LESSONS 
 
 NATURE 
 STUDY 
 
 
30. Van Liew 
 
copy FOR ADOPTION. 
 
LESSONS 
 
 IN 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 BY 
 
 OLIVER P. JENKINS 
 
 AND 
 
 VERNON L. KELLOGG 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 THE WHITAKER & RAY COMPANY 
 
 (INCORPORATED) 
 IQOO 
 

 COPYRIGHT 1900 
 BY 
 
 OLIVER P. JENKINS 
 
 AND 
 VBRNON I,. KBLLOGG 
 
 EDUCATION UEPT, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 At a time when so many books are appearing in Nature 
 Study, some sort of apology is due for proposing to add another 
 to the list. There is some extenuation in the fact that the book 
 was not premeditated as such. What is here presented began as 
 a series of oral lessons by one of the authors given to classes of 
 children. These lessons were afterwards put into manuscript 
 form for the use of the Oakland (Cal.) schools, later they were 
 used as leaflets printed by the Oakland School Department, and 
 finally were included in the report of Supt. J. W. McClymonds. 
 Finally, answering an apparent demand for a wider use of the 
 lessons, both the authors revised and extended the lessons and 
 had them illustrated by competent artists, and a part of the papers 
 under the new form were published in the Western Journal of Edu- 
 cation. Since the publication of the series in the Journal began, 
 there has seemed to be a demand for the lessons that justified 
 gathering them together in this more convenient form. 
 
 The selection of the particular topics here included is not to be 
 interpreted as an opinion of the authors that they are the essential 
 topics, or that they are the most important, since it is evident that 
 a number of lists of equally important or interesting objects could 
 be made. They have been selected as the result of long contin- 
 ued experimenting with children in different grades of the public 
 schools. If merit attaches to this list, it is that, the topics in it 
 have been used as here treated with success, repeatedly, in the 
 
 544178 
 
actual work of the school. One of the authors has personally 
 presented most of these lessons to classes of children in the 
 schools ; and has observed the whole of this course as given by 
 many teachers. At a time when there is so little of precedent in 
 the way of nature study and so much that is still only in the form 
 of proposal, anything which comes from actual experience must 
 be of value from that very fact. 
 
 The authors are under the greatest obligation to Miss E. B. 
 McFadden, Principal of Nature Study in the Oakland schools, 
 who has for some years enthusiastically given and supervised 
 giving these lessons in the various school grades. It is very 
 largely thru the actual work of experimenting by the teachers of 
 Oakland under the direction of Miss McFadden that the authors 
 feel confident that the topics as given here can be used with suc- 
 cess. The provisional course of study given in the Appendix is 
 based on the Oakland experience. 
 
 No attempt has been made to outline actual lessons, nor, 
 except as suggested in an appendix, to point out the portions to 
 be assigned to the different grades, but rather to give only a simple 
 treatment of the subject for the teacher's use with some suggestion 
 as to methods. The lessons must be considered as simply sugges- 
 tive and by no means as comprehensive. The Appendix already 
 referred to suggests the allotment to the different grades. 
 
 The fragmentary treatment of the subjects and the lack of 
 system in their arrangement is designedly carried out to illustrate 
 the method which experience with children points out as the best 
 method in which to proceed. Kven at the risk of being monoton- 
 ous it is stated now, and will be more than once repeated, that t 
 
with the earlier grades at least, the lessons must be fragmentary, 
 oh one simple phenomenon at a time, without care for its rela- 
 tions, and the lessons should not be successive on one topic, but 
 interspersed with those on different topics. Convenience of treat- 
 ment for the teacher's use in the following lessons has led to a 
 continuous account in some cases. In the school work, this 
 should be broken up as suggested. It hardly need be added that 
 the book is designed as an aid to teachers and parents or others 
 directing Nature Study work and not as a Nature Study reader. 
 
 The chapters under the titles : The Mosquito, Rearing In- 
 sects in the School Room, Some Water Insects, How to make a 
 Collection of Insects, About Spiders, How Insects Breathe, and 
 Birds were written by Professor Kellogg, and Professor Jenkins 
 is responsible for the remainder of the book. 
 
 The drawings, with the few exceptions noted at the proper 
 places, were drawn from nature by Mr. W. S. Atkinson and Miss 
 Mary Wellman. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Introduction 1 
 
 Making a Beginning 5 
 
 The Dandelion 7 
 
 The Mosquito 12 
 
 Seeds 22 
 
 How to Make a Collection of Insects 30 
 
 Fungi 35 
 
 Bearing Insects in the Schoolroom 45 
 
 The Bee and the Lupine 51 
 
 Some Water Insects 60 
 
 Heat 79 
 
 Currents in Air and Water 87 
 
 Solution and Crystallization 95 
 
 About Spiders * 103 
 
 Plants without Flowers 120 
 
 Flowering Plants . . . . 128 
 
 Parasitic Plants 135 
 
 Eggs of Frogs, Toads and Salamanders . . . 137 
 
 Snails and Slugs . . 139 
 
 Earthworms . 140 
 
 Covering of Animals 141 
 
 Marine Life 145 
 
 Ants' Nests 147 
 
 Gases 149 
 
 Magnetism 158 
 
 The Pendulum . ,161 
 
TABLE OP CONTENTS Continued. 
 
 Page 
 
 Soap Bubbles jg 2 
 
 Metals and Minerals jgg 
 
 The Moon jgg 
 
 Pressure of Air and Liquids 171 
 
 How Insects Breathe 174 
 
 Birds J77 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 A Provisional Nature Study Course Arranged by Grades. ... ,183 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The conviction that nature study should form a part of the 
 school course* is growing stronger every year. Knowledge of 
 nature as embodied in the sciences has grown to be a vast and 
 important part of the sum of human knowledge. This knowledge 
 completely dominates our material life, and profoundly influences 
 our intellectual life. In the light of these facts it is not to be 
 wondered at that there should be a demand that a study of 
 nature should form a part of the education of the child. On 
 the other hand, it is hard to understand why such study 
 is still so widely neglected, or at best receives such small consid- 
 eration. But the present widespread serious movement in this 
 direction can never be completely checked, and it must be that 
 there is in progress a real reform in school courses in this re- 
 gard. 
 
 The question of the permanence of nature study in the school 
 course seems to be settled, and it remains to prepare for the work 
 of such a course. This is no easy task and all attempts for some 
 time to come must be regarded as tentative rather than final solu- 
 tions. To select from a vast body of knowledge those portions 
 that both best represent that knowledge, and are at the same 
 time best adapted to the powers of the, pupils in a progressive 
 educational course, would require greater wisdom and skill than 
 exists. We are left to make the best selection possible, try it in 
 our schools, and by means of our successes and failures with it 
 correct from time to time our work. Thus there may grow up in 
 time from extended experience, critically studied, a course in 
 nature study approaching the ideal. However, there are certain 
 matters in regard to such a course that seem clear, and in any 
 suggested arrangement regard should be given them. Some of 
 the most important are presented in the following paragraphs. 
 
 Nature study in some form should form part of the daily 
 work of each grade. But little advance can be hoped from only 
 occasional lessons, or lessons at long intervals, as once a week. 
 Nature study should, as with the other principal subjects of the 
 
2 NATURE STUDY 
 
 school curriculum, be daily and continuous in order to work out 
 the growth and development for which it is particularly adapted. 
 
 It should be carefully adapted to the nature and powers of 
 grades where it is represented. In the lower grades nature study 
 should not be carried on in the method of any of the formal 
 sciences. This would insure failure. It is only with a wide ex- 
 perience with natural phenomena and a certain maturity of mind, 
 that the organization of the accumulated facts into a science is to 
 be accomplished with profit. 
 
 The work in the elementary grades should be with objects 
 and experiments treated simply as phenomena. These furnish 
 the material for exercises in accurate seeing and clear thinking. 
 The phases of the phenomena should be within the child's 
 interests and powers. The child's interest in nature cannot be 
 that of an adult, and much less will it be that of one who has 
 long been a student of nature. This fact makes it difficult for 
 the adult, altho himself a student of nature, to select the work 
 that can be most profitably used with children. We shall fail if 
 we do not keep within the limits of the child's interests. We 
 shall fail if we do not make use of that in nature which has real 
 significance. The teacher should have a loving sympathy with 
 the child, and at the same time a clear knowledge of the little bit 
 of nature he makes use of in his work. . He must attempt to 
 understand the child's nature, its demands and its rights, and 
 seek to meet those demands and respect the rights. 
 
 However, it is even more of an error to regard the child as 
 less serious and less capable than he really is, as appears to be 
 the case with some writers and teachers in nature study who 
 attempt to ''write down to children." This so-called writing 
 down to children takes various disagreeable forms. Some teachers 
 appear to think that nothing but a joke will interest a child. By 
 them all nature is treated as a huge joke, but, it must be confessed, 
 a rather poor one. Thru all their lessons there is a constant 
 straining to be funny, with the usual success of trying to find a 
 joke where there is none. 
 
 Others are impressed with the necessity of "being lively." 
 Now liveliness is wholly to be commended when inspired by the 
 subject and the class. In fact, it is hard to avoid a normal 
 degree of it if one truly feels the situation. But "being lively" 
 
INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 for its own sake, is the hollowest kind of mockery. It leads to a 
 disregard for the truth in the striving after sensational statements 
 and bizarre comparisons. The constant beating of gongs and 
 shaking of tambourines drcwns out the sweetest voices of nature 
 to which she alone can give tongue. 
 
 Still others seem to believe that nature's phenomena can not 
 appeal to children unless the various agents are personified and 
 made to march before the children in the form of kings, princes, 
 fairies or other questionable shapes. This must always result in 
 failure as far as nature study teaching is concerned, and on the 
 other hand can not have the charm and good of true fairy stories. 
 Ingenuously worked out battles between the marshaled hosts of 
 the Frost King and the Heat Emperor or an account of the adven- 
 tures of Fanny Violet and Billy June Bug have about as much in 
 them for coming close to nature as would a marvelous account of 
 how the Jolly little Fraction made trouble for the Sullen Giant 
 Rule of Three for getting even a child's view of number 
 relations. A.11 these means are not only wholly unnecessary, 
 but they defeat the purposes of nature study and prevent the 
 accomplishment of just that special good which it can do. The 
 child is as interested in the real facts and phenomena of nature 
 when he can see them clearly, as he can possibly be in the array 
 of any imaginary incongruities. 
 
 It is very important that not too much be attempted at a time. 
 It is a common error to bring too much into a single lesson. One 
 thing at a time seen clearly, should be the rule. Time must be 
 given the pupil to see and enjoy. Progress in the power to deal 
 with facts successfully is a matter of growth. Growth requires 
 assimilation, and assimilation demands time. Hurrying over a 
 a thing before the undrilled powers of the child have grasped 
 what is before him, is losing a fine educational opportunity. 
 
 In the lower grades the lessons should be brief in addition 
 to being simple. 
 
 Experience has clearly shown that it is better in the elemen- 
 tary grades to avoid keeping the lessons on the same group of 
 phenomena for a very long time. The children soon become 
 weary of a subject which is thus brought up day after day, and 
 nothing is more inimical to success in teaching then such a feel- 
 ing. The lessons must be fragmentary and the subject frequently 
 changed. 
 
4 NATURE STUDY 
 
 While this method may seem a haphazard one, it need by no 
 means be so. The order of presenting the facts need not inter- 
 fere with good judgment in their selection and in the final group- 
 ing of the facts according to their relations. 
 
 Above all the nature study lessons should not be undertaken 
 without the object. It is nature that is to help the child, and if 
 the bit of nature on which the lesson is based is absent, nothing 
 can make up for the loss. 
 
 Equally important with the presence of the object is the secur- 
 ing of the activity of child in relation to it. Indeed the success of 
 the nature study teacher is complete, when the object and the 
 child are brought together, and the child is awakened to work 
 thoroly with this bit of nature. The skill to induce the normal 
 activity of the child is the essence of teaching. Many a teacher 
 makes the mistake of considering that what he says is of the ut- 
 most importance and can not be left out, and further, that no one 
 but him can perform the little experiments just right. Conse- 
 quently he teaches and does so much, and does it so long and so 
 loudly, that the room is filled with him. Now the truth is, that 
 what the teacher talks is of very little importance, but what he 
 succeeds in getting the pupil to do and think is of the utmost 
 importance. There is no work of the school so well adapted to 
 bring out the activity of the child as nature study, and it would 
 be a pity if the exceptional opportunities it offers for the best 
 work of the school were lost by simply not giving the pupil the 
 chance to do what he would do so willingly. 
 
 To sum up: The work in nature study should be daily; each 
 lesson should cover only that small bit of observation that can be 
 clearly seen and understood; the lesson should be brief with the 
 lower grades; it must be fragmentary; the topics should be fre- 
 quently changed ; the lesson must always be adapted to the child's 
 powers and interests; it should be with a real bit of nature; and 
 above all, the great aim should be to induce the child to work foi 
 himself with hand, eye and mind with the bit of nature before 
 him. 
 
Making a Beginning. 
 
 AFTER one has decided to place Nature Study in the day's 
 program the first question generally is, " Where shall I be- 
 gin? " The answer "Begin anywhere," is a correct one but 
 not a satisfactory one. Anywhere is a large country and one is soon 
 lost in it. It is only fair that those who urge a beginning should 
 point out a visible tangible point to start from. The only reason 
 I would hesitate to select such a point is that it might bethought I 
 considered that particular point an essential beginning. Let me 
 indicate one way in which a beginning may be made. First, the 
 teacher will look out over the field of Nature and consider, at 
 least in a general way, what kind of facts he expects to make use 
 of. These facts will be, of course, phenomena either of the life of 
 plants, of the life of animals, or of inorganic nature. It will be 
 hoped that in the course of time enough of the phenomena in each 
 of these realms will be seen clearly enough to understand some of 
 the larger relations of each, such as growth, development, adapta- 
 tion, succession and the like. 
 
 With such conceptions in mind he will find on any day 
 during any season, simple phenomena which just at that time 
 may be used as a beginning in training in accurate seeing and clear 
 thinking. These at the same time may serve as valuable facts 
 which later will be, with other similar ones, an introduction to im- 
 portant generalizations. 
 
 Let me illustrate from the life of plants. 
 
 Thru the summer and fall various plants are busy distribut- 
 ing their seeds. They have manifold ways of doing this. Each 
 method is an ingenious contrivance adapted to certain conditions. 
 For example the large number of plants of California are so suc- 
 cessful in this work that against multitudes of enemies and ad- 
 verse circumstances they manage to hold their own year after 
 year and many of them have done so for ages. The whole sub- 
 ject of plant distribution is a great one and is far reaching in its 
 
6 NATURE STUDY. 
 
 relations. Now as you look out on the plant inhabitants of Cali- 
 fornia you think of these questions and you are prepared to make 
 your beginning with a simple lesson on the first plant you find 
 distributing its seeds. That one of course might be any one of a 
 great number that are at hand. To see what might happen to 
 me in this line were I, to-day, to make a beginning, I have just 
 taken a short walk. This has brought me across a lawn in 
 which are growing a number of dandelions, some in bud, some 
 in bloom, and some with erect stalks bearing the familiar downy 
 globes ready to break up and sail away with the first puff of wind. 
 This dandelion shall be the beginning lesson. 
 
The Lesson The Dandelion. 
 
 First: For yourself, on the lawn or wherever you find it, care- 
 fully observe all you can of the plant, how it grows, where the 
 bud forms, and the different stages of growth of the different parts 
 of the flowers, the unfolding of the bud to the, formation of the 
 ripened seeds. 
 
 While you may observe a number of interesting things in its 
 study, make up your mind firmly to attempt in the one lesson one 
 thing only, for example, the method by which the seed is distri- 
 buted, and the growth of the apparatus by which it is carried. 
 With the first three grades of pupils make two or three lessons 
 even of this one small group of phenomena. 
 
 Provide abundant material so that each pupil may have 
 enough to make out the points you wish him to see. 
 
 Don't "teach"but lead the pupil to see clearly: the seed in its 
 place; the parts it flies with; how easily a current of air will carry 
 it (experiment with a current of air made with the breath or with 
 a fan). 
 
 Now further lead him'to see how thru the bud to the ripened 
 head the downy part grows to its mature form, how at first it is, on 
 a single undeveloped seed, a minute bundle of soft down without a 
 stem, how later the stem of the "umbrella" grows, how at first 
 the umbrella is closed up tight, and opens only when its stem is 
 grown and the seed is mature. Have him also see that at first 
 when the flowers open they are raised up by the stalk. (If there has 
 been no lessons on flowers previous to this do not go into the 
 structure of the flower at this time, farther than to show that the 
 dandelion blossom is a bunch or head of many small flowers. ) 
 Later as the seeds begin to mature and the downy part to develop 
 the flowers close and the hollow stem of the head of flowers bends 
 over and lies close to the ground hiding it until the seeds ripen. 
 But just as the seeds mature the flower stalk becomes erect and 
 grows in length raising the flower head high, which then opens and 
 
NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Pig. 1. The Dandelion: a, bud;b, head of flowers; c, after flowering, head closed again, 
 stalk bent over, stems of balloons growing, seeds ripening; d, seeds ripened, stalk 
 erect and lengthened. 
 
THE DANDELION. 
 
 Fig. 2. The Dandelion; a, enlarged view of i single flower of dandelion, flower head 
 snowing at >. he bottom the down on short stem on the top of the seed; b. enlarged view 
 of seed, balloon and its stalk cut away; c, ripened seed with balloon completed ready 
 to fly. 
 
 as each umbrella opens out the seeds become very loosely attached, 
 and all is very ready for a puff of wind to blow them away. 
 
 If all this is made out distinctly from material in hand, there 
 will be one good example clearly seen of a plant putting forth a 
 great deal of ingenious effort to scatter its seeds to the wind. 
 
 After first lessons on the dandelion, the pupils may be set to 
 finding other seeds which have either similar or quite different 
 means of distribution. Have them gather these themselves and 
 explain from their own observation to the rest of the class the 
 method each seed employs. 
 
 You will no doubt be surprised to see the number 01 different 
 kinds that may thus be brought in, whether the school is in the 
 country or in the city. A collection can be made and arranged 
 for exhibition, But it is best that that disappear by the beginning 
 of another year, so that the new classes may begin afresh. 
 
 Now, on your walk to seek a beginning lesson you may not 
 find a dandelion, but you surely will find some plant which will 
 serve as well. There are several that have downy umbrellas which 
 
to 
 
 NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Pig. 8. Seeds; ft, a pair of maple seeds with wings; b, a seed from a Monterey pine cone 
 with a wing; c, a bur of the cockle-TLmr with a pair of jaws and many hooks. 
 
 act as balloons, others, as the maple, have wings, others as burs 
 of various kinds, have hooks to fasten on clothing, and still 
 others are carried by water. 
 
 For the first lesson choose a seed that is abundant and has 
 some conspicuous, easily understood means of traveling and treat 
 it something alter the manner suggested with the dandelion. Do 
 not be deterred in your choice because you do not know the name 
 of the plant, as that has nothing to do with the lesson. Use the 
 name the children use. 
 
THE DANDELION II 
 
 The beginning may be made, not with plants but with some 
 animal. As plants and animals and inanimate things go thru their 
 changes slowly it is best, even necessary, to have several things 
 going at once that they may keep up a supply of lessons. For 
 example, the gathering of the seeds may proceed while the eggs of 
 a mosquito are hatching and the larvae are growing. 
 
12 
 
 The Mosquito. 
 
 Obtaining and Caring for Study Material. 
 
 The mosquito is an always available and 
 thoroly interesting object of nature study. At 
 any time of the year, and in almost any small 
 pool of stagnant water, the familiar "wrig- 
 glers," which are the larvae or first young 
 stage, of the mosquito, can be found. "A ditch 
 a wood choked with fallen leaves is one of 
 
 i..- 1 m 
 
 the best hunting grounds." Some of the 
 material from which the following notes 
 were made came from a watering trough in a pasture, and 
 some of it came from a barrel of water containing considerable 
 decaying matter. In many localities it is necessary only to ex- 
 pose an open pail or cask of water for a few days in order to get a 
 thriving colony of mosquitoes. The mosquito larvae (wrigglers) 
 are so distinctive in structure and manner that no trouble will be 
 had thru mistaking other aquatic insect larva or other aquatic 
 animals for them. 
 
 By reference to the figure of the larva (fig. 5) this characteris- 
 tic appearance can be .got acquainted with; in addition, the 
 characteristic wriggling of the body when the creature is mov- 
 ing thru the water, and the hanging head downward from the sur- 
 face when at rest, are manners which make the mosquito larvae 
 readily recognizable. 
 
 Besides the larvae, there may be found both the eggs and the 
 pupae (second young stage). The eggs are in small masses which 
 float on the surface of the water, resembling at careless glance 
 nothing else so much as a largish bit of soot. These little, float- 
 ing, sooty bits are composed of a single layer of slender, elongate 
 eggs standing on end, and loosely fastened together to form a nar- 
 row, irregular, little raft, slightly concave on the upper surface. 
 The pupa (fig. 6) is composed of a big bulbous head and a 
 
THE MOSQUITO. 
 
 short slender tail. It swims thru the water by making quick, 
 violent jerks with the slender tail, and when at rest floats at the 
 surface of the water with the back of the big head end uppermost 
 and the slender tail hanging down. 
 
 The wrigglers and eggs and pupae can be kept in wide 
 mouthed glass jars (fruit jars, glasses, etc.) two- thirds filled with 
 water, (fig. 4) The water should not be too good, or the wrig- 
 glers will lack food; water from the pool or ditch in which the 
 
 FIG. 5. Larra ("wrigglr") of mosquito; a, arfenna; t, tuft of hairs; e, eye; b t, breathlfcf 
 
 tube. 
 
NATURE STUDY. 
 
 wrigglers were found is the best for the purpose. No special feeding 
 is necessary; the organic matter in the stagnant water suffices. Do 
 not put too many wrigglers into too small a jar of water. The 
 mouth of the jar containing pupae should be covered with cheese- 
 cloth, so as to prevent the escape of the winged mosquitoes which 
 will emerge from the pupae. With half a dozen jars of material, 
 the life history and habits of the mosquito can be admirably ob- 
 served. All of the changes of the mosquito from egg to adult are 
 completed in three or four weeks. 
 
 Observing and Questioning. 
 
 What is the wrig- 
 gling of the wrigglers? 
 Evidently simply the 
 peculiar mode of 
 swimming or moving 
 thru the water. It is 
 a violent lashing of 
 the tail end of the 
 body. The wrigglers 
 move in any direction 
 at will by means of 
 this lashing. If a 
 
 J. The Pupa; b t, breathing tube; sf, swimming flaps Wriggler W h i C h 1 S 
 
 at the tip of the body. swimming thru the 
 
 water stops "wriggling" i. e. stops swimming, what happens? It 
 slowly sinks. (If it touches the walls of the jar it may not sink 
 because of the friction. ) Why does it sink ? And why so slowly? 
 It is evidently heavier (denser) than water, but only slightly so. 
 There are, however, always many wrigglers hanging head 
 downward just beneath the surface of the water; hanging down in 
 fact from the surtace of the water. What are they doing ? 
 Breathing. 
 
 s. f. 
 
 9. f. 
 
THE MOSQUITO. 15 
 
 You can see that a little stem-like process (fig. 5 b.t.) 
 projects from very near the posterior tip of the body and the end 
 of this process reaches the water's surface. This process is a 
 breathing tube. (I shall describe it later, more in detail.) The 
 mosquito does not breathe thru its mouth, nor thru any organs on 
 its head, but thru this tube on the tail end of the body. It is 
 necessary for the wriggler to come to the surface of the water to 
 breathe. If the wriggler is prevented by any means from coming 
 to the surface, it soon drowns. Many wrigglers too weak to swim 
 to the top of the water drown. 
 
 But how can the wriggler remain thus at the surface without 
 sinking if it is heavier than water and always sinks when it stops 
 wriggling? It holds on to the tense surface film of the 
 water. The tip of the breathing tube projects slightly above the 
 surface when the wriggler comes up to breathe. The slightly 
 expanded edges of the mouth of the tube are caught by the sur- 
 face film, and the body of the wriggler supported at the surface. 
 This tense surface film exists because the molecules of 
 water which constitute the surface layer of the water are more 
 strongly attracted laterally by each other and downward by the 
 water molecules beneath than by the molecules of air which lie 
 directly over them. It is easier, however, to prove the existence 
 of this tense surface film than to explain it. If you carefully lay 
 a clean needle on the surface of water it will not sink altho much 
 denser than water, but will be supported by the surface film. If 
 you fill a tumbler to its brim you can still add more water (doing 
 it carefully) and so heap up the water above the level of the tum- 
 bler's brim. You can do this because the surface film extending 
 over the water from edge to edge holds it in position. If you dip 
 your finger into the water and lift it up all the water does not run 
 off" but a large drop will remain hanging to your finger. The 
 tense surface film keeps this little mass of water together in the 
 form of a drop. Many aquatic insects and other animals take ad- 
 vantage of the presence of this surface film on water. The water 
 
1 6 NATURE STUDY. 
 
 spiders and little flies which run quickly about on the surface of 
 quiet pools are supported by the surface film. 
 
 To follow the habits of our wriggler in relation to the 
 surface film, we see that despite the fact that the wrigglers 
 are heavier than water they are enabled to hold themselves 
 without effort at the surface of the water to breathe. And 
 yet, also without effort, they can rest on the bottom, feed- 
 ing on the decaying matter to be found there. Indeed, be- 
 cause they are heavier than water when they are at the surface 
 breathing they always hang with head down in the water, and 
 thus can Continue feeding on the organic particles that are float- 
 ing everywhere in the foul water, at the same time that they are 
 breathing. This is an important saving of time to the mosquito. 
 When we have studied insects more we shall know that insects that 
 go thru transformations like the mosquito metamorphosis this 
 transforming is called do almost all of their feeding in their first 
 young, or so-called larval stage. For example, the male mosquito 
 eats almost nothing as a flying insect, (the female does take some 
 food, as we are grievously aware), so the insect must not lose 
 much time in its first young stage if it is to store up enough food 
 (as fat) in this stage to suffice for its existence thru all of its othei 
 stages. And yet so active a creature as the wriggler must have 
 a great deal of oxygen (taken from the breathed-in air) to keep its 
 life fires burning. So you see how admirably arranged the wrig- 
 gler is to take advantage of the natural conditions under which it 
 lives. 
 
 Let us turn to the other kind of young mosquitoes, the big- 
 headed ones, the pupae (see fig 6). When they are below the sur- 
 face and stop wriggling, what do they do? They rise to the surface. 
 They must be lighter than water then. Are they not so well fitted 
 for their life as the wrigglers? Or is there a difference in the habits 
 of the mosquito in its two young stages? Yes, a great difference. 
 The pupae take no food. All they need is to be able to breathe, and 
 to be able to swim quickly away from any ferocious pursuer. 
 
THE MOSQUITO. IJ 
 
 Note that as they lie at the surface it is not the posterior tip of the 
 body which touches the water, but the back or upper part of the 
 bulbous head end. How do they breathe then ? By means ot 
 two horn-like, hollow processes that project from the back of the 
 head end. In this they differ from the wriggler, and we shall see 
 later that they differ in many other details. As they do not feed 
 there is no special need of having the breathing apparatus at one 
 end of the body and the feeding apparatus at the other, or that 
 the head should hang down in the water while the insect is breath - 
 ing. But is there any special advantage in having the pupa float 
 at the surface with the back of the large head end of the body up- 
 permost ? There is, indeed; it is more than an advantage; it is al- 
 most a necessity. It is from the pupa that the winged mosquito 
 comes. Now the delicate wings of the mosquito are folded up in 
 pads (which we shall later study) on the pupa. These wing pads 
 are attached to the upper part or back of the big head end of the 
 pupa, and when the moi-quito is ready to emerge, this back of the 
 big head end of the pupa, which is at the surface of the water 
 splits longitudinally and the back ot the mosquito with the deli- 
 cate wings slips quickly out and above the surface of the water, 
 without getting wetted. The delicate wings are immediately un- 
 folded and in a moment or two the mosquito is ready to fly away. 
 If the wings were drawn out of the pupal sheath in the water it 
 is probable that few mosquitoes would ever be able to fly. Thus, 
 you see, the second young stage of the mosquito, the pupa, altho 
 very different from the first stage, the larva, is also admirably 
 arranged for the successful living of the mosquito. 
 
 I have constantly referred to these strange wriggling creatures 
 inhabiting foul water as young mosquitoes. But they do not at 
 all look like mosquitoes; they live in water, not in air; their habits 
 are very different from those of the mosquito. How do I know, 
 how do you know, that these curious wrigglers are young 
 mosquitoes? Simply and sufficiently by watching one of these 
 creatures thru its life. 
 
NATURE STUDY. 
 
 If you put one of these little 
 sooty masses of eggs, which we 
 have found floating on the surface 
 of the stagnant water in the leaf 
 choked ditch or pool, or watering 
 trough, or barrel, by itself, into a 
 glass with some water, we shall 
 find after a day or two that from 
 each egg has come a tiny wrig- 
 gler, that is, one of the creatures 
 we have been calling mosquitoes 
 in their first young !or larval 
 stage. (The time which elapses 
 from the laying of the eggs to 
 the hatching of the wrigglers 
 varies with the species of mos- 
 quito and with the temperature. 
 In warm weather some mosquito 
 species hatch ia as few as twelve hours. ) The tiny wrigglers 
 wriggle, they go to the bottom to feed, they rise to the surface to 
 breathe; they grow larger, and, what we have not before noticed, 
 they shed their skin or moult. They shed their skin several 
 times during their life as wrigglers. The duration of this first 
 young stage is from one to several weeks. If the glass jars con- 
 taining the eggs and wrigglers be kept in a warm, sunny window, 
 the changes will probably be more readily made than if the jars 
 are kept at a lower temperature. After eight or ten days, then, 
 the wrigglers will change into the second young stage, the pupa, 
 or the wrigglers with the big head end. The pupae live for two 
 or three days, most of the time floating motionless at the surface 
 of the water. Then they transform into the winged mosquito. 
 
 (fig- 7-) 
 
 Thus simply and certainly is proved that the sooty egg masses 
 are mosquito eggs, that the slender wrigglers are the young mos- 
 
 Fig 7 
 
 The Mosquito, a, antenna; b, 
 beak; p, palpus. 
 
THE MOSQUITO 19 
 
 quitoes as they are hatched from the egg, and that the wrigglers 
 with the big head end are young mosquiloes in a stage following 
 the first wriggler stage, and from which the winged mosquito 
 comes. All these changes the children may see for themselves, 
 and all in three or four weeks. 
 
 I have said that the larval wrigglers transform into the pupal 
 wrigglers, and that the pupal wrigglers transform into winged 
 mosquitoes. This is really true, but as seen from without, as 
 seen by the children, one form will appear to isue from the next 
 preceding form, i. e. the skin of the larval wriggler will split 
 along the back and a pupal wriggler will come out, the split 
 empty skin of the larva floating away on the water's surface. 
 Then from the pupa similarly will come the winged mosquito, 
 and the rent pupal skin will remain floating on the water. This 
 last transformation ought to be watched carefully. From the 
 splitting pupal skin will appear first the humped back of the mos- 
 quito, then slowly and carelully the head with its bushy feelers 
 and long piercing beak, and, finally, the long slender legs. While 
 all this is going on, the pupal skin serves as a raft upon which 
 the soft-bodied, damp mosquito is safely supported until its wings 
 and legs are unfolded and dried and hardened, and it is ready to 
 fly away. 
 
 The winged mosquitoes may be kept some days in the hope 
 that they will lay eggs, but this hope will probably not be realized. 
 Only rarely do mosquitoes in confinement lay eggs. It is worth 
 while however, to make the trial, altho the proof that the eggs. 
 and wrigglers are mosquitoes in egg, larval and pupal stages is 
 complete without the actual observation of egg-laying. 
 
 All of the observations we have so far undertaken have been. 
 easily made. They have related to the habits and the life-history 
 or development and growth of the mosquito. There are, how- 
 ever, some other interesting observations which we can make, but 
 for which it will be necessary to have the aid ol a microscope. 
 These observations relate to the details of the structure of the 
 
20 NATURE STUDY 
 
 wrigglers and winged mosquitoes and are, of course, not well 
 adapted for the younger children. 
 
 As the wrigglers hang head downward from the surface of the 
 water there can be seen, with unassisted eye, two little tufts of 
 hairs projecting from the head which are usually in rapid vibratory 
 motion. What is the meaning of the movement of these hair 
 tufts ? If a wriggler be put into a watch-glass of water and be 
 examined with a magnifier the head will be seen to have the 
 appearance shown in figure 5. The two tufts of hairs, t, are situ- 
 ated at the sides of the mouth and their constant vibration is for 
 the purpose of creating little currents in the water, which are di- 
 rected towards the mouth and which carry food, i. e., tiny parti- 
 cles of organic matter, into the mouth. On the head may also be 
 seen the eyes, e, and the feelers or antennae, a. If the other end, 
 the caudal extremity, of the wriggler be examined it will be found 
 to present the appearance shown by the lower right hand portion 
 of figure 5. In the finger-like breathing process may be seen the 
 true breathing tube, b. t. This breathing process arises from the 
 next to the last segment of the body. At the tip of the last seg- 
 ment may be seen four small leaf-like flaps whose use is not cer- 
 tainly known but which may act as a rudder for the body. The 
 posterior opening of the alimentary canal, a. c., is located in this 
 segment. 
 
 Now examine a pupa (fig 6) under the magnifier. On the 
 large head end of the body may be seen the pair of breathing tubes 
 b. t., previously referred to, and also the developing wings and 
 legs of the mosquito. These wings and legs are all folded closely 
 together and are covered with a thin membrane. At the tail end 
 of the body may be seen the two large swimming flaps. 
 
 Kill a few winged mosquitoes and examine them with the 
 magnifier You will find two kinds, in general appearance very 
 much alike but differing in some details; the most obvious differ- 
 ence is in the character of the antennae. Some have antennae which 
 bear many long hairs (6g. 7, a. ) The antennae look bushy. These 
 
THE MOSQUITO 21 
 
 are the males. The females have comparatively few hairs on the 
 antennae. It is believed that the mosquito hears by means of these 
 antennal hairs. In addition to the antennae, observe the long, 
 slender, sucking beak, with which the female mosquito pierces the 
 skin of animals to suck their blood. If mosquitoes cannot find ani- 
 mals then they live on the sap of plants. How many wings has 
 the mosquito? How many pairs of legs? Most insects have foul 
 wings, but the mosquito has a pair of little knobbed projecting 
 processes instead of hind wings. These knobbed processes arc 
 called balancers and they are believed to aid the mosquito in 
 directing its flight. 
 
 The details of structure to which I have called attention are, 
 perhaps, the ones of most interest; but the examination of the 
 bodies of the wrigglers and winged mosquitoes will bring forth 
 many questions on the pait of the pupils, and the teacher can call 
 attention to much of the general structural condition of the insect 
 body. 
 
22 
 
 Seeds. 
 
 As soon as the fall rains come we have sprouting on every 
 side the many forms of seeds whose distribution has been studied. 
 Consequently among the plant lessons the growing of seeds may 
 well follow those on distribution of seeds. It is well at the very 
 start for the teacher to have in mind something of the true mean- 
 ing of the seed. 
 
 This will serve as the best guide to the use of the seed and 
 its activities as lessons, even the most elementary. The full under- 
 standing of the significance of the seed would include, with other 
 things, the knowledge of that part of its structure which points 
 to the relationships of the seed-forming plants to those of lower 
 forms. Such matters would obviously be out of place here 
 
 The view of the seed as a plant itself, being a phase in the 
 existence of the plant's life adapted to certain conditions is 
 the one to be kept in mind. These conditions are those con- 
 nected with its distribution, including its ability to remain dor- 
 mant a long time, its having the means of transportation as 
 already studied in distribution, and its preparation for making a 
 start in growth, in a favorable place, and continuing this 
 growth until its organs for obtaining food from the air and the 
 soil are well developed. This view will give us direction in the 
 study of the structure of the seed, and in methods of observing 
 the activities of the the growth of its parts. 
 
 Of the two lines of study of the seed, its structure and its 
 action in growth, logically it might be considered that the lessons 
 on structure should come first. It will be found, however, that 
 there will be greater interest in the work if first we see the seed in 
 action and then follow with the seeking out of the parts concerned 
 in th action. 
 
