. 65. FlG - 66 - 
 
 LONG STRIDING WALK. 
 
io6 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 FiG. : 6;. 
 
 FIG. 68. 
 
 FIG. 69. 
 
 FIG. 70. 
 
 FlG - 7i. FIG. 72. 
 
 SHORT STEPPING WALK IN DRAUGHT. 
 
THE WALK. 107 
 
 FIG. 73. 
 SHORT STEPPING WALK IN DRAUGHT (continued}. 
 
 and continues its assistance while the weight becomes shifted 
 on to the left diagonals (see Fig. 71). After that, the weight 
 falls on the right pair of limbs (see Fig. 72), and again on 
 the right diagonals (see Fig. 73). In heavy draught, we may 
 see that during the side supports there are never less than 
 three feet on the ground, and sometimes even four. In the 
 diagonal support, however, the two limbs may be alone on the 
 ground for a brief period, or only very slightly assisted by the 
 other legs. From this we may conclude that a fore and a 
 hind limb work better together when they are diagonals, than 
 when they are on the same side. This would support the 
 assumption that the horse would work at the trot, other 
 things being equal, with more mechanical advantage than at 
 the amble. 
 
 In the representations of the walk, as shown in Figs. 67 
 to 73, and in Figs. 61 to 66, dotted lines are used to mark 
 the positions of the toe of one of the fore feet, so as to com- 
 pare it with that taken up by the toe of the hind foot of 
 the same side. We see from this, that in the long striding 
 walk, as depicted, the hind foot oversteps the print of the 
 fore one, nearly as much as it fails to reach it in the walk 
 during heavy draught. 
 
io8 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 FIG. 74. SUPPORT ON OFF HIND (IST TIME). FIG. 75. 
 
 FIG. 76. RIGHT DIAGONAL (2ND TIME). FIG. 77. 
 
 FIG. 78. SUPPORT ON NEAR FORE (3RD TIME). FIG. 79. 
 CANTER OF HEAVY HORSE. 
 
THE CANTER. 109 
 
 FIG. 80. SUPPORT ON OFF HIND (IST TIME). 
 CANTER OF HEAVY HORSE (continued). 
 
 The Canter. The typical canter is a pace of three 
 time, in which the supports are, for instance: (i) off hind 
 (see Fig. 74), (2) off fore and near hind (see Fig. 76), and (3) 
 near fore (see Fig. 78), which may or may not be followed 
 by a period of suspension before the horse again brings 
 down his off hind (see Fig. 80). In the canter of the cart 
 horse which is shown in Figs. 74 to 80, there is no period 
 of suspension. 
 
 In the canter, the fore leg which does not belong to the 
 diagonal support is called the leading fore leg. If the near 
 fore, as in Figs. 74 to 80, be the leading one, the movement 
 is said to be a canter to the left ; if the off fore, it is called a 
 canter to the right ; the reason being that at this pace, or at 
 the gallop, the horse should lead with the leg of the side to 
 which he is being turned or circled. If when leading with the 
 off fore, for instance, he be turned to the left, he will be 
 liable to cross his legs and fall. I may remark that in the 
 gallop or canter, a horse can cross his fore legs only with the 
 leading leg. We may observe that the hind leg which, 
 in due rotation, alone supports the weight of the body, is 
 on the side opposite to the leading fore leg. I may point 
 out that this typical canter is rather an up-and-down move- 
 
no 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 FIG. 81. 
 
 FIG. 82. 
 
 FIG. 83. 
 
 FIG. 84. 
 
 . 85. FIG. 86. 
 
 CANTER OR " HAND GALLOP " OF LIGHT SADDLE HORSE. 
 
THE CANTER. 
 
 in 
 
 FIG. 87. 
 
 FIG. 88. 
 
 FIG. 89. 
 CANTER OR " HAND GALLOP " OF LIGHT SADDLE HORSE (continued}. 
 
 ment, and is not as easy to the rider as the form of 
 canter portrayed in Figs. 81 to 89, in which the diagonal 
 support (off fore and near hind in this case ; see Figs. 82, 83 
 and 84) does not at any time act unaided (as in the other form 
 of canter ; see Fig. 76) ; but is assisted by the other hind 
 leg and the other fore leg in turn. This smooth style of 
 canter, which approximates somewhat to the gallop, might be 
 termed (to use a popular expression) a hand gallop. We 
 may note that when there is a period of suspension in the 
 canter, and also in the gallop, it is obtained by the forehand 
 
ii2 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 being raised by the straightening of the leading fore leg (and 
 especially by that of its fetlock joint), as it quits the ground 
 (see Figs. 85 to 87). 
 
 The movement shown in Figs. 81 to 89, being a canter, is 
 one of three time, which, however, is irregular ; for the interval 
 during which the suspension takes place, between the coming 
 down of the near fore and off hind, is longer than either of 
 the other two intervals. Supposing that the speed be the 
 same, and that there be the same interval of suspension in an 
 irregular canter of this kind and in a typical canter, the 
 former would be less distressing to the horse than the latter ; 
 for the weight is better distributed in it. Thus, the off hind 
 is on the ground when the right diagonals come down (take 
 the case shown in Figs. 81 to 89), and they are supporting 
 the body when the near fore reaches the ground (see 
 Fig. 83). 
 
 We see that, in the canter, the leading fore has more 
 work to do than the non-leading fore leg. Hence, if this 
 pace be long continued, the rider should, if possible, make 
 the horse change the leading fore leg. 
 
 The Gallop. This is a pace of four time, in which the 
 feet follow one another in succession, with an interval of 
 suspension between the coming down of the leading fore foot 
 and that of the opposite hind foot (see Figs. 90 to 105). If we 
 compare that series with Figs. 74 to 80, and with Figs. 81 
 to 89, we shall see that, in the canter, the fore leg of the 
 diagonal support comes to the ground at the same moment 
 (see Fig. 75) as, or slightly before (see Fig. 82), its hind fellow ; 
 but, in the gallop, at a well-marked interval after it (see Figs. 
 92 to 94). We may note that this interval, in which 
 
FAST GALLOP. 
 
 FIG. 90. 
 
 FIG. 91. 
 
 FIG. 92. 
 
 FIG. 93. 
 
 FIG. 94. 
 
 FAST GALLOP. 
 
 FIG. 95. 
 
PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 FIG. 96. 
 
 FIG. 97. 
 
 FIG. 98. 
 
 FIG. 99. 
 
 FIG. ioo. Fia IOIt 
 
 FAST GALLOP (continued}. 
 
FAST GALLOP. 
 
 FIG. 103. 
 
 FIG. 104. 
 
 FAST GALLOP (continued}. 
 
 FIG. 105. 
 
 consists the difference between the canter and gallop, is 
 dependent on the extent of the forward reach of the non- 
 leading fore leg. Hence we see that the canter merges 
 imperceptibly into the gallop, and that the difference in 
 these paces, in the same animal, is simply one of forward 
 reach of fore leg that is, of speed. I may mention that 
 the intervals of time between each of these positions 
 represented by Figs. 90 to 105 are all equal. We may 
 see, starting with Fig. 90, that the near hind, off hind, 
 near fore, and off fore (the leading -fore leg) remain for 
 nearly the same time on the ground. The leading fore, how- 
 ever, has to perform a longer period of support than any of 
 
 I 2 
 
ii6 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the other three. It is also more extended when it touches 
 the ground than is the non-leading fore leg, as we shall note 
 if we compare Fig. 97 with Fig. 94. Hence it is more 
 liable than the other limb to suffer from sprains of the 
 suspensory ligament and check ligament (inferior carpal), 
 both of which structures aid in supporting the fetlock joint. 
 As regards the injurious effect of concussion, it would appear 
 that the non-leading fore leg (see Figs. 93 and 94), by reason 
 of its coming to the ground at a moment when it is wholly 
 unsupported by the other fore limb, would suffer more from 
 concussion than the leading fore. Consequently, I venture to 
 submit that when the ligaments of the leading fore leg get 
 sprained during the fast gallop, the cause is over-extension, 
 rather than the popular one of concussion, or even of sudden 
 ierk. We may also see from Figs. 100, 101 and 102, how it 
 happens that the back tendons (especially the flexor 
 perforans) of the leading fore, during a fast gallop in 
 " heavy" ground, are far more apt to become sprained than 
 those of the non-leading fore leg ; for these tendons, imme- 
 diately before the period of suspension, have (on the con- 
 traction of their muscles) not only to help in raising the 
 forehand by the straightening of the fetlock (see Fig. 101), 
 but have also to overcome the resistance which the soil 
 offers to the withdrawal of the foot from its surface. 
 
 A horse galloping at full speed sometimes brings the 
 toe of the advanced forefoot in front of the end of the nose, as 
 we may see in Mr. Muybridge's admirable book Animal 
 Locomotion, vol. ix. Also, at this pace, the angle which 
 the face, when viewed in profile, makes with the horizontal 
 plane more often exceeds than is less than 45. I may say 
 that, unless in very exceptional cases, it is never less than 40. 
 
PASSAGE. 
 
 117 
 
 We have on rare occasions, in jumping, extreme extension 
 of the neck. 
 
 Passage. Having no more suitable term to express the 
 artificial pace under consideration, I am forced to employ the 
 French word, passage, that signifies a short and very high 
 trot in which each fore limb, in its turn, when it is raised to 
 its highest point, is poised in the air for an instant, and is 
 
 FIG. 106. THE PASSAGE. 
 
 bent at the knee and fetlock. It may be called the prelude 
 to the piaffer (see p. 94), and is an air de manege (high 
 school pace). The " passage " of the English military riding 
 school is a movement (a deux pistes) by which ground can be 
 taken to the right or left without the rider being obliged to 
 
PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 turn his horse. In Fig. 106, which shows the passage, the 
 rider's bridle hand is held high, so as to bring the animal's 
 neck in a more or less vertical direction. When it is held in 
 this position, the muscles of the neck will be in the best 
 position for raising the fore limbs, alternately, high off the 
 ground (see p. 82). 
 
 The Spanish Walk and Spanish Trot. These high 
 school paces are, respectively, similar to the ordinary walk 
 and trot, except that when each fore leg is advanced in 
 its turn, it is poised for a moment, and is kept more or less 
 
 FIG. 107. THE SPANISH TROT. 
 
 straight out, and about as high as the elbow. Fig. 107 gives 
 a representation of the Spanish trot. With respect to the 
 position of the rider's bridle hand, see preceding paragraph. 
 
THE REIN BA CK. \ 1 9 
 
 The Rein Back. The movement to the rear called the 
 rein back may be executed at the walk, trot or canter. The 
 first and second are natural paces, the third is artificial. The 
 rein back at the walk is performed in a reversed, though 
 exactly similar, manner to the walk to the front (see p. 102), 
 except that it is always a "short stepping walk/' The trot, 
 which is simply the trot to the front reversed, is also a short 
 trot. 
 
 I wish to draw my readers' particular attention to the two 
 different methods of backward propulsion adopted by the 
 horse, when he makes this movement to the rear. ( i ) When 
 he is at liberty, or when he reins back "collectedly" with a 
 capable rider in the saddle, he lowers his head so as to put 
 weight on the forehand, and pushes himself back by the 
 alternate straightening out of his fore legs ; while the hind 
 legs, being comparatively free of weight, are raised higher 
 and with greater freedom than the front ones. It is evident 
 that this high and light action of the hind limbs is as conducive 
 to the safety of the rein back, as would be the same style of 
 movement of the fore legs in paces of forward progression. 
 (2) When the horse in harness tries to push a heavy weight 
 to the rear, or when he " plants " his hind legs on the ground 
 owing to unwillingness to rein back or to unskilful handling 
 by his rider or driver, he will make his effort or his 
 "defence," as the case may be, by throwing the weight on 
 his hind quarters. In the event of the centre of gravity of 
 the horse (and of the rider) falling to the rear of the base of 
 support (see p. 57) formed by his four feet, he will, if in 
 saddle, have to make a hurried and consequently a low step 
 to the rear with one hind foot, which may be followed by the 
 other feet in a more or less disorganised and insecure manner. 
 
120 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 If the hind feet fail to come quickly enough to the support of 
 the centre of gravity, a fall will be the inevitable result. Besides 
 the danger of this rein, or rather run, back, the fact of the 
 hind limbs (which are far less suited to bearing weight than 
 the fore ones) being surcharged with weight, will render 
 them liable to .become injured, and will make this movement 
 to the rear far more fatiguing to the animal than if it were 
 executed in the manner first described. It behoves us, there- 
 fore, if we wish to rein back a horse which we are riding, to 
 adopt the safer and less tiring method. With this object in 
 view, when we wish to make a horse which we are riding, 
 rein back, we should keep our hands " down," so as to allow 
 him, or, if needed, to induce him, to lower his head and put 
 weight on his forehand. We should avoid the practice 
 usually taught in riding schools, of taking an equal pull on 
 both reins ; for, if we do so, we shall adopt the best means 
 to induce the animal to throw his centre of gravity to the 
 rear, and to adopt the second method of the rein back, which 
 is objectionable in all cases, except in heavy draught. 
 Instead of this " even feeling " on both reins, we may effect our 
 purpose by, for instance, taking a stronger pull on the near 
 rein, so as to bend the horse's head and neck more or less to 
 the left, draw back the right leg, and touch him with it on the 
 side. The weight, then, on account of the head being turned 
 to the left, will be placed more on the near limbs than on the 
 off ones. Consequently, when the off flank is touched by the 
 drawn-back right foot, the animal will, as a rule, readily lift up 
 the off hind foot from the ground, and, feeling the backward 
 pull of the near rein, his natural impulse will be to take a 
 step to the rear with his off hind, and, in order to preserve 
 the previous distribution of weight, he will follow it with his 
 
THE REIN BACK. 121 
 
 near fore. When the rider has obtained this diagonal step 
 (with the near fore and off hind) to the rear, he can get the 
 other diagonal step (with the off fore and near hind) by 
 slackening the near rein, taking a pull with the off rein, 
 drawing back the left foot, and touching the horse's left side 
 with it ; and so on. I need hardly say that, as each step is 
 obtained, the drawn-back leg should be brought forward. I 
 may also remark that a straight direction to the rear is 
 maintained by the pressure of the drawn-back leg, whichever 
 it may be at the time. We may see that the tendency of the 
 well-broken horse, when reined back in this way, will be to 
 adopt the diagonal movement (or trot) to the rear. Of all 
 unhorsemanlike proceedings, the practice of "chucking" the 
 animal in the mouth with the reins, to obtain the rein back, 
 is one of the worst ; for it will tend to make him, in his 
 endeavour to escape the painful pressure of the bit (curb or 
 snaffle), throw his weight to the rear, and run back according 
 to the dangerous second method. Although the well " col- 
 lected " rein back may be done at the walk or the trot ; the 
 rein back by the second method is never executed at the trot ; 
 for the weight is too unequally distributed to admit of the 
 simultaneous action of an off fore and a near hind, and of a 
 near fore and an off hind. I need hardly say that the rein 
 back in light harness may be similar to the rein back in 
 saddle. When the object of the rein back is to push a great 
 weight to the rear, as in heavy draught, the horse will have to 
 exert his powers in bringing his centre of gravity as far back 
 as possible. Consequently, he ought to have his head well 
 raised, and ought to get his hind feet under him as far as he 
 can without slipping. In this he will be greatly assisted by 
 having calkins on his hind shoes. Continental tciiyers have 
 
122 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 not alone taught their horses, when in the saddle, to rein 
 back at the canter, but even at the canter on three legs, as 
 we may see on referring to M. Fillis's Principes de Dressage. 
 
 
 
 (!) 
 
 n 
 n 
 
 FIG. 108. 
 ORDINARY 
 WALK. 
 
 A 
 
 & 
 
 FIG. 109. 
 
 LONG STRIDING 
 
 WALK. 
 
 n 
 
 
 dn- 
 
 FIG. no. 
 SHORT TROT. 
 
 n 
 
 rt 
 
 FIG. in. 
 SLOW TROT. 
 
FOOTPRINTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 123 
 
 n 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 fb-4 
 
 O 
 
 FIG. 112. 
 FAST TROT. 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 fi 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 A 
 O 
 
 n 
 o 
 
 I 
 o 
 
 FIG. 113. 
 SLOW AMBLE. 
 
 FIG. 114. 
 SLOW CANTER. 
 
 FIG. 115. 
 FAST GALLOP. 
 
 Foot-prints of the Horse during various Paces. 
 
 In the study of the foot-prints of the horse we are struck with 
 
124 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 two notable facts : (i) The faster the pace, the greater ten- 
 dency has the hind foot to be placed beyond the fore foot 
 of the same side. Here we have the influence of instability 
 of equilibrium in increasing the speed (see p. 67). (2) The 
 faster the pace, the nearer do the foot-prints of all four 
 feet tend to come into the line of direction in which locomo- 
 tion takes place. As Lenoble du Teil expresses it, the foot- 
 prints of the race-horse at full speed resemble the marks that 
 would be made by the spokes of awheel which had no felloes. 
 This fact proves the undesirability, from a speed point of 
 view, of any undue width between either the fore or hind 
 legs (see p. 65). In Figs. 108 to 115, for which I am indebted 
 to MM. Barrier and Lenoble du Teil, the left hand dotted 
 line of each diagram represents the direction of the prints of 
 the near feet; and the right one, those of the off feet. In 
 Figs. 1 08 and in the prints of both fore feet are covered by 
 those of the hind feet. In Figs. 114 the prints of the near 
 fore foot are covered by those of the near hind foot. In 
 these figures, only the succession of the foot-prints has been 
 noted. No attempt has been made to mark the lateral 
 distances between the respective lines of direction of the 
 near and off feet. 
 
 The length of stride in the canter is about 12 feet ; that of 
 the full speed gallop of the race-horse, about 24 feet. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 LEAPING. 
 
 Definition of the Leap Varieties of the Leap Manner in which the Horse 
 takes off in the Running Leap Difference between the Horse's Leap 
 and the Suspension of his Body during the Canter or Gallop Period of 
 Stride at which the Take Off is effected Effect of Pace and Speed on 
 the Leap Taking off and clearing a Fence Landing over a Jump In- 
 fluence of Blood in Jumping The Standing Leap. 
 
 Definition of the Leap. The ordinary leap or jump is 
 the projection of the body off the ground by means of the 
 hind limbs, after the forehand has been raised. 
 
 Varieties of the Leap. We may divide the leap into 
 the running jump and the standing jump ; and each of them 
 into the high leap and long leap. 
 
 Manner in which the Horse takes off in the 
 Running Leap. The animal makes his preparation when 
 he supports his body on his leading fore leg (see Figs. 
 116 and 139), by straightening which (and especially its 
 fetlock joint) he raises his forehand. At the same time, 
 he brings one hind leg down (generally that on the same 
 side as the leading fore), followed by the other hind (see 
 Figs. 1 17 and 1 18, and Figs. 140 and 141), and, by straighten- 
 ing them out, projects the body upward and forward (see Figs. 
 
126 
 
 LEAPING. 
 
 142, 143 and 144). We may note that there is, practically, 
 no period of suspension (see Figs. 116 and 117, and 139 and 
 140) between the removal from the ground of the fore leg 
 
 FIG. 1 1 6. 
 
 FIG. 117. FIG. 118. 
 
 " TAKE OFF " OF LEAP, WITH HIND FEET NOT BROUGHT WELL UNDER 
 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 that supported the weight, and the putting down of the hind 
 leg which first comes on the ground. 
 
 Difference between the Horse's Leap and the 
 Suspension of his Body during the Canter or 
 Gallop. In the leap, the period of suspension takes place 
 when the hind legs quit the ground ; in the canter or gallop, 
 
GALLOP OF THE GREYHOUND. 
 
 127 
 
 when the leading fore leg is raised (compare Figs. 143 and 144 
 with Figs. 85, 86, and 87, and also with Figs. 100, 101, and 
 102). It is instructive to note that a definition founded on 
 this difference is not of general application to other animals. 
 In the gallop of the greyhound, there is a period of suspension 
 (see Figs. 122 and 123) similar to that of the horse's leap, as 
 
 FIG. 119. 
 
 FIG. 120. 
 
 FIG. 121. 
 
 FIG. 122. 
 
 FIG. 123. FIG. 124. FIG. 125. 
 
 GALLOP OF THE GREYHOUND, SHOWING Two PERIODS OF SUSPENSION. 
 
 well as one (see Figs. 119 and 120) like that in the horse's 
 gallop. It seems that the former is longer than the latter in 
 the full speed gallop of the greyhound. It appears that if this 
 dog begins his stride on one fore leg, the right for instance 
 (see Fig. 119), he will after his two periods of suspension (see 
 Figs. 1 20 and 123) " take-off " from the opposite fore leg, the 
 
128 
 
 LEAPING. 
 
 left (see Fig. 125) in this case. If this be true, his stride 
 (counting it as the interval between the supports of the same 
 leading fore leg) will include four periods of suspension. In 
 
 4*~\* 
 
 FIG. 126. 
 
 FIG. 127. 
 
 FIG. 129. 
 
 FIG. 130. 
 GALLOP OF THE CAT. 
 
 * 
 
 FIG. 131. 
 
 FIG. 132. 
 
 FIG. 133. 
 
 FIG. 134. 
 
 FIG. 135. FIG. 136. 
 
 GALLOP OF THE HEAVY DOG. 
 
 FIG. 137. 
 
 the gallop of the cat (see Figs. 126 to 131), and also in that of 
 the tiger, panther, and cheetah, the leaping form of suspension 
 appears to be the only one present. I may mention that I 
 
THE LEAP. 
 
 129 
 
 FIG. 138. 
 
 FIG. 139. 
 
 FIG. 140. 
 
 FIG. 141. 
 
 FIG. 142. THE HORSE'S LEAP. FIG. 143. 
 
 K 
 
1 3 c 
 
 LEAPING. 
 
 FIG. 144. 
 
 FIG. 145. 
 
 FIG. 146. 
 
 FIG. 147. 
 
 FIG. 148. THE HORSE'S LEAP (continued}. FIG. 149. 
 
THE TAKE OFF} 
 
 FIG. 150. THE HORSE'S LEAP (continued]. FIG. 151. 
 
 have not had an opportunity of observing the paces of other 
 large felines. The Indian black buck and the South African 
 springbok, which are two remarkably fast kinds of antelope, 
 generally begin their gallop by a series of leaps, when 
 suddenly startled. The gallop of the mastiff (which is a 
 comparatively slow dog), depicted by Figs. 132 to 137, 
 resembles that of the horse. I may remark that the longer 
 the period of suspension, the faster and more fatiguing, as a 
 rule, will be the gallop. 
 
 Period of Stride at which the Take Off is 
 Effected. In the running leap from the canter or gallop, 
 we may regard the putting down of the leading fore leg (see 
 Fig- 138) as the commencement of the take off; for, at that 
 period, the character of the pace is changed, and the " take off" 
 by the hind legs is made close to the foot-print of that leg. 
 We therefore see that during the stride of, say, from four to 
 seven yards in length, there is only one moment at which the 
 " take off " can be executed. Hence, if a horse does not regu- 
 late the length of his stride when coming up to a fence, he may 
 easily make a mistake. Let us suppose that, while taking a 
 stride of five yards, he brings down his leading fore leg three 
 
 K 2 
 
132 LEAPING. 
 
 yards short of the proper spot at which he ought to take off ; 
 he will then have to jump three yards " bigger," or chance 
 an accident by taking off two yards too near. The longer 
 the stride, the greater will be the tendency to this error. 
 Consequently, other things being equal, a short striding horse 
 will be safer over a " cramped " country than a long striding 
 one. Also, we may say that no horse merits the title of "a 
 safe conveyance," unless, when coming up to a jump, he is 
 careful to regulate the length of his stride, so as to take off 
 correctly. 
 
 Effect of Pace and Speed on the Leap. The 
 
 running jump is usually executed at the canter or gallop. 
 A few horses can leap (especially height) cleverly from the 
 trot, which is a useful accomplishment in the hunter ; for it 
 may enable him when in a difficult position (as when 
 jumping out of a lane^ to utilise a "run" which would be 
 too short for the longer stride of the canter or gallop. 
 Besides, at these paces there is only one period of the stride 
 at which the animal can take off (see preceding paragraph) ; 
 but in the trot there are two such periods, namely, when 
 the respective diagonals come to the ground. A horse, 
 however, cannot jump so freely and "big" from the trot as 
 from the canter or gallop, in each stride of which, the hind legs 
 are brought nearly together under the horse's body (see Figs. 
 86 and 100), ready, if need be, to change the pace into the 
 leap (see Fig. 116). In the trot, each hind limb moves 
 harmoniously with its diagonal fore leg ; but in the opposite 
 direction to its hind fellow. 
 
 In examining the various kinds of leap of the horse, 
 we must remember that he has a long distance (that from 
 
SPEED IN LEAPING. 133 
 
 his hocks or buttocks to his muzzle) of body to carry over 
 a fence, independently of raising it to a sufficient height ; hence 
 his high jump partakes much more of the long jump than the 
 high jump of a man, whose body is carried more vertically, 
 than horizontally. For this reason, it is more essential for 
 a horse than for a man, to "get up" a certain degree of 
 speed in order to jump height well. 
 
 The speed at which a horse goes at a jump (supposing 
 that it does not prevent him from " collecting" himself 
 properly), influences the width he can clear ; because (as we 
 have seen on p. 61) the force by which he is projected for- 
 ward into the air is equal to the force of propulsion derived 
 from his limbs, plus the impetus due to the speed at which 
 he is going. The greater this impetus, the lower will 
 be the "angle of elevation" at which the centre of gravity 
 of the body is propelled forward. 
 
 We may, with approximate accuracy, define the " angle 
 of elevation" as the angle which a line passing through 
 the centre of gravity and a point midway between the 
 prints of the two hind feet, makes with the horizontal 
 plane, at the moment when the body leaves the ground. 
 
 Looking at the subject from a hasty point of view, those 
 of us who have not had practical experience, might come to 
 the conclusion that a horse would jump height as well when 
 going fast as when going slow, and that the only difference 
 is that, in the former case, the animal would be obliged to 
 take off further from the fence than in the latter. This sup- 
 position, however, does not hold good ; for the faster the pace, 
 the more weight is thrown on the forehand, and the greater 
 difficulty will the leading fore leg have in raising the fore- 
 hand off the ground. Hence, even without the valuable 
 
134 LEAPING. 
 
 experience of the hunting field and steeplechase course, we 
 may accept the truth of the old saying that one should ride 
 slow at " timber." Also, I am inclined to think that a horse 
 will not clear as great a width when taking a water jump if he 
 is sent, at his topmost speed at it, as he would do were his 
 rate of going slightly moderated, so as to enable him to raise 
 his forehand sufficiently off the ground in order to obtain 
 the angle of elevation which will enable him to cover the 
 maximum distance. 
 
 Taking off and clearing a Fence. It is evident 
 that the more a horse, in the leap, brings his hind feet 
 forward as compared to the position of the prints of the 
 fore feet, the greater will be the angle at which he can, at 
 the speed he is going, project his body upward. Also, 
 the more he raises his head, the more will he, by bringing 
 back the centre of gravity, increase its angle of elevation. 
 Besides, as the forward and upward movements of the fore 
 limbs depend on the action of the muscles of the neck, the 
 direction in which the fore legs will be raised, will naturally 
 depend on that of the neck. A horse, therefore, when 
 approaching a fence which will tax his powers to clear, should 
 regulate his speed, so that the impetus obtained from it may 
 be in due proportion to the propulsion derived from the 
 limbs ; should bring his hind feet well under his body ; 
 and should hold his head high. I am here supposing 
 that the animal takes off at the correct distance from the 
 obstacle. These actions constitute, as regards the horse, 
 what is popularly and somewhat vaguely called " collect- 
 ing " himself. 
 
 We may note that although, when preparing to leap, the 
 
CLEARING A FENCE. 135 
 
 hind legs are brought down on the ground in a straightened 
 out position (see the off hind in Figs. 117 and 141), and 
 leave it in the same attitude (see Fig. 143), they are some- 
 what bent at the hocks and stifles (see Fig. 142) at a time 
 intermediate to these two moments. Hence, we see from 
 these drawings that the propulsion from the hind legs in the 
 leap is due to their being suddenly straightened out, in 
 which action, the fetlock joint also plays an important part. 
 
 As the ability to clear height depends greatly on the 
 power of raising the forehand ; the rider should refrain from 
 leaning forward when the horse is rising at an obstacle. He 
 should, on the contrary, if anything, lean back at this moment, 
 so as not tc put any unavoidable weight on the forehand. 
 
 In almost all cases of the well executed high jump, the 
 fore legs are bent up together and the hind ones fully 
 straightened out at the moment of taking off (see Fig. 143). 
 The fore legs will be kept more or less in this position till 
 the fence be cleared. If the obstacle be " stiff" and the 
 horse hit it with his knee or forearm, he will probably fall ; 
 but if any part of the leg below the knee strike it, he 
 will generally get over all right, or with a "peck" at most. 
 Hence, a clever horse will try to avoid an accident by raising 
 his knees well out of harm's way. Another danger consists 
 in the horse catching the fence with his hind legs, which he 
 will best avoid by bending them as much as possible at the 
 stifles and hocks (see Fig. 145). Consequently, the clever 
 jumper, the moment his hind legs quit the ground when taking 
 off, will tuck them under him as if they were on springs 
 suddenly let go, after having been drawn out. The slovenly 
 fencer, on the contrary, will drag his hind legs after him, 
 at the imminent risk of catching them in the fence and falling. 
 
136 
 
 LEAPING. 
 
 In the high jump, the animal should keep his hind legs well 
 bent until he is clear of the obstacle (see PL 69), so that, 
 if need be, as might occur in the case of an unexpected wide 
 drain being met with at the landing side, he may strike the 
 fence with his hind legs, and thus give himself a fresh for- 
 ward impulse. 
 
 When a horse is suspended in the air during a leap, he 
 may move his limbs or retain them in one position, according 
 to what he feels to be most conducive to his safety. 
 
 Landing over a Jump. The prettiest style, and 
 probably safest manner, of landing in the leap, is for the two 
 fore legs to be kept straightened out and comparatively close 
 together (see Figs. 152 and 153) until they are near the ground, 
 
 FIG. 152. LANDING OVER A JUMP. FIG. 153. 
 
 when one of them comes down, and is followed by the other, 
 which is placed a little distance in front of it. This neat 
 method of landing gives the impression to the observer that 
 the horse comes down on both fore feet at the same time. 
 If we compare Fig. 153 and PI. 69 with Fig. 146, we shall 
 feel convinced that the plan of landing with one fore leg 
 bent, as in the latter style, is not so safe as in the former ; for 
 in the event of any falter being made by the supporting fore 
 
LANDING OVER A JUMP. 137 
 
 leg, the other fore leg will be better prepared to save the 
 horse from a fall, if at that moment it be straightened out, and 
 not bent. 
 
 It is evident that, for safety, the knee of the leg upon 
 which the animal lands, should be as straight as possible ; for 
 if the knee " gives," the horse will almost certainly fall. 
 Hence, we may regard the condition of being "over at the 
 knees" (see p. 217) as a grave defect in the jumper, especially 
 if he be required to go fast. 
 
 As a rule, when landing over a jump, the hind foot which 
 first conies down, has been made way for by the fore foot 
 of the same side, somewhat beyond the print of which it is 
 placed. The other hind foot and the other fore foot act in 
 a similar manner. We may see from Figs. 147 to 151, that 
 a horse " gets quickly away from a jump " by the raising 
 of the forehand, which is accomplished by the straightening 
 out of the fore limbs. The rider should, therefore, avoid 
 throwing any undue weight on the forehand at this 
 moment. It sometimes happens that a horse "over-reaches" 
 (strikes a fore leg with a hind foot) when landing over a 
 jump, on account of the rider being jerked on to the animal's 
 neck ; the injured fore leg having been prevented from getting 
 out of the way of its hind fellow by the surcharge of the 
 forehand. 
 
 A horse should not land with his head and neck bent, 
 as might be caused by the action of a severe bit which he is 
 afraid to "face" ; for when the neck is bent, the muscles* 
 
 * The chief of these muscles is the levator htimeri, which is attached to 
 the top of the head and to the upper third of the humerus. The nearer its 
 points of attachment are brought together, the less power has it to draw the 
 limb forward. 
 
138 LEAPING. 
 
 which draw the fore legs forward and enable them to reach 
 well to the front, will be more or less thrown out of action. 
 Hence, the rider ought to give the horse plenty of rein on 
 landing, and should try to avoid bringing his weight forward. 
 As an interesting point in the action of a severe bit in 
 leaping, I may mention that if we observe a horse that is 
 being ridden up to a high jump in a bit which he is afraid 
 to " face," he will land, in the event of his clearing the 
 obstacle, more or less on all four legs at the same time, in his 
 endeavour to save his mouth from any sudden "job," by 
 keeping the weight as much as he can off his forehand. He 
 may act in the same way, even with a snaffle, if too short a 
 martingale be used. I may remark that the two " defences" 
 which a horse generally uses against a severe bit, are to poke 
 his nose up in the air, and to draw his chin in towards his 
 chest, and thereby arch his neck. Many persons, against 
 the evidence of photography, assert that a clever jumper 
 will generally land first on his hind legs, and will then 
 (so they say) be in the best position to " get away " quickly. 
 They quite forget (or perhaps do not know) that the hind 
 limbs of the horse are altogether unfitted to stand the 
 violent shock which would be transmitted through them, if 
 they had to bear the weight of the body on landing. 
 Such poor weight-bearers are they, that they have great 
 difficulty, as a rule, in enabling a horse to walk a few 
 yards on his hind legs. Almost all circus horses which have to 
 perform this trick, throw out, after a short time, curbs, spavins 
 and thorough-pins of amazing size. What, I wonder, would be 
 the state of the hocks of a hunter or chaser, had he always to 
 land first on his hind legs ! The fore limbs, on the contrary, 
 being attached to the body only by muscles, are singularly 
 
LANDING OVER A JUMP. 139 
 
 well adapted to support shock, like that of landing over a 
 fence. Besides, if a horse, which, like all other animals, is 
 obliged to "take off" from his hind legs, were, also, to land 
 on them, he would lose all the advantage which the forward 
 reach of his fore legs gives him. 
 
 In the well executed leap, the fact of the horse landing on 
 one fore leg and then on the other, lengthens the base of sup- 
 port, and thus increases the stability. The hind legs coming 
 down in the same manner enables the horse to at once 
 take up the gallop, which is in four periods, without loss of 
 time (see Fig. 151). The safest way for a man, on the 
 contrary, to alight is on both feet kept together, with the 
 knees somewhat flexed (see Fig. 26), in order to break the 
 shock of concussion ; for his body is placed vertically, and not 
 horizontally, as is the case with the horse. In drawing any 
 comparison of this kind, we must remember that our legs 
 are attached to the trunk by bony union, at our hip joints, and 
 not, as in the fore legs of the horse, by muscles which act as 
 springs in nullifying any injurious effect from the force of 
 impact with the ground. Again, in the horse, although the 
 knees must be kept straight, on landing, in order to insure 
 stability ; the fetlock, elbow and shoulder joints act as springs. 
 As man is a plantigrade animal (one that walks on his hocks ; 
 see p. 32), he must utilise the " play " of the knee-joints, 
 with which to break the force of concussion, when he lands 
 on the ground with any great force. If, in such a case, 
 the knees be kept straight, the shock w T ill fall in its entirety 
 on the pelvis, at the hip joints, and may be transmitted with 
 very serious effect to the spinal cord. Men who practise 
 hurdle-racing on foot, alight on one foot, and then bound 
 off on to the other; as their great object is to lose no 
 
I 4 o LEAPING. 
 
 time in getting away from their fences, which, being compara- 
 tively low, do not greatly affect the athlete's stability. 
 
 We may see from the foregoing considerations, that for 
 safety and quickness in "getting away" after a leap, it is 
 essential for the fore legs to be removed out of the way of the 
 hind feet, and for the forehand, which was previously 
 depressed by the weight of the body falling on it (as in Fig. 
 146), to be raised by the straightening of the fore legs (see Figs. 
 147 to 151). These two actions, I need hardly say, have to be 
 performed with speed and precision. Hence, it is necessary for 
 the horse to see where he is going to place his feet on landing ; 
 so that he may be prepared for the required movements of 
 the limbs. If he be prevented from seeing when his feet will 
 come down on the ground, there will be loss of time in calling 
 the muscles of the limbs into action, and the probability of an 
 accident will be greatly increased. A common way some 
 riders have of making a horse, when jumping, fall or over- 
 reach in this manner, is to " throw up their hands," and thus 
 cause the animal to unduly raise and extend his head, which 
 he does with the object of "saving" his mouth; the result 
 being that the horse cannot accurately see where he is 
 going to put his feet. The rider, on the contrary, should 
 keep his hands low and should give his mount plenty of 
 rein, so as not to interfere with the animal's movements 
 when landing. 
 
 Influence of Blood in Jumping. Seeing the manner in 
 which the rate of speed influences the extent of the long jump, 
 we may reasonably conclude that a fast galloper, other things 
 being equal, would jump a greater width than a slow horse. 
 The possession of great galloping speed, however, would not, 
 
PHOTO. BY M. H. HAYES 
 
 PLATE 16 HURDLE RACER "TAKING OFF. 
 
 PHOTO. BY M. H. HAYES TO FACE PAGE I4O 
 
 PLATE 17 THE INDIAN LYNX. 
 
THE STANDING LEAP. 141 
 
 of itself, materially assist the high jumper. I regret to say 
 that I have no exact data to go on ; but my own experience 
 leads me to conclude that the majority of big water jumpers 
 will be found among well-bred horses. As the height or 
 distance over which the body is propelled by the limbs 
 depends on the speed at which they are straightened out ; 
 we shall find that a horse which is quick in his movements, 
 other things being equal, will jump higher and broader than 
 another which is slower. For this reason, the thorough- 
 bred, properly selected and trained, will make the best of 
 all jumpers, over height as well as over length. 
 
 The Standing Leap consists of a rear by which 
 the fore legs are raised off the ground, and of the forward 
 projection of the body by the straightening out of the 
 hind legs, as in the running jump. To make the fact that 
 this rearing action always takes place in the leap, no matter 
 how fast is the pace at which the animal is going, still more 
 graphic, I give in PI. 16 a photograph of a mare " taking 
 off," at racing speed, in front of the last obstacle of a hurdle- 
 race of which she was the winner. 
 
142 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 THAT distinguished French savant, M. Marey, published in 1878 his re- 
 searches on the paces of the horse. He prosecuted them by means of a 
 registering apparatus somewhat similar to the one, the sphygmograph, used by 
 doctors for recording the movements of the pulse. The machine consisted of 
 a cylinder which was made to revolve round by clockwork. Attached to it 
 were four pointed levers that were arranged so as, when pressed upon, to 
 trace lines on a piece of blackened paper. Each of these levers was 
 provided with an India-rubber tube, which communicated with a rubber ball 
 filled with air and fixed on the ground surface of one of the animal's feet. 
 These levers and their connections were made so that, when the horse 
 during movement put a foot on the ground, the rubber ball attached to that 
 particular foot would be compressed, and the air rushing into the tube would 
 raise the lever and bring its point against the sheet of blackened paper. 
 When the animal lifted its foot from the ground, the air would go back into 
 the ball, and allow the point of the lever to be taken off the surface of the 
 paper. As, while this was being done, the cylinder revolved round at a 
 uniform rate of speed, it follows that the line traced by each lever point 
 would be a record of the duration of the contact of the foot with the ground, 
 and that the intervals between two such contacts would be a measure of the 
 time the foot was suspended in the air. By this means, M. Marey 
 investigated the nature of the paces of the horse. He also devised a very 
 ingenious method of representing them on paper, which I shall now try to 
 explain to my readers. 
 
 If we wish to express on paper the running pace of a man, we may do so 
 by making a scale with rectangles, which, for convenience sake, we may use 
 instead of M. Marey' s lines. Thus, if the time of contact be about equal to 
 that of suspension, Fig. 154 will express the nature of the pace. To render 
 
NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 143 
 
 FIG. 154. RUN OF MAN (see Figs. 15, 16 and 17). 
 
 FIG. 155. RUN OF MAN (see Figs. 15, 16 and 17). 
 
 FIG. 156. WALK OF MAN (see Figs, ic, n and 12). 
 
 FIG. 157. TYPICAL SLOW TROT. 
 
 FIG. 158. ORDINARY SLOW TROT (see Figs. 39 to 42). 
 
144 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 FIG. 159. FAST TK.OT (see Figs. 43 to 47). 
 
 Fie. 160. TYPICAL SLOW AMBLE. 
 
 FIG. 161. FLYING AMBLE (see Figs. 48 to 52). 
 
 FIG. 162. TYPICAL WALK. 
 
 FIG. 163. ORDINARY WALK (see Figs. 53 to 60). 
 
NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 145 
 
 FIG. 164. SLOW WALK IN DRAUGHT (see Figs. 67 to 73;. 
 
 FIG. 165. TYPICAL CANTER. 
 
 FIG. 166. CANTER OF HEAVY HORSE (see Figs. 74 to 80). 
 
 FIG. 167. CANTER OF FAST HORSE (see Figs. 81 to 89). 
 
 FIG. 168. THE GALLOP (see Figs. 90 to 105). 
 
 L 
 
146 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 FIG. 169. THE LEAP (see Figs. 138 to 151). 
 
 this figure more graphic, I have used plain rectangles to mark the supports 
 of the left foot, and shaded ones, those of the right foot. If we desire to 
 represent the ordinary walk of a man in the same manner, we shall be con- 
 fronted with the difficulty that, as both feet are on the ground at certain 
 periods of this pace, the rectangles would naturally have to overlap each 
 other. We may, however, get over it by placing the diagrammatic prints of, 
 say, the left foot on a line above those of the right foot. In this manner, in 
 order to represent the run, we would place these prints as they are shown in 
 Fig. 155; not as in Fig. 154. We may indicate the walk by Fig. 156, in 
 which I have assumed that both feet are on the ground for one-sixth of 
 the period of support of each foot. 
 
 We must remember that these scales or notations give us only the order 
 of succession of the feet, and their respective and proportionate periods of 
 support and suspension; but they do not furnish us with a clue to the 
 speed of any particular pace, except, that when there is a period of suspen- 
 sion ; the longer it is, the greater, as a rule, will be the speed. 
 
 To construct the respective notation of the various paces of the horse, we 
 may employ the rectangles of Fig. 154 for the fore legs, and may use similar 
 ones, placed underneath them, for the hind legs. Thus, Fig. 158 will give us 
 the scale of the trot as shown by Figs. 39 to 42. 
 
 My readers will notice that the dotted lines on Fig. 159 mark the 
 respective moments at which the horse assumed the positions depicted in 
 Figs. 43, 45, 46, and 47. In the remaining notations in this chapter I 
 have similarly marked the connections between these scales and the corre- 
 sponding figures in Chapters XII. and XIII. 
 
( 147 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 General Remarks Limit of Height Length of Limb Length and Depth of 
 Body Thickness of Limb Comparative Length of Fore and Hind 
 Limbs Length of Neck Length of Head Width between the Legs 
 Comparative Weight of Body Comparative Length of the Bones of 
 the Limbs Differences of Conformation between the two Sexes. 
 
 General Remarks. In order to simplify comparison and to 
 prevent tedious repetition, I shall confine myself in the present 
 chapter chiefly to the consideration of the principal differ- 
 ences of proportion between the race-horse and the heavy cart 
 animal, which are, respectively, the extreme types of horses of 
 speed and horses of strength. 
 
 The method of working from the whole to a part should 
 be followed as rigorously in judging a horse, as in painting or 
 land surveying. If we desire to obtain correctness in these 
 arts, we must, as a rule, first get our general outline, and then 
 fill in the details. If, in our preliminary examination, we 
 allow our eyes to be caught by some isolated beauty or defect, 
 we would be to use an oft-applied simile like a painter who 
 begins a full-length portrait of a person by drawing the nose, 
 and then hangs the remainder of the body to it. I cannot too 
 strongly insist on the fact that the degree of adaptability of 
 an animal for any special kind of useful work, depends more 
 
 L 2 
 
148 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 on his general shape, than on the possession or absence of any 
 particular " point." 
 
 I may mention that, in making comparisons, we should not 
 be disconcerted by the fact that some of the proportions of 
 the horse may vary a little according to the position in which 
 he stands, and the nature of his bodily condition. Some 
 allowance has to be made for the fact, in my illustrations, 
 that the majority of the gallopers were taken when they were 
 in hard training, and some of the heavier horses when they 
 were in a " lusty" state. It would have been more satis- 
 factory, had I been able to have had their photographs taken 
 at a time when they were all in the same condition ; but 
 that, obviously, was out of my power to do. The method I 
 shall indicate will, however, give results sufficiently uniform 
 for our purpose. We must also remember that the respective 
 proportions of animals of the same class and of equal merit 
 are not always the same ; for a defect in one point may be 
 compensated by increased excellence in another point. 
 
 Limit of Height. In all species of animals there appears 
 to be a limit of height which the respective members cannot, 
 as a rule, exceed, and at the same time retain strength, activity 
 and symmetry of form. We see this law well exemplified 
 in dogs, which can rarely surpass, say, thirty-four inches in 
 height, without becoming weak in the loins and clumsy in their 
 movements. For cart-horses, I shall put this limit at, say, 
 seventeen hands two inches ; and for race-horses, at, say, six- 
 teen hands three inches. Besides this maximum, there is a 
 certain height which it is no benefit for a horse, from a useful 
 point of view, to exceed. Although, to employ an old saying, 
 "a good big one will beat a good little one;" it is no 
 
LIMIT OF HEIGHT. 149 
 
 advantage for a racer, chaser, hunter, hack or light trapper to 
 be more than fifteen hands three inches, or a heavy cart-horse 
 to be higher than sixteen hands three inches. It is an inter- 
 esting fact that this standard of useful height varies con- 
 siderably in different breeds. I would put it approximately 
 as follows : English, North American, Australian and New 
 Zealand thoroughbred and half-bred horses, fifteen hands 
 three inches ; ordinary South African horses, fifteen hands ; 
 Arabs, fourteen hands two inches ; East Indians (country- 
 bred without admixture of English blood), and Basuto ponies, 
 fourteen hands ; Mongolian, Yarkundi, Spiti and Bhootiah 
 ponies, thirteen hands two inches ; Baluchi, Herati and 
 Cabuli horses, fourteen hands two inches ; Burma and Deli 
 ponies, thirteen hands ; Manipuri ponies, twelve hands. On 
 Indian race-courses, it has been proved, times out of number, 
 that an Arab of fourteen hands two inches is as good as 
 any other son of the desert, no matter how much he may 
 exceed that height. In fact, there have not been many 
 Arabs which have gone to India, that were better than the 
 gallant little Chieftain, who was only fourteen hands high, 
 and who was the best of his time. The records of the 
 Shanghai and Hongkong races prove that a good Mon- 
 golian of thirteen hands two inches (like Teen Kwang, 
 see Fig. 180, who was the Eclipse of the Celestial Empire) 
 can hold his own with any of his class, even at level 
 weights. In China an allowance of only three pounds for 
 an inch in height is given, and yet the best ones are found at 
 about thirteen hands two inches. In India, on the contrary, 
 an allowance of twelve pounds an inch is given ; but, with very 
 rare exceptions, a thirteen hands one inch or a thirteen hands 
 two inch English, Australian, Arab or " country-bred " has 
 
150 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 no chance with a fourteen-hander of its own class. These 
 striking differences in the standard of useful heights are 
 no doubt chiefly due to the effects of climate ; for if foreign 
 blood be introduced into any country, it will, in a very few 
 generations, assume the characteristics of the local type of 
 horse or pony. 
 
 Careful selection in breeding, good feeding, and healthy 
 conditions of life have a great influence in tending to increase 
 the size, not only of individuals, but also of breeds ; in which 
 case, the standard of useful height, will, naturally, become 
 raised. Thus the average English horse is, at the present 
 day, probably six inches taller than he was 200 years ago. 
 From my own observation, I am inclined to think that horses 
 in England have increased about an inch in height during the 
 last thirty years. We should remember, that when we refer 
 to certain breeds of ponies, we allude to horses that have, 
 for generations, been kept small by privation, inclemency of 
 climate, or other influences which have retarded their growth. 
 Were they placed under conditions favourable to their de- 
 velopment, their descendants would soon become full-sized 
 horses, even in the case of ten-hand Shetland (PL 61) or 
 Corean ponies. It is impossible, therefore, to maintain a 
 race of ponies which are well-fed and well-cared for. 
 
 Length of Limb. We have seen in Chapter I. that the 
 fundamental difference between animals of speed and those of 
 strength, is that the former have comparatively long legs, and 
 that the latter have comparatively short ones. We have in 
 the camel a well-marked exception to this rule. The Ship 
 of the Desert, as we may see in Fig. 1 70, has very long legs 
 in comparison to his length of body, and yet he is extremely 
 
LENGTH OF LIMB. 
 
 slow for his size. The cause of his lack of speed is chiefly 
 owing to the weakness of his ''rearing muscles" (see p. 64), 
 and to the straightness of the column of bones of his fore- 
 limb (see p. 63). Hence, when he tries to go quickly, he is 
 unable to raise his forehand sufficiently to obtain a well- 
 regulated period of suspension, like that of the horse (see 
 Figs. 46, 88 and 102). His gallop, which he attempts 
 
 FIG. 170. CAMEL. 
 
 only on rare occasions, has so much up and down motion in 
 it, that he can continue it but for a very short time. His 
 usual fast pace is a kind of amble which has no period of 
 suspension. Many " weedy " horses (see p. 267) which have 
 long legs, are deficient in speed from causes similar to those 
 that render the camel slow. The law as to length of limb 
 can be amply verified, other things being equal, in the case of 
 the horse, by the hard logic of statistics. I accordingly give 
 
152 
 
 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 the following table of measurements in inches, taking Ormonde 
 (Frontispiece) and St. Simon (Pis. 7 and 18) as examples of 
 the fleet of foot, and the Shire horse, Cheadle Jumbo, and the 
 Shire mare, Chance (PI. 19), as illustrations of strength. 
 
 
 Ormonde. 
 
 St. Simon. 
 
 Cheadle 
 Jumbo. 
 
 Chance. 
 
 Height at withers 
 
 6 4 1* 
 
 6 3 i* 
 
 6 7 * 
 
 6 7 * 
 
 Length of body .... 
 
 6il 
 
 591 
 
 7 6 
 
 7 6 
 
 Depth from withers to brisket. 
 
 29 
 
 27i 
 
 35i 
 
 34 
 
 Distance of "girth place" 
 from ground .... 
 
 35i 
 
 36| 
 
 3ii 
 
 33 
 
 Length of head .... 
 
 24! 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 * Without shoes. 
 
 I took the measurements of Ormonde on the 2oth July, 
 1887, when he was a four-year-old; and those of St. Simon 
 in September, 1884, when he was a three-year-old, I may 
 mention that the photographs of Ormonde and St. Simon 
 are particularly valuable, as these animals were probably the 
 two best race-horses that have ever lived, and as their 
 photographs were taken when they were in racing condition. 
 I may mention that the outlines of PI. 18, have been taken 
 from a photograph which was too much " fogged" to bear 
 reproduction. The shadows, however, have been added by 
 an artist, Mr. Oswald Brown. 
 
 We see from the foregoing table, that some three and 
 four year-old race-horses of the best class are 3 or 4 inches 
 higher at the withers (and at the croup) than they are long 
 in the body ; and that the Shire horse, which is the most 
 
LENGTH OF LIMB. 153 
 
 powerful of all horses, is about 9 inches longer than he is 
 high. The difference between the two types with respect to 
 their length of leg, as compared to their depth of chest, is 
 equally well marked. The intermediate classes, in this respect, 
 partake, as a rule, of the characteristics of the respective 
 types to which they are most nearly allied. Thus, if we take 
 Ormonde (Frontispiece) as the highest type of the race-horse, 
 we shall find that the distance from the top of his withers, to 
 his brisket, if applied down his fore leg, will reach from his 
 brisket only to the bottom of his fetlock. In the light-weight 
 hunter (see PL 15) it will come down to the middle of the 
 pastern ; in the middle-weight hunter, to the coronet ; in the 
 heavy-weight trooper or light cart-horse, to the ground ; and 
 in a Cheadle Jumbo, it will be four inches more in length. 
 Hence we may conclude that the term, "short on the leg," 
 is one to denote the possession of strength rather than of 
 speed. The reckless manner in which it is used with respect 
 to race-horses is as incorrect as. it is ridiculous. I may add, 
 that with age, good feeding and want of exercise, a horse 
 usually lengthens, deepens, and thickens somewhat as re- 
 gards his height. Mr. W. F. Shaw, F.R.C.V.S., who has 
 charge of the horses belonging to the London Streets Tram- 
 way Company, tells me that he has frequently observed that 
 comparatively light, well-bred horses, when put to tramway 
 work at about five years of age, thicken and get coarse after 
 a few months, to a far greater extent than if they had been 
 used at fast paces. I need hardly say that labour between 
 the rails is slow ; and the feeding (eighteen pounds of corn 
 and twelve pounds of hay) ample for these not very large 
 animals. We may accept the fact that both muscles and bones 
 accommodate themselves in time to the nature of the work to 
 
154 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 which they are put. The difference here is one of thickness, 
 and not of length. I have often noticed among thoroughbred 
 Australian and New Zealand stock, that they became coarse 
 and lost their appearance of blood if kept under rough con- 
 ditions and used for ordinary hack work. 
 
