GIG 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 )UTHER 
 
 1 
 
 
 \IREGIO
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 cr
 
 Republic of Mexico 
 
 IN 1876. 
 
 A l-OI-lTItAI. ANU ETHNOGRArHICAL DIVISION Ol- THE POPULATION, 
 
 CHARACTER, 
 
 HABITS, COSTUMES ANU VOCATIONS OF ITS INHABITANTS 
 
 WRITTEN IN SPANISH 
 
 ANTONIO GARCIA CUBAS 
 
 Author of various geographical 
 and statistical treatises respecting the same Republic 
 
 TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH 
 
 GEORGE F. HENDERSON. 
 
 Jllvttrated with plate* of the principal tvpei of the ethnographic families 
 CTiKl several specimens of popular music 
 
 MEXICO 
 
 •*LA ENSENANZA" PRINTING OFFICE 
 
 PORTAL DK MERCADERES N. 7 
 
 187^ 
 
 S1092
 
 
 TO 
 
 WILLIAM BARRON ESQUIRE 
 
 AS A TESTIMONIAL OF ESTEEM AND GRATITUDE 
 
 HIS OBEDIENT SERVAN T 
 
 Antonio Garcia Cubas.
 
 This book has been written with the view of removing the 
 wrong impressions that may have been left on the minds 
 of the readers of those works which, with evil intent or 
 v) with the desire of acquiring notoriety as novelists, have 
 ^ been composed and published by different foreigners in 
 \ regard to the Mexican nation. The impressions received 
 during a rapid excursion of pure amusement, without 
 making any longer stay in the various towns, than the 
 '^ time required to repack their valise and continue on a 
 s journey of useless results ; the isolated facts that are ob- 
 served in every society in contradiction to general ru- 
 les, and a disposition to judge events without a proper 
 examination and careful study, are not sufficient to obtain 
 a complete knowledge of any class of people, and much 
 less to authorize such impressions through the medium of 
 V* the press. The works of similar writers, in misleading the 
 3 conceptions of the public, conspire against the real utility 
 of general information, as their ideas (in direct opposition 
 to those given to the world by such profound observers 
 as Humboldt, Burkart, Sartorius and Jourdanet,) cannot 
 convey any instruction to our intelligence, but only dis- 
 pose the mind to receive the impressions produced by 
 the novel. 
 
 The scarcity of the population of Mexico in comparison 
 to its large extent of territory ; the imrivalled geographical 
 position of the country, between the two great Oceans,
 
 the fertility and topographical advantages of its lands, 
 which are adapted to every kind of productions and to 
 the life of men of every clime, the docile character of its 
 inhabitants, the admirable falls of water, particularly in 
 the delightful temperate regions, with their perpetual 
 streams, offer the highest inducements to the esta- 
 blishment of manufacturing and other enterprizes ; the 
 working of mines of precious metals and other useful mi- 
 neral substances, the extraction especially of quicksilver 
 and coal, and in short so many and so propitious gifts as 
 those with which Nature has enriched Mexico, cause it 
 to be one of the choicest countries in the world for coloni- 
 zation ; but in order to attain this desirable object, it is 
 requisite to make known those \ital elements and foun- 
 tains of wealth that yet remain unexplored, and with this 
 purpose, the present work only leads the way to a series of 
 publications destined for the information of those abroad, 
 and written by Mexicans devoted to the prosperity of the 
 Republic, and which will doubtless contribute to the de- 
 velopment of so wished-for a result. 
 
 The first part of this work treats of the population in 
 general and its classification ; the second, of the immigra- 
 tion of the first settlers of Mexico ; the third, of the eth- 
 nography and description of the different indigenous races, 
 who are daily disappearing, and the last part is composed 
 of the recapitulation detailing the numerical importance 
 of these same people.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Political part. Situation of the Republic, its extent and boun- 
 daries 9. 
 
 Government of the Republic 10. 
 