 Growth of Seeds. 
 Do not confine the lessons to one form of seed as is sometimes 
 
SEEDS 
 
 Fig. 8. Seeds growing between sheets of glass to show growth of root, root-hair* 
 and root tips. 
 
 recommended, but have a number of forms planted. It would be 
 well for the pupils to use many of the seeds gathered during the 
 lessons on distribution of seeds, allowing them to select as they 
 choose. Among the number it would be well to have squash 
 or pumpkin, bean, pea, radish, wheat, corn, acorn and pine seeds. 
 This list will insure having seeds oi good size, and those which 
 behave differently in germinating. 
 
 Explain how the seeds are to be planted in boxes or pots of 
 
NATURE: STUDY 
 
 rich mellow earth and to 
 be kept properly watered, 
 and in a warm place, but 
 have the pupils do all the 
 work of preparation, 
 planting and care of the 
 boxes. It will be of great 
 advantage to have a large 
 number of the forms 
 planted you expect to 
 work most with, such as 
 squash, bean and corn. 
 The seeds planted in 
 boxes will give ample 
 means for observing how 
 the seed starts to grow, 
 how it gets out of the 
 seed leaves, and how the 
 stem and leaves develop 
 from these. 
 
 But to see the equally 
 interesting and instruc- 
 tive development of the 
 root with its branches, 
 root hairs and root cap, 
 some other method of 
 planting is necessary, 
 since digging up the root 
 destroys some of the very things necessary to be seen. For study 
 of the growth of the root, plant a few seeds in earth confined be- 
 tween two sheets of glass about seven by eight inches, or larger. 
 The sheets of glass are kept apart by thin strips of wood, as thick 
 as a lead pencil, and are clamped together by pieces of bent 
 tin or tied with strings. The sheets of glass might also be held 
 
 Fig. 9. Seeds grown on netting just touching water 
 in the jar, showing root, root-haira and root cap. 
 
SEEDS 25 
 
 in place by means of wooden frames with grooves sawed in for 
 slipping in the glass. The two sides are to be kept dark with a 
 cloth or board covering except when observing the roots, which 
 may well be seen thru the glass. 
 
 Another means for seeing the growth of root is by planting 
 the seeds on a piece of netting tied over the mouth of a jar filled 
 with water sufficiently to bring the water just in contact with the 
 seeds. Seeds planted between layers of cloth or blotting paper 
 kept moist will grow roots of considerable size and allow the ex- 
 amination of root hairs and root cap. 
 
 With many seeds planted in the various ways indicated, and 
 a supply of seeds for successive planting to study out phases 
 that were missed in the first observation, or to settle questions of 
 doubt, the teacher has abundant and rich material for many les- 
 sons, which, interspersed with those on animals and minerals, will 
 extend over a long period. 
 
 Now what is to be looked for in this material? First is to be 
 noted just how the different seeds "come up." Each kind of seed 
 has the problems to solve of getting its parts out of the seed coats, 
 its first root started downward and fixed in its position and its 
 young stem started upward. Have the pupils note carefully 
 each step in the above mentioned process. How the seed coats 
 are moistened; the contents swollen with the imbibed water; the 
 seed coats split and pried open, and the seed leaves with the 
 young stem and the minute new leaves withdrawn from the coats 
 in some seeds; in others the seed leaves are not withdrawn but re- 
 main in the seed coat and the ground, the root and stem escaping 
 however. Find out also how these steps are taken with corn, 
 wheat and onion seeds. In brief, keeping in mind that the grow- 
 ing seed is a living thing very active, and active too with purposes, 
 have the pupils over and over again on different seeds watch the 
 series of actions of a germinating seed and, as far as may be dis- 
 covered, the purpose of each action. 
 
26 NATURE STUDY 
 
 The Structure of the Seed- 
 
 For making out the parts of the seed make use both of dry 
 seeds and of those that have been soaked in water for some hours. 
 It is best to begin with the larger forms such as beans, peas, 01 
 pumpkin seeds. 
 
 Have the pupils see that the seed is a small plant ready to 
 grow, but wrapped up tightly in a covering. The covering has 
 a small opening at one point. The contained plant can be clearly 
 seen to have a stem bearing leaves, and a point that is the be- 
 ginning of the root. The leaves are (in the bean, pea or pump- 
 kin) .first two large thick white leaves filling the main part of the 
 covering, and then the pair of minute ones which are to be the 
 first pair above the seed leaves. Grains of corn and wheat or a 
 pine seed will show a different arrangement of the seed leaves, 
 the first having only one, the last having five. The seed contains 
 stored up nutrition. Often, as in the bean, this nutrition is stored 
 in the thick seed leaves, but in others as in the morning glory it 
 is deposited around the seed leaves. 
 
 The parts of the seed as known in botany are, as illustrated 
 in the bean, for example: The covering, the seed coats; the two 
 thick seed leaves, the cotyledons; the small stem, the caulicle; the 
 part above the cotyledons bearing the minute leaves, the plumule, 
 the point at the opposite end of the caulicle is the root point. 
 The whole minute plant as it lies in the seed is called the embryo. 
 
 Have the pupils hunt out the seed leaves in many forms of 
 seeds, including some in which they are not so evident as in the 
 bean and squash, such for example, as the acorn, walnut, pecan, 
 chestnut, buckeye, wild cucumber. The germination of each of 
 these nuts is very interesting. The methods used by the buck- 
 eye and wild cucumber of this coast are apparently so widely dif- 
 ferent from those of the squash and bean that they present quite 
 attractive puzzles. Who in the schools this winter will solve 
 them? 
 
SEEDS 27 
 
 Each kind of seed has a habit of germination peculiar to itself. 
 To discover these individual ways of plants is to become person- 
 ally acquainted with the plants, which can not fail to beget not 
 only an interest but even a love for these earnest members of 
 Nature's community. This interest and love will not cease with 
 the lessons in the school, but will be a source of wholesome 
 pleasure at every recurring spring time thruout life. 
 
 The embryo plant well out of the seedling state, leading now 
 an independent existence, presents us with other lessons inexhaus- 
 tible for our school work. Some of these we shall select to form a 
 part of this course to be treated subsequently. 
 
 Most of these lessons will be taken from the adult plants as 
 we shall find them in gardens, woods and fields. There are some 
 important matters which may be noted as the young seedlings 
 are growing in the boxes, etc. 
 
 Each plant on leaving the seed, each in its own way, imme- 
 diately begins to establish its stem with its peculiar system of 
 blanches, and its root and root system. As has been pointed out, 
 the f6rmer is to explore the air for carbonic acid and sunlight, 
 and the latter to explore the ground for water and certain sub- 
 stances dissolved in the water. 
 
 Each plant arranges its stems with its branches and the 
 leaves on them, in such a way as to present its leaves to the sun- 
 light and air to very good advantage and with little interference 
 with each other. The ways in which the many forms of plants 
 have worked this out are very numerous and are represented in 
 the varied habits of plants which we know as characteristic of 
 them. This subject we shall take up in later lessons. 
 
 The root systems of the plants are as important and as well 
 planned as the stem systems. However, less is known about them 
 since they are hidden and hard to get at Still the early stages of 
 the formation of the root system can be observed in the growth of 
 the seeds between the glass plates and in the jar of water. 
 
 Growing plants of various kinds may be carefully dug up ' 
 
28 NATURE STUDY 
 
 the roots washed off and thus much be learned in regard to the 
 root systems. If caving banks, washouts, railroad cuts or other 
 excavations allow the observation of the roots of larger plants at 
 greater or less depths under ground, the teacher of course will 
 take advantage of them. Professor Hilgard has published in a 
 bulletin of the Department of Agriculture of California, the pho- 
 tographs of excavations showing the extensive root system of fruit 
 trees as they are disposed in California to meet the requirements 
 of its peculiar seasons. 
 
 Two objects of great importance can easily be observed in 
 the growth of the plants between the glass sheets and in the water 
 jars they are the root hairs and the root tip with its root cap. 
 
 The root hairs are the parts that absorb the water and hence 
 their importance. The main purpose of the root system is to ex- 
 tend the parts that bear the root hairs into every cubic inch of 
 soil where moisture can be obtained within reach of the plant. 
 
 The root hairs form a fine down ol minute hairs as thin as 
 filaments of cotton which cover each small rootlet a short distance 
 back of the growing tip of the rootlet. They are so delicate that 
 they usually break off when a plant is pulled up by the roots. 
 They can be seen with the naked eye, but, of course, a lens shows 
 them better. 
 
 The root tip is also a very important organ of the plant since 
 it is by the root tips that the roots are planned out and each carried 
 to the place where it comes finally to lie. That is, the root tip is 
 the growing end of the root. It is very sensitive to contact, to 
 moisture and also must be to other influences. It is, in conse- 
 quence, able to find its way to the parts of the soil where it should 
 go and in doing this is able to avoid the various obstacles which 
 it meets. At its very tip it is covered with a minute cap called 
 the root cap which affords the extreme end some protection. 
 
 Have the pupils see thru the glass sheets how the root 
 tips avoid the obstructions and find their way in different direc- 
 tions. Root tips avoid light, while stem tips seek it. Root tips 
 
SEEDS 29 
 
 usually grow downward and stem tips grow upwards, but both 
 may grow horizontally. 
 
 Here are opportunities for some instructive, tho simple, 
 experiments which will reveal more of the life of plants, but these 
 must be reserved ior future lessons. 
 
How to Make a Collection of Insects. 
 
 Though the nature study class will find most of its interest 
 and most of its work in observing the habits of animals and 
 plants, there is a certain interest and use in collecting and pre- 
 serving specimens, in "making a collection." Among animals 
 none are more readily collected and preserved than insects. They 
 are abundant both in species and in individuals; they 
 are to be found at all seasons of the year, and under 
 all conditions of surroundings. They live on the surface of the 
 ground, in the soil, in water, on and in all kinds of plants, in 
 decaying matter, in short, they have adapted themselves to 
 almost all of the conditions under which it is at all possible for 
 animals to live. Coupled with this abundance of individuals and 
 variety of habitat, they are readily collected and easily preserved. 
 No elaborate collecting equipment is required, nor any expensive 
 and room filling cabinets. Thus insects present themselves as 
 specially fit objects for the beginnings of a nature study collection. 
 
 Not only are the full grown flying insects themselves to be 
 collected, but also their immature stages; the eggs, the cat- 
 erpillars and other larvae, the cocoons and chrysalides and various 
 pupal forms, and finally their nests and the various products of 
 their handiwork, all should be collected and properly arranged 
 and displayed for reference. In the following directions for 
 making and caring for, as simply as possible, an insect collection, 
 some account of the collecting and preserving of all these various 
 kinds of specimens is included. 
 
 For collecting insects there is necessary a collecting net and a 
 collecting or killing bottle. The net bag should be about 12 or 
 13 inches in diameter at its mouth, about 24 inches deep, and 
 should taper from its mouth to a diameter of about 6 inches at 
 the rounding bottom. It should be made of cheese cloth or 
 strong bobinet, and should be bordered at its mouth by sheeting 
 which should be firmly sewn over a wire net-ring fastened to a 
 
HOW TO MAKE A COLLECTION OF INSECTS 
 
 light wooden or cane handle three and a half feet long. Any 
 ingenious boy can make the net-handle and ring. 
 
 For the collecting and killing bottle (fig. 10) put into the 
 bottom of a wide-mouthed bottle (a 4-oz or 6-oz quinine bottle) a 
 tablespoonful of cyanide of potassium which has been broken 
 into small pieces (as large as peas) and cover this with a layer, 
 
 half an inch thick, of plaster 
 of Paris mixed with water to 
 form a thick paste. After the 
 plaster has set (letting the bot- 
 tle stand uncorked), put into 
 the bottle a small crumpled bit 
 of tissue paper (to prevent the 
 shaking about of the insects 
 and to absorb moisture) and 
 the killing bottle is ready for 
 use. It should be kept tightly 
 corked. Insects caught with 
 the net or with the hands have 
 simply to be dropped into the 
 killing bottle and the deadly 
 Fig. 10. Killing bottle; cyanide of potassium hydrocyanic gas which fills the 
 at bottom, covered with piaster of Pari*. bottle will kill them almost im- 
 mediately. The insects may be left in the bottle until the school- 
 room is reached, when they should betaken out and pinned up as 
 described later. The cyanide of potassium used in the killing 
 bottle is a deadly poison and the utmost care should be shown in 
 its use. Perhaps it will be advisable to have a druggist make the 
 bottles according to the above directions. Each bottle should be 
 marked "Poison," and the pupils warned not to inhale the gas 
 when the cork is removed. 
 
 With collecting net and killing bottle, and a few small boxes 
 for live specimens, nests, etc., the insect collector is outfitted. In 
 collecting, visit flowers, turn over stones and old logs, go into 
 
32 NATURE STUDY 
 
 orchards where fruit is falling, explore the bark of tree trunks, 
 work along the banks oi streams or ponds. For insects which 
 live in the water, a special water net will be necessary; one with 
 wider meshes so that it may be drawn readily thru the water. A 
 special kind of collecting is that called "sweeping." In a meadow 
 or pasture, especially if many flowers are in bloom, whip the net 
 quickly back and forth over the tops of the weeds and grasses. 
 You will be sure to catch a host of small insects and spiders in 
 this way. Do not collect the flying insects alone, but collect lar- 
 vae, caterpillars, cocoons, chrysalides, nests, leaves and twigs 
 bearing galls or showing the effects of insect attack, and all other 
 specimens which illustrate the life of insects. 
 
 The preservation of the collected specimens is simple, and 
 easily learned. The insects are to be pinned up, i. e., each 
 insect is to be mounted by thrusting a special kind ol 
 slender pin (called an insect pin) thru the middle of that part of 
 the body called the thorax, the part ot the body from which the 
 wings arise. Beetles, only, are not pinned thru the middle of the 
 thorax, but thru the right wing-cover close to the median line of 
 the body. These insect pins must be bought of a dealer in nat- 
 uralists' supplies, and can be 
 had in various sizes. The 
 sizes most commonly used 
 are numbers i and 3 of the 
 kind of pins called Klaeger 
 .pins. (The dealer may not 
 have the Klaeger pins, but a 
 kind called Karlsbader; num- 
 bers 3 and 5 .are the size to 
 
 Fig. 11. "Pinned-up" insect buy of this kind.) TheSC 
 
 pins cost 12 or 15 cents a hundred. The insects should be pushed 
 up on the pin so that only one-third of the pin projects above the 
 back of the specimen (fig. n). 
 
 Most insects need no turther care than this simple pinning 
 
HOW TO MAKE A COLLECTION OF INSECTS 
 
 33 
 
 up. But some large-winged kinds, as butterflies, moths, dragon- 
 flies, etc., should have their wings spread. To accomplish this, 
 there is necessary a setting-board (figs. 12 and 13), consisting of 
 a block or frame arranged so that a groove runs between two flat 
 strips of board. Under the groove cork is fastened. The body of the 
 pinned insect is placed in the groove, the pin being thrust into the 
 cork below far enough to bring the back of the insect just even 
 with the surface of the strips of the board at the sides. The wings 
 are spread out and held flat against the surface by pinned-down 
 
 strips of paper. Insects should be 
 left on the setting or spreading 
 boards for a week or more, when 
 they may be removed, the wings 
 having dried in this outspread 
 position. 
 
 Caterpillars, spiders and some 
 very soft bodied insects should 
 not be pinned up but should be put 
 into alcohol in vials for preserva- 
 tion. Cocoons and chrysalides may 
 be mounted on pins or put into 
 alcohol. The pinned specimens 
 must be kept in "insect, cases;" 
 the best insect cases for the begin- 
 ning collection are cigar boxes 
 with the bottom covered inside 
 with sheet cork or with any soft 
 pith such as the flowering stem 
 of the century plant (pita- 
 wood) or of the stalks of field 
 corn (corn-pith). The pinned 
 insects can be arranged in these 
 cigar boxes according to kind; i. 
 PI?. 12. setting- board. (After conistock). e., all the beetles together, all the 
 
34 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 moths and butterflies together, all the bees and wasps together, 
 all the flies together, etc. If some little expenditure of money 
 can be made (the cigar boxes cost practically nothing), have a 
 good carpenter make a number of shallow glass topped cases 
 according to the following directions: Make a shallow box 12 or 
 15 inches (inside) by 2 inches deep (inside) with tight joints, and 
 with a cover i inch deep, which fit together tightly by means of 
 groove and tongue; all joints should be as close as possible. 
 (There are certain small insects, so-called museum pests, which 
 feed on dried specimens, and the tight covers and perfect joints 
 of the insect case are necessary if these pests are to be kept out.) 
 Cover the bottom of the case with sheet cork or pith, and it is 
 ready for use. This kind of a case not only preserves the collec- 
 tion from the attack of museum pests, but allows the specimens 
 to be attractively displayed. 
 
 All specimens should bear a small label the label should be 
 borne on the pin under the specimen give the locality and date 
 of capture. If most of the collecting is to be done in a single 
 locality small printed labels bearing the name of the locality and 
 with a blank space for writing in the date, are convenient. 
 
 Collecting net, killing bottle, insect pins, setting board, 
 insect cases, and vials of alcohol, these are the apparatus necessary 
 for collecting and preserving insects for making an insect col- 
 lection. An expenditure of one dollar will suffice (if cigar boxes 
 are used for insect cases), to make a good beginning in the making 
 of a school room insect collection. 
 
 Fig. 13. Cross-section ol setting-board. (After Comstocki. 
 
35 
 
 FUNGI. 
 
 After the first rains come and tbruout the season of rains the 
 mushrooms and many other forms ol fungi spring up on every - 
 hand. 
 
 The great majority of this company of plants are quite 
 modest in their behavior. They are, toe, mostly short-lived, 
 coming in the night, and passing away during the next day, or 
 extending their stay but a few days at the most. Their methods 
 of gaining their nutrition, of reproducing themselves, and ol dis- 
 tributing themselves over the earth are hidden from the casual 
 observer. In short their mode of life is a puzzle and mystery to 
 most people. This has led the whole group to be much neglected 
 in the pursuance of the more conspicuous phenomena of plant life 
 as presented by the showy flowering plants. 
 
 From time out of mind, many members of the group have 
 been looked upon with downright fear as being intimate with all 
 sorts of uncanny existences, and being in league with them to 
 work evil on mankind. But these quiet little plants, like all 
 other plants, both big and small, are hard at work at food gather- 
 ing, reproduction and distribution. Each one from the micro- 
 scopic bacterium to the great puff ball represents in their varied 
 forms and sizes, special adaptations to conditions which each has 
 found favorable to its life. 
 
 They offer many a delightful lesson to him who will hunt out 
 their homes in pasture, woods or canon. 
 
 The sizes and forms of fungi are as variable as could 
 be imagined. They include the mushrooms or toad-stools, the 
 puft- balls, the moulds, the blights, the mildews, the smuts, the 
 rusts, the bacteria, and many other forms whose names are not 
 so familiar. 
 
NATURE STUDY 
 
 Many are harmless to 
 man, many are indifferently 
 good or bad, many are deli- 
 cious and nutritious food, 
 many are destructive 
 enemies to man's buildings, 
 his clothing, and especially 
 his food, others attack the 
 plants he nurtures for their 
 fruits and grains, and some 
 are deadly enemies to his 
 own body, being poisonous 
 like some ot the poisonous, 
 mushrooms, or, as with 
 
 Fig. 14-The common edible mushroom. some forms of bacteria, 
 
 being the cause of the most dreaded diseases. Their 
 abundance and importance as well as their interesting mode of 
 life, are sufficient reasons for their introduction into a course of 
 nature study lessons, for which a few of the more common and 
 conspicious forms may serve as an introduction. 
 
 As the terms mushroom and toad-stool will come up imme- 
 diately for consideration, it may be said that the usage shows 
 both terms applied indiscrimately to the same species. Toad- 
 stool is applied by some to those forms only which they consider 
 poisonous, while mushroom is reserved for those considered 
 edible. But the general usage among botanists is to make the 
 term mushroom serve as the common general name of all the 
 forms to which the names mushroom, toad-stool and puff-ball are 
 commonly applied. 
 
 It may be stated also that it is not the object of this lesson 
 to point out any methods of distinguishing the edible from the 
 non-edible mushrooms. While it is very desirable that a bette- 
 nnderstanding ot the wholesome and nutritious value of many of 
 the common forms be extended and thus save great waste of ex- 
 
FUNGI 37 
 
 cellent food that goes on every year in our fields and woods, the 
 teacher should not undertake the responsibility of giving this in- 
 formation without an accurate knowledge of the good and bad 
 forms. 
 
 Our lessons are to be with the life of the plant. Some form 
 of the umbrella shaped mushrooms is good for the first lesson. 
 
 The common edible mushroom is shown in Fig. 14. If this 
 or some similar form can be obtained in sufficient abundance, 
 allow each pupil to have a specimen. Have him examine all 
 its parts carefully. The stalk is called the stem; the expanded 
 portions is the wp; the ragged fringe running around the stem a 
 short distance below the cap is the ring; the thin plates under- 
 neath this cap radiating from the stem are the gills. These in the 
 younger specimens of the common edible form are pink, turning 
 brown and later black with age. Have the pupils slice the mush- 
 room through cap and stem to see the connection between them. 
 
 The stages of growth from their first appearance as small 
 white balls to the adult form should be observed. It will then be 
 seen that a curtain covers the cap and gills, and it is the breaking 
 of this by growth of the containing parts which makes the ring. 
 
 Direct the pupils to cut the stems of several close to the caps, 
 and place these caps, gill side down on sheets of white paper, and 
 place them where they will not be in currents of air. Alter some 
 hours or the next day the paper will show a beautiful deposit of 
 very fine powder neatly outlining the shape of the gills. This 
 powder is made of the spores which have been discharged from 
 the gills and the picture thus made is sometimes called a spore 
 print. As the spores of different species are of different colors 
 they may be taken on a sheet of glass and this placed over dark 
 or light colored paper to give the proper background for display- 
 ing the spores to the best advantage. 
 
 This brings us to make a brief survey of the course of 
 the life of the plant. The spore is to this plant what the seed is 
 to higher plants being the part from which the plant starts to grow. 
 
38 NATURE STUDY. 
 
 C^x A The spore, however, is 
 
 &v 
 
 a "e 
 
 not have the structure 
 of a seed. It has no 
 seed coats, no cotyle- 
 dons, and no embryo. 
 It is very minute and 
 consists of a single cell, 
 while a seed of a flower- 
 ing plant may have mil- 
 Ions of cells in it. A. 
 \>2 /-j single spore is very small 
 
 and requires a good 
 
 Fig. 15 Spores of fungi, highly magnified; a. ot 
 Fig. 16; b, of Fig. 14; c, of Fig. 18; d, of Fig, 22. miCrOSCOpe to SCC it Well. 
 
 The shape of the spores of each kind of mushroom is peculiar to 
 it. Fig. 1 5 shows four forms of spores. 
 
 The mushroom discharges countless numbers of these minute 
 spores, which are borne on the wind over great areas of the earth. 
 The spore that lodges in a place just suitable, as far as moisture, 
 heat and food are concerned, begins to grow by sprouting out a 
 minute and delicate thread. This absorbs food and water, grows 
 further and then sends off minute thread-like branches. The 
 branches continue the same method of growth and branching 
 until the soil, the rotting stump or whatever the mushrooms 
 flourishes upon is penetrated by a great mass of these fine threads. 
 If we could get them out they would look just like the white cot- 
 tony mass, which, in the form of mould sometimes is seen upon 
 bread or on the top of fruit in jars. It is so delicate that it is im- 
 possible to extricate it from the soil entire, but we can see at the 
 bottom of the mushroom stem, the large white cords looking like 
 roots, which are made up of great numbers of these threads run- 
 ning into the stem. These white threads are called the mycelium 
 or spawn. When one buys of the seedman spawn of mushroom 
 for propagating them for the table, what he obtains is a block of 
 
FUNGI 
 
 39 
 
 rich earth which has fine threads of mycelium all thru it, but of 
 course not to be seen in the mass, which will continue to grow in 
 similar rich earth. Fig. 21 represents the mycelium of a mould 
 that grows upon bread, and illustrates well the mycelium of the 
 mushrooms. 
 
 After the mycelium has grown for sometime and accumulated 
 a great amount of nutrition it is ready to form spores. Then it 
 pushes up rapidly the toad stool, puff ball, or what ever other 
 spore bearing apparatus it may possess. The conspicuous forms 
 that we see above the ground or on the rotting log are simply the 
 spore bearing part of the plant, tho they grow sometimes with 
 such remarkable rapidity as to make "mushroom growth" an 
 often used comparison. We must remember that the forming oJ 
 the conspicuous spore bearing portions of the mushroom is but an 
 incident in the life of the plant, and that it may have taken 
 
 months of hard work tc 
 get ready for the import- 
 ant incident. 
 
 Briefly the life of a 
 fungus consists of: The 
 sprouting of a minute 
 thread from a spore; the 
 growth of this thread 
 into a tangled felt of 
 mycelium which pene- 
 trates the substance it 
 grows upon; then the 
 forming a spore bearing 
 apparatus which pro- 
 duces the spores from 
 which the cycle begins 
 again. 
 
 Fig. 16 A common form of the genus Boletus. In The WOrk OI the 
 
 this the spores come from tubes, which . t 
 
 are shown ou under surface of the cap. nature StUuy ClaSS may 
 
40 
 
 NATURE STUDY. 
 
 begin by gathering the different forms that may be found and 
 determining where the spore bearing surface is in each. As has 
 already been seen in Fig. 14, the spore bearing surface of the com- 
 mon edible mushroom is on the gills on the under side of the cap. 
 There are many forms like this from which spore prints can be 
 obtained. 
 
 Another large group of mushrooms bears the spores on 
 the surface of small tubes which are in the part under the 
 cap, or under the shelving masses growing on the sides of 
 stumps or logs. Fig. 16 is a very common form found in lawns, 
 in the woods under pine trees and in other situations. It is 
 known as Boletus and there are many species of this genus. The 
 illustration shows the tubes on the under surface of the cap. 
 
 Fig. 17 represents a spore print of this Boletus, taken by 
 cutting off the cap and placing it bottom side down on a sheet of 
 paper and allowing it to remain for some hours when it dis- 
 charges its spores down the 
 tubes thus outlining the un- 
 derside of the fungus. 
 
 The puff-balls keep their 
 spore surfaces inclosed in 
 a sac, while the spores 
 are forming. When they 
 are ripened the sac be- 
 comes dry and breaks open 
 at the top. Any slight 
 shake on it sends out a 
 puff of smoke. The smoke 
 is a cloud of spores. 
 
 Fig. 17 Spore print of the Boletus of Fig. 16. Some of the puff-balls in 
 
 California grow to the enormus size ot a foot in diameter. 
 These when growing, while still white are excellent food, many 
 thousands of pounds of which go to waste every year. 
 
 
PUNGI 
 
 What a vast 
 number of spores 
 one of these 
 sends out! 
 
 There is one 
 very curious 
 form of puff-bal 
 that always 
 Interests the 
 ^class very much. 
 It is known as 
 the Geaster 
 (earth star.) It 
 is a puff-ball 
 with a great 
 collar around its 
 neck. When it 
 is dry the rays 
 
 Fig. 18 A very common form ot small puff-ball. The one at the * * nis C O 1 1 a I 
 light hand is discharging its spores. GUr j u tightly 
 
 over the ball. (Fig. 19.) When 
 moistened the rays of the collar 
 swell up and turn out first, 
 then down against the ground and 
 raise the ball up as in Fig. 20. A 
 dry Geaster placed in a dish of 
 water will quickly take the form in 
 Fig. 20, and may soon be given the 
 form in Fig. 19 by drying. This 
 process may be repeated many 
 times on the same individual. 
 Moulds lead the same life as do the mushrooms. As the 
 whole course of their life can easily be observed the study 
 of a mould is very interesting and makes the conception ol the 
 life histoty of the large fungi clearer. 
 
 Fig 19 A Geaster with its collar 
 turned up. 
 
NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Fig. 20 A Geaster with its collar turned dowii. 
 
 A good growth 
 of a large kind 
 of a mould is 
 generally easily 
 obtained by 
 placing a piece 
 of bread slightly 
 moistened in a 
 closed fruit jar, 
 kept closed that 
 the air around 
 the bread may 
 remain moist 
 In some man- 
 ner the spores of 
 this mould are 
 
 scattered everywhere so that the cleanest bread has some. In two 
 
 fig. 21 The mould Mucor grown ou bread. The network is the mycelium; the knobs 
 are the spore bearing parts. Magnified. 
 
FUNGI 
 
 43 
 
 or three days the bread will become covered with a cotton-like felt 
 of threads. This is the mycelium. Later there rise up from this mass 
 many minute stalks which develop at their summits little black 
 beads The black beads are the spore bearing surface and each 
 furnishes an inimense number of spores. Those who understand 
 the use of the microscope will know how to inclose some of these 
 spores in a glass "moist cell" and watch their growth and thus 
 
 demonstrate the whole course of the life 
 of a fungus. The spores may be sown 
 on other pieces of bread and a new 
 crop raised. The name of this par- 
 ticular kind of mould is Mucor. 
 
 There are many other kinds of 
 moulds which the pupils may find and 
 bring for comparison. There are 
 several species which will follow the 
 c Mucor on the same piece of bread on 
 >J which it grew. Some of these may be 
 of bright colors. 
 
 The blights, mildews, smuts and 
 rusts possess more or less the habits 
 of life of the moulds. Many of them 
 live on living plants. 
 
 As none of the fungi have chloro- 
 phyll (the green coloring matter in. 
 the leaves of higher plants. See les- 
 sons on leaves) they cannot feed upon 
 They, every one, feed upon organic 
 substances. Either decaying plants or animals or living plants 
 or animals furnish them their food. Indeed it is they that pro- 
 duce the processes we include under the term decaying. 
 
 It will readily be seen that as they must find their food in 
 the substances of plants and animals either living or dead, they 
 
 ing spores. Magnified. 
 
 carbonic acid and water. 
 
44 NATURE STUDY 
 
 become in some cases scavengers clearing away dead timber or 
 dead animals, or may attack all substances made of wood or other 
 plant products or of animal products, that means our food and 
 clothing, or may attack living plants or animals. The preserva- 
 tion of food, clothing, the protection of garden and orchard plants 
 from certain diseases and the treatment of many of the diseases of 
 the human body are problems of dealing with forms of fungi, 
 mostly of the minute forms. 
 
 The collection ot a few of the common forms of mushrooms 
 will easily recommend them to the teacher as excellent objects for 
 drawing. Their graceful forms and beautiful colors have been 
 most attractively portrayed by Gibson in his "Toad-stools and 
 Mushrooms." 
 
45 
 
 Rearing Insects in the School-room. 
 
 For the study of the habits and life-history of the mosquito, 
 as described in one of the first of these nature study lessons, 
 it was fouad to be necessary to keep the young mosqui- 
 toes alive under conditions approximating the natural condi- 
 tions of mosquito life. Many other insects lend themselves to 
 similar more or less nearly complete observation of their habits and 
 transformations under those favorable conditions for seeing 
 obtained when the insects live and grow and transform in the 
 school-room. A building or room in which insects are reared and 
 kept alive under conditions approximating natural out-of-doors 
 conditions is called an insectary, and may be an extensive and 
 costly affair ; but any school-room can with little trouble and less 
 expense be made to serve as a modest insectary, sufficient for the 
 needs of the nature study class. 
 
 The necessary equipment comprises a few flower-pots, a few 
 glass lamp chimneys, or better, lantern chimneys, a few small 
 boxes, and a few glass fruit jars. 
 
 The insects to be reared are those whose habits and life-his- 
 tory may happen to be specially described in the course of these 
 nature study lessons, and in addition any others which can be 
 readily obtained, kept successfully in confinement, and whose 
 food can be easily supplied. Many insects can be kept in the 
 school-room for part of their life; and certain particular phases of 
 their life-history observed. Thus the cocoons or chrysalides of 
 moths and butterflies may be collected and brought into the 
 school-room and kept until the issuance of the imago (adult 
 insect). Or caterpillars, whose food plant is known and is readily 
 obtainable, may be reared, and their moultings, their transforma- 
 tions into pupae, and finally the issuing of the moths or butter- 
 flies from the pupae, all may be observed. 
 
4 6 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 '' Breeding cages" can be made in 
 various ways. One of the most gen- 
 erally useful consists of a flower-pot 
 in which the food plant of the insect to 
 be bred is growing. The plant should 
 be inclosed by a lantern globe or wide 
 lamp chimney whose top is covered 
 over with mosquito netting (fig. 23). 
 If the food plant cannot be grown in 
 the pot (if for example it is some shrub 
 or tree) the flower- pot may be filled with 
 wet sand, or better, a wide-mouthed 
 bottle filled with the wet sand and sunk 
 into the soil in the flower-pot, and leaf- 
 covered branches be stuck into the sand. 
 Fig. 23. Lamp chimney and Tbe food should be renewed as often as 
 
 flower-pot breeding cage. necessary . 
 
 Professor Comstock recommends a cage made by fitting a 
 pane of glass into one side of an empty soap-box. A board, 
 three or four inches wide, should -be fastened below the glass so 
 that a layer of soil may be placed in the lower part of the cage, 
 and the glass shonld be fitted so that it may slide and thus serve 
 as a door (fig. 24). 
 
 Many caterpillars when ready to pupate burrow into the 
 soil, and transform underground. For this reason it is neces- 
 sary to have a layer of soil in the flower- pot cage or the boxcage if 
 such caterpillars or other larvae of similar habit are being bred. 
 After the caterpillars have gone into the soil to pupate, they may 
 be dug for and the pupae found and examined. The pupse should be 
 buried again, and the issuance of the moth or butterfly (or other 
 insect) be awaited. 
 
 Cocoons may be kept suspended by strings in wooden boxes. 
 The interior of the box should contain a little soil which should 
 
REARING INSECTS IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 
 
 47 
 
 Fig. 24. auap-box breediiig cage. 
 
 be occasionally wet so that the cocoons may be kept in a not too 
 dry atmosphere. Pupae which are found underground must be 
 kept buried in soil or moss. This soil should not be allowed to 
 become too diy, nor yet should it be kept too moist. 
 
 Insects which feed on 
 dried or decaying organic mat- 
 ter may be put, together with a 
 supply of their food, into a 
 glass fruit jar, over the top of 
 which mosquito netting is tied. 
 From some of the cocoons 
 or chrysalides will issue, not 
 moths or butterflies, but 
 smaller wasp-like or fly-like 
 insects. These are, if four- 
 winged, ichneumon-flies, or 
 if two-winged, true flies, which 
 
 are parasites of the moth or butterfly species whose pupa 
 you have. The adult ichneumon fly or other parasitic fly 
 lays it eggs on the skin of the caterpillar; the young paras tes 
 soon hatch and burrow into the body of the unfortunate cater- 
 pillar and live in the body feeding on the body tissues. The 
 caterpillar usually has strength left to transform into the pupa, 
 but the continued attacks of the internal parasites kill the pupa, 
 and from it issue finally the full-grown ichneumon flies. 
 
 Directions for the special care a ad treatment necessary for 
 rearing those insects whose life-history is described in this series 
 of nature study lessons are given in the case of each insect 
 studied. Thus, with these few general directions for rear- 
 ing insects, our consideration of the school-room insectary might 
 be closed, if it were not that we have omitted all reference to the 
 caring for those insects which live in water. For the rearing and 
 observation of these water insects acmaria are necessary. The 
 
48 NATURE STUDY 
 
 making and care of aquaria for the school-room is discussed 
 in the lesson, "School-room Aquaria," but the following brief 
 notes are inserted here because of their special bearing on the 
 rearing of aquatic insects. 
 
 To construct and maintain an aquarium has the sounding of 
 something difficult and large to undertake: to put a layer of sand, 
 some water, and a few water plants and animals into a fruit jar 
 and let it, the aquarium, take care of itself, is no such prodigious 
 undertaking. The fruit jar aquarium may be made an object of 
 lively interest and a great help in nature study work. 
 
 Miss Mary Farrand Rogers, who has written an interesting 
 and informing account(*) of life in an aquarium, for the series of 
 teachers' leaflets prepared by the nature study bureau of Cornell 
 University, tells so well what a schoolroom aquarium should be 
 and how to contrive to have it what it should be, that my first 
 suggestion to you in regard to schoolroom aquaria is to get, if you 
 can, a copy of this leaflet. 
 