 I may mention that St. Gatien, the celebrated son of The 
 Rover and St. Editha, who ran a dead heat with Harvester 
 for the Derby of 1884, won the gold cup at Ascot and the 
 Cesarewitch (carrying the unprecedented weight of eight 
 stone ten pounds for a colt of his age) in the same year, was 
 a very deep-chested horse, as his depth from his withers to 
 his brisket (just behind the elbow) was an inch more than 
 from his brisket to the bottom of his fetlock. He was thus 
 an inch deeper than Ormonde, who was one and three-quarter 
 inches deeper than St. Simon. St. Gatien, I need hardly 
 say, was particularly distinguished by his ability to stay a 
 distance. 
 
 Length and Depth of Body. We may advance a step 
 further in our search after the true principles of horse confor- 
 mation ; for if we compare the proportions of the body of the 
 racer with those of the heavy draught animal, we shall find 
 that they are essentially the same, and that the only real 
 difference which exists between these two classes is in the 
 length of their legs. Were those of Ormonde, as he is in the 
 Frontispiece, cut down nine or ten inches and proportionately 
 thickened, and were he swelled out by "bulky" food, he 
 would pass fairly well as a cart-horse ! The statement which 
 I have just made concerning the comparative proportions of 
 the two extreme types of horses, may not appear so out- 
 rageous as it might do at first glance, if we consider that the 
 
w 
 
PROPORTIONS OF BODY. 155 
 
 difference of work between them is one of limbs and not of 
 body. The galloper needs the highest possible development 
 of speed, with a sufficiency of strength ; the cart-horse, a 
 maximum of strength with a very moderate amount of speed ; 
 both the strength and speed being derived from the muscles 
 of the limbs. The two classes, however, are in their work 
 equally dependent on the organs (those of breathing, circula- 
 tion, digestion, excretion, etc.) which are contained in the body. 
 The lungs of the draught animal, when facing a stiff hill with 
 a heavy load behind him, have to be in as good order as 
 those of a racer who is finishing in front of the Grand Stand 
 at Epsom or Newmarket. His stomach, bowels, liver, 
 spleen, kidneys, etc., will also require to be as healthy as 
 those of the other. Hence, we need not expect to find, nor 
 shall we meet with, any material difference in the proportions 
 of the respective bodies of these two animals. If we take 
 from the table given on page 152, the depths (from withers to 
 brisket) of the four representative horses, and divide them 
 respectively into the lengths of these animals, we shall find 
 the ratio for Ormonde, St. Simon and Cheadle Jumbo to be 
 i to 2*1, and for Chance, i to 2*2 ; while the ratio of 
 their depths at the lowest point of their backs to their 
 lengths will be, in all four cases, i to 2^ (nearly). This 
 is sufficient to prove the close identity of proportions 
 between the depth and length of body both in racers and 
 heavy cart-horses, and a fortiori with those of the inter- 
 mediate classes, such as hunters, troopers, and light harness 
 horses. 
 
 It may be objected to the foregoing remarks that, in the 
 heavy draught animal, the shoulders are thicker, and the 
 breast, broader in proportion to the length of the body, than 
 
156 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 in the case of the galloper. To this I may reply that the 
 difference is due, not to the shape of the body, but to the 
 size of the muscles which attach the limbs to the body, and 
 which consequently partake of the massive character of the 
 legs. We must also remember that the pelvis is a portion of 
 the hind limb (see p. 31). 
 
 Thickness of Limb. Continuing the argument begun 
 in Chapter I., we find that the muscles of the limbs of 
 gallopers are comparatively long and slender. Hence, the 
 bones, being dependent on the muscles for their shape, must 
 partake of the same character. It is advantageous for 
 another reason that they should be slight ; for, were the bones 
 of the legs of the galloper massive, there would be entailed 
 a large amount of friction in the working of their joints, 
 with consequent loss of speed, which would be of little 
 importance in the heavy draught animal, in which the 
 opposite kind of conformation should be sought for. 
 
 Comparative Length of Fore and Hind Limbs. 
 
 The conditions under which the limbs play their part in 
 locomotion, are so complex and varied, that I can lay down 
 rules on this subject only in very general terms. We must 
 also bear in mind that there is a certain limit of height 
 (largely influenced by breed) which the horse should not 
 exceed, and which has been discussed on page 148 et seq. 
 I may state the present question as follows : at any given 
 height, is it advantageous for the horse to be higher 
 at the withers than he is over the top of the croup, or vice 
 versa, when he is intended for galloping, or for heavy 
 draught ; and to what extent may such difference, if any, 
 
LENGTH OF LIMB. 
 
 157 
 
 amount to ? It is evident that the longer the hind leg, the 
 greater other things being equal will be the speed of 
 propulsion. Excess of height at the croup will, however, 
 be accompanied by two serious drawbacks, namely, it will 
 entail proportionately increased work, during fast paces, on 
 the fore limb (see p. 63) and on the muscles of the back 
 and loins (see p. 64) in raising the forehand at each 
 stride ; and, by surcharging the fore legs (see p. 49), it will 
 naturally tend to render these limbs more liable to the 
 injurious effects of work than they would be, were the 
 weight more equally distributed between the fore and hind 
 extremities. Under the former, we would have increased 
 speed purchased by loss of staying power, which is as 
 dependent on the free action of the fore limbs and loins, as 
 it is on that of the hind limbs. Under the latter, the 
 gain in the rate of progression would be obtained at the 
 risk of impaired soundness. Those speedy animals, the 
 cheetah, the Indian black buck, and the grey-hound, are a 
 little longer in the hind limb than they are in front. As 
 a rule, race-horses of the highest class are about the same 
 height at withers and croup. This difference between the 
 racer and the other gallopers may be accounted for by the 
 fact, that the proportion of weight which the fore limbs of 
 the race-horse have to carry, is still more increased by the 
 presence of a jockey on his back. Among the fleet of 
 foot, I purposely omitted mentioning the hare, which is, for 
 its size, the fastest animal of the lot. Its speed, however, 
 can be maintained, as we might have inferred, only for a 
 short distance on level ground ; though it is particularly 
 hard to catch up a hill, the difficulty of ascending which is 
 directly lessened by the fact of the fore limbs being shorter 
 
158 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 than the hind ones. Any disadvantage, in progression, 
 arising from undue shortness of fore legs is, more or less, 
 compensated for, in the hare, by great development of the 
 muscles of the loins (" rearing muscles," see p. 64). The lynx 
 (PL 17), which is very high behind, has an extraordinary turn 
 of speed ; but only for a short distance. Its gallop, like that 
 of other cats, is a series of leaps (see p. 128). From practical 
 observations, I do not think that it is an advantage for a 
 race-horse to be higher over the croup than at the withers. 
 With regard to this point, we may study the Frontispiece 
 (Ormonde), and PL 55 (Favonius). Could a horse be re- 
 served for races up-hill, like on the old Cambridgeshire 
 course, which finished at "the top of the town," increased 
 height at the withers might be an advantage ; but such a 
 policy would hardly be practicable. We may conclude from 
 the foregoing remarks, that if a race-horse be higher over 
 the croup than at the withers, he will require, all the more, to 
 have sloping shoulders, oblique pasterns and powerful loins, 
 and to be "light in front." 
 
 We have now to consider the very practical question 
 which, no doubt, every man who goes in for pony racing has 
 asked himself is it an advantage for a pony which has to 
 pass the standard at a certain height, to be considerably 
 higher over the croup than at the withers ? The results of 
 my experience make me reply "no" to this query. The 
 statement, which I have often heard urged, that a pony 
 which measures, say, 14-3 over the croup, and which can 
 pass the standard at fourteen hands, must have a "pull" 
 over others of its own class which are as high at their 
 withers as over their croup, is not borne out in practice. 
 The best racing ponies I have seen, had no great difference 
 
PONIES. 
 
 159 
 
 between these two measurements certainly not more than 
 two inches. Among this list I may mention : the English 
 ponies, Lord Clyde, Water-lily, Dorothy (PL 39), Maythorne, 
 Mike (PL 38), St. Helena, Skittles (Fig. 171), Rex, Selena, and 
 
 FIG. 171. CAPTAIN MOWBRAY'S PONY MARE, SKITTLES. 
 (Drawn from a photograph?) 
 
 Sylvia ; the New Zealanders, Little Wonder, and Parekaretu ; 
 the Australians, Mayflower, Achievement, Chester, Bob, and 
 Jeannette ; the Arabs, Caliph, Little Hercules, Blitz (Fig. 179), 
 Sweet William, and Magistrate (PL 28) ; the Barb, Kangaroo ; 
 the Indian country -breds, Ruby, Bonnie Doo, and Daphne ; 
 
160 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 and the South African, Coachman. As an extreme case of a 
 pony being high behind, I give the photograph of a pony 
 mare (see PL 20) who, though she passed the standard at 
 13-3, measured nearly fifteen hands over the croup. Even 
 allowing for a certain amount of "fakement," there was 
 about four inches difference between her height at the withers 
 and at the croup. As she was also rather heavy in the 
 shoulders, it is almost needless to say that she did not stand 
 training. I may remark that instability of equilibrium (see 
 p. 67), which is increased according as the weight on the 
 fore legs exceeds that on the hind ones, should be obtained, 
 in the galloper, more by the body being short and the legs 
 and neck long, than by the difference of height between the 
 withers and the croup. 
 
 The lower a horse is in front, the rougher will be his 
 paces ; hence an animal of this kind of conformation will 
 not, as a rule, make a pleasant hack ; nor would he, in 
 most cases, do well as a hunter ; for the excess of weight 
 in front would proportionately militate against his safety 
 when landing over a fence, and against the soundness of 
 his fore legs. 
 
 The heavy cart-horse, viewed from a purely draught 
 point of view, ought to be higher in front than behind 
 (see p. 74). 
 
 Length of Neck. As the muscles which draw the 
 fore leg forward (namely, those of the neck) are muscles of 
 locomotion, they should be proportionate in length to those 
 of the fore limb. Hence, if a horse has long fore legs, 
 like the race-horse, he ought to have a long neck ; and vice 
 versa. 
 
LENG TH OF HEAD. 1 6 1 
 
 Length of Head. As the head is a part of the 
 spinal column (see p. 30), their respective lengths should 
 be proportionate to each other ; but the head can bear no 
 fixed ratio to the length of the limbs, which varies according 
 to the kind of work to which the particular horse is best 
 suited. Thus, we find that although the length of the 
 head has the same proportion (about i to 2^) to the length 
 of the body in both the racer and cart-horse, the comparison 
 does not hold good with regard to the height, which is 
 naturally influenced by the length of the fore legs. 
 
 Width between the Legs. In the heavy draught 
 horse, the fore legs are kept apart by the massive pectoral 
 muscles (see p. 38) which draw the fore limbs back. The 
 hip joints have also to be widely asunder to permit of great 
 width of the pelvis for the attachment of extremely large 
 muscles. In the galloper it is different. For remarks on 
 this subject, see p. 65. 
 
 Comparative Weight of Body. The body of the 
 race-horse should be as light as is compatible with the due 
 performance of his work. The heavy cart-horse, on the 
 contrary, requires a deep, massive body for the attachment of 
 his powerful muscles, and, also, to give him the necessary 
 weight to throw into the collar. This subject has been dis- 
 cussed in Chapter IX. (see p. 73). 
 
 Comparative Length of the Bones of the Limbs. 
 
 If we "pick up" in succession the fore feet of a number of 
 differently shaped horses, and bend the limbs at the knees 
 as far as they will "go," we shall find that in almost all 
 
 M 
 
1 62 COMPARA TIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 cases, the heel will touch the elbow at about the same place. 
 As the proportion between the length of the fore-arm and 
 cannon bone evidently varies in different horses, a com- 
 paratively long or short forearm must be accompanied by 
 a similar condition of the bones below the fetlock. Lecoq 
 remarks : " The length of the fore-arm varies inversely as 
 that of the cannon bone." I think I may venture to extend 
 this principle somewhat further, in stating the following 
 inverse proportions : Shoulder blade, long ; humerus (from 
 point of shoulder to elbow), short ; fore-arm, long ; cannon- 
 bone, short ; pastern, long. In other words, a long shoulder 
 blade is accompanied by a long fore-arm and long pastern, 
 and by a short humerus and a short cannon-bone. The 
 converse of this holds equally good. Taking the shoulder 
 blade as the base to start from, we may infer that the differ- 
 ence between these alternate proportions should be best 
 marked in animals, like the hunter or steeple-chaser, which 
 specially require to have this bone of considerable length (see 
 p. 210). It may be objected that the greyhound, which is 
 possessed of extraordinary speed and marvellous jumping 
 powers, has, comparatively speaking, a short shoulder blade 
 and long humerus. Although the length of the latter, which 
 is detached from the body, gives him great forward " reach ; " 
 the shortness of the former makes him too bad a weight- 
 carrier (see p. 207) for him to be accepted as a model for 
 our purpose. I think we may assume that a similar series of 
 inverse proportions should exist in the hind limb. Thus : 
 pelvis, long ; thigh, short ; tibia (from stifle to hock), long ; 
 cannon-bone, short ; pastern, long. As the muscles which 
 give length to the tibia are far more concerned in the 
 extension of the hind limb of the jumper and galloper than 
 
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES. 163 
 
 in the cart-horse ; we should look for greater length from 
 stifle to hock, in the first two, than in the last named. I 
 would also expect in them a shorter thigh and a shorter 
 cannon-bone. I may mention that I am confirmed in this 
 opinion by the practical experience of Mr. Tom Jennings, 
 junr., the well-known trainer, who once remarked to me that 
 he always regarded as a good point in a race-horse, the fact 
 of its stifle being set high up in its flank i.e., its having a 
 short thigh bone, and consequently being long from its stifle 
 to its hock. 
 
 In the remainder of the body we might, possibly, also 
 find a series of inverse proportions as follows : Head, short ; 
 neck, long ; back and loins, short ; croup, long ; bones of the 
 tail, short. 
 
 Although I am well aware that the proportions of the 
 skeleton do not rigidly follow any strict mathematical rule ; 
 still I am strongly of opinion, from close study of the horse, 
 that in the large majority of cases the foregoing deductions 
 will be found to be correct. 
 
 Differences of Conformation between the Two 
 Sexes. As a rule, the mare, as compared to the horse, has 
 a lighter neck, a broader pelvis, and is higher behind and 
 slacker in the loins than he is. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 Size of Head Leanness of Head Profile of Face Front view of Face- 
 Size of Brain Top of the Head Ears Eyes Hollows above the Eyes 
 Nostrils Lips Lower Jaw Setting-on of the Head Neck Throat. 
 
 Size of Head. We have seen on page 161 that as the head 
 is a portion of the spinal column, it should correspond in size 
 to the bones of~the back, loins, croup, and ribs, and not to 
 those of the limbs. Agreeably to the axiom that " the 
 function makes the organ," we find, in the majority of cases, 
 that a horse's breathing capacity is proportionate to the size 
 of his air passages, of which the cavities that lead from the 
 nostrils towards the windpipe and lungs cannot be large, 
 unless the bones which form them are of a fair size. We must 
 remember that a horse breathes, normally, through his nostrils 
 and not through his mouth. Besides, as the tube (larynx] 
 through which air enters the lungs from the nasal cavities, 
 lies between the two branches of the lower jaw ; it follows, 
 speaking generally, that the broader and more open the 
 nostrils are, the greater will be the calibre of this tube, and 
 the more perfect the breathing power. Although it is 
 impossible to draw any hard and fast rule on this subject ; 
 we may infer that a comparatively small head is not a desir- 
 
SIZE OF HEAD. 165 
 
 able " point " in horses whose success depends on their power 
 of breathing. I venture to think that men of experience will 
 agree with me in saying that unusually neat and trim heads 
 are far more common among " the five furlong division," than 
 among genuine stayers. Again, the head should be of 
 sufficient size to afford a broad surface for the attachment of 
 the muscles of mastication, for those that extend, flex, rotate 
 and move the head from one side to the other, and for muscles 
 which draw the limb forward, and which are, consequently, 
 important agents of movement. The connection between the 
 size of the head and the amount of intelligence possessed by 
 an animal is, as with ourselves, too ill-defined to admit of any 
 practical deductions being made from it. As the usefulness 
 of a horse is generally limited by the amount of work his 
 legs will stand, the possession of a large head by an animal 
 which is " light of bone " in his extremities, is a serious defect ; 
 for it not alone shows that his frame is wanting in symmetry, 
 but it also tends to indicate that the bones of his body, and, 
 probably, the muscles and other tissues, are too heavy for his 
 legs. If, however, he showed great substance and good 
 quality of bone, tendon and ligament, we might very well 
 "put up" with some "plainness" about his head. Any useless 
 weight of that part, acting at the end of the lever formed by 
 the neck, will naturally be objectionable. Agreeably to the 
 facts mentioned on page 161, we may judge the length of the 
 head by that of the body, the usual proportion being about I 
 to 2+. Probably, a more practical rule is to compare the 
 length of the head with the depth of the body at the lowest 
 point of the back. In a well-shaped horse which is not in 
 gross condition, these two measurements are very nearly 
 equal ; although the head, from its isolated position, looks 
 
i66 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 much less long, at first glance, than the body is deep. 
 Besides this, the fact of the body being round, while the side 
 of the horse's head, as seen in profile, is flat, will cause the 
 depth of the former to appear to measure more than the 
 length of the latter. We may prove the approximate correct- 
 ness of the ratio of i to 2^, by reference to the table given on 
 p. 152. From it we see that in Ormonde the proportion 
 is i to 2*5 ; in St. Simon, i to 2*48 ; in Cheadle Jumbo, i to 
 2*6, and in Chance i to 2*7. Here, possibly to our surprise, 
 we perceive that the cart-horses have comparatively smaller 
 heads than the racers a difference which, no doubt, is due 
 to their grosser ''condition;" as the fat on their chests 
 and quarters must add slightly to their length of body. 
 Bourgelat, followed by all, or nearly all, the French writers 
 on equine conformation, adopted the length of a horse's head 
 as a measure of its height, in the proportion of i to 2-J. This 
 eminent Frenchman based his calculations on a type of horse 
 (such as the ordinary saddle nag) which was about as high at 
 the withers as it was long in the body, and did not take into 
 consideration the great differences between the respective 
 heights and lengths of animals of various classes, ranging 
 from the racer to the Shire horse. From my own obser- 
 vations, I would put the length of a horse at about 2\ to 2| 
 times the length of his head. 
 
 The fact that the size of the head of the horse is propor- 
 tionate to his length of body, and not to his height at the 
 withers, accounts for the cart-horse appearing to have a 
 comparatively larger head than the thoroughbred. 
 
 Leanness of Head. In the lighter classes of horses, 
 the head should present a general appearance of "leanness," 
 
LEANNESS OF HEAD. 167 
 
 that is to say, the skin which covers it should be fine ; its 
 bony prominences sharply marked ; and the muscles, blood- 
 vessels, and nerves which are immediately under the skin, 
 clearly defined. 
 
 The absence, thus indicated, of an excess of loose under- 
 lying tissue will suggest the possession of strength of muscle 
 and bone (see p. 15). When the head is large and 
 " fleshy," we may generally assume that the animal is 
 "soft" and wanting in " blood." The presence on the head 
 of well-developed muscles, of which those of mastication are 
 the most powerful, will naturally suggest to the observer that 
 the horse has a good constitution. As pointed out by MM. 
 Goubaux and Barrier, we must not mistake for "leanness" an 
 emaciated or wasted appearance of the muscles, due to old 
 age or debility. 
 
 The Bombay Arab dealers (such as that fine judge, Ali 
 bin Abdullah, and that prince of Bedouins, the late Shaikh 
 Esa bin Curtas) regard thinness of the lower jaw at its angles 
 as a sure sign of pure desert blood. 
 
 Profile of Face. The line of the forehead and nose, 
 when viewed in profile, will, as a rule, be straight, concave or 
 convex. The first two forms of contour are more or less 
 characteristic of the thorough-bred and Arab ; although it is 
 only correct to say that many horses of aristocratic English 
 blood have Roman noses, especially those bred in the 
 Colonies. I have never seen a high caste Arab have such a 
 conformation. For straight profiles we may point to Pis- 
 35 and 39. PL 31 shows a concave profile. The true 
 concave face is obtained, not by a prominent forehead, as in 
 PI. 21 ; but by a dip in the nose between the eyes and 
 
i68 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 nostrils. Ormonde's face (see Frontispiece) tends to con- 
 cavity. For a convex profile (Roman nose) see Pis. 19 
 and 23. This shape might be objected to on account of 
 its liability to render the air passages of the head curved, 
 instead of straight, in which case there might be some slight 
 interference with the ready ingress and egress of respired air. 
 I have, however, never met with a case in which a Roman 
 nose was the cause of impaired breathing power ; although 
 I have known a horse become a roarer from alteration in 
 the shape of the nasal cavities from a disease of the bones 
 called osteo porosis, or "big head.'* I may mention that 
 many heavy cart-horses have Roman noses. 
 
 Colonel John Anderson, late Inspecting Veterinary 
 Surgeon, Bombay Army (than whom no better judge of 
 a horse exists), remarked to me many years ago, that a 
 prominent forehead (see PI. 21), or a rise between the eyes, 
 is an indication of a bad, or at least of a wayward, temper in 
 a horse. I have no theory to advance in support of this idea, 
 the truth of which, however, I have seen verified in many 
 instances. The original of PL 21 was a rascal of the 
 deepest dye. Tristan (see Fig. 172), had this fatal bump 
 between his eyes, and he was a " thief," as well as a bit 
 of a "savage." His name will recall to many old race-goers 
 the memorable struggle for the Cambridgeshire of 1881, 
 when, ridden by poor George Fordham, he finished third 
 to Foxhall and Lucy Glitters. It is but just to the chestnut 
 son of Hermit and Thrift to say that his trainer, Mr. Tom 
 Jennings, junr., tells me that Tristan's temper had been 
 spoiled by bad usage when he was a yearling. 
 
 Front view of Face. Good width of forehead between 
 
PL. 21 PROMINENT FOREHEAD. PL. 22 BROAD FOREHEAD 
 
 PHOTO. BY M. H- HAYES TO FACE PAGE 168 
 
 - PL. 23 UNDER BRED HEAD. 
 
TRISTAN. 169 
 
 the eyes (see PI. 22) indicates, as a rule, free breathing 
 power and strong muscles of mastication ; for the bones of that 
 part (frontal bones] form a portion of the roof of the cavities 
 
 FIG. 172. MR. LEFEVRE'S TRISTAN. 
 (Drawn from a photograph^} 
 
 through which air enters on its way to the lungs, and gives 
 attachment to a powerful muscle which aids in closing the 
 
i/o HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 jaws, and which is fixed in the large depression that is just 
 above the eye. Good width between the eyes is generally 
 regarded as a sign of intelligence and of a generous dis- 
 position ; and it may indicate large capacity of brain, by 
 reason of the frontal bone forming a portion of the covering 
 of that organ. I shall refer, under the next heading, to the 
 subject of the desirability, or otherwise, of a large brain in 
 the horse. 
 
 FIG. 173. COFFIN SHAPE OF HEAD. 
 
 As seen from the front, the bones at each side of the head, 
 from the outside corner of the eyes to the hollow above the 
 eyes, should run nearly parallel to the long axis of the head, 
 and should then narrow inwards. This desirable shape is 
 well shown in PL 24. If the reader will compare this 
 photograph with PL 25 he will see my meaning ; for in the 
 latter, the line from the outside corner of the eye to the base 
 of the ear is nearly straight. This peculiarity and a certain 
 fulness of nose (which is very different to the fine modelling 
 of the nose in PL 24) gives a coffin shape (see Fig. 173) to 
 
PL. 24 WELL BRED HEAD. 
 
 PL. 25 UNDER BRED HEAD. 
 
 PHOTO. BY M. H. HAYES 
 
 PL. 26 HIGH OCCIPITAL CREST. 
 
 TO FACE PAGE I7O 
 
 PL. 27 TURNED-IN EARS. 
 
THE FOREHEAD. 171 
 
 the head in PL 25. I may mention that this head is 
 slightly foreshortened, and consequently does not appear as 
 narrow as it ought to be. I need hardly say that I am 
 aware that the stable term, " coffin-shaped," as applied to a 
 horse's head, has reference to its appearance in profile, and 
 not to its front view. 
 
 Experience tells us that the forehead should be prominent 
 immediately below the brow band, and should be marked on 
 each side by a well-developed lump of muscle which is 
 shown fairly well in PI. 24. This formation is usually 
 accompanied by the possession of pluck and " cleverness/' 
 Its good or poor development is, -I regret to say, as diffi- 
 cult to clearly explain in words as it is to show in a 
 photograph ; although its recognition in actual practice is 
 an easy matter. Prominence of that part may possibly have 
 some connection with a good development of the cerebellum 
 
 (see p.^43)- 
 
 It is regarded as a beauty for the eyes to be set high up 
 in the head. As far as I can see, their position varies but 
 little in the horse. In the zebra (PL 29) they are set rather 
 low down. 
 
 The bones on the sides of the nose are prominent in 
 youth, but gradually "fall in" with age, on account of the 
 fangs of the back teeth, which are lodged in them, descending 
 lower and lower as the animal grows older. 
 
 This change in the form of the nose will serve to indicate, 
 to some extent, the age of the horse. 
 
 Size of Brain. Without entering into any physiological 
 argument, we may assume that, as a rule, size of brain is an 
 indication of brain power. According to the classic idea 
 
172 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 entertained by writers on equine conformation, a large 
 development of brain is a desirable "point" in the horse. 
 Thus we read in A chat du Cheval, by M. Gayot, that: " The 
 more voluminous is the brain, the larger is the spinal cord, 
 proportionate to the size of which are the nerves that issue 
 from it. It is thus that a large forehead, denoting a high 
 degree of intelligence, is the index of a good nervous system 
 that is to say, of high mental and physical qualities." As 
 regards this, I would suggest a doubt respecting the con- 
 nection claimed between "high mental and physical qualities." 
 It did not exist among the ancient gladiators, nor does it 
 in the case of our modern prize-fighters and pedestrians. 
 Although the bull-dog is stronger and the greyhound faster 
 for their size than the poodle and collie, they are certainly not 
 more intelligent. A long and intimate acquaintance with 
 horses especially that acquired during my professional horse- 
 breaking tours convinces me that a comparatively high 
 degree of mental (i.e. reasoning) power is not desirable in a 
 horse ; because it is apt to make him impatient of control by 
 man. A jibber in harness, or a refuser in the hunting field, 
 when the vice has not been induced by pain or infirmity, such as 
 galled shoulders or weak hocks, usually "baulks," because " he 
 knows too much," or at least he knows more than the animal that 
 will pull at the traces or follow the hounds till he drops. So 
 far from a horse taking delight, as he is supposed by novelists 
 to do, in obeying the wishes of man, he very seldom yields to 
 his would-be master without a struggle. If this takes place 
 in the hoped-for manner, when the horse is quite young, the 
 victory on the part of the man is generally easy, and a few 
 repetitions of it quickly confirm the habit of obedience. If, 
 however, the attempted subjugation be delayed till the 
 
SIZE OF BRAIN. 173 
 
 animal is " aged"- when he will be able to think for himself 
 without the promptings and influence of man it will be 
 found that his breaking will be ten, if not a hundred, times 
 more difficult than if it had been undertaken in his early 
 youth. This theory of the undesirability of a horse knowing 
 too much, which I have applied to refractory animals, appears 
 to hold equally good in greyhounds that run " cunning." In 
 these remarks on the intelligence of horses, it must be clearly 
 understood that I refer to reasoning power and not to power 
 of memory, which is independent of the capacity to draw 
 a conclusion from given premises. It is evident, without the 
 necessity of writing a treatise on the subject, that the useful 
 (to man) intelligence of the horse lies in his power of memory 
 and to the quickness with which his muscles act in response 
 to the impressions received by his senses. In other words, 
 his useful intelligence depends on the high development of 
 his instinct, and not of his reason. We demand of the horse 
 ready obedience ; but not obedience matured by reflection, 
 like what the shepherd would expect his dog to display when 
 getting his flock home on a stormy night, or when driving 
 them through a crowded thoroughfare. We do not ask him 
 to take the initiative from the deep affection which he does 
 not bestow on us, nor to reason out problems ; we only want 
 him to remember that if he does certain things, we shall 
 " make much of him " ; that if he does other things, we shall 
 punish him. 
 
 We know that reflex action, prompted by stimuli from 
 outside the body, acts best when it has but little connection 
 with the brain (see p. 42). In fact, the smaller is the 
 comparative size of the brain, the quicker and more accurately 
 are instinctive movements performed. Thus we see animals 
 
I 7 4 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 with, comparatively a very small brain, or with none at all, 
 get out of danger, or seize their prey, with an amount 
 of speed and precision which it would be hopeless for any 
 man to attempt to rival ; simply because the action of his 
 instinct is impeded by the influence of a large brain. 
 We see this demonstrated in ourselves, in the case of move- 
 ments, as in fencing, boxing and dancing, for instance, 
 which could be executed only slowly and clumsily at first, 
 when they needed the exercise of thought, become capable 
 of being performed with the speed and correctness of 
 a machine, as soon as practice had made them almost 
 automatic. 
 
 The prominent forehead (see PI. 21), to which I have 
 alluded on p. 168, indicates a large size of the intellectual 
 portion (cerebrum, see p. 43) of the brain, which at that 
 part of the forehead is covered by only a thin plate of 
 bone. Without wishing to import any of the jargon of 
 phrenology into a discussion on this subject, I may hazard 
 the suggestion that the portion of the brain which is con- 
 secrated to the functions of memory and perceptive power, 
 as well as the cerebellum (the organ of " muscular sense," see 
 p. 43), lies underneath the upper part of the forehead, 
 where prominence and convexity of the part is a marked 
 beauty, as I have mentioned on p. 171. 
 
 For the foregoing reasons, I do not look upon the 
 possession of a large brain as a desirable " point " in a horse. 
 Hence, apart from the practical experience I have had, I do 
 not like, as I have just said, a bulging-out condition of the 
 lower part of the forehead, nor a long distance between the 
 eyes and the top of the head (see p. 171), both of which 
 peculiarities of conformation point to large brain capacity. 
 
EARS. 175 
 
 Top of the Head. The bone (the occipital crest) at 
 the top of the head should be prominent and well developed 
 (see PL 26) ; as it affords attachment for the powerful 
 suspensory ligament of the head and neck (see p. 33), and 
 for several important muscles. Large development of the 
 occipital crest is considered by some authorities to indicate 
 corresponding size of the cerebellum. 
 
 Ears. Personally, I cannot say much as regards the 
 indications afforded by the ears. In common, probably, 
 with most observers, I have remarked that animals which 
 move their ears in a quick decisive manner, evidently with 
 the same intent as they use their eyes to see what kind of 
 ground they are going over, are, generally, of the " clever " 
 sort which do not know how " to put a foot wrong." Their 
 method of employing their ears is quite different to the 
 restless, "listening" (if I may use the word) style adopted 
 by horses that have defective sight. The former have their 
 attention chiefly directed to the ground in front of them ; 
 the latter distribute it on all sides. It looks well for the 
 skin and hair which covers the ears, to be fine ; and the 
 ears themselves, thin and lean. Whether in horse or man, 
 I dislike to see ears set up high on the head ; and think 
 that the part of the skull which is between them should be 
 moderately broad, as in PL 22. At the same time, I must 
 say that I have seen many clever horses, especially among 
 those bred in India, that had their ears close together and 
 set up high on the head, as in PL 27. This photograph 
 gives us an idea of the peculiar manner in which the 
 points of the ears of some Indian breeds (Kathiawars and 
 Wuzeerees, for instance) are directed inwards when the ears 
 
176 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 are pricked forward. To show what diverse opinions exist 
 as to the ears of the horse, I give from different works on 
 conformation the two following extracts, which are far 
 from being in accord with each other. The reader, however, 
 can decide from his own practical experience as to their respec- 
 tive correctness. ''There can be no greater ornament than 
 long, fine, active-looking, upright, tolerably close-set ears, with 
 the points a little inclined towards each other. I never saw a 
 soft constitutioned horse with ears of this description " (Dr. 
 Carson). MM. Goubaux and Barrier state : " It is a fact 
 worthy of notice that horses which have short ears are 
 always energetic and plucky. There seems to be a certain 
 relation between their length and the timidity of their 
 bearers. At least, this is the conclusion we may draw from 
 a comparison made among different kinds of animals, of 
 which the most timid and inoffensive have them greatly 
 developed. Carnivorous animals, on the contrary, have them 
 small. Short ears render the head lighter, and the ex- 
 pression of the face brighter, more expressive and more 
 pleasing to the eye. In this respect, the Arab horse greatly 
 excels English and continental animals. It is considered 
 a beauty for a horse to have his ears well directed to the 
 front at an angle of about 45 with the axis of the head. 
 Quick and energetic animals carry their ears in this manner. 
 To sum up, the ear is beautiful when it is short, directed to 
 the front, well placed, lean, fine, and covered with thin skin, 
 which should be adherent, and comparatively free from hair 
 in the interior of the ear." With respect to the ears being 
 " well directed to the front at an angle of about 45 with the 
 axis of the head," I may remark that such a carriage of the 
 ears, being produced by voluntary muscular effort, can be 
 
EYES. 177 
 
 sustained only for a comparatively brief space of time. 
 Almost all horses which are not prevented therefrom by 
 disease, malformation or accident, have the ability to direct 
 their ears forward in the manner mentioned, but do so only 
 when their attention is attracted to something in front of them. 
 The same may be said of donkeys, mules and zebras (see 
 Pis. 29 and 37). It is true that some horses " prick their 
 ears " more frequently than others ; but, for all that, such 
 carriage of the ears can be regarded as but a momentary 
 lighting-up of the face, and not as an intrinsic beauty. I 
 may add that if a horse habitually carries his ears more or 
 less directed behind him, we might suspect him to be 
 wanting in courage and good temper. This is by no means 
 an invariable rule ; for I have met with some notable 
 exceptions. 
 
 M. Richard remarks that deaf horses carry their ears 
 steadily pointed in the direction the horse is looking, with- 
 out side " play." Such animals are generally docile and 
 attentive to the indications received from the rein and leg. 
 
 A horse is said to have lop-ears when they are set on 
 in a loose and somewhat pendulous manner. I have not 
 observed that lop-eared horses are less clever than those 
 whose ears are carried more uprightly. 
 
 Eyes. The eye should be clear and free from tears, 
 the pupil black, and the eyelids thin and comparatively 
 free from wrinkles. A small eye (see PL 23) in the horse 
 is called a " pig-eye," and is generally considered to 
 denote a disposition that is either sulky or wanting in 
 courage. In this photograph, the straight shoulder, ewe 
 neck, Roman nose, and pig-eye point to the plebeian origin 
 
 N 
 
1 7 8 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 of the animal whose portrait it is. The prominent " buck- 
 eye " is generally regarded as an unfailing sign of short sight. 
 Horses which show a good deal of white in their eyes, as 
 the term is, are, with much justice, usually suspected of 
 being vicious ; for kickers, as a rule, uncover a portion of 
 the white of the eye (on the side to which the head is 
 turned), when they look back, ready to " let fly." This 
 justifiable suspicion is naturally heightened, if, at the same 
 time that the danger signal in the eye is displayed, the 
 ears are pressed back close on the neck, the front teeth are 
 exposed by the drawing back of the lips, and a hind foot 
 is kept raised off the ground. I may mention that, under 
 ordinary conditions, the human eye always shows a good 
 deal of white ; but that the horse's eye, as a rule, does not do 
 so, except when its glance is directed to the rear, or inwards. 
 Some game, honest horses (like St. Gatien, for instance) show, 
 without looking in a backward direction, a certain amount of 
 white of the eye, which, when it is of a constant reddish 
 tinge, is thought by some to mark hardiness of constitution 
 and staying power. 
 
 Hollows above the Eyes. The existence of deep 
 hollows above the eyes is objectionable ; for it denotes that 
 the animal is old and more or less worn out, or that either 
 its sire or dam was well advanced in years when it was bred, 
 and, consequently, that it is somewhat wanting in vigour. 
 
 Nostrils. The nostrils should be thin, flexible and of 
 large capacity, so as to suggest the possession of large air 
 passages. During rest, they should be more or less closed. 
 If they are kept constantly dilated when the breathing ought 
 
LOWER JAW. 179 
 
 to be tranquil, we may infer that the animal has something 
 wrong with his " wind." 
 
 Lips. The lips should be lean and comparatively thin ; 
 should possess considerable power of movement; and, as a 
 rule, should be kept closed, for the sake of appearance. 
 We may generally consider that a pendant condition of the 
 lower lip indicates want of vigour ; for it is much more 
 frequently observed among old horses than among young 
 ones. M. Richard considers that it is often inherited. "We 
 have," says he, " ridden horses full of energy, which had a 
 pendant lower lip. Delphine, formerly a brood mare at the 
 stud at Pin, daughter of Massoud and of a Selim mare, dam 
 of Eylau, had a drooping lower lip, and all her foals took after 
 her in this respect. She, however, possessed energy and blood 
 which have left their mark." Some horses have great length 
 of upper lip, which undoubtedly looks ugly. Both this con- 
 formation and the possession of a thick tuft of hair or 
 moustache on the upper lip, are indicative of coarse blood. 
 
 Lower Jaw. The branches of the lower jaw should be 
 broad, as viewed from the side, and should be wide apart at 
 their angles, so as to give plenty of room for the tube (the 
 larynx) which lies between them, and which opens into the 
 wind-pipe. The space between the jaws should not alone be 
 broad, but should also be hollowed out, a condition which 
 will show that the parts are of firm texture and free from 
 excess of loose connective tissue (see p. 14). The old 
 practical rule of finding whether a horse is wide enough 
 between the jaws, is to see if the clenched fist can be placed 
 within the hollow. I venture to think that few horses could 
 
 N 2 
 
i8o HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 successfully pass this test, if it were applied with an ordinary 
 sized man's hand. When this space is broad and well 
 hollowed out, the horse will naturally be able to bend his 
 head more freely than when it is narrow, and he will, con- 
 sequently, be pleasanter to ride and drive. 
 
 Setting on of the Head. The part where the head is 
 set on to the neck should be lean and muscular, and should 
 show a slight depression behind the ears and lower jaw, and 
 also above the wind-pipe. This will indicate absence of an 
 excess of loose connective tissue and ability on the part of the 
 horse to bend his head freely. The beautiful manner in 
 which the neck "runs into" the head of some horses, is due 
 to the arrangement of the bones of the neck and to the lean 
 and well-developed condition of the muscles. The profile of 
 this junction will, then, form a curve, which will be a fitting 
 commencement of the graceful, undulating line that sweeps 
 over the neck, slightly dips in front of the withers, over which 
 it curves, and now, rising a little along the back, swells boldly 
 over the loins and quarters, dips again at the root of the dock, 
 and, finally, ends in the flowing lines of the tail. The setting 
 on of the head and the curves alluded to were beautifully 
 exemplified in St. Simon, whose photograph (PL 7) is 
 not nearly as good as I could have wished. These points 
 also come out well in the Arab pony, Magistrate (PI. 28), and 
 in the Australian gelding, Romance (PI. 35). In the Arab 
 pony, The Brat (Fig. 31), the curved line is perfect from the 
 head to the croup, but, on account of the way he is standing, 
 it descends too abruptly from the top of the croup to the tail. 
 In Ormonde (Frontispiece) the head is set on to the neck in a 
 coarse, stiff manner. I may mention that the ideal contour 
 
NECK. 181 
 
 which I have described, is an affair of beauty rather than of 
 usefulness. 
 
 Neck. As the length of the neck indicates the length 
 of the muscles which draw the shoulder forward (see p. 37) ; 
 the more we seek for speed in an animal, the longer 
 should be his neck, its thickness being limited by the 
 amount of strength the muscles have to put forth. The race- 
 horse, therefore, should have a long and comparatively thin 
 neck, and the other classes should have their necks pro- 
 portionately shorter and thicker according as they recede from 
 the galloping type and approach that of the heavy draught 
 animal. The operation of this rule should be restricted only 
 so far as to allow sufficient length of neck for grazing 
 purposes. Some heavy cart-horses have such short necks 
 that they cannot feed off level ground with comfort to 
 themselves. When the art of breeding is pushed to such an 
 extreme as this, I cannot help thinking that there must be 
 some defect in its practical working. I may mention that 
 the combination of a large head and a thin neck is not 
 alone unpleasing to the eye, but is almost always a sign of 
 general weakness. 
 
 The all-essential power which men possess to guide and 
 regulate the movements of a horse, largely depends on the 
 flexibility of the animal's neck. Were we unable to make 
 him bend it, and to oblige him to turn his head to one side or 
 the other in obedience to the " feeling " of the hands on the 
 reins, he would be all but useless to us in saddle and for 
 ordinary harness work. With reference to this subject, I 
 may mention that I once undertook to saddle and get ridden 
 an old entire zebra (equus zebra, see PI. 29), whose feet were 
 
182 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 becoming gradually deformed ; as it would not allow its owner, 
 a dealer in wild animals, or his assistants to handle it. In 
 less than an hour after I had turned it into the ring of Frank 
 Fillis's circus, which was then in Calcutta, I had its feet 
 rasped down to a proper level, and had it saddled and bridled 
 for the first time in its life. It was then ridden by Steve 
 Margarett (a brilliant Australian rough-rider) and by my wife. 
 Although I was able to quickly teach it to carry its unwonted 
 burden quietly, I made far less progress in giving it a 
 " mouth," during the two days I had it in hand, than I would 
 have done in half an hour with any wild Colonial horse 
 caught for the first time on a "run ;" the reason being that 
 the zebra's neck was so stiff and strong, that I was unable 
 to bend it in any direction. I soon taught it to do what I 
 wanted in the circus ; but when I rode it outside, it took me 
 wherever it liked. In fact, I had not the slightest power to 
 either stop or guide it. PI. 29 will show what a " bull-necked " 
 specimen it was. Some horses, like this striped ass, though 
 not to the same extent, are very stiff in the neck, a fact which 
 may be owing to an obstinate temper, bad breaking-in, or to 
 a thick and rigid condition of the muscles and joints of the 
 part. This natural want of flexibility may be overcome to a 
 great extent by judicious " bending." As it militates against 
 the ready turning and easy regulation of the paces of an 
 animal, it should be regarded as a grave defect of con- 
 formation in the saddle-horse and light trapper. It may r 
 however, be overlooked in the heavy cart-horse, whose nor- 
 mal pace being a walk, will not require to be as "supple" 
 (to use a riding school term) as an animal that has to go 
 at a faster pace, and whose line of progression, instead 
 of being along a more or less straight road, may be across 
 
NECK. 183 
 
 an intricate country, or in conformance with the word of 
 command in a riding school or on parade. Besides this, to 
 have the necessary power in his fore limbs, the heavy draught 
 animal will need massive neck muscles (see p. 37) to draw 
 them forward. When " cleverness " is essential to a horse, 
 he should have a flexible neck, and should be able to bend 
 and extend it with the utmost facility, so as to use his 
 head and neck as a balancing pole for preserving the 
 equilibrium of his body. 
 
 Some extra weight in the neck, apart from that required 
 for the due development of the neck muscles, will probably 
 be no detriment to the usefulness of a powerful cart-horse ; 
 for it will aid him in " throwing weight into the collar." In 
 the saddle-horse, on the contrary, it would be of the greatest 
 disadvantage. Firstly, it would make him heavy on his fore- 
 hand ; and, secondly, it would directly tend to wear out his 
 fore legs and feet. In this connection, I may mention that 
 entires, who, as a rule, have much heavier necks than geld- 
 ings, do not, when they are employed at fast paces, stand as 
 much work, retain their "form" as long, nor get into gallop- 
 ing condition as quickly as those which have been " added to 
 the list." We see this rule well proved in steeplechasing and 
 racing, as witness the long careers of those geldings, Liberator, 
 Regal, and Reindeer. If I do not greatly mistake, the fact of 
 the unsexed Knight of Burghley winning the Lincolnshire 
 Handicap in 1883 was chiefly due to his requiring but little 
 work to get him fit. I would therefore strongly advise owners 
 of race-horses to have the operation performed on all their 
 colts which did not give promise sufficient to warrant their 
 being kept for stud purposes ; especially if there was any doubt 
 as to their standing work. Several experienced trainers with 
 
1 84 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 whom I have discussed this subject Mr. Tom Brown and 
 Mr. Edwin Martin, among others have expressed to me 
 their belief in the practical utility of this proceeding 1 . The 
 lesson to be learned, from a conformation point of view, from 
 the foregoing remarks, is that the faster a horse is required to 
 go, the lighter should be his neck. 
 
 As regards the contour of the neck, I may state that, 
 according to its shape, it is designated high-crested (or 
 convex, see Pis. 30 and 31), straight (see Pis. 28 and 35), 
 or ewe-necked, concave (see PL 23). The contour varies 
 a good deal according to the manner the animal holds his 
 head, and should be judged by the form it assumes when 
 the horse stands in an ordinary manner at attention, with the 
 line of its face at an angle of about 45 to the ground. PL 30 
 shows us a horse with, for a saddle nag and for the substance 
 of his fore legs, a very over-loaded neck. If we compare 
 that photograph with PL 31, we shall see that the convexity 
 of the latter is not, as in the former, obtained at the cost 
 of undue weight in the neck. We may also note the dif- 
 ference, as regards beauty, in the respective curves of the line 
 of the neck in these photographs. The height of the crest 
 in PL 30 is due chiefly to an excessive amount of fat in the 
 crest above the suspensory ligament of the head and neck. 
 The only objection I see to a high crest in a galloper, is the 
 possibility of its putting extra weight on the fore legs. 
 
 The fact of a horse being ewe-necked seems to be of no 
 detriment to his speed. It might, however, affect his handi- 
 ness, on account of depriving, to some extent, his rider or 
 driver, as the case maybe, of command over him ; and by 
 causing his head to be brought into a direction which might 
 prevent him seeing clearly where he was going. On page 80 
 


THROAT. 185 
 
 et seq., I have discussed at some length the subject of the 
 carriage of a horse's head and neck. 
 
 In saddle-horses, the place where the neck comes out of 
 the chest should be marked, above, by a slight depression in 
 front of the withers ; below, by another depression at the 
 point where the jugular groove meets the chest ; and at each 
 side, it should be nearly flat with neck and shoulder. In cart- 
 horses, the large muscles of the shoulder stand out in pro- 
 minent relief from the neck, and the dip in front of the 
 withers is either absent or but faintly indicated. Owing to 
 the comparative lightness of neck in mares and geldings, the 
 union of the neck with the head and trunk is better marked 
 in them, than in entires. The jugular groove, in which the 
 jugular vein lies, may be seen on the lower part of the side 
 of the neck, and is well shown in Pis. 20, 23, and 35. 
 
 Throat. The wind-pipe should be large and well 
 detached from the neck ; as it will then indicate good 
 breathing power. This shape is seen in the justly admired 
 "game cock throttle," which is also associated with a good 
 forward carriage of the head. I have noticed that roaring 
 often accompanies a wasted appearance of the tissues which 
 cover the larynx. I am of course aware that the typical form 
 of roaring is caused by paralysis of one or both of the muscles 
 which open the larynx ; but their size is too small to account 
 for the peculiarly emaciated condition to which I have 
 alluded. 
 
1 86 THE TRUNK. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE TRUNK. 
 
 General View of the Trunk Chest and Ribs Abdomen Withers Breast 
 Back and Loins Points of the Hips Flank Croup Anus Tail. 
 
 General View of the Trunk. We have seen on p. 155, 
 that, as the work which the organs (heart, lungs, liver, spleen, 
 stomach, intestines, kidneys, etc.) contained in the trunk 
 have to do, is the same, whatever may be the kind of horse ; 
 the shape of the trunk will not be affected by class dis- 
 tinctions. In this particular, the conformation which will, for 
 instance, be most suitable for a Derby winner, will be that 
 which is best for a cart-horse. In laying down this general 
 rule, I must make an exception of the withers, which (see 
 p. 194) are concerned in locomotion, and not in the per- 
 formance of any vital function. Although the shape of the 
 horse's body remains constant without, of course, taking into 
 consideration individual peculiarities the bones which make 
 up the entire structure should agree as to thickness with 
 those of the legs ; for several of the muscles that are 
 attached to them, are also attached to the limbs. I may 
 mention that the strength of a muscle regulates the thickness 
 of the bone to which it is fixed. 
 
 In all cases, the body should be as short as possible 
 compared to its depth ; or, in other words, as deep as pos- 
 

CHEST AND RIBS. 187 
 
 sible, compared to its length. The longer it is, the further 
 removed will the fore and hind limbs be from each other, and 
 the less able will the animal be to carry weight. On p. 65 
 we have seen that a short body is a desirable point in the 
 race-horse and jumper. In draught, also, any undue length 
 of body is a disadvantage ; for the farther the fore and hind 
 legs are apart, the less rigid will be the connection between 
 them, and the less efficiently will they work together. When 
 speaking of the depth of a horse's body, I refer to its depth 
 at the lowest point of its back (see Fig. 2). If an animal 
 shows a good measurement at this part, he is almost certain 
 to possess fair substance of body. The measurement from 
 withers to brisket is very fallacious ; for it is not alone 
 affected by the height of the withers themselves, but it also 
 affords hardly any indication of the nature of the " centre- 
 piece " of the body. Many horses, which are very light in 
 their loins and back ribs, have good depth from withers to 
 brisket, as in PI. 56. In Pis. 32, 33, and 34, the length of the 
 body is, respectively, about 2 . 44, 2.5, and 2 . 8 times its depth. 
 
 Chest and Ribs. Although the heart, as well as the 
 lungs, is contained in the chest, I shall not consider it here ; 
 for I can offer no clue as to its action from the consideration 
 of the conformation of the chest, which is influenced chiefly 
 by the shape, size, and setting-on of the ribs. The points 
 which we should seek for in the ribs of the horse, in order to 
 obtain the best possible breathing power, are : 
 
 1. Convexity or roundness of ribs ( " barrel ") behind the 
 shoulder. 
 
 2. Good length of ribs. 
 
 3. Ribs well inclined to the rear. 
 
i88 THE TRUNK. 
 
 I may explain that the convexity of a curve may be 
 measured by the proportion which its height (c d Fig. 174 
 or Fig. 175) bears to the length of its cord, a b. Thus, if c d 
 
 FIG. 174. 
 
 is equal to J a b in Fig. 174, and equal to J a b in Fig. 175, 
 the curve a c b will be three times as convex in the former, as 
 in the latter. 
 
 Among the higher animals, we find that chest capacity 
 is obtained either by convexity or by length. Hence, those 
 species which have short chests, have round ones ; and those 
 that have long ones, have them flat-sided ; the capacity being 
 increased by roundness of the ribs, and decreased by flatness 
 of these bones. We have already seen that undue length 
 of body is detrimental to speed, weight-carrying power, 
 and strength in draught. Consequently, we should seek for 
 roundness of chest in order to obtain good breathing power. 
 Youatt, in his book on The Horse, appears to have originated 
 a fallacy concerning the conformation of the ribs, which has 
 been repeated by many English writers. He says that " the 
 circular chest could not expand, but every change of form 
 would be a diminution of capacity." This statement seems to 
 be based on the supposition that the chest expands and con- 
 tracts, by the ribs opening and closing in a direction at right 
 angles to the length of the body. Instead of this being the 
 case, the difference in capacity of the chest is due to the fact 
 of the ribs, which are inclined to the rear, turning round 
 towards the front on their upper and lower ends, as on pivots, 
 
CHEST AND RIBS. 
 
 189- 
 
 when air is drawn into the lungs ; and then revolving back 
 again, when the air is expelled from them. I may explain that 
 the (tidal) air is expelled from the lungs by the elastic recoil 
 of the ribs, which takes place the moment the muscles which 
 drew the ribs forward, become relaxed. Youatt's statement is 
 altogether incorrect ; for the rounder the ribs are, other 
 things being equal, the greater will be the difference of chest 
 capacity when the lungs are full, to what it would be when 
 they are comparatively empty. 
 
 c 
 
 FIG. 176. FIG. 177. FIG. 178. 
 
 DIAGRAMS SHOWING DIFFERENT DEGREES OF EXPANSION OF CHEST. 
 
 We may prove the foregoing remarks as follows : Let the shaded oval in 
 Figs. 176, 177 and 178, diagrammatically represent the space respectively 
 enclosed between pairs of ribs of different degrees of convexity, but of the 
 same depth, viewed from behind, at the end of an expiration. Let a b 
 (= a b l ) be, respectively, the distance of the centre of each rib from its 
 vertical axis ; b a c the angle at which the ribs in all three figures are inclined 
 
1 9 o THE TRUNK. 
 
 to the rear ; and b 1 a b the angle through which they, respectively, turn 
 during an inspiration. We shall then see that the difference of capacity 
 shown by the difference of area between the shaded oval and the one which 
 circumscribes it is greatly in favour of the round barrel. If it were possible 
 to have a chest perfectly circular (as in Fig. 178) at the end of an expiration; 
 the transverse axis of the chest, . when the lungs were fully inflated, would 
 exceed in length the vertical axis. 
 