 Political division and population 12. 
 
 Occupations and manufactures. Agriculture 24. 
 
 Mining 25. 
 
 Arts and manufactures 28. 
 
 Trade 30. 
 
 Public instruction 33. 
 
 Historical PART. Immigration of the former settlers of Mexico. 41. 
 
 The Toltecs 43. 
 
 The Chichimecas 51. 
 
 The Nahuatlatas, Xuchimilcas, Chalcas, Tepanecas, Acolhuas, 
 
 Tlahuicas and Tlaxcaltecas 53. 
 
 Aztecs or Mexicans. ' 55. 
 
 Ethnographical and descriptive part. General considerations 
 
 regarding the indigenous race 61. 
 
 Ethnographical tables 65. 
 
 I Mexican family 67: 
 
 II Sonora or Opata-Pima family 70. 
 
 III Comanche -Shoshone family 75. 
 
 IV Texian or Coahuilteca family 78. 
 
 V Keres-Zuni famil}'. , 80. 
 
 VI Mutzun family 81. 
 
 VII & VIII Guaicura and Cochimi-Laimon family .... 82. 
 
 IX Seri family 83. 
 
 X Tarasca family 84. 
 
 XI Zoque-lNIixe family 92. 
 
 XII Totonaca family 93. 
 
 XIII Mizteco-Zapoteca family 98. 
 
 XIV Pirinda or Matlaltzinca family 104. 
 
 XV Maya family 105. 
 
 XVI Chontal family 112. 
 
 XVII Families originating from Nicaragua 114. 
 
 XVIII Apache family «• 116. 
 
 XIX Othomi family 119. 
 
 Recapitulation. Numerical distribution of the indigenous fami- 
 lies. Report on the races. Causes of their decline. 125.
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 ITS EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES 
 
 The territory of tlie Mexican United States embraces an ex- 
 tent of 9. 343,470 square kilometres, comprised within 15° and 
 32" 42' of Latitude North and between 12" 21' Longitude East 
 and 18° West of the capital of the Republic; or 86° 46' 8" and 
 1 17" 7' 8" West of Greenwich. On the North it is bounded by 
 the United States of America, with which, the River Bravo 
 forms the line of division, at three leagues from its mouth, 
 from whence it continues in the direction of that river by the 
 States of Tamaulipas, Coahuila and Chihuahua, up to the pa- 
 rallel of 31" 47' of latitude North, near to the town of Paso del 
 Norte ; from this point for one hundred miles in a straight 
 line to the West; thence to the South, to parallel 31° 20' 
 Latitude North ; the same parallel continuing from this point 
 to 1 1 1° of longitude West of Greenwich ; from here in a right 
 line to a point on the River Colorado, situated at 20 miles 
 below the confluence of the Gila with the same river ; and 
 from thence up the river as far as where the boundary line 
 meets between the two Californias. On the South East, it is 
 bounded by the Republic of Guatemala, whose limits have 
 not yet been geographically defined. On the East, the coasts
 
 10 
 
 of the Republic are bathed by the waters of the Gulf of Me- 
 xico, which extend themselves, without taking into account 
 their development, 2,580 kilometres ; of which 400 pertain 
 to Tamaulipas, 640 to Vera Cruz, 190 to Tabasco, 360 to 
 Campeachy and 990 to Yucatan. On the West, the coasts 
 that are bathed by the waters of the Grand Ocean composing 
 the Gulf of California, embrace a greater extent, or about 
 6,650 kilometres, and of these. Lower California measures 
 from 2,900 to 3,000, Sonora 860, Sinaloa 510, Jalisco 500, 
 Colima 160, Michoacan 130, Guerrero 460, Oaxaca 410 and 
 Chiapas 220. 
 