 Aquaria are of two kinds, (i) running Water aquaria, and 
 (a) quiet or stagnant water aquaria. The quiet water aquaria are 
 so much the simpler to care for and more likely to be possible in 
 the ordinary schoolroom that we may put aside any thought 
 of attempting the other sort. If, however, there is a tap of spring 
 or brook water in the schoolroom a running water aquarium can be 
 maintained. The water can be allowed to flow constantly from 
 the tap into the aquarium and out of it by means of a ' 'constant 
 level siphon" (devised by Professor Comstock), which differs from 
 an ordinary siphon in being bent up at the outer end. The end 
 of the siphon within the aquarium should be covered with wire 
 gauze to prevent the escape of the insects or other aquatic animals. 
 
 The quiet water aquaria may be permanent or temporary. 
 The temporary ones may be simply nothing more than a glass 
 
 *LiFE IN AN AQUARIUM, by Msry Farrand Rogers, being No. 11 (April, 1898) of 
 Teachers' Leaflets on Nature Study, prepared by the college of Agriculture, Cornell Uni 
 veraity. Ithaca, N.Y. 
 
REARING INSECTS IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM 
 
 49 
 
 tumbler or fruit jar, into which a few water in'sects, snails or min- 
 nows have been put, for present observation. For the permanent 
 aquaria something more is necessary. If a large rectangular 
 aquarium case, of glass and wood, or glass and metal, cannot be 
 bought or made, then get two or three large "battery -jars," 
 cylindrical jars of large diameter and no neck, or specimen jars. 
 Each of these jars may be transformed into an aquarium. (See 
 fig- 25). 
 
 Put first a layer of 
 sand two inches deep 
 into the aquarium (the 
 large rectangular one or 
 the smaller cylindrical 
 one) at the bottom; put 
 over this a thinner layer 
 of small pebbles with one 
 or two larger ones; then 
 plant in the sand a few 
 water plants (necessary 
 to keep up a supply of 
 oxygen in the water). 
 Now put in the water 
 and finally the water ani- 
 mals especially desired 
 to study, with a few 
 others for the sake of va- 
 riety or to serve as food. 
 
 Elsewhere in this series of nature study lessons I shall give 
 an account of some water insects which may be kept in the school- 
 room aquaria, so that here only the special care of the aquarium 
 as a whole will be discussed. The following points should be at- 
 tended to: 
 
 There must always be growing plants in the permanent stag- 
 nant water aquarium. 
 
 Fig. 25. Bat tery Jar Aquarium 
 
5O NATURE STUDY 
 
 The aquarium must not be tightly covered over; fresh air 
 must have access to it. 
 
 Do not keep the aquarium in the direct sunlight; it should 
 for the most part of the time be in a shady spot. 
 
 The temperature should be kept, if possible, between 40 and 
 -60 degrees Fahrenheit. Occasional variations, if not too extreme, 
 will not be dangerous. 
 
 Do not put in too many live things; if the aquarium is over- 
 stocked the death rate will be high. 
 
 Keep specially voracious carnivorous insects in an aquarium 
 by themselves with, of course, a supply of food. Do not keep 
 them in the general aquarium. 
 
 Occasionally add a little rain water or clear brook water to 
 the aquarium to make up for the loss by evaporation. 
 
 If you are keeping the immature stages of insects which, 
 when adult, do not live in the water, as dragon-flies, May-flies, 
 etc., cover the aquarium with netting to prevent the escape of the 
 adults and put in a stick or two projecting above the water so 
 that the insects may have something on which to rest. 
 
 With attention to these general directions for looking after 
 the aquarium, and by reference to the special directions for col- 
 lecting, caring for, and observing the various water insects dis- 
 cussed in the chapters on the "Mosquito," ''How Insects 
 Breathe," "Some Water Insects, "etc., the nature study class may, 
 it is hoped, find the caring for an aquarium a matter not too diffi- 
 cult, and in the observation of the life of the aquarium a source 
 of much interest. 
 
The Bee and the Lupine, 
 
 The myriads of flowers that brighten the fields and hills 
 with their masses of color, or give a charm to every nook and 
 
 Fig. 26. THE CALIFORNIA. POPPY (Eschscholtzfa). (a) A sprig: of the 
 plant bearing on the right an unopened bud with the calyx cap still ou 
 it ; on the left the corolla opening ; the calyx has dropped away, (b) 
 the calyx cap dropping from the bud, (c) a section through the center 
 of the flower showing the pistil iu the center, surrounded by stamens, 
 these by the petals of corolla: (1) ovary, (2) style, (3) a stigma, (4) an 
 anther of stamen ; this bears pollen. 
 
5 2 NATURE STUDY 
 
 corner of the forest demand a place in the school-room. Their 
 beauty and grace often are recognized, but in addition to their 
 simple charms of form and color their deeper meaning as the 
 active factors essential in an important part of the life of the plant 
 make them most profitable material for lessons in careful obser- 
 vation and clear thinking. They show more clearly and in a 
 more interesting way than do most other parts of the plant 
 how it adapts itself to the conditions in which it exists. It is in 
 the flower that the ingenuity of the plant rises to the highest 
 pitch. Its contrivances in the forms of baits and traps are so 
 plain and need so little of difficult learning to understand them' 
 that they appeal immediately to the youngest and oldest member 
 of the school. As in the lesson with seeds, their distribution 1 
 and germination, so here seeing the plant do something i 
 to its own advantage adds greatly to the clearer insight of the 
 greatest fact in the knowledge of living organisms, that ofi 
 adaptation, that is the fitting of the organism to the world ot; 
 nature around it to its best advantage. 
 
 A knowledge of certain facts must precede these lessons, but 
 as this knowledge is of immediate use, it is easily imparted and, 
 received. 
 
 First, it is to be known that the work of the flower is to pro- 1 
 duce the seeds. Next it is convenient to know the parts of the 
 flower. Any common flower will answer to teach this lesson, but] 
 in the first lesson a good-sized one such as the poppy has advan- 
 tages over small ones. In the lessons on seeds it was seen where; 
 the ripened seeds were found. It is a good point to begin with] 
 in learning the parts of the flower to determine where in thei 
 flower the minute beginnings of the seeds are placed. 
 
 These are easily seen in the poppy. This part of the flower 
 is the pistil. The part of the pistil containing young seeds or 
 those things that are to be seeds is the ovary. This ends above in a 
 short stem supporting four threads, each bearing a surface called a 
 
THE BEE AND THE 
 
 53 
 
 stigma. Many flowers have but one stigma of the form of a 
 knob. The short stem between the ovary and the stigmas is the 
 style. Standing around this pistil are a number of little bodies 
 bearing orange-colored dust. The dust is the pollen and the 
 bodies with their stems are the stamens. 
 
 Now the great fact about the 
 flower is that the seeds will 
 never form into good seeds un- 
 less pollen gets on the stigmas 
 and its grains grow down thru 
 the style and find and touch a 
 part of the minute beginnings 
 of seeds in the ovary. This is 
 called fertilization. Pollen must 
 get to the stigma. 
 
 Thus it is seen that the stam- 
 ens and pistils are all important 
 parts of the flower. The other 
 parts of the flower are the corolla 
 and calyx. The corolla in the 
 poppy is the orange-colored showy part which surrounds the 
 stamens and pistil. Its separate pieces are called petals. The 
 catyx is the green cap which comes off as the flower bud opens. 
 The uses of these parts are to be learned later. All these parts 
 are of different forms in the different kinds of flowers. In many, 
 the reason of the particular form can be discovered and thus be 
 a constant source of nature study lessons, as will be shown as we 
 proceed. 
 
 Another fact of great importance is that in most flowers the 
 pollen can not get to the stigma of the flower in which it grows. 
 Either it does not ripen at the same time with the stigma, or there 
 is some contrivance to keep the pollen away from the stigma of 
 its own flower. Pollen from one flower reaches the sti bxjma of 
 
 Fig. 27. A single flower of the com- 
 mon blue-and white lupine, (Lupinus 
 bicolor). The upper part is the signal, 
 the lower part is the boat-shaped plat- 
 form which encloses the part shown in 
 fig. 28. 
 
54 NATURE STUDY 
 
 another. This is cross fertilization. How is it accomplished ? 
 That is, how is the pollen carried from one flower to another ? 
 
 In this the lupine may teach 
 a lesson. There are a great 
 number of species of lupines in 
 California. Any one of the 
 common forms will answer. 
 Where possible take the class 
 into a field where many K ^- f ?' Th fl ^ er sl ?own iu Fig. 27 with 
 
 J both the parts shown in it removed. The 
 
 lupines are in bloom. I^et pa rt shown here incloses the stamens and pis- 
 
 til. When the bee alights on the platform of 
 
 each one watch a group of th P? in * is P" s ed through it against 
 
 o r the bee's body and a stream of pollen is 
 
 lupines for visits of bees to the P ushed out of the point a. 
 plants he has under observa- 
 tion, and let him try to find out exactly what both bee 
 and flower do during the visit. The bees are in a hurry and what 
 they do is done so quickly, and what motions the plants make 
 are over in such a flash, that it is hard to make out at first what 
 has happened. But careful work will solve it. 
 
 This is what can be seen: The bee hovers over the flower for an 
 instant, then alights on the little platform she finds there. Next 
 she thrusts her head down into a part of the plant after nectar. 
 She does not get any, as lupines do not furnish it. In this she is 
 deceived by its being like so many honey plants. While she thrusts 
 her head down into the flower, the part of the flower she is clinging 
 to is pressed down, and out of a point in the very front of it 
 a little stream of pollen oozes out on her body. As she gets no 
 honey she will usually take to gathering pollen. 
 
 As the bee has probably visited many other flowers, her body 
 has already on it pollen from them. As she presses down the part 
 of the flower, not only the stream of pollen comes out of the small 
 hole, but the stigma of the pistil is also pushed up from this hole 
 against her body, and thus may get covered with the pollen from 
 flowers of other lupines. 
 
THE BEE AND THE LUPINE 55 
 
 To understand this better and appreciate the contrivances 
 used, have the class now examine the flowers closely. If it is the 
 common blue-and-white lupine that is in hand, the parts of the 
 corolla which show without opening the flower are as follows : The 
 upper blue and white part, which is the signal flag to show the bee 
 where the flower is. Below this is a boat-shaped part which is 
 blue. If we gently press this down without touching what is 
 within we find a whitish part tipped with a dark purple point. 
 Now if this be pressed down an orange mass of pollen comes out 
 of the tip, then the stigma protrudes. If we take this covering 
 entirely off we find that in it are included the ten stamens and the 
 
 one stigma. A closer study of 
 this covering shows it to be in 
 two parts lightly adhering at a 
 part of their edges in such a way 
 as to make a cone with a minute 
 hole in the apex covering over 
 stigma and anthers of the 
 
 Fig 29. One side of the covering as ctarnenS 
 shown in Fig. 28. removed, showing the 
 
 st7fn n , g n e s m h e a ve rfn?d .'^dShSJd thS? An examination of the growth 
 
 stamens have ripened and discharged their 
 
 pollen, five other stamens behind these are n f fU~ flnwer in trip hurl <;rinw<s 
 
 growing and crowding the pollen in the C tnG nower 1OWS 
 
 that when the conical covering, 
 which, by the way, is formed 
 
 of two petals, forms, five of the stamens mature in the bud and 
 the pollen comes off, making a mass of it. Then the other five 
 stamens grow and crowd the mass of pollen forward into the cone. 
 In the meantime the stamens and pistil grow into the curve 
 they present. Two other petals grow around these in the boat- 
 shaped form and conceal them and make the platform for the bee to 
 light upon, and the other petal grows up to be the flag signal to 
 attract the attention of the bee. Now the trap is complete. In 
 many other flowers of much the same form the trap is baited with 
 
NATURE STUDY 
 
 nectar. But for some 
 reason the lupine neg- 
 lects this, but the bees 
 visit it, try for nectar and 
 take the pollen. 
 
 If the lupine is not at 
 hand or convenient, 
 there are many other 
 forms of flowers much 
 like it which are similar 
 traps, altho they may 
 differ in some points, 
 such as having nectar, 
 or in protruding the 
 stamens with the pollen 
 instead of pushing the 
 pollen out of a cone and 
 in other ways. Such 
 flowers are those of the 
 locust tree, peas, beans, 
 clovers of the various 
 
 , . , . , . funnel-shaped corolla ending in a long tube, at the bot- 
 
 kindS, plants belonging torn of which is the nectar, (b) head of a sphinx moth, 
 . -11 \vhichsometimesvisitsthePetunia. Its tongue is partly 
 
 to the family known as uncoiled. This it straightens out and inserts into the 
 T . long tube of the flower. 
 
 the JL/eguminosce, a very 
 
 numerous family. One rather common member is excellent for 
 observation. This is the "broom" and is cultivated for its showy 
 orange yellow bloom. 
 
 The detail given above in the study of a. lupine seems, on read" 
 ing it, to be too difficult for younger classes. But it will not be 
 found so in the actual work. Of course it will take some care 
 and time, but it will be done with enthusiasm, and when it is thus 
 well done it gives the class a clearer insight into this bit of nature 
 and a drill in finding out her ways that are vastly more valuable 
 
 (a) A flower of the Petunia, showing its 
 
 Fie. 
 
THE BEE AND THE LUPINE 57 
 
 than simply seeing bees visit flowers and go away with pollen. 
 The pupil has seen the real secret of the showy flowers. They 
 furnish food for insects, nectar and pollen, to entice them to visit 
 them ; they furnish colored signals in the corolla to enable the 
 insect to find them by sight, and perfumes to help them by smell, 
 and then arrange some kind of a trap, sometimes elaborate, some- 
 times very simple, which requires the insect to pass over the pol- 
 len and stigma, so that the pollen of one plant is brought to the 
 stigma of the other by the insect's body. 
 
 With this lesson well seen there are numberless others possible 
 that can follow in the same lines. Every form of flower may be 
 subjected to inquiry as to how it makes use of insects, and 
 what insects it makes use of. For example, flowers like the 
 petunia, with the corolla formed into a funnel with a long narrow 
 tube with the nectar at the bottom, can not depend on bees, as 
 they can not reach the nectar. Let the class find by their own 
 work what insects it does depend upon. The sphinx moth often 
 visits it This moth has a long tongue, which it usually keeps 
 coiled up under its head. This it uncoils and thrusts down into 
 the tubes of the corolla. 
 
 This will lead to the study of the structure and ways of many 
 insects, for they are adapted to the flower as is the flower to them. 
 For example, not only the lupine and its contrivances may be 
 made the subject of study, but the bee and its contrivances. 
 When she gathers pollen from the plant, let the pupil determine 
 how she disposes of it. The bee can be seen to scrape the pollen 
 off and pack it into a Jump on the part of her hindermost leg 
 called the ' 'basket. ' ' If one of the hind legs of a bee is exam- 
 ined it will be found that the division of the leg on which she car- 
 ries the pollen is covered with a number ot hairs, which holds 
 the pollen she packs there. The next division of the leg below 
 the pollen basket is covered with rows of stiff hairs and is used 
 as a brush to sweep off the pollen. Other kinds of bees have hair 
 brushes on the abdomen which they use for carrying pollen. 
 
NATURE STUDY 
 
 While colored and perfumed flowers look to insects and some 
 birds for fertilization, that is, to animals which see and smell, there 
 are many plants which depend upon another agent altogether, the 
 wind. Such are the grasses, wheat, corn, rye, oats and the many 
 forms of wild grasses. The inconspicuous odorless flowers of 
 these may be examined, and it may be seen how their pollen is 
 adapted to be borne on the wind, and how, to provide against the 
 small chance of a single grain of pollen meeting the stigma, 
 immense quantities of pollen are sometimes formed. 
 
 Besides these plants there are the pines, spruces, cypress and 
 the like, the Conifers, usually not regarded as 
 having flowers, which produce immense quanti- 
 ties of pollen in the small pollen bearing flowers, 
 as they should be called. Some of the pollen finds 
 its way to the young cones and fertilizes the parts 
 which are to become the seeds. They use the 
 wind to carry the pollen. 
 
 The fertilization of plants by insects has an 
 interest from its relation to the farmer. All the 
 fruit trees depend largely on the insects, principally 
 bees, for the fertilization of the flowers. While 
 the peach, prune, apple, apricot and cherry 
 may have some of their flowers manage to 
 become fertilized without the aid of insects, still, 
 careful experimenting has shown that only a 
 small percent, of the fruit will "set" unless in- 
 sects have free access to them. Many who have of e the n 
 not understood the habits of bees have accused 
 them of doing harm to both the blossom and 
 the fruit. There is no flower that the honey bee 
 harms. On the contrary, as has been seen, she 
 is essential to many of them. Extensive experi- brush - 
 menting has shown that the honey bee never bites into fruit 
 
THE BEE AND THE LUPINE 59 
 
 of any kind. When a wasp or other insect has broken the skin 
 of a fruit the bee may suck the juices from the wound. Worse 
 than this she never does. When fruit is cut and put upon the 
 trays the bees annoy by visiting it and sucking up the juices 
 while it is still moist. But they do not bite into it and they cease 
 their visits when it is too dry to furnish juices. The bee being 
 such an important instrument in forming the fruit ought to have 
 some consideration in its final disposal. Many orchardists recog- 
 nize the importance of bees in their success and provide bees to 
 fertilize the flowers of their trees so that an abundance of fruit may 
 set. All of the melon family watermelons, muskmelons, squashes, 
 cucumbers and pumpkins depend wholly on insects for ferti- 
 lization, since the stamens and pistils are borne in separate flowers. 
 Those who, in the eastern States, raise cucumbers for the 
 market very early in the Spring in greenhouses, have had 
 to put bees into the greenhouses, or make the rounds of the flowers 
 themselves and dust the stigmas with pollen. Where melons have 
 been raised on a large scale in a country where bees are not common, 
 the melon producers keep large numbers of colonies of bees. Buck- 
 wheat depends upon bees. All have heard that, when red 
 clover was introduced into Australia, it was found necessary to 
 introduce bumble-bees also, to raise seed from the clover. Honey 
 bees' tongues are too short to reach the nectar in the red clover, 
 but in most other clovers they find it well enough, the white 
 clover and alfalfa being noted honey plants in the regions 
 in which they flourish. 
 
6o 
 
 SOME WATER INSECTS. 
 
 We may roughly divide water insects, from our point of view, 
 into two groups, (a) insects which live in running water, in brooks, 
 and (6) insects which live in quiet or stagnant water, in ponds. 
 We may observe water insects in their homes, i. e. , in the brook 
 and in the pond, and we may bring them alive into the school- 
 room and watch them there. To do this we need aquaria. To 
 keep the brook insects alive long enough to observe their habits 
 and transformations we shall require a running water aquarium, 
 which only a few school-rooms are in position to have. But the 
 quiet or stagnant water aquarium can be easily made and main- 
 tained in any school-room. (For directions for making and caring 
 for aquaria, see the earlier lesson on "Rearing Insects." ) Our 
 observation of water insects may be divided into field work and 
 school-room work ; that is, observation of insects in the brooks 
 and ponds, and observation of them in the school-room aquaria. 
 Most of the observing of brook insects must be field work ; while 
 most of the observing of pond insects can be done in the school- 
 room. 
 
 Brook Insects. 
 
 YOUNG STONK- FLIES AND MAY- FLIES. Find a place where the 
 brook is shallow and running quickly, and has a stony bottom. 
 Examine the under side of a number of the stones of the bottom 
 and you will almost certainly find on them certain flattened in- 
 sects from half an inch to an inch in length, which run quickly 
 and attempt to hide in the inequalities of the stone. Note that 
 altho these insects live in the water they do not, like many 
 water animals, have fins, but they have three pairs of legs with 
 which they can either run about on the stones or swim in the 
 
BROOK INSECTS 
 
 61 
 
 Fig. 32. Young Stone- 
 fly ; g, gills. 
 
 water. These in- 
 sect s arc either 
 young stone-flies 
 (fig- 3 2 ) or young 
 May-flies (fig. 33). 
 The young stone- 
 flies have two tiny 
 claws on their feet 
 (examine with a 
 magnifierj and are 
 usually more flat- 
 tened and broader- 
 bodied than the 
 young May-flies, 
 whose feet end in 
 a single small claw. 
 Take some of these 
 insects alive to the 
 school room, where 
 they can be kept in 
 
 Fig. 33. Young May fly; 5% gillj 
 
 a glass jar of water for a day or two. Put one of them into a 
 watch glass of water, and examine it with a magnifier. Is it a 
 young stone-fly (two claws on feet) or a young May -fly (one claw 
 on feet?) Examine the delicate gills projecting from the sides of 
 the body : the young stone- flies usually have three pairs of gills 
 on the thorax (part of the insect from which the legs arise), 
 which are tufts of short gill-hairs ; the young May-flies usually 
 have gills all along the abdomen, which may be transparent 
 thin plates, or composed of gill hairs. (For an account of the 
 way in which water insects breathe, and of the tracheal gills, 
 see the lesson, "How Insects Breathe.") Note that the legs of the 
 young stone-fly are flattened and thickly fringed with stout hairs. 
 What for ? So that the legs may serve for swimming as well as 
 
62 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 for running. Note the long filaments projecting backward from 
 the posterior tip of the body. Those of the young May-flies are 
 usually three in number and fringed with hairs. They aid in the 
 locomotion of the insect. Those of the stone-fly are usually two 
 in number, and their use is not known. Some kinds of young 
 May-flies live in ponds. 
 
 I have been careful to speak of these insects always as young 
 stone- flies and young May-flies. For they are stone-flies and 
 May-flies in their immature, or so-called nymphal condition. The 
 
 adult stone-flies 
 (fig. 34) and 
 May-flies (fig. 
 35) are winged 
 insects which 
 live in the air, 
 and have a very 
 different appear- 
 ance and very 
 different habits 
 from the young. 
 It is possible 
 that you may 
 be fortunate 
 enough to obtain 
 some of the 
 winged adults 
 from the young 
 
 34. A stone fly. which you carry 
 
 into the school room aquaria. If you can find some young May- 
 flies in a pond, so that you can keep them alive in the permanent 
 quiet water aquarium, your chances for seeing the issuance are 
 very ranch better. There is a certain kind of May-fly whose 
 young I have found abundant in watering troughs in September 
 
BROOK INSECTS 
 
 and October (near Stanford University) and winged adults of 
 
 which were issuing constantly thru those months. The young 
 
 May-flies live for many months, some species for one or two or 
 
 even three years, in the water. 
 
 The life of the adult is, on the con- 
 trary, at longest, not more than a 
 
 few days, and some kinds live in 
 
 the winged condition for but a few 
 
 hours. The stone-flies do not spend 
 
 so much time in the water, nor die 
 
 so soon after acquiring wings. 
 
 CADDICE-WORMS Firmly attached 
 
 to stones, especially large ones, in 
 
 swift parts ot the stream, may be 
 
 found small cases (fig. 36 b) or 
 
 houses composed of many small 
 
 pebbles fastened together with silk. 
 
 In more quiet places in the stream 
 
 may be found either attached to 
 
 stones or resting on the bottom, or 
 
 sometimes floating in the water, 
 
 elongate cases (Fig. 37), an inch to two inches long, made of bits 
 
 of wood fastened together with silk or bits of pine needles or even 
 
 grass stems tied cleverly together 
 by silken threads. Or tiny cornu- 
 copias (fig. 36 a) composed of sand 
 grains, may be found. All these 
 are the cases of the caddice-worms 
 or case-woims, and the caddice 
 worm itself may be found snugly 
 concealed in its case. 
 
 Find and collect as many different 
 kinds of caddice-worms cases as you 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 Fie. 36. Caddlce-fly cases made of 
 an<f (a), and pebbles (*). 
 
64 NATURE STUDY 
 
 can ; find cases with the head and fore part of the body of the 
 worm projecting ; find cases moving, i. e., dragged by the slowly 
 walking caddis-worm, Examine a caddis-worin carefully ; note 
 its long, soft, grub-like body ; note that the head and the front 
 pait of the body from which arise 
 .the legs, namely, that part of the 
 [body which projects from the case, 
 'has a strong, hard outer wall. 
 
 What is the Case for ? To protect Fig. 37. Young Caddi-e fly in its case 
 
 the soft, defenseless caddis-worm madeof pebblesandbitsofwood ' 
 from the many predacebus animals which live in the brook. 
 Why is the head and front part of the body so much harder than 
 the rest of the body? Can you easily pull the caddis-worm out 
 'of its case ? How does it hold itself so firmly in its case ? By 
 the pair of ptrong hooks (legs) which are located on the posterior 
 tip of the body. Note that the front pair of legs (how many 
 pairs are there ?) are longer than one would expect to find on such 
 a worm-like insect ; what is the reason for this condition of the 
 legs? How does the caddis- woim breathe ? 
 
 Not all of the caddis-worms live in cases, and some which 
 'make cases do not remain in them all of the time, so that you may 
 sometimes find caddis-worms crawling about on the stones. 
 Some of these home-leaving caddis- worms make tiny nets of silk 
 stretched between two near-by stones. These nets are ''usually 
 funnel-shaped, opening up-stream and in the center of them there 
 is a portion composed of threads of silk extending in two direc- 
 tions at right angles to each other, so as to form meshes of sur- 
 prising regularity. It is as if a spider had stretched a small web 
 in the water where the current is swiftest" The caddis- worms 
 Iwhich build these nets live in rude cases on the under side of 
 stones. The cases are composed of an inner silken tube partly 
 covered with little pebbles. 
 
 All these caddis- worms are the young, or larvae, of caddis- 
 
BROOK INSECTS 65 
 
 flies (fig. 38), moth-like flying insects, with four wings covered 
 with hairs, among which are y 
 
 distributed many flattened scale- 
 like hairs. The antennae are very 
 long and thread-like, and the in- 
 sects may be found fluttering among 
 the foliage or alight upon it, at 
 the brook's margin. 
 
 Collect and put into the school- 
 room aquarium a number of those 
 caddis worms (in their cases) which 
 you find in the quiet places of the brook. These may live in the 
 aquarium and an opportunity thus had to observe their habits 
 more closely and also, perhaps, to observe the manner of their 
 transformation into winged adults. The caddis worm or young 
 caddis-fly does not transform directly into the winged form as 
 does the young stone-fly or May-fly. When ready to transform it 
 closes the opening of the case by spinning a silken sheet across 
 it or filling it with a stone, The opening is not absolutely closed, 
 but space is left for the ingress of water which carries oxygen to the 
 insect within. Thus enclosed, the caddis worm changes to a 
 pupa, that is, to a stage in which the insect lies quiescent, taking 
 no food, while it is undergoing the great structural changes neces- 
 sary for the development of the caddis-fly from the caddis worm. 
 The occurrence of this change to a pupa (pupation, the changing 
 is called) can be recognized by noticing the closed-up condition 
 of the case. Such closed cases may be found in the brook, and 
 perhaps in the aquarium. Open one of these closed cases and 
 examine the pupal caddis-fly within. Note how the legs and the 
 developing wings of the caddis-fly are folded against the body. 
 Can you find any tracheal gills on the pupa? Can the pupa 
 move ? It can only wriggle a little. This wriggling or bending of 
 the body is necessary to keep going some sort of a current of 
 
66 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 water, so that oxygen may be brought in and the exhaled car- 
 bonic acid gas carried away. 
 
 OTHER BROOK INSECTS. The young stone-flies, May- flies 
 and caddice-flies are the insects of the brook most certainly and 
 easily found. On the surface of quiet pools may be seen water- 
 striders and whirligig beetles, but these may more certainly be 
 found on ponds, and are described among the " pond insects." 
 
 You may find, perhaps, clinging to the rock-bed of the 
 stream where the water is shallow but flowing swiftly, many small 
 black worm like animals (fig. 39, a) holding firmly to the rock 
 
 by one end while the rest 
 of the body stands nearly 
 upright in the water wav- 
 ing about as the swiftly 
 running water strikes it. 
 These are the young or lar- 
 vae, of the black fly, a small 
 
 J et black hump-backed, 
 
 two- winged fly (fig. 40). 
 The black-fly is a biting fly of more vicious disposition and 
 more effective biting ability than the mosquito. Take some of 
 'these squirming black larvae to the school-room and examine 
 'them in a watch-glass of water with a magnifier. (They cannot be 
 ikept alive long in quiet water). Note the odd shape of the 
 body. Note the sucker at the posterior end of the body, by 
 which the larvae holds fast to the rock despite the swift current, 
 Note the two fan-shaped organs attached to the head, which arc 
 composed each of fifty hairs rising from a short, stout process; 
 these organs are waved about in the water, sweeping microscopic 
 water organisms into the mouth. You may find among these 
 black-fly larvae a number of odd little cornucopias (fig. 39, 5), 
 fastened to the rock by their lower end. From the upper end of 
 each cornucopia a pair of tiny tufts of short filaments (tracheal 
 
 and pup* (*) of the 
 
BROOK INSECTS 6? 
 
 gills) project, and wave gently in the water. These 
 cornucopias are the pupae of the black-flies ; that 
 is, the black larvae transform into these cornu- 
 copias, and from the cornucopias finally come the 
 winged black-flies. If there are no pupae among 
 the black-fly larvae when you first find the colony, 
 return occasionally to the spot and you will cer- Fifir< 40 * ABlack ' fl >' 
 find pupae in time. 
 
68 
 
 Pond Insects. 
 
 Certain pond insects are found swimming or running on 
 the surface of the water, others swimming in the water, and 
 still others live habitually crawling or slowly swimming over and 
 thru the soft mud and organic detritus at the bottom of the pool 
 or pond. 
 
 WATER-STRIDKRS AND WHIRLIGIG BEETLES. Running 
 quickly about on the surface of almost any pond or quiet brook 
 pool, may be seen numerous rather large, blackish, narrow- bodied 
 long legged insects (fig. 41), the water-striders, or pond skaters, 
 
 as they are sometimes called. 
 The water-striders run or leap 
 quickly over the water's surface 
 when disturbed; when at rest 
 they have the two hinder pairs 
 of long, thread-like legs out- 
 stretched, while the front pair 
 ~~ of shorter, stouter legs is held 
 projecting forwards close to the 
 head, ready tor grasping and 
 holding smaller insects which 
 are the prey of the water-striders. 
 For these insects are predaceous, 
 
 Fig. 41. A Water-strider (Hygrotrechus.) living On the blood of Other 
 
 insects which come up from be- 
 low to breathe, or the flying insects which may happen to fall 
 into the pool. 
 
 The water-striders may be observed on the surface of their 
 own pool, or they may be brought to the school- room and readily 
 kept and watched in the quiet water aquarium. (A glass jar half 
 filled with water.) A few house flies or other non-swimming insects 
 should be thrown on the water to serve as food for the water- 
 triders. The surface of the water should not be too near the 
 
POND INSECTS 69 
 
 top of the aquarium, for the water-striders can leap several inches, 
 and might thus escape. 
 
 Observe the character and disposition of the different pafre 
 of legs of the water-striders. Note their use in running and 
 grasping their prey. Are the legs of the water-strider thrust into 
 the water ? No, they rest on top of the water, the whole weight 
 of the insect being supported by the tense surface film ( see the 
 lesson on the mosquito). Note the "dimples" or depressions in 
 this film where the feet press it down. Are the water-striders 
 winged or wingless ? They may be, strangely enough, either 
 winged or wingless; that is, there are two kinds of individuals of 
 water-striders. In addition to the elongate narrow-bodied forms 
 you may see some individuals with shorter, broader bodies, either 
 entirely without wings or with short wing-pads or growing wings. 
 These are simply the young or immature water-striders. Exam- 
 ine one of the insects closely, using, if necesssary, the magnifier. 
 Note the slender, sharp-pointed, little beak which projects from the 
 head. Note the black bead-like eyes. The under side of the body 
 is covered with a fine pile or pubescence. If you hold the water- 
 strider in the water (underneath the surface) the underside of the 
 body will be silvery white, showing that a film of air is held en- 
 tangled in the pubescence, and preventing the 
 wetting of the body. When you let loose of the 
 insect it will rise immediately to the surface, and 
 run about as usual, having not been wetted by its 
 submersion in the water. 
 
 The whirligig beetles (fig. 42) are, like the 
 
 , . , ,. . Fig. 42. Whirl- 
 
 water-stnders, surface insects they are to be -igig-beetie (Gy 
 found in the same places with the water-striders. 
 These whirligig beetles are small (usually about one- third of 
 an inch long), oval or elliptical, flattened, shining black 
 insects, which dart swiftly about in curving paths on the water. 
 They may readily be kept in the school- room aquarium. Do they 
 
70 NATURE STUDY 
 
 run and leap as the water- striders do, or swim ? Unlike the 
 water-striders also, they occasionally dive and swim beneath the 
 surface. How do they breathe ? Note the little silvery bubble 
 almost always visible at the posterior tip of the body when the 
 beetle is swimming underneath the surface. Examine one of the 
 insects closely, using a magnifier. Note that it has four eyes, 
 one pair on the lower surface ol the head, just underneath the 
 pair on the upper surface. Note also the peculiar shape of the legs, 
 the front pair being rather slender and oar-like, while the hinder 
 two pairs are short, broad and paddle-like; all are, however, 
 adapted for swimming. 
 
 In addition to the water-striders and whirligig beetles, numer- 
 ous other smaller insects may be found on the surface of pools 
 and ponds. Many small two- winged flies run about on the sur- 
 face in search of food, and certain small sucking bugs may often 
 be found running about on the wet shores of the pond or upon 
 the water near the edge. 
 
 WATER-BUGS AND WATER-BEETLES. In the pools on the 
 surface of which the water-striders and whirligig beetles are 
 found, may be found certain insects which swim vigorously about 
 in the water, coming occasionally to the surface and resting there 
 a 'short time. These are the water-bugs 
 and water-beetles. The water-beetles (fig. 
 43) are large, shining black, elliptical in- 
 sects from half an inch to an inch and 
 a half long; the water-bugs (figs. 44 and 
 45) are smaller, being less than half an inch 
 long, and they are gray in general color 
 instead of black. Each of these water- 
 bugs and water-beetles has three pairs of 
 legs, of which one pair is usually especially 
 long and flattened, so as to be oar-like. 
 
 Fig. 43. "Water-scavenger ,_., . . 
 
 beetle (Hydrophtius). They have wings, which are kept closely 
 
POND INSECTS 71 
 
 folded on the back while the insect is in the water. With a water 
 net collect a number of both the larger black insects (the water- 
 beetles) and the smaller gray insects (the water-bugs) and pu> 
 them into glass jars of water in the school-room. 
 
 Watch the big black beetles first. There are two kinds, both 
 looking much alike, but differing in their food habits. One kind, 
 the "predaceous diving-beetles," kill and eat other water insects; 
 while the other kind, the "water-scavenger beetles" (fig. 43), feed 
 on decaying vegetation (tho they occasionally attack other insects). 
 Try to observe the feeding of the beetles in the aquarium. Observe 
 the position of the body, when one of the beetles is at rest, just 
 underneath the surface. If the beetle hangs head downward with 
 the tip of the abdomen at the surface, it is one of the predaceous 
 diving-beetles; but if the head end of the body is kept at the sur- 
 face, it is one of the water-scavenger beetles. 
 
 When the beetles are resting at the surface they are breathing, 
 or rather they are collecting air which they breathe after they sink 
 beneath the surface. The water-beetles do not remain at the sur- 
 face most of the time as the mosquito wrigglers do, nor do they 
 remain underneath the surface all the time as the young May- 
 flies do. They do not have to come to the surface every time 
 they wish to breathe but they have no gills to enable them to take 
 up the air which is mixed with water. The way in which they 
 solve the problem of breathing under water is this: they come to 
 the surface occasionally and collect a supply of air which they 
 take down with them. The two kinds of beetles do this in dif- 
 ferent ways. The predaceous diving-beetles force the posterior 
 tip of the body above the surface and slightly lift the tips of the 
 horny black wing-covers which lie on the back. Air rushes in 
 under these wing-covers and is held there by the closing of the 
 tips. This process can be readily observed. Tie breathing pores 
 or spiracles of the beetle are situated along each side of its back 
 underneath the wing-covers so that the air held under the wing- 
 
NATURE STUDY 
 
 rovers readily finds its way into the beetle's body. The water- 
 scavenger beetle carries most of its air supply on its under or ven- 
 tral surface, where it is held in a lot of fine short hairs. The air 
 gives the under side of the beetle a shining silvery appearance. 
 The air is held by the fine hairs by virtue of the surface film. If 
 3 r ou dip a bit of cloth having a pile, as velvet, into water, you 
 will see that it retains underneath the water a nearly complete 
 coating of air. The under side of the water-scavenger beetle is 
 covered in places with a fine pubescence which acts as the pile of 
 the velvet does. 
 