 The second desirable condition namely, good length of 
 ribs should, as we have seen, be obtained rather by rotundity 
 than by the distance which the ends of the ribs, respectively, 
 are from each other. Given ribs sufficiently round, we need 
 not trouble ourselves much as to their length, except as 
 regards the farthest back ones, which should be as long and 
 as much directed outwards as possible, so as to afford a broad 
 attachment to the diaphragm (see p. 46). It would be easy 
 to prove that the more inclined the ribs are to the rear, the 
 greater will be the difference in capacity of the chest when 
 empty, to what it would be when full of air, and conse- 
 quently the better the breathing power ; but I do not think 
 that it is possible to estimate this inclination with sufficient 
 accuracy to make it a practical guide. My experience leads 
 me to conclude that all useful purposes, in this respect, will be 
 served by satisfying ourselves whether or not the horse under 
 examination is " well-ribbed up." If the last rib be short, flat, 
 and but little inclined to the rear, the animal will be "slack 
 in the loins,'* and will most certainly not have as good 
 breathing power as he would have had, if that rib had been 
 long, "springing " well out from the side, and inclined so 
 much to the rear that there would be space only for the ends 
 of two or three fingers between it and the point of the hip. 
 Such a desirable shape would give the utmost width of base 
 to the diaphragm, which is a very important muscle of 
 
I 
 
CHEST AND RIBS. 191 
 
 breathing. Although I mention in this connection only the 
 last ribs, I take for granted that its neighbouring ribs would 
 conform, more or less, to its length, shape and inclination to 
 the rear. From the foregoing considerations, I would regard 
 roundness of barrel behind the girths ; depth of body (as 
 compared to length of body) in the centre of the back ; and 
 being well ribbed up, as the great signs, in conformation, 
 of a horse having good breathing power. As " the middle 
 false ribs are those which have the greatest power of being 
 drawn forwards and outwards " (see p. 35), they, in com- 
 parison to the length of the body, should be as long, as well 
 as convex, as possible. On account of their lower ends 
 being difficult to trace in the living animal, we may con- 
 veniently judge of their approximate lengths, by the depth of 
 the body at the centre of the back, making due allowance for 
 the ''condition" of the animal. If we examine the Frontis- 
 piece and Pis. 35 and 56, which show three horses in 
 training for racing, we shall notice that the back ribs of both 
 Ormonde and Romance were of good length, thus indicating 
 fine breathing power ; and that those of the " weed " were 
 unusually short. As might have been expected, this mare, 
 though fast, was a very poor stayer. I need hardly say that 
 the shape of the body should be judged by the body itself, 
 and without reference to the length or substance of the legs. 
 The fact, as often occurs, of the body being too heavy for 
 the legs, in no way affects the proportion which its length, 
 depth and thickness bear to each other. The popular term, 
 " slack in the loins," which I have used, is applied to the ob- 
 jectionable condition of the last rib being short and at a con- 
 siderable distance from the point of the hip. As this kind of 
 conformation usually accompanies a more or less weak state 
 
I 9 2 THE TRUNK. 
 
 of the muscles of the loins, the expression is not altogether 
 inappropriate. Some persons ignorantly think that it is an 
 advantage for a horse, as regards speed, to be a bit " slack in 
 the loins ; " because (so they say) such a shape allows the 
 animal more freedom in bringing his hind legs forward, than 
 if he were well ribbed up. I need hardly point out that the 
 form of a horse's back ribs cannot in any way affect the 
 action of his hind legs. This absurd notion was, no doubt, 
 started by some person who supposed that the hip joints were 
 at the points of the hips ! Owing to sexual causes, mares, as 
 a rule, are not so well ribbed up as horses. Hence, some 
 slight slackness in the hollow of the flank is not such a grave 
 fault in them as in entires and geldings. The fact, however, 
 remains, that for all purposes of work, a horse or mare cannot 
 be too well ribbed up. 
 
 M. Merche remarks that : " Among common horses, the 
 last rib is less arched and less carried back than among blood 
 horses ; and the flank consequently appears longer." 
 
 St. Simon, among many other great race-horses, was an 
 instance of a fine stayer, who possessed singularly little depth 
 at the withers, but had great roundness of chest behind the 
 girth, and also fair depth of body at the lowest point of his 
 back. It is essential for the race-horse to obtain good 
 breathing power by roundness of ribs, so that his body may 
 have its powers of breathing fully developed without its 
 length being unduly increased. 
 
 The great advantage of depth in the front portion of the 
 chest is to allow of good length of shoulder blade, which is 
 indispensable to the weight-carrier and jumper. 
 
 Abdomen. We have seen on p. 45 that the centre 
 
ABDOMEN. 193 
 
 piece of the body is divided by the diaphragm into two 
 portions, the chest and abdomen ; the former containing the 
 lungs and heart ; the latter, the stomach, liver, intestines, 
 bladder and other organs. The ribs form the walls of the 
 chest. The contents of the belly (consisting mostly of the 
 intestines) are kept in their place chiefly by powerful ligaments, 
 the principal one of which is the abdominal tunic (see p. 
 34), and by muscles. These structures are respectively 
 attached to the margin of the front part of the pelvis, to the 
 rear part of the breast bone, rearmost edge of the ribs, and to 
 the sides of the loin vertebrae, thus bridging over the vacant 
 space. We may, then, fairly assume that the abdomen should 
 follow the general contour of the chest. As the straight 
 muscle of the abdomen which covers the lower portion of this 
 cavity, is the chief muscle that bends the back, the horse can- 
 not be thoroughly " fit " for work, if this muscle is unduly 
 pressed down by the intestines. We may also conclude that, 
 when a horse has a naturally pendulous belly, he will be 
 wanting in quickness and stamina, which cannot be possessed 
 without the ability to freely move the spine. This and the 
 other muscles of the abdomen aid in the process of breathing, 
 which will be more or less interfered with, if these muscles 
 have to constantly strive against undue pressure from the 
 cavity they cover. Besides this, if the intestinal mass is 
 greater than it ought to be, it will hamper the action of the 
 lungs by forcing the diaphragm too far into the chest ; it 
 will add to the weight to be carried ; and will militate against 
 speed by tending to bring the centre of gravity to the 
 rear (see p. 51). Although the subject of feeding is not 
 within the province of this book, it may not be out of place 
 if I mention that the practice of giving horses large quantities 
 
 o 
 
194 THE TRUNK. 
 
 of soft food . (boiled turnips, for instance), which they can 
 quickly consume, exerts, among other evils, a most injurious 
 effect on the muscles of the stomach, intestines and abdomen ; 
 for, being deprived of the rest which is necessary to their 
 repair and development, by the continued pressure resulting 
 from the presence of the bulky food, these muscles soon 
 become ill-fitted to perform their work. On the other hand, 
 we should guard against a " tucked up" condition of belly, 
 which will indicate illness, over-work, too excitable a tempera- 
 ment, or improper management of some kind. If we consider 
 that these abdominal muscles act by tending to become 
 straight between their points of attachment, and that when 
 in a passive state they are longer than when they contract, 
 we shall see that, when in a condition of rest, they should be 
 gently rounded, and should be neither drawn straight nor 
 bulged out. In Chapter XXII., I shall consider the special 
 development of these muscles. 
 
 Withers. The chief object which the withers fulfil, is to 
 afford attachment for the suspensory ligament of the head 
 and neck ; for muscles which extend the head and neck ; for 
 muscles that draw the shoulder blade forward ; for the powerful 
 muscle that runs along the top of the back and extends the 
 vertebrae ; and for a muscle which aids inspiration by bringing 
 the ribs forward. If we look at the skeleton (see Fig. 3), 
 we shall readily see that the fact of the withers rising, as they 
 do, above the line of the back, greatly assists the action of the 
 elastic ligament that supports the head and neck, and of the 
 muscles which extend these parts. It also increases the 
 power of the muscle which extends the back and loins. 
 Besides, it tends to give length to the muscle which is at- 
 
' 
 
WITHERS. 195 
 
 tached to the withers and which helps to draw the shoulder 
 forward, and by affording increased space for the top of the 
 shoulder blade, it favours length of this important bone. The 
 further back the withers extend, the more do they, by giving a 
 big surface for attachment, indicate large development of the 
 muscle which extends the back and loins, and the more room 
 do they afford for the backward slope of the shoulder blade. 
 Hence, withers which are high and which extend far back, are 
 generally associated with a good carriage of the head and 
 neck ; free movement of the shoulder ; long and sloping 
 shoulder blades ; and strength in the back and loins. Such 
 a conformation is desirable in every kind of horse, and 
 especially in the race-horse, hunter, and steeplechaser. 
 Low withers, on the contrary, are usually accompanied by 
 heavy, short and upright shoulders. Lecoq observes that 
 u in the mule, and especially in the ass, the withers are always 
 low ; a conformation which is in accordance with the small 
 development of the paces of these animals." Dealers and 
 others, when "showing off" a horse which has high withers, 
 not unfrequently endeavour to direct attention to this fact, as 
 a proof of the length and obliquity of the shoulders. I need 
 hardly point out, even to the inexperienced horseman, that 
 any particular part should be judged, if possible, on its own 
 merits, and not by those of another part, however much 
 excellence in the latter may indicate its possession by the 
 former. 
 
 The Height of the Withers is, strictly speaking, that 
 of the spines of the vertebrae of the part and the soft tissues 
 which cover their summits. Their apparent height is the 
 distance they project above the top of the shoulder blades ; 
 although I must confess that it is often difficult to tell how 
 
 o 2 
 
196 THE TRUNK. 
 
 high they are in horses which have very thick withers. Animals 
 that are comparatively high over the croup, appear to have 
 lower withers than those which are high in front, even 
 when we make allowance for any difference that may exist 
 in the length of the spines themselves. The reason for this 
 seems to be that, as elevation of the croup causes the weight 
 of the body to be shifted forward, such a conformation tends 
 to depress the body between the shoulder blades, and con- 
 sequently reduces the distance between them and the top of 
 the withers. 
 
 " Leanness of the Withers " depends on their apparent 
 height ; the actual thickness of the spines and their cartilages ; 
 the size of the muscles of the part ; and the amount of loose 
 tissue about it. Although we cannot expect leanness of 
 withers in the cart-horse, the presence of whose massive 
 muscles that lie between the trunk and shoulder blades, 
 separates the ends of the latter widely asunder ; still it is 
 a very desirable point in the saddle-horse, as it indicates 
 absence of an excess of connective tissue (see p. 14), light- 
 ness of forehand, and height of the withers themselves. 
 Very thin, high withers are objectionable ; for they are liable 
 to become hurt by a saddle, especially by a side-saddle. We 
 are all aware that when the part is of this shape, it is difficult 
 to keep the ''gullet-plate" of the saddle from touching it, 
 however high this iron arch may be ; the reason being, as far 
 as I can see, that such a condition is usually associated, as 
 might be expected, with emaciation of the neighbouring 
 muscles ; among the rest, those which give rise to the pro- 
 minence behind the shoulder blade, and against which the 
 " points " of the tree of the saddle should rest. When the 
 part is thus unduly flat, the saddle is naturally liable to slip 
 
BREAST. 197 
 
 forward. With horses which have thick withers it is also 
 difficult to keep the saddle in its place ; for the presence 
 of large shoulder muscles and abundance of connective tissue 
 conceals the outline of the shoulder blades and renders the 
 part, upon which the points of the tree rest, smooth and 
 round. 
 
 " Age and sex have an equal influence on the leanness of 
 withers, which, badly defined in the colt, come well out only 
 towards five or six years old, at the time when the bones have 
 attained their full length, and the body its definite size. The 
 withers are less high in the mare than in the gelding or 
 entire. As a set off, the last mentioned, whose forehand 
 acquires a considerable development, has this part thicker, 
 especially in the case of a heavy draught animal" (Goubaux 
 and Barrier]. 
 
 Breast. Width of breast, or width of chest, as the 
 distance between the fore legs is usually called, " is generally 
 looked upon as a measure of the size of the chest, or, rather, 
 of its rotundity. This is an error which we have cleared 
 away by more than fifty observations made on the living 
 animal, and afterwards completed on the dead subject. We 
 have never been able to ascertain, with respect to this point, 
 any practical difference among animals of the same height, 
 whatever might have been their width of breast ; for the 
 simple reason that it is not in its front part that the chest 
 varies much, but rather in its middle and back portions. To 
 what cause, then, other than bulging out of the anterior ribs,, 
 is width between the fore legs due ? We must attribute it to 
 the greater or less thickness of the pectoral muscles which 
 form its base. We may see the truth of this from the fact 
 
I 9 8 THE TRUNK. 
 
 that this part may become narrow in animals which have 
 large chests. It is merely necessary to place them under bad 
 sanitary conditions as regards work and feeding, to convince 
 one that their state of emaciation brings on the loss of width 
 of which we speak" (Goubaux and Barrier]. If we take 
 the trouble to compare the width between the fore legs of 
 badly-shaped cart-horses which happen to be " flat-sided" and 
 wanting in girth, with that of thoroughbreds having large 
 capacity of chest, we shall note that the width in question 
 bears no relation to the size of chest. Again, it is no rare 
 occurrence to see horses that have been once broad-chested, 
 become narrow in front when they are old and worn out. 
 The pectoral muscles, to which the eminent French professors 
 alluded in the foregoing extract, lie between the humerus and 
 chest. The fact that horses which are broad between the 
 fore legs are very rarely good stayers at a gallop, has been 
 used as an argument that roundness of rib is inconsistent with 
 good breathing power. We may, however, I venture to think, 
 account for it more correctly by saying that the failure in 
 "staying" is owing to the undue weight of the forehand 
 consequent on the large muscular development of the part, 
 and to the tendency to lateral displacement of the centre of 
 gravity (see p. 65). I may add that we rarely see a horse 
 wide in front which is not at the same time thick in the withers, 
 a condition which is also caused by the largeness of the 
 muscles that lie between the chest and the fore limb, as well as 
 by the thickness of the bones themselves. When a horse is 
 narrow between the fore legs by reason of the emaciated con- 
 dition of his pectoral muscles, "the keel of his breast bone 
 becomes prominent, the points of the shoulder are pushed 
 forward to the front, and allow to be seen, between them and 
 
BACK AND LOINS. 199 
 
 the breast, two deep depressions in which the jugular grooves 
 terminate below " ( Goubaux and Barrier]. These writers point 
 to the fact that narrowness in front may therefore be either 
 natural or acquired. In the cart-horse, width of breast is a 
 desirable point ; for he requires to have massive muscles. 
 Although the race-horse, cross-country animal, and hack 
 should be light in front, and should consequently not be 
 broad between the fore legs ; still undue narrowness of that 
 part (see PL 10), indicating, as it would do, want of proper 
 muscular development, would in all cases be a defect. As 
 " width " and " narrowness " of breast are comparative terms 
 which are practically impossible to define with accuracy, I 
 have given in PI. 9 a front view of a well-shaped hack 
 which was nearly thoroughbred. 
 
 Back and Loins. The upper line of these parts should, 
 it is generally considered, run in a straight line, or with the 
 slightest possible rise, to the croup (see Pis. 7, 31, 33 and 62). 
 When the animal has a "roach-back " (see PL 36) that is, 
 when this line is decidedly convex the muscle which runs 
 along the top of the back, and which has a powerful action on 
 all the paces of the horse, will be found wanting in develop- 
 ment ; and the chest will, as a rule, be flat-sided. This con- 
 dition of back, from the fact of its assuming, to some extent, 
 the form of an arch, is generally supposed to be advantageous 
 for carrying heavy burdens, as in the case of baggage animals. 
 I am not, however, able to furnish any actual proof that such 
 is the case. A "hollow-backed" or " saddle-backed" horse, 
 on the contrary, is one which has this line concave on account 
 of the arrangement of the vertebrae of the part. It is 
 frequently the result of relaxation of the ligaments which 
 
200 THE TRUNK. 
 
 bind the vertebrae together, owing to the effects of hard work 
 and debility. Thus, we may often see a horse which in his 
 youth had a straight back, become hollow-backed in his old 
 age. From the different position assumed by man when 
 moving, the opposite to this occurs to ourselves. An 
 appearance of hollow back may be given by unusually 
 large development of that part {posterior iliac spine, see 
 Fig. 3) of the pelvis which forms the highest point of the 
 croup. I have also observed, especially among Arab ponies, 
 the same kind of conformation arise from the pelvis being 
 set up particularly high in animals which were low in front. 
 No exception can be taken to an apparently hollow back 
 produced by the putting-on of the pelvis. 
 
 Without any exception, the top of the back and loins 
 should be as flat and broad as possible ; for this condition 
 indicates the presence of powerful rearing muscles (see p. 64), 
 and rotundity of the back ribs (seep. 191). In many draught 
 animals, the upper muscles of the loins and back stand out as 
 distinct ridges of muscle on each side of the backbone. This 
 beauty in the coarser breeds is not confined to them, but may 
 sometimes be seen in well-bred horses, as was the case with 
 Mr. Kelly Maitland's Kingcraft, which was one of the best 
 race-horses that has ever been in India. This Australian was 
 a singularly muscular, short-backed animal, to whom distance 
 and weight made comparatively but little difference. This 
 " double-backed " condition may come on or disappear accord- 
 ing to the amount of "flesh" which the animal carries. A 
 false appearance of flatness and strength of back and loins 
 may be temporarily given by excessive fat. 
 
 Shortness of Loins and Back. The appearance of com- 
 parative shortness or length which the back and loins (or 
 
c 
 
BACK AND LOINS. 201 
 
 back, if we include the loins in this term, see p. 24) may pre- 
 sent, is due, I would submit, chiefly to the following causes : 
 
 1 . The manner in which the croup runs into the loins. 
 For instance, the back and loins will appear short and the 
 croup (or " quarters") long, if the pelvis be more or less 
 horizontal ; the contour of the croup free from angularity ; 
 the muscles over the loins largely developed ; and the flanks 
 well ribbed up. I regret that I have omitted to give among 
 the equine portraits in this book, one of a good specimen of 
 a long-backed horse. My meaning will, however, be under- 
 stood if my readers will compare the line of the croup and 
 loins in the Frontispiece and Pis. 19, 33, 35 and 55, with 
 that in Pis. 15, 34, 39 and 56. 
 
 2. The distance to which the withers run back. I may 
 point out that the extreme lowness of the withers in the 
 Burchell's zebra (PI. 37), the kiang (PL 67), and the onager 
 (PL 66), gives the backs of these animals a false appearance 
 of undue length. The angularity of the contour of Mike's 
 croup (see PL 38) might lead one to form the wrong opinion 
 that he was long in the back and loins, if his withers did not 
 extend so far to the rear as to counteract that impression. 
 The same may be said of Dorothy (PL 39). 
 
 3. The degree of slope of the shoulder and pelvis. It is 
 evident that the greater the angle formed by the respective 
 directions of the shoulder blade and pelvis produced (the 
 more oblique the shoulder and the more horizontal the croup), 
 the shorter will the back and loins appear to be ; and vice 
 versa. 
 
 4. Length of neck. I need hardly say that a long neck 
 (or a "long rein," if we include the withers) will give an air 
 of shortness to the back and loins, and vice versa. 
 
202 THE TRUNK. 
 
 5. Depth of back ribs. To see this we need only to con- 
 trast the Frontispiece, or PI. 32 with PL 56. 
 
 Without indulging in any tedious repetition, I think we 
 may safely assume that, in all cases, a horse's back and loins 
 should have the appearance of being as short as possible. 
 
 Points of the Hips. When these parts are very 
 prominent, the horse is said to have " ragged hips." Such a 
 condition gives the animal an angular appearance, and is con- 
 sequently displeasing to the eye. A horse thus formed is 
 more likely to hurt his hips by "catching" them against door- 
 posts, or by lying on a hard surface when he is not supplied 
 with a sufficiency of bedding, than one of different conforma- 
 tion. The fact of a horse having flat or ragged hips does not 
 appear to influence his usefulness in any way. Among 
 thoroughbreds, certain strains of blood have them prominent. 
 Although it would be more correct to consider the points of 
 the hips along with the hind limb ; I have placed them, for 
 convenience sake, under the present heading. 
 
 Flank. The only . thing to remark about this part is 
 that the "hollow of the flank," which is included between the 
 loins, point of the hip and end of the last back rib, should be 
 well filled up and should be as small as possible. If it is 
 hollowed out, it will indicate that the animal is in bad health, 
 out of condition, or of weak constitution. If the extent of the 
 hollow of the flank be small, the animal will be well ribbed up, 
 a form of conformation which I have discussed on p. iqoetseq. 
 It is more essential for race-horses to be well ribbed up than 
 for any other class ; as they can ill afford to make up, by 
 increased length and depth of chest, for any deficiency in this 
 point. Increased depth or increased length of chest, besides 
 
CROUP. 203 
 
 adding to the weight to be carried, would militate against the 
 possession of speed, on account of its tending to lower or 
 bring back the centre of gravity, and thus to increase the 
 stability of the equilibrium (see p. 67). 
 
 Croup. The upper line of the croup, from the loins to 
 the root of the tail, should remain convex, even when a fairly 
 heavy weight is carried. This convexity, more or less 
 regular, is caused by the prominence of the inner angle of the 
 pelvis ; by the action of the muscles which flex the back ; and 
 by the strength of the ligaments which preserve the stability 
 of this arch. We may note how relaxation of these muscles 
 will affect this state of convexity if we pinch the loins of a 
 horse, so as to make him crouch, which he does by the con- 
 traction of the muscles that lie on the top of the loins. 
 When he crouches in this manner, the upper line of the croup 
 will tend to become straight. Hence we may accept the con- 
 clusion, which is fully borne out in practice, that undue 
 straightness of the upper line of the croup indicates weakness 
 of the part. Not being able, at present, to get a living animal 
 from which to obtain a photographic illustration of this bad 
 point, I may refer my readers to the horse of the statue 
 which stands in the centre of Holborn Circus. I may also 
 mention that when a horse is affected by paralysis of the 
 muscles of the loins, the croup will usually assume an abnor- 
 mally flat appearance, especially when weight is put on the 
 back, which, in this disease, can badly support it. The 
 slope of the croup (whether it is " goose rumped " or hori- 
 zontal) will be considered on pp. 232 and 233. 
 
 Anus. The anus should be prominent, and the tissues 
 around it should be well filled out. It should be firm in 
 
204 THE TRUNK. 
 
 appearance and closed when at rest. A hollow, flabby and 
 open condition of the part indicates illness or general debility. 
 
 Tail. The tail should be muscular at its root, and 
 naturally short as regards its solid portion (dock). Strength 
 of tail, as may be tested by endeavouring to lift it up with 
 the hand under the root, usually shows vigour of body. 
 A naturally long dock is, to a certain extent, a sign of 
 inferior breeding. 
 
 The tail should, in all cases, be set on " high " (see Frontis- 
 piece and PL 58) ; as this form points to a more or less hori 
 zontal position of the sacrum. If this part be bent downwards, 
 as in Pis. 32 and 36, so as to form a decided angle with the 
 vertebrae of the loins and back, the backbone will not be as 
 well adapted to purposes of locomotion as it would be if 
 it were comparatively horizontal. 
 
 The tail should be carried well away from the quarters ; 
 for this will indicate that its muscles are in good order. 
 Some horses, especially those of high spirit and good blood, 
 when going fast, carry the tail " like a flag," having the 
 dock raised and more or less concave. It looks very bad 
 if the tail, when carried low down, say, at the walk, has a 
 concave bend in it, particularly if there be an abrupt turn 
 or "kink" in the tail near its end. Such a carriage of tail 
 is usually supposed to be associated with an "ungenerous"" 
 disposition; although this is not always the case. In coming 
 to a decision on this subject, we should not fail to take 
 into consideration the indications afforded by the eyes and 
 ears. Thus, if the horse, although carrying his tail 
 "meanly," had a " kind," fearless look about the eyes, and 
 kept his ears well to the front, and worked them in a quick 
 
TAIL. 205 
 
 decided manner, we might reasonably conclude that the 
 defective carriage of the tail was due to faulty conformation, 
 and not to a sulky disposition, which would be the greater 
 of the two evils. In making these remarks, I am, of course, 
 alluding to horses that have not been docked. 
 
 Any unnecessary whisking of the tail when the animal 
 is in motion is objectionable ; as it is often a sign of " jadi- 
 ness " and bad temper. We may not unfrequently remark 
 that the fact of an animal being beaten in a race or steeplechase 
 is often first made manifest by its tail beginning to go round 
 and round. The swishing of the tail may here, however, 
 be due rather to the application of the spurs or whip, than 
 to any " unkind" running on the part of the horse. On the 
 other hand, we may observe instances of thoroughly game 
 race-horses, when " finishing," being so engaged in the keen 
 struggle for victory, that they will keep the tail without move- 
 ment, even under severe "punishment." Mares, as a rule, 
 undoubtedly whisk their tails about more than horses and 
 geldings. Some of them, which are in a state of continual 
 irritation from sexual causes, do so to an extent that is very 
 unpleasant to their riders or drivers. Such animals are, 
 generally, of but little use. Almost all Arab horses, and 
 certain horses in all countries, keep the tail rigidly fixed to 
 one particular side, near or off, when walking, unless, indeed, 
 to use it when occasion demands. English thoroughbreds, 
 however, at the same pace, generally swing it from side to 
 side in an easy, free manner, somewhat similar to that in 
 which a fast and fair walker uses his arms when going along 
 at, say, the rate of six miles an hour. The difference, here, 
 seems to be due to the thoroughbred's longer stride and 
 greater freedom of action. 
 
206 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 General View of the Fore Limb Chief Duties of the Fore Limb The 
 Shoulder Humerus Elbow Fore-arm Knee Cannon Fetlock 
 Pastern Hoof. 
 
 General View of the Fore Limb. The term "fore 
 limb" or " fore leg" is applied to the column of bones from 
 the shoulder blade to the coffin bone (inclusive), and the 
 attendant soft parts. As the chief muscles of the neck are 
 concerned in the movement of the fore limb, we must take 
 into consideration the conformation of the former part while 
 studying that of the latter. The shape of the muscles which 
 lie between the upper portion of the limb (above the elbow 
 joint) and the chest must not be neglected ; for they, 
 respectively, connect the limb to the trunk, and draw it 
 upwards and backwards. As the action of the neck 
 muscles, as regards the fore limb, has been considered in 
 Chapters X. and XVI. (see pp. 82 and 181), and that of the 
 other muscles in Chapter IV. (see pp. 37 and 38), they 
 need not be specially noticed here. I shall now examine 
 the nature of the work which the fore limb has got to do, 
 with the object of drawing conclusions as to the conformation 
 most suitable to it in particular cases. As its various parts 
 

DUTIES OF THE FORE LIMB. 207 
 
 should move in harmony together, it will at first be more 
 profitable to study them collectively than particularly. 
 
 Chief Duties of the Fore Limb are (i) to support 
 weight ; (2) to resist the injurious effects of " work " on its 
 own structures ; (3) to preserve the stability of the body ; (4) 
 to propel the body forward or backward ; and (5) to raise the 
 forehand. 
 
 To support weight, the horse requires bones and muscles 
 strong in proportion to the nature and amount of work to be 
 done, a more or less straight condition of the bones, and a 
 shoulder blade sufficiently large for the muscles which attach 
 it to the trunk, and whose size is a measure of their 
 strength. The comparative straightness of the column of 
 bones will be largely affected by considerations of propulsion 
 and of the effect of work on the legs. In all cases, the bones 
 at the knee should be straight. 
 
 To resist the injurious effect of "work" on its struc- 
 tures, the bones of the shoulder and pastern (at each respec- 
 tive end of the limb) should be placed obliquely, if the 
 ground be hard, so as to diminish the injurious effects of 
 concussion, which are seen in, for instance, navicular disease, 
 laminitis, ringbone, wind-galls, sore shins and splints. The 
 obliquity, however, will be obtained at the expense of 
 mechanical advantage. Hence, the softer the ground and 
 the slower the pace, the less sloping need the shoulder and 
 pastern be, as regards injury to the parts from work. 
 
 To preserve the stability of the body, we require sloping 
 shoulders and oblique pasterns. With the former, the leg 
 can be raised readily and freely to the front. With the 
 latter, the danger of catching the ground with the toe is 
 
208 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 minimised ; for the more oblique the pastern, the easier will 
 it be for the horse to bring his heel first on the ground at 
 each step. 
 
 To propel the body forward to the best advantage, we 
 require a humerus not much removed from a horizontal 
 position ; for the pushing force derived from the fore limb 
 takes place through that bone. Also, in propulsion, the 
 muscles which bend the fetlock joint will act best, the more 
 upright is the pastern (see p. 69). I need not say any- 
 thing here about backward propulsion, as it has but little 
 bearing on conformation. I have made some remarks on 
 reining back in Chapter XII. (see p. 119). 
 
 To raise the forehand effectively, we require obliquity of 
 shoulder blade and pastern, so as to favour the straighten- 
 ing of the limb (see p. 63). 
 
 From the foregoing observations we may see that the 
 conformation most suitable to one function of the fore limb 
 may differ essentially from that best adapted to other offices 
 performed by it. Consequently, the conformation to be 
 sought for in the fore limb of a horse will be the best 
 possible combination of somewhat conflicting elements. 
 
 The Shoulder. The degree of slope of the shoulder is 
 difficult for inexperienced persons to determine, especially 
 when the part is covered by fat or by thick muscles. French 
 writers give rules for measuring with a kind of clinometer the 
 obliquity of the shoulder blade, which is an operation, I must 
 confess, that I have not been able to perform satisfactorily. 
 I have studied the subject for many years, and find that I can 
 rely fairly well on the instruction my eyes have received 
 during that time. The horse with the most oblique shoulders 
 
SLOPE OF SHOULDER. 209 
 
 I have ever seen was St. Simon (see PL 7), whose photo- 
 graph, I regret to say, does not show this point properly, 
 as it is a little foreshortened. The lines of his shoulder 
 are correctly shown in PL 18, which is a reproduction 
 of a painting made from a photograph that was too badly 
 done to bear reproduction. As this illustration gives his exact 
 outline taken in strict profile, it is valuable for comparison ; 
 although much of the detail which would have been given in 
 a good photograph is, naturally, wanting. The Arab pony, 
 The Brat (see PL 31), had singularly good, sloping 
 shoulders. The horses depicted in Pis. 15, 38 and 39 had 
 also the wished-for obliquity in this part. As instances of 
 straight shoulders, I may give Pis. 23, 36 and 48. Taking 
 into consideration everything I have written in the present 
 book on this point, I think we may accept the conclusion that 
 obliquity of shoulder is a desirable point in every kind of 
 horse, except perhaps in heavy draught animals which are 
 not required to go out of a walk. If they have at times to 
 exceed this pace, as dray horses have to do in London, they 
 should undoubtedly have sloping shoulders, so that their legs 
 may be preserved as much as possible from the injurious 
 effects of concussion. 
 
 The thickness of the muscles about the shoulders should be 
 proportionate to the amount of strength which the animal 
 may be called upon to display. We may judge it by the 
 thickness of the withers, by the width between the fore legs, 
 by the degree of definition of the muscles which cover the 
 shoulder-blade, and by the amount of depression there is 
 immediately in front of the shoulder-blade where it joins the 
 neck. This dip is well shown in Pis. 23 and 36, and would 
 have come out in PL 19, had the light fallen on the part so 
 
 p 
 
210 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 as to emphasise the presence of the depression. This differ- 
 ence of level between the neck and shoulder will be best 
 observed when the former is thin and the latter thick. I 
 need hardly say that such a combination is objectionable ; 
 for the degree of muscularity of the one ought to agree with 
 that of the other. At the same time, a properly shaped, 
 heavy draught-horse will always have prominent shoulders, 
 which in him are desirable, so as to give a broad surface for 
 pressure against the collar. 
 
 Length of shoulder-blade is a valuable "point" in all 
 classes of horses. In the racer, considerable length of the 
 muscles which open and close the angle made by the 
 shoulder-blade and humerus, is conducive to speed. As the 
 size of a bone is, as a rule, proportionate to the strength of 
 the muscles which are attached to it ; the length of the 
 shoulder-blade may generally be taken as a measure of the 
 strength of the muscles which connect it with the trunk, and 
 upon which the weight-bearing powers of the animal are 
 mainly dependent. Hence, a large shoulder-blade is not 
 alone advantageous to the weight carrier and heavy cart- 
 horse ; but it is also essential to the jumper, in order to enable 
 him to bear the shock of landing over a fence with a man on 
 his back. The dog, which has a short shoulder-blade, as 
 compared to the horse and ass, is, as we might expect, a very 
 bad weight carrier. We may prove this practically by testing 
 the respective strength of back of a mastiff weighing, say, 
 ten stone, and a very small donkey, who, although he might 
 not have as great draught power as a dog, would be able 
 to carry far more weight. 
 
 The shoulders of the race-horse, as I have already indicated, 
 should be long, oblique, and as light as is compatible with 
 
SHO ULDERS OF RA CE-HORSES. 2 1 1 
 
 their work. As far as mere speed goes, great obliquity of 
 shoulder appears to be no advantage. As the weight is 
 brought more forward by the shoulders being upright, than if 
 they were sloping, the former condition, by increasing the 
 instability of the equilibrium (see p. 67), is equally, or 
 even perhaps more conducive to speed than the latter. It 
 also, by tending to bring the humerus into a more horizontal 
 position, places that bone in a more advantageous direction 
 for forward propulsion than it would have with an oblique 
 shoulder; because the impetus given to the forehand in 
 progression to the front, takes place through that bone. 
 Those particularly speedy animals, antelope and deer, have, I 
 may mention, comparatively straight shoulders. Many of 
 our fastest race-horses have been built in this way. It is not, 
 however, sufficient for a horse to have the great gift of speed 
 in order to shine on the turf; but he must also be able to 
 ''stand training," which will more or less severely test the 
 durability of the bones, ligaments and tendons of his legs, 
 and especially of his fore ones. Both in training and in 
 racing, the animal has to carry a rider, whose weight will 
 add materially to the "wear" of the fore legs, the jar on 
 which will be far less when the shoulders are oblique, than 
 when they are comparatively upright. 
 
 Important as obliquity of the shoulders is in the race- 
 horse, it is not nearly so much so as lightness of that part ; for 
 heaviness of the forehand not alone throws increased strain 
 on the fore legs, but also detracts from speed. A simple and 
 practical guide by which we may judge of the lightness or 
 heaviness of the forehand is afforded us by the manner in 
 which the neck runs into the shoulders. If we observe that 
 at their point of union there exists a marked depression (see 
 
 p 2 
 
212 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 p. 209), we may with reason conclude that Nature, having 
 furnished the animal with a good surface for the collar, 
 intended him for draught rather than for speed. Here we 
 must not be led astray by the appearance of any undue thick- 
 ness of the neck muscles which might fill up this dip ; for 
 the fact of their being heavy would be even more pre- 
 judicial to the galloping pretensions of the horse than if the 
 shoulders were somewhat " loaded." I may here mention that, 
 as the neck projects beyond the fore legs, weight in it, by its 
 increased leverage, will interfere with the action of the fore 
 limb to a proportionately greater degree than weight in the 
 shoulders, which will be placed more or less above this bony 
 and muscular spring, to which I have alluded in Chapter 
 VIII. 
 
 I would wish to draw special attention to the fact that 
 obliquity and lightness of shoulders, by tending to render the 
 animal's action perfect, are indispensable requisites for enabling 
 him to "stay" over a distance of ground. I have seen many 
 " sprinters " which have had upright and loaded shoulders ; but 
 I have never known a genuine stayer like what Ormonde, 
 St. Gatien, or Robert the Devil was who had that kind of 
 conformation. 
 
 In the shoulders of the draught-horse we should have 
 plenty of power and a broad bearing surface for the collar, 
 into which the animal should be able to put all his weight. 
 It is evident that he cannot do this, if his shoulder-blades be 
 very oblique, which is a form aimed at by the majority of 
 exhibitors. Any such "show" question does not concern us 
 at present ; for I am regarding the horse entirely from a useful 
 point of view. I find that the deductions I have made in this 
 chapter are, generally, in accordance with the experience of 
 
SLOPE OF SHOULDER IN CART-HORSES. 213 
 
 practical men like Mr. G. M. Sexton, Secretary of the 
 English Cart-horse Society. He admires " the shoulder well 
 let down into the chest, and with a moderate slope ; it is not 
 necessary to be too oblique, as with a hunter or a race-horse, 
 but just sufficient to ensure free action of the fore legs, 
 encased with plenty of muscle, which will enable him to lean 
 into the collar . . . . It is essential that he should be a free, 
 fast walker .... Action means power, time and money." 
 Mr. F. Street, in The History of the Shire Horse, advocates, 
 " Shoulders well thrown back." Mr. Thomas Dykes, late 
 Secretary of the Clydesdale Horse Society, remarks in the 
 Stud Book of that breed, that " the shoulder should be more 
 oblique than in the English draught-horse. This, indeed, is 
 one of the distinctive features of the Clydesdale, as to his 
 formation of shoulder is largely owing his long, quick step, 
 for which he is so justly admired. The upright shoulder of 
 the English cart-horse may certainly give greater power in 
 the collar, but if shortness and slowness of step be considered, 
 this cannot be called an advantage. The English horse, 
 besides, is more accustomed to sheer dragging and to working 
 in chains, while his Scottish rival is chiefly employed in the 
 two-wheeled cart, which occasions a considerable amount of 
 weight being balanced on the animal's back. A medium 
 slanted shoulder gives a horse, in such circumstances, an 
 advantage ; and doubtless those who carted the minerals of 
 Lanarkshire in ante-railroad days, found this formation well 
 adapted for their purpose. Even yet no one will affirm that 
 it is unsuited to the traffic of the day, if he will only take the 
 opportunity offered for forming an opinion by the sight of the 
 Clydesdale horses yoked to cart or lorry in the streets of 
 Glasgow." Mr. Reynolds, M.R.C.V.S., in his Essay on 
 
214 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 the Breeding and Management of D rang Jit-horses, while 
 recommending that the shoulders should be massive and well 
 thrown outwards to afford ample space for the collar, cautions 
 his readers, as follows, against extreme views as to oblique 
 shoulders : " Many good judges insist that a cart-horse 
 should possess very sloping shoulders. Whilst admitting the 
 necessity of such a conformation for good saddle and light 
 harness horses, and appreciating its beauty in heavy animals, 
 \ am decidedly opposed to the opinion, on the ground that 
 such a form is almost invariably associated with thin withers 
 and shoulder blades closely applied to the front ribs, affording 
 an insufficient and insecure seat for the collar, and, 
 consequently, one very defective for the purposes of heavy 
 draught." 
 
 Horses like the heavy draught animals of Edinburgh, 
 Liverpool and Manchester that have toe-pieces on their 
 shoes, and consequently make full use of their fore legs as 
 propellers, should, for this object, have fairly upright shoulders, 
 and should have no bearing-reins, which would impede them 
 in advancing and lowering their heads. Dray-horses, like 
 those in London which have flat shoes in front, should have 
 sloping shoulders. I may, therefore, venture to settle this 
 question by saying that heavy cart-horses which are not 
 required to go out of a walk, and which, in order to perform 
 their work to the best possible advantage, ought to have toe- 
 pieces, should have upright shoulders ; and that those which 
 have to trot as well as to walk, should have sloping ones. If 
 the ground, such as wood pavement or asphalte, be unsuitable 
 to the use of toe-pieces, the animals, even if they have not to 
 go out of a walk, should have oblique shoulders, because in 
 this case the fore legs will be concerned more in maintaining 
 
THE HUMERUS. 21 
 
 the stability of the body than in propelling it. We may also 
 infer that horses which have toe-pieces on their fore-shoes, 
 will do their work best when their shoulders are upright. 
 
 The sJwiilders of the hack and light harness horse ought to 
 be oblique and light in order to obtain sure-footedness, good 
 forward reach, and sufficient knee action. Although the 
 match trotter should be built more or less like a race-horse, 
 it is even more necessary for his shoulders to be sloping than 
 for those of the galloper ; because, unless they are so, he can- 
 not have free knee action. I may mention that the fast 
 trotter requires to be able to bend his knees a good deal more 
 than the race-horse. 
 
 The shoulder-blades of the jumper, as I have before 
 noticed, should be long and particularly oblique, so as to 
 enable him, in the best possible manner, to resist the shock 
 of landing over a fence. On account of having this special 
 kind of work to do, his shoulders should be more muscular 
 than those of the race-horse. The fact of his shoulders being 
 sloping, will enable him to "take off" more cleverly at any 
 obstacle than he could do, were they upright. 
 
 The Humerus. The position and form of this bone, 
 which lies between the shoulder joint and elbow, are so hidden 
 by the muscles about it, that it is difficult to form a correct 
 opinion as to its conformation. Even if it were exposed to 
 view as much as is the fore-arm, I cannot see how the fact of 
 its being so, would greatly help us. We know that forward 
 propulsion given by the fore limb must take place through 
 it ; but I cannot say exactly what ^ is its best direction for 
 purposes of progression. We are aware that the different 
 paces of the horse require, in varying proportions, the pro- 
 
216 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 pulsion to be partly upward and partly forward ; but we 
 cannot tell what these proportions should be. It is evident 
 that the heavy cart-horse which requires the aid of his fore 
 limbs to propel him forward, should not have an upright 
 humerus. It appears probable that the angle which the 
 shoulder-blade makes with the humerus, varies but little in 
 different horses ; in which case, the more oblique the 
 shoulder-blade, the more upright the humerus, and vice 
 versa; and consequently, from observing the slope of the 
 former, we might estimate that of the latter. 
 
 Elbow. The point of the elbow should be capable 
 of being drawn well away from the side. It will then 
 have plenty of freedom, and will not be tied down to the 
 chest. 
 
 Fore-arm. This part in all horses should be muscular ; 
 as its muscles have to do all the work of the limb below 
 the elbow. On p. 162, I have alluded to its comparative 
 length. In Pis. 15, 35, 39, 40, 55, and 57, are shown well- 
 shaped fore-arms ; in Pis. 46 and 48, mean ones. Although 
 a race-horse might have a somewhat light fore-arm without 
 much detriment, it is imperative for the jumper to be 
 strong in this part ; for in leaping, great strain falls on the 
 muscles at the back of the fore-arm in straightening the 
 fetlock, by which action the forehand is raised. It goes 
 almost without saying that the heavy cart-horse should 
 have a powerful fore-arm. 
 
 Castors or chesnuts. On the fore-arm, generally, but not 
 always, nearer the knee than the elbow, there is a horny 
 growth, called a castor or chesnut. It is more or less in the 
 form of an oval, the greater diameter of which is about two 
 
THE KNEE. 217 
 
 inches in length. MM. Goubaux and Barrier state, as an 
 extremely rare occurrence, that absence of castors from the 
 fore legs has been observed in horses. There are, in almost 
 all cases, similar, though somewhat smaller, castors on the 
 inside of the hind limbs, just below the hock and near the 
 back of the leg. M. Huzard and MM. Goubaux and Barrier 
 remark that they have seen instances of the hind castors 
 being absent in the horse. They are larger and of a more 
 horny texture in coarse-bred horses than in blood animals. 
 Nothing is known of the origin of castors (see p. 303). 
 
 Knee. Looking at the knee in profile, while the horse 
 bears weight on the leg, we should find that the cannon-bone 
 and radius are nearly in a straight line. In reality they are 
 not quite so in perfect specimens ; but are united by a slightly 
 undulating line of great beauty, the contour of which I am 
 unable to lay down with mathematical accuracy. Pis. 
 39, 41 and 55 furnish us with admirable illustrations of well- 
 set-on knees. Pis. 35 and 40 are also good. Pis. 34 and 
 45 are examples of the condition known as "calf-knees," to 
 which there is a slight tendency in Pis. 36 and 47. The 
 opposite formation (" being over at the knees") is shown in 
 PL 46, to which there is an inclination in PI. 59. This 
 condition is generally due to hard work. 
 
 The fact of a horse being "calf-kneed" renders the back 
 tendons and check ligaments (not the suspensory ligaments, 
 the attachments of which are below the knee) more liable 
 to sprain by violent descent of the fetlock than if the knee 
 were straight. It tends, however, to make the animal more 
 sure-footed, by bringing the weight back from the toe. 
 In all cases this condition adds to the tension to which the 
 
218 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 back tendons are put when they are flexing the foot. Although 
 it is in no way an advantage, it is much less a detriment to 
 the cart-horse which has rarely to go out of a walk or 
 slow trot, than to the saddle-horse or fast trapper. Many 
 heavy cart-horses are "back at the knees " (see PL 19), which 
 is a shape of the fore limbs that is not uncommon among 
 Arab and East Indian horses. 
 
 We know from experience that the more nearly parallel 
 the back tendons are to the cannon-bone other things being 
 equal the better able will the limb be to stand work. Why 
 this should be the case I cannot say with certainty. I may, 
 however, hazard the conjecture that, as this " tying-in " 
 below the knee is due to the smallness of the bones which 
 form the groove through which the back tendons pass, this 
 condition may point to want of size in these tendons ; for " the 
 function makes the organ." It appears that the calibre of 
 this groove (or rather canal), which, to a great extent, is 
 formed by the trapezium, is, as a rule, ample for the working 
 of these tendons ; for when such " tied-in " tendons happen to 
 become damaged by work, the seat of injury is very rarely 
 behind the knee. Hence I think we may conclude that when 
 this groove which is dependent for its size on that of the 
 bones behind the knee is comparatively small, the tendons 
 are also proportionately wanting in substance, and con- 
 sequently unduly weak. I have always remarked that, in legs 
 of about the same size of cannon-bone, when the back 
 tendons approached a direction parallel to the cannon-bone, 
 as in Pis. 35, 40, 41 and 43 ; they were naturally larger and 
 consequently stronger than those which were tied-in, as in 
 Pis. 44 and 47, We should, I may observe, regard a 
 large degree of backward projection in the trapezium 
 
PL. 4O GOOD FORE LEGS. 
 
 PHOTO BY M. H. HAYES 
 
 TO FACE PAGE 218 
 
 PL. 41 GOOD FORE LEGS. 
 
 PL. 42 CLEAN FORE LEGS. 
 
TYING-IN BELOW THE KNEE. 219 
 
 as a desirable "point"; not merely as indicating the size 
 of the bone itself, but also that of the other bones of the 
 knee. 
 
 The objectionable tying-in of the knee, which we may see 
 in Pis, 44 and 47, is, I believe, due in almost all cases 
 to an admixture of more or less cart blood. Although 
 individuals of other breeds may be light below the knee, I 
 have never seen in them this fault emphasised by undue 
 width of pastern (from front to rear), in the same manner as 
 it is in the draught animal of Western Europe. Experience 
 tells us that a leg which shows the form of tying-in below the 
 knee to which I allude, is altogether unfit for fast work, 
 or for jumping, and is unobjectionable only for labour which 
 does not require the animal to go quicker than an ordinary 
 trot. The reason for this is, as far as I can see, that a large 
 fetlock is characteristic of cart blood, and consequently 
 indicates that the bones of the part are unfitted for work at 
 fast paces. As bones are subordinate to muscles, we may 
 take for granted that, if the former be weak in structure, the 
 latter, as well as the tendons and ligaments, will also be 
 wanting in strength. Eastern horses, and those of Oriental 
 blood, are often very light below the knee ; but they hardly 
 ever possess undue width of fetlock. A thoroughly sound 
 rule, which is borne out in practice as well as by theory, is to 
 judge (as regards this particular point) the wear-resisting 
 powers of a fore leg by the direction which the back tendons 
 make with the cannon-bone, and not by its measurement 
 below the knee, which is absolutely worthless, unless 
 that round the fetlock is also taken into consideration. It is 
 important to note the difference between a leg which is light 
 below the knee, and one which is tied-in below the knee. 
 
220 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 The latter is always objectionable ; the former, only when the 
 body is too heavy for the legs, as in PI. 30. 
 
 The knee should be broad in front for the attachment and 
 passage of the extensor tendons. 
 
 With respect to knees being " well let down," see p. 237. 
 
 Cannon. Under this heading I shall include the cannon- 
 bone, back tendons, and suspensory ligaments. 
 
 This bone should be of good substance, as in Frontispiece 
 and Pis. 35, 40, 43, and 55. It should feel hard to the touch 
 and free from any excess of soft tissue between it and the 
 skin, or from enlargement from the effects of work or disease 
 any one of which conditions would give it an appearance of 
 undue roundness. The back tendons, as I have just pointed 
 out, should be as nearly as possible parallel with the cannon- 
 bone. They should be straight, and hard as if they were 
 made of catgut ; and in well-bred horses with fine skins, the 
 division between the two tendons should be visible on close 
 inspection. Any deviation out of the straight line, or any 
 fulness or softness, will indicate the presence or previous 
 existence in them of injury or disease. If the leg be free 
 from an excess of hair, the suspensory ligament should stand 
 out in bold relief (see PL 42) between the cannon-bone and 
 back tendons, and it should feel as tense and hard as a fiddle- 
 string. If there be any difficulty in tracing its course with 
 the fingers, or if it feels soft or rounded, we may rest assured 
 that it has suffered from injury, which fact will probably 
 prevent it from standing much work. I may mention that 
 in "clean'* legs (see PL 42), we should be able to trace the 
 course of the suspensory ligament for some distance on each 
 side, as it proceeds obliquely down the pastern. 
 
PL. 43 SLOPING PASTERNS. PL. 44 TIED- IN BELOW KNEE, 
 
 TO FACE PAGE 220 
 
 PHOTO. BY M. H. HAYES 
 
 PL. 46 OVER AT KNEES. 
 PL. 45-CALF KNEES. PL. 47-TIED-IN BELOW KNEE. 
 
THE PASTERN. 221 
 
 Fetlock. The chief points about this joint are : that it 
 should be flat from side to side, and that, viewing the leg in 
 profile, it should not (as I have previously remarked) be 
 broad as compared to the width of the leg just below the 
 knee (see PL 47). Any roundness of the fetlock, which will 
 be caused by undue thickness from side to side of this 
 part, will betoken the effects of " w^ork," or of injury. The 
 peculiar roundness of fetlock, caused by sprain of the 
 suspensory ligament at its attachment to the sesamoid bones, 
 will be readily noticed by the practised observer. 
 
 At the back of the fetlock there is a lock of hair which 
 gives its name ("feet-lock") to that joint, and which is par- 
 ticularly abundant in cart-horses. This tuft of hair covers 
 a fatty mass (the fetlock pad), and has in its centre a 
 horny growth, called the ergot. 
 
 Pastern. By the working of the fetlock and pastern 
 joints, the injurious effects, on the limbs, of concussion are 
 more or less obviated, and assistance is given in the straight- 
 ening of the limb, to raise the forehand. As the horse will 
 have no difficulty, under ordinary conditions of soundness and 
 labour, in bringing his pastern into the same straight line as 
 his cannon-bone; the amount of "play" which the fetlock 
 will have, will depend on the distance through which the 
 fetlock can descend, or, in other words, on the acuteness of 
 the angle which the pastern can make with the ground, when 
 weight is thrown on the part. Although we cannot, by mere 
 inspection of the animal, determine the efficient limit of this 
 angle, we may assume that horses which have, when standing, 
 what are called sloping pasterns (see PI. 43), will have more 
 play in these joints than those that have upright pasterns. 
 
222 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 On the other hand, their back tendons and suspensory 
 ligaments will work at a greater mechanical disadvantage. 
 As the expressions "oblique (or sloping) pasterns/' and 
 " upright pasterns," are more comparative than absolute, it is 
 impossible to define them with precision. Pis. 43 and 13 
 may be taken as good examples of these respective forms of 
 conformation. I need hardly say that pasterns which would 
 be far too upright for fast work, especially on hard ground, 
 might do admirably for slow draught. We may accept, as an 
 axiom, the statement that the harder the ground and the 
 faster the work, the more sloping should the pasterns be, 
 in order to save the legs from the injurious effects of con- 
 cussion (see p. 69). Providing that the pastern bones are 
 strong, they can hardly be too oblique (supposing, of course, 
 that this condition has not been brought on by injury), if the 
 horse be required to gallop over hard ground. I may point 
 to PL 43 as an extreme case of sloping pasterns in an 
 Arab horse that had remarkably sound legs. I may mention 
 that such instances are in no way uncommon among 
 the sons of the Desert ; and that, as a rule, they are animals 
 which like to "hear their feet rattle." As a case in point, I 
 may instance Mr. Covey's famous Arab, Marquis, who won 
 all over India, at all weights and all distances (in his own 
 class, of course). After doing as much work as would break 
 down a dozen ordinary horses, his legs were as clean as when 
 he was foaled ; although, even when only walking, his fet- 
 locks came nearly down to the ground at each step so oblique 
 were his pasterns. Their bones, though long and sloping, 
 were, however, of good substance. My experience among 
 horses in many lands leads me to the conclusion that the 
 drier the country in which they are bred and reared, the 
 
UPRIGHT PA S TERNS. 223 
 
 more sloping are their pasterns. I advance no theory in 
 support of this instance of the " survival of the fittest," which 
 I give merely for what it is worth. Australian horses, I may 
 mention, have their pasterns more oblique than English 
 horses (though practically of the same blood), and are 
 consequently better fitted for work on hard ground. As 
 the shoulder-blade and pastern are at the opposite ends of 
 the spring made by the bones of the fore limb, we may 
 infer that they should be more or less at the same slope. 
 Hence, if it be desirable that a horse should have oblique 
 shoulders, he should also have well sloped pasterns. I may 
 point out that in good, elastic pasterns, the joint (which is 
 just below the coronet at the front part of the foot) between 
 the coffin - bone and short pastern bone, should have 
 particularly free play. I would direct attention to PI. 35 as 
 the portrait of a horse that had pasterns of a nice slope for 
 fast saddle work of an average kind. In fact, he is a well- 
 shaped horse " all round.'' 
 