 At the South Eastern part of Yucatan, the territory of 
 Belize is situated, which is in possession of the English, in 
 virtue of a permit for cutting timber. Its limits are stated in 
 the treaty of peace entered into between the King of Spain 
 and the King of Great Britain, signed on the 3rd of November 
 1783 and amplified on the 14th of July 1786. In these treaties, 
 the rivers Hondo, Belize and Sibun appear as the limits-. 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 The government of the Republic is representative, democra- 
 tic and federal. The capital of the nation, which is also that 
 of the District, is the residence of the Supreme powers of the 
 Federation, wich are distributed into Legislative, Executive 
 and Judicial. — The Legislative power is composed of the 
 general Congress, divided between the Chamber of deputies
 
 II 
 
 and that of the Senate. The members of the assembly of 
 deputies are elected in their totality by Mexican citizens, 
 every two years, one for each 40,000 inhabitants and for every 
 fraction exceeding 20,000. The Senate is composed of two 
 Senators for each State and two for the Federal District, the 
 election being indirect in the first degree, and proceeding 
 from the respective legislatures of the States. 
 
 The Executive power is deposited in one sole individual, 
 denominated " The President of the Mexican United States," 
 whose election is popular, and for a term of four years, he en- 
 tering upon his duties on the first of December. The President 
 has the power of appointing six Secretaries of State ; namely, 
 for the Foreign Department, Home Department, Justice and 
 Public Instruction, ( "Fomento" ) or Public Works and Coloni- 
 zation, Finances and Public Credit, and War and Marine. 
 The judicial power is constituted of the Supreme Court of 
 Justice, and the District and Circuit Courts. The first is 
 composed of eleven proprietary magistrates, four supernume- 
 raries, one "fiscal" and one solicitor general. Their election 
 is also popular, and for a period of six years. 
 
 The President of the Supreme Court is the Vice-President 
 of the Republic. 
 
 The States of the Mexican Federation are free, sovereign 
 and independent, in all that concerns their interior regimen, 
 but united in conformity with the precepts of the Constitution 
 founded upon the rights of man and social guarantees, sanc- 
 tioned on the fifth of February 1857.
 
 12 
 
 POLITICAL DIVISION AND POPULATION 
 
 The present population of the Republic reaches the cipher 
 of 9.495.157 inhabitants, distributed in the following manner: 
 
 FRONTIER STATES. 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 III 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 IX 
 
 X 
 
 XI 
 
 XII 
 
 XIII 
 
 XIV 
 
 XV 
 
 XVI 
 
 XVII 
 
 XVIII 
 
 XIX 
 
 XX 
 
 XXI 
 
 XXII 
 
 XXIII 
 
 XXIV 
 
 XXV 
 
 XXVI 
 
 XXVII 
 
 bonora, 
 Coahuila, 
 Chihuahua, 
 New Leon, 
 
 STATES ON THE GULF OF MEXICO. 
 
 Tamaulipas, 
 Vera Cruz, 
 Tabasco. 
 Campeachy, 
 Yucatan, 
 
 STATES ON THE PACIFIC OCE^VN. 
 
 Sinaloa, 
 
 Jalisco, 
 
 Colima, 
 
 Michoacan, 
 
 Guerrero, 
 
 Oaxaca, . 
 
 Chiapa.s, 
 
 CENTRAIi STATES. 
 
 Durango 
 
 Zacatecas 
 
 Aguascalientes, 
 
 San Lui.s Potosi 
 
 Guanajuato, 
 
 Queretaro, 
 
 Hidalgo, 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Morelos 
 
 Pucbla 
 
 Tlaxcala 
 
 District of Mexico 
 
 Territory of Lower California. 
 