 Kill one of the beetles and examine it. How many wings 
 has it ? Note that the hind wings, which are larger than the 
 front wings and are thin and membraneous, are folded both longi- 
 tudinally and transversely underneath the stiff, horny fore wings. 
 The hind wings are the true flying wings, the fore wings being 
 chiefly used as a firm protecting covering for the hind wings when 
 the beetle is in the water. Altho the water- beetles live naturally 
 in water, they are provided with 
 wings with which they are en- 
 abled to escape from a drying 
 pond or from a pond which be- 
 comes over stocked with their 
 kind. 
 
 There are two kinds of water- 
 bugs as well as two kinds of 
 water-beetles. Some of the bugs 
 swim with back downward, i. e., 
 upside down, and are called back- 
 swimmers; the Others Swim in 
 normal position with back upper- 
 
 most and are called water-boatmen. The two kinds differ, 
 also, in their markings, the water-boatmen (fig. 45), hav- 
 ing the back greenish gray with a fine black mottling, 
 
 A Back-swimmer (J\olonecta). 
 
POND INSECTS 73 
 
 while the back-swimmers (fig. 44) have the back blu- 
 ish black with large creamy white patches. Both kinds come to 
 the surface to get air, the water-boatmen very much more rarely 
 than the back-swimmers. The water-bugs,like the water-beetles, 
 carry down with them into the water a supply of air held on the 
 outside of the body. The air clings to a large part of the body 
 lying both under the folded wings and ou the exposed surface of 
 the body. Note the difference in the disposition of the air in the 
 two kinds of bugs. Is there a difference in their weight as com- 
 pared with the weight of water ? What part of the body projects 
 above the surface when the bug comes up for air ? Note the cus- 
 tomary position of the body and legs as one of the back -swimmers 
 lies at rest just underneath the surface with the tip of the abdomen 
 projecting very slightly above it. Which pair of legs is the row- 
 ing pair? Throw some non- swimming insects, as house-flies, in- 
 to the water and observe the actions of the back-swimmers with 
 regard to them. Kill a few back-swimmers in the cyanide bottle 
 and examine them. Note, that altho they are aquatic insects, they 
 
 have wings; they are thus able to 
 fly from pond to pond. Note the 
 oar- like character of the swim- 
 ming legs; note their broad fringes 
 of hair. Note the sharp-pointed 
 strong beak which the back- 
 swimmer thrusts into the bodies 
 of its prey, and thru which the, 
 blood of the captured insect is 
 
 Fig. 45. A Water-boatman (Corisa). 1 j /~\ i_ 
 
 sucked. Care must be exer- 
 cised in handling live back-swimmers, as they can inflict a pain- 
 ful sting with the sharp beak. 
 
 Note that the water- boatmen keep usually to the bottom of 
 the aquarium, coming only rarely to the surface ior air. Note 
 their favorite resting position. In what way does this differ from 
 
74 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 that of the back-swimmers ? Note that the long oar-like legs are 
 the hind-most pair, not the middle pair, as in the case of the back- 
 swimmer. The water-boatmen, like the back-swimmers, suck 
 the blood of other insects by means of a beak, and have wings. 
 
 A third kind of water bug 
 may often be found resting 
 or crawling at the bottom of 
 ponds. These are the giant 
 water- bugs, some kinds of which 
 are really giants among insects. 
 The larger ones, the true giant 
 water-bugs, are readily recog- 
 nizable by their size, their 
 bodies being an inch wide and 
 two and a half inches long. 
 They are not black like the 
 great water-beetles but a dingy 
 brownish gray. Their fore legs 
 are fitted for grasping and they 
 have a short, sharp beak pro- 
 jecting from the under side of 
 the head. Some of the members 
 of the giant water-bug family are smaller, a kind common 
 in California, being about an inch and a half long and about 
 half as wide (fig. 46). If you can find one of these giant water- 
 bugs put it into the aquarium and observe its manner of hiding. 
 It keeps itself concealed as well as possible under the stones at 
 the bottom. It is a blood-thirsty creature feeding, like the other 
 water-bugs, on the blood of other insects. The giant water-bugs 
 are so strong that they often seize and kill young fish. 
 
 YOUNG DRAGON FLIES. Drag out with a rake some of the 
 decaying vegetation and muddy detritus from the bottom of a 
 stagnant pond, and you will almost certainly find in the slimy 
 
 Fig. 46. A Giaut Water-bug (Serphus). 
 
POND INSECTS 
 
 75 
 
 mass a number of curious creatures of the appearance shown in 
 figure 47 or figure 48. These are young dragon-flies and can be 
 unmistakably known by the peculiar, folded, broad flat under-'lip 
 which covers mask-like the whole of the under side of the head, 
 
 (fig. 49). This lower lip can be 
 unfolded and projected some dis- 
 tance in front of the head (fig. 50). 
 Some of these young dragon-flies 
 live on the very bottom of the 
 pond crawling about in the mud 
 and decaying vegetable matter 
 while others cling to the stems of 
 the water plants, some distance 
 above the bottom. The young 
 dragon-flies vary considerably in 
 appearance, but there are two 
 principal groups into which they 
 thTbodied\ind g Dra ^ on - fl y ; - hort ' may be divided. First, stout- 
 bodied, usually rather short ones (fig. 47); and second, long slen- 
 der-bodied ones with three usually long, blade-like flaps pro- 
 jecting backward from the posterior tip of the body 
 (fig. 48.). Collect some of both kinds and carry 
 them, in a jar of water, to the school-room. Here 
 they may be kept alive in the still water aquarium, 
 and their feeding habits, and perhaps their trans_ 
 formation into adult, winged dragon-flies, observed. 
 Kill one or two of each kind in the cyanide bottle, 
 and examine the bodies. On the back may readily 
 be seen the growing wings. With a pair of forceps 
 or a pin, unfold the hinged lower-lip and note that 
 its broad tip is composed of two jaw-like flaps, each wiy 
 fringed on its inner margin with fine teeth. Ex- der - bodi d 'kind, 
 aminethe hinge, and note how far this grasping lower-lip is folded. 
 
76 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 view show 
 
 ed under-lip. 
 
 Examine, also, the thin flat blade or oar-like processes at the poster- 
 ior extremity of the slender- bodied young dragon-flies. Thes 
 are tracheal gills for breathing, and with a magnifier the fine dark 
 branching air-tubes (tracheae) can be seen in them. 
 
 Observe now the young dragon- 
 flies in the aquarium. If there are 
 some soft-bodied insects in the 
 water, you will not have to watch 
 long before you can see the grasp- 
 in S Y ?a S cor r fd"by J [i le foTd l ing lower-lip at work. As anun- 
 suspecting insect swims by the 
 masked face of the young dragon-fly, like a flash the lower lip 
 darts forward and those two fine-toothed grasping flaps at the tip 
 seize the insect, and carry it, as the lip folds up again, to the 
 strong jaws of the captor. The young dragon- 
 flies are very voracious, and they will soon capture 
 and eat most of the other soft bodied insects in the 
 aquarium. 
 
 The eggs of the dragon- flies are either drop- 
 ped into the water by the females which fly about 
 over the pond, or are placed in slits cut into the 
 stems of water plants. The young dragon-flies 
 live for from a few months to nearly a year, gradu 
 ally growing larger, and the wings slowly develop- 
 ing. When ready to transform, the young dragon-fly crawls up 
 on the stem of some water plant or projecting stick or stone, out 
 of the water; the skin breaks along the back, and slowly 
 the winged dragon-fly issues. This transformation takes place 
 usually in the early morning hours, and this cannot be conven- 
 iently observed by the class. If you bring into the aquarium, - 
 however, a number of young dragon-flies at the time of year 
 (the late spring and early summer) when they are transforming, 
 the process may be observed in the school-room. 
 
POND INSECTS 
 
 77 
 
 Fig. 51. Dragoii-fly; broad-winged kind. 
 
 It will be inter- 
 esting to have the 
 class observe the 
 behavior of the 
 adult dragon-flies. 
 They may be found 
 flying swiftly about 
 over the surface or 
 along the banks of 
 ponds, and along 
 the shores of quiet 
 streams. The dra- 
 gon-flies are among insects like the haw'fcs among birds. They 
 capture in the air other smaller insects and eat them. 
 
 ''While one is standing by the pond, let him follow 
 awhile the actions of a dragon-fly that is making short 
 dashes in different directions 
 close to the bank. Let him fix 
 his eye on a little fly hovering 
 in the air, and note that after 
 the dragon-fly has made a dart 
 toward it, it is gone. Let him 
 repeat the observation as the 
 dragon-fly goes darting hither 
 and thither. It will be hard to 
 see the flies captured, so quickly 
 it is done, but one can see that Fiff>52 Dragon . fly narrow . wlnged ^ 
 the place that once knew them sometimes called damsel - fl y- 
 knows them no more." The flying dragon-flies are of different 
 kinds, but like the young dragon-flies can all be roughly classed 
 in two groups; the large dragon -flies (fig. 51) with heavy bodies, 
 and with rather broad wings, the hind wings being broader 
 than the fore wings, and smaller dragon-flies (fig. 52) (01 
 
78 NATURE STUDY 
 
 damsel-flies, as this kind is sometimes called) with slender 
 bodies, and narrow wings, the fore and hind wings being equal. 
 The first kind are the adults of the short, stout-bodied young, and 
 the second kind, or damsel-flies, are the adults of the elongate, 
 slender-bodied young. 
 
79 
 HEAT. 
 
 With this subject will be introduced a series of lessons J>n 
 some of the most common phenomena of air, water and soils. It 
 seems more generally thought that plants and animals furnish the 
 best material for nature study lessons. On this account it is not 
 out of place to point out here that certain excellent advantages 
 possessed by non-living phenomena have been overlooked, and 
 consequently some of the best material for this work has been 
 widely neglected. 
 
 In the first place it is usually supposed that children have a 
 more vivid interest in plants and animals than in things without 
 life. This is apparently true, but their interest has arisen from 
 the conspicuousness of the plants and animals, especially the lat- 
 ter. They are constantly disporting themselves before them. 
 Then their kinship in the possessing of life, and their sympathy 
 in the organisms exhibiting that life is keen and peculiar, and 
 cannot be replaced by any other forms of interest. Still this in- 
 terest may be strong, and may even be strengthened with but 
 little advance in the study of nature. The animal and plant con- 
 stitute little as educational material if they simply appeal to the 
 emotions. We must make use of those phenomena for this work 
 which allow the seeing of facts and the drawing of conclusions from 
 them; for example, the adaptations of the plant or animal to its 
 surroundings, or the contrivances it has for doing those things 
 which make up its daily life. In other words, we are to seek ex- 
 planations of the organism. Since the life of the animal or plant 
 is very complex, it naturally follows that the number of phenom- 
 ena in the life of any plant or animal which can be fairly isolated, 
 and whose explanation is fairly within the powers of the child are 
 comparatively few. We arc then led into temptation in two di- 
 rections: either we pass over into the region which requires more 
 power of analysis and 01 generalization than the child possesses, 
 
80 NATURE STUDY 
 
 as in the more difficult matters of structure and of function, or we 
 take up that which has no significance at this stage, such as the 
 number and names of the parts of an insect's leg, or the tech- 
 nical names of the shapes of leaves. In either case the work in 
 nature study will be a failure, and is to be classed with other 
 meaningless work that children are called on to memorize. 
 
 Now, among the phenomena of the world of non-living things, 
 there are a number which are simple enough to be readily grasped 
 by school children. They are of intense interest to them when 
 once seen. Their lack of initiative interest in them is easily ac- 
 counted for by their ignorance of their existence. The peculiar 
 nature of many of these phenomena allow them to be fairly well 
 isolated, so that they can be studied without involving, at the 
 time, confusing relations. The experiments can be repeated as 
 often as necessary to allow better seeing to correct errors in ob- 
 servation and conclusion. The materials are always available 
 and the success of the experiment does not depend on time and 
 place, but may be completely under the control of the one making 
 it. Thus they give the means of that most excellent drill involved 
 in planning and executing an experiment which is a real inquiry 
 of nature. 
 
 The value of the information received from lessons on the 
 common physical phenomena is certainly second to none other ot 
 the school course, since it deals with such important matters as 
 air, water and soil. 
 
 Many of these lessons, beside forming a part of the nature 
 study course, may well take their place in the work of geography. 
 There are many subjects touched upon in the usual courses in geo- 
 graphy, which would have more meaning if the phenomena on 
 which their explanation depends were experimentally studied by 
 the classes. Among such subjects are rain, frost, ice, winds, 
 storms, electricity, magnetism, and means for measuring time. 
 There are many experiments which would throw much light on 
 
HEAT 8 I 
 
 these larger phenomena, which can be performed in the school 
 room with small trouble, very simple apparatus, and without uie 
 requisite of a technical training in physics and chemistry. 
 
 The lessons that follow must necessarily be limited in num- 
 ber, and are chosen to illustrate the kind of material that is open 
 to us. As in other portions of this series of papers, the subjects 
 treated are to be regarded as representative of a rich field, from 
 which the nature study teacher is privileged to draw. Those 
 here selected are arranged so that they lead to a general progress 
 into larger phenomena and wider generalizations, still within the 
 limit of children of school age. This is not to be regarded as an 
 attempt at teaching the science of physics in the lower grades. 
 
 The following subjects experimentally treated, beside being 
 most excellent material for drill in what nature study is to give, 
 will also furnish a good basis for understanding ranch about heat, 
 air and water, and the large part played by these agencies in the 
 form and structure of the earth's surface. We will begin this 
 series with some simple lessons on heat. 
 
 Heat Expands Water. 
 
 Fill a flask or a bottle with water. Such a flask as given in 
 the figure is of a kind of glass that can be heated without danger 
 of breaking. Close it with a cork thru which a glass tube passes. 
 A short tube will auswer, but if two or three feet long it will be 
 better. 
 
 To start with, have sufficient water in the flask to extend up 
 into the tube two or three inches. Be sure to have no air bubbles 
 in with the water. Allow members of the class to fill and arrange 
 the apparatus. Let all see clearly just how everything is arranged. 
 
82 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 Place the flask on the stove, or over an al- 
 cohol lamp, and have the class observe the 
 result, and, if they can do so, explain why 
 the water rises. If the simple explanation 
 that the heat makes the water larger (ex- 
 pands it), is not given, do not give it but al- 
 low them more time to think on the mat- 
 ter. If wrong explanations are offered do 
 not immediately reject them, but ask for 
 proofs or devise experiments which disprove 
 the offered explanation. For example, if a 
 child insists that the water rises in the tube 
 " because heated water is lighter and goes 
 up," place the apparatus so that it extends in 
 a horizontal position, and repeat the experi- 
 ment. The above may occupy the time of 
 more than one lesson. It ought not to be 
 hurriedly passed over. In subsequent lessons 
 it may be proposed to experiment with other 
 liquids. Allow the children to select the 
 liquids, arrange the apparatus, and try the 
 experiments as far as possible. The effect of 
 cold may be studied also. 
 
 When a few liquids are thus experimented 
 with and comparisons made between them, 
 the thermometer may be introduced. It is 
 to be seen as a small flask filled with mercury, 
 or with colored alcohol. 
 
 A number of simple experiments can be 
 
 Jevised with the thermometer which will make clear its use in 
 
 determining the temperature of things. 
 
 In all experiments give as much chance as possible for each 
 
 Fig. 53. lixpansion of 
 water by heat. 
 
HEAT 83 
 
 one to express his individual opinion, and to ask his own ques- 
 tions. Do not by your conduct with the class put a premiums 
 much on any kind of answers, even bright ones, as on earnest 
 questions and answers. Give all such, even if apparently ignor- 
 ant and far from right, every con- 
 sideration. Children, like other 
 people, are sensitive in regard to 
 the respect given to their opinions. 
 Nothing with them is so inimical 
 to the independent formation of 
 opinion as to have their opinions 
 treated with disrespect. If one 
 is wrong, prove that he is wrong, 
 but neither ridicule him nor ride 
 over him. Avoid allowing a few 
 to lead the 
 class and set 
 opinions for 
 the rest 
 
 HEAT EX- 
 PANDS AIR 
 Use the 
 flask and tube 
 of the experi- 
 ment of heat 
 expanding 
 water. Have 
 the flask clean 
 and dry. Place 
 the end of the 
 tube under 
 water. Warm ri - 
 
84 NATURE STUDY 
 
 the flask with the flame of the lamp. As the bubbles of air 
 escape have the children observe what happens and explain. Cool 
 the flask. Repeat the experiment several times; or better, allow 
 the children to repeat it. 
 
 See how sensitive the air is to even a small amount of heat. 
 Arrange flask and tube so that the mouth of the tube is covered 
 with water, having driven out enough air so that the water will 
 rise well up in the tube. Place the hand or just one or two fin- 
 gers on the flask and observe the change of volume. 
 
 Arrange the flask and tube in a horizontal position. Get -a 
 little water in about the middle of the tube. It is better to have 
 it colored with ink or some other coloring matter; this will enable 
 its motions to be more plainly seen. Repeat the experiments with 
 this apparatus. It will be very sensitive to small amounts of heat. 
 
 In addition to these experiments, which are to be examined 
 very closely and seen clearly till they are well understood, many 
 other illustrations of the fact that heat expands air may be 
 devised by both the pupils and teacher. For example, a football 
 or a bladder partly blown up, then heated, fills out by expansion 
 of the contained air. 
 
 The flask and tube with a paper scale may be used as an air 
 thermometer. For this purpose support the flask so that it stands 
 perpendicularly with the mouth of the tube immersed in water, 
 with the water rising a little way up in the tube. Or support the 
 whole in a horizontal position, putting a drop of liquid in the 
 tube. In the latter case a drop of water can not be used, as it 
 will evaporate. Use a small tube and a drop of strcng sulphuric 
 acid or a drop of mercury. 
 
 What makes the best thermometer of the substances thus far 
 used? Why? Give time for discussion and comparative experi- 
 ments. 
 
HEAT 
 
 Heat Expands Solids. 
 
 The question may now be asked of the 
 pupils: Does heat expand solids? They will 
 be ready to say that they think that it does, 
 and now comes the opportunity of having 
 them devise a means of proving it. If, un- 
 aided, anyone of the class can invent such 
 apparatus the results will be excellent. The 
 following are some simple forms of appa- 
 ratus used to illustrate expansion of solids. 
 A metal ball just passing through a metal 
 ring at the ordinary temperature of the 
 room will not pass when heated, and will 
 pass more readily when the ring is heated. 
 An iron or other metal bolt nicely fitting 
 into a hole in another piece of metal may 
 'be used in the same way. A simple appara- 
 tus can be made which will show expansion 
 in rods of various metals, or of various forms 
 such as poker, stove lid, gas pipe, etc. Two 
 heavy blocks of wood are used to support 
 the object. Into the top of one block a nail 
 is driven projecting above the top of the 
 block. One end of the object (iron poker for 
 example) is supported by this block, the end 
 of the poker being pushed firmly against the 
 projecting nail, the other end of the poker is 
 supported by the other block, the end pro- 
 jecting beyond the block. When the poker 
 is heated the strip prevents the expanding 
 poker from pushing in that direction, thus 
 the whole of the movement is shown at the 
 
 Figf. 55. Apparatus 
 showing expausio u of 
 a metal rod by heat. 
 
86 NATURE STUDY 
 
 free end. As the expansion is very small, it may be made con- 
 spicuous by use of an indicator, made as follows: On a small 
 upright support high enough to stand just behind the free end of 
 the poker, place a card with degrees of a circle marked on it. At 
 the center of the circle fasten a pin or small nail on which turns 
 as a pivot a slender strip of wood as a lever. If the short end of 
 the lever is placed against the end of the poker when it 
 pands the long end as a pointer passes over the gradua- 
 ted circle, giving a magnified view of the expansion. If one end 
 of the lever is very short, and the other long, a small amount of 
 expansion may be detected. On this simple apparatus many 
 objects may be tested. The heating may be accomplished by al- 
 cohol lamps, or a row of candles. 
 
 If two strips of different metals are riveted together, and 
 heated, the unequal expansion of the metals will cause the double 
 strip to bend. Leon and copper are good selections. 
 
 Illustrations of effects of expansion of solids may be found if 
 pupils are set to looking out for them. 
 
87 
 
 Currents in Air and Water, 
 
 Immediate application of the facts learned in the last lesso&e 
 on heat in its expansion of both liquids and gases may be made 
 in the study of currents formed in air and in water by heating 
 them. It will be clear to pupils that if a portion of air is 
 heated and by this means is expanded it will be lighter than 
 the surrounding cooler air in which it rests. The same, of course, is 
 true for water. Such a heated mass of air will begin to rise being 
 pushed up by the heavier air as would a cork in water by the 
 heavier water. 
 
 ^ N There would be, then, two movements in the air, 
 
 the upward movement of the heated air, and the 
 movement of the surrounding cooler air toward the 
 space below the upward moving portion. These 
 would be the beginning movements but it is plain 
 the disturbances of air thus started would be ex- 
 tended very much. The movements of air are 
 " termed currents of air. 
 
 Since the transparency of air prevents our de- 
 tecting currents in it, some means must be sought to 
 make its movements visible. This can be done by 
 Fig W> *6. Jm- blackening it by smoke. For such purpose a sub- 
 re a n clndie flame ut stance that will burn continuously with smoke but 
 without flame is desirable. The small sticks sold by the Chinese 
 called by the children "punk" will answer well for this. Excellent 
 "smoke paper" can be made by soaking strips of blotting paper 
 or carpet paper in a solution of saltpetre and then drying them. 
 
 With strips of lighted smoke paper have the pupils explore 
 the condition of the air about a candle-flame or about a lighted 
 lamp. Currents of air will be seen rising above the flame and. 
 others approaching it from the sides. Care must be taken to have 
 the air as still as possible and it is to be remembered that the heat 
 
88 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 from the lighted strip produces currents in the air. This makes 
 it necessary to manage the smoke paper so that the smoke at 
 some distance from the burning part is allowed to fall in the way 
 of the currents to be tested. The condition of the air about a 
 stove, a radiator, or a register is next to be explored. The same 
 tests may. be applied to the air about a person sitting quietly in a 
 room. These experiments will reveal the fact that in a closed 
 room where all else is quiet, the air in all parts is in constant mo- 
 tion, the motion being caused by some of it being heated more 
 than the rest. 
 
 Next allow the pupils to open the windows at the top and at 
 the bottom and find out at which points the air is entering and at 
 which it is escaping from the room. Various combinations of 
 opening and closing of the different windows may be studied as 
 well as the conditious with doors partially or wholly open, also with 
 other openings which may be in the room. These experiences 
 making familiar the movements of air and their cause form a 
 good basis for study of both ventilation of rooms and of means 
 of the greater movements of air outside in thephenomenaof winds. 
 
 Fig. 57. Ventilation in a miniature room. 
 
 Beside the study of a real room in reference to its ventilation, 
 which of course is the best subject, the matter can be further 
 
CURRENTS IN AIR AND WATER 89 
 
 vividl; illustrated by a miniature room formed of a soap box into 
 the sides of which small windows are cut. Short pieces of candles 
 placed on the bottom may be used as the sources of heat. Tfcc 
 top of the box is covered with a board, or better, if one wishes to 
 watch the condition of the candles, with a sheet of glass. The 
 windows are closed by pasting paper over them and opened by 
 tearing it away. By opening and closing the windows in different 
 combinations it can be seen under what arrangement the candles 
 burn best. Good ventilation keeps them bright; poor, dims them 
 or puts them out. The smoke paper shows into which windows 
 the air enters and from which it escapes. Some of the pupils may 
 make a more elaborate miniature house into which ventilating 
 flues may be introduced according to some system used which 
 they may have seen placed in some building during its construc- 
 tion. 
 
 To show how a heated mass of air may reach a considerable 
 height, a balloon made of tissue paper filled with hot air serves 
 excellently. In the hot air balloon we have, of course, a defin- 
 itely outlined mass of heated air whose movement and course we 
 may actually watch. Such a balloon can often be purchased at 
 the toy counter, but one made by the school children has more of 
 interest in it. One not less than four feet in diameter will give 
 the greatest satisfaction. The mouth must be pretty wide or it 
 will catch fire in its swaying about. In the school room the bal- 
 loon may be filled with heated air by holding it over a large lamp. 
 When thus filled it will rise slowly to the ceiling and when cooled 
 will gradually sink to the floor. 
 
 Out oi doors the heat for filling the balloon is best made by 
 building a fire at the bottom ol a joint of stovepipe fixed in an 
 upright position. This will be tall enough to prevent the flames 
 catching the balloon. By this means sufficient heat is furnished 
 to carry the balloon up but a moderate distance. To send it up a 
 good distance a piece of cotton soaked with paraffin suspended 
 
90 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 by a fine wire at the mouth of the balloon is lighted. In a town, 
 or in the country during the dry season, this should not be at- 
 tempted from the danger of fire. 
 
 The hot air balloon showing a heated mass 
 of air rising to a great height illustrates vividly 
 how larger masses of air lying next the ground, 
 which is heated by the rays of the sun, will 
 become heated and rise. 
 
 The cooler air comes rushing in as it pushes 
 the hot air up. The balloon may be made to 
 illustrate this last point also. In the school 
 room when the balloon is well filled with hot 
 air, quickly turn it upside down and observe 
 the sudden rush of hot air up out of its mouth 
 and the equally sudden crushing together of 
 the sides of the balloon made by the cooler air 
 rushing toward it. 
 
 Currents in Water. 
 
 Fill a glass flask about two-thirds full of 
 water into which there has been sprinkled 
 some fine chalk dust that will show any move- 
 ments in the water. Place the flame of a can- 
 dle or alcohol lamp under the flask. Immedi- 
 ately currents of water will start from the 
 bottom to the top, and down the sides to the 
 bottom. As these are caused in the same way in which the cur- 
 rents in the air take place, their explanation can easily be arrived 
 at. If a glass jar of water, the larger the better, has sprinkled 
 over its surface some fine dust of an aniline dye, the particles of 
 the dye as they sink and dissolve make delicate colored threads in 
 the water. By heating either the sides or bottom of the jar ever 
 so slightly currents are formed as shown in the swaying of the 
 colored threads. 
 
 Fig. 58. Ctments 
 water. 
 
CURRENTS IN AIR AND WATER 9* 
 
 Evaporation. 
 
 A lesson on evaporation could begin as follows: On a sheet 
 of clean glass place a drop each of: water, gasoline, alcohol and 
 glycerine or molasses, and have the children watch the result 
 The gasoline soon disappears, later the alcohol, the water much 
 more slowly , while the glycerine persists indefinitely. Questioning 
 and study of this will bring out clearly the fact of evaporation be- 
 fore the class and something of its nature and how different liquids 
 behave in this respect. Place a few drops of gasoline at the bottom 
 of a glass tumbler closed with a covering. The gasoline disap- 
 pears from the bottom. It can not escape and thus it is seen that 
 the vapor must be transparent like the air with which it is min- 
 gled. A lighted match placed at the mouth of the tumbler proves 
 the presence of the vapor of gasoline by the slight explosion and 
 burning. 
 
 Bisulphide of carbon, used so much in the destruction of squir- 
 rels, evaporates readily, gives a vapor so heavy that it can be 
 poured from one glass to another. It also explodes when lighted 
 in a glass. 
 
 The rate of evaporation of water in the conditions of the 
 school room may be observed by the use of a jar of water, the 
 height of the water being noted at definite intervals. 
 
 With a few crystals of iodine placed in the bottom of a test 
 tube and gently heated over the flame of a lamp a beautiful purple 
 vapor can be produced. Crystals of iodine may be obtained at 
 any drugstore and this experiment is excellent as giving a vapor 
 that can be seen, one that is very heavy and can be poured out. 
 It thus by its different appearance makes clearer the conception of 
 a vapor. It is also an example of a solid changing to a vapor. 
 
 That the process of evaporation is a cooling one, that it 
 uses up heat, can be shown by placing a bit of cloth moistened 
 with water on the bulb of a thermometer and seeing the fall of 
 the mercury as the water evaporates. With the use of a rapidly 
 
92 NATURE STUDY 
 
 evaporating substance like gasoline or bisulphide of carbon a vely 
 low temperature can be obtained. Drops of these on the hand 
 produce a marked cooling effect as they evaporate. 
 
 Applications of the facts learned about evaporation will 
 readily suggest themselves in regard to the drying up of the 
 ground after a rain, the filling of the air with moisture from the 
 sea, lake and rivers. 
 
 Boiling. 
 
 The study of boiling may well follow that of evaporation. 
 For this purpose the glass flask which has already been used is 
 excellent as it allows the phenomenon to be seen. Fill the flask 
 two-thirds with water and use an alcohol lamp, as considerable 
 heat is needed. Have the whole process watched very carefully. 
 The following points are to be successfully made out: first, the 
 currents of the water from the heating, then the formation of bub- 
 bles on the sides of the flask. These are bubbles of air which have 
 been dissolved in the water which the heat expands. They will 
 rise to the top and disappear. They have nothing to do with 
 boiling. Later some bubbles will form just over the flame. These 
 will rise and disappear within the liquid, or only reach the top as 
 very much smaller than when starting. These are bubbles of 
 real steam, but as the water is not yet well heated throughout, 
 they wholly or partially condense in the cooler water as they rise. 
 Their collapse makes a tinkling noise in a glass flask. Many of 
 them sounding together make the singing noise preceding the 
 actual boiling. In a short time the water is so well heated that 
 the bubbles of steam reach the top in full size and push out the 
 air. The steam now pours out at the top where reaching the cool 
 air it condenses into a white cloud. This usually is called the 
 steam, but it consists of minute particles of water condensed from 
 the steam. The steam is the transparent vapor over the water in. 
 the flask. 
 
 Clouds, fogs and the white masses which arise from steam 
 
CURRENTS IN AIR AND WATER 93 
 
 engines are composed in like manner of fine particles of condensed 
 vapor of water. 
 
 There are many points of difficulty in this with the children, 
 from former notions picked up here and there. It is hard to un- 
 derstand that steam is invisible, as are many of the vapors in the 
 preceding lessons (of gasoline, ether, etc.). But these very diffi- 
 culties give opportunities for questions, which they discuss with 
 each other, for the settling of which they may devise experiments. 
 Do not be in too great a hurry to have it all taught. We may re- 
 member that what we wish of our material is, that it may give 
 just those questions which it is possible for the children to work 
 on. We should give them a chance to work at these questions 
 when we find them. For those pupils who are ready for it, the 
 thermometer may be used, and the gradual rise of temperature 
 observed until the water boils, when it will be seen that it stands 
 At 212 degrees Fahrenheit, whether in the boiling water, or in the 
 steam just above it (not in the fog formed outside). Alcohol may 
 be used to show that other liquids have a lower boiling point 
 
 Condensation. 
 
 The phenomenon of condensation will constantly come up in 
 the foregoing experiments and is, of course, to be noted. The 
 iodine vapor condenses in crystals on the cool sides of the test 
 tube, or if poured on a cool piece of glass. A lump of camphor 
 heated in a test tube in the same way will evaporate and condense 
 on the sides of the tube. Many experiments may be devised to 
 further illustrate the results of evaporation and condensation of 
 water. It must be seen that such high degrees of heat as for boil- 
 ing is not needed for evaporation. 
 
 A glass vessel, partly filled with water, and the mouth closed, 
 will show water constantly on its inner surface, coming from 
 condensing the vapor arising from the water. 
 
 The condensation of water on the cold surface of a plate of 
 
94 NATURE STUDY 
 
 glass exposed to the breath, or to the surface of the skin, or the 
 under surface of a leaf, or over the flame of a lamp or candle, will 
 show that there is vapor of water coming from all these sources. 
 
 Water may be distilled from a flask, by connecting it by a 
 tube to another vessel. The water boiled in the flask will pass as 
 steam into the tube, which is kept cool by moistening it. From 
 the tube the water drops into a receiving vessel. 
 
 It may be said, in passing, that it is now taught that in the 
 formation of fog and clouds, each particle of water of the fog or 
 cloud has condensed upon a particle of dust in the air, and if 
 there were no particles of dust there could be no fog, clouds or 
 rain. By "dust" is meant any small object floating in the air, 
 such as go to make up what we commonly speak of as dust and 
 smoke. 
 
 The application and illustration of the above lessons will occur 
 to edch one. 
 
SOLUTION AND CRYSTALLIZATION 95 
 
 Solution and Crystallization. 
 
 The solvent aclion of water is such an important agent in the 
 world of nature, both the living and non-living, that it becomes a 
 good subject for nature study work. 
 
 The substances which plants take from the soil must be in a 
 state of solution. The various forms of the foods that animals 
 use must be reduced to a liquid form to be absorbed and they are 
 in the blood in solution. The solution of one or more of the 
 ingredients of a rock which act as a cement to hold the rest 
 together, allows the rock to fall to pieces and to become soil. The 
 solution of certain substances from the soil permits them to be 
 carried great distances to be deposited as minerals in veins or in 
 masses of crystals, or, as in salt, in great salt lakes or in beds of 
 salt. In some situations immense quantities of rock are entirely 
 dissolved out and carried away, as in the caves in limestone strata, 
 of which the Mammoth and Wyandotte Caves are notable examples. 
 The beautiful cave formations are the result of regaining dissolved 
 substances from their solutions. Most of the wonderful things to 
 be seen in the Yellowstone Park are the result of solution and the 
 regaining of substances from solution. Thus by solution and a re- 
 gaining of substances from solution the character of the crust of 
 the earth may be constantly undergoing changes. 
 
 To illustrate the facts of solution have the pupils make solu- 
 tions of some common substances such as table salt, sal ammoniac, 
 alum, sugar, copper sulphate and bichromate of potash. This 
 selection contains substances of different colors and all readily 
 obtainable. They all make clear solutions. Have comparisons 
 made with attempts to dissolve powdered sulphur or powdered 
 chalk, which will not dissolve in water. 
 
 Have the pupils by experimenting learn that some substances 
 like sal ammoniac, dissolve readily in water, the water taking in 
 a large amount, while others, like bichromate of potash, dissolve 
 
9 6 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 much less readily, the water taking up but a small amount of the 
 substance. There are other liquids such as the acids and alkalis 
 which will dissolve substances which water will not dissolve, 
 but the solvent power of water is sufficient for illustration 
 of the facts of solution, and it is water with which we have the most 
 'to do. Test-tubes are the most satisfactory vessels in which to 
 make the solutions, but bottles or drinking glasses will answer 
 very well. 
 
 After making solutions we may follow with lessons on the 
 regaining of the dissolved substances from the solutions. That 
 is done, of course, by evaporating the water which leaves the sub- 
 stance in solution behind. This is most rapidly done by heating 
 the water to boiling, when it quickly passes away. All the sub- 
 stances above suggested should be regained from their solu- 
 tions. Sugar dissolved in water exists in beets, in sugar-cane or 
 in the sap of maple trees. The juices are extracted and ' 'boiled 
 
 down," that is, the water is 
 evaporated away and molasses 
 or sugar is left. 
 
 When a substance is re- 
 gained irom solution by the 
 rapid process of boiling it is 
 left behind generally in the 
 form of a fine powder of very 
 minute crystals. If, however, 
 we alJow the evaporation to 
 go on slowly, as in an open 
 vessel in the temperature of 
 the school-room, then the 
 dissolved substance will form 
 into large, beautiful crystals. 
 
 Fi*. 59. Apparatus for obtaining crystals If Strin S S r slender Stlcks are 
 
 on strings. suspended in the liquid the 
 
SOLUTION AND CRYSTALLIZATION 
 
 97 
 
 crystal forming on these may be easily lifted out without breaking. 
 A very instructive and interesting method of forming crystals 
 is that of smearing a solution of a substance over the surface of a 
 clean sheet of glass. As the water evaporates the crystals may 
 
 Fi.60. Sal ammoniac crystallizing on a sheet of glass. 
 
 be seen to fomi over the surface of the glass. If the formation 
 of the crystals be oberved by means of a hand lens or under a low 
 
98 NATURE STUDY 
 
 power of the microscope, the crystals will be seen to shoot 
 rapidly across the field. Sal ammoniac is excellent for this 
 experiment. 
 
 Indications have already been made of the possible application 
 of these facts. In nature the water dissolves certain substances 
 from the soil or rocks which are carried to greater or less distances 
 and in the new situations by evaporation the substances take the 
 form of crystals, of quartz, limestone crystals, and the various 
 other beautiful crystals and gems found in the earth's crust. In 
 making solutions of all those substances which produce the crys- 
 tals in the rocks, water is aided by other substances mixed with 
 it, such as carbonic acid and other acids and alkalis. 
 