 The two curses which remain on English thoroughbreds, 
 are upright pasterns and roaring. The former condition is 
 such a common defect that it generally passes without 
 notice, and is accepted by the ignorant as the proper kind 
 of conformation. Of the two, I certainly think that undue 
 straightness of pastern is the cause of the turf career of more 
 English horses being cut short than is roaring. PI. 13 gives 
 a good example of this fatal shape in the thoroughbred. 
 
 As I have already said, the defect of uprightness of 
 pastern in the fore limb, not alone militates against the speed 
 of a horse by causing him to suffer to an undue extent from 
 the injurious effects of concussion ; but also tends to decrease 
 his power of raising his forehand by the straightening of the 
 
224 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 fore limb, as we see done in Figs. 97, 98, 99, 100, and 101. It 
 is evident that with pasterns like those in PL 13, there could 
 be but slight descent of the fetlock joint, and consequently 
 their "play " could affect but little the length of the limb. I 
 may here repeat (see p. 58) that propulsion is accomplished 
 by the straightening out of the limb, to effectually do which, 
 the joints in question must possess the ability to be freely 
 extended. Every experienced trainer will have noticed that 
 as a race-horse's fore pasterns become more and more upright 
 from work, the more will he lose his speed and his " level " 
 style of galloping. This will also occur to a horse whose 
 pasterns have become abnormally oblique on account of 
 sprain of the suspensory ligament, in which case the defect 
 will lie in the inability to straighten the joint freely when 
 weight is thrown on the limb. It is evident that the longer 
 the pastern, the greater will be the play of the fetlock joint. 
 Hence, length, as well as obliquity, of pastern is an indication 
 of speed. 
 
 Lecoq remarks that : " The direction of the pastern is 
 almost always influenced by its length. The shorter the 
 pastern, the more upright is it ; and the longer it is, the 
 more is it sloped." This rule may hold good in horses of the 
 same class ; but not, at least to the same extent, among 
 animals of different breeds. This French writer also adds 
 with justice that : " There are, however, horses and especially 
 mules and asses in which the pastern, although very short, 
 is well sloped." As the evil effects of concussion fall much 
 more severely on the fore limb than on the hind leg, its 
 pastern is, normally, more sloping. 
 
 Referring to Clydesdales, Mr. Dykes writes : " No doubt 
 the upright pastern suits well the upright shoulder and slow 
 
THE HOOF. 225 
 
 action of the English draught-horse, a conformation which 
 can scarcely be called the best for any purpose ; but it will 
 not do in the Clydesdale, which requires a pastern to suit 
 the formation of the shoulder, and to confer the necessary 
 elasticity to counteract the concussion caused by his quick 
 firm step. Short upright pasterns always get worse with age 
 and feeding, and the action in due course of time becomes 
 impeded. A horse with an upright pastern has little or no 
 command of his foot, and literally walks as on a crutch ; and 
 if he has no power of his foot, he cannot have much in his 
 shoulder. The streets of Glasgow are very trying to horses 
 which have to scramble for a footing in the furrows between 
 the hard, smooth paving-stones ; and horses with upright 
 pasterns are sometimes almost powerless to move, where 
 those with pasterns moderately sloped, and of medium 
 length, can walk with comparative ease. Farmers around 
 Glasgow are alive to this, and will not readily use a stallion 
 which has this defect, however strong and shapely." I need 
 hardly say that the comparisons which Mr. Dykes draws 
 between the Clydesdale and the Shire horse in no way 
 concern us here. 
 
 The Hoof. The hoof serves as a horny boot in which 
 to enclose the bones and soft structures of the foot. The horn 
 of the wall, sole, and frog should be thick, hard and tough, so 
 as to resist in an efficient manner the effects of wear. Moisture 
 has a well-marked softening and weakening influence on the 
 horn, and it consequently affects the form of the foot. We 
 shall find that the drier the climate ; the stronger is the horn 
 of horses reared in it ; the more upright are the feet ; and the 
 more concave are the soles. I may explain that when the 
 
 Q 
 
226 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 horn of the wall and sole is weak, it will not be able to 
 efficiently support the weight thrown on the leg, and the foot 
 will have a tendency to become flat. The feet of, for instance, 
 horses bred in Australia are far stronger than those produced 
 in England, owing to the climate being drier ; although both 
 are practically of the same blood. The fact that water 
 mechanically softens horn, does not explain why the hoofs of 
 horses in damp climates should be produced thinner than 
 those of animals in dry climates. We know from experience, 
 however, that moisture has a great influence in quickening 
 the growth of horn, as we may see in horses turned out on 
 marshy ground. Also, in those parts of India where the 
 yearly rain-fall, though large in quantity, is practically con- 
 fined to about four consecutive months, it is found that the 
 growth of the horses' feet during the "monsoons'" is much 
 greater than it is in the dry weather. Hence, we may reason- 
 ably conclude that this stimulation in growth is one of length 
 of horn, and not one of increased horny material. The case, 
 I submit, is somewhat analogous to that of plants, which, 
 under the influence of an excess of moisture, spring up quickly, 
 with tissues full of water, but with little solid matter. The 
 great trouble with heavy cart-horses in England is from 
 the weakness of their hoofs, the horn of which, as a rule, is 
 neither thicker nor stronger than that of well-bred horses ; 
 although the strain which falls on it is much greater than that 
 which tries the tenacity of the horn of the feet of saddle 
 horses. Considering the greater size of the muscles and 
 bones of the draught animal, we should expect that the horn 
 of his hoofs would be proportionately stronger than that of 
 the half-bred. The fact that it is not stronger, is a proof 
 that English cart-horses are deficient in one of the most im- 
 
THE HOOF. 227 
 
 portant points of usefulness. Veterinary surgeons in practice 
 in England and Scotland could tell us that the large majority 
 (I would say about nine-tenths) of cart-horses which come to 
 them for treatment, are foot cases. The ideal hoof for a cart- 
 horse should in no way differ from that which is most suitable 
 to a light trapper, hunter, or race-horse, except that it should 
 be larger and consequently stronger. Therefore, we should 
 regard with disfavour the weak feet, with their low, spread-out 
 heels and flat soles, which, from their frequent occurrence, 
 have become too generally accepted as characteristic of cart- 
 horses. Small contracted feet are equally bad. 
 
 The inner quarter of the foot is more upright than the 
 outer quarter, and its ground surface is straighter ; conditions 
 which provide for the fact of more weight falling on the inner 
 than on the outer part of the foot. The horn has its 
 maximum amount of thickness at the toe (at which part there 
 is the greatest amount of wear from friction with the ground), 
 and gradually gets thinner as it approaches the heels. As the 
 fore feet are intended to support more weight than the hind 
 feet, their ground surface is broader, their frogs are larger, 
 and their heels are lower. 
 
 From many careful measurements of well-formed feet, 
 both in a natural state and when subjected to the influence of 
 shoeing, I have come to the conclusion that the slope of the 
 fore foot, at the toe, should be about 50, with a variation, 
 one way or the other, of, say, not more than 3. The slope 
 of the hoof will conform somewhat to that of the pastern. 
 The outside surface of the hoof should be naturally smooth, 
 and should be straight from the coronet to the ground ; for 
 undue roughness, bulging-out, or concavity of surface will 
 probably indicate the presence or previous existence of disease. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 The heels should be strong and the "bars" well developed, 
 so that the proper slope of the foot may be maintained, and 
 that the liability to "corns," or to contraction of the heels, 
 may be lessened. I may point out that one effect of shoeing 
 in the ordinary manner is to cause the heels to be subjected 
 to more wear than the toes ; for, at the latter part, the 
 position of the iron with regard to the wall is fixed ; but at 
 the former there is a certain amount of " play " between 
 the shoe and the horn. Consequently, the tendency of 
 the shod foot will be to acquire a less slope than it ought to 
 have at the toe. This difficulty in preserving the proper 
 shape of the hoof is a troublesome one to every careful and 
 competent shoeing smith. Some horses have such weak heels, 
 that if they wear ordinary shoes, it is impossible to keep the 
 feet at a proper slope, or to prevent them getting corns. The 
 fact of the feet being at a less slope than natural, will cause 
 an undue amount of strain to be thrown on the back tendons 
 (see p. 69). I may mention that if the bars be weak in pro- 
 portion to the wall, or if they be cut away, the heels of the 
 shod foot will have a tendency to contract. Unusual width 
 between the heels is generally associated with weakness of 
 those parts. At the same time they should have no tendency 
 to contraction, which will not be present if the frog, as it ought 
 to be, is well developed. I may remark that an abnormal size 
 of frog, especially if the sole be convex, or even flat, will, as 
 a rule, point to the effects of laminitis (fever of the feet). If, 
 however, the frog is in a healthy state, and if the sole, as it 
 should be, is concave in form, the observer need not fear that 
 the frog is too big. Horses which have never been shod, have 
 their frogs much larger, their heels further apart, and the 
 ground surface of their feet of greater area, than those which 
 
THE HOOF. 229 
 
 habitually stand on iron. The cleft of the frog in a healthy 
 foot is merely a slight depression in the centre of the frog, 
 and does not communicate with the sensitive structures 
 immediately above the frog. If the wall be strong and the 
 sole be concave, we may rest assured that the horn which 
 covers the sole is of sufficient substance, provided, of course, 
 that it has not been pared away by the shoeing-smith. 
 Some horses have an excess of soft tissue at the back of the 
 foot, which then makes the distance between the coronet 
 and heels abnormally long. This condition is known as 
 "boxy" or "fleshy heels," and is objectionable in that it 
 cramps the action of the foot, and renders it weaker, and 
 consequently more liable to injury, than if the foot were in a 
 normal state. 
 
 An undesirable kind of conformation which is sometimes 
 seen, usually in horses that have an admixture of cart and 
 thoroughbred blood, is that which gives the hoof the appear- 
 ance of being too big for the bones which it covers, without 
 being in any way deformed by disease, or by an overgrowth 
 of horn. This condition is due to the pastern bones being 
 slight in comparison to the size of the pedal bone, which, in 
 health, regulates that of the hoof. In such cases, the leg is 
 not alone abnormally weak, but the fact that its bones are 
 not symmetrical, points to the probability that there are, in 
 other parts of the framework, other instances of lack of har- 
 monious conformation. 
 
230 THE HIND LIMB. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE HIND LIMB. 
 
 General View of the Hind Limb The Pelvis Thigh and Stifle Tibia- 
 Hock Cannon and Fetlock Pastern and Hoof. 
 
 As many points of resemblance exist between the fore and 
 hind limb, I shall assume, in order to avoid needless 
 repetition, that my readers, before arriving at this chapter, 
 have studied the preceding one ; and also Chapter VIII., in 
 which I have tried to explain the action of both pairs of 
 legs. 
 
 General view of the Hind Limb. As the pelvis, 
 which is analogous to the shoulder-blade of the fore leg, is 
 essentially a portion of the hind quarters, I have reserved its 
 consideration for this chapter, instead of the one (Chapter 
 XVII.) in which I have attempted to treat of the trunk. 
 Although the chief function of the hind limb is that of 
 propulsion, it has, like the fore extremity, to bear weight ; 
 but to a lesser extent, and is also less exposed to the effects 
 of concussion. Thus we see that while the shoulder-blade is 
 connected to the body by muscles which work like a 
 spring, and which admit of extended reach in order to 
 preserve stability ; the pelvis is firmly united to the spine, so 
 
THE HIND LIMB. 231 
 
 that the force of propulsion may be transmitted to the body 
 with but little mechanical loss. The pastern and hoof of the 
 hind quarters are naturally more upright than those of the 
 forehand, and, consequently the muscles which bend them, 
 act to greater mechanical advantage. 
 
 We have seen in Chapter VIII., that for the attainment 
 of high speed, the horse should possess the fullest ability to 
 bend and extend the hind limb. Hence the beauty, in the 
 race-horse, of a " straight dropped" hind leg. As this power 
 chiefly depends on the action of the hock, I shall defer its 
 further consideration, until I come to that joint. 
 
 On page 162, I have remarked that the desirable pro- 
 portions for the bones of the limb are : pelvis, long ; thigh, 
 short ; tibia (from stifle to hock), long ; cannon, short ; and 
 pastern, long. 
 
 The sets of muscles which move the joints of the hind 
 limb, appear to complete their respective actions, in suc- 
 cession, from above downwards, namely : the hip-joint 
 first ; then the stifle ; and, finally, the hock and fetlock ; the 
 former being extended by the muscle that bends the latter. 
 We may infer that to be effective in the production of speed, 
 these actions must increase in rapidity in the same order. 
 As the muscles that " start " the weight at each step, are 
 those which extend the hip-joint, we must look for, in the 
 cart-horse, special muscular development of the croup and 
 thigh. In the race-horse, however, length and power of the 
 muscles of the gaskin, which cause acceleration of speed at 
 the end of the "stroke," should be particularly sought for. 
 These deductions, I may remark, are in accordance with the 
 nature of the conformation, respectively exhibited by horses 
 that are the representative types of the two classes. 
 
232 THE HIND LIMB. 
 
 The Pelvis. For speed we require the pelvis to be as 
 long as possible ; for strength, as broad as it can be. 
 
 The consideration of the best slope for the pelvis is a much 
 more difficult question than that of the most suitable angle for 
 the shoulder-blade, which, for most purposes, cannot be too 
 oblique. 
 
 If we examine Fig. 72, and refer to Chapter IX., we shall 
 see that the push, in draught, by the hind leg, is in an irregular 
 line from the toe, through the bones of the hind limb, the 
 pelvis, and the body, to the centre of pressure of the collar 
 on the shoulder. In Fig. 96, the line of propulsion is similar 
 to that in heavy draught, except that it passes through the 
 centre of gravity, instead of the centre of pressure on the 
 shoulder by the collar. It is evident that the straighter, or 
 less convex this irregular line is, the more effective will be 
 the propulsion. In draught, therefore, shortness of the hind 
 limbs, as compared to the forehand, will be an advantage (as 
 I have also pointed out on p. 74), in that it will tend to 
 render the line of bones through which propulsion takes 
 place, straight. As good length of hind limb is a necessity 
 in the galloper ; any reduction in the convexity of this line 
 will have to be obtained by the opening out of its angles, and 
 not by curtailing the length of the hind limb. Thus, the 
 hind leg will be stretched out as much as possible to the rear 
 (compare Figs. 72 and 96), and the direction of the pelvis (as 
 a point of conformation) will be more horizontal than in the 
 draught animal. The so-called horizontal croup is not alone 
 a great beauty in the saddle horse, but it is also a decided 
 mark of speed. If the pelvis or croup (which in this case is 
 practically the same thing) be too level (see p. 203), we may 
 suspect that the back is weak. 
 
THE PELVIS. 233 
 
 I need hardly point out that the pelvis is more upright 
 when the animal is standing still, than when he is in move- 
 ment ; and when he has no burden on his back, than when he 
 is mounted. Although I am aware that horses with drooping 
 quarters are not looked upon with disfavour in Irish hunting 
 fields ; I cannot help regarding this kind of conformation as a 
 serious defect in every class of horse which is required to go 
 faster than a slow trot. Its existence implies that the back- 
 ward sweep of the hind leg is proportionately curtailed, and 
 consequently the compass of the stride is more or less 
 cramped. Also, on account of the point of the buttock being 
 depressed, the muscles (the ischio tibiaL) which are attached 
 to it and to the head of the tibia, and which aid in the ex- 
 tension of the hip-joint, will be unduly shortened in length. 
 This condition, by bringing the hip-joint too far forward, is apt 
 to throw too much weight on the hocks and will thus be liable 
 to lead to injury of these joints. PL 36 shows that the hind 
 legs of the horse represented in it, bear an abnormal amount 
 of weight, as compared to the forehand. To have the point 
 of the buttock placed high and projecting well to the rear, 
 is a great beauty, which may be seen in some thorough- 
 breds and high-caste Arabs. I may state that this kind of 
 conformation is found in a high state of perfection in the 
 hare, in which animal the pelvis is not alone more or less 
 horizontally placed ; but the portion of it (the isckium) that 
 is behind the cavity in which the head of the hip-bone works, 
 is much longer in proportion to the remainder of the pelvis, 
 than it is in the horse. 
 
 A horse with unusually drooping quarters, as in PL 36, is 
 said to be "goose rumped." 
 
 The prominence which some horses show in the middle of 
 
234 THE HIND LIMB. 
 
 the croup (see PL 38), is due to the large development of the 
 inner angle of the pelvis (at each side), and points to the 
 presence, in the part, of strong muscles. St. Gatien, I may 
 mention, had this prominence well marked. 
 
 Thigh and Stifle. The muscles of the thigh should be 
 well developed, so that, when viewed from the rear, they 
 should leave no unsightly cavity between the legs. For 
 speed, the thigh 5 should be comparatively short (see p. 162), 
 and will then give the stifle the appearance of being placed 
 high up on the flank (see p. 163). The stifle should be 
 directed well outwards, so that it will have no difficulty in 
 clearing the abdomen, which the peculiar construction of the 
 hock joint that is explained on p. 70, enables it to do. It 
 seems probable that the fact of some " cow-hocked " (hocks 
 turned in, see p. 235) horses being able to show an unexpected 
 turn of speed, is frequently due to this kind of conformation 
 conferring on them increased ability to bring their hind feet 
 well forward. 
 
 Tibia. Under this term, I wish to include the muscles 
 and tendons between the stifle and point of the hock, with 
 their coverings, as; well as the tibia (see Fig. 3), which, I may 
 repeat, is the bone that lies between the stifle and hock 
 joint. For speed, the tibia should have a maximum of length 
 (see p. 162). This is particularly the case in the hare. 
 
 The Gaskin is one of the most important points by which 
 we may judge of the suitability of a horse for fast work ; for 
 I venture to assert after a long and careful study of the 
 subject, that it is impossible for a horse to have a really fine 
 turn of speed, unless he has broad gaskins. I may point 
 
THE HOCK. 235 
 
 out that width of gaskin is conferred by length of os calcis 
 (see p. 32). We may see from p. 70 that the longer the os calcis, 
 the greater is the mechanical advantage at which the muscles 
 that are attached to the point of the hock, work. I may add, 
 that these muscles agree in length with the tibia, and that the 
 longer they are, the quicker will be the action of the hock in 
 propulsion. The gaskin should not alone be broad, for 
 purposes of speed ; but in all cases its muscles should be well 
 developed. In PI. 48, the gaskin is poor. 
 
 The Hock. On page 77, I have indicated the direction 
 which the hock should have, as viewed from behind. We 
 have seen on page 70, that by a special arrangement of the 
 bones of the hock, the stifle is enabled to clear the abdomen, 
 without altering the direction of the hind foot, when the hind 
 leg is brought forward during movement. This action is 
 facilitated by the fact that, in a normally shaped leg, the 
 hock is directed slightly outwards as well as forwards (see 
 PL 12). When the points of the hocks are turned in to 
 excess (see PL 14), the effect to the eye is bad ; but the 
 mechanical loss is small, unless, indeed, the defect be much 
 exaggerated. If, on the contrary, the points of the hocks be 
 naturally turned outwards, the forward reach of the hind legs 
 will be impeded by the abdomen. Also, if we observe, from 
 behind, a horse which has this kind of conformation, and 
 which is walking, we shall as a rule find that each hock 
 instead of moving steadily in a straight line, receives a 
 peculiar twist (which must be accompanied by loss of power) 
 while it is propelling the body forward. Experience certainly 
 teaches us that of the two faults, it is better for a horse to 
 have his hocks turned in, than to have them turned out. 
 
236 THE HIND LIMB. 
 
 For purposes of speed, the hock should possess the power 
 of being fully extended (see p. 63) ; hence, the beauty of a 
 4 'straight dropped" hind leg (see PI. 51). In all great 
 gallopers (see Pis. 18 and 55), we may see this kind of 
 conformation ; although it is true that some fairly speedy 
 horses (but not of the highest class) have had their hocks 
 more bent than the types I have given. This ability to 
 straighten the hock is not required to any great degree, in 
 animals that are used at slow paces. " Sickle-hocks " (see 
 PL 49), as those are termed which remain bent to a marked 
 degree, when the joint is extended as much as possible, are, 
 however, objectionable in any kind of horse. 
 
 While recognising the desirability of straight hocks for 
 speed, we must not forget that this kind of conformation, to 
 be effective, must be accompanied by good length of hind 
 limb from hip-joint to foot, in order to obtain adequate flexion 
 as well as extension. If the hind leg be comparatively short 
 and the hock straight, as in PI. 36, it is evident that there 
 will be but little straightening out of the limb, when .the 
 " shove-off" is being given. 
 
 The width of the leg, immediately below the hock 
 (looking at the limb in profile), should be as great as possible 
 compared to the width of the fetlock. This desirable shape 
 (which has its analogy in the fore limb, see p. 219) is well 
 shown in Pis. 51, 52 and 53. I may remark that the hock 
 shown in PI. 52, which is that of a half-bred saddle nag, is 
 not a particularly straight one, although it is otherwise well 
 shaped. PI. 50, is a capital illustration of the defect known 
 as " tied-in " below the hock. 
 
 We are all agreed that a horse should have large hocks, 
 an expression which granting that the other points of the 
 
I 
 
 
 PL. 49 SICKLE HOCKS. PL. 5Q-TIED-IN BELOW HOCK. 
 
 PL. 52 GOOD HOCKS. 
 
 PHOTO. BY M. H. HAYES 
 
 PL. 51 STRAIGHT AND GOOD HOCKS. 
 
 TO FACE PAGE 236 
 
 PL.53 GOOD HOCKS. 
 
HOCKS AND KNEES WELL LET DOWN. 237 
 
 part are good is synonymous with "strong hocks." If we 
 find that a horse is not "tied-in" below the hock, and that 
 his gaskins are broad (i.e. his os calcis long), we may rest 
 assured that his hocks are of good size. 
 
 As the diseases and injuries of the hock belong to the 
 domain of equine surgery, and as I have investigated them 
 in Veterinary Notes for Horse-owners, I shall not allude 
 further to them here. The desirable absence of synovial 
 enlargements and of an undue amount of cellular tissue will 
 be indicated by the bones, tendons, and ligaments, and by 
 the hollows and eminences formed by them, being clearly 
 defined underneath the skin. 
 
 The horse has on the inside of each hind limb, and a little 
 below the hock joint, a castor or chesnut somewhat similar 
 to that found in the fore leg (see p. 216). 
 
 Hocks and Knees well let down. There is no point 
 in the conformation of the horse, upon which more stress is 
 usually laid, than that which may be described in horsey 
 language as "hocks and knees well let down/' or "hocks 
 and knees close to the ground." The cheetah (see PL 2) has 
 this point well marked. The black buck, another speedy 
 animal, is, on the contrary, much longer from his hocks and 
 knees. From an examination of the comparative length of 
 the bones of the limbs (see pp. 161 and 162), we know that 
 the proportion of the length of the column of bones below the 
 knee and hock to that of the radius and tibia, respectively, 
 remains more or less constant. How then comes it, we may 
 well ask, that the idea of the hocks and knees of some horses 
 being better "let down," than those of other horses, has 
 gained currency ? As regards the fore limb, the answer is 
 easy ; for the knee of a leg which has a comparatively 
 
238 THE HIND LIMB. 
 
 short cannon-bone and a sloping pastern, would, naturally, 
 be somewhat closer to the ground, than it would be, were 
 the cannon-bone long and the pastern upright. Besides this, 
 the appearance of a comparatively long cannon may, I ven- 
 ture to think, give the impression of greater length below 
 the knee and hock, than would be the case, were the cannon 
 short in comparison to the pastern. As regards the opinion 
 that the length from hock to toe, as compared to that from 
 hock to stifle irrespective of the slope of the pastern being 
 less in some horses than in others, I must say that I think it 
 is founded on an optical delusion. If we examine PI. 51, 
 we shall see a hock which certainly gives us the idea that it 
 is " well let down " ; but a look at PI. 49 will convey to our 
 minds the opposite kind of impression. And yet if we take a 
 pair of dividers and describe a circle, with the point of the 
 hock as a centre, and its distance from the toe as a radius, we 
 shall find that in the case of both PI. 51 and PI. 49, the cir- 
 cumference will cut the curved fold of skin near the groin at 
 the same point ! For convenience sake, I have taken these 
 measurements, which are sufficiently accurate for the purpose 
 in question ; although it would have been more correct to have 
 made them from the hock joint to the toe, and to the stifle 
 joint, respectively. From whence arises, then, this difference 
 of appearance between these two hind limbs, as regards the 
 height of the hock off the ground ? To this I would reply 
 that the fact of the hock in PL 51 being "straight" (see 
 p. 236), gives the impression to the observer that it is better 
 " let down," than the "bent" hock in PL 49 ; for, as the eye 
 runs down the limb, it would not be so abruptly arrested by 
 the former, as by the latter kind of conformation. Also, 
 the broader the bone is immediately below the hock (contrast 
 
THE HOOF. 239 
 
 PL 53 with PL 50), as compared to the width of the hind 
 fetlock ; the easier will the eye of the observer run down the 
 hind leg. 
 
 Cannon and Fetlock. Concerning these parts, I have 
 nothing to add to what I have already written in this chapter 
 and in the preceding one, beyond saying that if the leg is 
 of good width immediately below the hock, its shape will be 
 all right down to the fetlock. 
 
 Pastern and Hoof. As the hind limb is concerned more 
 in propulsion than in resisting the evil effects of concussion ; 
 its pastern should be more upright, than what would be 
 required in that of the fore leg. The hoof should more 
 nearly approach the perpendicular, than the fore one ; its 
 slope, when viewed in profile, being, in unshod horses, about 
 60. It is, as compared to its length, narrower ; the ground 
 surfaces of its quarters are straighter ; and their respective 
 curvatures differ less from each other, than those of the fore 
 extremity. The horn at the toe is not so thick ; the sole is 
 more concave ; the frog is narrower and less developed ; and 
 the heels are higher and closer together. 
 
240 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR. 
 
 Skin Colour Colour in relation to Heat and Cold Hair Hair on the 
 Legs of Cart-horses Markings. 
 
 Skin. The chief functions of the horse's skin, as far as 
 we are at present concerned, are : (i) to regulate the tem- 
 perature of the system ; (2) to aid in removing waste matters 
 from the blood ; and (3) to protect the body. As the first 
 and second duties are intimately connected with each other, 
 we may consider them conjointly. 
 
 The internal temperature being maintained by the 
 changes which take place in the tissues ; exercise, by 
 promoting these changes, increases the production of heat. 
 But as it also determines blood to the surface of the body, 
 and thereby stimulates the sweat glands ; the surplus heat is 
 removed by an increased amount of evaporation from the 
 skin, which performs this work, and also that of radiating 
 heat, best when it is thin. Although the subject of health is 
 outside the scope of this book, I may remark in passing, that 
 a soft and pliable condition of the skin is due to the fact of 
 the oil glands which are imbedded in it, being in good order. 
 Granting the employment of clothing when necessary, we 
 may assume that the skin of hard-worked horses, especially 
 
COLOUR. 241 
 
 those which are engaged at fast paces, should, within reason- 
 able limits, be as thin as possible, consistent with its being 
 able to stand the friction and pressure of harness and 
 saddle-gear. 
 
 Colour. The colour of a horse's coat, as a rule, does not 
 seem to be of much importance, as far as his useful qualities 
 are concerned ; although we cannot help being favourably 
 impressed with those of rich and decided shades. Personally, 
 I admire most a dark chestnut, or a dark brown with a tinge 
 of rich claret-colour through it, as may be met with on rare 
 occasions. Dark, bright bays are also very pleasing to the 
 eye. Generally speaking, a horse looks best when his legs 
 below the knees and hocks, mane and tail are darker than 
 the rest of his coat. Bright chestnuts, with white stockings 
 and blaze, like many of the Blair Athol blood, form, perhaps, 
 an exception to this. I cannot help sharing the general dis- 
 like to "mealy " chestnuts, and to bays and browns which are 
 lighter on the insides of the limbs and on the lower part of 
 the belly than on other portions of the body. The existence 
 of this partial deficiency of colouring matter in the skin seems 
 to infer want of nervous power ; for we must remember that 
 the distribution of pigment is greatly influenced by the 
 nervous system. The common belief that if one fore leg is 
 dark and the other white, the latter will be more apt to go 
 wrong than the former, holds good, I think, only as far as the 
 skin and hoof are concerned. Many persons consider black a 
 " soft " colour, except, indeed, in the case of cart-horses, which 
 are much admired when of that hue. The prejudice to which I 
 have just alluded is, probably, due to the fact of many animals 
 of this shade being " foreigners." Grey is, undoubtedly, an 
 
 R 
 
242 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR. 
 
 unpopular colour. Apart from any feeling as regards the 
 colour itself, it is true that it gets fainter as the horse gets 
 older, and then unmistakably and perhaps unpleasantly 
 proclaims the fact that the animal has passed his first youth. 
 Besides this, a grey coat is difficult to keep clean, and is 
 liable to contract stains which are hard to remove. The 
 extra trouble thus entailed predisposes grooms to dislike grey 
 horses, a fact which may account for the small number of 
 grey horses in England, compared with those met with in 
 the East, where stable duties are not so onerous as in this 
 country. I may mention that grey horses appear to be more 
 liable to melanosis than animals of other colours. Shire 
 horse fanciers do not like greys ; for the majority of foreign 
 buyers object to them. Some of their best horses, as 
 What's Wanted and Rokeby Fuchsia, for instance, were of 
 this hue. For my own part, I am very fond of dark iron or 
 dappled grey with dark mane and tail. Among the cleverest 
 jumpers I have seen, I must say that a comparatively large 
 proportion of them have been greys, a fact for which I can 
 offer no explanation. Blue and red roans, and dun with black 
 points, are supposed to be " hardy " colours. The most showy 
 colours for harness work, are bright chestnut and red roan with 
 more chestnut than grey hairs, and free from white patches. 
 When there is a large admixture of white with the red, the 
 colour may be called strawberry roan, which is an ugly hue, 
 particularly if the animal that wears it has a blaze and white 
 stockings. Both piebald and skewbald are suggestive of the 
 circus. The colours found among high-caste Arab horses are 
 practically limited to bay, brown, chestnut, and grey. The 
 same remark applies to our own thoroughbred stock, except 
 that we have a few roans, and a very small proportion of greys, 
 
COLOUR. 243 
 
 chiefly through Chanticleer. I may mention that chestnuts 
 are generally thought to be more impetuous than horses of 
 other colours. I do not think that this idea is worthy of 
 much weight. 
 
 The colour of the skin itself is either black, pink (free 
 from pigment), or it may be partly black and partly pink in 
 patches. Although the large majority of grey and white 
 horses have black skins ; pink skin will have invariably white 
 hair, and will secrete (at the coronets) white hoofs. Black 
 skin will form dark-coloured horn, even when the coat is 
 white. Although, as I have just said, white horses may have 
 black skins; we shall find that the. skin of white markings 
 (stars, blazes, reaches, snips, stockings, etc.) on dark-coloured 
 horses is, as a rule, white. In fact, I venture to say that the 
 skin of white stockings is always pink, and consequently the 
 hoofs of these legs will be white ; provided, of course, that 
 the white hair is continued down to the coronet. In the 
 East we may not unfrequently see pink-skinned horses, 
 which, of course, are white, and which, according to my 
 experience, are much ''softer" in constitution than animals 
 with dark skins. This fact is, I think, chiefly owing to the 
 greater effect the rays of the sun have on skins which are free 
 from pigment, than on dark-coloured skins. Besides, as 
 human albinos are generally inferior, intellectually and 
 physically, to their fellows, we may suppose that the same 
 rule holds good with respect to these equine albinos. Ex- 
 periments show that dark-coloured hair is capable of sustain- 
 ing greater tension than blonde hair. Hence we have reason 
 to assume that the protective cuticle and horn (both of which, 
 like hair, consist of epithelium), secreted by dark-coloured 
 skin, are stronger than those formed by pink skin. 
 
 R 2 
 
244 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR. 
 
 English stable-men who make a practice of washing horses' 
 feet, rightly consider that the animals under their charge 
 which have white pasterns, are more liable to get cracked 
 heels than those which have dark ones. The supposed 
 idiosyncracy in this case is no doubt chiefly due to the extra 
 amount of washing which the white pasterns receive, so as 
 to give them a clean appearance. 
 
 Colour in relation to Heat and Cold. Experience in 
 tropical climates teaches us that the darker a horse's coat is, 
 the better will he stand the effects of the sun. I may explain 
 that dark surfaces radiate out heat and also absorb it faster 
 than those of a lighter hue, as we may prove by the two 
 following experiments. If we fill with boiling water two 
 crockery teapots of the same form one being white, the 
 other black we shall find that, if they are both placed in a 
 cool spot, the latter will lose its heat quicker than the 
 former. If, however, they are filled with icy cold water, and 
 are then exposed under similar conditions to the effect of the 
 sun on a hot day, the black one will get warm in a shorter 
 time than its fellow. We are also aware that the skin of 
 natives of tropical climates is darker than that of in- 
 habitants of temperate or cold countries ; and that in the 
 Arctic regions, the coats of various animals turn white on 
 the approach of winter. The working of this natural law is 
 most beneficent ; for, as the temperature of the body of the 
 polar bear, for instance, is much higher than that of the 
 atmosphere in which he lives, he can lose nothing on account 
 of his white coat being a bad absorber of heat ; while the 
 fact of its parting with (radiating) heat slowly, helps the body 
 to maintain its normal degree of warmth. The skin of the 
 
COLOUR. 245 
 
 negro, for example, although it absorbs heat quickly, radiates 
 it still faster ; for the vapour given off by the skin cools the 
 surface, and also, by the mechanical protection it affords, 
 tends to prevent the absorption of heat from the atmosphere. 
 At first glance, we might, possibly, imagine that if the 
 surrounding air was warmer than the internal temperature 
 (about 100*5 Fahrenheit for the horse), no cooling effect 
 could be produced by radiation. When, however, the skin 
 is in healthy and untrammelled action, its temperature, on 
 account of the free evaporation of perspiration, is consider- 
 ably under that of the deeper structures, even when the 
 thermometer stands, say, 115 Fahrenheit in the shade. If, 
 under such circumstances, clothing be worn, the garments will 
 soon become almost, if not quite, as hot as the surrounding 
 air, evaporation will be checked, except from the exposed 
 parts, the temperature of the skin will rise, and the cooling 
 process of radiation will be more or less stopped. In this 
 case, any gain which may be obtained in lessening the 
 absorption of heat, as persons do in hot countries, by wearing 
 white will be a direct gain. During the summer months in 
 tropical latitudes, the hair on a horse's body will, usually, be 
 so short and thin, that its presence will offer no impedi- 
 ment to the action of the skin. Agreeably to the foregoing 
 observations, we find that black and brown horses stand heat 
 best ; and that white especially if they have pink skins and 
 grey animals sustain it comparatively badly. I have fre- 
 quently observed on hot days in tropical climates that, other 
 things being equal, horses of light hues sweated far more 
 readily and profusely than those of darker shades. 
 
 Hair. The possession of a fine glossy coat will .naturally 
 
246 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR. 
 
 indicate that the skin is in active working order, and conse- 
 quently in good condition for removing the surplus heat 
 generated in the body by hard labour. The Desert Arabs, 
 who have no objection to a thick mane, consider that unless 
 a horse has a thin tail, he cannot be of high caste. The 
 same idea seems to have given rise to the saying that one 
 never sees a bad rat-tailed horse. As remarked by 
 " Stonehenge," waviness in the hair of the tail is a sign of 
 want of breeding. 
 
 Hair on the Legs of Cart-horses. It is a common 
 belief that cart-horses with a good supply of hair on the legs 
 have better bone than the cleaner limbed animals. Mr. 
 G. M. Sexton, secretary to the English Cart-horse Society, 
 in his essay on cart-horses, writes as follows : " One of the 
 characteristics of the Shire horse is to have hair on the legs. 
 The hair should be long and thin, finer in quality on the 
 mare than the stallion ; it should grow from the fetlock above 
 the knee, and the same behind the hock. By many this is 
 thought to be a useless appendage, and that this abundance 
 of hair is a cause of grease ; but it is not so by any means. 
 Hair is an indication of bone and size." Mr. Frederick 
 Street, in his History of the Shire Horse, gives " plenty of 
 long silky hair on the legs " as one of the desirable points in 
 the Shire horse. Mr. James Howard, M. P., in his Notes on Cart- 
 horses (Royal Agricultural Journal, 1884), remarks that : u A 
 grave doubt, however, arises whether the profusion of hair 
 and ' feather ' insisted upon in show-yards and among the 
 leading breeders of Shire horses is really so essential to 
 strength and constitution as is generally asserted and 
 believed. As a farmer of heavy clay land much of it 
 
HAIR ON THE LEGS OF CART-HORSES. 247 
 
 hilly which requires very powerful horses in tillage and in 
 carting, I have long entertained doubts as to the policy of the 
 present tendency to such a profusion of hair. Breeders not 
 only contend for hair on the rear of the legs, but many have 
 also come to insist upon a mass of hair in front from the knee 
 downward, doubtless a characteristic of many of the old 
 Shire horses bred in Derbyshire early in the present century. 
 Of course, no one contends that all this hairy covering is 
 desirable in itself; it is advocated as being essential to 
 hardiness of constitution and size of bone. This contention 
 merely means that the desired constitution and sufficient bone 
 have not hitherto been obtained without an abundance of 
 hair." This gentleman cites cases in which, for railway 
 work, clean-legged horses are preferred to those with a 
 plentiful supply of hair, on account of the latter being pre- 
 disposed to grease and other forms of inflammation of the 
 skin of these parts. We may readily see that legs which 
 have a large amount of coarse hair on them would be 
 pre-disposed to grease and other allied ailments ; for, as both 
 hair and scurf skin are secreted by the true skin, we imay 
 infer that if the former is thick and coarse, the latter will 
 be strong and harsh, and, consequently, the oil which is 
 secreted to keep the surface soft and supple, will not be able 
 to perform its duty as efficiently as it would do, were the 
 scurf skin thin. When the scurf skin gets hard and cracks 
 from the effects of the climate and from its being insufficiently 
 supplied by this oil, the highly sensitive true skin becomes 
 inflamed from irritation due to exposure. The fact of cart- 
 horses being peculiarly liable to " sallenders," if they are 
 blistered for "bog spavins," taken in connection with the 
 coarseness of their hair, as compared to that of lighter 
 
248 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR. 
 
 breeds, would seem to support the opinion that the coarser 
 the hair, the more liable is the animal to suffer from 
 inflammation of the skin, of which grease is a form that is 
 very difficult to entirely allay. We may safely conclude that 
 if hair on the legs be desired, it should be soft and silky in 
 its nature. I may mention that Prince William, who, as a 
 two-year-old, was the champion of all classes in the Shire 
 Horse Society's show for 1885, had the best hair I have ever 
 seen on a cart-horse. Mr. Thomas Dykes, in his essay on 
 The Clydesdale Horse, states that " the back part from the 
 knee down should possess a nice flowing fringe of silken hair, 
 which should spring from the very edge of the bone. This 
 hair should be of what a judge of a Skye terrier would style 
 a ( pily ' nature ; and good judges will not have a horse at 
 all, the feather of which has a coarse matted appearance. 
 The high value set upon nice silky hair is on account of its 
 being an indication of strong, healthy bone, and as hair of a 
 short coarse matted kind suggests a tendency to grease." 
 
 Markings. When a dark-coloured horse has a small 
 patch of white, more or less in the centre of his forehead, it is 
 called a " star." If the white spreads over the forehead, it is 
 termed a " blaze." If it runs down his nose in the form of a 
 line of no great width, it is known as a " reach." A white 
 or pink patch on either lip, is called a "snip." White, 
 reaching down to the coronet, on the leg of a dark-coloured 
 horse is, as we all know, termed a "white stocking," an 
 expression that might be reserved for one that comes up as 
 high as the knee or hock ; while that of a " white sock " 
 might be used to signify the marking when it is shorter. 
 
249 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS. 
 
 Action. General Remarks on Action. The three chief 
 requisites of action, from a useful point of view, are : sure- 
 footedness, effectiveness, and lightness, so that the limbs may 
 not unduly suffer from the effects of concussion. As remarked 
 many years ago by Dr. Carson, the safety of a horse's action 
 depends on the way he puts his feet down, rather than on 
 the manner in which he picks them up. We should, there- 
 fore, from this point of view, attach no value to high action, 
 beyond what is sufficient to enable the animal to avoid striking 
 his toes against any inequalities which may be on the surface 
 over which he is going. The stability of the fore limb, when 
 the foot comes on the ground, depends, to a great extent, on 
 the knee being kept straight, which is mechanically done, 
 without the expenditure of muscular force, if a line drawn 
 from the heel to the centre of the elbow joint, falls at that 
 moment, in front of the centre of the knee joint. The more 
 upright the pastern, the further will this line be drawn back as 
 regards the position of the knee. As the shoulder-blade and 
 pastern are at opposite ends of the column of bones of the 
 fore limb, and as they both slope in the same direction ; 
 it follows that the degree of slope of the shoulder will 
 influence that of the pastern. Hence, for safe action, we 
 
250 ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS. 
 
 should seek for oblique shoulders, sloping and long pasterns, 
 knees in which there is no tendency to " stand over," and 
 lightness of forehand. 
 
 For effectiveness, the action should be the happy medium 
 between a cramped style of going, and one in which 
 command over the limbs is, to a certain extent, lost by the 
 stride being too long. 
 
 By the term lightness of action, I wish to specify well- 
 balanced movements of the limbs, by which undue weight is 
 thrown on none of them, and particularly not on the forehand. 
 The action from a " level" point of view, is influenced by the 
 conformation of the body, and by the carriage of the head and 
 neck. To be perfect at fast paces, we require the animal 
 to be light in front ; to have oblique shoulders and sloping 
 pasterns, so as to have full power to raise the forehand ; 
 and to have good loin muscles. In Chapter X., I have 
 treated of the carriage of the head and neck. In heavy 
 draught we do not require lightness of action, which is the 
 direct opposite of throwing weight into the collar. 
 
 The Walk. At this pace, like at all others, the shoulders 
 should work with the utmost freedom, and the fore foot 
 should be thrown well to the front and only high enough to 
 clear and cover the ground. We may see this beautiful play 
 of the shoulders to perfection in young thoroughbreds. The 
 hind legs should be swung freely to the front, so that they 
 will considerably overstride the imprints made by the fore 
 feet. Viewed from behind, as well as from the front, the near 
 and off pairs of legs should respectively move in the same 
 line, so that there may be no " dishing " or crossing of the 
 legs. The hocks should have no in-and-out movement, as 
 may be sometimes seen, and had better work rather close 
 
ACTION AT THE TROT. 251 
 
 together than wide. Any tendency to stumble or knuckle 
 over behind, is a serious fault, unless it be solely due to bad 
 shoeing. If the horse be given a long rein, he should carry 
 his head rather low and well advanced, and should be able to 
 walk at the rate of about five miles an hour. 
 
 The Trot. At the fast trot, the fore leg should be 
 brought to the front with a straight knee, the foot appearing 
 as if suspended for a brief moment before being placed down. 
 The knee should not be raised higher than what would be 
 sufficient to make the fore-arm horizontal, or not quite so 
 much. The hind legs should be carried well forward, and 
 should work in perfect unison with the fore limbs. Nothing 
 looks worse than to see a horse trotting high in front, and 
 dragging his hind legs along the ground. As I have already 
 remarked, with reference to the walk, there should be no 
 " dishing " or crossing of the legs, so that, when viewed from 
 behind, a clear space will be preserved between the near pair 
 and the off pair of legs. I may explain that a horse " dishes " 
 with a fore leg when he throws the foot outwards as he raises 
 it off the ground. In fast trotting, mobility of the shoulder 
 (which largely depends on the possession of a long neck, see 
 p. 181) is a point of the utmost consequence. Hence 
 American breeders employ, as much as circumstances will allow, 
 thoroughbreds for the production of their matchless trotters. 
 In the trot, the head should be carried much higher than in 
 the walk ; as the limb has to be raised to a greater extent. 
 
 The Gallop. In order that the animal may utilise to the 
 utmost his forward reach in the gallop, his knees should be 
 kept as straight as possible when his fore legs are being 
 extended to the front. In fact, the straighter they are at that 
 moment, the more perfect will be the front action on level 
 
252 ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS. 
 
 ground. A race-horse should, like a ballet dancer, move as 
 if he had no knees. I may, however, qualify my praise of 
 low action by remarking that a horse who bends his knees a 
 little, is better suited for going up a hill, than a " daisy 
 cutter " ; as his " round " style of going will aid him in climb- 
 ing the ascent. Heavy shoes on the feet have a marked 
 influence in making horses go "high" in all their paces, a 
 fact which has been largely utilised by American trainers in 
 regulating the action of their trotters. As this tendency is 
 detrimental to the speed of race-horses, light tips of suffi- 
 cient substance to stand wear, should, as pointed out to me 
 by Mr. Tom Jennings, the well known trainer, be much more 
 extensively employed, than they are at present. In India, 
 where but very little rain falls during the racing season, I have 
 trained and run many of the horses I have had in my stable, 
 without shoes of any kind. I have mentioned on p. 83, 
 that curb bits are objectionable for use with race-horses, on 
 account of their tendency to make horses gallop " round," or 
 to "fight" in their action. In the former case, the animal 
 will carry his head low and bring his chin into his chest with 
 the object of transferring the pressure, as much as possible, 
 to his poll, over which the head-piece of his bridle passes, 
 and will consequently bend his knees too much. In the latter 
 case, the animal will keep his head stuck up in the air, 
 probably, in the vain attempt to get his jaw away from the 
 painful contact of the curb chain. 
 
 If we observe a "true" galloper, we may note that he 
 holds his head and neck in a more or less uniform position 
 (see pp. 84 and 85), so as to enable the muscles of the neck to 
 work in a machine-like manner. 
 
 The hind legs, at the gallop, should be brought well for- 
 
ACTION AT THE LEAP. 253 
 
 ward under the body, with particularly quick recovery after 
 having been straightened out. Their action, like that of 
 the forehand, should be characterised by the machine-like 
 regularity of their forward and backward sweep. The limbs 
 should move in such perfect accord one with the other, that 
 there should be the least possible rise and fall of the fore- 
 hand ; for if the weight be depressed at one moment, it will 
 have to be raised during the next, by an expenditure of force 
 which will be wasted as far as progression is concerned. 
 
 Leaping. In Chapter XIII. we have seen that the " take- 
 off," in the leap consists in the raising of the forehand and 
 in the propulsion of the body. Hence, at that moment, 
 the animal should have his head raised and somewhat 
 drawn back, so as to "lighten" the forehand, for which 
 object, and in order to be able to fully bend the hind legs, he 
 should have them well under him. To obtain the maximum 
 effect of propulsion, the horse should straighten his hind legs 
 to their utmost extent ; and to clear the object, if it be one 
 that is likely to tax his powers to " negotiate," he should 
 raise his knees well and should bend them as much as he can. 
 The instant the hind feet quit the ground, they should be 
 drawn up as quick as possible and close to the body, so that, 
 in high jumping, they may not catch in the fence, but 
 be ready to save the animal from a fall in the event of an 
 accident, and to enable him to land in safety. On clearing 
 the obstacle, the fore feet should be brought well to the 
 front, and as they respectively come to the ground, their 
 knees should be quite straight. The head should be some- 
 what raised and the muzzle drawn in a little, so as to bring the 
 weight back, and to enable the horse to see where he is going 
 to place his feet. 
 
254 ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS. 
 
 Handiness and Cleverness. The " handiness " or 
 " cleverness " of a horse depends on his conformation, dis- 
 position, and training, with which we are not at present con- 
 cerned. It goes almost without saying, that a placid- 
 tempered animal would be easier to stop or turn, than an 
 excitable one, and would be consequently handier ; but I 
 cannot say that he would be cleverer. I have known several 
 terribly hard-pulling steeple-chasers that were as " clever as 
 cats," and always had a " spare leg " for every difficulty, 
 provided their rider did not interfere with their mouth ; and I 
 have seen other equally stiff-necked, cross-country horses, 
 whose sole delight, no matter how lightly they were handled, 
 seemed to be punching a hole in every fence they met. Some 
 temperate ones are just as "chancy," apparently, from pure 
 laziness ; though many quiet animals are incapable of making 
 a mistake. 
 
 The points of conformation which conduce to handiness 
 and cleverness are : 
 
 1. Well set on head and neck, so that the horse may be 
 able to bend readily to the rein. 
 
 2. Light in front (head, neck, and shoulders), and having 
 well-sloped shoulders and front pasterns, in order that he 
 may be able to raise his forehand with ease, and bring his 
 weight back. 
 
 3. Strong loins. We must remember that the upper loin 
 muscles are " rearing muscles " (see page 64), and that the 
 lower ones assist to bring the hind legs under the horse. 
 
 4. Strong hocks and broad gaskins. 
 
255 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 CONDITION, AND GOOD LOOKS. 
 
 Condition. I use this term here to signify the bodily 
 state in which a horse can, in the best possible manner, do 
 work that will test the power of his lungs and muscles to the 
 utmost. I shall make no reference to " dealers' condition," 
 which is a subject that does not come within the scope of 
 either conformation, or of horsemanship. 
 
 A horse to be in condition should be healthy and sound ; 
 should have his breathing apparatus in the best possible 
 working order ; his muscles developed to the highest degree 
 of perfection, with regard to the nature of the task they have 
 got to perform ; and the amount of fat in his system should 
 be reduced to a minimum consistent with health. 
 
 I shall now glance at the chief signs of condition in the 
 horse. 
 
 i. HealtJi and Soundness. The latter, apart from the 
 former, need not be considered here ; for it belongs to the 
 domain of veterinary science. The ordinary indications of 
 health are : coat, bright ; skin, cool (except when heated by 
 exercise, or by the sun), soft and loose over the muscles ; 
 eyes, bright and soft in expression ; visible mucous mem- 
 branes (of the eyes and nostrils), healthy looking ; mouth, 
 
256 CONDITION, AND GOOD LOOKS. 
 
 sweet smelling; internal temperature (in health about 100*5 
 F.), pulse (from about 35 per minute for heavy cart-horses, to 
 about 45 for small ponies), and rate of breathing (10 to 12 per 
 minute, when at rest), normal. The dung should be fairly 
 well formed, free from mucus, and from any offensive smell. 
 The appetite as a rule should be good ; although horses 
 may become a bit ''dainty" in their feeding, when they 
 have been wound up in their training to " full concert 
 pitch." 
 
 2. Development and Leanness of Muscles. The muscles of 
 the croup (those over the quarters) should present a rounded 
 surface, and those over the loins and back, at each side of the 
 backbone, should stand out in bold relief. The line (some- 
 times known as the "water-mark") down the thigh (see PI. 
 55) should be clearly apparent. The muscles just above 
 the fore-arm should form a rounded mass, and those of the 
 shoulders should be well defined. There should be over the 
 ribs a thick sheet of muscle, which should show well 
 above the level of the part of the flank in rear of it. This 
 muscular covering of the ribs terminates abruptly in an 
 irregular line which goes downwards and backwards in the 
 direction of the groin, and which can be seen plainly only 
 when there is no excess of fat about the part. I may explain 
 that in forced respiration (see p. 47), the muscles which 
 cover the ribs are brought into active play, and they 
 consequently, become largely developed by the process that 
 brings the galloper, or fast trotter, into condition. Hence, if 
 there be in a horse a marked difference of level between the 
 surface in front of the line in question, and that in the rear 
 of it (see PL 54) ; we may reasonably conclude that he has done 
 a good deal of that kind of work which brings his lungs into 
 
C1 
 
 lifilililili 
 
CONDITION. 
 
 257 
 
 rapid action, and that his system is not overloaded with fat. 
 The fact of the " water-mark " being clearly indicated is also 
 dependent on the absence of fat about the part. 
 
 The line which marks the termination of the sheet of muscle to which I 
 have alluded, corresponds to the posterior border of the fleshy portion of the 
 panniculus, and indicates the commencement of the aponeurotic portion. 
 The " water-mark," or " quarter-mark," to which I have also drawn attention, 
 is the line of separation between the rotator tibialis and the abductor femoris. 
 
 The most time-honoured method of ascertaining whether 
 or not a horse is in condition is to feel his crest with the 
 hand, so as to find out if it be hard or soft. This plan has 
 its merits ; for the crest is a part on which many "gross" 
 horses (like the one represented in PL 30) have a tendency 
 to deposit fat. I need hardly say that a thick layer of fat 
 would feel softer to the touch than a mass of ligament, 
 muscle, and tendon. 
 