 115,000 
 
 104.137 
 190,000 
 igo.ooo 
 
 599.I37 
 
 1 40,000 
 520,000 
 
 95.597 
 
 86,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 200,000 
 080,000 
 '65,8=7 
 618,240 
 325,000 
 661,706 
 195,000 
 
 4-343.650 
 
 340,000 
 25,000 
 
 The last reports from the State Governments have given 
 the greater part of the data for the formation of the preceding
 
 '3 
 
 census, but part of them not being of a very recent date, on 
 account of some of the authorities not having presented the 
 respective documents, from not being required to do so by 
 their particular constitutions, I have found myself obliged to 
 obtain the necessary information by means of calculation, 
 taking for my basis, previous data and the changes in the 
 population. The relations which affect the annual increase, 
 vary in distinct parts of the Republic, owing to the differences 
 of climate, elevation, topographical position of the places, 
 dryness or humidity of the soil, and the abundance or scarcity 
 of timber lands principally exercising their influence in the 
 increment of the population, in the altitude and consequent 
 pressure of the air. Doctor Jourdanet, in the work he so con- 
 scientiously published, '^established three divisions, denominat- 
 ing them : upper table lands, intermediate region and lower 
 region, considering the first as at an elevation of more than 
 2,000 metres, the second from 800 to 2,000 metres and the 
 third from the level of the sea to 800. 
 
 Comparing the census of the year 1810 with that of 1858, 
 Doctor Jourdanet considers the annual increase of population 
 in 3.06 for each 1,000 inhabitants in the upper table lands, and 
 in 6.50 in the lower and intermediate regions ; and again 
 comparing the data relative to 1838 and 1857, ^^^ obtains 
 8.57 for each 1,000 in the first named region and 9.84 in the 
 second. 
 
 Imperfect as may have been the data that served as the 
 basis of these calculations, statistical results, as Dr. Jourdanet 
 observes, contradict the general belief as to the superiority 
 of the life of man in the higher regions, to those of the inter- 
 mediate ones. The results he obtained cannot be considered 
 as entirely correct. The imperfection of the census, and par- 
 ticularly that of i8iO;the war of independence; the epidemics; 
 the revolutions that have agitated the Republic ; the foreign 
 wars and other perturbing causes, as also the situation of the 
 towns in which the difference of height changes suddenly ; 
 and the climatological conditions of each one of the three 
 regions referred to, are so many circumstances that make a 
 perfect calculation impossible. 
 
 Influence of the pressure of the air on the life of man. — Paris, 1875.
 
 The more recent data, as a natural result of tlie advance- 
 ment of the people and of more reliable statistics, and prin- 
 cipally as a consequence of the state of tranquillity, which the 
 Republic has enjoyed during the last seven years, and but 
 slightly disturbed, offers most certainly a better basis for 
 obtaining an annual report as to the increase of population. 
 Whether comparison be made as to the census of distinct 
 periods, in relation to certain localities, or whether they all 
 be confronted together ; in any way whatever, a result will 
 be obtained, analogous to those acquired by Dr. Jourdanet, 
 even althougli the numbers indicated by the reports be very 
 different. Those that have reference to the latest data ought 
 to be considered as approaching nearest to the truth, from the 
 fact that they have been ascertained during a period that has 
 not been interrupted by disturbances interfering with the 
 natural increase of population. After having regularly observ- 
 ed this increase for the space of fifteen years, and comparing 
 the latest data referred to, I have obtained i.io per cent of 
 annual increase in the upper region and 1.85 per cent in the 
 intermediate and lower countries. 
 /'' The differences of dress, customs and language, in the Mex- 
 ; ican Republic, make known the heterogeneousness of its po- 
 pulation, which may be divided into three principal groups ; 
 viz, the white race and more direct descendants of the Span- 
 iards, the mixed race and the Indian race. 
 
 The habits and customs of the individuals who compose 
 the first division, conform in general to European civilization, 
 and particularly to the fashions of the French with reminis- 
 cences of the Spaniards. Their national language is Spanish ; 
 French is much in vogue, whilst English, German an Italian 
 are greatly extended. 
 