 To show that water always dissolves something from the soil, 
 soak a jar of earth a day or so in distilled or rain water. Filter 
 off the water and evaporate it in a clean vessel and when all the 
 water has disappeared the vessel will be coated with a thin crust 
 of the substances which were dissolved in the water. For com- 
 parison boil down in the same way an equal amount of distilled 
 or rain water and no crust will be found to remain. The inside 
 of a tea-kettle long in use becomes coated with a thick crust of the 
 substances dissolved in the water used, which are left behind by 
 the evaporation of a large amount of water from the kettle. 
 
 In the lessons on the foods of plants it was shown that car- 
 bonic acid and water are the main foods, but in addition the plants 
 obtain other substances from the soil. These come into the plant 
 dissolved in water. In burning a plant in open air those parts 
 made out of the carbonic acicl and water disappear in gases, the 
 product of the burning. There is left behind some ashes. These 
 ashes represent mainly what the plant had received from the soil 
 dissolved in water. While this is proportionally small in amount 
 it contains important and essential elements of the plant's food. 
 Thus it is seen that water is not only itself food for plants, but it 
 
SOLUTION AND CRYSTALLIZATION 99 
 
 , also acts as the medium by which other important foods are 
 brought into the plant's body. 
 
 The Soil. 
 
 The facts brought out in the lessons immediately preceding 
 may be made to introduce a more careful study of soils. The 
 general structure of the soil, and the different kinds of soils 
 may be studied; also the relation of these to growing roots 
 and percolating water. 
 
 In general, soil may be said to be made up of clay, sand, 
 gravel and vegetable or animal remains. All of these may be 
 present, and in different soils in varying proportions, or only one 
 or two of these may be in soil from a particular locality. 
 
 Clay consists of very fine particles only ; and when alone, it 
 makes a compact, stiff, heavy soil that is hard to work with farm- 
 ing tools. 
 
 Sand is composed of larger particles, and when alone, makes 
 a loose, light soil, easily worked. 
 
 Gravel is made up of coarse particles and stones of various 
 sizes. 
 
 Secure a portion of soil from any source, and have the pupils 
 separate the sand from the clay as follows: In a suitable vessel, 
 stir the soil up thoroly with water, and pour off the muddy water 
 into another vessel. By repeated washings all the muddy parts 
 (which are the clay) are separated from the sand and gravel. These, 
 if both are present, may be separated by a fine screen (wire 
 netting). The vessel containing the muddy water is allowed to 
 stand, until the soil settles; then the water is removed. The sedi- 
 ment is the clay. All may be dried and the proportional amounts 
 determined. 
 
 Next study the properties of clay and sand. Placed on a 
 filter (a funnel with a cloth or filter paper), clay retains the water, 
 while sand allows it to pass rapidly thru. Note the effect of pack- 
 
100 NATURE STUDY 
 
 ing each firmly before water is poured on. Now you may come to 
 questions in regard to the percolation or retention of water falling 
 on the surface, the formation of underground reservoirs, of springs, 
 of wells, etc. 
 
 Before studying how water rises in the soil from moist regions 
 below, some experiments in. capillary attraction would better be 
 taken up. 
 
 Capillary Attraction. 
 
 With a series of small glass tubes standing in a shallow dish 
 of water, observe the height the water will rise in each. Two 
 sheets of glass brought close together will show that the nearer 
 they approach, the higher the water will rise. A sponge, a cloth, 
 a lump of sugar, a piece of bread, or new brick may be used to 
 further illustrate capillary attraction. 
 
 Arrange lamp-chimneys (or other large glass tubes) one filled 
 with gravel, one with sand, one with clay, and others with mixed 
 parts, or with any soil desired. Place them in a shallow vessel 
 of water, and observe the rising of the water in each. 
 
 In California the rains in the winter sink down into the lower 
 depths of the soil, and in the summer with no rain, the plants 
 must depend upon this water which rises by capillary attraction 
 to the roots of the plants. 
 
 The reason given for cultivating the orchards in the summer 
 is to break up into a loose mass the upper surface, and thus in 
 this layer destroy the conditions good for capillary attraction, 
 which, if good, would allow the water to rise to the upper surface and 
 be evaporated by the sun and thus lost. The cultivated layer of 
 soil acts as a covering retarding evaporation. To be a good cover- 
 ing it should be stirred often with the cultivator, and not allowed 
 to pack down close and thus establish good capillary connection 
 with the surface. 
 
SOLUTION AND CRYSTALLIZATION >'- '- 
 
 For study of how roots act in different kinds of soils use the 
 glass frames used for seed-planting. Pack the clay well. 
 
 What gives the dark shades of color to the soil? Where a ditch 
 or other cut in the surface of the soil shows a section, note that 
 the upper part is of a darker shade than the lower; sometimes it 
 is quite black. Take a portion of such soil, and in a crucible (a big 
 spoon will answer) in an open fire burn the soil thoroly. The 
 dark color will disappear. It was due to partially decomposed 
 vegetable (rarely animal) remains, that is, of roots, stems, leaves, 
 etc. , and the fire has burned this organic matter away. This dark 
 layer is sometimes called loam, while the brighter colored soil 
 beneath is called the subsoil. 
 
 Experiments With Ice. 
 FROST. 
 
 The method of making ice-cream has already taught most 
 children that salt and ice make a freezing mixture. To show by 
 its means the formation of frost, fill a tin cup, or other similar 
 metal vessel, with a mixture of salt and pulverized ice. Stir the 
 mixture. Soon the sides of the vessel will be covered over with 
 moisture condensed from the air. As the vessel further cools, this 
 moisture is frozen, and the vessel becomes covered with a coating 
 of frost. Press the tips of the fingers firmly against the frosted area 
 until the small space thus covered is melted. Remove the fingers 
 and watch the formation of the frost crystals as the film of water 
 freezes. 
 
 The temperature of melting or forming ice is 32 F. This 
 can be determined by the thermometer in a vessel of melting ice 
 or in a vessel in which water is made to freeze. The latter can be 
 accomplished b}' surrounding a small vessel of water with the ice 
 and salt mixture. As long as any of the water remains unfrozen, 
 it does not sink below 32. 
 
tO2 NATURE STUDY 
 
 Why does ice float ? Of course former work lias shown 
 It is because that, bulk for bulk, it is lighter than water, that is, when 
 water freezes, it expands. Fill a small bottle with water and place 
 it in a freezing mixture, keeping it there until its contents are 
 frozen hard. The bottle will be broken by the expanding ice. 
 This also illustrates the action of freezing water in breaking up 
 rocks, a very active disintegrating agent in cold countries, also in 
 high mountains, as in the Sierra of California, etc. 
 
 An experiment showing that a solution of salt and water 
 requires a lower freezing temperature can be performed. Have 
 the pupils show that when the solution of salt freezes, the ice 
 separates the salt out from itself, the ice being fresh. 
 
 These experiments may be much varied; their application to 
 geographical phenomena are obvious. For other freezing mix- 
 tures see some work on Physics. How is artificial ice manufactured? 
 
About Spiders. 
 
 Spiders offer certain disadvantages and many advantages in 
 their use as objects of nature study. The fear which they inspire 
 in both children and teachers is a disadvantage; their actual capa- 
 city for making slight wounds by biting is a disadvantage of more 
 importance, in that it cannot be quite so readily overcome. The 
 abundance, variety, wide distribution, and interesting habits of 
 spiders and the ease with which they may be kept alive and 
 observed in captivity are preponderating advantages. A word as 
 to the biting and poisoning capacity of spiders. The bite of no one 
 of the common small spiders of house and field and garden should 
 cause any anxiety; if there is no anxiety there will be no trouble. 
 The bite of the tarantula and large running spiders may cause 
 some pain. But there is absolutely no necessity of being bitten 
 at all in studyiug spiders. I have never been bitten by a spider 
 and I have studied them, as much, at least, as the nature study 
 teacher is asked to in this lesson. 
 
 Spiders should be studied both in the schoolroom and out of 
 doors. The suggested work is divided into schoolroom work and 
 field work. The getting acquainted with the spider's body and 
 some of its feeding habits and even some of the spinning can be 
 done in the schoolroom. The rearing of spiders from the eggs, 
 and the observation of the habits and growth of the spiderlings 
 should also be done in the schoolroom. But the study of the 
 homes of spiders, the different kinds of webs, and the general 
 habits of the different common kinds of spiders, as well as the 
 manner of web-building, must, most of it, be done in the field or 
 garden or along the roadside; in a word, out of doors. 
 
 Identifying and Collecting. 
 
 Spiders are too familiar to require any special diagnosis for 
 identification. There are, however, many kinds of spiders, and 
 
164 c 't i ..: / 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 direction is given later in these notes for the identification (mostly 
 by habits) of some of these kinds. Collecting spiders is not diffi- 
 cult nor does it carry the collector far afield. The collector 
 should provide himself with a number of empty pill boxes, cap 
 boxes, or other similarly small, paper, wooden or tin boxes with 
 well fitting cover. Each of these boxes will serve as collecting 
 tool for one spider, and as cage to keep it in until the schoolroom 
 is reached again. Search for spiders in or near their webs, in 
 the corollas of flowers, on the bark of trees, under stones and 
 sticks on the ground, and (for tarantulas and other spiders with 
 tubular nests in the ground), in their nests in the ground. Spiders 
 
 living off the ground, 
 i. e. on webs, flowers, 
 trees, etc., are very 
 prone to diop quickly 
 to the ground when 
 disturbed. Take ad- 
 vantage of this and be 
 ready to catch the fall- 
 ing spider in a pill 
 box, quickly clapping 
 the lid on. Use the 
 pill box and lid as 
 catching equipment. 
 You will soon get ex- 
 pert in the work. 
 Small spiders, espe- 
 cially those in webs 
 or flower cups can be 
 caught with perfect 
 impunity inthe 
 hands. But there is always danger of crushing the soft body of 
 the creature, or pulling off a leg or two in handling. Trust 
 
 Fig. 61. Catching a spider. 
 
SPIDERS 105 
 
 chiefly to manipulation of the box and lid. There need be no 
 holes in the pill box for the admission of air for the captive 
 inside. The boxes are by no means air tight. The silken 
 egg-sacs or cocoons of spiders, if you know them, (and some of 
 them are described and figured later in these notes), may also be 
 collected, and the young spiders reared in the schoolroom. The 
 spiderlings will be of special interest to the children, and some 
 thoroly interesting experiments may be made with them. 
 
 For the first lesson of spiders to be given in the schoolroom 
 collect a number of common house spiders and ground spiders. 
 The house spiders may be found especially readily in wood sheds, 
 stables, or other out buildings, and in attics. The ground spiders 
 may be found under stones. Keep some of both kinds of spiders 
 alive in covered glass jars in the schoolroom and kill some by 
 means of chloroform. In the jars with the live ones put a num- 
 ber of small live insects to serve as food for the spiders. 
 
 Observing and Questioning. 
 
 SCHOOLROOM WORK. Have the children watch the live 
 spiders. Notice their behavior with regard to the insects put in 
 for food. Do the spiders catch the insects ? Is there any dif- 
 ference in the behavior of the two kinds of spiders, the smaller 
 house spider and the larger ground spiders ? What do the spiders 
 do with their captured prey ? Do they spin silk about their 
 bodies ? Do both kinds of spiders do this ? How do spiders eat 
 their prey ? Do they eat the whole body of the captured insect ? 
 They simply suck out the body juices, casting aside the flaccid 
 skin. If the spiders spin silk around their prey from what part 
 of the spider's body does the silk come ? The silk issues from 
 small papillae or finger-like processes situated at the posterior tip 
 of the body. Do the spiders spin silk except around the bodies 
 of their prey ? Whenever the house spiders run they leave behind 
 
io6 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 a silken thread which is at- 
 tached to the bottom or sides 
 of the glass jar. Take out 
 from the jar one of the house 
 spiders on the end of a pencil. 
 The spider will drop from the 
 pencil not free, but attached 
 to a delicate almost invisible 
 silken thread which issues 
 from the posterior tip of the 
 body (fig. 62). By quickly 
 lifting the pencil before the 
 spider reaches the table or 
 floor the presence of the hold- 
 
 Fig. 63. A grouud spider. 
 
 Fig. 62. A spider falling. 
 
 ing thread may be demonstrated. 
 After the children have ob- 
 served the live spiders, give them 
 dead spiders to examine. These 
 dead spiders should be of the 
 larger sort, the ground spiders 
 (fig. 63), in order that the parts 
 of the body referred to in the 
 following notes can be readily 
 made out. How many legs has 
 a spider? There are four pairs of 
 true legs; a pair of shorter pro- 
 cesses which look, at first glance, 
 like legs, and which are situated 
 in front of the first pair of true 
 legs, are feelers or papi. They 
 
SPIDERS 107 
 
 are always directed forward, it may readily be seen that they are 
 not used in walking. Into how many parts is the body divided ? 
 To which part are all the legs attached ? Have the children look 
 for the eyes of the spider. Where are they and how many are 
 there ? The eyes of spiders are shining little black spots situated 
 on the upper frontal part of the anterior half of the body, (that part 
 which bears the legs, and is the head and thorax of the spider 
 joined together). The eyes vary in number and arrangement in 
 different kinds of spiders, and vary in size on the individual. 
 The common ground or running spiders have eight eyes (which 
 is the more usual number among spiders) and they are arranged 
 as shown in figure 64. Have the children discover which 
 of the eyes are larger than the others. Have the children 
 look for the jaws (mandibles) of the spider. With a pin press 
 the jaws apart laterally and examine one of them carefully. 
 Each jaw (fig. 64) is composed of a firm, smooth, 
 sharp, pointed tip and a thicker hairy basal part. 
 The tip is the fang, which is thrust into the prey 
 and the basal part contains the poison sac. From 
 the poison sac the poison runs thru the fang and 
 
 out of it thru a tiny hole near the point. Ex- 
 Fig. 64. Front 
 amine now the spinning organs. At the posterior of head of spider 
 
 tip of the body may be seen a few small finger-like and W m!ndibie s s 
 projections, the spinnerets (fig. 65); 
 (some of these are.so small and so much 
 concealed by the others that it will be 
 difficult for the children to determine 
 exactly how many there are). From 
 these comes the silk when the spider is 
 1 'spinning. ' ' Each of these little finger- 
 like spinnerets bears on its surface many very small papillae, the 
 spinning tubes. These cannot be seen with the unaided eye, but 
 
108 NATURE STUDY 
 
 if the teacher has a microscope, and will 
 cut off a spinneret and mount it in glyce- 
 rine on a glass slip, the numerous tiny spin- 
 ning tubes may be readily seen (fig. 66). 
 When the spider is spinning i. e. when it is 
 producing a silken line, a slender thread 
 issues from each of the spinning tubes on 
 each spinneret. All of these fine threads 
 from the many spinning tubes unite to form Fig. GG. Tip of a 
 
 neret showing spinning 
 
 the one strong line which we see. tubes. 
 
 FIELD WORK. To find and get acquainted with the appear- 
 ance and habits of some of the commoner different kinds of spiders, 
 the teacher should take the class afield. It will not be necessary to 
 wander far; the immediate vicinity of the school house, especially 
 if there be flowers and shrubbery in the yard, will contain nearly 
 all the kinds of spiders written of in these notes. For the sake 
 of teaching the teacher we shall find these spiders in a very regu- 
 lar sort of way; a way which will not be readily repeated in the 
 field. But because the teacher can get his knowledge of the few 
 kinds of spiders we wish to study much more readily and cer- 
 tainly if some orderly sequence in the observation of them is fol- 
 lowed, a sequence in finding the spiders is adopted. 
 
 It is a familiar tact, I hope, that some spiders spin webs 
 for catching their prey, while some do not, but trust to pursuit by 
 running or leaping. At any rate such is the fact and it may be 
 our basis of primary classification of spiders by habits. The 
 house spiders with their cob-webs, the field spiders with their 
 silken sheets among the grasses, and the garden spiders with their 
 geometrically regular orbs hung in the shrubbery, are spiders 
 which belong to the web-weaving group. The black, swiftly run- 
 ning spiders that lurk under stones, the fierce-eyed little black 
 and red fellows hiding on the bark of trees, and the daintily 
 colored crab-like one lying quietly in flower cups, are spiders 
 
SPIDERS 
 
 109 
 
 which belong to the non-web-weaving group. We shall attend, 
 in our consideration of the different kinds, first to the spiders 
 which do not spin webs for catching prey. 
 
 Under stones or lurking in half concealment elsewhere on the 
 ground may readily be found certain blackish rather hairy spiders 
 mostly of rather large size. These are the Running Spiders, and 
 they catch their prey by swift running. Their legs are long, the 
 
 hindmost pair be- 
 ing the longest. Some 
 of these spiders have 
 the body, exclusive of 
 legs, an inch or even 
 more in length. One 
 of these large spiders 
 
 may be found, perhaps, dragging after it a dirty white silken 
 ball (fig. 67). This ball is the silken egg-sac which is strongly 
 attached to the spinnerets of the female. The egg-sac is carried 
 about by the spider until the spiderlings hatch. They issue from 
 the egg-sac and climb onto the back of the mother spider, and 
 are thus further carried and protected by the mother until they 
 are able to care for themselves. 
 
 Upon fences, the sides of out buildings, on the bark of trees, 
 or fallen logs, may be found certain small robust, short-legged 
 spiders which move chiefly by sudden leaps. These are the 
 Jumping Spiders (fig. 68). They are 
 usually black, with red or other strikingly 
 colored markings, and two of the eight 
 shining black eyes are much larger and 
 more conspicuous than the others; much 
 larger, indeed, than the eyes of any other 
 spiders of equal size, and they give the 
 Jumping Spiders a peculiarly threatening 
 appearance. These spiders can walk side- 
 
110 NATURE STUDY 
 
 wise or backwards with facility, but are readily distinguished by 
 their leaping and their big eyes from the true sidewise moving or 
 crab spiders described in the next paragraph. 
 
 In cracks and crevices offences and bark and on plants, may 
 be found certain short, broad, flattish, usually greyish spiders, 
 which can run sidewise or backward more readily than forward. 
 These are known as Crab Spiders ( fig. 69 ). 
 Some of them lie in wait for their prey in 
 flower cups, and these are usually white and 
 parti-colored so as to harmonize with the 
 bright colors of the corolla. They are 
 rendered inconspicuous by this sort of color 
 mimicry, and small insects alight unspect- 
 ingly within reach of the waiting spider. 
 
 Fig, 69. A Crab Spider. , 
 
 The front two pairs of legs of these spiders 
 are longer than the other two pairs, and ' 'so bent that the spider 
 can use them when in a narrow crack." 
 
 The running spiders, jumping spiders and crab spiders are 
 the most easily found and easily recognized of the spiders which 
 do not spin webs to catch prey. But there are other groups of 
 spiders characterized by this habit; among them those giant 
 spiders, the California Tarantulas or Mygales, and the trapdoor 
 spiders. The tarantulas and trapdoor spiders live in cylindrical 
 burrows in the ground, and they do their hunting chiefly at night. 
 They are not, thus, very commonly found, altho they are abund- 
 ant, in California. Perhaps the most certain way to obtain a live 
 specimen of the tarantula is to dig it out of its burrow. The bur- 
 row can be recognized, with some certainty, by the fact that they 
 are usually thinly lined internally with silk. They are open at 
 the surface of the ground, and are about an inch or an Inch 
 and a half in diameter. The live tarantula can be kept in a glass 
 jar or wooden box in the bottom of which several inches of soil 
 have been placed. It may be that the tarantula will build a 
 
SPIDERS 
 
 III 
 
 nest (burrow) while in captiv- 
 ity, tho it probably will not. 
 It should be provided with 
 insects or with raw meat for 
 food. Notice its hairy body, 
 v its great fangs, its long strong 
 4 legs. The trap-door spiders 
 are of great interest because of 
 the curious nests they make. 
 The burrow or vertical tunnel 
 in the ground (fig. 70) is 
 closed at the surface by a 
 hinged lid, a veritable trap- 
 door, composed of soil and 
 silk. The inner surface of the 
 door is quite covered with 
 silk, while the outer (upper) 
 surface is skilfully covered 
 with soil or soil and bits of 
 
 Fig. 70. Nest of trap door spider. leaves, Sticks, Or mOSS, SO as to 
 
 correspond exactly with the character of the ground, covering im- 
 mediately surrounding the mouth of the burrow. As the door fits 
 exactly, lying, when closed, perfectly even with the surface of the 
 ground, and showing hardly a visible crack or line at its point of 
 meeting with the surface of the ground, it is extremely difficult to 
 find the trap-door spider's nests. But by being constantly on the 
 watch for them, a happy chance may discover one. The trap-door 
 nests may be specially looked for in the woods, and in uncultivated 
 ground. 
 
 Two nests in the entomological collection of Stanford Univer- 
 sity were found in a bare and well-trod path, which was in daily 
 use. If a nest is found it should be carefully dug up, and removed 
 to the-school-room. Here the interesting details of its construct- 
 
112 NATURE STUDY 
 
 ion can be examined at leisure. The silken walls and the silk 
 used in making the trap-door show that these spiders possess the 
 power of spinning silk, even tho they do not spin webs for catch- 
 ing their prey. 
 
 The webs or snares of spiders present a great variety in form 
 and type of construction. The different webs made by the indi- 
 viduals of any one species of spiders are always alike however; 
 indeed, each family of web- weaving spiders has its own peculiar 
 type-plan of web construction and as we could distinguish various 
 families of non-web weaving spiders by their habits of locomotion 
 so, we can distinguish the various families of web weaving spiders 
 by the character of the webs. 
 
 Most familiar to us probably, are the "cobwebs" of the neg. 
 lected corners and byways of the house and outbuildings. The 
 family of cobweb weavers is a large one, and its species are not 
 restricted to an indoor habitat, but many spin their loose, irregu- 
 lar webs in bushes. The web is a tangled maze of silken threads 
 mostly in the form of a flat or curved sheet of silk, on the under 
 side of which the spider stands or runs back downward. Some- 
 times the owner of the web has a silken nest in a crack near the 
 web, and there is sometimes a short silken tube leading from the 
 web to the nest. The spiders themselves are usually small and 
 very slim-legged. 
 
 Have the children examine a cobweb carefully. Note the 
 irregular unsymmetrical character of the web. Can the general 
 sheet-like form of the web be made out ? Are there vertical 
 threads running to the web from above ? Is the web sticky, i. e. 
 are the threads of the web sticky ? Are all the threads of the 
 web sticky ? ( see description of orb- webs ). Are there any 
 remains of insects in it ? Throw a house fly into the web, and if 
 the spider comes to it, watch carefully all the movements of the 
 spider, Does it run out on the upper or under surface of the web ? 
 
SPIDERS 113 
 
 Does it swath the fly's body with silk ? Does it carry the fly to 
 its nest or to another part of the web to eat it ? 
 
 A grade higher in point of symmetry of construction are the 
 snares of the funnel- web weavers. These webs (fig. 71) are 
 
 Fig. 71, A fuunel-web (after Emerton). 
 
 spun in the grass of meadows, pastures, gardens and roadsides, 
 and because of their lowly and obscure situation they do not 
 usually appear to be very abundant; they are, in fact, the most 
 abundant of all webs. We are often surprised to find, some dewy 
 morning, the grass nearly covered with glistening spider webs. 
 This abundance of webs is revealed to us by the tiny drops of 
 water, which clinging to the silken threads, reflect the sun's rays 
 and make the otherwise almost invisible webs, very conspicuous. 
 It is desirable to choose a dewy morning or the first hour 
 after the lifting of a heavy fog for spider web hunting. The webs 
 are not only easily found then but they are then specially beauti- 
 ful. The funnel-webs are horizontal concave silken sheets sup- 
 ported in the grass by strong silken lines or cables attaching 
 to the grass stems and blades. They have at one side a fun- 
 nel shaped tube running downwards and opening near the ground. 
 The spider lies in hiding in this tube, and from it runs out upon 
 
NATURE STUDY 
 
 the upper surface of the web to seize its prey, or runs away when 
 necessary by issuing from the lower end of the tube, and escap- 
 ing unseen on 
 the ground 
 among the grass 
 roots. The fun- 
 nel web weaving 
 spiders are long 
 legged, usually 
 brownish spiders 
 very often of 
 considerable size 
 and with one of 
 the pairs of spin- 
 nerets unusually 
 long. Have the 
 children see how 
 the web is sus- 
 pended by stout 
 supporting lines. 
 Note the funnel- 
 shaped tube with its upper and lower openings. Find a tube 
 with the spider in it. Touch the web slightly with a pencil point, 
 trying to induce the spider to come out upon the web. Observe 
 its manner of escape. 
 
 A great advance in degree of symmetry and elaboration of 
 design is shown by the round webs or orb-webs (fig. 72). These 
 are the most interesting as well as the most beautiful of spider's 
 snares, and they furnish the nature study teacher with a fascina- 
 ting subject of observation. The orb- webs may be found sus- 
 pended between the branches of shrubby plants or between the 
 bushes themselves, in fences, in open door ways or wherever in 
 the garden a convenient frame work presents itself. They are 
 
 Fig. 72. The orb-web of Argiope (after McCook). 
 
SPIDERS I I 5 
 
 characterized by their circular outline within which are disposed 
 numerous radii and a series of concentric circular or spiral threads. 
 The circular snare is usually placed within an irregular triangle, 
 or quadrangle, or polygon, which is held in shape and position by 
 stout stay lines extending and fastening to the adjacent branches 
 or fence rails or door frames or whatever serves as frame work for 
 the snare. The webs vary greatly in size, the largest being 
 sometimes a foot and a half to two feet in diameter. The spiders 
 
 which spin these webs are 
 called garden spiders or 
 orb- web weavers, and most 
 of them are highly colored 
 and have a nearly spheri- 
 cal abdomen ( fig. 73 ) . 
 They may be found "hang- 
 ing head downwards usu- 
 ally near the center of the 
 net; others have a retreat 
 near one edge of the net in 
 which they hang back 
 downwards. While resting 
 Fig. 73. Argiope, an orb-weaver. in these retreats they keep 
 
 hold of some of the lines leading from the net so that they can 
 instantly detect any jar caused by an entrapped insect" 
 
 Find one of these orb-webs in good condition, i. e. not torn 
 and ragged but new and complete. Examine it and note the 
 regularity of its construction. Trace the stay-lines to their 
 attachments; note the shape of the outer polygon; note the "spiral 
 zone," i. e. that part of the snare filled with lines laid down in 
 apparently concentric circles; note that these apparently concen- 
 tric circles are not separate circles but are spiral and that the line 
 composing it is continuous; between the outer polygon and the 
 spiral zone there is a region crossed by the radii but without other 
 
Il6 NATURE STUDY 
 
 lines, this is called the "outer free zone;" between the spiral zone 
 and the center of the snare there is another zone free from spiral 
 or circular lines, or with these lines very far apart, this is called 
 the "inner free zone*'; the central part or central zone of the snare 
 has a close spiral in it, and in this central zone the spider if it has 
 no side retreat usually rests. Touch one of the radii or one of the 
 foundation lines with a pencil point; touch the spiral with a pen- 
 cil; a difference in the character of the two kinds of lines is at once 
 manifest. The spiral thread is "sticky," the radii and founda- 
 tion lines are not sticky. The web is made of two kinds of silk. 
 If a bit of the spiral line be examined under a magnifier it will 
 be seen that ranged along the silken thread, like beads on a 
 string, are many tiny globules or drops. These drops are a sticky, 
 viscous sort of silk, which does not dry and harden as the usual 
 spider silk does. These sticky drops make the spiral line much 
 more effective as a snare. Throw an insect into the web and 
 observe the behavior of web and spider. 
 
 If possible, observe the spinning of an orb-web. Tear partly 
 away an already made web, and if the spider is not too badly 
 frightened, she will probably rebuild the web. Parts of this 
 work of rebuilding, at least, can probably be observed. The 
 spider works in a regular way, putting in first the foundation and 
 radial lines, and then the spiral lines. Two sets of spiral lines 
 are put in; a first set, which is put in from the center outwards, 
 is not viscid, and serves as a scaffolding upon which the spider 
 works when putting in the -second set. The second set is viscid 
 and is put in from the outer part of the web toward the center. 
 The temporary spiral or scaffolding is torn out as the work of 
 putting in the viscid permanent spiral progresses. The work ot 
 building the web includes a great deal of interesting behavior on 
 the part of the spider, the delicate manipulation of the viscid 
 lines, and the almost geometrically accurate disposition of the 
 lines composing the snare, combining to render the whole per- 
 formance little sort of marvelous. 
 
SPIDERS. 117 
 
 There are other kinds of webs which other kinds of spiders 
 spin. Indeed, among the orb- weavers alone, there is great variety 
 in the character of the webs; some orb-webs for example, lack a 
 sector of the circle, the web being otherwise constructed 
 on the regular orb-web plan; others are composed of perhaps less 
 than one-half a circle, although still with radii, and with con- 
 centric arcs of circles in place of complete circles in the spiral 
 zone. Certain kinds of spiders spin a peculiar broad line or 
 rather band of curling silk, which leads from the snare to the 
 
 Fig. 74. The triangle spider (Hyptiotes) and its snare. 
 
 side retreat of the spider. Or they make out of this band of 
 curled silk a central zone not composed of a spiral line but of a 
 closed oval or circular shield. A certain very small spider 
 spins a triangular web (fig. 74), from which a main stay line runs 
 upon which the spider triangle spider it is called rests with a 
 loop of the stay line held between the fore and hind legs. When 
 an insect alights upon the snare the spider looses the hold of the 
 
Il8 NATURE STUDY 
 
 hind legs on the stayline and the web springs suddenly, further 
 entangling the prey. For these and other kinds of webs the 
 teacher and class may search. There is an unlimited and always 
 interesting field of observation in the study of spiders' webs, and 
 it is a field always open to the nature study class. 
 
 Finally, there is one other peculiar phenomenon! which may 
 be observed in connection with spiders and spiders' silk. On 
 some bright warm days, there may be noticed many "spider 
 webs" or long threads of spiders' silk, floating in the air. Some 
 of these threads are floating at considerable heights. Careful 
 observation will show that not only are "spider webs" floating, 
 but attached to many of them are small spiders which are thus 
 sailing or " ballooning" thru the air. These are called balloon- 
 ing or aeronautic spiders. Examine carefully the top of fence 
 posts or other exposed raised points and you may be fortunate 
 enough to discover one of these spiders about to make an ascen- 
 sion. The small spider will be standing with its legs close 
 together and straight, the body being thus lifted as high as may 
 be, and the tip of the abdomen pointing upward. From the 
 spinnerets (at the tip of the abdomen) are issuing lines floating 
 freely. These line are gradually spun out (being really drawn out 
 by the pull of the wind) until they become so long that the wind 
 bears them off with the spider attached to them. Spiders 
 may make long journeys in this manner, and get themselves 
 widely dispersed from an original habitat. These ballooning 
 spiders are mostly young, and hence small individuals of various 
 species; but some adult spiders of small size are also aeronauts. 
 
 From this brief account of some of the habits and manners 
 of spiders it is hoped that the nature study teacher may obtain 
 suggestions for numerous lessons. The observations can be made 
 as opportunity offers; field work should be attempted only on 
 bright sunny days when insects are all astir, and the spiders are 
 busy. Schoolroom work can be more definitely controlled; the 
 
SPIDERS 119 
 
 live spiders can be watched; the egg- sacs examined to see if the 
 young are hatching, and the spiderlings experimented with in all 
 the ways that the teacher's ingenuity can suggest. 
 
120 
 
 Plants Without Flowers. 
 
 Ferns. 
 
 Altho ferns are very common and very attractive plants, 
 both as wild and as conservatory and house plants, yet their life 
 history is not generally known. The whole of even the brie 
 account which immediately follows could hardly be worked out 
 in the nature study class, but it is given for the teacher who may 
 not have been a student in botany. Having traced it once, the 
 judgment of the teacher may be relied upon to select the main 
 features which can be used in this class. 
 
 There are two stages in the life of the plant, during one of 
 which it lives as a very small inconspicuous plant whose very 
 existence is not known to great numbers of admirers of ferns. 
 The fern plant as we see it growing bears spores. A spore when 
 deposited in the proper conditions sprouts and grows into a mi- 
 nute plant which looks as little like a fern as possible. This little 
 plant lives an independent existence and is known as a prothallium. 
 In the course of its life, it produces on its under surface organs 
 which correspond to stamens and pistils of flowering plants (male 
 and female organs). As in the higher plants pollen grains fertil- 
 ize the ovules, so here cells from the male organs called anthe- 
 ridia fertilize a cell in the organ corresponding to the pistil called 
 an archegonium. Then -as a seed is formed in an ovary of a pistil, 
 so here the fertilized cell forms by growth a germ of a minute fern 
 which soon grows up from the prothallium. This tiny fern con- 
 tinues its growth, the prothallium in the meantime dying, until 
 it attains the characteristic size and form of the species to which it 
 belongs. Thus a spore from a fern plant produces a prothallium, 
 and then the prothallium produces a fern like the one from which 
 the spore comes. These two forms or stages, or generations, as 
 they are called, alternating thus, are spoken of in biology as an 
 alternation of generations. 
 
PLANTS WITHOUT FLOWERS 
 
 121 
 
 The class may take up 
 the following concerning 
 the fern. Any commor 
 fern will answer for study 
 See the whole plant, with 
 leaves(fronds),undergrounu 
 stem or root stalk, and roots 
 coming off from this. Ex- 
 amine the leaves and find 
 on the backs of some the 
 spore-bearing organs. These 
 are arranged differently in 
 different ferns. In many, as 
 shown in figure 75, they are 
 in round dots. Examine 
 with a hand lens these dots, 
 and each dot will be found to 
 consist of a bunch of little 
 roundish knobs, each knob 
 born on a small curved 
 stalk. Figure 76 shows one 
 of these stalks with the 
 surmounting knob highly 
 magnified. The little knobs 
 are capsules which con- 
 tain spores (fig. 76). The 
 stalk with the capsule is 
 called a sporangium. 
 When the spores are ripe 
 . . the stalk straightens out, 
 
 Fig. 75. A leai of a fern showing the underside 
 
 with numerous dots which are made up of the the Capsule breaks Open and 
 spore-bearing organs. 
 
 the spores fall out. 
 By sowing the spores under proper conditions and caring for 
 
122 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 them, prothallia can 
 be raised in the school- 
 room and ferns grown 
 from the prothallia. 
 This will prove very 
 interesting and in- 
 structive. 
 
 The spores may be 
 'collected by placing 
 the spore-b earing 
 leaves on sheets of 
 paper, and letting 
 the leaves dry, when 
 the spores will be dis- 
 charged, covering the 
 paper as a fine, brown 
 
 , T/ , ,. Fie. 76. A single spore-bearing organ of a fern highly 
 
 pOWder. If the Spores magnified. Taken from one of the dots shown in fig. 75. At 
 . , S is a spore escaping. 
 
 are sown on fine,rather 
 
 closely-packed earth, and kept moist, and covered with glass 
 BO as to prevent evaporation, a fine green, moss-like growth 
 will make its appearance in a week or two, and by the end 
 of five or six weeks, the little flat, heart-shaped plants spoken of 
 before as the first stage will appear. They are of a dark green 
 color, and are the prothallia. These prothallia are attached to 
 the ground by fine root-hairs. Very soon we may find growing from 
 the under side of some of the larger of these little plants the fern 
 as we know it. It is attached to the ground as well as to the pro- 
 thallium (fig. 78). As the plant grows, the prothallium dies, leav- 
 ing the fern as an independent plant, which afterwards bears 
 the spores. 
 
 The reproductive organs are on the under-side of the prothal- 
 lium as shown in figure 77. These can be readily made out with a 
 hand lens if the pupils are old enough to appreciate this work. 
 
PLANTS WITHOUT FLOWERS 
 
 123 
 
 Fig. 77. A prothallium of a fern magnified. The small figure at the 
 top shows the natural size. Both figures show the underside of the 
 plant. The archegonia are shown near the notch, below are the 
 antheridia, the round dots, and numerous hairs acting as roots. 
 
 Lichens. 
 
 The lessons on the mushrooms will prepare the class for 
 another group of fungi, the lichens. They are very common 
 
124 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 everywhere and altho they are at first 
 puzzling, the children become very much 
 interested in them. 
 