 The diagonal line on the flank, the appearance of the ribs 
 through a thick layer of muscle, and the lean though muscular 
 condition of the shoulders of a race-horse in training, are well 
 shown in the Frontispiece. 
 
 3. Signs of condition afforded by the state of the breathing. 
 Although a practical trial would give an experienced observer 
 the best possible idea of the state of an animal's organs of 
 breathing ; the question depends so much on individual 
 merits and defects, that it is very difficult to lay down any 
 fixed rules for guidance in making such a test. Supposing 
 that the horse had done his work in what we considered a 
 satisfactory style, we might prove the correctness of our 
 judgment, by observing the manner in which he would 
 recover from the effects of his exertion. If after a sharp 
 
 s 
 
258 CONDITION, AND GOOD LOOKS. 
 
 " rough-up," his lungs resumed a tranquil form of breathing, 
 when he had rested or (better still) had been walked about 
 for a few minutes, and if he did not show any appearance of 
 being distressed by the severity of the work, we might fairly 
 conclude that his " pipes " were in good order. Trainers 
 generally think that the fact of a horse " blowing his nose " 
 (as a kind of sneeze which these animals sometimes make 
 after a quick " spin," is called) is a sign of his wind being all 
 right. I may also point out that if a horse's wind is not 
 " clear," he will be unable to quickly " come again," if he gets 
 out of breath during a run, even if he be "eased off" for a 
 little, with the object of letting him " catch his second wind." 
 If a strong gallop has the effect of making a horse unusually 
 thirsty, we may doubt that his lungs are in good order. To 
 test whether or not a horse is a roarer, we had best, imme- 
 diately after the animal has done some fast or severe work, 
 apply the ear close to one of his nostrils. 
 
 I may remark that large calibre and thinness of the walls 
 of the nostrils, which condition -predisposes a horse to "high 
 blowing " (see Veterinary Notes for Horse-owners), is a sign 
 that the animal's organs of breathing are naturally good. 
 
 4. Signs of condition manifested by the state of the sweat. 
 The fatter a horse is, the thicker and more greasy will be his 
 sweat. When a horse is in condition, his sweat will come off 
 like water, will have lost the saline taste it previously had, 
 and, unless the animal is in a state of excitement, it will dry 
 on the skin with extreme quickness, as soon as the work 
 which had opened the pores, has been stopped. If a horse 
 which has no excess of fat in his system, shows a tendency to 
 sweat on very slight provocation of work or " closeness " of 
 atmosphere, and if the perspiration thus induced, takes a 
 
GOOD LOOKS. 259 
 
 long time to dry on the surface of the body, we may 
 reasonably conclude that general weakness is the cause of this 
 excessive action of the pores of the skin. I may explain that 
 when a horse sweats from excitement (as on a race-course), 
 the surface of the body thus moistened, will not dry quickly ; 
 for as long as the excitement lasts, the outpouring of the fluid 
 will more or less continue. 
 
 Good Looks. Beauty in the horse is dependent : 
 
 1. On the uniformity of type which the various parts of 
 the body bear to each other. Thus, a Shire horse with his 
 Roman nose, loaded shoulders, and short legs, may be quite 
 as handsome as a good-looking English thoroughbred, or 
 a showy, high-caste Arab. 
 
 2. On the artistic arrangement of the lines of his body. 
 We may see the importance of this from a beauty point of 
 view, if, for example, we contrast a photograph of a horse 
 having the ears pricked forward, with another one of the 
 same animal, taken a moment afterwards, but having the 
 ears in a normal position. The former may look handsome, 
 and the latter plain ; although the two may be absolutely 
 identical in every particular, except in that of the ears. The 
 " line of beauty " (alternate convexity and concavity, or vice 
 versa) is well exemplified from the tip of the off ear to the 
 top of the croup, in PL 31 ; in which there is, however, a 
 too sudden depression of the quarter. The curves from tip 
 of ear to end of tail, are also good in PL 35, except that 
 the line of the crest and that of the croup would be improved 
 if they were slightly more convex. For very beautiful curves 
 of the upper line of the body, from tip of nose to tail, 
 see PL 55. One reason (which possibly might escape 
 
 s 2 
 
260 CONDITION, AND GOOD LOOKS. 
 
 the notice of a casual observer) why the grey horse in 
 PL 35 looks so well, is that the curves of the under part 
 of his body from muzzle, lower lip (assisted by the rein), 
 along lower jaw, under throat, down neck, in front of 
 chest, along the belly, under groin, and carried in front of 
 both hind legs are very graceful. In all cases, oblique 
 shoulders, sloping pasterns, long and well-arched back ribs, 
 muscular loins, more or less horizontal pelvis, tail set high up, 
 straight-dropped hind leg (contrast PL 51 with PL 49), will 
 be beauties. 
 
 As heavy cart-horses are often somewhat "back at the 
 knees " (see p. 2 1 8), the presence of a good supply of fine 
 hair behind the back tendons, increasing in amount from the 
 knee to the fetlock, will balance this concavity. I do not 
 think that docking, except when it is done to remove an 
 unsightly "kink," ever improves the appearance of ahorse, 
 from an artistic point of view. The removal of the forelock, 
 when hogging the mane, is always an eyesore. Whenever 
 good looks are sought to be studied, the mane should not be 
 hogged, if the animal has a light neck. As a horse is looked 
 at more frequently from the near than from the off-side, his 
 mane, as a rule, should fall to the off-side. 
 
 As regards colour, see Chapter XX. With it we may 
 include a bright, healthy-looking coat. 
 
 Under this heading we must also put good carriage of 
 the head and tail, and true and showy action. For carriage 
 of the head and neck, see p. 80, et seq. The tail during 
 movement should be held well out, with the hairs falling from 
 it in graceful curves. To look well, the limbs should work in 
 lines parallel to the direction in which the horse is going ; 
 for any crossing or dishing of the legs will detract from the 
 

GOOD LOOKS. 261 
 
 grace of their movement. Somewhat lofty, " cadenced," 
 action in the walk or trot of the hack or charger will be 
 pleasing to the eye, as it will suggest the possession of force 
 and speed held well in reserve. 
 
 I need hardly say that a bright, intelligent expression of 
 face, which is greatly assisted by the movements of the ears, 
 adds greatly to the .beauty of the horse. 
 
262 WEIGHT-CARR Y1NG AND STA YING PO WER. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 WEIGHT-CARRYING AND STAYING POWER. 
 
 Weight-carrying Power. The special points for 
 weight-carrying power, are : 
 
 1. Length and obliquity of shoulder-blade (see p. 207). 
 One might be inclined to think that very oblique 
 
 shoulders are not an advantage from a weight-carrying 
 point of view ; for they necessitate the saddle being put 
 farther back on the horse, than would be the case with 
 shoulders of only a moderate slope. At the same time, 
 we must remember that with horses of the same depth of 
 body at the withers, the more oblique the shoulder-blades, 
 the longer they will be. 
 
 2. Strong loin muscles. 
 
 3. Good substance and fine "quality of bone. 
 Ormonde (Frontispiece), "the horse of the century," and 
 
 St. Gatien, the dead-heater for the Derby and winner of the 
 Cesarewitch, were horses of great bone, and were marvellous 
 weight carriers. 
 
 4. Pasterns not too sloping. 
 
 5. Absence of undue weight of body beyond that which 
 would be necessary for the movements of the limbs, and for 
 the performance of the various vital functions. 
 
 The foregoing rules would apply to all classes of horses. 
 
STA YING PO WER. 263 
 
 For absolute weight-carrying power, the animal should have 
 short legs (a fact which would be incompatible with the 
 possession of speed), and should have his pelvis somewhat 
 drooping. 
 
 Staying Power. The ability to "stay a distance," 
 granting the possession of health and condition, depends 
 (i) on the breathing power being good; (2) on the muscles 
 working to advantage, and on the conformation being of the 
 required kind ; and (3) on the action. 
 
 With respect to the first condition, we require the barrel 
 to be deep and rounded behind the girths (see p. 191), and 
 the flanks to be well ribbed up. 
 
 The second condition will be best fulfilled, from the point 
 of view of speed, when the muscles over the loins are power- 
 ful, and when the forehand is light ; that is to say, when the 
 shoulders and pasterns are oblique, and the head, neck and 
 shoulders light, in which case the fore legs will not be 
 wide apart (see p. 197). As thick muscles are unsuited 
 to bear the strain of continued quick work, we usually find 
 that genuine stayers at fast paces are not heavily built 
 horses. Any excess of height over the croup, as compared 
 to that at the withers, will add to the weight on the fore- 
 hand (see p. 49). The fact of the neck (see p. 181) bein^ 
 abnormally short in comparison to the limbs, will naturally 
 detract from the staying power. The same remark applies 
 to the possession of "sickle-hocks" (see p. 63). In heavy 
 draught, the mechanical advantage will be on the side of a 
 heavy forehand. 
 
 I may remark that there is an important difference 
 between staying-power (using the term in its racing sense), 
 
264 WEIGHT-CARRYING AND STAYING POWER. 
 
 and ability to endure fatigue. For instance, East Indian 
 ponies, though often very fast for a short distance, are 
 notoriously bad stayers ; and yet they are wonderfully good 
 animals on a long journey. Thus, many of them which are 
 incapable of " getting" beyond three furlongs in a race, would, 
 if harnessed to an ecka (see PI. 8) do, comfortably, 70 or 
 80 miles from sunrise to sunset, with the thermometer at 
 noon up to 110 F. or more, in the shade. Here the lack of 
 staying-power would be due to the organs of breathing being 
 unable to continue work under high pressure. As might be 
 expected, these " country -bred " ponies (see PI. 34) are, 
 as a rule, light behind the girth, flat-sided, and badly ribbed 
 up. With, thin necks and light shoulders, their good legs and 
 feet have but little weight to carry ; and as the quality of 
 their tissues is of the best, and their spirit undeniable, they 
 can go marvellously long distances without getting knocked 
 up provided always that they are not over-paced or over- 
 weighted. I need hardly say that a genuine stayer will also 
 be capable of appearing to advantage in a " go-as-you-please " 
 task ; for he will possess all the good points of the other, 
 with better organs of breathing. The small amount of extra 
 weight (on account of increased length of rib) which he 
 will have to carry, will be more than compensated by the 
 larger space allowed for his digestive organs. As a rule, in 
 proportion to their respective sizes, small horses will stay 
 better, and will be capable of enduring more fatigue, than big 
 horses. The reason for this appears to be that the former 
 have more vitality than the latter, on account of the rate of 
 the circulation of their blood being quicker. 
 
 I need not point out the advantages of good action in the 
 present connection. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 BLOOD, SYMMETRY, AND COMPENSATIONS. 
 
 Blood. The relation of " blood" to conformation is its 
 only one which need be considered here 
 
 The term " blood " usually signifies more or less pure descent 
 from animals mentioned in the English Stud Book, or from 
 high-caste Arabs. In our Colonies, the initials T. B. have a 
 more elastic application than in the Mother-country. English 
 thoroughbred horses having been bred almost entirely with 
 the object of their utilisation on the Turf; their conformation 
 more or less resembles that of the galloper. Were I to be 
 asked to particularise the " point " or " points " most charac- 
 teristic of the English "blood" horse, I would answer: 
 11 The legs below the knees and hocks." Their special 
 peculiarities, in this respect, are : lightness of bone, thin- 
 ness of skin, fineness and shortness of hair, small amount 
 of underlying connective tissue, near approach to parallelism 
 of back tendons to cannon-bones, with consequent smallness 
 of fetlock joints (see p. 218), good length of pasterns, and 
 small hoofs with well-arched soles. These hard-looking, 
 though light-shaped legs, are evidently an inheritance from 
 the East ; for although we rarely, if ever, see them in pure 
 Western stock, we may find them in profusion among Arab, 
 Barb, Persian, East Indian, and South African horses, all of 
 
266 BLOOD, SYMMETRY AND COMPENSATIONS. 
 
 which have been bred in a hot, dry climate. The speed of 
 the thoroughbred is the result of careful selection in breeding, 
 by which, not only has the best form of conformation been 
 obtained, but also the most suitable kind of nervous organisa- 
 tion. The effect of heredity is specially shown in the working 
 of the nerves, which regulate the exhibition of all muscular 
 force. Although they can in no way increase the actual 
 strength of a muscle, its failure or success in putting forth its 
 full power, and also its speed of contraction are dependent on 
 them. Hence, two horses of identically the same " make 
 and shape " (if such a thing were possible) might differ widely 
 in pulling power, handiness, or speed, on account of a want of 
 similarity in their nervous systems. We see this fact well 
 marked among men, in whom uncommon quickness and great 
 dexterity of muscular movement is often inherited. The 
 speed, then, obtained from "blood," independent of confor- 
 mation, may be regarded as an outcome of heredity. In 
 judging, therefore, by a horse's conformation, of his suitability 
 to any particular kind of work, we should take into careful 
 consideration all the " blood " points which he may possess. 
 I may mention that the fact of a horse having Arab blood 
 in his veins, is, in itself, no reason for our inferring that he 
 has a good "turn of speed;" for Arabs, though charming 
 hacks and admirable light cavalry troopers, are not race- 
 horses. 
 
 It is noteworthy that thoroughbred stock which are 
 allowed (as they often are in the Colonies) to run wild, say, up 
 to four or five years old, before they are taken up, and which 
 are then put to ordinary labour, lose in a great measure the 
 blood-like appearance they might have possessed, had they 
 been handled early and put into training in the usual way. 
 
SYMMETRY. 267 
 
 Symmetry is the conformance, as regards size, shape 
 and arrangement, of the various parts of the body to some 
 particular type of useful horse. 
 
 In violation of this condition, we may have united in 
 the same animal, the long legs and light body of the race- 
 horse, and the heavy head, loaded neck, and thick shoulders 
 of the cart-horse ; or the contours of the race-horse, with the 
 exception of the loins being weak, and the hind legs short 
 with drooping croup. Even with the ordinary saddle-nag, 
 to say nothing of the hunter and officer's charger, we have 
 too frequently the massive shoulders of the draught-horse. 
 A coarse, heavy head, which reveals but too plainly a cart- 
 strain, is a terrible eyesore to an animal whose neck and 
 shoulders are light, and which might otherwise figure as a 
 high-class hack. 
 
 We may see short-legged, deep-bodied cart-horses, with 
 great power of limbs and shoulders, having weak loins. I may 
 also mention that a horse which has oblique shoulders should 
 also have sloping pasterns and a horizontal croup. We must 
 here remember that the effect of "work" is often to render 
 the pasterns abnormally upright. We may witness many 
 instances of want of symmetry in the "tying-in" of the legs 
 under the knees, short pasterns, and large, flat feet of long 
 and slender-limbed horses. I need hardly say that a mean 
 carriage of the tail will contrast most unfavourably with a 
 showy and graceful bearing of the head and neck. 
 
 The generic term "weed" is applied, usually, to long- 
 legged animals which are weak in the loins, and are light in 
 the back ribs. As a rule, the cause of their comparative 
 worthlessness is wrongly attributed to the length of their 
 limbs, rather than to their defects of loin and rib. If we com- 
 
268 BLOOD, SYMMETRY AND COMPENSATIONS. 
 
 pare PL 56 (which represents a typical weed) with the 
 Frontispiece, we shall see that the mare in the former was 
 actually "longer" and "lower" (taking the proportion 
 between her height at the withers, and her length of body), 
 than the deep-ribbed and strongly "coupled" Ormonde. It 
 is evident that no amount of shortening of her legs could 
 improve her conformation. 
 
 Compensations. The points which I shall consider 
 under this heading have special reference to the saddle-horse 
 and light trapper : 
 
 "Plainness" of head will be best "carried off" by a 
 " kind," intelligent expression of face ; quick play of the ears, 
 which will do well to be small ; good carriage of the head ; 
 and graceful setting-on of the head with the neck. The size 
 of the latter should conform to that of the former. 
 
 Undue lightness of neck. Full mane ; light head, small 
 ears, sloping and flat shoulders. 
 
 Heavy neck and loaded shoulders may be corrected to 
 some extent, from a beauty point of view, by a good-looking, 
 intelligent head, nice crest, and light mane. From consider- 
 ations of utility, we should have the shoulders and pasterns 
 sloping ; the bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments of the 
 fore limb below the shoulder strong ; feet good ; and loins and 
 hind quarters powerful. 
 
 Fore legs below the elbows too light ; Pasterns too upright, 
 or too oblique. Legs otherwise well-shaped ; light forehand ; 
 sloping shoulders ; and good loins. 
 
 " Calf knees" or " over at the knees." Strength of leg below 
 the elbow ; parallelism of back tendons with cannon-bones 
 (see p. 218) ; sloping shoulders ; light forehand ; strong loins. 
 
COMPENSATIONS. 269 
 
 Ribs "flat-sided." Good depth of body at lowest point 
 of back ; flanks well ribbed-up. 
 
 Too hollow in the back. Light forehand, sloping shoulders, 
 and in all cases, broad, powerful loins, which is the special 
 kind of compensation in this instance. 
 
 Loins too light \ and flanks badly ribbed-up. Light fore- 
 hand ; shoulders and pasterns oblique ; light abdomen ; well 
 rounded barrel ; strong hind quarters ; good gaskins ; 
 "straight-dropped" hind legs. 
 
 Hind quarters too light. Light forehand ; shoulders and 
 pasterns oblique ; light, but well rounded barrel ; muscular 
 loins ; good gaskins ; " straight dropped " hind legs. 
 
 "Sickle-hocks"- With this defect in a saddle horse which 
 would be required for fast work, it would be well for him to 
 have good length of hind legs, the possession of which 
 will presuppose that of a horizontal pelvis ; and the com- 
 pensations mentioned in the preceding paragraph, with the 
 exception of " straight dropped " hind legs, which is the 
 opposite kind of conformation to that which we are con- 
 sidering. 
 
2/o SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES. 
 
 The Race-horse The Racing Pony The Jumper The Heavy Cart-horse The 
 Harness-horse The Hack The Lady's Horse The Cavalry Trooper The 
 Officer's Charger The Artillery Horse The Polo Pony. 
 
 The Race Horse. i. The height of the galloper at the 
 withers, and also over the croup, should be at least equal to 
 his length of body (see p. 152 et seq^). 
 
 2. The depth at the withers should be considerably less 
 than half his height (see p. 153). 
 
 3. The loins behind the cantle of the saddle should be flat 
 on account of the presence of largely developed muscles (see 
 pp. 64 and 200). 
 
 4. The gaskins should be broad (see p. 234). 
 
 5. The neck should be long (see p. 181). 
 
 6. The forehand should be light (see p. 211). Con- 
 sequently, the neck should be free from "lumber;" the dis- 
 tance between the fore legs should be short (see p. 65) ; the 
 shoulders flat and without any " place for the collar" (see p. 
 212); and the horse should not be thick between the upper 
 ends of the shoulder-blades (see p. 196). 
 
 7. The withers should be high, and should run far back. 
 
 8. The hind legs should be long. 
 
THE JUMPER. 271 
 
 9. The hocks should possess the ability of being freely 
 straightened out, as well as bent. 
 
 The Racing Pony should possess all the points of the 
 race-horse which have been described under the preceding 
 heading, but modified where necessary, by conditions suitable 
 to superior ability for carrying weight ; for ponies, in com- 
 parison to their height, have almost always to bear much 
 heavier burdens than horses which are used for racing. 
 
 The Jumper. i. The forehand should be light. 
 
 2. The jumper, as a rule, should have no tendency to be 
 higher at the croup than at the withers ; for he requires to be 
 light in front (see p. 49), and to have the bones of his fore 
 limbs comparatively long, so as to be able to efficiently raise 
 his forehand, both when taking off and landing. 
 
 3. The shoulder-blades and pasterns should be long and 
 sloping. 
 
 4. The muscles which lie along the front portion of the 
 shoulder-blade, and the lump of muscle above the fore-arm 
 should be well-developed (see PL 57) ; as the former straighten 
 the shoulder joint, and the latter straighten the elbow joint ; 
 two actions which help to prevent the horse from falling when 
 he lands over a jump. 
 
 5. The muscles over the loins, behind the saddle, should 
 be particularly strong (see p. 64). 
 
 6. The hocks should be large ; and their straightening 
 power (the gaskins) broad. 
 
 The steeple-chaser may be regarded as a combination, in 
 fairly equal proportions, of the race-horse and jumper. The 
 hurdle-racer^ as a rule, will have more of the former than of 
 the latter in him. The hunter should be essentially a jumper. 
 
272 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES. 
 
 In a " flying" country, he may be more or less of a steeple- 
 chaser. In all cases, he should be a thorough stayer. His 
 galloping and weight-carrying powers (see Chapter XXIII.) 
 should of course vary according to the nature of the work he 
 will be called upon to perform. In a " flying" country, a tall 
 horse, other things being equal, will tire less than a smaller 
 one, from jumping big fences. In a " cramped" country, the 
 difference may be all the other way. As the ordinary hunter 
 has to carry a fair? weight, and as he may have to raise it 
 frequently over fences, besides having at times to go through 
 heavy ground ; he will require to be much stronger than the 
 mere galloper, and his legs should consequently be shorter in 
 comparison to his length of body. 
 
 The Heavy Cart- Horse. i. The legs should be as 
 short and massive as possible : consequently the animal will be 
 considerably longer in the body than he is high at the withers 
 or at the croup, and he will be deeper from the withers to the 
 brisket, than from the withers to the ground. 
 
 2. He should be of great width of body when viewed from 
 behind ; and across the chest in front. 
 
 3. His muscles, bones, tendons, and ligaments should be 
 as thick and strong as possible. 
 
 4. The shoulders should be sloping in cart-horses which do 
 not use their fore legs, to any marked degree, as propellers ; 
 and somewhat upright in those which utilise them in that 
 manner (see p. 212). 
 
 5. The height over the croup may be less than that at 
 the withers (see p. 74). 
 
 The Harness Horse. For convenience sake, I use the 
 expression " harness-horse " to signify all horses which go in 
 
THE HACK. 273 
 
 draught, except the heavy cart-horse. Taking the limits as 
 the racer and Shire horse, I may say that the conformation of 
 the animal should approach that of the former, or of the latter, 
 according as his work is fast or slow. The only difference 
 which I can discover between the respective shape of the race- 
 horse and match trotter (or match pacer), is that powerful loin 
 muscles and shortness of body, in comparison to height, are not 
 so essential to the latter as to the former. The reason for 
 this difference, as far as I can see, is that in galloping, more 
 muscular effort has to be spent in raising the forehand, than 
 when trotting or pacing. The ordinary trapper should be 
 thicker in the shoulders than the saddle nag ; and, if he has 
 strong hind quarters and fair action, he may be pardoned if 
 he be long in the back, slack in the loins, and somewhat 
 flat-sided. For fashionable town work, the harness horse 
 will, as a rule, require to be either one of the smart small 
 sort, or of the imposing brougham type. The former should 
 have all the good looks and " quality "of a well-bred, middle 
 weight hack. The latter should measure high at the 
 withers ; should have sloping shoulders, so as to have free 
 action in front ; and should carry his head high. Owing to 
 the manner in which he is bitted and " checked," his hind 
 action is not taken much into consideration. Between these 
 two kinds of horses, there is as much difference, as between 
 a clever bull-terrier and an overgrown, weak-loined mastiff. 
 Being a professional breaker, I can vouch for the fact that 
 fashionable trotting action is the result of training and not of 
 conformation. For pairs and teams, horses should match in 
 height, colour, general character, action, manners, and mouth. 
 
 The Hack. The chief points about the hack are that he 
 
 T 
 
274 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES. 
 
 should be " light in front," have sloping shoulders, and sound 
 legs and feet, so that he may be sure-footed and able to stand 
 work ; and he should be rather high in front (see p. 1 60). 
 The conformation of his head and neck should be such as to 
 allow him to bend readily to the rein. The action of the 
 hack should be somewhat " high," and should be ''true," so 
 that, when viewed from behind, the near pair of limbs, in the 
 walk, trot and canter, should move in a line parallel to that of 
 the off pair. Action, good looks, and a showy carriage of the 
 head and tail are essentials in the high-priced hack. 
 "Mouth" and " manners" are two other indispensable 
 requisites which do not come within the province of this 
 book. 
 
 The Lady's Horse. A lady's- horse should be a good- 
 looking hunter or smart hack, according to the work for 
 which he is intended. He should carry his head and neck 
 particularly well ; because his rider, owing to the nature of 
 her seat, cannot keep her hands low down. His forehand 
 should be inclined to be high, so that his paces may be easy. 
 His withers should not be high and thin ; for if they are, they 
 will be liable to be galled on the off side by the saddle. 
 
 The Cavalry Trooper. The chief requirements as 
 regards conformation, which the cavalry trooper should 
 possess are : 
 
 i. That he should be up to the weight he has got to carry. 
 But he should on no account be too heavily topped for his 
 legs, or for the work he will be called upon to do. His loins, 
 therefore, should be strong, his shoulder-blades long, and his 
 legs should be as short as is compatible with the possession of 
 sufficient speed for military purposes. 
 

THE OFFICERS CHARGER. 275 
 
 2. His legs and feet should be particularly sound and well 
 able to stand work. As he will be called upon at times to go 
 fast and to leap ; his back tendons should be more or less 
 parallel with the cannon-bone, and he should have no ten- 
 dency to undue width of fetlock (see pp. 218 and 219). 
 
 3. His forehand should be light, so that his legs and feet 
 may continue sound, and that he may be able to do his school 
 work properly. 
 
 4. He should have a good carriage of the head and neck, 
 so that he may be obedient to the rein. 
 
 5. He should be a "good doer," and have a strong consti- 
 tution, which will usually be the case with a horse that has a 
 bright eye ; soft, cool skin ; deep rounded barrel ; full flank ; 
 firm, prominent anus ; and is well-ribbed up. 
 
 The Officer's Charger. A cavalry officer's first charger, 
 with all the useful points of the cavalry trooper, should have 
 undeniably good looks, and a showy carriage of the head and 
 tail, which should not be docked. As he will have to carry 
 less, and will cost considerably more than an animal in the 
 ranks, he should be well bred, and, with a rider of ordinary 
 weight, he should approach the type of a handsome chaser, or 
 well-bred hunter. A second charger should have all the 
 useful points of a first charger ; but need not be so good- 
 looking. The colour will, as a rule, depend on regimental 
 regulations. Speaking generally, he should not be less than 
 15.3. A man at the head of a regiment of cavalry, or of a 
 battery of horse artillery, looks best on a tall horse. 
 
 The Artillery Horse. Artillery horses are divided into 
 those for the horse artillery and those for field batteries. As 
 
 T 2 
 
276 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES. 
 
 the teams of the former have to manoeuvre with cavalry, and 
 also drag their guns, they require to be exceptionally strong, 
 smart horses. The latter, as they are supposed not to go 
 faster than a trot, are stronger and slower horses than those 
 of light cavalry. The wheelers are active, light-draught 
 cart-horses. For their work, they need to be somewhat 
 thick in the shoulders, short on the leg, and of considerable 
 weight to stop the gun when the order to halt is given. 
 For this, their hind-quarters, loins, and hocks should be 
 particularly strong. The riding horses of the No. i and 
 markers of field batteries should be of the light cavalry type. 
 
 The Polo Pony. Handiness and speed, with sufficient 
 staying and weight-carrying power, are the two chief require- 
 ments of the polo pony. Consequently, he should be light in 
 front, should carry his head and neck well, have sloping 
 shoulders and particularly strong hocks. The fact of his 
 being slightly " goose rumped," will be no detriment. English 
 ponies, nearly, if not quite thoroughbred, are the best for the 
 game. In India, country-bred ponies are generally found to be 
 better for polo than Arabs; for they are "quicker on their 
 legs," probably on account of the sons of the Desert having 
 their croup very horizontal. To sum up, the polo pony 
 should be a remarkably handy sprinter. 
 
277 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 English and Irish Horses Australasian Horses South-African Horses South- 
 American Horses Arab Horses East Indian Horses Burma and Manipuri 
 Ponies Sumatra and Java Ponies Mongolian Ponies Corean Ponies 
 Japanese Ponies. 
 
 IN this chapter, I shall confine my observations on conforma- 
 tion to those breeds of horses with which I have had some 
 personal experience. 
 
 English and Irish Horses. The great beauty about 
 English and Irish half-bred and cart-horses is that they are 
 generally " well topped ; " their chief defect, that they are 
 inclined to be poor below the knees and hocks. Lack of 
 substance in the bone of the legs, and undue uprightness of 
 pasterns is but too apparent. " Weediness " is probably the 
 greatest fault of our thoroughbreds. Good carriage of head 
 and neck, well rounded and well ribbed up barrel, powerful 
 loins, more or less horizontal croup, and muscular thighs are 
 certainly characteristics of the horses of these islands, and are 
 the products, to a certain extent, of good feeding and careful 
 management. The large majority of our hunters and saddle 
 hacks are disfigured by cart blood, and consequently have too 
 thick shoulders. The Shire horse is a model of gigantic 
 
278 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 strength, but he often fails in his hocks and feet. The Shire 
 and the Clydesdale seem equally inclined to contract foot 
 troubles, such as laminitis (fever in the feet) and side bones. 
 The chestnut Suffolk horses are a beautiful breed of compact, 
 smart cart animals, which are admirably fitted for agricultural 
 work. The Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire carriage horse are 
 grand types for harness work. The Norfolk trotter and other 
 roadsters have at present great attention paid to their breed- 
 ing. The English racing pony, thoroughbred or nearly so, 
 like Lord Clyde, Predominant, Sylvia, Dorothy (PL 39), 
 Water Lily, Maythorne, and Mike (PI. 38), is by far the 
 best of its class in the world. Among the best known 
 native breeds of ponies, are the Welsh, Exmoor, Kerry, 
 and Shetland (see PL 61), which averages not much more 
 than ten hands in height. England does not seem to lend 
 itself well to the production of very large race-horses. I 
 think that in comparison, say, with Australasia, thorough- 
 breds under fifteen hands, in England, would be found to be 
 better than those over that height. If this be the case, the 
 fact that big horses are more liable than small ones to con- 
 tract roaring in countries where, like in this country, that 
 disease is rife, would no doubt have an important bearing 
 on this point. 
 
 Though somewhat foreign to the present subject, I cannot 
 resist saying that much of the judging at English horse-shows, 
 seems to me to be conducted on an entirely wrong principle. 
 Thus, prizes are awarded to " hunters " which have never 
 been over a fence in their lives ; and ribbons are given to 
 decorate the heads of heavy cart-horses for their action in 
 trotting, and their general appearance, instead of for their 
 style of work between the shafts with a ponderous load 
 
PHOTO. BY FRANK HAES 
 
 PLATE 60 ICELAND PONY. 
 
 PHOTO. BY FRANK HAES 
 
 IE PAGE 278 
 
 PLATE 61 SHETLAND PONY. 
 
A USTRALASIAN HORSES. 279 
 
 behind them. The cruel and senseless system of overfeed- 
 ing horses which are intended to be " shown," is a fruitful 
 cause of laminitis and other ills. 
 
 Australasian Horses. The special good points of Aus- 
 tralian, Tasmanian, and New Zealand horses, from a saddle 
 point of view, are their excellent flat shoulders, light necks, 
 well-shaped legs, and sound feet. Their loins, barrel, and 
 croup are not, as a rule, as good as those of English horses ; 
 but they are able to stand more work. Animals that are 
 brought up on extensive " runs " till they are, say, four years 
 old, develop better shoulders and sounder legs and feet than 
 those which are " taken up " early ; although, other conditions 
 being equal, they may, perhaps, not be as neatly " topped." 
 Their light forehands and good shoulders make the Austra- 
 lasian horses clever jumpers. The Colonial animals, taking 
 them all round, have more thoroughbred blood in them than 
 their English cousins. 
 
 The Antipodes, as far as I can judge, are far more 
 favourable for the production of thoroughbreds with large 
 bone and substance, than is England. Hence we find, in 
 these colonies, a comparatively large number of animals of the 
 weight-carrying hunter and charger type which have little or 
 no stain in their pedigrees. On the other hand, although 
 thoroughbreds in England have a greater tendency to "run 
 light " than in Australasia, they certainly show more 
 " quality " than those of any other country. Without wishing 
 in any way to dogmatise, I would venture to say that the 
 Colonies are capable of producing more useful saddle-nags 
 and cavalry troopers than Europe ; but not as high-class 
 " sprinters." As an exception to their general utility for 
 
280 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 Army purposes, I think that better field artillery horses, and 
 especially field artillery wheelers, which require a strong 
 admixture of cart blood, can be obtained in England, 
 than in Australia. As a proof of deterioration in racing 
 "quality/ 1 I may mention that up to the present, the produce 
 of imported sires has, as a rule, been more successful on 
 the Australian turf than that of Colonial-bred sires, of which 
 the best has been Yattendon, whose two most distinguished 
 sons at the stud were Grand Flaneur and Chester, both out of 
 imported mares. The best Australasian sires have been 
 imported horses, such as Panic, Musket, Fisherman and St. 
 Albans. The same rule appears to hold good in America, if 
 we may judge by what the Spirit of the Times says in the 
 following extract: "The success of imported English sires 
 within the past twenty years, beginning with Leamington, 
 has certainly impressed many breeders with a belief in their 
 superiority. Glenelg, Australian, Bullet, King Ban, The 
 Ill-used, Great Tom, King Ernest, Bonnie Scotland, Rayon 
 d'Or, Prince Charlie, Phaeton, Eclipse, St. Blaise, etc., have 
 well-nigh driven the native stallions into exile. Virgil may 
 be said to have been the only stallion who was native bred 
 on both sides of his pedigree, and who has held his own 
 against the imported horses. Longfellow, Spendthrift, En- 
 quirer, Eolus, King Alfonso, and other successful native sires, 
 were the sons of imported horses. The English mares have 
 also succeeded in a great degree." 
 
 As long as Australia and America have to obtain fresh 
 infusions of blood from England, to keep up the excellence 
 of their respective breeds of race-horses ; so long should no 
 jealousy, as regards horses, exist between the mother-country 
 and her offspring, who should regard their state of dependency 
 
SOUTH-AFRICAN HORSES. 281 
 
 on her, as one of her strongest claims on their affection and 
 support. 
 
 Australasian race-horses at long distances are probably as 
 good as any horses in the world. The performance of 
 Carbine (a New Zealand son of Musket) winning the 
 Melbourne Cup, two miles, with 10 st. 5 Ibs. up, can compare 
 favourably with anything done by Ormonde, Isonomy, or 
 St. Gatien. PI. 62 is a photograph of Bravo, who won the 
 Melbourne Cup in 1889, beating Carbine, from whom he was 
 receiving 21 Ibs. In the Colonies there are many smart 
 racing ponies, like Glengary II., Little Wonder (New 
 Zealand), Mayflower and Jeannette ; but they are not, as I 
 have already remarked, as good as the best in England and 
 Ireland. 
 
 South- African Horses. The ordinary horses of the 
 Cape Colony, Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Natal, show 
 a fair amount of " blood," with a dash of the Arab, and have 
 very good legs and feet. They are, however, for the most 
 part "weedy." Although they are admirable " slaves " with 
 a light weight, or with but little to draw, they are quite 
 unsuited for military purposes. Those which are up to the 
 weight of a trooper, or fit to take their place in an artillery 
 team, would, at an average price of ^35 or ^40, be too slow 
 for cavalry or horse artillery work. The weight-carrying 
 hunter type of horse is practically unknown in South Africa. 
 The success on the turf of locally bred horses, like Prosecutor, 
 proves that the country is capable of producing good race- 
 horses. The freedom in which stock are raised there, 
 undoubtedly accounts for the excellence of their limbs. The 
 chief native breed, the Basuto pony, is a remarkably hardy 
 
282 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 animal, with capital legs and feet ; but as he is rather short 
 on the leg, he is deficient in pace. Indeed, South- African 
 horses, except those that are thoroughbred, are, as a rule, 
 very slow ; a fact which is no doubt due, in many instances, 
 to their loins being weak, their gaskins poor, and their hocks 
 being too much bent. South-African breeders are much 
 handicapped by outbreaks of " horse sickness" and by want 
 of water. With the exception of these drawbacks, the country, 
 especially in the Colesberg district and Orange Free State, 
 is admirably suited to the production of good horses. South 
 Africa is singularly wanting in smart ponies, such as those fit 
 for polo. In this respect it forms a marked contrast with 
 England, Australasia, India, and Arabia. 
 
 South-American Horses. In the Argentine Republic 
 many good thoroughbreds are raised by Mr. Kemmis and 
 other breeders. I have no means of " drawing a line " between 
 them and English or Australasian horses, except the fact that 
 Camilla, the aged daughter of Phenix, with 32 Ibs. the best 
 of the weights, beat the Australian plater, The Wild Oat, and 
 five others at Calcutta in December 1890. Neither Camilla 
 nor the Wild Oat, at the time, were good representatives of 
 their respective classes ; so the result of the race is no 
 criterion to go by. The common Argentine horses, if some- 
 what wanting in blood, are of the sturdy and useful sort. 
 The country seems well suited to the production of excellent 
 stock. 
 
 Arab Horses. My friend, the late Shaikh Esa bin 
 Curtas, always maintained that the best Arabs did not, as a 
 rule, exceed 14. \\ or 14.2 in height. Ali bin Abdoolah, 
 another Arab friend of mine, and of nearly as great experience 
 
ARAB HORSES. 283 
 
 as the late Shaikh, likes them bigger. From a galloping 
 point of view, judging by the Indian records of the last half 
 century, there is not much to choose either way ; the balance 
 of weight being probably with the big Arabs, like Child of 
 the Islands, Raby, Lucifer, Marquis, Sherwood, Euphrates, 
 and Euclid. Yet with such good fourteen handers as 
 Anarchy, Chieftain, Shere Ali, and Turkish Flag, who, in 
 their time, were second to none in their own class ; the fact 
 remains, that for the attainment of galloping excellence, an 
 Arab need not exceed 14.1. My own impression is that 
 among the Arabs sent to India for racing are to be found 
 many of the best and highest caste horses bred in the Desert 
 This opinion is in accordance with that often expressed to me 
 by experienced Arab dealers whose friendship I have enjoyed. 
 Also, poor Colonel Valentine Baker, whom I knew in Cairo, 
 and who had an intimate acquaintance with Eastern horses, 
 told me that the best Arabs were sent to Bombay, where new 
 importations, if of really high character, readily fetch from 
 ^200 to ^300 a-piece. We may infer from the foregoing 
 remarks, that the Arab horse is, according to our Western 
 acceptation of the term, a pony. Even restricting him to 
 this class, I feel confident that the best Arab that ever lived, 
 no matter what his height, was inferior, from a racing point 
 of view, to a first-class English or Australian pony of fourteen 
 hands. The English fourteen hand pony mare, Skittles 
 (see Fig. 171), the property of Captain Mowbray of the 
 Black Watch, beat in a two-mile match, at Cairo in 
 1886-7, the Arab Haddeed, in a common canter when giving 
 him 7 Ibs. He was looked upon in Egypt as an extra- 
 ordinary good Arab. Mr. Kelly Maitland's Australian 13.2 
 mare, Fleur de Lys, several times proved herself as fast as 
 
284 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 any Arab in India for -| mile. Taking the time test, which 
 has been applied with great precision to the running of Arabs, 
 we find that their performances in India have been much 
 inferior to those accomplished by the English ponies, Lord 
 Clyde (formerly belonging to Mr. John Watson), Predominant, 
 and Labby (by Wisdom), and by the Australian pony mare 
 Achievement, none of whom exceeded fourteen hands in 
 height. Although Arabs are not race-horses, they are ex- 
 cellent hacks, and particularly excel as light cavalry troopers. 
 In these respects the small Arab, not exceeding 14.2, is, as a 
 rule, undoubtedly better than the bigger Arab. A son of the 
 Desert of the best type has a handsome and intelligent head, 
 with broad forehead, large, "kind" eyes, straight or concave 
 line of the face, large nostrils, well carried ears, lean and wide 
 jaw. His neck, if somewhat coarse, is well set on to his 
 head, has a good crest, is carried bravely, and is fairly long. 
 His shoulders are well sloped, although they often err, from a 
 galloping or jumping point of view, on the side of thickness, 
 and his breast is tolerably broad. He has capital legs and 
 feet. His withers are often somewhat low and thick. His 
 loins are flat, broad, and powerful. For roundness of barrel 
 and length of back ribs, for levelness of croup, and for 
 beautiful carriage of the tail, he is certainly without equal 
 among horses. He is not unfrequently higher over the croup 
 than at the withers, which, in that case, will have a conse- 
 quent tendency to be unduly low and thick. I do not think 
 that his hocks and gaskins are as good as those of well-bred 
 English or Australasian animals. In justice to the Arab, I 
 must point out that the heaviness of his forehand, as com- 
 pared to that of the English thoroughbred, is due to the 
 large size of the muscles which attach his shoulders to his 
 
ARAB HORSES. 
 
 285 
 
 chest, and which draw the fore limbs forward and backward. 
 The comparatively large development of the muscles of his 
 forehand and loins makes him a good weight carrier for 
 his size. The common statement, that Arabs have bad 
 shoulders, has evidently been made by persons who do not 
 know that the kind of shoulders which might be very good in 
 
 FIG. 179. CAPTAIN BEDDY'S ARAB PONY, BLITZ. 
 (Drawn from a photograph^] 
 
 one class of riding horse, might be equally bad in another 
 kind of saddle animal. The grandly shaped barrel of the 
 Arab plainly indicates that he has clear wind, strong consti- 
 tution, and that he is a good "doer." Fig. 179 is a drawing 
 from a photograph of Blitz, who was the best 13.1 Arab pony 
 that has ever run in India. 
 
286 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 The more an Arab exceeds, say, 14.2 in height, the more 
 inclined is he to be long in the leg, light in the loins and 
 flanks, and flat sided. 
 
 East-Indian Horses. The native horses of India are 
 of the smart, wiry sort. As a rule they are best when they 
 do not exceed 14.1 or 14.2 ; for the more they overtop 
 this height, the " weedier" do they become. Having light 
 forehands and well-sloped shoulders, they are clever and 
 jump well. They have excellent feet. Their legs, though 
 capable of standing a great deal of work on hard ground, are 
 often, from errors of breeding and bringing up, misshapen ; so 
 that turned-out toes, calf-knees, cow-hocks, and sickle-hocks 
 are of frequent occurrence among them. Generally, they are 
 flat-sided and light in the loin. Consequently, they are poor 
 weight carriers, and bad stayers at fast paces ; but are 
 marvellously good at enduring fatigue and privation. The 
 best of them make capital light cavalry horses up to, say, 
 13 st. 7 Ibs. Although they are not as strong or as good 
 looking as Arabs, they are probably hardier and better suited 
 to endure hunger and thirst. Many of them, especially if 
 they have a dash of English or Arab blood, have a fair 
 turn of speed, and consequently make good pig-stickers 
 and polo ponies. Indian racing ponies, which have a 
 strong infusion of English blood, are, speaking generally, 
 about 14 Ibs. worse than Arabs of the same height, and 
 particularly so over long distances. At fourteen hands 
 it would be difficult to " bring them together" with 
 English ponies in a race for, say, a mile. Without the 
 constant importation of fresh blood from England, it is 
 impossible in India to breed horses fit for racing, or for the 
 
SUMATRA AND JAVA PONIES. 287 
 
 requirements of English cavalry and artillery : even then, the 
 results are very poor. Good as Tangri, Minden (see PL 63), 
 Engadine, and others of General " Ben " Parrott's breeding 
 have been in their own class and against Arabs, their form 
 has been but little better than that of fourteen-hand English 
 ponies. PL 34 is the portrait of a typical Kathiawar " country- 
 bred " of a useful kind. 
 
 Under the present heading we may put Cabuli, Baluchi, 
 and other Trans- Indus horses which are largely used in 
 India, and which, though stouter and shorter on the leg, are 
 neither as smart nor as hardy in hot climates as the " country- 
 bred." We might consider them as intermediate between the 
 East Indian horse and the Mongolian pony. 
 
 Burma and Manipuri Ponies. The so-called Burma 
 pony (see PL 32) is chiefly bred in the Shan Hills. 
 He rarely exceeds 13.2, and is probably at his best when 
 about thirteen hands high. He is a grand weight-carrier, 
 jumps well, and is very hardy ; though slow. The ponies of 
 Manipur, which has been the home of polo for many centuries, 
 are closely akin to those of the Shan States ; but are smaller, 
 and smarter for their size. These two kinds of ponies appear 
 to belong to a distinct breed, which seem to have no relation- 
 ship with those of any other country except, possibly, with 
 those of Sumatra and Java. The Burma pony is sometimes 
 called a Pegu pony. I may say that in the vast extent of 
 country from Rangoon to Mandalay, there are no good native 
 ponies bred. 
 
 Sumatra and Java Ponies. The strongest ponies for 
 their size I have ever seen, are those of Deli (Sumatra). 
 
288 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 Their average height is about 12.2. They have handsome 
 heads set on to high-crested necks, are full of spirit, and are 
 simply balls of muscle. The capable and light-hearted way 
 in which one of these grand Lilliputs can trot away with a 
 four-wheeled carriage containing five or six heavy men, is a 
 sight worth going many miles to see. Acheen, which is in 
 the north of Sumatra, has a good breed of ponies. The Java 
 pony, though a relation of, is inferior to, the Deli pony. 
 
 Mongolian Ponies. Under this broad heading I 
 would class a breed of ponies which is found in the highlands 
 between Siberia and the Himalayas ; for I can see no dis- 
 tinctive difference between the ponies of Bhootan, Spiti, 
 Yarkund, and Mongolia, with all of which I have had a 
 good deal of acquaintance. I may remark that the so-called 
 China pony is bred in and exported from Manchuria. They 
 have thick-set bodies, short, sound legs, capital feet, fairly 
 good shoulders for a saddle, and are handy and sure-footed. 
 They average about 13.1 and are very slow. In China, 
 Mongolian ponies are used extensively for racing, of course, 
 among themselves, and with excellent results, as far as sport 
 is concerned ; for the entries are large, and the pretensions 
 of the candidates pretty even. It has been found that it is no 
 advantage, from a racing point of view, for a Mongolian pony 
 to exceed 13.2. The once matchless Teen Kwang (see 
 Fig. 1 80), who may be regarded as the Ormonde of the Far 
 East, was a little under that height. An English, Australian, 
 or Arab 13.2 racing pony could give, in a mile race, about 
 1 50 yards start to a first-class China pony of the same height, 
 at even weights. The pony of the Himalayas, Yarkund, 
 and Chinese Tartary is a splendid weight-carrier, and is 
 
COREAN PONIES. 
 
 289 
 
 matchless for enduring fatigue and privations in a cold and 
 desolate country. 
 
 Corean Ponies. The indigenous pony of Corea is an 
 extremely small animal, often not more than nine hands high. 
 He is very handsome, being built on fine and graceful lines ; in 
 
 FIG. 1 80. THE CHINA PONY, TEEN KWANG. 
 (Drawn from a photograph^) 
 
 fact, he looks like an Arab, or like the Iceland pony in 
 PL 60. Despite the smallness of his size, and the slightness 
 of his build, he is capable of doing a good deal of hard 
 work. He seems to be of quite a different breed from the 
 Manchuria pony. 
 
 u 
 
290 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 Japanese Ponies are weak-bodied, long-legged animals 
 of about fourteen hands high. In the main island are used a 
 large number of imported Mongolian ponies, which, being 
 thick-set and short on the leg, differ a great deal from the 
 indigenous animals, the best of which come from the province 
 of Namba. There are several half-breds which have been 
 produced by a cross with English or American blood, and 
 which show an advance in height and speed as compared with 
 their local ancestors and with Mongolians. The Nippon 
 Race Club has a very nice course on the Negishi Hill, which 
 is about three miles from Yokohama. In the northern island 
 (Hokkaido or Zezo) there is a distinct breed of ponies, 
 which are weak and weedy. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES. 
 
 IN this chapter I intend briefly running over the chief 
 points of the horses whose portraits are given in this book, 
 and shall assume, so as to avoid needless repetition, that my 
 readers have mastered the observations which I have made on 
 the various " points." 
 
 Frontispiece. Ormonde (by Bend Or out of Lily Agnes) 
 was, I need hardly say, the horse of the century. He is 
 a little higher at the withers than he is long in the body ; 
 and about as high at the croup as at the withers. His legs, 
 though long, are muscular, and their bones are strong, as 
 we may perceive from the appearance of his fore-arm and 
 gaskin and from the shape of the limbs below the knees and 
 hocks. He has a particularly straight dropped hind leg. 
 Although he was in training when this photograph was taken, 
 he shows great depth of body in the centre of the back : a 
 fact which points to the unusual length of his back ribs, and to 
 the admirable shape of his chest for purposes of breathing. I 
 may point out that his roaring infirmity being a nervous 
 disease of his larynx, had nothing to say to his conformation. 
 As his neck agrees in length with his limbs, and as his withers 
 
 u 2 
 
292 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES. 
 
 run far back, he has a very long " rein." His neck, though 
 muscular, is light for a four-year-old entire. He is coarse 
 about the throat, where the head and neck join. The hori- 
 zontal marks on his legs, on and near his fetlocks, are curls 
 in the hair, due to bandaging. His back view shows that 
 he is narrow behind. The setting-on of the hocks is par- 
 ticularly good. His tail is placed very high on his croup. 
 
 Plates 7 and l8. The former gives us a portrait of the 
 Duke of Portland's St. Simon (by Galopin out of St. Angela) 
 slightly fore-shortened. The latter shows him in strict profile ; 
 but as it had to be copied from a photograph which was not 
 good enough to bear reproduction, its details have not come 
 out as well as I would have wished. They were both done 
 in 1884, when St. Simon was a three-year-old, and when he 
 was in training. Owing to the death of his first owner, Prince 
 Batthyany, his nominations for the great three-year-old events 
 were rendered void. Despite the fact that he had never met 
 a great race-horse, he won all his contests with such con- 
 summate ease that I am inclined to think that as a two-year- 
 old towards the "back end" of the season (1883) and for the 
 first half of his three-year-old career, in other words, as long 
 as he kept sound, he was as fast a horse, with, perhaps, the 
 exception of Ormonde, as ever lived. St. Simon's height at 
 the withers or over the croup, is considerably more than his 
 length of body. Also, his back and loins are remarkably 
 short, and his shoulders are long and extremely oblique. I 
 remember having been greatly struck by the marvellous 
 beauty of his shoulders, and by the shortness of his back and 
 loins, when I saw him for the first time, when he was sold as 
 a two-year-old in 1883, after the death of his owner. He 
 
i\ 
 
THE SHIRE MARE CHANCE. 293 
 
 had a light head, neck, and quarters, and was narrow when 
 viewed from behind. He was extremely round in the back 
 ribs, and was very well ribbed up. 
 
 Plate IS- Stepaside is a nearly thoroughbred, and very 
 smart, light-weight Irish hunter. She was invincible over 
 hurdles in India, where the class of "timber-toppers" is 
 extremely moderate. She has capital shoulders, light neck, 
 neat head (except for a bump on the nose), powerful hind 
 quarters, and well-rounded ribs. She is a good stayer. As 
 might have been inferred from the fact of her being somewhat 
 longer in the body than she is high at the withers or over the 
 croup, she is no race-horse on the flat. 
 
 Plate 19. The famous champion Shire mare Chance, 
 appears here as a four-year-old. The fact of her being in foal 
 detracts somewhat from her great beauty of conformation. 
 I can find no fault in her as a "show" animal, except that 
 she is a little "back at the knees/' For heavy draught pur- 
 poses, however, her hind legs are, possibly, too long. 
 Farm, Field and Fireside says : "Her sire is Lincoln, and 
 dam Brock. This animal has taken twenty-four first and 
 champion prizes, amongst which we may mention that she was 
 twice champion at Islington, and three times at different shows 
 of the * Royal.' During the whole of her eventful career she 
 was never beaten, and finished in grand style by carrying off 
 the Queen's gold medal at the Jubilee meeting of the * Royal,' 
 beating Starlight and other famous mares. She was foaled 
 in 1880." 
 
 Plate 20. This pony mare is disproportionately high 
 over the croup, and consequently her weight is put too 
 much on her fore legs. As she is, also, somewhat "back" 
 
294 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES. 
 
 at the knees ; her fore legs could not be expected to stand 
 a great deal of hard work. As she is much higher behind 
 than she is in front ; she could hardly help being rough in 
 her paces. 
 
 Plate 28. Magistrate was a very good 13.2 Arab pony, 
 who shows, in his photograph, the same points of speed (short 
 body, long legs, " straight dropped " hind legs), as the 
 English race-horse. 
 
 Plate 30. This Arab is too heavily "topped" for his 
 legs, which are particularly light below the knees ; although 
 they are fairly good below the hocks. His neck is very 
 coarse and his shoulders are heavy and upright. He is a 
 useless animal. 
 
 Plate 31. The Brat is a handsome Arab pony which has 
 won a large number of pony races in India. His shoulders 
 and neck are particularly good. He has a nice head ; 
 but as he was champing his bit and had his eyes closed when 
 his portrait was being taken, it does not come out well. 
 