 They are the plants which often form 
 drab or gray-colored patches on the bark 
 of trees or on the surface of stones. There 
 are many forms some make fringes and 
 fuzzy coverings on fence boards or on 
 trunks and limbs of trees. One strange 
 form is the so-called "hanging moss," 
 which grows so abundantly in California, 
 hanging in long festoons from the oaks. 
 (Not the "hanging moss" of Florida). 
 They reproduce by means of spores, borne 
 oftentimes in colored cup-shaped surfaces. 
 The spore surfaces are sometimes carried 
 upon stalks, thus beiug elevated above 
 the plant body. In some forms small 
 portions of the plant-body become 
 detached. These will grow into a new plant. 
 
 Their method of attachment to bark or stone, method of 
 growth, and method of bearing the spores may be seen. ' For 
 older classes, by the use of the microscope, the wonderful bit of 
 natural history shown in the relation between the lichens and the 
 bit of green algae on which they are parasites, may be made out. 
 
 Mosses. 
 
 Mosses are more common than ferns and little understood, 
 except by botanists. They may be the subjects of many interest- 
 ing lessons. Many of the facts about them which are of great 
 interest from a scientific point of view, are difficult to make out 
 and would better not be attempted in this course. Teachers who 
 wish to learn of them are referred to works on botany, especi- 
 
 Fig 78> A prothallus of a fern 
 w ( FromsacS5. ernisgrow - 
 
PLANTS WITHOUT FLOWERS 125 
 
 ally with regard to the reproductive parts. The following account 
 is only meant to refer to parts which can easily be observed. 
 
 There is a great number of forms which would be puzzling 
 to those who are not botanists. Common forms may be found 
 growing in moist places on the ground or on the trunks or limbs of 
 trees. These plants consist of small stems clothed^with minute 
 green leaves. The stems are fastened to the ground by means of 
 thick felt or hair-like threads. The whole plant is a beautiful 
 and interesting object seen under the simple microscope. A simple 
 leaf under higher powers shows a thin plate consisting of a single 
 layer of plant cells. The green grains in the cells are chlorophyll 
 bodies. These are the same in all green leaves. 
 
 Those pupils who are ready for it, may be taught that it is 
 by means of these bodies that the plant is able to make such 
 substances as starch out of carbonic acid and water, the two 
 great food substances of the plant. It would do no violence to 
 any correct pedagogical principle to tell any one who can see the 
 green grains that by means of them the plant in sunlight, makes 
 starch out of carbonic acid and water. As it is in mosses, so it is 
 all plants. When the subject of the use of chlorophyll is taken 
 up, the moss leaf is one of the most convenient objects in which 
 to see the chlorophyll well. (See topic, ''The Plant's Food.") 
 
 The moss reproduces by means of spores. These in many 
 common forms are contained in a little vessel on the lop of a 
 slender stalk which raises it above the general bed of moss. 
 
 The spores sown in moist places first grow into minute green 
 threads (protonema). These, in time, bear minute buds which 
 develop into the moss plants as we generally see them. 
 
 The children may find different forms of mosses; find their 
 spore-bearing parts; the protonemal stage passing into the adult 
 plant. Flower pots in which other plants are growing, if kept 
 moist, often have all of these stages. 
 
 Note to the teacher: For yourself, you will find it a matter 
 
126 NATURE STUDY 
 
 of great interest to learn how the spores are formed, altho the 
 subject is a rather difficult one to make clear to young children. 
 Reference is made to the formation of the male and female plants, 
 the fertilization of the oospore by the antherozoids, and the 
 development of the sporogonium. 
 
 The Green Scum of Ponds. 
 
 In the many excursions made by the pupils the ever present 
 green scum of ponds and ditches must have attracted their atten- 
 tion and have been the source of many questions. 
 
 If a lesson with it goes no further than to show that this 
 slimy mass really is made up of a number of very definite and 
 beautiful forms of plants among which live a large number of 
 interesting animals, it will have accomplished much in extending 
 the view of nature. With a microscope it can supply a never 
 ending train of beauties and wonders. What is given here is but 
 the merest beginning with these objects, one that all can make. 
 
 Have some one bring in a portion of such scum. Place it in 
 a vessel of water, giving it plenty of room to spread out well. 
 Take up a very small portion (too great a portion will give con- 
 fusion only) and mount it in water on a glass slip with a cover 
 glass. Allow the children to see it well and make out some of 
 the forms. There will be great interest on the part of the child- 
 ren, but at first very wrong conceptions of what is seen. 
 
 One form of plant is very likely to occur. It consists of a 
 single, long, unbranched thread. Within it are green spiral bands 
 with chlorophyll. The partitions across the plant are the ends of 
 plant cells. The plant consists of a single row of cells. Those 
 who are students of botany will recognize the plant as 
 Spirogyra, of which there are at least forty species in the United 
 States. Of course the children will demand names for the num- 
 erous things which they may chance to see, but few botanists or 
 zoologists could give them all. A frequent examination of pond 
 
PLANTS WITHOUT FLOWERS 127 
 
 scum from different sources will allow the children to become 
 famili&r with some of the most common forms which will repeat- 
 edly occur. The names of many of these may be ascertained and 
 supplied in time. 
 
 DIATOMS. 
 
 Diatoms are almost always present in the above described 
 (preparations. They are small objects, generally brownish in 
 color, often tapering at each end like a canoe. They move across 
 the field like small boats. There are many other shapes than 
 these among the diatoms. Diatoms are plants having delicate 
 ehells of silica. When the plant dies, the shell drops to the 
 bottom of the pond. In certain places, ponds or lakes which 
 have been the homes of diatoms for ages have a deposit of fine 
 mud at the bottom made up largely of diatom shells. In ancient 
 geological times there were thus formed in some places in Cali- 
 fornia and in other countries, deposits making thick strata of 
 rock composed almost wholly of diatom shells. 
 
 If in the first lesson neither Spirogyra nor diatoms are in the 
 material observed, equally interesting forms will be seen. 
 
123 
 
 Flowering Plants. 
 
 In former lessons the dispersal of seeds of flowering plants 
 and also their germination and growth were taken up. When 
 the seeds that were planted have become of considerable size 
 many matters of interest demand attention. Among the ques- 
 tions which may-be studied are: What are the foods of the plants 
 and how do they obtain them? What are the uses of the various 
 parts of the plant? What is the meaning of the different forms 
 of stems? What of the arrangement of the leaves? How are 
 the seeds formed? 
 
 The study of these questions with the plants themselves will 
 suggest many other questions pertaining to the contrivances by 
 which each kind of plant, thru leaf, stem, branch and root, and 
 the various parts of each, is adapted to its particular kind of life. 
 Studying a plant from these points of view will not require learn- 
 ing the names of the parts of the plant except where there is 
 occasion to use the name, nor the learning of the technical 
 names of the forms of leaf, stem and root, which are used very 
 rarely except in technical descriptions in systematic botany. 
 Altho these have in the past formed a prominent part in the con- 
 ventional courses in botany, they should have little or no part in 
 Nature Study by children. 
 
 The Plant's Food. 
 
 The food of plants consists mainly of (i) carbonic acicZ, obta : ned 
 from the air, and (2) water ^obtained from the ground; also (3) a 3r/iall 
 amount of various substances dissolved from the soil by tb^ water. 
 
 To show that plants take up water by means of roots and 
 root-hairs, dig up a plant and carefully wash the dirt from the 
 roots, harming the root arid root-hairs as little as possible. Place 
 the root in a bottle or flask, allowing the stem to pass thru a cork. 
 The cork is slit and placed around the stem. Thru the cork also 
 extends one end of a glass tube bent in such a way as to form a 
 
FLOWERING PLANTS 1 29 
 
 guage. The tube is filled with water. Very soon the water 
 descends in the tube and continues to do so rapidly, showing that 
 the plant is using up the water. The cork ought to be covered 
 with paraffine so that evaporation from that source can not take 
 place. 
 
 This apparatus may be balanced on a pair of scales, or a pot 
 with a growing plant in it may be thus balanced, and it will soon 
 show loss of weight. (A simple and effective pair of scales may 
 be made by the children of a rod of wood eighteen inches long, 
 strings and two pieces of board six inches square.) To show that 
 the water escapes from the plant by the leaves, allow the leaves 
 to rest on the polished surface of a cold piece of glass or polished 
 Bteel. 
 
 If this plant, or a plant in a pot is inclosed by a bell-jar or 
 glass shade, the water corning from the plant will be condensed 
 on the sides of the glass. 
 
 To trace the course of the water absorbed by the roots, place 
 a solution of some aniline dye in the water (eosin is good.) The 
 coloring can be traced in the stem, if translucent, and thru the 
 veins of the leaves after some hours or a day. 
 
 These experiments may well be followed by an examination 
 of the epidermis of a leaf with the microscope to see the stomata, 
 the openings thru which the water passes. By tearing the leaf 
 crosswise portions of the thin transparent skin which covers the 
 leaf can be obtained, mounted in water, and the outline of the 
 epidermal cells may be seen. Notice also the curved cells bor- 
 dering and making the stomata. 
 
 Thru these not only does the water go out, but the oxygen 
 sometimes passes out and the carbonic acid passes in (sometimes 
 oxygen comes in).. Thus it is seen that thru the root-hairs the 
 water and certain substances dissolved in water, and thru the 
 stomata in the leaves the carbonic acid enter as food. The 
 water passes up thru fibers in the root, from these thru fibers in 
 
130 NATURE STUDY 
 
 the newest portion of wood and bark of the stem, and from these 
 again thru the fibers of the veins of the leaf. Now the water and 
 carbonic acid are together in the green part of the leaf. In the 
 presence of the green substance of the leaf called chlorophyll, by 
 means of sunlight, the leaf changes the water and carbonic acid 
 into starch, which is a plant substance from which other plant 
 substances are made by the plant. The starch may be changed 
 to sugar, this in solution may pass over the fibrous pathway in 
 the veins of the leaf and in the stem to serve as nutrition for 
 growing parts or be deposited as sugar or changed to starch again 
 and stored up for future use. 
 
 The importance of the leaves and the meaning of their 
 arrangement on the stem are brought out by these facts. The leaf 
 presents great surface to the air and to the light. They are arranged 
 on the stem in such a way that they are well presented to the 
 light and at the same time shade their fellow leaves very little or 
 none at all. Gather branches of various plants and examine the 
 disposition of the leaves with reference to this fact. Whole plants, 
 such as the geranium, begonia, filarilla, turnip, and in fact any 
 plant will illustrate well how the leaves are arranged on the 
 plant to occupy spaces unoccupied by other leaves, and presenting 
 their upper surfaces to the light without shading those below. 
 This method of arrangement of leaves sometimes throws them 
 into a rosette, compact or loose, sometimes into a mosaic. The live- 
 forever and young filarilla are examples of the former, while cer- 
 tain forms of ivy and of maiden hair ferns of the latter. 
 
 Fruits. 
 
 Lessons with the various common fruits may with profit be 
 given thru August and September. These may be adapted to all 
 grades. The lessons on distribution of seeds have explained the 
 use of the edible parts of many fruits. It may be shown how 
 cultivation and selection have changed fruits to the form most 
 
FLOWERING PLANTS 131 
 
 desired by man, sometimes to the detriment of the seeds them- 
 selves. The lessons .may include the structure of some of the 
 following kinds of fruits. Let each pupil have at least one speci- 
 men of the fruit studied. Have Ijim cut into it and examine 
 carefully all its parts and just how they are arranged in reference 
 to each other. 
 
 The peach, plum, cherry, apricot and raspberry. (These are 
 called by the botanists drupes). 
 
 Gooseberry, orange, grape. (These are known as berries). 
 
 The apple-like fruits. 
 
 The melons, cucumber and squash. 
 
 The tomato. 
 
 The fig, the pod fruits, the winged fruits (maple), the straw- 
 berry. Any kind which any pupil may find, either wild or culti- 
 vated, should receive attention. 
 
 Ripening of Fruits. 
 
 In some of the upper grades the question of what takes place 
 in a ripening fruit may well be investigated. It has just been 
 seen how the leaves in the presence of sunlight make starch out 
 of carbonic acid and water. Further it was shown that starch in 
 the leaves is changed to sugar or into some other soluable substance, 
 and may then be distributed to different parts of the plant and 
 changed to starch again. 
 
 The fruits serve to illustrate some of these changes. A few 
 simple experiments can be performed which will make clearer 
 these facts. A good test for the presence of starch is needed. A 
 solution of iodine is used for a test for starch. A solution of iodine 
 gives starch a blue color and thus proves its presence even where 
 mixed with other substances. A solution of iodine is made by 
 dissolving a few crystals of iodine in a solution of iodide of potas- 
 sium. 
 
 To show how the iodine acts on starch, a drop may be placed 
 
132 NATURE STUDY 
 
 on a little powdered starch, or in water in which starch paste has 
 been mixed. It shows a blue color. If a drop of iodine is placed 
 on a fresh-cut slice of a potato or with the scrapings from the 
 slice, it gives the same color. 
 
 If a potato has been allowed to sprout and the sprouts grow 
 until the potato becomes watery and shrunken, it will not give 
 the blue color. The starch has disappeared. 
 
 With a microscope one can show the starch grains in the 
 cells of the potato by examining a thin slice. This, stained 
 with iodine, will show the starch grains blue. In the sprouted 
 potato, the cells will be seen empty of starch grains. 
 
 The change from starch to sugar may be shown well with 
 barley grains. Crush grains of barley and with the iodine show 
 that they contain starch. Sprout other barley grains by keeping 
 moist and warm. When just beginning to sprout, stop the pro- 
 cess and dry thoroly with gentle heat (do not scorch); these grains 
 will be quite sweet to the taste showing presence of sugar. 
 
 In many fruits, starch is first formed in the green fruit which 
 is changed to sugar on ripening. A green apple will show by 
 iodine the presence of starch in abundance, while the ripe apple 
 will show the absence of starch and the sweet taste shows that 
 sugar is present. 
 
 It may be taught in this connection that the digestion of 
 starch in the human body by the saliva and by the pancreatic juice 
 is a process exactly similar to that in the potato, grains and fruit. 
 In the plant, the starch is changed to sugar by a substance in 
 the plant's juices, and in the body, by a substance in saliva or 
 pancreatic juice. 
 
 In the plant, the sugar is food for growing cells in the sprout- 
 ing tuber or grains; in the body, sugar is food for the action or 
 growth of the cells of the body. 
 
FLOWERING PLANTS. 133 
 
 The Pine Tree, 
 
 In very early spring the pine trees in the neighborhood may 
 be observed with interest. The growing branches, the main axis 
 of each, the terminal bud and the small side branches containing 
 the young needle leaves may be made objects of observation. The 
 branches which become flowers may be noted. The one kind 
 furnishes an immense amount of pollen, the other constitutes the 
 young cones. In the one see just how the pollen grain is borne; 
 in the other, just where the ovules are located, that is just at the 
 base of the scales making up the cone. In the older cones, find 
 the seeds. These have developed from the fertilized ovules. The 
 ovules must receive the pollen grains before they can develop into 
 seeds. How does the pollen reach them ? The settling of this 
 question will bring out the advantage in producing such immense 
 quantities of pollen. It insures that the chance currents of wind 
 will carry the pollen to the young cones. 
 
 The microscope will show the interesting form of the pollen 
 grains, and hew, by sort of minute wings, they are better carried 
 by the wind. The yellow dust on the sidewalks or on little pools 
 after a wind-storm at this time of the year is pine pollen. The 
 microscope will prove this. 
 
 Having seen how the pollen-producing flowers (staminate) 
 and the cones (pistilate) of the pines are arranged,the same organs 
 in the redwoods, cypress, firs, cedars, and whatever cone-bearing 
 plants which may be in the region of the school, may be observed. 
 The parts of these organs are essentially the same,altho the size and 
 shape of the cones differ greatly. This, of course, gives an excellent 
 opportunity for an exercise in making comparisons and drawing 
 conclusions. 
 
 The parts bearing the pollen and the cones with the ovules 
 were referred to as flowers. While they are essentially flowers 
 they are not called "true flowers." This term is applied to those 
 flowers which have their ovules in a closed case as in the lupine 
 
134 NATURE STUDY 
 
 and poppy, as seen in other lessons. The pine and all cone- 
 bearing plants have their ovules lying exposed on. the scales of 
 the cone. However, after fertilization of the ovules the scales grow 
 so that they are crowded tightly together and thus remain until the 
 seeds are ripe and ready for distribution. In this way they are 
 well protected. The seeds are in some pines two years in ripen- 
 ing. The pupils rnay determine this point for the conifers to 
 which they have access. 
 
135 
 
 Parasitic Plants. 
 
 In the lesson on the plant's food only those plants were 
 referred to which made food for themselves out of carbonic acid 
 and water, and matters dissolved in water. Two very common 
 plants may serve as examples of those which rob other plants of 
 nutrition gathered by them, the Dodder and Mistletoe. 
 
 Dodder. 
 
 While hunting for examples illustrating seed-distribution, in 
 July to September, the pupils will likely come across a curious 
 parasitic plant known as Dodder. As it illustrates the life of a 
 plant without roots or leaves using those of other plants, it makes 
 an instructive lesson. 
 
 The dodder occurs as slender leafless vines twining about the 
 stems of other plants, sending into their leaves and stems little pro- 
 cesses by which they suck the juices of the host, which supplies 
 them with their whole nourishment. This parasite relying on the 
 leaves and roots of its host has none of its own; the leaves may 
 occur as the merest rudiments. It bears flowers and these form 
 seeds. The seeds germinate in the ground. Thus, at first, the 
 plant has a root which serves its purpose until it can grow up and 
 attach itself to its host, when it discards its roots. There are dif- 
 ferent species of dodder. One very common one in the coast 
 marshes forms conspicuous orange patches of fine tangled vines. 
 Another is of pale yellow color and is found on many kinds of 
 plants more commonly growing in low, moist situations, altho 
 found sometimes in the fields and hills. These plants belong to 
 the same family to which the morning-glory 'belongs. 
 
 Mistletoe. 
 
 The study of the robber plant, dodder, will almost surely 
 suggest to many pupils the question of the life of the Mistletoe* 
 
136 NATURE STUDY 
 
 This is very common and specimens are readily obtained, and 
 the facts of its life ascertained. Here we have a plant that is not 
 completely parasitic as is the dodder. Its roots penetrate the 
 limbs of the tree host and draw nourishment from it. But it 
 bears leaves which take food from the air as do the leaves of other 
 plants. The seeds are covered with a sticky substance by which 
 they adhere to the bills or feet of birds and are thus carried to 
 the limbs of trees. The most conspicuous species in California 
 is the one growing on oaks. There is another less conspicuous 
 one with smaller leaves growing on the pines. Have the pupils 
 see by a cut section how the attachment of the plant is made 
 to the host. 
 
137 
 
 Eggs of Frogs, Toads and Salamanders. 
 
 Toads, frogs and salamanders (water dogs, mud-puppies) 
 lay their eggs in water. Here the eggs hatch out into tadpoles. 
 In the tadpole stage they breathe by means of gills, at least in 
 the earlier part of this stage. Later they gradually develop 
 lungs and finally become air breathers. The toad and frog tad- 
 poles gradually lose their tails by absorbing them, while a 
 
 Fig. 79. The tiger salamander. 
 
 salamander tadpole's tail develops to a considerable size and is 
 retained thru life as a swimming organ to be used when the 
 animal goes to water. One of the most common salamanders in 
 California, is the red-bellied salamander which is found in great 
 numbers in the ponds and streams in winter during the egg lay- 
 ing season. The spotted tiger salamander, fig. 79, is also to be 
 found. Any of the salamanders may be kept in a box, the bot- 
 tom of which is covered with moist earth in which ferns or moss 
 is growing. In winter the red-bellied salamander does well in 
 the aquarium, or any vessel of water. It should be well fed with 
 earth worms. 
 
 The eggs of toads, frogs and salamanders should be gathered 
 and placed in the aquaria and their development watched. The 
 
I3 8 NATURE STUDY 
 
 eggs of frogs and salamanders are in masses of a transparent 
 jelly-like substance which is attached to sticks on plants in the 
 water. The eggs themselves are little round bodies embedded in 
 the jelly. The eggs of toads are in strings of a jelly-like substance. 
 These may be obtained during the winter time. Secure some 
 and place them in a jar of water. Put a few eggs in a single 
 jar. Do not have the water very deep. Keep a very small 
 amount of green algse in the jar. The development of the eggs 
 into tadpoles, and of the tadpoles into adult animals may be 
 watched day by day with great interest if they are kept success- 
 fully. If the eggs are obtained while in the earliest stages of 
 development, the fact can be clearly seen with a hand lens that 
 the little globule which constitutes the egg is at first a smooth 
 sphere, and then soon it has a crease formed on its surface dividing 
 it into halves, that these again divide and so on till the divisions 
 become so small that they can no longer be seen. Of course the 
 full significance of this fact one would not attempt to teach here, 
 but it is well worth seeing as a fact. Then every step of forma- 
 tion of body, head, limbs, tail, etc., may be noted as the process 
 progresses. 
 
139 
 
 Snails and Slugs. 
 
 These animals are so familiar that they will be recognized 
 without description. The slugs are in form and anatomy and 
 habits of life about the same as the snails, except that they have 
 no shell. The shell of the snail of course offers it protection 
 against outside attacks, and gives it a place in which to with- 
 draw when the air is dry. But snails and slugs require a certain 
 amount of moisture in their surroundings that they may move 
 about, and feed and lay their eggs. The pond snails of course 
 live in the water. The large orange or yellow colored slug to be 
 found in some parts of California is a giant among slugs. 
 
 Land snails and slugs may be easily kept among the plants 
 in a moist space, or under a glass vessel, or in a fernery. They 
 live on vegetable food. The pond snails live well in the aquaria. 
 The parts that may be studied are: Their method of locomotion, 
 their feeding, their breathing, their eye and touch tentacles, their 
 general habits of life. The eggs are very interesting objects. 
 Even under a low power what can be seen of the gradual change 
 from a small round single cell, to the form of an adult snail or 
 slug is very interesting. Pond snails will often lay a bunch of 
 eggs against the side of the aquarium in a good place for obser- 
 ving the development with a lens. In the spring and summer 
 large numbers of these eggs may be found on the weeds in ditches 
 and ponds. 
 
 Land snails and slugs lay their eggs in moist places such as 
 under stones, pieces of wood, leaves or in moss. They may be 
 obtained if the animals are kept in confinement under the proper 
 conditions at the right season. 
 
140 
 
 Earthworms. 
 
 These animals are so abundant, easily kept, and have snob 
 a wealth of literature in regard to them both in respect to their 
 natural history and concerning their structure, development and 
 physiology, that they become valuable as school material. 
 
 For lessons, without going into the technical matters of their 
 structure and development, there is good material in the habus 
 of life of these animals. Among these are: Their method of loco- 
 motion, just how it is accomplished. This will require observa- 
 tion of method of elongation, of shortening of the body, of the use 
 of the mucos, of the position and method of using the minute 
 projections, found in rows along the sides of the body (called 
 setae); their method of making and using their burrows; their 
 method of feeding; their egg-laying and the hatching of the eggs; 
 their work in relation to the soil as shown in the work by Darwin 
 on "The Formation of Vegetable Mould by the Action of the 
 Worms." This book is very interesting and is instructive beyond 
 most books of its kind, giving, besides a wonderful chapter on 
 natural history, illustrations of how great things in nature are 
 accomplished by insignificent and quiet agents, and how the 
 patient, scientific method of observation and study may reveal the 
 most wonderful operations going on under our very feet. 
 
 Earthworms may be kept indefinitely in a box half filled 
 with moist earth with a tightly fitting cover of either glass or 
 wood. The earth should contain decaying vegetable matter and 
 should be kept moist. 
 
Covering of Animals. 
 
 The coverings of animals are adaptations to the conditions of 
 their life, and are all interesting objects of study. Hair, scales, 
 thick epidermis, bony plates, spines, and feathers of various forms 
 are in endless varieties. 
 
 Feathers. 
 
 Feathers are characteristic of birds and are very interesting 
 when their true meaning is seen. For a lesson on feathers, pro- 
 vide a bird freshly killed, a duck or a fowl from the market, and a 
 quantity of feathers sufficient to allow each pupil to have exam- 
 ples of each kind in hand during the lessons. If the question 
 is -asked : "What is the use of feathers ? " the answer that 
 will usually come is: "To keep the animal warm.' J This is one 
 
 Fig. 80. A feather, also separate parts magnified; a, quill feather of a pigeon; b, 
 four barbs (magnified) from the vane, showing the barbules, some separated, some still 
 clinging together; c, a cross section of three barbs showing how they cling together; 
 d, a barb and barbules of the down; at one side a barbule more highly magnified. These 
 always remain loose. 
 
 use of feathers, but the lesson is to show that this is by no means 
 the only one, perhaps not the most important one. (The uses are 
 
142 NATURE STUDY 
 
 not to be told, but if possible to be brought out by the observation 
 of the pupils.) 
 
 First of all, feathers are different in kind and have different 
 uses. The most characteristic, or special use is for flight. For 
 the water birds the feathers are arranged as a boat in which the 
 body can float. The bird would sink without its feathers. For all 
 birds, feathers keep warm in cool weather, protect from the rays 
 of the sun in hot weather, protect from rain, from scratches and 
 other mechanical injury in flying, or in running thru brush, etc. 
 They serve as ornamentation to distinguish each other and to 
 attract mates. 
 
 Examination of feathers. To have a basis for comparison 
 examine the parts of a single feather, e. g., a wing feather (fig. 80). 
 It possesses an axis, running its length, called the stem. The 
 hollow part is the quill. The whole of the broad portion is the 
 vane. The axis of the vane is the rachis. The branches of the 
 rachis are the barbs, and the minute branches of the barbs are 
 the barbules. 
 
 The wing feathers and often the tail feathers are large and 
 strong. The barbs and barbules of each feather adhere quite 
 firmly, and the feathers overlap so that when the wing is extended 
 it presents a broad, firm surface with which to strike the air. 
 Have the pupils separate the barbs and barbules, smooth them 
 till they again adhere, and examine them with a microscope or 
 hand lens to determine how they adhere. 
 
 The contour feathers are those all over the body whose ends 
 come out on the surface and overlap one another like shingles 
 on a house. The barbules on the outer ends adhere as in the 
 wing feathers. These thus fitting over each other make the out- 
 line of the body, and when well oiled, as they are in many bird's, 
 they make a good waterproof coat. The inner ends have barbs 
 and barbules, very fine and not united, being downy. 
 
 The down feathers have all their barbs very fine and diffuse. 
 
COVERINGS OF ANIMALS 143 
 
 These feathers have minute quills, and being next the body are 
 for warmth. They make a soft backing for the contour feathers, 
 and thus also give protection against injury, and help make the 
 "float" for the swimming bird's body to rest in. 
 
 Many birds have oil glands at the root of the tail from which 
 they get oil to rub on the feathers. 
 
 Ornamental feathers of many forms are interesting such as 
 those in the tails of roosters, peacocks, etc. 
 
 The color markings on the feathers of birds may form a series 
 of good lessons. How they are arranged; how they sometimes 
 extend from feather to feather to make definite figures, etc.; how 
 in some the markings are stripes so arranged that the birds can 
 hardly be seen in the dry grass; in others, brilliant to attract the 
 attention of mates, etc. Always, if possible, procure the bird for 
 the lesson. 
 
 The moulting, or shedding of feathers is an interesting subject. 
 Why do birds moult ? How often ? In what manner ? These are 
 some of the questions to be put. Most birds moult annually, 
 some twice a year. (Ptarmigans in fall get a white plumage 
 so they may not be easily seen on the snow; in spring, a brown 
 to enable them to hide in weeds, rocks, etc.) 
 
 There are muscles urider the skin by which birds can raise 
 their feathers. Some of these are strong as in the crests of some 
 birds, and in the tails of turkeys and peafowls which have the 
 habit of strutting. 
 
 If the feathers be removed from the bird, and the naked skin 
 observed it will be found that the feathers have very different 
 kinds of arrangement. The arrangement differs in different kinds 
 of birds. There are naked patches, and patches covered with 
 feathers, and in the latter the feathers are arranged in rows. In 
 some forms this definite arrangement is not so distinct as in ducks, 
 chickens, and oui common birds. The children may from time 
 to time compare forms. 
 
144 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 Nora, These lessons on feathers may serve as suggestions 
 lor lessoug on the coverings of other animals. 
 
145 
 
 Marine Life. 
 
 The waters of any portion of the coast furnish material for 
 the study of marine forms. In the markets there are exposed 
 for sale many forms brought in by fishermen from the grounds 
 along the Coast. It would take a long time to exhaust this large 
 field at the very doors of the schools. Many forms may be col- 
 lected by the pupils for the school work, others may be obtained in 
 the markets or thru fishermen at a trifling expense. 
 
 Shrimps. 
 
 Shrimps may be obtained in the market. It would be well to 
 begin with live shrimps kept in a jar of sea water. They will 
 live quite a while in fresh water. Their motions are to be observed^ 
 by what parts they are accomplished, and how. The dead shrimp 
 is then studied, its appendages (antennse, jaws, legs, and swiin- 
 merets) are examined and the attachments to the body, the 
 joints and forms and uses of each; the body, its divisions and the 
 joints which make it up. The two parts which in the insect are 
 known as the head and thorax are, in the shrimp, fused into one 
 case known as the ceph alethorax. The part posterior is the 
 abdomen, corresponding to the abdomen of insects. The shrimps 
 in the aquarium will feed on shreds of meat. 
 
 Lobsters. 
 
 Lobsters may be obtained in the market (not alive). Those 
 which are red have been boiled. The foym is to be studied in the 
 same way as that of the shrimp, and then the two compared, and 
 the pupils will readily perceive that they are very much alike 
 thruout, altho at first they appear so different. Fresh water cray- 
 fish can sometimes be obtained in the market. It is well to com- 
 pare this form with the lobster. 
 
146 NATUKK STUDY 
 
 Crabs. 
 
 Crabs may also be obtained at the market. There is an 
 abundance of small crabs to be found along the marshes and 
 creeks coming into the ocean. If some of these are placed in a jar 
 half filled with sand moistened with sea water, they will remain 
 alive some time, will burrow in the sand and their motions and 
 habits may be studied. 
 
 The study of the parts of the crab will show it to be of the 
 same plan and structure as that of the shrimp and lobster. The 
 cephalo-thorax is, however, very broad, and the abdomen very 
 small and narrow and folded up under the cephalo-thorax. 
 
 Have the pupil compare the three limb by limb. Prepara- 
 tions of each of these make interesting additions to the museum. 
 These forms are of the group Crustacea. 
 
 After the above forms are studied, a good lesson may be 
 made by comparing the structure of a shrimp and an insect 
 (grasshopper or beetle). 
 
 Clams. 
 
 Clams may be obtained in the market, or, as some of the 
 pupils well know, by digging in the mud at low tide in certain 
 situations. The clams buried in the mud have what are called 
 "long necks." This is a projection reaching from the body of the 
 clam, as it is buried some inches below the surface of the mud. 
 It contains two tubes, one of which brings water to the body of the 
 animal, while the other carries a stream of water away from the 
 body. The animal may thus hide away in the mud and yet have 
 a current of sea water loaded with oxygen and the fine particles of 
 food on which it lives flow thru it, passing its mouth and over its 
 gills. In the study of the body, the shell, its hinge, its muscles, the 
 body, the gills and the "foot," are to be looked for. In some 
 of the higher grades these points in structure may be made out, 
 and then the pupils led to find the same, if they can be detected, 
 in mussels and oysters, forms without the "neck." 
 
147 
 Ants' Nests. 
 
 An exceedingly interesting and instructive object for pupils 
 of all grades is a colony of ants so kept that they can be observed 
 in their daily work in and about their nests. 
 
 Students of ants have devised various means for thus arrang- 
 ing their nests. One method is to place the colony in a glass jar 
 partially filled with earth. The mouth of the jar is covered with 
 gauze or netting to prevent their escape. The jar should have 
 its sides covered with a thick dark cloth, which can be removed 
 to make observations. In capturing the colony, the queen should 
 be obtained if possible. Soon after the ants are placed in the 
 jar with the dirt, they will begin to make excavations, and some 
 of their tunnels may be against the sides of the glass. If this is 
 fortunately the case their life in the nest may be observed. 
 
 A much better nest was devised by Sir John Lubbock. It 
 consists of two sheets of glass of about 8xio inches. These are 
 held apart at the edges by narrow, thin strips of wood, about the 
 thickness of a lead pencil, the thickness being but slightly higher 
 than the ants to be confined. These strips are placed between 
 the sheets at their outer edges. At one corner a space of about 
 a quarter of an inch is left, which is to be the door for the entrance 
 and exit of the ants. The remaining space between the glass 
 sheets is filled with pulverized earth, very slightly moist. 
 
 This is to be the nest. This is placed in a shallow box a 
 few inches wider each way than the nest. Around the edges of 
 the box is tacked a strip of fur, which acts as a fence to retain the 
 ants within bounds. 
 
 The margin between the nest and sides of the box give a 
 space for the ants to wander about in, and in which to place food 
 and water. A piece of cloth should cover the nest. A large sheet 
 of glass may cover the shallow box to prevent too rapid evapora- 
 tion. 
 
148 NATURE STUDY 
 
 The next step is to capture the ants and induce them to enter 
 the nest. A colony of ants with the queen is captured as before. 
 The queen may be distinguished from the workers by her larger 
 size. They may be brought home in a glass jar mingled with 
 the earth of their former nest. The whole mass of ants and dirt 
 is placed on top of the nest prepared as above. The ants, as this 
 dirt dries out, bury themselves deep in it. Scrape away and 
 remove all the dirt that you can from the mass from time to 
 time. This reduction of the dirt in which they are hiding leads 
 them to look for other quarters. They will be likely to discover 
 the door left for them, at which point they will begin to excavate 
 a tunnel into the prepared nest. This tunnel finally becomes a 
 system of tunnels and passages, forming their new home. In 
 this can be studied the wonderful life of the colony, by removing 
 the black cloth. The ants must be well fed and watered. Sugar, 
 bits of meat, crumbs of bread, and seeds of plants are foods of 
 different ants. This nest may be kept for a long time. For 
 fuller accounts consult Lubbock's "Ants, Bees and Wasps, " Inter- 
 national Scientific Series. There is an excellent description of an 
 ant's nest iu Comstock's Insect Life (Appleton) page 276. 
 
149 
 
 Gases. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 The air contains constantly oxygen, nitrogen, argon, carbonic 
 acid, and vapor of water. The first two make up the main bulk 
 of the air, the last three are very small in amount. We wish to 
 study each of these gases, except argon, a recently discovered 
 one, which in this work we cannot make or isolate. Oxygen can 
 be made and studied with very simple apparatus. 
 
 The materials used are potassium chlorate and black oxide of 
 manganese. The potassium chlorate gives up the oxygen it con- 
 tains very readily on heating. In fact it is liable to give off such 
 a large quantity of gas at once, as to produce an explosion. Con- 
 sequently we mix with it the black oxide of manganese, which 
 seems to retard the giving off of the oxygen. 
 
 Mix well equal amounts of the two substances (fig. 81.) A 
 test tube one-third full will make sufficient gas for the work. Fit 
 the test-tube with an air tight cork and a glass tube to carry off 
 the gas. To catch the gas, have ready at least five wide-mouthed 
 bottles (8 to 15 oz. in size). These are filled with water and 
 inverted in a pan of water. The delivery-tube carrying the gas 
 from the test-tube is bent so that it can be made to conveniently 
 reach under the mouth of an inverted bottle. When all is ready, 
 with the alcohol lamp heat the potassium chlorate and black 
 oxide of manganese mixture and the gas will rapidly come away 
 and bubble up into the inverted bottle, displacing the water and 
 filling the bottle. Then another bottle is brought over and so on, 
 till all are filled, or the oxygen gives out. 
 
 In beginning to apply the heat, do so at first gently and to 
 the upper part of the test-tube. This will heat the tube and pre- 
 vent moisture forming on it later and breaking the tube. Next 
 heat the upper part of the potassium chlorate mixture, first ex- 
 
150 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
GASES 151 
 
 hausting its oxygen, then work downwards. If you begin at the 
 bottom of the mixture, as the gas comes off, it is liable to puff 
 the black dust up and choke the delivery tube. After once begin- 
 ning to make the oxygen, the lamp flame must not be taken 
 away from the test-tube while the delivery tube is under water. 
 The cooling of the tube will contract the gas, and water will rush 
 back and break the hot tube. 
 