 Plate 32. The body of this Burma pony has great 
 depth in comparison to its length. As a hack, he has a 
 nice head and neck, and fair shoulders ; but his croup is too 
 drooping. He is much better " topped," than he is below his 
 elbows and stifles. His fore-arms and gaskins are poor, and 
 he has "sickle-hocks." As might be expected, Burma ponies, 
 of which this one is rather a good specimen, are strong 
 animals, but slow. 
 
 Plate 33. This is a very handsome cob. He has a neat 
 head (which is somewhat favoured by being slightly turned 
 
ROMANCE. 295 
 
 away), small ears, short back, long "rein," good "middle 
 piece," and capital legs. 
 
 Plate 34. This mare is a " three-cornered " animal ; 
 but having been brought up among rough surroundings 
 is capable of enduring much privation and hard work ; 
 though necessarily slow on account of her body being much 
 longer than she is high at withers or croup. Her body is 
 also very long compared to its depth. She is " calf-kneed," 
 " sickle-hocked," and slightly " tied-in " below the hocks. As 
 compensations, her shoulders are fairly well shaped ; her 
 forearms and gaskins are strong; and her "bone" below the 
 knees is 
 
 Plate 35. Romance is a handsome Australian horse 
 of the light or even middle weight hunter or charger type. 
 He has won several races over hurdles and on the flat in 
 Australia and India ; but among inferior company. His 
 shortness of leg, as compared to his length of body, precludes 
 the possibility of his being gifted with a fine turn of speed. 
 Though no race-horse, he is perfectly shaped as a fast hunter. 
 He has a short back, long " rein/' and particularly strong, 
 well-formed legs. His good shoulders and light head and 
 neck are valuable jumping and galloping " points." His 
 best points of speed are, no doubt, his straight hocks and 
 powerful gaskins. 
 
 Plate 36. This is a picture of an under-bred horse, of 
 the light cart type. His shoulders are very upright; his 
 croup is drooping almost to deformity ; he has a slightly 
 roached back; and he is somewhat "calf-kneed." As he 
 has good depth of body and fairly strong legs ; it is probable 
 
296 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES. 
 
 that he would be up to a deal of useful work, if not pushed 
 beyond a moderately quick trot. 
 
 Plate 38. Mike was in a high state of excitement when 
 he was photographed, as we may see by his stiffened tail, 
 erect head, pricked ears, and by the ''collected" manner in 
 which he was standing. He has capital shoulders, good legs, 
 and, like St. Simon, has not much to carry. He was one of 
 the best 13.1 ponies that was ever bred in England. 
 
 Plate 39. The thoroughbred racing pony Dorothy (by 
 Exminister out of Rosebud) is a great beauty. Her only 
 weak points, as far as I can see, are that her croup is too 
 drooping and her body too long. The fact of her appearing 
 to be a little " goose-rumped " may be due to the way in 
 which she is standing. Her head, neck, and shoulders are 
 very good. Her muscular fore-arms (as we may judge from 
 the appearance of the off one) are beautifully set on to the 
 portion of the leg which is below the knee. Although the 
 look of the hind legs is somewhat marred by the position in 
 which they are placed, we may note that they are "straight 
 dropped," and that she has strong gaskins. 
 
 Plate 48. This depressed-looking pony is not badly 
 bred ; though, on account of his dejected attitude and the 
 rough condition of his mane, he looks worse than he is. He 
 is particularly good behind the girths ; his depth of body at 
 the centre of the back, from the great length of the false ribs, 
 is almost as great as it is on the withers. The coarseness of 
 his lower jaw gives a plain look to his head. As the general 
 character of this pony is that of a saddle-nag, or light trapper ; 
 
FA VON I US. 297 
 
 his shoulders are unduly upright. His gaskins are poor. 
 With this exception, his legs are fairly well shaped 
 
 Plates 54 and 55. In 1871 Hannah (by King Tom) 
 won the Oaks and St. Leger ; and Favonius (by Parmesan 
 out of Zephyr by King Tom), the Derby of the same year. 
 Both of them and Corisande, who won the Cesarewitch of 
 that season carrying 7 st. 12 Ibs., belonged to Baron Roths- 
 child. Lord Suffolk states in the Badminton book on Racing, 
 that Favonius was 16 or 18 Ibs. better than either of the 
 two mares ; but that he became unsound. Accepting this 
 estimation, we must regard him as one of the best horses 
 of the century. We might have inferred the fact of his 
 superiority over Hannah by noting that he was much deeper 
 in the body behind the saddle, than she was, and consequently 
 his chest was better formed for forced breathing than was 
 hers. He looks up to more weight than she does, on 
 account of his fore-arms and gaskins being more muscular, 
 and his bones below the knee being larger. Both animals 
 have equally " straight-dropped " hind legs. Her neck is 
 lighter, and her shoulders appear flatter and more oblique 
 than his. Both have almost exactly the same proportions 
 between the length of body, and the height at the withers ; 
 and between the depth from withers to brisket, and the 
 height of the brisket off the ground. As both were in 
 training, and were standing in nearly the same position, we 
 have a capital opportunity of comparing their respective 
 conformation. 
 
 Plate 56. This thoroughbred English mare is a typical 
 "weed," as we may see by her short back ribs, and slack 
 loins. As deficiency in these points is incompatible with 
 
298 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES. 
 
 staying power, she was unable to " get" beyond half a mile ; 
 although she was fast for that distance. Her good length 
 of limb, "straight" hocks and sloping shoulders all point 
 to the possession of speed. 
 
 Plate 57. Blue Ribbon (by New Oswestry out of Miss 
 Honiton) may be taken as a good type of the well-bred 
 middle, if not heavy, weight hunter. Though a fine weight- 
 carrier, she was fast enough to win steeple-chases. I have 
 refrained from calling her thoroughbred ; for her sire is not 
 in the Stud-book. Blue Ribbon has capital shoulders for 
 jumping with a heavy-weight in the saddle ; as they are 
 oblique and muscular. Her neck is light, her back ribs long, 
 her quarters powerful, and her fore-arms and gaskins good. 
 Her head looks somewhat coarse from the lightness of her 
 neck ; but its size is in harmony with that of the body. In 
 the photograph, her fore fetlocks look a bit round, and her 
 fore pasterns a trifle upright probably from work. 
 
 Plates 58 and 59, Lord Stamford's Diophantus (by 
 Orlando out of Equation by Euclid), the winner of the 2,000 
 guineas in 1861, and Mr. Snewing's Caractacus (by Kingston 
 out of Defenceless), winner of the Derby in 1862, being in 
 stud condition, give us but little idea of their true " make 
 and shape." Diophantus appears very upright on his 
 pasterns ; no doubt as a result of work. The fore-arms of 
 Caractacus look weak. Both of these horses seem a little 
 " over " at the knees. 
 
 Plate 60. This handsome Iceland pony was only 30 
 inches high. He looks a miniature race-horse. 
 
BRA VO. 299 
 
 Plate 6l. This beautifully " topped " Shetland pony 
 was a great prize-winner at Agricultural shows many years 
 ago. The strength of his legs, though the more important 
 point of the two, is not in proportion to the size of his body. 
 Except that he has a neater head and a better set-on tail, he 
 is much of the same class of animal as the Burma pony shown 
 on Plate 32 (see p. 294). 
 
 Plate 62. The Australian race-horse, Bravo (by Grand 
 Flaneur out of The Orphan), won the Melbourne Cup in 
 1889, when in receipt of twenty-one pounds from Carbine (by 
 Musket), who was the best horse that had run in Australasia. 
 When I took his photograph, he was about half-trained, and 
 was consequently somewhat lusty. To judge of him as he 
 was standing for his portrait, he appears to have been a 
 trifle longer in the body, than he was high at the withers, 
 from which fact we might infer that he was not a race-horse 
 of the highest class. He had good shoulders, long neck, 
 short back, and good depth at the centre of his back, and 
 was .consequently a fine stayer. His hocks were not as 
 straight as those of Ormonde (Frontispiece), Favonius (PI. 
 55), or St. Simon (Pis. 7 and 18). 
 
 Plate 63. Minden was a famous "country-bred" race- 
 horse in India, among his own class, which is not within 
 " measurable distance " of that of English ^50 selling platers. 
 Viewed as a smart saddle-nag, I must say that Minden looks 
 a nice-shaped horse. He has capital shoulders and a good 
 " middle-piece." I may mention that he was in training 
 when I took his photograph. The fact of his being longer 
 in the body than he is high at the withers or at the croup, 
 
300 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES. 
 
 points to deficiency of speed, as the term is understood 
 among racing men. 
 
 Plate 64. Cremorne (by Parmesan out of Rigolboche) 
 won the Derby of 1872 against a bad field, with the exception 
 of the roaring Prince Charlie. He has achieved a great 
 name at the Stud. His produce have been famous for their 
 jumping powers. He is standing so awkwardly in his 
 photograph, that it is difficult to form from it a just idea of 
 his ''make and shape." He seems to have had well-sloped 
 muscular shoulders, and a light head and neck, all of which 
 are important jumping points. 
 
( 301 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 WILD HORSESc 
 Wild Horses in Australia and America Tarpans Prejevalsky's Horse. 
 
 Wild Horses in Australia and America. In Australia, 
 there are many herds of wild horses, which are descended from 
 escaped or ''turned out" domesticated animals. Those of 
 America are usually supposed to be of a similar ancestry. 
 This idea is, however, open to doubt ; for : fossil remains of 
 horses like unto those of the present time, or closely akin to 
 them, are to be found nearly all over North and South 
 America. Considering their former abundance in prehistoric 
 times, and the favourable conditions for equine life which 
 appear since then to have existed in the New World, it 
 seems highly improbable that there were no horses on that 
 continent at the time of the Spanish discovery. This doubt is 
 still more strengthened by the fact that Northern Europe was 
 in communication with North America hundreds of years 
 before Columbus first sighted the Bahama Islands. 
 
 Tarpans. " The nearest approach to truly wild horses 
 existing at present are the so-called Tarpans, which occur in 
 the steppe-country north of the Sea of Azoff, between the 
 river Dnieper and the Caspian. They are described to be of 
 
302 WILD HORSES. 
 
 small size, dun colour, with short mane, and rounded, obtuse 
 nose " (Sir William Flower]. The Russian naturalist, Polia- 
 kof, states that they are mouse-coloured, lighter coloured 
 under the belly than elsewhere, and that their legs are black 
 below the knees and hocks. 
 
 Prejevalsky's Horse, which has been found in Central 
 Asia near Zaisan and in the desert of Dzungaria, is described 
 by Poliakof (see " Annals of Natural History," 1881, p. 16 
 et seq.) as intermediate between the horse and the ass. Like 
 the former it has castors (chesnuts) on its hind legs as well 
 as on its fore extremities ; and like the latter it has an erect 
 mane and no forelock. It has no stripe down the back. Its 
 tail is bushy, being furnished, like that > of the horse, though 
 not to the same extent, with long hairs from the root of the 
 tail. Poliakof states that it is of a dun colour ; has a 
 yellowish tinge on the back ; and is lighter coloured under 
 the belly than elsewhere. It is supposed to be indigenous to 
 Central Asia. 
 
 I may mention that all kinds of wild horses are smaller 
 and inferior to domesticated animals, in every useful particular, 
 except, perhaps, in the quality of their hoofs, and in the 
 soundness of their constitutions. 
 
( 303 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 ASSES. 
 
 Differences between the Ass and Horse Hybrids between the Horse and 
 Ass Varieties of Asses The Domestic and Abyssinian Wild Ass 
 The Onager The Kiang The Mountain Zebra Burchell's Zebra 
 Chapman's Zebra The Grevy or Somaliland Zebra The Quagga. 
 
 Differences between the Ass and Horse. The following 
 are the chief differences between the two animals : 
 
 i. The ass has castors (see p. 216) only on the fore legs. 
 
 M. Chauveau is of opinion that the castor is the rudiment 
 of the thumb, or rather first digit. Against this idea, there 
 are the following facts : 
 
 (a.) The castor has no special connection, bony, liga- 
 mentous, or otherwise, with either the bones of the knee, or 
 those of the hock. As, in the evolution of the horse, the 
 wasting away of the digits which have either disappeared or 
 have become rudimentary, began from below r ; it is unreason- 
 able to assume that a vestige of the first digit should have 
 remained, after all trace of its metacarpal, or (as the case 
 may be) metatarsal bone had been lost. 
 
 (6.) The second and fourth metacarpal and metatarsal 
 bones still remain strongly in evidence ; yet their digits have 
 entirely vanished. 
 
 (c.) The castors are situated below the hock and above 
 the knee. In the onager, f have seen them much nearer 
 the elbow than the knee t 
 
304 ASSES. 
 
 I think the foregoing facts are sufficient to prove that the 
 castors are not rudiments of the first digits. I have no 
 theory to offer respecting their origin. 
 
 2. The ass has a tufted tail, somewhat like that of 
 a cow ; erect mane ; and no forelock, The horse has a 
 bushy tail, drooping mane, and a forelock, when they have 
 been allowed to grow. The difference in the mane is 
 due to the length of the hairs of the part. In the horse, 
 the hairs of the tail grow long from the root of the dock. 
 In the ass, they do so only as they approach the end of 
 the tail. 
 
 3. Veterinary anatomists state that the ass has five loin 
 vertebrae (see p. 30) ; and the horse, six, unless in some 
 very exceptional cases when he may have five. If we 
 examine the skeleton of the mountain zebra (see PL 29), which 
 is in the Museum of the R. C. S., Lincoln's Inn Fields, 
 we shall, however, see that it has six loin vertebrae. The 
 skeleton of the famous race-horse Orlando, which is in the 
 same building, has only five loin vertebrae. I have never 
 heard of an instance, in the domestic ass, of the number of 
 these bones exceeding five. I do not know their normal 
 number in zebras. 
 
 4. In the horse, the lachrymal duct, which is the canal that 
 conveys tears from the eye, on each respective side, into the 
 nostril, has its opening near the inferior commissure of the 
 nostril and on the line of union between the dark-coloured skin 
 and the pink mucous membrane. In the ass and mule, it is 
 situated at the inner face of the outer wing of the nostril. 
 This orifice is sometimes double. 
 
 5. In the ass, the false nostril extends higher up than in 
 the horse. 
 
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ASS AND HORSE. 305 
 
 6. The male ass has two rudimental teats in the form of 
 small tubercles. They are absent in the horse. 
 
 7. The ass brays ; the horse neighs. 
 
 8. In the ass, the deep depression at the base of the 
 epiglottis is covered by a thin membrane, which is capable of 
 vibrating, and which is wanting in the horse. Its presence 
 may have some influence in causing the voice of the ass to 
 differ from that of the horse. I may mention that the 
 epiglottis is a cartilage that acts as a door to the larynx, which 
 is the organ of voice, and which forms an opening into the 
 windpipe. 
 
 9. The ass hardly ever has any irregular markings on its 
 coat, such as a " star," " blaze," " reach," or " stockings," all of 
 which are very frequent among horses. A small star, on one 
 or two occasions, is the only mark of the kind I have ever seen 
 in the ass. At the same time, I must state that I have not had 
 much experience among these animals. 
 
 10. I believe I am correct in saying that the colour of the 
 ass is never of a bright bay, chestnut, red or blue roan, or nut- 
 meg grey. I have seen mules of an iron-grey colour ; but 
 have not observed it in the ass. This conservatism in colour 
 and freedom from irregular markings, shown by the ass, is 
 very remarkable ; considering how greatly the coat of the 
 horse varies in this respect, and that the ass has, in all 
 probability, been longer under the influence of domestication 
 than the horse. 
 
 1 1 . As regards conformation, I may say that the ass differs 
 from the horse, chiefly, by its greater height over the croup, 
 as compared to that at the withers, and by the narrowness, 
 uprightness, and concavity of its hoofs. The excess of height 
 at the croup tends to make the withers of the ass appear 
 
3 o6 ASSES. 
 
 unduly low (see p. 196). The spines of the vertebrae at the 
 withers are only a little shorter in the ass than they are in 
 the horse. As a rule, horses are higher at the withers than 
 they are at the croup. 
 
 12. The horse has a thick strong dock to his tail; the 
 ass, a thin, lissom one. 
 
 13. The horse, on each side of his croup and covering his 
 
 pelvis, has, underneath and closely adhering to the skin of 
 
 the part, a thick and extremely dense layer of connective 
 
 tissue, which is so close and hard, when the skin has been 
 
 tanned and dried, that it looks like horn. These two patches 
 
 of thickened skin, are separated from each other about four or 
 
 five inches apart, so that there is a strip of skin of ordinary 
 
 thickness running down the croup towards the tail. These 
 
 pieces of skin are utilised, chiefly, for the manufacture of long 
 
 boots for foreign cavalry officers, by curriers, who dress and 
 
 pare down the "shell," or hardened layer, until it is almost as 
 
 smooth as glass, and can consequently take the brilliant polish 
 
 which is greatly esteemed by these beaux sabreurs. I need 
 
 hardly say that the leather which is thus employed, is worn 
 
 inside out. It is both air and water tight. The " shell " is 
 
 connected to the skin so closely that the two form one piece ; 
 
 although their respective consistencies are different. If a 
 
 section be made through the hide, their line of union may be 
 
 readily seen. In the ass, the " shell " is not confined to the 
 
 skin that covers the pelvis ; but also extends over the ribs, 
 
 which are consequently not as sensitive to the effects of blows 
 
 as are those of the horse. I may mention that the tendency 
 
 which a horse has to turn his rump, as the least sensitive 
 
 part of his anatomy, towards falling rain, cold currents of 
 
 wind, etc., appears to be due to the feeling of protection to 
 
HYBRIDS. 307 
 
 that part, which the presence of the "shell" on each side 
 gives him. * 
 
 Professor Huxley remarks that asses form a distinct 
 species from horses ; because " all asses have tufted tails and 
 have callosities only on the inner side of the fore legs. If 
 animals were discovered having the general characters of the 
 horse, but sometimes with callosities only on the fore legs 
 and more or less tufted tails ; or animals having the general 
 characters of the ass, but with more or less bushy tails and 
 sometimes with callosities on both pairs of legs, besides being 
 intermediate in other respects, the two species would have to 
 be merged into one. They could no longer be regarded as 
 morphologically distinct species, for they would not be dis- 
 tinctly definable one from the other." When Professor 
 Huxley wrote this, he was evidently unaware that the horse 
 has not invariably callosities on all four legs (see p. 2 1 7). 
 
 Hybrids between the Horse and Ass. Neither the 
 mule (the produce of the jackass and mare), nor the hinny or 
 jennet (the cross -between the horse and the she-ass), is 
 fertile, either among themselves, or with other members of 
 the horse family. Those animals which have been mistaken 
 by superficial observers as fertile mules, have been, I venture 
 to say, in most cases the offspring of mares that have 
 previously bred to donkeys, and have endowed their young 
 with some of the characteristics of their former asinine lovers. 
 Both the mule and the jennet respectively ''take after" their 
 dam in size ; and their sire, in appearance and disposition. 
 
 I know nothing respecting the question of the fertility of 
 the respective crosses between the different kinds of asses, 
 true or striped. 
 
 x 2 
 
308 ASSES. 
 
 Varieties of Asses. These animals may be divided into 
 the true or whole coloured asses, including the domestic or 
 Abyssinian ass, the onager, and the kiang ; and the striped 
 asses, comprising the mountain zebra, Burchell's zebra, Grevy's 
 zebra, and the quagga. 
 
 The Domestic and Abyssinian Wild Ass (Equus 
 asimis, see PI. 65). The domestic ass or donkey is, with 
 hardly any doubt, identical with the handsome and speedy 
 wild ass which is found in North-eastern Africa, and which is 
 known as the Abyssinian wild ass. The chief characteristics 
 which distinguish it from other asses is the possession of a 
 nearly vertical black stripe running down the shoulders, from 
 the front of the withers, and the narrowness of the stripe down 
 the back. These two stripes, which are, as a rule, only from 
 a half to three-quarters of an inch wide, make the well-known 
 cross. Sir William Flower states that the shoulder stripe is 
 " sometimes double, and not infrequently altogether absent." 
 I believe the stripe down the back is now and then wanting. 
 It is not uncommonly seen among native bred, and especially 
 dun-coloured horses in India. This wild ass is of a light 
 mouse colour except on the muzzle, under part of the body, 
 and inside of the legs, which are more or less white. Its 
 coat, particularly in the case of the domestic ass, may vary 
 from white to a very dark brown, or even black, with tan 
 "points." This animal, both in a wild and tame state, 
 frequently shows dark horizontal stripes on its fore-arms. It 
 resembles the mountain zebra in having very large ears, 
 and a very large head compared to the length of its body. 
 From ancient Egyptian records we learn that this ass was 
 employed for domestic purposes in Egypt many centuries 
 
THE ONAGER. 309 
 
 before the horse was known in that country. Its introduction 
 into Europe, however, has been comparatively of recent 
 date. It does not appear to have been known in England 
 before the time of the Saxons, and did not come into general 
 use until the beginning of the seventeenth century. The 
 horse, as we all know, was employed by the ancient Britons, 
 even for purposes of war, at the time (55 B. c.) when Caesar 
 landed. The donkey, used by native washermen in India, 
 is the smallest and most miserable of its kind. It is often 
 not more than eight hands high, and from overloading at a 
 far too early age, its hocks frequently are so much turned in 
 that they rub against each other at every step, even when 
 the animal is at liberty. In countries like America and 
 Spain, where care has been bestowed on the breeding of 
 this ass, it may be found as big as an ordinary saddle horse, 
 and proportionately strong. 
 
 The donkey associates itself to man as readily as does the 
 dog ; and, unlike the horse, evinces little or no inclination to 
 return to a wild state of life after it has become domesticated. 
 It is interesting to note that this ass, which is characterised by 
 a stripe (sometimes two stripes), down the shoulder, and 
 frequently by horizontal stripes on the fore-arms, is a native 
 of the country (Africa) in which zebras are indigenous. 
 
 The Onager (Equus onager, see PL 66). The wild asses 
 which are found in Syria, Arabia, Persia, Baluchistan, Turki- 
 stan, Afghanistan, and Kutch (in India), resemble each other 
 so closely that they may be classed under the one heading of 
 " onager," which is the term usually reserved for the Indian 
 and Persian wild ass. It is lighter in colour and longer 
 in the leg, in comparison to its length of body, than the 
 
310 ASSES. 
 
 Abyssinian variety. It is generally of a light mouse or ash 
 colour on the head (with the exception of the muzzle), and 
 on the upper parts of the neck, shoulders, back and quarters ; 
 and more or less white on the muzzle and under part of the 
 neck, chest,i and belly, and on the legs. Sometimes the 
 colouring is so faint that the animal's coat looks almost of a 
 silver white. It has not, or only to a slight extent in ex- 
 ceptional cases, the cross stripe on the shoulders. There is 
 a broad stripe, about five inches wide at the croup, down the 
 back, nearly similar to that of the Burchell zebra (see Fig. 183). 
 Adults are from twelve to thirteen hands high at the withers. 
 Its ears are not quite as long as those of the Abyssinian wild 
 ass. It is handsome, very fast, and extremely difficult of 
 approach. 
 
 The Kiang (Eguus hemionus, see PL 67) is the wild ass 
 of Thibet and Tartary. It seems to be identical with the 
 onager, except that it is different in colour, more heavily 
 built, on shorter legs, and that its stripe down the back is 
 narrower. The colour of the kiang is a rather light brown, 
 which is darker and redder than the light mouse colour of 
 the onager. The colour is not red enough to be termed a 
 bay. This ass is about thirteen hands high. It is far less 
 wary than the onager, and consequently falls a ready prey to 
 the cockney sportsmen who invade its domains in the high 
 table-lands of Thibet. 
 
 The Mountain Zebra (Eguus zebra, see PL 29) has a 
 more tufted tail, a scantier mane, longer ears, and a larger 
 head for its size than the Burchell zebra. As far as my 
 experience goes, it has a thicker neck, and its legs, especially 
 
THE MOUNTAIN ZEBRA. 311 
 
 as regards the back tendons and suspensory ligaments, are 
 not as well suited to civilised requirements as those of the 
 Burchell zebra. The male, at least, appears to have a 
 rudimentary dewlap. Its stripes are black or dark brown, 
 on a white ground. The most distinctive difference between 
 the arrangement of its stripes and those of the Burchell 
 zebra, is the existence of a number of transverse stripes, 
 which run across the top of its croup and across its tail. 
 In some instances, this zebra is white on the underneath 
 part of the body. With this exception, it is distinctly 
 marked all over the body, even down to the coronets, with 
 black and white stripes. It is indigenous to the southern part 
 of Africa. I believe it has not been found Inorth of the Vaal 
 River. At present (1893), it is met with in a wild state, 
 only in a few mountain ranges in the southern part of 
 Cape Colony, where it is preserved. There is a herd of 
 these zebras preserved on a farm near Craddock, which 
 is a small town in the eastern province of Cape Colony. 
 It is much wilder and more intractable to handle than the 
 Burchell zebra. I have been told that on different occasions 
 it has been successfully "inspanned" in South Africa; 
 although I have not heard of its having been put into draught 
 between the shafts. I may point out that the steadiness of 
 an animal is far more severely tested by having to bear 
 weight placed on its back by the shafts, than by merely 
 pulling against breast harness, or even against a collar, in a 
 11 span ; " and by going in saddle than by any kind of harness 
 work. In the year 1891, at Calcutta, I broke in, after two 
 days' training, an old entire zebra, quiet enough for my wife 
 to ride and to get photographed while on its back. This 
 was certainly the first time a lady has ridden this variety of 
 
312 ASSES. 
 
 zebra, which has the reputation all over the world of being 
 unrideable. Although I made many inquiries on the 
 subject while I was in South Africa, I could not obtain a 
 single authenticated case of any one in that country ever 
 having ridden a mountain zebra. With the advantage of 
 the special instruction in horse breaking which I gave during 
 my tour through South Africa in 1892, the residents of that 
 country ought to experience no difficulty in getting any 
 zebras which they may have in captivity, broken to either 
 harness or saddle. The height of the mountain zebra, when 
 full grown, is about twelve hands. 
 
 BurcheH's Zebra (Equus burchelli, see PL 37) differs 
 from the mountain zebra in being taller (its full height is 
 about 13.1, or 13.2), having a longer and thicker mane, a 
 more bushy and less tufted tail, smaller ears and a smaller 
 head in comparison to the length of its body ; and in the 
 differences of its markings.. The dark stripes are more brown 
 than black. The light colour is of a yellowish cream. The 
 stripes are broader and differently arranged (compare PL 37 
 with PL 29). A broad stripe runs down the back, and there 
 are no stripes across the top of the croup (see Fig. 183). Its 
 legs, below the knees and hocks, from their " flatness," with 
 the back tendons and suspensory ligaments clearly showing, 
 are much more like those of a well-bred horse than are those 
 of the mountain zebra. It further resembles the horse by 
 having a fairly lissom neck and a well-rounded barrel, and in 
 the size of its head and ears. The typical Burchell's zebra 
 has no dark stripes, or only very slight ones, below the 
 elbows and stifles, on the legs. The Orange River has 
 been generally regarded as its southern limit. Mr. F. C. 
 
BURCHELUS ZEBRA. 313 
 
 Selous, the celebrated African sportsman and naturalist, tells 
 me that it " was first discovered by Burchell near the Orange 
 River in Southern Bechuanaland. It is still to be met with 
 in Kama's country, and along the northern and eastern 
 borders of the Transvaal. In the neighbourhood of the 
 Pungwe River, it exists in very great numbers, herds of 
 hundreds together being common." It is probably widely 
 distributed throughout Central and Eastern Africa. On 
 account of the fact that this zebra, when in a wild state, 
 possesses immunity from the effects of the bite of the tsetse 
 fly, which is certain death to horses, I strongly advocated, 
 while I was in South Africa, the taming and employment 
 for harness or saddle, of these animals in "fly" infected 
 districts. With respect to this subject, Mr. Selous writes to 
 me that : " although Burchell's zebra, born and brought up in 
 the ' fly ' country, does not surfer from its bite, it is my 
 opinion that if a young one was caught and brought up in a 
 locality where there was no * fly/ and was then taken into a 
 ' fly ' infested district, it would die. This, however, is only 
 my opinion.' As the Burchell zebra is comparatively easy to 
 break in, and as it will breed in confinement, there is but little 
 doubt that it will in time become domesticated. If, as is 
 quite possible, it possesses little or no tendency to contract 
 " horse sickness," it will prove a valuable means of convey- 
 ance in South Africa. During one of my horse-breaking 
 performances in 1892, at Pretoria, the capital of the 
 Transvaal, I made a young Burchell zebra, after about an 
 hour's handling, quiet to carry a rider. In doing this, I 
 did not throw the animal down, nor did I resort to any of the 
 usual " heroic " horse-taming methods. Throughout South 
 Africa, this variety of zebra is wrongly called a quagga. 
 
ASSES. 
 
 Chapman's Zebra (Equus chapmant) appears to be 
 identical with Burchell's zebra, except that its legs have 
 stripes continued down to its pasterns. These leg stripes are 
 not so regularly defined as those of the mountain zebra. As 
 we* may meet with specimens having all degrees of striping 
 on the legs, I would submit that the presence or absence of 
 
 FIG. 181. THE GREW OR SOMALI-LAND ZEBRA. 
 
 stripes on the limbs, is a mere question of individual or local 
 difference, and that the so-called Chapman zebra should not 
 be regarded as a distinct variety. 
 
 The Gre'vy or Somali-land Zebra (Equus grevyi, see 
 Fig. 181). This animal, which is found in Shoa and Somali- 
 
SKINS OF ZEBRAS. 
 
 315 
 
 land, closely resembles the mountain zebra in being striped 
 
 FIG. 182. SKIN OF THE SOMALI-LAND ZEBRA. 
 
 FIG. 183. SKIN OF BURCHELL'S ZEBRA. 
 down to the coronets, and in having the hair of its tail 
 
316 ASSES. 
 
 collected as a tuft at the end. It differs, however, in being 
 white underneath the chest and abdomen, and in having 
 white patches on the rear part of the croup at each side of 
 the stripe down the back. Also, there are no transverse 
 stripes on the croup. The stripes are somewhat narrower 
 than those of the mountain zebra, and, in their arrangement, 
 resemble them more nearly than do those of the Burchell 
 zebra, with which it closely agrees in its conformation. The 
 differences in the stripes of these two animals are shown in 
 Figs. 182 and 183. 
 
 The Quagga (Equus quagga, see PL 68), forty years ago, 
 was to be found in immense numbers south of the Vaal river 
 in Southern Africa. I have the authority of Mr. F. C. Selous, 
 for saying that it is extinct in a wild state ; although it is 
 possible that there may be a specimen or two in some 
 menagerie or other. During a tour last year throughout 
 South Africa, I failed to obtain any tidings of the quagga. It 
 was a strong, somewhat heavily built animal, slow of pace for 
 a wild ass, and could have been readily broken to harness or 
 saddle. It stood about the height of the Burchell zebra. 
 Its colour on the shoulders and body was brown. The head 
 and neck were marked alternately with white and dark-brown 
 stripes, like those of the mountain zebra. There were on the 
 shoulders and body some faint stripes, which gradually faded 
 away as they went backwards. The colour was more or less 
 white beneath the chest and belly, on the tail, except at the 
 root, and on the legs below the elbows and stifles. It had a 
 broad stripe down the back. It closely resembled Burchell's 
 zebra, with the exception of being differently marked, and 
 being more heavily built. 
 
POINTS OF THE ASS. 317 
 
 Points of the Ass. The law which I put forward in 
 Chapters I. and XV., with respect to the influence of compara- 
 tive length of limb on speed and strength, holds as good in 
 the case of the ass, as it does in that of the horse. From it 
 we may justly infer that the onager is the speediest of its class. 
 From personal deductions, which I cannot support by any 
 precise data, I would think that the onager is faster for its size, 
 and under equal conditions, than any kind of wild horse, or, 
 perhaps, than any horse which has not some English racing 
 blood in its veins. As it is not at all probable that this ass 
 will be bred for racing purposes, I need form no conjectures 
 respecting its future on the turf. On page 305, I have alluded 
 to the fact of the ass being higher over the croup than at the 
 withers, supposing, of course, that it were to stand "at 
 attention" (see Fig. 35). In the domestic ass, the gaskins 
 and fore-arms are, as a rule, very poor ; but they are not so, 
 at least to anything like the same extent, in the wild ass. 
 Probably, on account of the ass having fewer loin vertebrae 
 (see p. 304) than the horse, it has less tendency to be " slack 
 in the loins." Compared to the horse, the ass has a very 
 weak tail, and is consequently unable to " carry its flag " in 
 the style usually affected by a spirited horse during movement. 
 
318 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX.* 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Ancestry of the Horse Immediate Ancestors of the Horse Conditions 
 which modified the Form of the Horse Points of Speed and Strength 
 in the Fossil Horse The Horse of the Future. 
 
 Ancestry of the Horse. It is my intention here, with 
 special reference to conformation, to write about the descent 
 of the horse in such a manner that my remarks may be easily 
 understood by those who possess no acquaintance with fossils 
 or comparative anatomy. Instead of commencing the history 
 of the horse according to the orthodox method, at a period 
 many millions of years ago, I shall begin with him as he now 
 is, and shall try to trace back his lineage to a time sufficiently 
 remote for our requirements. Although we cannot hope to 
 determine the exact sequence of the footsteps of the animals 
 which, in their march of evolution, became gradually changed 
 into the horse ; we shall find on their track marks left by them, 
 or by their near relatives who accompanied them on their 
 journey, that will guide us in the right direction. As science 
 progresses, so will the intervals between these land-marks 
 become filled in from time to time ; though it seems impossible 
 
 * For fuller information on this subject, see Professor A. Gaudry's 
 Enchantments du Monde Animal, and Sir William Flower's The Horse. 
 
ANCESTRY OF THE HORSE. 319 
 
 that the position of every footprint can ever be accurately 
 defined. 
 
 We learn from the study of geology that living creatures 
 began to inhabit the earth after its crust, which was once in a 
 liquid state, had cooled down, and the action of physical 
 causes, such as wind and water, had commenced to form 
 sedimentary rocks, in which the bones and other remains of 
 existing animals, became entombed as fossils. Thus, through 
 countless ages, a history of animal and also of vegetable life 
 has been written in stone by the hand of time. The last leaves 
 of this book lie uppermost, while the first ones repose on fused 
 rock, of which granite is a familiar example. This history is 
 divided by scientific men into the Primary, Secondary, and 
 Tertiary periods, of which the last-mentioned is the only one I 
 shall take into account ; as, during it, hoofed animals appeared 
 for the first time on the earth. The Tertiary period is divided 
 into the Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene periods ; 
 the Eocene being the most ancient ; and the Pleistocene the 
 one immediately preceding historic times. In searching 
 through the records of the past, an examination of fossil feet 
 is particularly interesting ; for we can obtain from it the most 
 direct and the most clearly expressed evidence respecting 
 the capacity of movement possessed by the animals which, 
 during life, walked on the earth. 
 
 Before beginning, I may remind my readers that the knee 
 of the horse corresponds to our wrist (see p. 32) ; and his 
 fore fetlock to the row of knuckles nearest to the wrist. 
 Instead of having, as in our hand, five metacarpal bones 
 between the knee and fetlock, he has only one entire bone 
 (the cannon-bone), and two rudimentary (or splint) bones. I 
 may remark that in the hind limb, the bones between the 
 
320 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 hock and hind fetlock are called metatarsal bones. Each of 
 our five metacarpal and metatarsal bones is furnished with a 
 digit, a synonym for either a toe or a finger ; but in the horse 
 the cannon-bone only is provided with a digit. I may 
 mention that the bones of each digit (the phalanges) are 
 numbered from above downwards. Thus the long pastern- 
 bone (see Fig. 3), is called the first phalanx; the short- 
 pastern-bone, the second phalanx ; and the pedal or coffin- 
 bone, the third phalanx. 
 
 If we examine the bones of the horse's limbs from, respec- 
 tively, the knees and hocks downward, we shall notice that 
 although the splint-bones form joints with the knee bones which 
 are immediately above them ; their lower ends do not, like that 
 of the cannon-bone, articulate with any other bones. Were a 
 man who knew nothing about the anatomy, working functions, 
 and diseases of any other animal except those of the horse, to 
 criticise the plan according to which the bones below the 
 knees and hocks were constructed ; he might justly remark 
 that for purposes of equine labour, it would have been better if 
 the cannon-bone and two splint-bones had been one bone of 
 corresponding size. Such a combination would have rendered 
 the column of bones stronger at that part, and would have 
 obviated the frequent evil effects of sprain to the interosseous 
 ligaments which connect each splint-bone to its cannon-bone. 
 I may here point out that the disease known in veterinary 
 surgery as " splint," is, as a rule, brought on by sprain of this 
 ligament. If we agree in considering the working of the laws 
 of nature to be perfect, we cannot accept the theory of special 
 creation ; but must regard the body of the horse, like that of 
 other animals, to be in a transition state ; in that it is con- 
 stantly, though slowly, accommodating itself to the conditions 
 
ABNORMAL FOOT OF HORSE. 
 
 321 
 
 of life in which it finds itself. While indulging in the present 
 train of thought, the first question which the inquirer after 
 knowledge will probably ask, will be : the splint-bones being in 
 a state of transition, what was their previous form and 
 
 FIG. 184. (After Gaudry.} ABNORMAL LEFT FORE LEG, BELOW THE KNEE, 
 OF HORSE Q-th real length). 
 
 functions, and what conditions have reduced them to their 
 present rudimentary state ? I shall now try to suggest answers 
 to these questions. 
 
 On rare occasions we find in the horse, that one or more 
 of the splint-bones have the character of the cannon-bone, in 
 
 Y 
 
322 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 that they are provided with a more or less perfect pastern 
 and hoof. From time to time, there have been well authen- 
 ticated instances of horses which were so completely furnished 
 in this respect on their front feet, that instead of having 
 been shod on only four feet, they carried iron on eight. I 
 need hardly say that the four supplementary shoes were 
 applied merely for exhibition purposes. Such a digit is well 
 shown in Fig. 184, which represents the bones of a colt's near 
 
 FIG. 185. FRONT FOOT OF PIG (th real length). 
 
 fore leg that was given by Professor Goubaux to the Veteri- 
 nary College at Alfort. These new digits are no functionless 
 monstrosities, like a sixth finger or toe which sometimes ap- 
 pears on the hand or foot of man ; but are the restorations 
 of parts once borne by the horse's ancestors. Here we have 
 a good exemplification of the struggle which is constantly 
 going on in the animal body, between the tendency to 
 preserve the ancestral type, and the effort to adapt itself to its 
 
THE PIG, 323 
 
 surrounding conditions. If we examine the foot of the pig 
 (see Fig. 185), which, like the horse, has hoofs ; we shall find 
 that it has two toes upon which it walks, and two supple- 
 mentary digits which do not touch the ground. As the 
 function makes the organ, we may confidently assert that 
 ancestors of the pig walked on these four toes, two of which, 
 apparently from disuse, have become reduced to their present 
 
 FIG. 1 86. (After Gaudry.} HIPPARION GRACILE (^th real height}. 
 
 insignificant size. We may, with equal certainty, affirm that, 
 if the pig remains under its present conditions of life, which, 
 as we all know, do not demand work from its small side 
 toes, these digits will in process of time disappear, and their 
 metacarpal and metatarsal bones will become as rudimentary 
 as the splint-bones of the horse. Even if it were objected 
 that these facts did not warrant us in assuming that the 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ancestors of the horse had, on each foot, three toes, two of 
 which were more or less rudimentary ; we have the still 
 stronger evidence afforded by fossils of horse-like animals 
 
 FIG. 187. LEFT FORE 
 FOOT OF H. GRACILE 
 (|th real height). 
 
 FIGS. 188 AND 189. LEFT FORE AND RIGHT HIND 
 FOOT OF SAME H. GRACILE (^th real height). 
 
 (Hipparion, see Fig. 186), whose feet were in this condition 
 (see Figs. 187, 188, 189 and 190). Figs. 191 and 192 give 
 front views of the horse's foot. Sir William Flower points 
 out that the European representative (Hipparion gracile) of 
 
H1PPARION GRACILE. 
 
 325 
 
 this fossil family could not have been an ancestor of the 
 horse ; for. besides differences in the teeth, it possessed 
 
 FIG. 190. (After Gaudry^) FRONT AND 
 SIDE VIEWS OF LEFT FORE FOOT OF 
 HIPPARION GRACILE (ith real length). 
 The lettering is the same as that of 
 Fig. 192. 
 
 FIG. 191. FRONT VIEW OF LEFT 
 FORE FOOT OF HORSE (ith real 
 length). 
 
 a deep depression in front of the eye, on each side of 
 the face, in which depression was lodged a large tear or 
 
326 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 scent gland, similar to that found in several kinds of deer 
 and antelope. Had the H. gracile been the ancestor of the 
 horse, this depression would not have entirely disappeared in 
 
 FIG. 192. (After Gaudry.} FRONT AND SIDE VIEW OF 
 LEFT FORE FOOT OF HORSE (^th real length). 
 
 (cannon 
 
 (longp 
 
 (pedal bone). 
 
 the horse. The H. gracile does not appear to have left any 
 descendants. It is probable that the immediate ancestors of 
 the horse of to-day (Equus caballus) came, in prehistoric times, 
 from America, in which country are to be found the remains 
 
ANCHITHERIUM. 
 
 327 
 
 of various kinds of fossil horses which resembled our present 
 ones more nearly than did H. gracile. The Hipparion 
 flourished in the upper Miocene and lower Pliocene ages, and 
 was from 13 to 14 hands high. 
 
 The Hipparion was preceded in the Miocene period by a 
 somewhat similar, three-toed animal, the Anchitherium, which 
 was about 10 hands high. We may see from Fig. 193 that 
 its side toes were longer than those of its successor. The 
 
 FIG. 193. (After Gaudry.} LEFT FORE FOOT OF ANCHITHERIUM (|th real 
 length). The lettering is the same as that of Fig. 192. 
 
 Russian palaeontologist, Kowalevsky, points out that the bones 
 below the fetlock in the Anchitherium, were not so firmly 
 united together, as they were in the Hipparion, and still less 
 so than in the horse ; and, consequently, that there must 
 have been a certain amount of lateral play in them. The 
 
328 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 length, also, of the side digits would lead us to form the 
 opinion that this animal walked on three toes. 
 
 The majority of palaeontologists, I believe, consider that 
 the Hipparion used only one toe of each foot in progression. 
 Against this opinion I may advance the fact, not very gene- 
 rally known, that some horses, especially high-caste Arabs, 
 have such a naturally large amount of "play " in the fetlock 
 and pastern joints of the fore legs, that during the fast gallop, 
 
 FIG. 194. (After Gaudry.} FORE 
 FOOT OF PALOPLOTHERIUM (|rd 
 real length). 
 
 FIG. 195. (After Gaudry^ LEFT 
 FRONT FOOT OF OROHIPPUS 
 AGILIS (full size). 
 
 the fetlock pad (see p. 221) is liable to come down on the 
 ground and get bruised. The ergot, which is in the centre 
 of this pad, is evidently, as pointed out by Sir William 
 Flower, the rudiment of a structure (like the pad of a dog's 
 or cat's foot) that acted as a buffer to the fetlock at the time 
 when the horse was a digitigrade animal, namely, one which 
 walks on its digits, and not as the horse now does in unguli- 
 grade fashion, only on their tips. In all horses which have 
 free action, the fetlock descends a good deal in the gallop 
 
HYRACOTHERIUM. 329 
 
 (see Fig. 98). Hence, I am inclined to think, that the Hip- 
 parion, whose immediate ancestors were digitigrade animals, 
 used the second and fourth digits, at least of its fore feet, to 
 some extent at fast paces ; if not in slow movement. 
 
 Still earlier, we find in the middle Eocene age, the 
 Paloplotherium, which resembled the Anchitherium and 
 Hipparion in its feet (see Fig. 194); and the horse tribe, 
 generally, in its teeth.* Its principal digit was much weaker 
 than that of its successors. The foot shown in Fig. 194 is 
 that of a small variety of Paloplotherium. Among the 
 Eocene deposits in America is found the Orohippus agilis f 
 (Fig. 195), which, as the name given to it by Professor 
 Marsh implies, may be taken as the limit to which we can 
 fairly trace the horse in his character of a one-toed animal. 
 Going further back in the Eocene period, we meet with the 
 Hyracotherium (Fig. 196), which had three toes on its hind 
 feet and four toes on its front feet, and which had hoofs on 
 all of them. It was about 15 inches high, and was closely 
 akin to the tapir, which has maintained its peculiarities of 
 conformation, up to the present day, almost without change, 
 during that vast period of time. Although the Hyraco- 
 therium had four toes on its front feet, it may be considered 
 
 * The teeth of the Paloplotherium have a plentiful supply of crusta petrosa 
 (cement), and thus resemble those of the horse. I may explain that the 
 cement is the outer layer of the teeth. In youth, it forms a thin covering to 
 the enamel on the outside; and a thick one in the depressions which all 
 the teeth, with the exception of the tushes, have on their crowns. The 
 cement becomes quickly stained by the action of the food and gives the 
 "mark" in the teeth its characteristic dark appearance. The front teeth 
 of the horse become white with age from the wearing away of the cement 
 
 | ' Opos, limit ; TTTTTOS, horse. 
 
33 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 to have been an odd-toed animal ; for one of these digits was 
 off the ground, and was consequently functionless. 
 
 The foot of the rhinoceros (see Fig. 197) shows a marked 
 tendency to become one-toed. Being three-toed on its fore, 
 as well as on its hind feet, it belongs to a less ancient type 
 than the tapir. The Acerotherium (see Fig. 198) was a pro- 
 bable ancestor of the rhinoceros, if not of the horse. The 
 Brontotherium, which has been found in the Miocene of 
 
 FIG. 196. HYRACOTHERIUM Q-th real height). 
 
 Colorado, had, similar to the tapir, four digits on its front 
 feet ; and three on its hind ones (see Figs. 199 and 200). 
 
 Proceeding still further down in our search, we find in the 
 early Eocene, the Phenacodus primcevus, which is supposed to 
 have been the ancestor, or one of the very early ancestors, of 
 all hoofed animals. Fig. 201 shows how it appears in a fossil 
 condition. It was about twenty-one inches high. From the 
 form of the third phalanx of its digits, we may conclude that 
 each of them carried a hoof. We may also see that each 
 
PHENACODUS. 
 
 of its digits had three phalanges. As I am considering the 
 genealogy only of hoof-bearing animals, I shall not go fur- 
 
 FIG. 197. FORE FOOT OF 
 RHINOCEROS (|th real length). 
 
 Jrv- 
 
 FIG. 198. (After Gaudry.} LEFT 
 FRONT FOOT OF ACEROTHERIUM 
 TETRADACTYLUM (th real length). 
 
 ther back than the Phenacodus. Having now arrived at an 
 animal with five toes, I may point out that in no case do 
 the digits of any normal mammal (an animal which suckles its 
 
332 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 young) exceed that number. The digits, I may remark, are 
 numbered from within, outwards. Thus, the thumb on our 
 hand is termed the first digit ; the little ringer, the fifth digit. 
 Among the ancestors of the horse, the first digit was the first 
 to disappear ; and after it, the fifth digit. In the Hyraco- 
 therium, the first digit has gone from all four feet. The fifth 
 has vanished from the hind ones, and has begun the process 
 
 FIG. 199. (After Gaudry.} LEFT FRONT 
 FOOT OF BRONTOTHERIUM (|th real length). 
 
 FIG. 200. (After Gaudry.} 
 LEFT HIND FOOT OF BRONTO- 
 THERIUM (fth real length). 
 
 of doing so, in the front feet. The Orohippus has also lost 
 its fifth digit. The Anchitherium (like the rhinoceros) 
 appears as a true three-toed mammal ; having lost its first and 
 fifth digits. In the Hipparion gracile, the second and fourth 
 digits have begun to disappear ; and have done so, completely 
 the horse of the present day. From the foregoing 
 
 in 
 
 considerations, its ancestors are classed among odd-toed 
 animals (Perissodactyla). We must further observe that, 
 
PHENACODUS. 
 
 333 
 
 from the Phenacodus to the horse as we now know him, 
 the third digit has remained the principal one of both fore and 
 hind limbs. It is instructive to note that the phalanges and 
 digits of the hind limb have a greater tendency to decrease in 
 number than those of the fore leg. As the fore foot is nearer 
 to the head than the hind foot, its functions are more various, 
 
 FIG. 201. PHENACODUS PRIM^EVUS (^th real length). 
 
 and its digits are less liable to become affected by disuse. In 
 man, we find that the toes are smaller than the fingers ; and 
 that, in many cases, the little toe has lost its third phalanx ; 
 although the little finger still retains that bone. In the case 
 of the reappearance of the second and fourth (as in Fig. 184) 
 digits in the horse, the fore legs are far more frequently 
 supplemented in this way, than the hind ones. 
 
334 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Immediate Ancestors of the Horse. The type of 
 horse immediately preceding the present one, is a subject 
 which I approach with a great deal of diffidence ; as I have 
 not had an opportunity of studying it carefully, much as I 
 would have wished to have done so. Darwin, very justly as 
 it seems to me, points to the probability that all the existing 
 races of horses have descended from " a single dun-coloured, 
 more or less striped primitive stock, to which our horses occa- 
 sionally revert." This primitive stock, I would conjecture, 
 closely resembled the quagga or Burchell's zebra. The not 
 uncommon appearance in horses of dark stripes on the fore- 
 arms, and a dark stripe along the back and across the shoulders, 
 seems to be cases of reversion to the likeness of an ancestor, 
 especially as these markings, when they do occur, show much 
 clearer in early youth than when the animal grows older. Not 
 alone in this respect does the horse take on the markings of 
 the ass ; but his coat not infrequently assumes a near approach 
 to the colour of the ass, with white under the belly, insides of 
 the legs, etc. The ass, on the contrary, never clothes himself 
 in the bays, chestnuts, roans and greys which are greatly 
 affected by the horse ; and is practically free from the irregular 
 markings so freely indulged in by his relative. " Stars," 
 ' 'blazes, ""reaches," ''snips," "stockings, "and coats, piebald and 
 skewbald, can hardly be the unbiassed result of domestication ; 
 for the ass appears to have been the companion of man even 
 longer than the horse, and he shows little or no tendency to 
 adopt such motley wear. The apparently functionless false 
 nostril of the horse is of lesser depth than that of the ass, and 
 may be expected to disappear in the course of ages. I would 
 therefore infer that the immediate ancestor of the horse, as we 
 know him, was a more or less striped ass. From the drawings 
 
IMMEDIATE ANCESTORS OF THE HORSE. 335 
 
 made on pieces of bone and horn by the cave men of Southern 
 France, it would seem that the horse of Western Europe, say, 
 ten thousand years ago, was a small, rough, thick-set animal, 
 rather like the Mongolian pony. The instinct this and other 
 horses have of scraping away with their fore feet, snow when 
 it covers the ground, so as to get at the underlying grass, would, 
 as Darwin suggests, point to the probability that our horses 
 originally came from a country in which there were severe 
 winters. It would be interesting to know if this instinct, 
 which no doubt is possessed by the kiang, is retained by the 
 onager, the Abyssinian wild ass, and the eastern horse. The 
 horses of the present day may be divided into two, more or 
 less, distinct types ; the one, thick-set and " coarse," like 
 the Mongolian pony ; the other of comparatively slight build 
 and smart appearance, like the Arab or Indian pony (see 
 PL 34). I would refer the aboriginal horses of Western 
 Europe and the various cart strains to the first division. Our 
 saddle horses and trappers are, as we all know, a judicious blend 
 of English and Eastern blood. The differences which exist 
 among the various breeds of horses in the world, are evi- 
 dently due to the effects of climate, selection, and stable 
 management. 
 
 From the remarks made on page 306, with respect to the 
 presence of thickened skin in the horse and ass, we might 
 conclude that these two animals are descended from a thick- 
 skinned ancestor, akin perhaps to the rhinoceros, whose foot 
 (see Fig. 197) shows a marked tendency to become one-toed. 
 It is almost needless to say that the rifle of the sportsman 
 will, in the near future, put a summary stop to this process of 
 evolution in the case of this horned pachyderm. The fact of 
 the ass possessing a larger amount of thick skin than the 
 
336 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 horse, also seems to prove that his type is the more ancient 
 one of the two. Judging by the general conformation, 
 especially as regards the comparative size of head, Burchell's 
 zebra appears to be the nearest akin, among asses, to the 
 horse ; and the mountain zebra, the furthest removed. The 
 recent extinct quagga more closely resembled the horse, than 
 does Burchell's zebra. 
 
 Conditions which Modified the Form of the Horse. 
 
 -The conditions which have produced an animal (the horse) 
 with a single toe to each of its feet, from ancestors with five 
 toes, have been, apparently, those of soil, combined with a 
 tendency to place the weight of the limb more on one 
 particular digit than on any other digit. The fact that the 
 feet of the tapir have undergone, practically, no modification 
 for several millions of years, proves that his conditions of life 
 at the present day are nearly the same as they were when 
 the ancestors of the horse, like those of the tapir, had four 
 hoofs on each front foot, and three on each hind one. Feet 
 like these, which, under the influence of pressure, had the 
 faculty of spreading out, were admirably suited for going 
 through soft ground similar to that over which the tapir still 
 roams in a wild state ; for the increase of the area of support 
 thus offered by the feet, was a direct help in preventing the 
 animal from sinking too deeply in the mud over which he 
 travelled. It is evident that this lateral play of the digits 
 entailed loss of speed for progression on hard ground, on 
 account of expenditure of muscular power required to restore 
 them to their normal state, and from increased friction. The 
 less lateral play the digits would have, the faster would the 
 animal be able to travel over hard ground. For instance, the 
 
FOOT OF STEINBOK. 
 
 337 
 
 wild pig, whose feet (see Fig. 185) spread out a good deal 
 more than those of the Steinbok (see Fig. 202), is much 
 better through " dirt" (to use a racing and hunting expression) 
 than this speedy South African antelope ; but is far inferior to 
 him in a gallop over hard ground. We may, therefore, infer 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 202. (After Gaudry.} FOOT OF STEINBOK. 
 
 that the decrease in the number of the digits of the horse's 
 foot has been due to residence, during thousands, if not 
 millions, of generations on dry soil. With the loss of lateral 
 play in the foot, there has been a consequent increased of spee, 
 which was necessary for protection against the attacks of 
 carnivorous animals, like the cheetah '(PL 2), lynx (PI. 17), 
 
338 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 and wolf, whose conformation was unsuited for predatory 
 operations in the morasses which had afforded an asylum for 
 ancestors of the horse. 
 
 Points of Speed and Strength in the Fossil Horse. 
 
 At the outset of this investigation, I am met with the 
 pertinent question : what is a horse ? My natural reply to 
 this will be that the horse is an animal which has only one toe 
 to each of its legs. I might also add, for the benefit of those 
 of my readers who are interested in comparative anatomy, 
 that his teeth are plentifully supplied with crusta petrosa (see p. 
 329) ; and that the pulley-like processes on his astragalus are 
 directed forward and outward (see p. 70). The fact of unity 
 of digit a peculiarity which distinguishes the horse from all 
 other mammals will probably suffice for ordinary inquirers. 
 Taking this test, we cannot with propriety apply the term 
 horse to animals further back in equine descent than the 
 Anchitherium. The Phenacodus resembles a carnivorous 
 animal (a Dandy Dinmont or otter hound) more than he does 
 one of the horse tribe. His great length of humerus must have 
 given him considerable power in raising the forehand by the 
 play of the shoulder and elbow joints, the diminution of which 
 play is compensated for in the horse by the action of the fet- 
 lock joint. His hocks and knees, like those of the dog and cat, 
 were "well let down." He might have had a fair "turn of 
 speed " for a short distance ; but he was too long in the body to 
 have been a stayer. There is no doubt that the ancestors of 
 the horse were of very slow pace at the time when they were 
 identical with, or nearly akin to the Paloplotherium and the 
 Hyracotherium, animals which were not far removed from 
 the rhinoceros and tapir. With the tendency to the gradual 
 
CANNON-BONES OF HIPPARION. 
 
 339 
 
 adoption of the one-toed method of progression, there was an 
 evident increase of speed. By examining Figs. 187 to 193, 
 we may see that the length of the bones below the fetlock, 
 compared to that of the cannon-bone, was greater in the 
 Hipparion than in the Anchitherium ; and in the horse, than 
 
 FIG. 203. (After Gaudry.} CANNON-BONES OF TWO DIFFERENT KINDS 
 
 OF HIPPARION. 
 
 in the Hipparion : length of pastern, as we have seen on p. 224, 
 being directly conducive to speed. Taking the converse of 
 this argument, which we may fairly do from our present 
 knowledge of palaeontology, we may assume that this increase 
 in the comparative length of the bones below the fetlock, is 
 
 z 2 
 
340 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 a sound proof that this kind of conformation is conducive 
 to speed. 
 
 Although, as regards the number of toes, the horse's foot 
 is better suited than that of any other animal for the develop- 
 ment of a high rate of speed ; the fact remains that the four- 
 toed cheetah (see PI. 2), hare, wild dog, and wolf, and the 
 two-toed black buck (see PI. i) are comparatively, for their 
 size, if not actually, faster than any wild horse or ass. Here we 
 have an instance of the complex nature of physical faculties, 
 which, like speed, are not made up of one component, but of 
 many. In the cat, dog and hare, the muscles of progression are 
 of much greater comparative length than those of the horse ; as 
 we may judge by the way the hocks and knees are " let 
 down." Although these joints in the antelope are " high off 
 the ground," the extreme length of his limbs compensates him 
 for this disadvantage, as well as that of having two toes on 
 each foot. In the case of the ancestors of this fleet ruminant, 
 the tendency to place weight both on the third and fourth toe 
 was so evenly distributed on these two digits, that the balance 
 between them has remained practically undisturbed for ages, 
 and under modifying conditions which have nearly doubled 
 the comparative length of the limbs. 
 
 Like the horses of the present day, the members of the 
 Hipparion gracile tribe differed a good deal among each other 
 as regards conformation, as we may see by the respective 
 cannon-bones shown in A and B of Fig. 203. 
 
 The Horse of the Future. The bones of the limbs, 
 as we have seen, are gradually assuming the character of a 
 single column, and are increasing the rigidity of their con- 
 nections between the joints necessary for locomotion. We 
 
THE HORSE OF THE FUTURE. 341 
 
 may observe a tendency to bony union between the splint 
 bones and their cannon-bones, and between the lower row of 
 the small bones of the hock and knee, and their respective 
 metatarsal and metacarpal bones. Thus we find that com- 
 paratively harmless forms of " simple " splint and " low " spavin 
 are increasingly common among young horses subjected 
 to civilised conditions. They will, as suggested by Mr. H. 
 G. Rogers, gradually lose their morbid character, and will 
 become normal processes of development. Agreeably to 
 this we may note that such splints and spavins are less 
 liable to injuriously affect the usefulness of a thoroughbred, 
 than of, for instance, a Mongolian pony or a South American 
 broncho. As ages roll on, the splint bones will disappear, 
 and pari passii, the small bones of the knee and hock which 
 rest on them. The increasing prevalence of " side-bones " 
 among heavy cart-horses seems to justify the idea that the 
 Shires and Clydesdales of the near future will have no lateral 
 cartilages. Among other changes, the bones of the sternum 
 will in time become joined together, and anchylosis will take 
 place between the pelvis and sacrum. The racer will become 
 comparatively longer in the legs and neck, stronger in the 
 loins, rounder in the barrel and better ribbed up than he now 
 is ; and the draught animal will become shorter in the limbs, 
 and more massive in muscle. Both will increase in height 
 and docility. 
 
342 PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY is a very useful aid for the acquisition of a 
 knowledge of conformation ; for it enables us to place on 
 record exact results unobtainable by other means. This is 
 a truth which is too evident to need support by argument. 
 
 Photographs are taken of a horse with the object of 
 obtaining a picture, a portrait, a combination of the two, 
 or a likeness of the animal by which his " points " may be 
 best seen and compared, with the greatest exactness, to those 
 of other horses. When a picture is the end in view, the 
 pose will have to be subordinated to artistic requirements. 
 If a portrait, the position should be that which will convey 
 to the spectator the best possible idea of the general look 
 of the animal. This will usually be obtained when his 
 body is in profile, and the head and neck carried in the 
 manner most characteristic of the horse in question. The 
 head may, therefore, be turned a little to one side or to the 
 other, as in Pis. 33 or 62. When, however, the photograph 
 is required as a more or less exact record of the horse's 
 "make and shape," he should be in as nearly perfect profile 
 as practicable ; just as if he were posed for the inspection 
 of an intending buyer. Owing to the laws of perspective, a 
 
PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES. 343 
 
 photograph is no more an absolutely correct map of the 
 surface in view, than is a carefully drawn picture. 
 
 In order to preserve harmony in the graceful curves of 
 the upper line of the body, the horse, to look his best, should 
 have his ears pricked forward, his head carried high, and, 
 if possible, he should not have his tail tucked in between 
 his legs. When standing still, he will look to most 
 advantage when the fore leg of the observer's side is more 
 advanced than the other, and when its hind leg is more 
 drawn back than the other hind leg (see Pis. 33 and 35). 
 Unless the background be a specially prepared one, the 
 horse should be well away from it, and it should be out of 
 focus, so that he may stand out in bold relief. (Compare 
 Frontispiece and Plate 62, with Plates 33 and 38.) As a 
 rule, the animal, even when he is a grey or white, should 
 be placed, more or less, against the sky. If possible> the 
 horse should not be put, as is frequently done, close against 
 a building, the lines of which would prevent the eye from 
 following the contours of the animal. I find that horses look 
 more animated and hold themselves better, away from their 
 stables, than near them ; and especially when they are in an 
 open plain. My readers can draw their own examples from 
 the photographs given in this book. 
 
 It is absolutely immaterial whether the camera used is 
 on a fixed stand or is held in the hand, so long as the 
 results are satisfactory. For "taking" horses standing still, 
 it is evident that it would be best, were the plan practicable, 
 to photograph the animal in diffused sunlight, as might be 
 obtained by using a roof of ground glass. The difficulty 
 here would be the attainment of sufficiently long exposure 
 while the animal remained in a suitable position. Although 
 
PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES. 
 
 I generally try to " take " animals with full sunlight coming, 
 if possible, from behind my back ; I fully understand that I 
 would do better, were I to wait for the light to become 
 diffused by the intervention, for instance, of a translucent 
 cloud. But being a busy man, I am obliged to utilise the 
 opportunities I get. The distance at which I like to photo- 
 graph horses standing still, is from 7 to 10 yards ; and horses 
 in motion, from 10 to 25 yards. I use a quarter-plate 
 twin-lens hand camera, which can be focussed up to the last 
 moment, and which was devised for me by Messrs. Newman 
 and Guardia. Its full aperture is one inch in diameter ; its 
 equivalent focus is about 6} inches ; and it has two shutters : 
 one working at ^-J-g- second, placed between the lenses ; the 
 other, at from i second to -^ second, behind them. I may 
 explain that, up to the present, no shutter has been made 
 which can be regulated with approximate accuracy, between 
 these extreme limits, with the aperture I have mentioned. 
 When time and light permit, I stop the lens down to from 
 to tr- When taking rapidly moving objects, I find it best 
 to direct the lens, !by means of the finder, on some point 
 at which I wish to make the exposure, and, while holding 
 the camera as steady as I can, I continue looking at the 
 moving object until I think it is in right position, and I then 
 press the release. In such cases, one has to receive every 
 possible help from light, plate, developer, and, if need be, 
 intensifies In temperate climates, the best light for very 
 short exposures will usually be obtained about mid-day ; in the 
 tropics, some time from eight to ten in the morning, or from 
 two to four in the afternoon, so as to avoid getting the light 
 from too. nearly a vertical direction. 
 
( 345 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 BOURGELAT, Merche, Duhousset, Goubaux, Barrier, and other 
 writers on Conformation have laid down certain proportions 
 for an ideal horse, which, unfortunately, does not exist as a 
 distinctive type. Failing to draw sufficient attention to the 
 great difference of shape between horses of speed and those 
 of strength ; the comparisons which they have instituted 
 between the dimensions of the limbs and those of the head 
 and body, are wholly arbitrary. I need hardly remind my 
 readers that, speaking generally, although the respective 
 proportions of the head and body are practically the same 
 in all classes of horses, the length of the neck and limbs 
 varies according to the work for which the muscles of these 
 parts are best suited. Hence, the only proportions of the 
 horse, which are fixed within narrow limits, are those of the 
 head and body. We may sum up the most evident ones 
 as follows : 
 
 Proportions Common to all Classes of Horses. 
 
 The Measurements here given have Reference to Fig. 204. 
 
 (1) Length of body (a b) - 2^ to 2- times length of head (k /). 
 
 (2) Height at withers (c d) = height at croup (fg). 
 
 (3) Length of head (k t) = depth of body at lowest part of back (h i). 
 
346 PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 (4) Length of head = distance of " swell " of muscle at posterior angle of 
 
 shoulder-blade, to point of hip (s t). 
 
 (5) Distance (k /) of top of head to corner of mouth = distance from 
 
 point of hip to point of buttock (t u). 
 
 (6) Width of head (m n) = \ length of head (k I). 
 
 3 
 
 FIG. 204. PROPORTIONS OF HORSE. 
 (Drawn from a photograph?) 
 
 That careful observer, Colonel Duhousset, states that : 
 (7) Length of head = distance of point of shoulder to top of withers. 
 
 As this proportion must necessarily vary according] to 
 the length and position of the shoulder-blade and humerus, 
 1 refrain from applying it to all classes. 
 
PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE. 347 
 
 The following proportions are approximately correct for 
 all horses, except those of the heavy cart type, whose necks 
 are particularly massive (see PI. 19) : 
 
 (8) Width of head (m n) = width of upper part of neck (n o). 
 
 (9) Distance (k p) of top of head to corner of mouth = thickness of 
 
 base of neck (q r). 
 
 Any attempt as has frequently been made to formulate 
 proportions of length between the limbs and body of what 
 might be called an "ordinary horse," would be merely 
 begging the question by constructing an ideal animal to 
 conform to one's own theories ; instead of, as one ought to 
 do, supporting one's hypotheses on the firm basis of fact. 
 As the comparative length of limb varies according to the 
 class of horse ; we find (see Chapter XV.), taking the two 
 extreme types, that the legs of the heavy cart-horse are far 
 shorter than those of the racer (compare PL 19 with Frontis- 
 piece). Thus, the length of the body and its depth at the 
 withers in the former, are, respectively, several inches more 
 than the height, and the distance of the brisket from the 
 ground. The racer, on the contrary, is inclined to be shorter 
 than he is high, and measures much less from the withers to 
 brisket than from brisket to ground. 
 
 As the result of my own observations I may add the 
 following proportions for thoroughbreds only : 
 
 (10) Height at withers (c d) = length of body (a b), or a little (say, up 
 
 to 4 inches) more. 
 
 (11) Depth at withers (c e) = distance of "girth place" to lower part of 
 
 fetlock in a three-year-old, or to centre of pastern in an " aged " 
 horse. 
 
 Beyond repeating (see p. 1 60) that the muscles of the neck 
 should be proportionate in length to those of the limbs, I 
 
348 PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 can offer no useful hint as regards the comparative length of 
 the neck ; for the only measurement which can be readily 
 taken of it, namely, that from the withers to the top of the 
 head, greatly alters in length, on account of the elasticity of 
 the connecting ligament (see p. 34), according to the position 
 in which the head is held. We must here remember that 
 this suspensory ligament of the head and neck is immediately 
 underneath the crest, and that the vertebrae of the neck 
 (see FIG. 3) does not follow this line. 
 
( 349 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 THE PAINTER'S HORSE. 
 
 HORSES have been treated by painters, and also by sculptors, 
 in a very unhandsome way, and especially by English so- 
 
 le Kaffcr 
 'ofr.s Parrocel. 
 7*50. 
 
 FIG. 205. (Copied by Duhousset.} Louis XV. 
 
 called artists, who continue to perpetuate the conventional 
 or stencil-plate animal in a style long since forsaken by con- 
 tinental draughtsmen. There are, of course, several brilliant 
 
350 
 
 THE PAINTERS HORSE. 
 
 exceptions. The most usual faults of conformation to be 
 seen in horse pictures, are absurdly small heads and ex- 
 travagantly long hind-quarters, from point of hip to point of 
 buttock. We see them well shown in Figs. 205 and 206. The 
 former is a sketch of an equestrian portrait, by the French 
 
 FIG. 206. HORSE BY ALKEN. 
 
 artist Parrocel, of Louis XV. in his youth. The latter is 
 from Beauties and Defects in the Figure of the Horse, by 
 H. Alken, who published it seventy years ago, and who 
 described the subject of his work as follows : " The animal 
 from which this drawing was made, is accounted one of the 
 finest figures in England." He must have had some mis- 
 
THE PARTHENON. 
 
 givings about the dimensions of the head and neck ; for he 
 takes care to add that : "A small head and neck in a horse 
 are considered a great beauty ; and in the original of this 
 drawing, I think they are the least I ever saw in proportion 
 to the body." All the saddle-horses of some English artists, 
 among whom was that unrivalled caricaturist, Mr. John 
 
 FIG. 207. HORSE AND RIDER IN THE PARTHENON. 
 
 Leech, have a remarkably "good place for the collar" (see 
 p. 212) on their shoulders. " The old masters" drew horses 
 very incorrectly ; and yet we find in the bas-reliefs of the 
 Parthenon done over two thousand years ago, horses depicted 
 with a near approach to truth both in form and action (see 
 Fig 207). The greatest of all horse painters, Meissonier, drew 
 
352 
 
 THE PAINTERS HORSE. 
 
 horses with marvellous correctness, as we may see in his 
 11 Napoleon i er " (Fig. 208), and in " 1814" (Fig. 209). 
 
 The stencil-plate man generally represents the walk by 
 the action of the trot. Even the great and careful painter 
 
 FIG. 208. MEISSONIER'S NAPOLEON i er . 
 
 Gericault sinned in this respect, as we may notice in the 
 mounted horse of the pair shown in Fig. 210. The Arab 
 horse, which forms the second drawing in this figure, is repre- 
 sented at the amble. Gericault evidently meant them to be 
 at the walk, at which corrected pace Colonel Duhousset {see 
 
MARENGO. 
 
 353 
 
 his Le Ckeval) has redrawn these two animals unmounted. 
 He has, however, given somewhat exaggerated action to the 
 near hind leg of his first horse. A well-known English 
 artist drew a picture of Napoleon's charger, Marengo (see 
 Fig. 211), balancing himself on a fore and hind leg of tb p 
 
 FIG. 209. MEISSONIER'S " 1814." 
 
 same side ! Possibly he followed the bad (in this instance) 
 example of Gericault (see Fig. 210). Artists of the present 
 time have no excuse for similar lapses into error ; for they 
 have the results of the researches of Marey, Muybridge, 
 Anschiitz and other photographers to guide them. Figs. 
 
 2 A 
 
354 
 
 THE PAINTERS HORSE. 
 
 54, 47, 52, 88, Meissonier's " 1814," and PL 69, prove that 
 the walk, trot, amble, canter, and leap, can be drawn artistically 
 and truthfully at the same time. A combination of these two 
 conditions is harder to find in the canter, than in the other 
 movements just mentioned, and still more so in the gallop. 
 The difficulty, here, lies in the nature of the action rather than 
 in the speed of the pace ; for the eye can, for instance, follow 
 the order in which the limbs work, far more easily in the 
 
 FIG. 210. HORSES BY GERICAULT CORRECTED BY DUHOUSSET. 
 
 fastest trot or amble than in the slowest walk. Here we come 
 to the noteworthy truth that the eye will seldom recognise as 
 true in Art, what it has not actually seen in Nature. The dis- 
 tance at which we usually look at the movements of a horse's 
 legs in the canter or gallop is usually too close to permit us to 
 take in all four together at the same moment. Hence, when 
 critically regarding the action in either of these two paces, we 
 generally content ourselves with studying that of the fore pair, 
 
GIVING THE IDEA OF MOTION. 355 
 
 and, subsequently, that of the hind pair ; or vice versa. In 
 such a case, therefore, whichever pair be focussed sharply 
 on the retinae of our eyes, the other pair will of necessity be 
 blurred. Consequently, if both pairs of limbs be depicted 
 sharply in the canter or gallop, the chances are that the 
 idea of motion will not be conveyed to the spectator. For 
 this reason, the painter who is trying to give the " feeling " 
 of motion to a horse he is drawing at either of these paces, 
 
 FIG. 211. NAPOLEON'S CHARGER, MARENGO (After Mr. James Ward, R.A.}. 
 
 will do well to blur (by means of dust, snow, etc.) or to hide 
 (by a bush or grass, for instance) one pair, if he desires to 
 make the other pair sharp. I can see no error of technique 
 in giving indistinctness of outline to the limbs themselves. 
 A painter who exhibited, in the Royal Academy or Salon, 
 a picture representing a horse running away with a carriage, 
 would most probably incur no rebuke from the art critics 
 for blurring all the spokes of the wheels, and drawing all the 
 legs and feet of the animal sharp. And yet those of us who 
 
 2 A 2 
 
356 THE PAINTERS HORSE. 
 
 know anything of the laws of motion, must be aware that, 
 in such a case, any of the horse's feet which are going 
 forward, must be passing far faster through space, than the 
 more or less perpendicular spokes which are revolving 
 through the lower half of their circle ! 
 
 At paces in which there is a moment of suspension, the 
 idea of motion, will, as a rule, be best conveyed by drawing 
 the horse with his feet off the ground. On account of vio- 
 lating this principle, old time painters, who represented the 
 horse in the gallop with both hind feet on the ground, failed 
 to give the idea of movement ; although, as it happened, the 
 attitude they adopted was not far from true (see Fig. 93). 
 The later method of showing the racer at full speed, sus- 
 pended in the air, with his fore legs stretched out in front and 
 his hind limbs extended to the rear, was absolutely incorrect, 
 as well as utterly impossible ; and yet it conveyed the feeling 
 of motion better than that practised by the earlier horse 
 painters. It is manifest that a pictorial attitude which we 
 know to be incorrect, will look unnatural to us. Consequently, 
 the more general knowledge becomes, the more difficult will 
 it be for a painter who tries to draw horses in motion, to 
 satisfy the artistic requirements of his public. Hence, pictures 
 of galloping horses appearing to claw the ground, as the 
 fore feet come down with the knees and fetlocks well bent, 
 or committing equally absurd eccentricities, will, to any one 
 who has studied the paces of the horse, look simply ridiculous, 
 no matter how meritorious the painting may be in other 
 respects. M. Barroil {L Art Equestre] justly remarks that the 
 fact that the domain of the painter is what one sees and not 
 what really takes place, is no proof that one sees attitudes 
 which do not exist. " It is, however, by virtue of this theory, 
 
HORSE LEAPING. 
 
 357 
 
 set up as an axiom, that many artists represent, in their 
 works, horses in attitudes which they have never assumed, 
 and which they could not assume." 
 
 One form of conventional leap appears to have been 
 taken from Alken's drawing (see Fig. 212). It is neither 
 
 FIG. 212. HORSE LEAPING, BY ALKEN. 
 
 correct nor does it give, at least to a horseman, the idea 
 of what is intended to be represented. A horse which is in 
 the act of landing, is usually represented, by the stencil-plate 
 man, with its fore feet so far to the front, that, when they will 
 come to the ground, it could not possibly raise its forehand, 
 
358 
 
 THE PAINTERS HORSE. 
 
 and a fall would be the inevitable result. The " tail-piece," 
 on this page, gives a correct and far more artistic rendering 
 of the action at this moment. A method of recent date is to 
 give the animal, just before landing, the appearance of being 
 afraid to face his bit (see p. 138). Consequently, although 
 the position may be true, it will look constrained and awk- 
 ward to the eye of a 'cross country expert, which is a role 
 that such artists are evidently unqualified to assume. I need 
 hardly say that the more an artist knows, the better will he 
 paint. I venture to think that the requirements of truth and 
 artistic feeling are fairly well fulfilled in Plate 69, which I 
 took at the Dublin Horse Show in 1892, and for permission 
 to do which I have to thank the Committee of the Royal 
 Dublin Society. 
 
 m 
 
 (Photograph by M. H. Hayes.} 
 
 THE WATER JUMP AT SANDOWN PARK. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ABDOMEN, 45, 192 
 Abdominal tunic, 34, 193 
 Abyssinian wild ass, 308, 335 
 Acerotherium, 330 
 Acheen ponies, 288 
 Achievement (pony), 159, 284 
 Action, 65, 82, 83, 249-254, 260 
 Afghanistan, wild ass of, 309 
 Africa, 309, 311 
 
 South. See " South Africa." 
 African horses, South. See " South 
 
 African horses." 
 Age affecting shape of nose, 171 
 
 withers, 197 
 Albatross, breast-bone of, 4 
 Albinos, 243 
 Alfort, 322 
 
 Ali bin Abdullah, 167, 282 
 Alken, H., 350, 357 
 Amble, 100, 354 
 
 speed of, 67, 102 
 America, 280, 282, 301, 309, 326, 329 
 American horses, 280 
 
 ,, South, 282 
 
 Anarchy, 283 
 Anatomy, 29-44 
 Ancestors of the horse, 318, 334 
 Anchitherium, 327, 332, 338 
 
 Anchiitz, 353 
 
 Anderson, Col. John, 168 
 
 Angle of elevation, 133 
 
 friction, 74 
 Ankle, analogue of, 32 
 Antelope, 337, 340 
 
 conformation of, 2, 3, 13, 66 
 gallop of, 68 
 shoulders of, 211 
 Antipodes, 279 
 Anus, 203 
 Appetite, 256 
 Arabia, wild ass of, 309 
 Arab dealers, 167 
 
 heavy topped, 294 
 
 ponies, 159, 200, 276 
 Arabs, 266, 282 
 
 bones of, 7 
 
 carriage of tail by, 205 
 
 colour of, 242 
 
 ears of, 176 
 
 hair of mane and tail of, 246 
 
 height of, 149 
 
 legs of, 265 
 
 noses of, 167 
 
 pasterns of, 222 
 
 points of buttocks of, 233 
 Argentine Republic, 282 
 
36o 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Art, truth in, 354~35 8 
 
 Articulation, 29 
 
 Artillery horses, 275, 280 
 
 Artists. See " Painters." 
 
 Asphalte, drawing loads on, 73, 86, 
 
 214 
 Ass, Abyssinian wild, 308 
 
 colour of, 305, 334 
 
 conformation of, 305, 317 
 
 difference between horse and, 303 
 
 domestic, 308 
 
 domesticity of, 309 
 
 ,, hoofs of, 305 
 
 in America, 309 
 
 India, 309 
 
 Spain, 309 
 
 mental capacity of, 44 
 
 pasterns of, 224 
 
 Prejevalsky's horse and, 302 
 
 " stars," " blazes," etc., in, 305 
 
 varieties of, 308 
 
 withers of, 195, 305 
 Astragalus, 32, 70, 338 
 Atlas, 34 
 
 Attachments of a muscle, 29 
 Attention, standing at, 75 
 Attitudes of horse, 75 
 Australasia, 279, 299 
 Australia, 226, 278, 301 
 Australian horses, 7, 149, 154, 223, 
 279 
 ponies, 159, 296 
 
 BACK, 23, 199 
 
 ,, hollow, 199 
 
 length of, 200 
 
 tendons, 22, 38, 40, 116, 220 
 
 parallel with cannon 
 
 bone, 218-220 
 
 Badminton book, 297 
 
 Baggage animals, roach-back in, 199 
 
 Baker, Col. Valentine, 283 
 
 Ball and socket joint, 29 
 
 Baluchi horses, 149, 287 
 
 Baluchistan, wild ass of, 309 
 
 Ballet dancer, 252 
 
 Barbs, 159, 265 
 
 Barcaldine, 13 
 
 Barrel, roundness of, 191 
 
 Barroil, M., 356 
 
 Bars of the hoof, 23, 227 
 
 mouth, 19 
 
 ' snaffle on, 86 
 Base of support, 57 
 Basuto ponies, 149 
 Bath, swimming, 58 
 Batthyany, Prince, 292 
 Baucher, 84 
 Bay (colour), 241 
 Bearing reins, 83, 214 
 Beauty in horse, 259 
 
 line of, 259 
 Behind, broad, 13 
 
 , narrow, 13 
 Belly, 25, 193 
 Bendigo, 13 
 
 Bengal, horses bred in, 8 
 Bhootiah ponies, 149, 288 
 Biceps, 12 
 Big head, 168 
 
 Billiaid table jumped by Howard, 68 
 Birds, breast-bones of, 4 
 Biting, mules, 93 
 Bit in jumping, severe, 137, 138 
 effect of curb, 83, 252 
 Black, 241, 244, 245 
 
 buck, 340 
 
 conformation of, 2, 157 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Black buck, gallop of, 68, 131 
 Bladder, 45 
 Blair Athol, 241 
 Blazes, 248, 305, 334 
 Blitz, 159, 285 
 Blood, 204, 265 
 
 circulation of, 41 
 
 Eastern blood, 14 
 
 in jumping, 140 
 Blowing nose, 258 
 Blue Ribbon, 298 
 Boat, leverage in, 53, 54, 63 
 Bob, 159 
 Body, comparative weight of, 161 
 
 conformation of, 3, 4 
 
 depth of, 28, 187 
 
 length and depth of, 154, 155 
 
 same for all horses, proportions 
 
 of, 155 
 
 should be short, 65, 186, 187 
 Bombay dealers, 167 
 Bones, 6 n, 30-32 
 
 from paralysis, wasting of, 8 
 
 in progression, duties of, 6 
 
 of birds, breast, 4 
 
 of legs, comparative length of, 
 
 162 
 
 of man and horse, analogies 
 
 between, 32 
 
 quality of, 6, 7 
 
 substance of, 6 
 Bonnie Doo, 159 
 
 Scotland, 280 
 Bony deposits, 7 
 Bouley, M. H., 70 
 Bourgelat, 166, 345 
 Boxing, quickness in, 16 
 Brain, 42, 43 
 Brain capacity, 43, 170 
 
 Brain of ass, cat, dog, horse, man, ox, 
 and pig, 44 
 size of, 171 
 Brat, The, 180, 209, 294 
 Bravo, 281, 299 
 Breast, 20, 197 
 
 bones of birds, 4 
 Breathing capacity, 35, 164, 188 
 
 forced, 36, 47 
 mechanism of, 45 
 rate of, 256 
 state of breathing, 257 
 through nostrils, 164 
 Brisket, 25 
 Britons, ancient, 309 
 Broad behind, 13 
 Brock, 293 
 Brontotherium, 330 
 Brown, 241 
 
 Mr. Tom, 184 
 Buck-eye, 178 
 Buffalo, conformation of, 3 
 
 lying down, 89 
 Bull, Indian draught, 3 
 Bulldog, 3 
 
 intelligence of, 172 
 Bullet, 280 
 
 Bullock, Indian trotting, 3 
 Burma ponies, 149, 287, 294 
 Bush, 355 
 Buttock, points of the, 25, 32 
 
 CAB-HORSE, 73 
 
 Cabuli horses, 149, 287 
 
 Caesar, 309 
 
 Calcutta, 182, 282, 311 
 
 Calf-knees, 217, 218 
 
 Calf of leg becoming tendinous, 15 
 
 Caliph, 159 
 
3 62 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Calkins, 121 
 
 Callosities on legs. See " Castors." 
 
 Cambridgeshire Course, 158 
 
 Camel, conformation of, 102 
 
 Camera, 344 
 
 Camilla, 282 
 
 Cannon-bone, 22, 31, 220, 238 
 
 Canter, 109-112, 354 
 
 Cantering to the rear, 62 
 
 Cape Colony, 281, 311 
 
 Capillaries, 40 
 
 Caractacus, 298 
 
 Carbine, 13, 281, 299 
 
 Carnivorous animals, ears of, 176 
 
 Carriage-horses, high action of, 83 
 
 wheels of, 355 
 Carson, Dr., 176, 249 
 Cart-Horses, 2, 63, 86, 147, 156, 162, 
 267, 272, 277, 278 
 
 action of, 252 
 colour of, 241 
 
 comparative length of body 
 and legs of, 152-156 
 distribution of weight in, 
 49> 73, 85, 86 
 feet of, 226, 227 
 ,, ,, fore-arm of, 216 
 hair on legs of, 246-248, 
 260 
 
 height at croup of, 74, 160 
 height of, 149 
 hoofs of, 226, 227 
 knees of, 218, 260 
 length of body of, 74, 161 
 loading, 73 
 muscles of, 13, 156 
 neck of, 73, 181-183 
 pasterns of, 64, 225 
 reining back, 121 
 
 Cart-Horses, shoeing of, 252 
 
 shoulders of, 64, 73, 74, 
 
 155, 209, 210, 212-214 
 
 special points of, 272 
 
 ,, straightening limbs, 56 
 
 weight of body of, 73, 161 
 
 width of breast of, 155, 
 
 198, 199 
 
 withers of, 196 
 Cartilage, n 
 
 Castors, 21, 216, 237, 302, 303, 307 
 Castration, 183 
 Cat, claws of, 33 
 
 conformation of, 2, 3, 340 
 
 gallop of, 128, 158 
 
 ,, mental capacity of, 44 
 Cattle lying down, 89 
 Cavalry trooper, 274 
 Cave men, 335 
 Cement, 329, 338 
 Centre of gravity, 49 
 
 ,, displacement of, 57, 
 
 61, 66, 67 
 
 regulation of, 85 
 Cerebellum, 42, 43, 171, 174 
 Cerebrum, 42, 43, 174 
 Cesarewitch, the, 154, 262, 297 
 Chance (mare), 152, 155, 166, 293 
 Chanticleer, 243 
 
 Chapman's zebra. See " Zebra, Chap- 
 man's." 
 
 Charger, officer's, 275 
 Chauveau, M., 303 
 Cheadle Jumbo, 152, 153, 155, 166, 
 
 242 
 Check ligament, 39 
 
 rein, 83 
 Cheetah, 337, 340 
 
 gallop of, 68, 128 
 
INDEX. 
 
 363 
 
 Cheetah, shape of, 2, 13, 66, 157 
 Chest, definition of, 20, 45 
 
 depth of, 28 
 
 expansion of, 188, 189, 193 
 
 shape of, 48, 187, 197 
 Chester (horse), 280 
 (pony), 159 
 Chestnut colour, 241, 242, 243 
 Chestnuts. See " Castors." 
 Chieftain, 149, 283 
 Child of the Islands, 283 
 China ponies, 149, 288 
 
 racing in, 149 
 Chin-groove, 19 
 
 Circling, carriage of head when, 86 
 Circus horses, 91, 138 
 Classes of horses, various, 270 
 Cleveland bays, 278 
 Cleverness, 183, 254 
 Climate, effect of, 7, 8, 14, 226, 266 
 Clinometer, 208 
 Clydesdales, 213, 224, 248, 278. Also 
 
 see " Cart-Horses." 
 Cob, 294 
 Coffin bone and joint, 31, 36 
 
 shaped head, 171 
 Cold and colour of skin, 244, 245 
 Colesberg, 282 
 Collar-bone, 32 
 
 on shoulders, place for collar, 
 
 212, 351 
 
 Collectedly, standing, 78 
 Collecting himself, horse, 134 
 Collie, 172, 173 
 Colorado, 330 
 Colour, 241 
 
 ,, for harness work, 242 
 
 of the ass, 305, 334 
 Columbus, 301 
 
 Compensations, 268 
 Concussion, 116, 207 
 Condition, 9, 255 
 
 by sweat, judging, 258 
 Conformation, comparative, 2 
 Connective tissue, 14-16 
 Contraction of foot, 228 
 
 of muscle, 29 
 Convexity, measure of, 188 
 Corean ponies, 150, 289 
 Corisande, 297 
 
 Comers of the mouth, snaffle on, 86 
 Corns, 228 
 Coronet, 23 
 Country breds. See " East Indian 
 
 Horses." 
 Covey, Mr., 222 
 Cow hocks, 234 
 
 kick, 93 
 Cracked heels, 244 
 Craddock, 311 
 Creation, special, 320 
 Cremorne, 300 
 Crest, 20, 34, 184 
 
 feeling the, 257 
 Cricket, quickness of eye in, 1 6 
 Crossing legs, 109 
 Croup, 25, 28, 201, 203, 232 
 
 height at, 157, 158, 196 
 
 prominence in, 233 
 Crust of hoof, 23 
 Crusta petrosa, 329, 338 
 Curb bit on action, effect of, 83, 252 
 Curbs, 91, 138. Also see " Bit." 
 Curnieu, Baron de, 100 
 Curve, convexity of, 188 
 
 DACHSHUND, conformation of, 3 
 Daisy cutting, 252 
 
364 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Dalmeny, 9 
 Dandy Dinmont, 338 
 Daphne, 159 
 Darwin, 334, 335 
 Deaf horses, 177 
 Dealers, Arab, 167 
 Deer, shoulders of, 211 
 Defenceless, 298 
 Definitions, 29 
 Deli ponies, 149, 288 
 Delphine, 179 
 Depth of chest, 28 
 
 body, 28 
 Derby, the, 9, 297, 298 
 
 winner of the, 186 
 Derbyshire, Shire horses in, 247 
 Diagonals (legs), 95 
 Diaphragm, 46, 190 
 Digit, 320 
 
 first, 303 
 
 sixth, 322 
 
 unity of, 338 
 Digitigrade, 328 
 Digits, conditions modifying number 
 
 of, 336 
 
 notation of, 332 
 to decrease in number, ten- 
 dency of, 333, 336 
 
 Diophantus, 298 
 
 Dishing 251 
 
 Distribution of weight in horse's body, 
 
 49 
 
 Dock, 26 
 Docking, 260 
 Dog. See " Bulldog," " Collie," 
 
 " Dachshund," "Greyhound," and 
 
 " Poodle." 
 
 -cart, traces of, 74 
 
 conformation of, 3, 340 
 
 Dog, mental capacity of, 44 
 
 shoulder blade of, 210 
 
 too tall, 148 
 
 wild, 340 
 
 Donkey, weight-carrying power of, 210 
 Donkeys, 308, 309. Also see " Asses." 
 Dorothy, 159, 201, 278, 296 
 Dorsal, 29 
 Draught, 71, 232 
 
 horses. See " Cart-horses." 
 Driving, 85 
 
 Dry climate, effect of, 226 
 Dublin Horse Show, 358 
 
 Society, Royal, 358 
 Duhousset, Colonel, 28, 345, 346, 351 
 Dun colour, 242 
 Dung, condition of, 256 
 Dust, 355 
 
 Dutch farmers, 100 
 Dykes, Mr., 213, 248 
 
 EAGLE, breast-bone of, 4 
 
 Ears, 94, 175 
 
 Eastern blood, 14, 219, 265, 335 
 
 horses, 219 
 East Indian horses, 149, 159, 264, 
 
 265, 286 
 Ecka, 74, 264 
 Eclipse, 280 
 Egypt, asses in, 308 
 Elastic ligaments, 33 
 Elbow, 21, 31, 35, 216 
 
 capped, 89. 
 Electricity, stimulation by, 62 
 Engadine, 287 
 England, 226, 242, 278 
 Enlargements, bony, 7 
 English horses, 149, 167, 176, 223, 
 
 276, 277 
 
INDEX. 
 
 365 
 
 English mares, 280 
 Enquirer, 280 
 Eocene, 319, 329, 330 
 Eolus, 280 
 Epiglottis, 305 
 Epithelium, 243 
 Epsom, racing at, 155 
 Equation (horse), 298 
 personal, 17 
 Equilibrium, 49 
 
 instability of, 67, 160 
 Equus hemionus, 310 
 Ergot, 221, 328 
 Esa bin Curtas, 167 
 Euclid (English horse), 298 
 
 (Arab horse), 283 
 Euphrates, 283 
 
 Europe, horse of Western, 335 
 Evolution of the horse, 318-341 
 Ewe neck, 184 
 Exminster, 296 
 Exmoor ponies, 278 
 Expiration of air, 46 
 Extension of limbs, 29 
 External parts, names of, 18 
 Eyes, 81, 94, 170, 171, 175, 177, 178 
 
 hollows above, 178 
 
 FACE, 116, 167, 168 
 
 with ground, angle of, 81 
 Fall, making horse, 140 
 Farm, Field and Fireside, 293 
 Fatigue, 67 
 
 ability to endure, 264 
 Favonius, 297, 299 
 Fetlock, 22, 32, 36, 40, 221, 238 
 
 descent of, 328 
 
 mechanism of, 69 
 
 width of, 219 
 
 Fever in the feet, 207, 228, 278, 279 
 Fibrous tissue, 33 
 Fibula, 32 
 Fillis, Frank, 182 
 
 M. James, 84 
 Fingers. See " Digits." 
 Fisherman, 280 
 Fishing rod, leverage in, 53 
 Flank, 24, 202 
 Flat-sided, 198 
 Fleur de Lys, 283 
 Flexion, 29 
 
 Flower, Sir William, 302, 308, 324, 328 
 "Fly" country, 313 
 Food, effect of, 14, 153, 193 
 Foot. See " Hoof" and " Digit." 
 abnormal, 321 
 -prints, 66, 123 
 putting down, 249 
 Fordham, George, 168 
 Fore-arm, 21, 31, 216 
 Fore feet, striking out with, 93 
 Forehand, fore leg raising, 63, 64, 208 
 
 weight of, 211, 263 
 . Forehead, 18, 168, 172, 174 
 
 prominent, 167, 169 
 Fore legs, 30, 35, 206 
 
 propulsion by, 74 
 
 raising forehand by, 63, 64 
 
 straightening, 208 
 
 to body, connection of, 138 
 
 wide between, 197 
 Fore limb. See " Fore legs." 
 Forelock, 18, 260 
 Fossil horse, points of the, 338 
 Foxhall, 1 68 
 France, Southern, 335 
 Friction, angle of, 74 
 
 in joints, 13 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Frog of foot, 23, 228, 229 
 
 Front view of horse, 77 
 
 Frontispiece, 291 
 
 Fulcrum, 52 
 
 " Function makes the organ, The," 164 
 
 GALLOP, the, 67, 112116, 354 
 action in the, 251 
 carriage of head in, 83 
 ,, difference between leap and, 
 126 
 riding training, 85 
 
 Galloper jumping, 140 
 
 Gamecock throttle, 185 
 
 Gaskin, 26, 40, 234 
 
 Gaudry, Prof. A., 318 
 
 Gayot, M., 172 
 
 Geldings, 183, 185, 192, 197 
 
 Geology, 317 
 
 Gericault, 352, 353 
 
 Getting up from ground, 89 
 
 Girth-place, 25 
 
 " Give and take," 85 
 
 Gladiator, 172 
 
 Gland, tear or scent, 325 
 
 Glasgow, 225 
 
 Glenelg, 280 
 
 Glengarry II., 281 
 
 Good looks, 259 
 
 Goose-rumped, 203, 233 
 
 Goubaux, Prof., 322 
 
 and Barrier, MM., 49, 100, 
 167, 176, 197, 198, 217, 345 
 
 Grain of meat, 14 
 
 Grand Flaneur, 280, 299 
 
 Grass, 355 
 
 Gravity, centre of. See " Centre of 
 Gravity." 
 
 Grease, 247, 248 
 
 Great Tom, 280 
 
 Grevy's zebra, 314-316 
 
 Grey, 241, 242 
 
 Greyhound, conformation of, 3, 13, 66, 
 157, 162 
 
 gallop of, 127 
 
 intelligence of, 172 
 
 Gudrin, M., 15 
 
 Gullet plate of saddle, 196 
 
 HACK, the, 160, 215, 273 
 Haddeed, 283 
 Hair, 245, 260 
 
 on legs, 246 
 
 strength of, 243 
 Hammond, Mr. John, 9 
 Hamstring, 25 
 Hand gallop, 1 1 1 
 Handiness, 254 
 Hands when jumping, 140 
 Hannah, 297 
 Hansom horses, 73 
 Hare, conformation of, 3, 157, 340 
 Harness horses, light, 215, 272 
 
 work, colour for, 242 
 Harvester, 9 
 Head, 18, 30, 164, 181 
 
 carriage of, 80-87 
 
 coffin-shaped, 171 
 
 comparative size and length of, 
 
 161, 164, 165, 166 
 
 ,, in draught, 86 
 
 in gallop, 85 
 
 in locomotion, 68, 85 
 
 leanness of, 166 
 
 ,, setting on of, 180 
 
 top of, 175 
 Health, 255 
 Heart, 40, 187 
 
INDEX. 
 
 367 
 
 Heat, regulation of, 240, 244, 245 
 
 Heavily topped, 10 
 
 Heel, analogue of man's, 32 
 
 Heels of hoof, 23, 228, 229 
 cracked, 244 
 
 Height at croup, 28 
 withers, 26 
 
 and croup, compara- 
 tive, 74, 156-158 
 limit of, 148 
 
 Hemionus, equus, 310 
 
 Herati horses, height of, 149 
 
 Heredity, 266 
 
 High action, 252 
 blowing, 258 
 
 Hill, 62, 157, 158 
 
 Himalayas, 288 
 
 Hind legs, 36, 39, 230 
 landing on, 138 
 ,, muscles of, 231 
 propulsion by, 73 
 straight dropped, 63, 235 
 ,, well under horse, 78 
 
 Hinge joint, 29 
 
 Hinny, 307 
 
 Hip joint, 32, 36 
 
 Hipparion, 324-329, 332, 339, 340 
 
 Hips, points of, 25, 31, 192, 202 
 
 Hock, 26, 32, 36, 40, 235 
 
 Hock in man, analogue of, 32 
 ,, desirable shape of, 236 
 mechanism of, 52, 53, 69 
 tied in below, 236 
 
 Hocks, cow, 234, 235 
 sickle, 63, 235, 263 
 straight, 63, 235 
 turned in, 77, 234, 235 
 
 out, 77, 235 
 well let down, 237, 340 
 
 Hocks, well under horse, 78 
 Hogging mane, 260 
 Hokkaido, 290 
 
 Holborn Circus, statue in, 203 
 Hollows above eyes, 178 
 Hongkong, racing at, 149 
 Hoof, the, 7, 8, 23, 31, 225 
 
 shape and slope of, 69, 227, 239 
 
 too big for pedal bone, 229 
 Horse, ancestry of the, 318, 334 
 
 attitudes of, 75 
 
 breaking, 172, 173 
 
 definition of, 338 
 
 front view of, 77 
 
 height of, 26 
 
 length of, 27 
 
 low in front, 160 
 
 modifying conditions of, 336 
 
 ,, of the future, 340 
 
 painter's, 349 
 
 rear view of, 76 
 
 Show, Dublin, 358 
 
 shows, 278 
 
 sickness, 282, 313 
 
 ,, walks on toes, 32 
 Horses, cart. See " Cart-Horses." 
 
 comparative shape of, 147 
 
 draught. See " Cart-Horses " 
 
 drawing, 349 
 
 dray. See " Cart-Horses." 
 
 Eastern, 219 
 
 fossil, 318 
 
 half-bred, 10 
 
 mental capacity of, 44 
 painting, 349 
 
 photographing, 342 
 
 race. See " Race-Horses." 
 Shire. See " Shire Horses." 
 
 small, 264 
 
368 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Horses, thoroughbred. See "Thorough- 
 breds." 
 
 various classes of, 270 
 
 wild, 301 
 Horsewoman, 99 
 Howard, Mr. J., 246 
 
 of Bradford, 67 
 Humerus, 31, 74, 208, 215 
 Hump of Indian bull, 3 
 Hunters, cart blood in, 277 
 
 conformation of, 195 
 judging, 278 
 length of legs of, 153 
 
 muscles of, 13 
 
 refusing, 172 
 
 ,, shoulders of, 162 
 
 special points of, 271 
 
 ,, thoroughbreds as, 10 
 
 ,, width of breast in, 199 
 Hurdle racer, 271 
 
 racing on foot, 139 
 Huxley, Prof., 307 
 Hybrids, 307 
 Hyracotherium, 329, 332, 338 
 
 ICELAND PONY, 298 
 'Ill-used, the, 280 
 India, 7, 276 
 
 donkeys in, 309 
 
 wild ass of, 309 
 Indian draught bull, 3 
 
 ,, trotting bullock, 3 
 Insertion of a muscle, 29 
 Inspiration of air, 46 
 Instability of equilibrium, 67, 160 
 Instinct, 173, 174 
 
 Intelligence of horse, 43, 44, 172, 173 
 Intestines, 45 
 Irish horses, 233, 277 
 
 Isonomy, 13 
 
 JAPANESE PONIES, 290 
 
 Java ponies, 287 
 
 Jaw, angles of, 20 
 branches of, 20 
 lower, 179 
 thinness at angles of, 167 
 
 Jaws, width between, 179 
 
 Jeannette, 159, 281 
 
 Jennet, 307 
 
 Jennings, Mr. Tom, 252 
 
 Junr., Mr. Tom, 163, 168 
 
 Jibber, 172 
 
 Jockey on horse, 157 
 
 Joints, 29, 32 
 
 friction in, 13 
 
 Jugular groove, 20, 185 
 
 Jump, delineation of the, 357 
 standing, 141 
 
 Jumper, Australasian horse as a, 279 
 ,, fore-arm of the, 216 
 short body in the, 65 
 ,, shoulders of the, 192, 210, 215 
 special points of the, 271 
 
 Jumping, 125-141, 253 
 
 ,, carriage of head in, 83 
 
 ,, loin muscles in, 65 
 
 man, 59, 60, 67 
 
 oblique shoulders for, 63 
 
 ,, raising centre of gravityin, 67 
 
 " rearing muscles " in, 64 
 
 ,, sloping pasterns for, 63 
 
 KAMA'S COUNTRY, 313 
 Kangaroo, leaping run of, 68 
 Kathiawar, ears of, 175 
 
 mare, 295 
 Kemmis, Mr., 282 
 
INDEX. 
 
 369 
 
 Kerry ponies, 278 
 Kiang, 201, 310, 335 
 Kickers, 178 
 Kicking, 52, 64, 92 
 
 prevention of, 40 
 King Alfonso, 280 
 King Ban, 280 
 Kingcraft, 200 
 King Ernest, 280 
 Kingston, 298 
 King Tom, 297 
 Kink in tail, 260 
 Knee, 22, 31, 35, 217 
 
 action, 82 
 
 analogue of man's, 32 
 
 cap, 32 
 
 on landing, straight, 137 
 Knees, calf, 217, 218 
 
 over at the, 217 
 
 ., tied in below the, 218, 219 
 
 well let down, 220, 237, 340 
 Knight of Burghley, 183 
 Knuckles, analogue of, 32 
 Kowalevsky, 327 
 Kutch, wild ass of, 309 
 
 LABBY, 284 
 
 Lachrymal duct, 304 
 
 Lady riders, 99 
 
 Lady's horse, 274 
 
 Laminitis, 207, 228, 278, 279 
 
 Landing over a jump, 136 
 
 Larynx, 164 
 
 Lateral displacement, 66 
 
 Leading fore leg, 109 
 
 Leamington, 280 
 
 Leap and gallop, difference between, 
 
 126 
 Leaping. See " Jumping." 
 
 Lecoq, 195, 224 
 Leech, Mr. John, 351 
 Leg, calf of man's, 15 
 
 fore, 30, 35, 206 
 
 hind, 36 
 
 length of, 150 
 
 ,, thickness of, 156 
 Legs, clean, 220 
 
 comparative length of, 156 
 
 bones of, 
 
 161, 162 
 
 weight on, 49 
 
 long and short, 3, 4 
 
 straightening the, 58, 63 
 
 width between, 65, 161 
 Length of horse, 27 
 Lenoble du Teil, 124 
 Level action, 65, 68 
 Levers, 52 
 
 muscular, 54 
 Liberator, 183 
 Ligament, check, 39 
 
 of head and neck, 33, 194 
 suspensory, 22, 31, 39, 220, 
 
 224 
 
 Ligaments, 32 
 Limbs. See " Legs." 
 Lincoln, 293 
 
 Line on flank, diagonal, 256, 257 
 Lips, 179 
 
 Little Hercules, 159 
 Little Wonder, 159, 281 
 Liver, 45 
 Locomotion, mechanism of equine, 
 
 57 
 Loin muscles, 64, 65 
 
 vertebrae, 304 
 Loins, 24, 65, 200 
 
 paralysis of, 203 
 
 2 B 
 
370 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Loins, slack in, 190-192 
 
 well ribbed up, 190-192 
 London dray horses, 214 
 
 streets, 86 
 Longfellow, 280 
 Lop ears, 177 
 Lord Clyde, 159, 278, 284 
 Louis XV., 350 
 Low in front, horse, 160 
 Lucifer, 283 
 Lucy Glitters, 168 
 Lungs, 40 
 
 Lying down, horse, 88 
 Lynx, 3, 158, 337 
 
 Machine Animate, la, 4 
 
 Magistrate, 159, 180, 294 
 
 Maitland, Mr. Kelly, 200, 283 
 
 Maltre tfarmes, 16 
 
 Mammal, 331 
 
 Manchuria, 288 
 
 Manage. See " Riding School." 
 