 All the apparatus may be held with the hands. One pupil 
 may attend to the bottles; one hold the test-tube, using a thick 
 handle of paper as a holder; another may manage the lamp. A 
 stand and other conveniences may be used. For descriptions- 
 and figures see any elementary text-book in chemistry. 
 
 NOTE Every single operation of the above should be ques- 
 tioned about, and explained by the pupil, as every step is a good 
 lesson. 
 
 Now that we have five or more bottles of oxygen, they may 
 be tested as follows: 
 
 Into one bottle,have one of the children insert alighted splinter. 
 Let the fire be extinguished except a small glow at the end. 
 Also have a small piece of lighted candle attached to a wire 
 'thrust down into the jar. 
 
 A piece of sulphur may be burned in the next jar. A little 
 cup made from a piece of crayon fastened to a wire can be used 
 to hold the lighted piece of sulphur while inserting it into the jar. 
 
 A fine iron or steel wire may be burned. The wire may be 
 bent into a spiral form by wrapping it about a round lead pencil. 
 To one end of the wire attach a very small splinter, or bit of sul- 
 phur to serve as a lighter. The wood or sulphur is lighted, and 
 the wire thrust into the jar of oxygen. 
 
 To burn charcoal, a charred splinter, or a glowing coal fast- 
 ened to a wire may be used. 
 
 A brilliant effect is produced by heating a teaspoonful of 
 
I5 2 NATURE STUDY 
 
 finely powdered charcoal to a glow, and then letting it fall into a 
 jar of oxygen. 
 
 The burning of phosphorous gives the brightest light. Phos- 
 phorus must be handled with care. It is best to use a pair of 
 forceps, and cut the piece to be used under water. Dry the water 
 off with blotting paper. It lights easily by friction, and a small 
 piece of burning phosphorus on the hand makes a painful and 
 bad wound. It is poisonous. Handled carefully there is no dan- 
 ger. All small pieces must be picked up and put back into a 
 bottle of water where it is best kept. The phosphorus is burned 
 in the crayon cup as was the sulphur. 
 
 Now questions will arise as to what are the results of the 
 burning in each case. The white smoke in the last is a combina- 
 tion of oxygen and phosphorus, and in each of the other cases an 
 oxide is formed e. </., of carbon, of iron, and of sulphur. Each of 
 the above experiments should be repeated until it is clearly seen just 
 what has taken place. 
 
 These experiments are so interesting to children, that they 
 will not mind having them repeated many times. This is good 
 for giving them clearer notions, better command of handling 
 apparatus, and a familiarity with the facts. 
 
 Carbonic Acid. 
 
 Most of the children have learned that there is carbonic acid 
 in the air; that it comes from the lungs in air breathed out, and 
 that it is made by burning lamps and candles. 
 
 As a good test for the gas will be of great service, it would be 
 better at the very start to explain how lime water is so used. 
 Lime water is readily made by putting some lime into water and 
 allowing it to stand until the excess settles, leaving the solution 
 above clear. Pour off the clear liquid for use. It can be pur- 
 chased ready made at the drug store. 
 
 A small amount of carbonic acid shaken up with the lime 
 
GASES 153 
 
 water makes a white substance in the water, thus giving 
 a milky appearance. The substance formed is carbonate of lime. 
 
 One of the children can breathe air thru a small amount 
 of lime water in a test-tube or other glass vessel. The lime water 
 turns white, thus proving the presence of carbonic acid. 
 
 A bit of a candle is placed in the bottom of a glass tumbler, 
 which is covered with a book. The candle soon goes out. Test 
 the gas left with lime water. 
 
 An inverted glass is held over the chimney of a burning 
 lamp. Slip a card over the mouth, and test the carbonic acid. 
 The gas coming from various burning substances may be tested- 
 
 To make carbonic acid in a quantity unmixed with air, etc., 
 pound up into small pieces limestone or marble; place in a wide- 
 mouthed bottle or flask, into which is fitted a cork and delivery 
 tube. Cover the marble with water, then pour in some muriatic 
 or sulphuric acid. Bubbles of carbonic acid come off rapidly. 
 As it is heavier than air of the same temperature, it can be caught 
 in empty jars or bottles standing upright, lightly covered with 
 cards. When a few jars have been obtained, try them with lime 
 water, lighted candles, lighted splinters, etc. Show that the gas 
 is heavier than air by pouring carbonic acid into a jar which 
 contains only air, then testing this jar's contents; or pour some 
 into a jar at the bottom of which is a lighted candle. 
 
 Many other experiments can be made with the carbonic acid, 
 making the pupils familiar with its properties. 
 
 Diffusion of Gases. 
 
 That gases diffuse themselves out into the air from the vessels 
 which contain them, may be shown by leaving a jar of carbonic 
 acid uncovered for a short time. Altho heavier than air, it leaves 
 the jar. An inverted jar of oxygen will show the same. Altho 
 lighter than air it will not stay in the jar. The same is true with 
 illuminating gas, vapor of gasoline, of ether, etc. These experi- 
 
154 NATURE STUDY 
 
 ments make it clear why the different gases in the air are thoroly 
 mingled, instead of the hea.vier settling to the bottom and the 
 lighter going to the top. 
 
 Making Gas, 
 
 The process of making illuminating gas may thus be 
 illustrated: 
 
 Into a test-tube place bits of wood, shavings, or sawdust. 
 Arrange apparatus as in figure 81. A delivery- tube is fitted to 
 this, as in making oxygen. Jars for catching the gas are arranged 
 also as in the oxygen experiment. The test-tube full of wood is 
 now heated, and the gas coming away is caught. The first gas 
 coming off is heated air from the tube. Later, gas from the 
 decomposing wood will fill a small jar. This gas may be lighted, 
 and it will be seen to burn with a blue flame. It is a mixture 
 of gases. 
 
 In the test-tube is found carbon, the charred remains of the 
 wood. The delivery-tube will be coated inside with tar. If a 
 larger apparatus be used, say an iron retort (this may be made 
 of iron gas pipe), a greater heat may be used, and coal may take 
 the place of wood, and by this means a considerable amount of 
 gas can be obtained. 
 
 It may now be shown how, in making illuminating gas, a 
 very large retort is used; arrangements are made to separate the 
 tar and other substances from the gases; also those gases in the 
 mixture which interfere with the illuminating power; show that the 
 large iron gas tank corresponds to the jar catching gas in the 
 experiment. 
 
 A visit to the gas works will now be of great interest, and 
 the main processes there carried out can be clearly understood. 
 
 The Candle Flame. 
 
 The special study of the candle flame will be best taken up 
 some time after the making of gas out of wood. The pupils are 
 
GASES 
 
 155 
 
 to find out that it is a gas flame, the brilliant light being pro- 
 duced by minute particles of carbon becoming incandescent as 
 they pass from the central portion, where no combustion is going 
 on, thru the part lying just outside of this where the gases are in 
 active combustion. The gases which burn and the carbon which 
 thus makes the light and is finally consumed, are all from the oil of 
 the candle being decomposed into these products by the heat, 
 just as the same products are made out of coal by heat in the 
 process of the manufacture of illuminating gas, and in the mak- 
 ing of gas out of wood in the experiments already given. None 
 of these facts is to be told at first. 
 
 By cutting a few candles in- 
 to short pieces each pupil can 
 have his own flame to study. 
 
 Let each try to make out the 
 parts of the flame (fig. 82). It 
 will be found that there are four: 
 the blue cup at the bottom; a 
 thin, almost transparent outer 
 sheet of flame; a brilliant light- 
 giving part just underneath this; 
 and a dark central portion. In 
 the dark central portion is a 
 mass of gases charged with black 
 floating particles of carbon 
 (smoke). If a sheet of paper held 
 horizontally is suddenly thrust 
 down on the flame to about its 
 middle and held for a short time, 
 but removed just before it breaks 
 into a flame, a round ring is 
 
 i -i ,-> 
 
 SCOrched Oil the paper COrrCS- 
 
 ponding to the two outer coats 
 
 Fig. 82. candle flame showing the four 
 
 parts described in the text, also showing 
 the method of introducing a small tube 
 
156 NATURE STUDY 
 
 of flame. The center is unscorched and may be blackened. This 
 is where the dark central portion of the flame was in contact with 
 the paper. If a splinter of wood is held across the flame a short 
 time, it will be scorched where the outer coats touch it, but un- 
 scorched where the central portion meets it. 
 
 A very small glass tube three or four inches long may be 
 thrust into the central portion and the outer end inclined upward. 
 In this position it will tap the central portion, when smoke will 
 issue from the tube. This may be lighted, and thus give us a 
 a new small flame, showing that the central portion is composed 
 of combustible gases, 
 
 The blue cup at the bottom is just in the position where the 
 ascending currents of air strike it to the best advantage, and 
 insures good combustion without smoke and floating particles of 
 carbon. This gives great heat, but little light. 
 
 The air reaches the two outer coats of the flame, and com- 
 bustion takes place in them. In the one next the dark center 
 the carbon particles, as has been said, are passing thru and 
 glow with a bright light. They are completely burned in the 
 outer coat. 
 
 That particles of carbon may make a colorless flame bright 
 may be shown by sprinkling lamp black or powdered charcoal into 
 an alcohol flame. On the other hand, if with a glass tube drawn 
 out to a fine point, or with a blow pipe, air is blown well into a 
 candle flame, the whole of the flame will become blue, no longer 
 giving out much light. 
 
 A better supply of air makes a more prompt combustion of 
 all gases and carbon, but with the result of less illumination. 
 
 If the supply of air to the candle flame is interfered with, the 
 flame smokes, much of the carbon and gases escaping unconsumed. 
 
 The smoking lamp or the smoking fire means poor com- 
 bustion. In each case the smoke can be reduced by a better 
 supply of air. Questions may be proposed which will explain the 
 
GASES 157 
 
 advantage of lamp chimneys, smoke-stacks, tall chimneys, and 
 other devices for causing better combustion. 
 
 Cooling the candle flame by thrusting into it a cold sub- 
 stance, such as a bar of metal, causes it to smoke. Carbon burns 
 only at a high temperature, and in this case much heat is lost to 
 the cold substance. 
 
 Those substances which contain much carbon, such as tur- 
 pentine, camphor, and sealing wax, may be made to give out a 
 very black smoke. The carbon may be caught as soot or lamp 
 black, which subsequently can be burned. 
 
 In general, we depend upon the carbon for the light in the 
 illuminating flame, but in the calcium light a very hot flame ia 
 used to heat a piece of lime (calcium oxide) to a white heat, 
 which gives out the bright light. In the stereopticon, oxygen and 
 illuminating gas are used to heat the lime. In the class room a 
 blow-pipe and an alcohol flame can be made to give a bright 
 glow to a piece of lime sufficient to illustrate this point. In 
 burning a bit of magnesium ribbon, it is the white dust, the 
 magnesium oxide resulting from the combustion, that gives the 
 light. 
 
 The foregoing should be broken up into many lessons. These 
 will suggest many others. The applications of what has been 
 given are very numerous, and if well followed out will make clear 
 many things in every day's experience with lights and fires. 
 
158 
 
 Magnetism. 
 
 Magnets. 
 
 For lessons on magnets an ordinary horse-shoe magnet, such as 
 any boy may carry in his pocket, will answer. It is well also to 
 have a bar magnet. 
 
 Provide some small articles of soft iron and of steel. Ordinary 
 knitting needles or sewing needles will do for steel. Try the soft iron 
 first. It will readily be drawn to the magnet. While it is still 
 attached, put the free end of the soft iron into iron-filings. Then 
 withdraw the magnet. What happens? Try the same with a piece of 
 steel. If you have pure soft iron, it will be found that it remains a 
 magnet only when in contact with a magnet, but that steel 
 retains its magnetism for some time. Let the children find what 
 things are attracted by the magnet, what not. 
 
 Sewing needles may be magnetized by drawing one pole of 
 the magnet several times across them, drawing the magnet only 
 one way. A needle is conveniently suspended by being thrust thru 
 a cardboard triangle, and the triangle suspended from one of its 
 points. Note in what position the needles come to rest. Suspend two 
 needles near together and bring two south poles together. What 
 happens? Bring two north poles together. What happens? A 
 north and a south? The facts of attraction and repulsion may be 
 shown as well by using one needle and a magnet, but care must be 
 taken that the magnet does not come into contact with the needle, 
 or the poles of the needle may be reversed. For reason see some text- 
 book on Physics. The compass may now be brought in and the class 
 will be able to see that it acts in the same way as their suspended 
 needles. It may be interesting to children to know that the earth 
 acts as a huge magnet, but that its magnetic poles do not correspond 
 with its geographical poles. The magnetic needle does not point 
 to the true geographical north, but to the east or west of it. At 
 
MAGNETISM 159 
 
 Stanford University the compass points 19 degrees east of the true 
 north. (1899.) 
 
 A pretty experiment to show lines of magnetic force can be 
 performed by shaking a few fine iron-filings over a piece of paper 
 or glass under which the magnet is placed. If the lines do not 
 form at once, shake the paper or glass gently. 
 i The children may be interested in finding out about natural 
 magnets, how magnets are made, and their uses. 
 
 Variation of the Magnetic Needle. 
 
 To determine the true direction of the magnetic needle (that 
 is, the "variation of the needle"): After dark on a clear night 
 suspend two plumb lines (threads with weights attached about 
 one foot apart) from suitable supports. The back of a chair may 
 be used for this. Then bring the two stretched threads in an 
 exact line with the North Star. On a support (a box on end will 
 do) between the lines lay a sheet of paper horizontally placed. 
 With a ruler and pencil draw a line on the paper Justin line with 
 the two threads. This line, if all is done carefully, is approxi- 
 mately the true north and south direction. By placing the com- 
 pass on this line, the "variation" of the needle will be found to 
 be about 19 degrees east of north that is, the true north is 19 
 degrees west of the magnetic north. This varies in the different 
 parts of the world very much, and is changing, slightly, every 
 year here (Stanford University). 
 
 It must also be remembered that the North Star has an 
 apparent daily revolution of a very small diameter about the true 
 north, consequently it is exactly north but twice in twenty-four 
 hours, but it requires more accurate instruments than ours 
 to detect these differences. (See text-books on Physical Geog- 
 raphy and Astronomy.) 
 
 Many questions will rise in connection with this rather 
 simple experiment, which with some of the grades may be 
 
i6o 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 pursued with profit, such as, Why is a certain star the North 
 Star? the difference between the North Magnetic Pole and the 
 North Pole. 
 
The Pendulum. 
 
 The pendulum as our time marker, and its importance in 
 relation to timepieces, is sufficient excuse for making some simple 
 lessons with it as the subject. 
 
 Suspend a small weight from a convenient place by a strong 
 thread, thirty-nine inches long, the length counted from the 
 point where the thread is attached to the center of the weight. 
 Have the pupils determine how many times in a minute this 
 pendulum vibrates. If it does not vibrate sixty times in a 
 minute, correct the length till this is its rate. Keep this pendu- 
 lum as the time keeper for the succeeding experiments. 
 
 Have them make other pendulums of the same length, some 
 with much heavier weights and some with lighter weights, and 
 determine if there are differences in the rate. 
 
 Have the pupils construct a pendulum long enough to vibrate 
 once in two seconds, and one short enough to vibrate twice in a 
 second. Let them measure and compare these with the seconds 
 pendulum. Do the same for pendulums vibrating once in three 
 seconds and three times in a second. A high ceiling, a window 
 or a tree will give an opportunity for hanging a long pendulum. 
 
 The use of the pendulum as a time instrument can now be 
 explained. The importance of accurate and uniform time in 
 business and in railroad and other travel, etc., may be seen. 
 On Mt. Hamilton avery day at noon a pendulum in a fine clock 
 stationed there is connected by electric wires with most Western 
 Union Telegraph Offices 011 the Pacific Coast. In any one of 
 these offices at noon any one can hear the telegraph instrument 
 beating in unison with the pendulum on Mt. Hamilton. Thus 
 all timepieces might be kept in accurate accord with this one. 
 
 In other parts of the United States there are centers from which 
 
162 NATURE STUDY 
 
 * 
 
 the time is sent out in the same way over regions assigned to each 
 center. 
 
 The story of the discovery of the properties of the pendulum 
 and the effect of its application to time keeping, could be made 
 interesting and profitable. (See Encyclopedia, etc.) 
 
 The relation of the pendulum to falling bodies; the 
 effect on the pendulum if the earth were heavier or lighter or if 
 the pendulum were near or farther away from the center of the 
 earth, are subjects which might be taken up in some of the grades 
 under certain conditions, but would perhaps better be deferred at 
 present. 
 
 Soap Bubbles. 
 
 Blowing soap bubbles is a fascinating exercise for almost 
 any grade, and may be repeated without fear of tiring. They 
 are so familiar to every one that how to make them and what to 
 do with them need hardly be told. It might be worth while to 
 say that for making very tenacious bubbles that will become very 
 large and stand rough handling, use very good soap and rain- 
 water or distilled water. Slice the soap into shavings and make 
 a very strong solution, and mix with this a good quality ot 
 glycerine or molasses; the latter is better. It is wonderful what 
 may be done with these bubbles. 
 
 Bubbles show the tenacity of liquids (try pure water, alco- 
 hol, glycerine, or molasses alone). As the bubbles grow older they 
 become very thin in their upper parts, showing brilliant colors, 
 due to interference of light (see text-books on Physics). They 
 may be made to contain different gases, e. g., air, carbonic acid, 
 illuminating gas, hydrogen, and thus used to show which is lighter 
 than air. To blow bubbles with these gases is somewhat trouble- 
 some, as gas bags or reservoirs filled with the gas under pressure are 
 necessary. The clay pipe is connected with a tube from the reservoir, 
 and the gas turned on as required to fill out sufficiently the bubble. 
 One may be fortunate enough to have the gas come off from the 
 
SOAP BUBBLES. 163 
 
 generator with the pressure and regularity necessary to blow the 
 bubbles. In a room, fans are convenient to keep the bubbles up 
 in the air. Placed over a stove or radiator or furnace opening, 
 they will rise with the current of air. 
 
164 
 
 Lead Pencils. 
 
 This lesson will make plain the structure and materials of 
 the most common instrument of the schoolroom, the lead pencil. 
 
 If possible, obtain some pieces of graphite, also a cake of 
 Btove polish, and a tube of bicycle-chain lubricant. For com- 
 parison, have a bar of lead. Soak some lead pencils in water until 
 the two parts of wood will separate. Have at hand a series of 
 pencils ranging from very soft to very hard. 
 
 Begin the lesson with an examination of the pieces of 
 graphite. The children will note the properties; heavy, black, 
 will rub off easily, and consequently will mark a paper, will soil 
 the hands, etc., (marking by a substance will be seen to be a rubbing 
 off of a part of that substance). It is also very smooth, being soapy 
 to the feel of the fingers. This is graphite, the substance which 
 forms the center part of our lead pencils. It is not lead at all. 
 Now compare with real lead. It is soft, will mark a paper also, 
 but is quite different from graphite. Graphite used to be called 
 black lead, and this gave the name to the pencils. 
 
 The children may now listen with interest to an account of 
 how lead pencils are made. The graphite is reduced to a very 
 fine powder and mixed with water into a sort of black mud. A 
 similar mixture of fine clay and water is made. Then a mixture 
 of these two is placed in a press, which has for a bottom a sieve- 
 like plate, the holes being the size of the leads for the pencils. 
 Great power is brought upon the press, forcing the thick paste 
 thru the holes. This makes long, slender "leads." These are 
 placed on boards, dried, and then baked in a hot oven. 
 
 Two pieces of wood are prepared, as the soaked pencil will 
 show, which are to be glued together. In one is sawed a groove 
 into which the lead fits exactly. After the two pieces are glued 
 together, the whole is turned round or cut into octagonal or other 
 shapes, polished, varnished, and the name pressed on. 
 
LEAD PENCILS 165 
 
 A soft pencil has more graphite and less clay than a hard 
 pencil. The hard pencil was also baked with greater heat. Show 
 the use of the hard and soft pencil, and what is a good and a bad 
 pencil. Sometimes fine graphite is sawed into leads without going 
 thru the process of mixing with clay. 
 
 Graphite is carbon, the same substance as charcoal, coal, 
 and diamond. It is mined in the United States and England. 
 
 Other uses of graphite are as a lubricant, as stove polish, as 
 crucibles. Illustrate and bring out the properties which make it 
 useful in each of these cases. ' 
 
 The wood of the best pencils is cedar, which is almost wholly 
 derived from the swamps of Florida. 
 
io6 
 
 Metals and Minerals. 
 
 The metals may be made the subjects of a large number of 
 lessons. The lessons may be upon the properties and the uses of the 
 metals, such as are found in the house, in the car, in the shop, and 
 wherever the pupil may discover them. Following these, there 
 may be in some of the grades a limited number of lessons on 
 the ores of some of the metals, the location of mines, methods of 
 mining and extracting the metals. 
 
 Provide for work with the metals: a file, a hammer, a thick 
 piece of iron to use as a small anvil (a flat iron, sometimes with 
 the smooth side up and sometimes with the pointed side up, will 
 serve well), a knife with a strong blade, a large iron spoon, and a 
 large alcohol lamp, or other method of getting a strong heat. 
 
 Begin the lessons with lead, copper, zinc and iron in the 
 form of strips, or of thick wire. These may be examined care- 
 fully in respect to the appearance of each, then each tested with 
 the above instruments by the pupils; their properties, the relative 
 hardness, flexibility, action under hammer, file, and knife, and 
 ease of melting. Very small wires of each would allow the com- 
 parison of strength of each, If rods of equal sizes are equally 
 heated at one end, the pupils may easily detect, by holding the 
 other ends of the rods, the relative quickness with which they arp 
 heated. Allow them to find, also, which tarnishes or rusts most 
 readily. When the properties of each are well seen, have the pupils 
 peek in the next few days' experience the places where these 
 metals are used, and why they are so used in the positions in 
 which they are found. 
 
 Of course in some cases properties which the pupil has not 
 discovered, such as its relation to electricity, or such considera- 
 tions as economy, may have led to the use of the metal in some 
 particular position. 
 
METALS AND MINERAI3 167 
 
 After these lessons, aluminum, nickel, platinum, silver and 
 gold may be taken up and examined in the same way, 
 
 Some of the more rarely seen and interesting metals can 
 easily be obtained, such as antimony, and bismuth, beautifully 
 crystalizing, easily melting; mercury, a liquid even at low 
 temperatures; sodium and potassium, which are lighter than, 
 water, and burn when they touch ice or water; magnesium, 
 a thin strip of which will burn in air with a most brilliant 
 light when lighted with a match. 
 
 Space will not allow the detailed directions for the numerous 
 lessons that may be made with all of these metals. The obtaining 
 the metals (easily accomplished), consultation of encyclopedias 
 and works on chemistry for further facts in regard to them, and 
 experimentation with them, and some ingenuity on the part of 
 the teacher, will supply the details which will make this series 
 sufficient in amount and interest, to extend, with the intervals of 
 other subjects, thru some years. 
 
 In this connection are to be examined some of the more 
 common alloys, such as brass, type metal, solder, gun metal, 
 bell metal. 
 
 The sources mentioned above will also give information in 
 regard to the composition and uses of these alloys. 
 
 Minerals make a most interesting and profitable field for 
 nature study. A knowledge of the common rocks of the neigh- 
 borhood and their constituent minerals would give the teacher a 
 very rich source of material. 
 
-168 
 
 The Moon. 
 
 A study of the motions of the moon makes a good beginning 
 toward a clear understanding of the apparent and real motions 
 of the sun, moon, and stars. 
 
 On the first evening that the moon can be seen after "new 
 moon," have the pupils note how near it is to some star. Venus 
 may be in a good position near the moon. On the following 
 evening they are again to note its relation to this star. They 
 may make their notes by making a sketch of moon and star each 
 night. The changing shape of the illuminated part of the moon 
 is also to be noted each night. Soon the moon will be so far 
 from the star that it cannot well be used to mark the progress. 
 Then another star nearer to it, in its new position, may be used 
 as the mark. 
 
 At first only these notes are to be taken. After the moon 
 has made considerable progress among the stars, inquiries may 
 be started as to what is taking place. Most, if not all of the 
 pupils will know that the moon, in common with the sun and 
 with the myraids of stars among which the sun and moon move, 
 rises in the east and sets in the west daily, and they will know that 
 the cause of this apparent motion is the earth's revolution. But 
 most of them will be surprised to find that the moon moves east 
 among the stars. These observations may be carried on and -dis- 
 cussed by the pupils until they make out for themselves that this 
 is the motion of the moon around the earth. 
 
 The time of revolution may be determined by noting the 
 date when the moon passes some "fixed star" until it passes 
 it again. 
 
 If the pupils understand circles and degrees, a simple 
 apparatus can be arranged by which they can determine approxi- 
 mately the number of degrees it moves in every twenty-four 
 hours. 
 
THE MOON 169 
 
 Provide a rod about four feet long, sharpened at one end, 
 so that it may be thrust into the ground (a tripod is more con- 
 venient, but more difficult to make). 
 
 To the upper end attach a platform of board about four inches 
 square, on which to place a level, by means of which the plat- 
 form is to be made horizontal. A small iron spirit level can be 
 (Obtained for fifteen cents. 
 
 On the edge of the platform is tacked a thick cardboard with 
 a semicircle drawn on its outer side. The diameter of the circle 
 lies on a level with the surface of the platform. The semicircle 
 jis marked off in degrees as carefully as possible, and marked 
 from o degrees to 180 degrees, the goih degree being on the end of 
 the radius exactly perpendicular to the surface of the platform. 
 With this apparatus, using pins as sights, the position in degrees 
 of the moon above the horizon may be read for a few successive 
 evenings at the same hour. See if the rate of movement, thus 
 determined, corresponds to the rate calculated by the obser- 
 vation of how many days the moon takes to make a revolution 
 (360 degrees). 
 
 Another line of questioning to be pursued is that in 
 relation to the cause of the changing of the illuminated part. 
 Pupils may, in their own way, prepare models to illustrate this. 
 
 Why is one side of the moon always turned toward the earth? 
 How long is the moon's day? 
 
 Children from ten to twelve years of age have worked out 
 all the above with no trouble except the setting of the work. 
 This work, of course, must be given out for the pupils to do at 
 home of evenings but if the teacher can meet them, some even- 
 ings, much more interest might be aroused. A small telescope, 
 or even a good spy glass, will add greatly to the interest. 
 
 After the above work, the pupil can more successfully under- 
 stand the motions of the earth. 
 
1 70 NATURE STUDY 
 
 [NOTE. If the pupils do not know that the " fixed stars " 
 maintain their same relative position, they may be set to watch 
 any group of them for successive periods. The motions of some 
 of the planets among the other stars may, later, be made subjects 
 of observation.] 
 
Pressure of Air and Liquids. 
 
 The previous lessons on air and water will have brought out 
 questions requiring some knowledge of the pressure the-v exert* 
 and the consequent phenomena. It is perhaps better to begin 
 with water. Bodies floating in water may be taken as a starting 
 point. Why do they float? Why do some float with more of 
 the mass above the water than others, while some sink? What 
 happens to the same floating bodies in liquids of different densi- 
 ties, e. g., lighter or heavier liquids? 
 
 These questions may be made the guide to a series of experi- 
 mental lessons with grades above the fourth. 
 
 The last of the above questions is a good one to begin with. 
 For the lesson there will be necessary: A small wooden rod one- 
 half inch or less in diameter, and about five inches in length; 
 some small nails, and a piece of copper wire for weighting one end 
 of the rod; two fruit jars, one filled with water, the other with a 
 strong solution of salt; some small blocks of wood; and some 
 corks. The lesson may begin with the question of how the things 
 will float in two liquids, water and salt solution. If the pupils 
 can be led to invent an apparatus to test the difference, so much 
 the better. 
 
 This may be done by first trying the blocks of wood or the 
 corks. It will soon appear that from their awkward shapes and 
 instability in the water, they can not give good results. Then 
 some one will be sure to suggest a method good enough. Most 
 likely the rod of wood loaded at one end will be invented by the 
 class. If notj it may now be brought out, and will be appreciated. 
 It is best not to have the rod loaded ready for the experiment, 
 but reserve for the class the loading the of rod just right to make it 
 float upright in the two liquids, and the marking of the scale on it. 
 With this now ready, have them test the liquids. They find that 
 
172 NATURE STUDY 
 
 the rod floats higher in the heavier liquid. Now make the mix- 
 tures of the water and salt solution, and have them predict how 
 the rod will stand, then verify the prediction. 
 
 Now other liquids may be tested and compared with 
 water; e. g. milk, kerosene, or a solution of salts other than 
 table salt. 
 
 The apparatus may be varied by preparing other forms of 
 floats, e. g., a long, narrow test tube with sand, shot, or nails in 
 the bottom to act as ballast. In the tube may be placed a paper 
 scale. If a lactometer or alcoholometer, or other form of hydro, 
 meter (see text-book on physics) can be borrowed to show, and can 
 be made use of, the value of the lesson will be greater. But the 
 pupils will see that none of these instruments is anything more 
 than their wooden rod with a scale. 
 
 An egg will float in strong brine and sink in water, and thus 
 is used as a hydrometer. These experiments extended bring the 
 phenomena of floating clearly before the pupils. 
 
 Next the question of what makes the bodies float may be 
 taken up. At the start do not tell the pupils that it is "the weight of 
 the water displaced." This is misleading, and, once given, seems 
 to become a sort of cant phrase into which it is hard to put the 
 real meaning. Later this truth may be seen and verified. While 
 the whole mathematical explanation can not be gone into, the 
 simple fact that floating is due to the upward pressure of the 
 water may be clearly seen. 
 
 Show the pupils that when a body is placed in the water, the 
 water presses against the whole surface. A bucket pushed down 
 would show the pressure if holes were bored in the bottom and 
 sides. A rubber boot placed in a bucket shows the pressure by 
 the collapsing of the sides. A bottle filled with air thrust mouth 
 down will show that the air is pressed upon by the water. In a 
 floating body the pressure against the sides takes no part in 
 holding the body up, but only the upward pressure does so. 
 
PRESSURE OF AIR AND LIQUIDS 173 
 
 The children will readily see tnat the pressure of a liquid is 
 due to its weight, and consequently is greater in the heavier 
 liquids. It will be very interesting to show a very light liquid, 
 like gasoline (do not use it near a light), and the heavy mercury. 
 
 From liquids it is easy to pass to air. In previous lessons 
 air has been shown to be " something," and consequently has 
 weight and exerts pressure. Let the children devise means of 
 showing this to be true. 
 
 Put experiments like this in the form of questions: A glass 
 of water evenly full is covered with a piece of paper, and then 
 suddenly inverted, the paper being held on by the palm of the 
 hand. When the hand is removed, the water will be kept in the 
 glass by the pressure of the air. 
 
 "Sucking'' water up a tube is removing part of the pressure of 
 the air above the water in the tube. The pressure of the air on 
 the water outside of the tube pushes the water up the tube. 
 
 Enlarging the chest in respiration makes a larger space. 
 The pressure of the outside air crowds in and inflates the lungs 
 to fill that space. 
 
 The toy called a " sucker " a leather disc with a string in 
 the center illustrates this further; the pump and the siphon also. 
 
 From pressure of air, we may pass to experiments on 
 bodies floating in the air, as balloons, toy balloons, either paper 
 filled with hot air or rubber filled with a gas lighter than air. 
 Next we may take up currents in the air and water. 
 
 It has been seen that heat expands water and air. These are 
 then lighter. The warm water rises in the cold, and the warm 
 air in the cooler. (The lessons on currents in air and water may 
 now be referred to or they may be arranged to follow these 
 lessons.) 
 
How Insects Breathe. 
 
 The familiar grasshoppers, or locusts as they are better called, 
 can be found along roadsides, and in pastures and meadows. 
 Have some energetic and interested small boy 'catch alive and 
 bring to the school as many live locusts as there are children in 
 the nature study class. Any species of locust will do, the speci- 
 mens need not all be of the same species even. The locust hunter 
 should carry a small closed wooden or paste-board box with a 
 hole in the top just large enough to admit a single locust. If he 
 can take with him a butterfly net he may be able to get his speci- 
 mens in shorter time, tho the usual small boy can catch the most 
 active sort of locust without artificial equipment. 
 
 Let each child of the class have a live locust. It should be 
 held so that the long, strong hind legs are kept quiet. When the 
 locust has stopped struggling to free itself and is apparently 
 motionless, let all look sharply for any signs of movement. Give 
 especial attention to the hinder half of the body. 
 
 Is there any movement here ? Yes, a distinct tho slight, 
 regularly-recurring contracting and swelling of the body. What 
 is the locust doing ? Breathing. Notice this movement of the 
 body very carefully in all its details. What parts of the body 
 surface move the most ? Of what is this part of the locust's body 
 composed ? Of a series of rings or segments with distinct lines 
 separating them. Note that the under surface of the body is 
 separated from the lateral arid upper parts of the body by a little 
 longitudinal furrow on each side. It is at these furrows that the 
 breathing motion is most pronounced. Feel the surface of the 
 body; it is rather hard. The outer skin, or surface of the grass- 
 hopper's body is composed of a thin layer of a horny substance 
 which serves as a sort of coat of armor and protects the soft parts 
 inside. But just at the furrows the body wall is thin and soft. 
 
HOW INSECTS BREATHE 1 75 
 
 The furrows are in fact, a sort of long soft hinge by means of 
 which the hard lower wall of the body can be moved away from 
 or towards the hard upper wall, and the size of the body thus 
 made larger or smaller. This making the body larger or smaller 
 is the breathing motion. 
 
 Does the air which the locust breathes pass in thru the. 
 mouth ? If not, where does the air pass in and out of the body ? 
 Unfortunately the children will not be able to prove that the 
 locust does not breathe thru its mouth it does not: nor that the 
 air does pass in and out of the body thru a series of tiny holes on 
 each side of the body which it does. It may be readily seen, 
 however, that on each side of each body ring or segment there is 
 just above the long lateral furrow, and near the front edge of the 
 segment, a small spot. This is a minute opening in the body 
 wall, and is a breathing pore or spiracle. Thru these holes, each 
 time the body expands, the air passes into the body, and out of 
 them the air comes each time the body contracts. On the inside 
 of the body leading from these breathing openings are small tubes 
 which carry the air into two air trunks, which run longitudinally 
 along each side of the body and extend in most insects for almost 
 the entire length of the body. From these main trunks arise 
 many subordinate trunks, these in turn subdivide into numerous 
 finer branches which branch again and again, so that every part 
 of the body is reached by these air tubes, and all the organs and 
 tissues of the body thus directly supplied with oxygen. 
 
 These air tubes or trachea, can be Ireadily shown to the class. 
 The teacher should prepare a simple dissection of some large 
 insect a caterpillar makes an especially good object revealing 
 the main longitudinal trunks and some of the branches. Make 
 the dissection as follows: Glue, with water proof glue, a piece of 
 sheet cork to the bottom of a small, shallow tin dish or earthen- 
 ware saucer. Pin the caterpillar, which has been killed by 
 chloroform, outstretched with back uppermost to the cork. With 
 
176 NATURE STUDY 
 
 fine scissors or sharp scalpel or knife cut open the skin along the 
 median line of the back from end to end of the body. Spread the 
 skin out on each side of the body and pin the cut edges down. 
 Then pour into the dish enough clear water to cover the specimen, 
 and with needles and forceps pull apart the white masses of fat 
 until the conspicuous dark longitudinal tracheal trunks are 
 exposed. The air tubes will appear either dark or shining 
 silvery. All air tubes (tracheae) are finely transversely lined or 
 striated. These fine transverse striae are really a continuous 
 elastic thread which runs spirally around on the inner surface of 
 the air tube and which by its elasticity, holds the tube open. A 
 bit of one of these large air tubes cut out, and mounted in a drop 
 of water or glycerine on a glass slide, should be examined with a 
 magnifier, so as to see this characteristic transversely striated 
 appearance. 
 
 In the case of other animals, not insects^ the air which i& 
 breathed in is carried by short tubes to an organ (the lungs) 
 where it meets the blood and gives up its oxygen to it. The 
 blood then carries thru the blood tubes (arteries) this oxygen to 
 all parts of the body. But with insects, as we have seen, the air 
 is carried in tubes of its own all over the body. This is 
 one of the most important physiological peculiarities of insects. 
 
 All insects which live in the air, i. e., which do not live in 
 water, breathe as the locust does. That is, they breathe thru 
 small holes which are situated in a single row on each side of 
 the body. But many insects live in water. How do they 
 breathe ? 
 
 An account of the manner of breathing of several water 
 insects is given in the chapter "Some Water Insects." 
 
177 
 Birds. 
 
 Get from the market a freshly killed fowl or pigeon. Have 
 the pupils examine the various parts of the bird, especially the 
 bill and feet and feathers. (For a lesson on feathers see pp.i4i~4). 
 Note the different kinds of feathers, namely,down, contour feathers, 
 and quill feathers, and note the distribution and arrangement of 
 the different kinds. The quill feathers are in the wings and 
 tail only. Note the third eyelid (nictitating membrane). This 
 can be especially well seen in a live bird, preferably a large eyed 
 bird. This third eyelid instead of working vertically sweeps 
 horizontally or obliquely across the eyeball from the side next to 
 the beak to the opposite. If you menace the eye of a live bird 
 with finger or pencil this nictitating membrane rushes across the 
 ball to protect it. Examine the bill. Note the absence of teeth. 
 The earliest birds, now known to us only as fossils, had teeth. 
 The bills or beaks of birds vary a great deal as we shall see when 
 we come to examine other kinds of birds. The two parts of the 
 bill are the upper and lower mandibles or jaws, and both jaws 
 are movable. With us the upper jaw is immovable. The motion 
 of the upper jaw is freest and most extensive in the parrots. 
 Note the horny character and the evident strength of the bill. In. 
 the pigeon there is a soft swollen part on the upper mandible, in 
 which the nostrils are situated. Examine the feet. How many 
 toes are there ? Some birds have only three toes (the plovers, 
 certain woodpeckers, and others). The ostrich has only two toes. 
 Note the arrangement of the toes, and their shape. The arrange- 
 ment and the shape and appearance of the toes varies much 
 among birds (see later). Note the hard nails; they are horny 
 like the bill. 
 
 With this simple knowledge of some of the parts of the 
 chicken or pigeon, have the children watch the live chickens or 
 
17 NATURE STUDY 
 
 pigeons at home. If in a city, have a live fowl or pigeon in a 
 cage in the schoolroom. Have them see how the bird uses its 
 bill and feet. Let them find out how the structure of the bird 
 fits it for its special kind of life. 
 
 To study birds further it will be well to have a small set or 
 collection of prepared skins of some of the common birds of var- 
 ious families. In order to see how the general structure and the 
 special character of the wings, tail, bill, legs and feet of various 
 birds vary in correlation with the various habits and living con- 
 ditions of the birds it will be necessary to be able to examine, in 
 hand, different birds. "Bird-skins" which can be bought for about 
 twenty-five cents each (the common birds) are better than mounted 
 or stuffed birds which are expensive and are very rarely true to 
 life in shape and attitude. The skins can be got, perhaps, from 
 some boy collector of the neighborhood. These skins can be con- 
 veniently kept, can be handled readily without harming them, 
 and do not pretend to imitate the bird's shape or attitude. But 
 they do allow us to see the exact character of the various exter- 
 nal parts. 
 
 Make the pupils acquainted by out-of-door lessons with the 
 common birds of the school yard and neighborhood. Try to get 
 acquainted with birds representing some of the different orders 
 and families so that various kinds of food habits and physiologi- 
 cal characters will be represented. Try to have prepared skins 
 of most of the birds selected for study. Good birds to begin with 
 are the robin, some swallow, the English sparrow, a blackbird, a 
 jay, the bee-martin, a humming bird, a common woodpecker, a 
 hawk, an owl, a mourning dove, a quail, a sandpiper or snipe a 
 mud-hen or rail, a duck and a gull. The prepared sking of 
 twenty different kinds of birds selected so as to represent differ- 
 ent large groups present an extremely varied and interesting lot 
 of bills and feet and colors and patterns, and these same birds 
 observed alive out-of-doors will make the pupils acquainted with 
 
BIRDS 179 
 
 a host of different habits of food-getting, flight, song, nesting, 
 perching, walking and swimming, etc. The teacher should con- 
 stantly strive to lead the pupils to see the correlation of the 
 structure of bills and feet and other 'parts of the body with the 
 special kinds of uses to which these parts are put. 
 
 Have the children observe the running and scratching and 
 seed eating habits of the quail and domestic fowl, and note that 
 the structure of legs and feet and bill fits these parts for such 
 habits. The hawk and owl are raptorial birds, or birds of prey. 
 They catch small animals alive, and tear and rend them with 
 bill and feet and feed on their bodies. Examine the great hooked 
 beak and the strong talons of the hawk and owl. The wood- 
 pecker bores into hard wood in search of insect grubs for food; 
 note its chisel-like bill. It uses its tail as a sort of prop to help 
 support its body when clinging vertically to the limb of a tree. 
 Note the very stiff sharp-pointed tail feathers. How are the toes 
 of the woodpecker arranged ? Of what use to it is this unusual 
 arrangement ? If a freshly killed woodpecker can be examined, 
 note especially the structure of the tongue; it is so constructed 
 and set that it can be darted far out with great force to pierce 
 (it is sharply pointed) and capture insects. The swallow rarely 
 walks; its only mode of locomotion is its swift flight. Note its 
 short, small weak feet, ill adapted to secure foothold and very 
 badly formed for walking. Its food is small insects caught while 
 flying in the air. Note its very wide mouth, and tiny weak bill. 
 Note its long, narrow, powerful wings. The sandpipers and snipe 
 wade about in marshy places or on the muddy banks of small 
 ponds. Their food is found in the mud and has to be probed for. 
 Note the long slender featherless legs adapted for wading, and the 
 long slender bill fit for probing the mud. The duck swims, and 
 gets its food by taking into its mouth water and thin mud in 
 which there may be tiny water animals. The duck's bill is broad 
 and scoop-like and provided with a strainer at each side which 
 
l8o NATURK STUDY 
 
 lets the water run out but retains the food. Its feet are webbed 
 to make swimming paddles of them. Similarly the teacher should 
 lead the pupils to look for something in the make-up of each bird 
 that especially fits it for its particular kind of life. 
 
 The colors and patterning of birds are very beautiful and 
 interesting. Note that in many birds the males are more brightly 
 colored and strikingly marked than the females. The orioles 
 and tanagers and red-winged blackbirds and quail are good 
 examples of this. The colors and markings of birds are believed 
 to serve as ornaments and also as recognition marks so that 
 others of the kind can recognize their comrades. The colors and 
 pattern often harmonize so well with the usual surroundings of 
 the bird that they serve to conceal the bird when at rest and thus 
 protect it from its enemies. A quail crouching on the ground is 
 almost indistinguishable from the brown leaves and soil about it. 
 The colors are produced in two ways, namely, by the presence of 
 pigment, and by the reflection and interference of the light rays. 
 In this latter way are produced the metallic or irridescent colors, 
 which change as the angle of the light is changed. 
 
 The nesting of birds and the number and patterning of the 
 eggs are interesting subjects for observation. The mourning dove 
 makes a very slight nest of a few twigs; the robin makes a strong 
 deep cup, rough outside, but softly lined within; the oriole builds 
 an elaborate hanging cradle. Among some birds only the female 
 works at nest building; among others both sexes take part in the 
 nest building. Some birds lay but two or three eggs in a clutch, 
 some a dozen or more. Some birds rear but one brood a year, 
 some several broods. In most birds it is the female only who 
 sits on the nest to incubate the eggs. With some, however, the 
 male takes its turn in "setting." Have those children who have 
 opportunity to watch pigeons while nesting find out that this is 
 true in the case of the pigeon. With some of the plovers the 
 males do all the incubating. A strange bird called the hornbill 
 
BIRDS l8l 
 
 makes its nest in a hollow in a tree. The female sits on the eggs, 
 and the male walls up the opening to the nest, nearly completely. 
 He leaves only a small opening thru which he feeds her. The 
 female and the eggs are thus protected from enemies during the 
 nesting time. There is much difference in the time of nesting of 
 different birds. Most of the hawks and owls lay eggs very early 
 in the year, in January or February even, while many of the 
 song birds do not nest until late in the spring or until summer. 
 The children should find out as much as possible about the nest- 
 ing of some of the common and readily observed birds. 
 
 The songs of birds offer an interesting field of observation. 
 What birds have songs? What one calls or cries? Some birds 
 which have only sharp cries during most of the year have varied 
 and elaborate songs during the mating season. What are the 
 cries and songs for? Note cries to warn mates or young of the 
 approach of enemies, and cries to call the young. 
 
 The bird fauna of any locality is made up of (a) all year 
 residents, or kinds of birds which live there permanently, (b) 
 summer residents, or birds which come in the spring, mate and 
 breed there and leave in the autumn, (c) winter residents or birds 
 which come in the fall and stay thru the winter, going elsewhere 
 in the spring to breed, (d) migrants, or birds which pass thru in 
 the spring and again in the autumn making but a short stay 
 at either of these seasnos, and finally (e) stragglers or birds which 
 normally always live elsewhere but occasionally straggle into the 
 region. Of the many kinds of birds which may be observed to 
 occur in any locality usually about a fifth are really all-year 
 residents in the region. The summer residents (as opposed to 
 all-year residents) will include enough more to bring the total of 
 birds which breed in a certain region to about half the total number 
 of birds which may occur in the region. The other half of the total 
 number is composed principally of migrants. 
 
 Older children can be got to keep a little note-book, or the 
 
1 82 NATURE STUDY 
 
 school as a whole might keep a note-book containing records of the 
 various times of the year when individuals of those kinds of birds 
 are seen which are known to the children. Keep a list of all the 
 kinds of birds (which the teacher knows) which make nests, with 
 the times of their nesting. When are the times of the first 
 appearance of the migrants with which teacher and children can 
 get acquainted? 
 
 Other good fields of observations on birds are the moulting, 
 the care and feeding of the nestlings, the manner of flight, the 
 sleep, etc. 
 
 A suggestive book about birds is Baskett's "The Story of 
 the Birds" (Appleton). Keeler's "Bird Notes Afield" (Elder & 
 Shephard, San Francisco) contains much information, popularly 
 told, about California birds. It also contains a key for determin- 
 ing the land birds of California. Coues' Key to North American 
 Birds, is the best book for teachers who wish to make a more 
 serious study of birds. 
 
183 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 A Provisional Course in Nature Study Arranged 
 
 by Grades. 
 
 It IB with great hesitation that an outline of a course of nature study 
 is presented. The fear is that such a course might be considered as being 
 regarded by the authors of this book as having any virtue in it as such. 
 A course agreed upon and adopted is often apt to have its form of arrange- 
 ment clothed with an importance, or even a certain authority, which its 
 mere form in no way possesses. It is emphatically insisted upon that 
 many other arrangements of the subjects which follow here would seem 
 to be equally good, or even better than this suggested course, and further, 
 that no special arrangement is essential or should long persist. 
 
 However, it is a matter of convenience in execution, where there is a 
 large community of schools of many grades, to arrange subjects to be 
 taken up by the various grades at various times. Such an arrangement 
 renders aid in choice of subjects, prevents confusion and undue repeti- 
 tion, and secures to all the schools provision for the work. 
 
 The arrangement given below is based on the experience of the 
 teachers of the various schools of Oakland for the past two years, under 
 the suggestions of one of the authors and under the supervision of Miss 
 E. B. McFadden. It includes only what has been proved by actual trial 
 can be accomplished in each grade easily. 
 
 What has succeeded in this community of schools should be equally 
 suggestive in single schools. 
 
 To secure a oomewhat systematic planning and supervision of the 
 field of work, and at the same time the great liberty in choice to the 
 teacher so absolutely essential in this work, the subjects are arranged 
 under two heads: (1) Prescribed; (2) Elective. 
 
 Both the Prescribed and Elective subjects are selected from what 
 experience has taught can be handled in the grades to which they are 
 assigned, and the material for which it is known can be obtained at the 
 time at which it is placed. 
 
1 84 NATURE STUDY 
 
 The whole amount of work required in each grade consists of all the 
 subjects falling under the head of Prescribed, and a given number of 
 those under the head of Elective. 
 
 The subjects placed under the head of Prescribed are not chosen be- 
 cause they are thought to be the more important ones. They represent 
 those which the experience of the past two years of a free selection on the 
 part of the teachers from a fairly extensive list shows are more usually 
 chosen by the teachers. They are those with which the greater majority 
 have been successful. Future experience on the part of teachers would, 
 no doubt, very much modify this list. Indeed, it would be inadvisable 
 to retain this list long unchanged, on account of a certain formality which 
 might soon become attached to it. 
 
 The subjects placed under the head of Elective allow a range of 
 choice on the part of the teachers, which permits the taking advantage 
 of preferences on the part of teachers and pupils, and of favorable occa- 
 sions and conditions. This list could be indefinitely extended with profit. 
 It is here simply limited to subjects which have already been used in the 
 schools, and for which material can be readily obtained. 
 
 To avoid too much repetition of work in different grades, it is advis- 
 able to confine selections to the list as provided, unless subjects are taken 
 which are not in the whole course. Teachers should be encouraged to 
 introduce, as time and opportunity may permit, as many lessons as possi- 
 ble on subjects not specifically given in this course, and to make note of 
 their experience and report their success. The subjects outlined need 
 not be taken in their order, but selected according to season, or as class 
 needs dictate. 
 
 First Grade. 
 PRESCRIBED. 
 
 SEEDS. Dispersal. Most common forms as in lesson on Dandelion. Ar- 
 rangement in seed-case. Apparatus for dispersal. Collection of 
 seeds to show method of dispersal. 
 
 Germination and growth in several forms of seeds. Conditions neces- 
 sary for germination and growth. How the plant breaks out of 
 the seed; how it gets out of the ground. Growth of roots; of 
 leaves, the one seeking food from earth, the others from air. 
 Growth of roots from cuttings, air-roots. 
 
 All the phenomena of plant life easily understood by the children of 
 this grade. 
 
APPENDIX 185 
 
 MOTHS, BUTTERFLIES, CATERPILLARS. Breeding-cages and food; egg, size 
 and development; growth of caterpillars; feeding and moulting; 
 cocoons, or chrysalides, how made, of what. Life habits of 
 adult moth or butterfly. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT of eggs of toads, frogs, or salamanders. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT of mosquito from egg to adult. 
 
 ELECTIVE. 
 
 SELECT two subjects from the Elective List No. 1 (see posted). 
 SELECT one subject from an outside source. 
 
 Second Grade. 
 PRESCRIBED. 
 
 Use the same topics given for the First Grade, extending the observations. 
 and varying the problems given to be solved. Add to this list: 
 
 FUNGI. Their manner of growth; the various forms as given in the lessons; 
 positions in which found; their spore surfaces; discharge of spores; 
 growth of spores, etc. 
 
 ANTS. Life history and habits studied from a nest kept in the school- 
 room, also by observations in the field. 
 
 ELECTIVE. 
 
 SELECT two subjects irom tne Elective List No. 1. 
 SELECT one subject from an outside source. 
 
 Third Grade. 
 
 PRESCRIBED. 
 
 GRAPHITE. Properties, uses, comparison with lead and a few other min- 
 erals. 
 
 LEAD PENCILS. Structure, grades, account of the making, use. 
 
 POND LIFE. Jar aquaria, with some of the water insects; life, habits, 
 motions, etc. 
 
 COVERINGS OF ANIMALS. Feathers, structure, form, uses; scales; hoofs; 
 claws; fur of different animals. All to be seen as adapted to the 
 conditions of the life of the different animals. 
 
1 86 NATURE STUDY 
 
 DURING SEED-GROWING time, plant seeds not before studied, such as sun- 
 flower, castor-oil bean, buckeye, walnut, acorn, almond, or any 
 other seeds brought in by the pupils for their study. Use the di- 
 rections given under the same subject for the first grade. 
 
 ELECTIVE. 
 
 SELECT two subjects from Elective List No. 1. 
 SELECT one subject from an outside source. 
 
 Fourth Grade. 
 
 PRESCRIBED. 
 
 EVAPORATION. Liquids. Compare water, alcohol, gasoline, glycerine, mo- 
 lasses. 
 
 Show existence of vapor by use of ether, alcohol, chloroform. 
 
 Show that heat is used up during evaporation. 
 
 Evaporation of solids, such as camphor and iodine. 
 
 Condensation. 
 
 Show sources of vapor of water by condensation from breath, surface 
 of skin, under surface of leaf, etc. 
 
 Distill water from a flask. 
 
 SOLUTION. Solution of various common substances that will readily dis- 
 solve in water, such as salt; those that will not dissolve readily, 
 as camphor, potassium, bichromate, copper sulphate, and the like; 
 those that do not dissolve perceptibly. such as whiting, starch, etc. 
 
 Evaporation of water to regain substance, formation of crystals, in 
 part. 
 
 Use of funnel and filter-paper to show dissolved substances. 
 
 Application of these phenemena to fogs, clouds, snow, rain, formation 
 
 of soils, erosion, etc. 
 
 THE FUNGI GROUP, including mushrooms and the like, puff-balls, geasters, 
 moulds, lichens. Place of growth, spore surfaces, discharge of 
 spores, etc. Collect as many varieties as possible. Compare the 
 various forms studied. 
 
 Examples of parasitic plants, such as mistletoe and dodder; their life 
 
 history. 
 FINE TREE. (In season of casting pollen.) 
 
APPENDIX 187 
 
 MOSQUITO. Care of eggs; larvae and pupae, general appearance in each 
 stage; movements of larvae, how accomplished; feeding, molting, 
 movements of pupae, breathing, change to adult mosquito. 
 
 ELECTIVE. 
 
 SELECT any two subjects from Elective list No. 2. (see poslea). 
 SELECT one subject from an outside source. 
 
 Fifth Grade. 
 PRESCRIBED. 
 
 GROWTH of pistil to the fruit in dandelion, burr clover, geranium, poppy, 
 sweet pea. At least any other five may be substituted for these 
 at the convenience of the teacher. 
 THE MAGNET. Properties and uses. 
 
 MARINE LIFE. Crabs and shrimps (or lobsters). Observation of motions, 
 by what parts and how accomplished. Study of appendages, 
 attachment to body; the joints, their forms and uses. Study of 
 body, its divisions and segments which compose it. Comparison 
 of the two. Comparison with some insect already studied. 
 FRUITS. Use of edible parts. 
 
 Change in fruit by cultivation and selection. 
 
 Structure of the fruit, its parts, their arrangement in reference to 
 
 each other. 
 
 How green fruit becomes ripe. 
 Digestion of starch in the human body. 
 Use of sugar in plant life; in animal life. 
 FLOWERING PLANTS. Work of the flower. 
 
 Parts of the flowers seen in as many forms as possible. 
 
 Place of minute beginnings of seeds in ovary ; extension of the ovary 
 
 into style and stigma; stamens with pollen; corolla; calyx. 
 Provision for fertilization as seen in lupine, locust tree* peas, beans, 
 
 clovers, or any plant of the Leguminoeae. 
 
 Use of corolla, calyx, honey, perfume, color, etc., to the plant. 
 Provision for fertilization as seen in petunia, morning glory, and the 
 
 like. 
 
 SPIDERS. Collection and care of living spiders in jars and schoolrooms. 
 Pood. 
 
1 88 NATURE STUDY 
 
 Web. What kind of a spider made it, bow did it weave it, wbat use in 
 
 made of it ? 
 
 Spinning organs, position, structure, bow used. 
 General appearance of spiders. 
 Different families of spiders witb characteristics. 
 
 ELECTIVE. 
 
 SELECT two subjects from Elective List No. 2. 
 SELECT one subject from any outside source. 
 
 Sixth Grade, 
 PRESCRIBED. 
 PENDULUM. Construction. 
 
 Lengtb of a pendulum that vibrates once in one second. 
 
 Pendulum witb same length but different weigbts. 
 
 Construction of pendulum tbat vibrates once in two seconds, once in 
 
 three seconds, three times in one second. 
 Use of pendulum as a time instrument. 
 
 POND LIFE. The green scum of Ponds. 
 Diatoms. 
 
 AQUATIC INSECTS. Dragon flies; water beetles; caddis worms; pond 
 
 skaters, or watef striders ; water boatmen ; whirligig beetles. 
 Collection, care and study of life history of three kinds, or substitute 
 any other three kinds of water insects. 
 
 METALS. Collection of metals, such as copper, lead, zinc, iron, aluminum, 
 
 platinum, etc. 
 
 Properties, as relative hardness, flexibility, ease of welding, etc. 
 Alloys. 
 Uses. 
 
 How metals are taken from their ores. 
 Application to mining. 
 
 CRYSTALS. Formation of, to illustrate, occurrence in minerals. 
 
 ELECTIVE. 
 
 SELECT two subjects from Elective List No. 2. 
 SELECT one subject from any outside source. 
 
APPENDIX 189 
 
 Seventh Grade. 
 
 PRESCRIBED. 
 DISTILLATION of water. 
 FJROST AND ICE. Formation of frost. 
 
 Temperature melting ice. 
 
 Temperature freezing mixtures. 
 
 Why ice floats. 
 
 Manufacture of artificial ice. 
 
 Application to geographical features. 
 LIFE HISTORY OF PERNS. 
 OXYGEN AND CARBONIC Aero. Preparation. 
 
 Properties. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 Application to human life, plant life, etc. 
 
 DIFFUSION OF GASES. 
 
 STUDY of the candle flame. Parts of the flame. 
 
 How the flame is produced. 
 
 Use of different material for producing flame. 
 ILLUMINATING GAS. Preparation of gas in the schoolroom. 
 
 Process of burning in coal and wood. 
 
 Preparation of gas for use in city. 
 
 Visit to gas works. 
 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. Growth and use of root hairs. 
 
 The plant's food. 
 
 Show that plants take up water. 
 
 Show that water escapes from plants' leaves. 
 
 Trace course of water absorbed by roots. 
 
 Examination of stomata. 
 
 Material of soil dissolved in water and used by plant*. 
 
 Making, using and storing starch in the plant. 
 
 Food of mushrooms, moulds and the like. 
 
 Food of lichens. 
 
 Food of mistletoe, dodder, etc. 
 
 ELECTIVE. 
 
 SELECT one subject from Elective List No. 2. 
 SFLECT one subject from any outside source. 
 
190 NATURE STUDY 
 
 PRESCRIBED. Each member of the class is to select an experiment or a 
 lesson on some plant or animal which he is to present to the 
 class, using his own apparatus or material that he himself has 
 prepared. 
 
 Eighth Grade. 
 
 PRESCRIBED. 
 BIRDS. Part of the work, if not all, given in the notes. 
 
 CAPILLARY ATTRACTION. Illustration of capillary attraction by means 
 of set of tubes, sheets of glass, a sponge, cloth, lump of sugar, 
 etc. 
 
 Capillary attraction in gravel, sand, clay. 
 
 Application to plant life in California. 
 
 Reason for cultivation of orchards. 
 SOILS. Structure. 
 
 Kinds of soil. 
 
 Relation of soil to growing roots. 
 
 Relation of soil to percolating water. 
 PRESSURE of liquids and air. 
 
 Why bodies float. 
 
 Why some bodies float more above the water than others. 
 
 Why some bodies sink. 
 
 Effect of some floating bodies in lighter or heavier liquids. 
 
 Application to ventilation and winds. 
 
 Construction and use of barometer. 
 CURRENTS in water. 
 
 Currents in boiling water\ 
 
 Currents in vessels of different shapes. 
 
 Effect of unequal heating on currents. 
 CURRENTS in air. 
 
 Exploration of schoolroom for currents of air. 
 
 Construction of hot air balloon. 
 
 Application to winds and to ventilation. 
 
 ELECTIVE. 
 SELECT one subject from any outside source. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 Elective List No. 1. 
 
 191 
 
 For Primary Grades (1st, 2d and 3rd). 
 
 Caterpillars. 
 
 Bees. 
 
 Ante. 
 
 Crabs, shrimps, lobsters and clams. 
 
 Earthworms. 
 
 Coverings of animals. 
 
 Snails and slugs. 
 
 Common minerals. 
 
 Lead pencil. 
 
 Fish in an aquarium. 
 
 Spiders. 
 
 Ferns, mosses. 
 
 Mushrooms, moulds, lichens, etc. 
 
 Elective List No. 2. 
 
 For Grammar Grades. 
 
 Germination and growth of seeds. 
 Distribution of seeds. 
 Moths, butterflies and caterpillars. 
 Development of frogs and salaman- 
 der's eggs. 
 
 Development of mosquitoes. 
 Breathing of insects. 
 Ants. 
 
 Bees and wasps. 
 
 Tond life including aquatic insects. 
 Coverings of animals. 
 
 Fruits. 
 
 Effect of heat on gases, liquids and 
 
 solids, or any of the 
 Physical experiments. 
 The fungi group. 
 Marine life such as crabs, shrimps, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Flowering plants. 
 Oxygen. 
 Carbonic acid. 
 Birds. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 Air, Composition of 149 
 
 " Expanded by Heat 83 
 
 " Pressure of 171 
 
 Animals, Covering of 141 
 
 Ants' Nests 147 
 
 Aquaria, for Schoolroom 48 
 
 Back Swimmer 72 
 
 Balloon, Hot Air 89 
 
 Ballooning of Spiders 118 
 
 Bee and the Lupine 51 
 
 Bee, Cross Fertilization of Lupines, 54 
 
 " Leg of 57-58 
 
 Bird Fauna of a Locality 181 
 
 ' Skins, How Obtained 178 
 
 Birds 177 
 
 B rds, Bill of 177 
 
 Colors of 180 
 
 Feet of 177 
 
 Migratory 181 
 
 Nesting of 180 
 
 Notes of Habits of 181 
 
 Residents 181 
 
 Song of 181 
 
 Black Flies 66 
 
 Boiling 92 
 
 Boletus 40 
 
 Breathing of Insects 174 
 
 Breeding Cages for Insects 46 
 
 Brook Insects 60 
 
 Caddice Flies 65 
 
 Candle Flame 154 
 
 Capillary Attraction 100 
 
 Carbonic Acid 128. 152 
 
 " Test for 152 
 
 Caterpillars 45-46 
 
 Preserving 33 
 
 Caullcle 26 
 
 Chlorophyll 130 
 
 Chrysalids 45 
 
 Clams 146 
 
 Clay 99 
 
 Clouds, How Composed 92 
 
 Cocoons 45-46 
 
 Collecting Net for Insects 30 
 
 Collection of Insects, How to Make, 30 
 
 Condensation 93 
 
 Conifers, Fertilization of 58 
 
 Cotyledons 26 
 
 Covering of Animals 141 
 
 Crabs 146 
 
 Cross Fertilization 54 
 
 Crystallization, Solution and ... 95 
 Crystals, How to Obtain. ... 96 
 
 Cultivation of Soil, Reason for ... 100 
 
 Page 
 
 Currents in Air and Water 87 
 
 Currents in Water 90 
 
 Damsel Flies 78 
 
 Dandelion 7 
 
 Dandelion, Seed Forming 7 
 
 Diatoms 127 
 
 Diffusion of Gases 153 
 
 Dodder 135 
 
 Dragon Flies 74 
 
 " Feeding Habits of ... 76 
 
 " " Transformations of . . 76 
 
 Duck, Bill and Feet of 179 
 
 Earthworms 140 
 
 Eggs of Frogs, Toads and Salaman- 
 ders 137 
 
 Embryo, of Plant 26 
 
 Eschscholtzia . 51 
 
 Expansion of Air by Heat 83 
 
 " " Solids by Heat .... 85 
 " Water by Heat .... 81 
 
 Feathers 141 
 
 Ferns 120 
 
 Fertilization of Flower 53 
 
 Flame of Candle . 154 
 
 Flower, Parts of a 52 
 
 Flowering Plants 128 
 
 Fogs, How Composed 92 
 
 Food of Plants 128 
 
 Frogs, Eggs of 127 
 
 Frost 101 
 
 Fruits 130 
 
 " Ripening of 131 
 
 Fruit Trees, Fertilization of Flowers, 58 
 
 Fungi 35 
 
 Fungi, Feeding Habits of 43 
 
 Fungus, Life History of 39 
 
 Gas Making . . 154 
 
 Gases 149 
 
 Gases, Diffusion of 153 
 
 Geaster 41 
 
 Giant Water Bug 74 
 
 Gills of Water Insects 60 
 
 Graphite 164 
 
 Grasshopper, Breathing of 174 
 
 Gravel 99 
 
 Hawks, Feet and Beak of 179 
 
 Heat 79 
 
 Heat Expands Air 83 
 
 Solids 85 
 
 " " Water 81 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 Ice, Experiments with ....... 101 
 
 Ichneumon Flies ........... 47 
 
 Insectary ............... 45 
 
 Insect Cases ............. 33 
 
 " Killing Bottle ........ 31 
 
 " Labels ............. 34 
 
 " Net .............. 30 
 
 " Pins .............. 32 
 
 Insects, Brook ............ 60 
 
 Insects, How to Make a Collection 
 
 Of ................. 30 
 
 Insects, Pond ........... . 68 
 
 " Rearing, in the Schoolroom, 45 
 
 Insects, Some Water ........ 60 
 
 Killing Bottle for Insects 
 
 31 
 
 Labels for Insects 31 
 
 Lead Pencils 164 
 
 Lichens 133 
 
 Liquids, Pressure of 171 
 
 Lobsters 145 
 
 Lupine, Character of Flower . . . 55 
 
 Cross Fertilization of ... 54 
 
 Lupine, The Bee and the 51 
 
 Magnets 158 
 
 Magnetic Needle, To Determine Di- 
 rection of 159 
 
 Magnetic Needle, Variation of ... 159 
 
 Magnetism 158 
 
 Maple Seeds 10 
 
 Marine Life 145 
 
 May Flies 60 
 
 Melon Flowers Fertilized by Insects, 59 
 
 Metals and Minerals 166 
 
 Metals, Properties of 166 
 
 Minerals, Metals and 166 
 
 Mistletoe 135 
 
 Monterey Pine Seed ......... 10 
 
 Moon 168 
 
 Moon, Apparatus to Study Motion of, 169 
 
 " Movements of 168 
 
 Mosquito 12 
 
 Mosquito, Collecting and Rearing . 12 
 
 " Eggs 12, 18 
 
 Moss on Oaks 124 
 
 Mosses 124 
 
 Mould on Bread 42 
 
 Moulds 41 
 
 Moulting of Feathers 143 
 
 Mucor 43 
 
 Mushroom 37 
 
 Nests of Ants 147 
 
 Net for Collecting Insects 30 
 
 North Star, Revolution of 159 
 
 Ovary of Flower 52 
 
 Owl, Feet and Beak of 179 
 
 Oxygen 149 
 
 Combustion of Substances in, 151 
 How to Make . . .149 
 
 Page 
 
 Parasitic Insects 47 
 
 Parasitic Plants 135 
 
 Pencils, Lead, How Made 164 
 
 Pendulum 161 
 
 Petunia 56-57 
 
 Phenonema of Non-living Things . . 79 
 
 Pigeon, Structure of 177 
 
 Pine Tree 133 
 
 Pinning Insects 32 
 
 Pins, Insect ... 32 
 
 Pistil of Flower 52 
 
 Pitawood for Insect Boxes .... 33 
 
 Plants, Food 128 
 
 Plants Without Flowers 120 
 
 Plumule 26 
 
 Pollen of Flower 53 
 
 " " Pine Tree 133 
 
 Pond Insects 68 
 
 " Scum 126 
 
 Poppy, California 52 
 
 Potato, Starch in 132 
 
 Pressure of Air and Liquids . . . .171 
 
 Prothallium of Fern 120 
 
 Puff Balls 40 
 
 Rearing Insects in the Schoolroom, 45 
 
 Root Cap 28 
 
 " Systems 27 
 
 " Tip 28 
 
 Roots, Growth of. 24 
 
 Salamanders, Eggs of . 
 Sand . 
 
 Sandpiper, Bill and Legs of. 
 Scum, Green, of Ponds. . . . 
 Seed, Coats of 
 
 " Leaves 
 
 " Structure of 
 
 Seeds 
 
 Germination of . . . . 
 
 " of Pine Trees 
 
 Setting Board for Insects . . 
 Shrimps 
 
 L lugs, Snails and 
 
 Smoke, What it is 
 
 Snails and Slugs 
 
 Snipe, Bill and Legs of 
 
 Soap Bubbles 
 
 Soil 
 
 Solids Expanded by Heat 
 
 Solution and Crystallization . . . . 
 
 Spawn of Mushroom 
 
 Sphinx Moth, Visiting Petunia . . . 
 
 Spiders, About 
 
 Spider, Structure of . . 
 
 1 Webs 
 
 " Spinning of 
 
 Spiders, Catching 
 
 Danger of Bite of 
 
 Eyes of 
 
 Fangs of 
 
 Field Work 
 
 Identifying and Collecting 
 
 137 
 
 99 
 179 
 126 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 133 
 
 33 
 
 145 
 
 139 
 
 156 
 
 139 
 
 179 
 
 162 
 
 99 
 
 85 
 
 95 
 
 38 
 
 57 
 
 103 
 
 106 
 
 112 
 
 116 
 
 103 
 
 103 
 
 107 
 
 107 
 
 108 
 
 , 103 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 Spiders, Preserving 33 
 
 Schoolroom Work 103 
 
 Spinning Organs of .... 107 
 
 The Crab 110 
 
 The Jumping 109 
 
 The Running 109 
 
 Trapdoor Ill 
 
 Spiracles of Grasshopper 175 
 
 Spirogyra 126 
 
 Spore Print of Fungus 40 
 
 Spores of Ferns 181 
 
 " " Moss 125 
 
 " " Mushroom 37 
 
 Spreading Wings of Butterflies ... 33 
 
 Stamens of Flower 53 
 
 Starch Changing to Sugar 132 
 
 " Made by Plant 130 
 
 " Tested for in Fruits 132 
 
 " " Potato 132 
 
 Stigma of Flower 53 
 
 Stomata of Leaf . .- 129 
 
 Stone Flies 60 
 
 Style of Flower 53 
 
 Sugar Made from Starch 132 
 
 Surface Film . 15 
 
 wallow, Mouth and Feet of 179 
 
 Page 
 
 Tarantulas 110 
 
 Temperature of Ice 101 
 
 Thermometer, How to Make 84 
 
 Toads, Eggs of 138 
 
 Toadstool 36 
 
 Tracheae of Insects 175 
 
 Trapdoor Spiders Ill 
 
 Triangle Spider 117 
 
 Ventilation in Miniature Room ... 88 
 " Schoolroom 88 
 
 Water as Plants' Food 128 
 
 " Beetles 70 
 
 " " Breathing of 71 
 
 " Boatmen 72 
 
 " Bugs 70 
 
 " Currents in 90 
 
 " Expanded by Heat 81 
 
 Water Insects 60 
 
 Webs of Spiders 112 
 
 Whirligig Beetles 68 
 
 Woodpecker. Bill, Feet and Tail of , 179 
 Wrigglers 12 
 
The Western Series of Readers 
 
 EDITED BY HARR WAGNER 
 
 Designed Especially for Supplementary Work in 
 
 HISTORY AND NATURE STUDY 
 
 In Our Public Schools 
 
 All Fully and Beautifully Illustrated. Each Volume Contains from 
 Eighteen to Twenty-Six Full-Page Pictures. 
 
 EXTENSIVELY ADOPTED AND USED IN THE SCHOOLS OF THE PACIFIC COAST 
 
 VOL. I 
 
 PACIFIC HISTORY STORIES 
 
 By HARR WAGNER 
 
 FOP Fourth and Fifth Grades 
 
 During the short time that this book has been on the market its 
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 educators, to be excellently adapted to the work for which it was 
 intended a supplementary reader in history study in the Fourth 
 and Fifth Grades. Fully two-thirds of the counties in California 
 have this book on their supplementary and library list. 
 
 VOL. II 
 
 PACIFIC NATURE STORIES 
 
 By HARR WAGNER and DAVID S. JORDAN and others 
 
 For Fourth and Fifth Grades 
 
 A companion volume to the above. It contains some eighteen most 
 interesting and instructive sketches of our Western animal and 
 vegetable life, all told in a delightfully flowing style aud written by 
 the greatest educators of the West. As a reading book in nature 
 study it cannot be excelled. 
 
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 NATURE STORIES OF THE NORTHWEST 
 
 By HERBERT BASHFORD 
 
 State Librarian of Washington 
 
 For Sixth and Seventh Grades 
 
 This book covers a more extended field than Volume II, and is not 
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 will be found those of The Black Bear , The Kingfisher, The Clam, 
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 TALES OF DISCOVERY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 
 By MARGARET GRAHAM HOOD 
 
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