 Manipuri ponies, 149, 287 
 
 Man leaping, 59, 60, 67, 133, 139 
 
 mental capacity of, 44 
 
 old, 15 
 
 running, 58 
 
 walking, 57 
 Mane, 260 
 
 of ass, 304 
 Mare kicking, 93 
 
 conformation of, 163, 192 
 Marengo, 353 
 
 Marey, Prof., 4, 8, 63, 142, 353 
 Margarett, Steve, 182 
 Markings, 248, 334 
 Marquis, 222, 283 
 Marsh, Prof., 329 
 Martin, Mr. Edwin, 184 
 
 Mastiff carrying weight, 210 
 
 gallop of, 131 
 Mayflower, 159, 281 
 May thorn, 159, 278 
 Meat, grain of, 14, 15 
 Medulla oblongata, 42, 43 
 Meissonier, 104, 351, 352, 354 
 Melanosis, 242 
 Melbourne Cup, 281, 299 
 Memory, 43, 174 
 
 Mental power of horse, 43, 44, 172, 173 
 Merche, M., 192, 345 
 Metacarpal bones, 319 
 Metatarsal, 320 
 Midriff, 46, 190 
 Mike, 159, 201, 278, 296 
 Minden, 287, 299 
 Miocene, 319, 327 
 Miss Honiton, 298 
 Mongolian ponies, 149, 288, 335 
 Morris, General, 49 
 Morton, Mr., 9 
 Moustache, 179 
 Mouth, bars of the, 86 
 
 corners of the, 86 
 Mowbray, Captain, 283 
 Mules, 224 
 
 kicking, 93 
 
 withers of, 195 
 Muscular contraction, speed of, 62, 63 
 
 sense, 43, 174 
 Muscles, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11-14, 3^ 
 
 below knees and hocks, no, 3 
 connecting fore limb to body, 
 
 37 
 
 contraction of, 12, 41, 62, 63 
 
 development of, 256 
 
 ,, leanness of, 256 
 
 ,, long and short, 4, 9 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Muscles, loin, 64 
 pectoral, 198 
 of back, 37 
 fetlock, 38 
 
 fore limb, 37, 38, 84, 137 
 head, 37 
 hind limb, 39, 231 
 hip, 39 
 hock, 40 
 knee, 137 
 loins, 37 
 mastication, 167 
 neck, 37, 84, 85 
 pastern, 38 
 shoulders, 37, 38, 209 
 stifle, 39, 40 
 vertebrae, 64 
 rearing muscles, 64, 151, 200 
 starting weight, 231 
 Museum of R.C.S., 304 
 Musket, 13, 281, 299 
 Muybridge, 353 
 Muzzle, 19 
 
 NAILS, analogue of, 32 
 Namba, 290 
 
 Names of external parts, 18 
 Napoleon I., 100 
 
 picture of, 104, 352 
 Narrow behind, 13 
 Natal, 281 
 
 Natural History, Annals of, 302 
 Navicular bone, 32 
 
 disease, 207 
 Neck, 20, 73, 181 
 
 carriage of, 80 
 
 ewe, 184 
 
 in locomotion, 68 
 
 length of, 37, 160, 201, 263 
 
 Neck, of cart-horses, 73 
 
 Negishi Hill, 290 
 
 Nervous system of horse, 16, 42 
 
 Newmarket, 155 
 
 New Oswestry, 298 
 
 New Zealand horses, 149, 154, 159, 
 
 279, 281 
 
 Nippon Race Club, 290 
 Norfolk trotter, 278 
 North American horses, 149 
 Nose, 19, 147, 167, 168, 169, 171, 177 
 Nose-band, 87 
 Nostrils, 178 
 
 false, 304, 334 
 Notation of paces, 142 
 Nutrition of tissues, 41 
 
 OAKS, the, 297 
 Oars, propulsion by, 54, 63 
 Obedience from horse, 172, 173 
 Occipital crest, 20, 81, 175 
 Odd-toed animals, 332 
 Old man, muscle of, 15 
 masters, 351 
 Olecranon, 31 
 Onager, 201, 303, 309 
 Orange Free State, 281, 282 
 
 River, 312, 313 
 "Organ, function makes the," 164 
 Origin of muscle, 29 
 Orlando, 298, 304 
 
 Ormonde, 13, 152, 153, 154, 155, 166, 
 180, 191, 212, 257, 262, 268, 291, 
 299 
 
 Orohippus, 329, 332 
 Orphan, the, 299 
 Os calcis, 32, 235 
 Osteo porosis, 168 
 Otter hound, 338 
 
372 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Over-reaching, 137 
 Ox, conformation of, 3 
 
 ,, mental capacity of, 44 
 Oxygen, 41 
 
 PACE, 96 
 
 on leap, effect of, 132 
 Paces, artificial, 96 
 
 natural, 96 
 
 notation of the, 142 
 
 of horses, 95 
 Pack wax, 34 
 Painters, 147, 349~35 8 
 Painter's horse, 349 
 Pairs, 273 
 
 Paloplotherium, 329, 338 
 Panic, 280 
 Panniculus, 36 
 Parallelogram offerees, 61 
 Paralysis, 8, 203 
 Parekaretu, 159 
 Parmesan, 297, 300 
 Parrocel, 350 
 Parrott, Col. Ben, 287 
 Parthenon, 351 
 
 Part to a whole, working from, 147 
 Partridge, breast-bone of, 4 
 Parts, names of external, 18 
 Passage, 117 
 Pastern, 23, 36, 221, 238 
 bone, long, 31 
 short, 31 
 mechanism of, 69 
 ,, raising forehand, 63 
 slope of, 64, 207, 208, 221- 
 
 225 
 
 Patella, 32, 36 
 Pectoral muscles, 161, 198 
 Pedal bone, 31 
 
 Pedestrian, 58, 172 
 Pegu pony, 287 
 Pelvis, 9, 31, 200, 201, 232 
 Perceptive power of horse, 174 
 Perissodactyla, 332 
 Persia, wild ass of, 309 
 Persian horses, 265 
 Personal equation, 17 
 Phalanges, 320 
 Phenacodus, 330, 338 
 Phe'nix, 282 
 Photographers, 353 
 Photographing horses, 342 
 Piaffer, 94 
 Piebald, 242, 334 
 Pigeon, 4, 43 
 Pig, eye, 177 
 
 mental capacity of, 44 
 
 toes of, 323 
 
 wild, 337 
 
 Pink-skinned horses, 243, 245 
 Placer, le, 76 
 Plantigrade, 139 
 Pleistocene, 319 
 Pliocene, 319, 327 
 Ploughing by tail, 7 1 
 Poliakof, 302 
 Poll, 20 
 Polo pony, 276 
 Ponies, 150 
 Pony, English racing, 278 
 
 height at croup of racing, 158 
 mare high behind, 293 
 special points of racing, 271 
 Poodle, intelligence of, 172 
 Portland, Duke of, 292 
 Posterior iliac spine, 200 
 
 prominent, 233 
 
 Predominant, 278, 284 
 
INDEX. 
 
 373 
 
 Prejevalski's horse, 302 
 Pretoria, 313 
 Primary period, 319 
 Prince Charlie, 300 
 
 William, 248 
 Prizefighter, intelligence of, 172 
 Prominence in croup, 233 
 Prominent forehead, 167, 169 
 Proportions of the horse, 345 
 Propulsion of body, 58, 61, 73, 74, 
 
 208, 232 
 Prosecutor, 281 
 Pulse, rate of, 41, 256 
 Pungwe River, 313 
 Punjab, climate of, 7 
 
 QUAGGA, 313, 316, 334, 336 
 Quarter mark, 257 
 Quarters, drooping, 233 
 
 hind. See " Hind limb," 230 
 
 RABY, 283 
 
 Racecourse, horse sweating on, 259 
 Racehorse, action of tail of, 205 
 American, 280 
 Australian, 279-281 
 back and loins of, 200 
 
 English, 278 
 footprints of, 124 
 
 gaskins of, 231, 234 
 general conformation of, i, 
 62, 147, 152-156 
 head of, 166 
 height at croup of, 158 
 
 of, 148 
 
 length of body of, 65, 152 
 length of leg of, 152, 153 
 muscles of, 12, 13, 156 
 neck of, 160, 181, 183 
 
 Racehorse, pasterns of, 224 
 ribs of, 192 
 shoulders of, 210-212 
 South African, 281 
 American, 282 
 
 special points of, 270 
 stifle of, 163 
 " straight dropped," hind 
 leg of, 231, 236 
 
 straightening limbs, 56 
 well ribbed up, 202 
 width between fore legs of, 
 66, 161, 199 
 
 Radius, 31 
 
 Rat-tailed horses, 246 
 
 Rayon d'Or, 280 
 
 " Reaches," 248, 334 
 
 Rear, cantering to the, 62 
 view of horse, 76 
 
 Rearing, 64, 86, 89 
 
 muscles, 64, 151, 200 
 
 Reason, 43, 172, 173 
 
 Reflex action, 42, 43, 173 
 
 Refuser, 172 
 
 Regal, 183 
 
 Rein back, 83, 86, 119 
 
 Reindeer, 183 
 
 Reins, 85, 87, 138, 140, 181 
 
 Respiration, 46. See also " Breathing." 
 
 Rex, 159 
 
 Reynolds, Mr., 213 
 
 Rhinoceros, 330, 332, 335, 338 
 conformation of, 3 
 
 feet of, 330 
 
 Ribbed-up, well, 190, 202 
 
 Ribs, 24, 30, 34, 35, 46, 47, 4$, 187, 
 200, 202 
 
 Richard, M., 177, 178 
 
 Riding, 85 
 
374 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Riding, long distances, 99 
 
 over fences, 138 
 Riding school, 81, 84, 94, 117, 118, 
 
 121 
 
 Rigolboche, 300 
 Ringbone, 7, 207 
 Rising from ground, 89 
 
 in stirrups,. 99 
 Roach-back, 199 
 Roan colour, 242 
 Roaring, 185, 223, 258, 278 
 Robert the Devil, 212 
 Rod, fishing, 53 
 Rokeby Fuchsia, 242 
 Romance, 180, 191, 295 
 Roman nose, 167, 168, 169, 177 
 Rosebud, 296 
 Rothschild, Baron, 297 
 Rotundity of back ribs, 191 
 Round action, 252 
 Royal Academy, 355 
 
 Dublin Society, 356 
 Ruby, 159 
 Running, man, 58, 66 
 
 SACRUM, 30, 31, 34, 204 
 Saddle hurting withers, 196 
 
 of mutton, 65 
 St. Albans, 280 
 Blaize, 280 
 Gatien, 9, 13, 154, 178, 212, 234, 
 
 262 
 
 Helena, 159 
 Leger, 297 
 Simon, 14, 62, 152, 154, 155, 166, 
 
 180, 192, 209, 292, 299 
 Sallenders, 247 
 Salon, the, 355 
 Saxons, 309 
 
 Scapula, 31 
 
 School, riding. See " Riding School." 
 
 Sculptors, 249 
 
 Second thighs, 40 
 
 wind, 258 
 Secondary period, 319 
 Secretion of horn, 31 
 See-saw, 52 
 Selena, 159 
 
 Selous, Mr. F. C., 313, 316 
 Sesamoid bones, 31, 36 
 Sex affecting shape of withers, 197 
 hump, 3 
 
 Sexes, differences between, 163 
 Sexton, Mr., 213, 246 
 Shaikh Esa bin Curtas, 167, 282 
 Shanghai, 149 
 Shan hills, 287 
 
 Shape of horses, comparative, 147 
 Shaw, Mr. W. F., 153 
 Shepherd, 173 
 Shere Ali, 283 
 Sherwood, 283 
 
 Shetland ponies, 150, 278, 298 
 Shin, analogue of man's, 32 
 Ships, centre of gravity of, 50 
 Shire horses, 152, 166, 259. Also see 
 
 " Cart-Horses." 
 Shire horses, foot diseases of, 278 
 
 hair on legs of, 246, 247 
 
 pasterns of, 225 
 
 shoulders of, 213 
 Shoa, zebras in, 314-316 
 Shoeing, effect of, 228 
 Shoes influencing action, 252 
 Shoulder, the, 21, 208 
 
 blade, 31 
 
 size of, 207, 210 
 
 joint, 35 
 
INDEX. 
 
 375 
 
 Shoulder, muscles of, 209 
 point of the, 21 
 straight, 211 
 Shoulders, action of, 82 
 
 for fast work, 211 
 
 ,, heavy, 211, 212 
 
 of antelope, 211 
 
 of cart-horses, 73, 74, 209, 
 
 2IO, 212 
 
 of deer, 211 
 
 racehorses, 210 
 
 place for collar on, 212 
 
 slope of, 63, 64, 207, 208, 
 
 209, 2IO, 211 
 
 Shutter of camera, 344 
 
 Siberia, 288 
 
 Sickle-hocks, 63, 235, 263 
 
 Side bones, 278 
 
 Side-saddle, 196 
 
 Sight, defective, 175 
 
 Sinews. See " Tendons." 
 
 Sirloin, 14, 64, 65 
 
 Skaters, 66 
 
 Skewbald, 242, 334 
 
 Skin, 14, 240 
 colour of, 243, 245 
 on croup, thick, 306, 335 
 
 Skye terriers, 248 
 
 Sleep, position in, 89 
 
 Sleeping standing, 80 
 
 Slippery ground, 56, 73, 86 
 
 Snaffle, 86 
 
 Snewing, Mr., 298 
 
 " Snips," 248, 334 
 
 Snow, 355 
 
 "Sock," 248 
 
 Sole of foot, 23, 31 
 
 Somaliland zebra, 314-316 
 
 Sore shins, 7 
 
 South Africa, 311, 312, 313, 316 
 ' amblers in, 100 
 African horses, 149, 160, 265 
 281 
 American horses, 282 
 
 Spanish walk and Spanish trot, 118 
 
 Spavins, 7, 138 
 
 Special creation, 320 
 
 Speed, 96 
 
 animals of, i 
 causes of, 63 
 on leap, effect of, 132 
 
 Spendthrift, 280 
 
 Spinal column, 30 
 cord, 42 
 
 Spirit of the Times, 280 
 
 Spiti ponies, 149, 288 
 
 Splint bones, 22, 31, 320 
 
 abnormal, 321, 322 
 
 Splints (disease), 7, 207, 320 
 
 Spokes of wheel, 355, 356 
 
 Sprains, 116 
 
 Springbok, 68, 131 
 
 Sprinters, 3, 212 
 
 Stamford, Lord, 298 
 
 Standing at attention, 75 
 
 ease, 79 
 automatic action in, 79, 80 
 
 collectedly, 78 
 leap, 141 
 
 Star on forehead, 248, 305, 334 
 
 Starlight, 293 
 
 Starting weight, muscles, 231 
 
 "Staying," 42, 198, 212, 263 
 
 Steeple chaser, conformation of, 195 
 
 Irish, 344 
 shoulders of, 162 
 
 special points of, 271 
 
 swishing tail, 205 
 
37 6 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Steinbok, 337 
 
 Stencil plate animal, 349 
 
 man, 352 
 Step, 95 
 Stepaside, 293 
 Stifle, 26, 32, 36, 70, 234 
 Stirrups, rising in, 99 
 "Stockings," 248, 305, 334 
 Stomach, 45 
 
 Straight hind leg, 63, 235 
 Straightening fore leg, 63, 208 
 
 limbs, 58, 63 
 
 Street, Mr., 213, 246 
 Strength, animals of, i 
 Stride, 95 
 
 length of, 124 
 Stripes, zebra, 308-316, 334 
 Stumbling, 207 
 Suffolk horses, 278 
 
 Lord, 297 
 Sumatra ponies, 287 
 Support by legs, 95 
 base of, 57 
 Suspension, period of, 96 
 Suspensory ligament, 22, 31, 39, 220, 
 
 224 
 of head and neck, 
 
 34, 194 
 
 Sweat, judging condition by, 258 
 
 Sweating, 258, 259 
 
 Sweet William, 159 
 
 Swimming, 58 
 
 Sylvia, 159, 278 
 
 Symmetry, 
 
 Syria, wild ass of, 309 
 
 TAIL, 26, 34, 204, 260 
 kink in, 260 
 of ass, 304 
 
 Tail, ploughing by, 7 1 
 
 Taking off at leap, 125, 131 
 
 Tangri, 287 
 
 Tapir, 329, 336, 338 
 
 Tarpans, 301 
 
 Tasmanian horses, 279 
 
 Teams, 273 
 
 Tear gland, 325 
 
 Teats of male ass, 305 
 
 Teen Kwang, 149, 288 
 
 Teeth of horse, 329, 338 
 
 Temperature, internal, 256 
 
 Temples, 19 
 
 Tendo Achillis, 25, 40 
 
 Tendons, 11-15 
 
 back, 22, 38, 40, 116 
 Tertiary period, 319 
 Thigh, 25, 234 
 
 second, 40 
 Thoroughbreds, action of shoulders of, 
 
 250 
 
 as trotters, 251 
 
 ,, bones and muscles of, 
 
 10, 13 
 
 ,, Colonial, 265 
 
 colours of, 242 
 
 distribution of weight 
 
 in, 49 
 
 for jumping, 141 
 
 ,, heredity in, 266 
 
 ,, in Australia, 265, 279 
 
 pasterns of, 223 
 
 points of buttock of, 
 
 2 33 
 
 points of hips of, 202 
 
 roaring in, 223 
 
 sore shins in, 7 
 
 swinging tail when 
 
 walking, 205 
 
INDEX. 
 
 377 
 
 Thorough-pins, 138 
 Throat, 185 
 Thumb, 303, 332 
 Tibia, 32, 234 
 Tidal air, 47 
 Tiger, gallop of, 128 
 Timber jumping, 134 
 Time of a pace, 96 
 Tim Whiffler, 62 
 Tips for racehorses, 252 
 Tissues, 1 6 
 
 nutrition of, 41 
 Toe-pieces, 72, 73, 74, 214 
 Toed animals, odd, 332 
 Toes. See " Digits." 
 Topped, heavily, 10 
 Traces, direction of the, 74 
 Tramway horses, 153 
 Trans-Indus horses, 287 
 Transvaal, 281, 313 
 Trapezium, 31, 218 
 Tripping, 207 
 
 " Tripple," 100 
 
 Tristan, 27, 168 
 
 Trooper, 153, 274, 281, 284 
 
 Tropics, photographing in the, 344 
 
 Trot, the, 67, 96 
 action in the, 251 
 delineation of the, 354 
 jumping from the, 132 
 
 Trotter, the, 2, 83, 215, 251, 252, 273, 
 278 
 
 Trunk, the, 186 
 
 Tsetse fly, 313 
 
 Turkish Flag, 283 
 
 Turkistan, wild ass of, 309 
 
 Turning, carriage of head when, 86 
 
 Turnips, 194 
 
 Two-year olds, 13 
 
 ULNA, 31 
 Undercut, 65 
 Unguligrade, 32, 328 
 
 VAAL RIVER, 311, 316 
 Veins, 41 
 Vertebrae, 30 
 
 muscles of the, 64 
 Virgil, 280 
 Vitality, 42 
 
 WALK, 67, 102 
 
 action in the, 250 
 
 delineation of the, 354 
 
 Walkers, 66 
 
 Walking, man, 57 
 
 Wall of hoof, 23 
 
 Ward, Mr. James, 355 
 
 Washing horses' feet, 244 
 
 Water jumping, 134 
 
 Water-lily, 159, 278 
 mark, 256, 257 
 on horn, effect of, 227 
 
 Watson, Mr. John, 284 
 
 Weeds, i, 151, 191, 267, 277, 297 
 
 Weight-carrying power, 192, 210, 262 
 of horse in draught, 72, 73 
 in body, distribution of, 49 
 on limbs, comparative, 49 
 
 Well ribbed up, 190-192, 202 
 
 Welsh ponies, 278 
 
 What's Wanted, 242 
 
 Wheel-barrow, leverage in, 5 2 
 
 Wheel without felloes, 124 
 Wheels, drawing, 355 
 White, 244 
 
 fibrous tissue, 33 
 Whole, working from part to a, 147 
 Width between legs, 65 
 
 2 C 
 
378 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Wild horses, 301 
 Oat, The, 282 
 
 "Wind," 179 
 
 Wind-galls, 207 
 
 Wisdom, 284 
 
 Withers, 21, 30, 37, 194 
 height at, 74 
 leanness of, 196 
 low at, 196 
 
 Wolf, 338, 340 
 
 Wood pavement, 73,186, 214 
 
 Wrestlers, conformation of, 3 
 
 Wrist, 32 
 
 Wuzeerees, 175 
 
 YARKUNDI PONIES, 149, 288 
 
 Yattendon, 280 
 
 Yellow ligaments, 33 
 
 Yokohama, 290 
 
 Yorkshire carriage horses, 278 
 
 Youatt, 1 88 
 
 ZEBRA, breaking in a Burchell's, 313 
 Burchell's, 201, 312, 315, 334, 
 
 336 
 
 Chapman's, 314 
 
 Gravy's, 3i4~3 l6 
 
 Mountain, 304, 308, 310-312 
 
 ridden by lady, i8r, 182, 311 
 
 Somali-land,3i4-3i6 
 Zephyr, 297 
 Zezo, 290 
 
( 379 ) 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 THE following are the chief books which have been written on the Con- 
 formation of the Horse, and on Equine Locomotion : 
 
 Alix, Eugene. Le Cheval, 1886. 
 
 Barroil, Etienne. LArt Eqiiestre, ist Part, 1887. 
 
 Borelli. De Motu Animalium, 1680. 
 
 Bourgelat. De la Conformation Exterieur du Cheval, 1808. 
 
 Carson, J. C. L. The Form of tJie Horse, 1859. 
 
 Duhousset, Colonel. Le Cheval, 1881. 
 
 Fearnley, W. Lessons in Horse Judging, 1879. 
 
 Gayot, Eugene. Achat du Cheval, 1862. 
 
 Goubaux et Barrier, MM. L Exterieur du Cheval, 2nd ed., 1890. 
 
 Giinther's. Beurtheilungslehre des Pferdes, 1889. 
 
 Hofman, L. Das Exterieur des Pferdes, 1887. 
 
 Lecoq, F. Exterieur du Cheval, 1843. 
 
 Magne, J. H. Choix du Cheval, 1864. 
 
 Marey, Professor. La Machine Animale, 1873. 
 
 Merche. Nouveau traite des formes exterieurs du Cheval, 1868. 
 
 Montigny, Comte de. Comment ilfaut choisir un Cheval, 1885. 
 
 Morris, General. Essai sur I' Exterieur du Cheval. 
 
 Miiller. Lehre vom Exterieur des Pferdes, 1884. 
 
 Muyb ridge, E. Animal Locomotion, 1887. 
 
 Percivall, W. Lectures on the Form and Action of the Horse, 1850. 
 
 Richard, du Cantal. ILtude du Cheval. 
 
 Roloff. Beurtheilungslehre des Pferdes, 1870. 
 
 Besides the books just enumerated, many useful remarks on the form 
 and movements of the horse may be found in the writings of Henri Bouley, 
 " Stonehenge," Youatt, Lupton, Lenoble du Theil, Barroil, Raabe, Colin, 
 and Ellenberger; in chapters on the Exterior of the Horse, in Schwarznecker's 
 Pferdesucht, 1879 ; and in the Handbuch der Pferdekunde, by Born and M oiler, 
 3rd ed., 1890. 
 
LONDON : 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, 
 
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A r o. 56. 
 
 May, 1893. 
 
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 VETERINARY 
 NOTES FOR HORSE-OWNERS, 
 
 An Ilhistrated Manual of Horse Medicine and Surgery -, 
 written in Simple Language. 
 
 BY CAPT. M. H. HAYES, F.R.C.V.S. 
 
 The 
 Heels, 
 
 chief new matter in this edition is articles on Contracted 
 Donkey's Foot Disease, Forging or Clicking, Rheumatic Joint 
 
 Disease, Abscess, Dislo- 
 cation of the Shoulder 
 Joint, Inflammation of 
 the Mouth and Tongue, 
 Flatulent Distention of 
 the Stomach, Twist of 
 the Intestines, Relapsing 
 Fever, Cape Horse Sick- 
 ness, Horse Syphilis, 
 Rabies, Megrims, Stag- 
 gers, Epilepsy, Sunstroke, 
 Poisoning, Castration by 
 the Ecraseur, and Me- 
 chanism of the Foot (in 
 Chapter on Shoeing). 
 
 The remarks on Treat- 
 ment of Sprain (with 
 special reference to cotton 
 wool bandaging), Grease 
 and Cracked Heels, 
 Wounds and their Re- 
 sults, Broken Wind, 
 Roaring, Rheumatism 
 and Neurotomy have 
 been re-written. The 
 whole work has been 
 revised with the greatest 
 care. 
 
W. THACKER & CO., LONDON. 
 
 PRESS NOTICES OF CAPT. H AYES' 
 
 VETERINARY 
 NOTES FOR HORSE-OWNERS. 
 
 Fourth Edition, Crown 8vo. I2J. 6d. 
 
 " Captain Hayes' work is a valuable addition to 
 our stable literature ; and the illustrations, toler- 
 ably numerous, are excellent beyond the reach of 
 criticism." Saturday Review. 
 
 "The description of symptoms and proper 
 methods of treatment in sickness render the book 
 a necessary guide forhorseowners, especially those 
 who are far removed from immediate professional 
 assistance." The Times. 
 
 ' ' Of the many popular veterinary books which 
 have come under our notice, this is certainly one 
 of the most scientific and reliable. If some pains- 
 taking student would give us works of equal merit 
 to this on the diseases of the other domestic 
 animals, we should possess a very complete 
 veterinary library in a very small compass." 
 Field. 
 
 ' ' Simplicity is one of the most commendable 
 features in the book. What Captain Hayes has 
 to say he says in plain terms, and the book is a 
 very useful one for everybody who is concerned 
 with horses. ' ' Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic 
 News. 
 
 "The usefulness of the manual is testified to by its popularity, and each edition 
 has given evidence of increasing care en the part of the author to render it more 
 complete and trustworthy as a book of reference for amateurs." The Lancet 
 
 "A volume replete with most interesting information, couched in the simplest 
 terms possible." The County Gentleman. 
 
 ' ' The book leaves nothing to be desired on the score of lucidity and comprehen- 
 siveness." Veterinary Journal. 
 
 1 2 
 
Third Edition. Revised and Enlarged. Imperial i6mo. icw. 6d. 
 
 RIDING: 
 
 ON THE FLAT AND ACROSS COUNTRY. 
 
 \ = 
 
 A GUIDE TO PRACTICAL HORSEMANSHIP. BY CAPT. M. H. HAYES. 
 
 Eighty Illustrations by Oswald Brown, Sturgess and Stanley Berkeley. 
 
W. TH ACKER <& CO., LONDON. 
 
 PRESS NOTICES OF CAPT. HAYES' 
 
 RIDING: 
 
 ON THE FLAT AND ACROSS COUNTRY. 
 
 (Reduced Size.) 
 
 "Captain Hayes' hints and instructions are useful aids, even to experienced 
 riders, while for those less accustomed to the saddle, his instructions are simply 
 invaluable." The Times. 
 
 " To possess knowledge and to succeed in imparting it, are two different things ; 
 but Captain Hayes is not only a master of his subject, but he knows how to aid 
 others in gaining such a mastery as may be obtained by the study of a book " 
 The Standard. 
 
 "We are not in the least surprised that a third edition of this useful and emi- 
 nently practical book should be called for. On former occasions we were able to 
 speak of it in terms of commendation, and this edition is worthy of equal praise." 
 The Field. 
 
 "An eminently practical teacher, whose theories are the outcome of experience, 
 learned not in the study, but on the road, in the hunting field, and on the race- 
 course. ' ' Ba ilys Magaz ine. 
 
 ' ' We heartily commend it to our readers. " Sporting Times. 
 
 " The book is one that no man who has ever sat in a saddle can fail to read with 
 interest." Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News. 
 
 " Is as practical as Captain Horace Hayes' ' Veterinary Notes ' and ' Guide to 
 Horse Management in India.' Greater praise than this it is impossible to give." 
 The Graphic. 
 
TH ACKER, SPINK &> CO., CALCUTTA. 
 
 Square 8vo, IQJ. 6d. 
 
 THE HORSEWOMAN 
 
 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SIDE-SADDLE RIDING. 
 
 BY MRS. HAYES. EDITED BY CAPTAIN M. H. HAYES. 
 
 With 4 Collotypes from Instantaneous Photographs, and 48 Drawings 
 after Photographs, by J. H. OSWALD BROWN. 
 
 PRESS NOTICES. 
 
 "A large amount of sound, practical instruction, very judiciously and pleasantly 
 imparted." The Times. 
 
 " This is the first occasion on which a practical horseman and a practical horse- 
 woman have collaborated in bringing out a book on riding for ladies. The result 
 is in every way satisfactory, and, no matter how well a lady may ride, she will gain 
 much valuable information from a perusal of 'The Horsewoman.' The book is 
 happily free from self-laudatory passages." The Field. 
 
W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON. 
 
 PRESS NOTICES Continued. 
 
 "We have seldom come across a brighter book than 'The Horsewoman.'" 
 The Athenceum. 
 
 "A more thorough horsewoman than Mrs. Hayes probably does not exist." 
 Land and Water. 
 
 ' ' A most useful and practical book in side-saddle riding, which may be read with 
 real interest by all lady riders." The Queen. 
 
 ' ' Mrs. Hayes is perhaps the best authority in these countries on everything 
 connected with horsemanship for ladies, and her chapters deal with every possible 
 view of the subject. The style is plain and straightforward without being too 
 technical, and can be readily understood by an intelligent reader. A number of 
 graphic illustrations add considerably to the clearness of the instructions." 
 Freeman's Joiirnal (Dublin). 
 
 "The work is the outcome of experiences, aptitudes, and opportunities wholly 
 exceptional. " Scotsman. 
 
 "J'ai lu ou parcouru bien des traite's d'quitation usuelle ou savante ; jamais 
 encore je n'avais trouv6 un expose aussi clair, aussi simple, aussi vecu que celui ou 
 Mme. Hayes resume les principes dont une pratique assidue lui a permis 
 d'apprecier la valeur. Ce tres remarquable manuel d' Equitation feminine est bien, 
 comme la d&inS son auteur, a la portee de tous et il est a souhaiter qu'il trouve en 
 France 1'accueil et le succes qu'il a rencontre's des sa publication aupres des horse- 
 women anglaises. " Le Sport (Paris). 
 
 " With a very strong recommendation of this book as far and away the best guide 
 to side-saddle riding that we have seen." Saturday Review. 
 
o 
 
Uniform with " Riding," etc. 21 r. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED HORSE-BREAKING 
 
 BY 
 
 Capt. M. H. HAYES. 
 
 1. Theory of Breaking. 
 
 2. Principles of Mounting. 
 
 3. Horse Control. 
 
 4. Rendering Docile. 
 
 5. Giving Good Mouths. 
 
 6. Teaching to Jump. 
 
 7. Mounting for First Time. 
 
 8. Breaking for Ladies' 
 
 Riding. 
 
 9. Breaking to Harness. 
 
 10. Faults of Mouth. 
 
 11. Nervousness and Impa- 
 
 tience of Control. 
 
 12. Jibbing. 
 
 13. Jumping Faults. 
 
 14. Faults in Harness. 
 
 15. Aggressiveness. 
 
 1 6. Riding and Driving 
 
 Newly-broken Horse. 
 
 17. Stable Vices. 
 
 1 8. Teaching Circus Tricks. 
 
 "The work is eminently prac- 
 tical and readable." Veteri- 
 nary Journal, 
 
 " Clearly explained in simple, 
 practical language, made all the 
 more clear by a set of capital 
 drawings." Scotsman, 
 
 "It is characteristic of all Captain Hayes' books on Horses that they are eminently prac- 
 tical and the present one is no exception to the rule. A work which is entitled to high praise 
 as being far and away the best reasoned-out book on Breaking under a new system we have 
 seen." Field, 
 
 WITH FIFTY-ONE ILLUSTRATIONS BY J. H. OSWALD BROWN. 
 
TH ACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA. 
 
 Foolscap 410, 34.". 
 
 THE POINTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 & familiar treatise on iSquine Conformation. 
 BY CAPT. M. H. HAYES, F.R.C.V.S. 
 
 DESCRIBING THE POINTS IN WHICH THE 
 
 PERFECTION OF EACH CLASS 
 
 OF HORSES CONSISTS. 
 
 Illustrated by 76 reproductions of Photographs of Typical Horses, 
 and 204 Drawings, chiefly by J. H. OSWALD BROWN. 
 
 10 
 
W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON. 
 
 THE POINTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ORMONDE. 
 
 XII. Paces of the Horse. 
 XIII. Leaping. 
 XIV. Notation of the Paces of 
 
 Horses. 
 
 XV. Comparative Shape of Horses. 
 XVI Head and Neck. 
 XVII. The Trunk. 
 XVIII. The Fore-Limb. 
 XIX. The Hind Limb. 
 XX. Skin, Colour and Hair. 
 XXI. Proportions of the Horse 
 Common to all Classes, 
 Peculiar to Thoroughbreds, 
 Average Peculiar to Cart 
 Horses. 
 XXII. Action, Handiness and Clever - 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 I. First principles of 
 
 Conformation. 
 II. Structures of the Body. 
 III. Names of External 
 
 Parts. 
 IV. Sketch of the Anatomy 
 
 of the Horse. 
 
 V. Mechanism of Breath- 
 ing. 
 
 VI. Distribution of Weight. 
 VII. Levers. 
 VIII. Mechanism of Equine 
 
 Locomotion. 
 
 IX. Mechanism of draught 
 X. Attitudes of the Horse. 
 XL Stationary Movements 
 of the Horse. 
 
 XXIII. Condition'and Good Looks. 
 XXIV. Weight, Carrying and 
 
 Staying Power. 
 XXV. Blood, Symmetry, and 
 
 Compensation. 
 XXVI. Special Points of Various 
 
 Classes of Horses. 
 XXVII. Remarks on Various Breeds 
 
 of Horses. 
 
 XX VIII. Examination of our Photo- 
 graphs of Horses. 
 XXIX. Wild Horses. 
 
 XXX. Asses. 
 XXXI. Fossil Horses. 
 XXXII. Proportion of the Horse. 
 XXXIII. Photographing Horses. 
 XXXIV. The Painter's Horse. 
 
 11 
 
TH ACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Uniform with "Veterinary Notes." Ss. 6d. 
 
 SOUNDNESS AND AGE OF HORSES. 
 
 WITH ONE HUNDRED AND SEVENTY ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 A Complete Guide to all those features which require attention when purchasing 
 
 Horses, distinguishing mere defects from the symptoms of unsoundness ; with explicit 
 
 instructions how to conduct an examination of the various parts. 
 
 BY CAPTAIN M. H. HAYES, F.R.C.V.S. 
 
 " Captain Hayes is entitled to much credit for the explicit and sensible manner in which he 
 has discussed the many questions some of them extremely vexed ones which pertain to 
 soundness and unsoundness in horses." Veterinary Journal. 
 
 " Captain Hayes' work is evidently the result of much careful research, and the horseman, 
 as well as the veterinarian, will find in it much that is interesting and instructive." Field. 
 
 12 
 
W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON. 
 
 In Imperial i6mo. 35. 6d. 
 
 MY LEPER FRIENDS, 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OF PERSONAL WORK 
 AMONG LEPERS, AND THEIR DAILY LIFE IN INDIA. 
 
 IMIlRS. 
 
 WITH 
 
 A CHAPTER ON LEPROSY 
 
 BY 
 
 Surgeon-Major G. G. MACLAREN, M.D. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY REPRODUCTIONS 
 OF PHOTOGRAPHS. 
 
 " Mrs. Hayes has now published an interest- 
 ing little book, entitled 'My Leper Friends,' 
 which contains not only an account of her work 
 in Calcutta, but many facts in regard to leprosy 
 in India which deserve to be better known. I 
 feel no hesitation in recommending the book to 
 the attention of my readers." Truth. 
 
 "The name of Mrs. Hayes is already familiar to readers of the Queen. This 
 lady has been the Miss Marsden of India, for, like the courageous lady who is now 
 traversing the Siberian plains in search of leper hospitals, Mrs. Hayes has devoted 
 her energies with rare unselfishness to the cause of some of the most pitiable 
 sufferers in the world." The Queen. 
 
 ' ' This is a book that ought to be widely known. " Spectator. 
 
 " Mrs. Hayes is a woman of intense and practical sympathy." Rock, 
 
 "Mrs. Hayes writes well and vividly, and there is a note of thorough sincerity in 
 all she says that lends an additional charm to the work." Home News. 
 
 " Despite the necessarily mournful and repulsive subject of the book, the cheerful 
 and genial spirit in which it is penned, and the native kindliness everywhere visible 
 in its pages, render it refreshing to read." J\Iorning Advertiser. 
 
 "An interesting and most heartrending book. To her Leper Friends Mrs. 
 Hayes must have been a very angel of light." Ladies Pictorial. 
 
 13 
 
TH ACKER, SPINK & CO,, CALCUTTA. 
 
 In Imperial i6mo. Illustrated. 8s. 6d. 
 
 INDIAN . 
 
 RACING REMINISCENCES: 
 
 BEING 
 
 ENTERTAINING NARRATIVES AND ANECDOTES 
 OF MEN, HORSES, AND SPORT. 
 
 Illustrated with Twenty-Two Portraits and a Number of Smaller Engravings. 
 BY CAPTAIN M. HORACE HAYES. 
 
 " The book is full of racy anecdote, and the author writes so kindly of his brother officers 
 and the sporting planters with whom he came into contact, that one cannot help admiring 
 the genial and happy temperament of the author." Bell's Life. 
 
 " Captain Hayes shows himself a thorough master of his subject, and has so skilfully 
 interwoven technicalities, history, and anecdote, that the last page comes all too soon." Field. 
 
 Fifth Edition. Revised. Crown 8vo. gs. 
 
 TRAINING HORSE MANAGEMENT 
 
 IN INDIA. 
 
 BY CAPTAIN M. HORACE HAYES, F.R.C.V.S. 
 
 " No better guide could be placed in the hands of either amateur horseman or veterinary 
 surgeon.' The Veterinary Journal. 
 
 "A useful guide in regard to horses anywhere. Concise, practical, and portable." 
 Saturday Review. 
 
 14 
 
W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON. 
 
 In Imperial i6mo. Uniform with " Riding," " Riding for Ladies," " Hindu 
 Mythology." 125. 6d. 
 
 A NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 MAMMALIA OF INDIA, 
 
 BURMAH AND CEYLON. 
 BY R. A. STERNDALE, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., ETC., 
 
 AUTHOR OF " SEONEE," "THE DENIZENS OF THE JUNGLE," "THE AFGHAN KNIFE," ETC. 
 
 WITH 17O ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR AND OTHERS. 
 
 The geographical limits 
 of the present work have 
 been extended to all terri- 
 tories likely to be reached 
 by the sportsman from 
 India. It is copiously illus- 
 trated, not only by the 
 author himself, but by care- 
 ful selections made by him 
 from the works of well- 
 known artists. 
 
 ' It is the very model of what a popular natural history should be. " Knowledge. 
 
 'An amusing work with good illustrations." Nature. 
 
 ' Full of accurate observation, brightly told." Sattirday Review. 
 
 ' The results of a close and sympathetic observation." Athenceum. 
 
 ' It has the brevity which is the soul of wit, and a delicacy of allusion which 
 charms the literary critic." Academy. 
 
 "The notices of each animal are, as a rule, short, though on some of the 
 larger mammals the lion, tiger, pard, boar, c. ample and interesting details 
 are given, including occasional anecdotes of adventure. The book will, no 
 doubt, be specially useful to the sportsman, and, indeed, has been extended so 
 as to include all territories likely to be reached by the sportsman from India. 
 Those who desire to obtain some general information, popularly conveyed, on 
 the subject with which the book deals, will, we believe, find it useful." The 
 Times. 
 
 " Has contrived to hit a happy mean between the stiff scientific treatise and 
 the bosh of what may be called anecdotal zoology." The Daily News. 
 
 15 
 
TH ACKER, SPINK &> CO., CALCUTTA. 
 
 GAME, SHORE, 
 
 AND 
 
 WATER BIRDS 
 OF INDIA. 
 
 BY 
 
 COL. A. LE MESSURIER, 
 
 R.E. 
 
 121 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 A VADE ME- 
 CUM FOR THE 
 SPORTSMAN, 
 EMBRACING ALL THE 
 BIRDS AT ALL LIKELY TO 
 BE MET WITH IN A 
 SHOOTING EXCURSION. 
 
 "Compact in form, excellent in 
 method and arrangement, and, as far 
 as we have been able to test it, rigidly 
 accurate. ' ' Knowledge. 
 
 "Will be a source of great de- 
 light, as every ornithological detail is 
 given, in conjunction with the most 
 artistic and exquisite drawings." 
 Home News. 
 
 16 
 
W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON. 
 
 " Splendidly Illustrated Record of Sport." Graphic. 
 Third Edition. Enlarged. Demy 410. 36 Plates and Map. 2 zs. 
 
 LARGE GAME SHOOTING 
 
 IN THIBET, THE HIMALAYAS, NORTHERN & CENTRAL INDIA. 
 Bv BRIO.-GENERAL ALEX A. A. KINLOCH. 
 
 Reduced size. 
 
 " Colonel Kinloch, who has killed most kinds of Indian game, small and 
 great, relates incidents of his varied sporting experiences in chapters, which are 
 each descriptive of a different animal. The photo-gravures of the heads of many 
 of the animals, from the grand gaur, popularly miscalled the bison, downwards, 
 are extremely clever and spirited." Times. 
 
THACKER* SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA. 
 
 Oblong Imperial 410. i6r. 
 
 DENIZENS OF THE JUNGLES: 
 
 & Series of &fcetdjeg of TOfltJ Animate, 
 
 ILLUSTRATING THEIR FORMS AND NATURAL ATTITUDES. 
 
 WITH LETTERPRESS DESCRIPTION OF EACH PLATE. 
 
 BY R. A. STERNDALE, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., 
 
 AUTHOR OF " NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALIA OF INDIA," " SEONEE," ETC. 
 
 I. Denizens of the Jungles. 
 Aborigines Deer Mon- 
 keys. 
 II." On the Watch. " Tiger. 
 
 III. "Not so fast Asleep as he 
 Looks. " Panther Mon- 
 keys. 
 
 IV. "Waiting for Father." Black 
 
 Bears of the Plains. 
 V. "Rival Monarchs." Tiger 
 and Elephant. 
 
 VI." Hors de Combat." Indian 
 Wild Boar and Tiger. 
 
 VII. "A Race for Life." Blue 
 Bull and Wild Dogs. 
 
 VIII. "Meaning Mischief," The 
 Gaur Indian Bison. 
 
 IX. "More than His Match." 
 Buffalo and Rhinoceros. 
 
 X. "A Critical Moment." 
 Spotted Deer and Leo- 
 pard. 
 
 XL "Hard hit." The Sambur. 
 
 XII. "Mountain Monarchs." 
 Marco Polo's Sheep. 
 
 "The plates are admirably executed by photo-lithography from the author's 
 originals, every line and touch being faithfully preserved. It is a volume 
 which will be eagerly studied on many a table. Mr. Sterndale has many 
 an amusing and exciting anecdote to add to the general interest of the 
 work. " Broad Arrow. 
 "The Volume is well got up and the drawings are spirited 
 
 and natural." Illustrated London News. 
 THE 
 
 SPORTSMAN'S MANUAL IN QUEST OF GAME 
 
 IN KULLU, IAHOUL, AND LADAK, TO THE TSO MORARI LAKES. 
 
 WITH NOTES ON SHOOTING AND A DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SPORT IN 
 MORE THAN IOO NALAS. WlTH 9 MAPS. BY LlEUT.-COL. R. H. TYACKE, 
 LATE H.M.'sgSTH AND 34 REGIMENTS. \R*. 3-8. 
 
 18 
 
IV. THACKER & CO., LONDON. 
 
 The Second Edition, Revised, and with additional Illustrations by the Author. 
 Post 8vo. Ss. 6d. 
 
 S E O N E E : 
 
 OR, 
 
 CAMP LIFE ON THE SATPURA RANGE, 
 
 & Caie of Infcian 
 
 BY R. A. STERNDALE, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "MAMMALIA OF INDIA," "DENIZENS OF THE JUNGLES. 
 
 ElIustrateB fcg tfje author. 
 
 With, an Appendix containing a brief Topographical and Historical account 
 of the District of Seonee in the Central Provinces of India, 
 
 19 
 
 2 2 
 
LAYS OF IND, By ALIPH CHEEM. 
 
 COMIC, SATIRICAL, AND DESCRIPTIVE 
 
 Poems Ellugtratifce of ^Inglo^ntiian Hife. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY THE AUTHOR, LIONEL INGLIS, R. A. STERNDALE, AND OTHERS. 
 
 Ninth Edition. Cloth, gilt. los. 6d. 
 
 "This is a remarkably bright little book. ' Aliph Cheem,' supposed to be the 
 nom de plume of an officer in the i8th Hussars, is, after his fashion, an Indian Bon 
 Gaultier. In a few of the poems the jokes, turning on local names and customs, 
 are somewhat esoteric ; but, taken throughout, the verses are characterized by high 
 animal spirits, great cleverness, and most excellent fooling." The World. 
 
 "One can readily imagine the merriment created round the camp fire by the 
 recitation of 'The Two Thumpers,' which is irresistibly droll . . . The 
 edition before us is enlarged, and contains illustrations by the author, in addition to 
 which it is beautifully printed and handsomely got up, all which recommendations 
 are sure to make the name of Aliph Cheem more popular in India than ever." 
 Liverpool Mercury. 
 
 " Satire of the most amusing and inoffensive kind, humour the most genuine, and 
 pathos the most touching pervade these ' Lays of Ind. ' . , . From Indian friends 
 we have heard of the popularity these ' Lays ' have obtained in the land where they 
 were written, and we predict for them a popularity equally great at home." 
 Monthly Homoeopathic Review. 
 
 20 
 
W. THACKER & CO., LONDON. 
 
 Reviews of " Lays of Ind." 
 
 "The ' Lays' are not only Anglo-Indian in origin, but out-and-out Anglo-Indian in 
 subject and colour. To one who knows something of life at an Indian ' station ' they 
 will be especially amusing. Their exuberant fun at the same time may well attract the 
 attention of the ill-defined individual known as ' the general reader.' " Scotsman. 
 
 " To many An- 
 glo-Indians the 
 lively verses of 
 'Aliph Cheem' 
 must be very well 
 known, while to 
 those who have not 
 yet become ac- 
 quainted with them 
 we can only say 
 read them on the 
 first opportunity. 
 To those not fa- 
 miliar with Indian 
 life they may be 
 specially com- 
 mended for the 
 
 picture which they give of many of its lighter incidents and conditions, and of 
 several of its ordinary personages." Bath Chronicle. 
 
 Seventh Edition. In square 3277*0. 55. 
 
 DEPAKTMENTAL DITTIES AND OTHEK YEESES, 
 
 Humorous auto (Character Poems of &nglo=ntuan Hife. 
 BY RUDYARD KIPLING. 
 
 "They reflect with light gaiety the thoughts and feelings of actual men and 
 women, and are true as well as clever. ... Mr. Kipling achieves the feat of 
 making Anglo-Indian society flirt and intrigue visibly before our eyes. . . . His 
 book gives hope of a new literary star of no mean magnitude rising in the East " 
 SIR W. W. HUNTER, in The Academy. 
 
 " As for that terrible, scathing piece, ' The Story of Uriah,' we know of nothing 
 with which to compare it, and one cannot help the wretched feeling that it is true. 
 
 . . ' In Spring Time ' is the most pathetic lament of an exile we know in 
 modern poetry. " Graphic. 
 
 RHYMING LEGENDS OF IND. 
 
 By H. K. GRACEY, B.A., C.S. Crown 8vo, 6s. 
 "A series of lively Stories in Verse." Times. 
 
 "Are not only amusing but are lively descripticns of scenery and customs in 
 Indian Life . . . Cleverly and humorously told. " Weekly Times. 
 
 21 
 
THACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA. 
 
 Fourth Edition, Imperial i6mo. 6s, 
 
 BEHIND THE BUNGALOW. 
 
 BY EH A, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "TRIBES ON MY FRONTIER." 
 
 WITH FIFTY-THREE CLEVER SKETCHES 
 
 By the Illustrator of "The Tribes." 
 
 As "The Tribes on my Frontier" graphically and humorously 
 described the Animal Surroundings of an Indian Bungalow, the 
 present work describes with much pleasantry the Human Officials 
 thereof, with their peculiarities, idiosyncrasies, and, to the European, 
 strange methods of duty. Each chapter contains Character Sketches 
 by the Illustrator of "The Tribes," and the work is a "Natural 
 History" of the Native Tribes who in India render us service. 
 
 22 
 
W. TH ACKER &> CO., LONDON. 
 
 "There is plenty of 
 fun in 'Behind the Bun- 
 galow,' and more than 
 fun for those with eyes 
 to see. These sketches 
 may have an educational 
 purpose beyond that of 
 mere amusement ; they 
 show through all their 
 fun a keen observation 
 oi native character and 
 a just appreciation of it." 
 The World. 
 
 BEHIND THE BUNGALOW. 
 
 By the Author of "TRIBES ON MY FRONTIER." 
 AND ILLUSTRATED BY THE SAME ARTIST. 
 
 "'The Tribes On My Frontier' 
 was very good : ' Behind the Bunga- 
 low' is even better. Anglo-Indians will 
 see how truthful are these sketches. 
 People who know nothing about India 
 will delight in the clever drawings 
 and the truly humorous descrip- 
 tions ; and, their appetite for fun 
 being gratified, they will not fail to 
 note the undercurrent of sympathy." 
 The Graphic. 
 
 "The native members of an Anglo- 
 Indian household are hit off with great 
 fidelity and humour." The Queen. 
 
 23 
 
THACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA. 
 
 Fifth Edition. In Imperial i6mo, uniform with " Lays of Ind," " Riding," 
 " Hindu Mythology," etc. Ss. 6d. 
 
 THE TRIBES ON MY FRONTIER: 
 
 &n EnDian Naturalist's Jam^n Policg. 
 
 BY EHA. 
 WITH FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS BY F. C. MACRAE. 
 
 ^=^==&i^ : -rr^t^E^H^|^' 5EZzr :' : N this remarkably clever 
 
 work there are most 
 graphically and humor- 
 ously described the sur- 
 _ \ roundings of a Mofussil 
 
 - bungalow. The twenty 
 chapters embrace a year's experiences, and provide 
 
 endless sources of amusement and suggestion. The 
 > 
 
 numerous able illustrations add very greatly to the interest 
 of the volume, which will find a place on every table. 
 
 THE CHAPTERS ARE 
 
 I. A Durbar, 
 n. The Rats. 
 III. The Mosquitos. 
 IV. The Lizards. 
 V The Ants. 
 VI. The Crows. 
 VII.- The Bats. 
 
 VIII. Bees, "Wasps, et hoc genus omne. 
 IX. The Spiders. 
 X. The Butterfly: Hunting Him. 
 
 XL The Butterfly : Contemplating Him. 
 XII The Frogs. 
 XIII. -The Bugs. 
 XIV. The Birds of the Garden. 
 XV. The Birds at the Mango Tope. 
 XVI. The Birds at the Tank. 
 XVIL The Poultry Yard. 
 XVIIL The White Ants. 
 XIX. The Hypodermatikosyringophoroi. 
 XX Etcetera. 
 
 24 
 
W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON. 
 
 THE TRIBES ON MY FRONTIER, 
 
 Fifth Edition. 8s. 6d. 
 
 " It is a very clever record of a year's observations round the bungalow in 
 
 'Dusty pore.' .... It is by no means a mere travesty The 
 
 writer is always amusing, and never dull. " Field. 
 
 " The book is cleverly illustrated by Mr. F. C. Macrae. We have only to 
 thank our Anglo- Indian naturalist for the delightful book which he has sent 
 home to his countrymen in Britain. May he live to give us another such." 
 Chambers^ Journal. 
 
 " A most charming series of sprightly and entertaining essays on what may 
 
 be termed the fauna of the Indian bungalow We have no doubt 
 
 that this amusing book will find its way into every Anglo- Indian's library." 
 Allen s Indian Mail. 
 
 "This is a delightful book, irresistibly funny in description and illustration, 
 
 but full of genuine science too There is not a dull or unin- 
 
 structive page in the whole book." Kn&wledge. 
 
 " It is a pleasantly-written book about the insects and other torments of India 
 which make Anglo-Indian life unpleasant, and which can be read with pleasure 
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 New Work by the same Author, 
 
 A NATURALIST ON THE PROWL 
 
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THACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA. 
 
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 With Thirty-Nine Illustrations, including the various Breeds of Cattle, 
 drawn from Photographs by 
 
 R. A. S TER N D ALE. 
 
 26 
 
W. TH ACKER &> CO., LONDON. 
 
 In Imperial i6mo. Uniform with " Lays of Ind," " Hindu Mythology," etc. 
 Handsomely bound. los. 6d. 
 
 RIDING FOR LADIES. 
 
 feints on t&t 
 
 BY MRS. POWER O'DONOGHUE. 
 
 AUTHOR OF "LADIES ON HORSEBACK," "A BEGGAR ON HORSEBACK," etc. 
 
 With 91 Illustrations drawn expressly for the Work by A. Chantrey Corbould. 
 
 HIS able and beautiful 
 volume will form a Stan- 
 dard on the Subject, and 
 is one which no lady can 
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 CONTENTS. 
 
 I. Ought Children to Ride? 
 II. " For Mothers & Children. " 
 in. First Hints to a Learner. 
 iv. Selecting a Mount. 
 v., vi. The Lady's Dress. 
 vn. Bitting, vni. Saddling. 
 ix. How to Sit, Canter, &c. 
 x. Reins, Voice, and Whip. 
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 New York Sportsman. 
 
 27 
 
TH ACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA. 
 
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TH ACKER, SPINK'& CO., CALCUTTA. 
 
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 30 
 
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 32 
 
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 36 
 
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