 The bases of public instruction of which I shall speak here- 
 after, are composed of literary and artistical classical works, 
 a knowledge of the Latin and Greek roots, and the great 
 principles of science in all its branches. To the latter group 
 in general, belong the exercise of various professions, and the 
 vital element of capital, which forms the firmest support of 
 agriculture, the arts, mining enterprices and trade, for the 
 development of which, the Republic maintains close relations
 
 with Europe and the United States. Existing these relations, as 
 they really do exist, the unacquaintance as to our civilization 
 in the old world, -fs incomprehensible, nor is it credible that 
 some few books, written with inexactness and evil intention, 
 should preponderate over the instructive pages and valuable 
 conceptions emitted in good faith, by a Humboldt, a Burchart, 
 a Sartorius or a Jourdanet. The works of many distinguished 
 Mexicans are also deserving of praise, as they alone would 
 suffice to make known the reality of our social status. The 
 books that have been published in Europe, in regard to Me- 
 xico, well merit refutation from their misrepresentations, but 
 as this is not the object of the present work, I shall only oc- 
 cupy myself with one publication, having tendences to defame 
 the character of the Mexican ladies, — a most despicable 
 trait, — when, for their brilliant qualities, both in social and 
 in domestic life, they are entitled to the highest commenda- 
 tion. The conjugal happiness enjoyed by many foreigners 
 united to Mexican women affords the most solemn contradic- 
 tion that can be given to similar detractors. 
 
 Mr. Figuier, in his work of " The human races," reproduces 
 an engraving from another European publication, which re- 
 presents the type of a woman of the people, and not that of 
 one of the principal ladies of Mexico, as he supposes. This 
 type is taken from a correct photograph by Mr. Jules Michaud 
 and is the same that I have copied in No. i of my collection, 
 plate No. II. I have also represented the type of another 
 woman of the lower class who appears in Mr. Figuier 's work 
 as the servant of the former. On comparing Mr. Michaud's 
 photograph with the engraving shown in the work referred to, 
 I have formed the conviction that there has been bad faith in 
 its reproduction. In the photograph, which has been transfer- 
 red in the number referred to, a woman is seen of an agreea- 
 ble and lovely figure, and not with the characteristics of the 
 negro race, as she appears in the adulterated plate of Mr. Fi- 
 guier's work. Moreover, this gentleman, wha, doubtless, has 
 produced many recommendable works, would have done well 
 in abandoning the routine of classifying the Mexican nation 
 among the red-skins. 
 
 It is to be supposed that the thirst of speculation has
 
 i6 
 
 obliged the editors of similar writings, to excite curiosity, by 
 presenting the most extravagant types, instead of those that 
 in their equality with Europeans, would attract little or no 
 special atention. Other works, such as those of Eyma and 
 Chevalier, which recommend themselves by their elegance of 
 style and just appreciations, tend but little, as an ultimate 
 result, to enlighten their readers, being confined to the poli- 
 tical object with which they were written. By these works 
 it may be remarked that both the middling class as well as 
 those of a higher position, in their style of dress, follow the 
 French fashions, without any other alteration, than that which 
 depends upon the time required by the Steamers to bring the 
 plates and sketches of the latest changes. 
 
 As I have already mentioned, the nearest descendants of 
 the Spaniards and those less mixed up with the native race in 
 Mexico, belong by their complexion to the white race, for 
 which reason their number, to-day, is more considerable than 
 is supposed. The natural inclination of the mixed race to the 
 habits and customs of their white brethren, as well as their 
 estrangement from those of the natives, is the reason that 
 many of them figure in the most important associations of the 
 country, by their learning and intelligence, including in this 
 large number, the worthy members of the middling classes. 
 From this powerful coalition, the force of an energetic deve- 
 lopment naturally results, Avhich is inimical to the increment 
 of the indigenous race, not a few of the natives contributing 
 to this fatal consequence, who by their enlightenment have 
 ingressed into the body I have referred to, thereby founding 
 new families with the habits and customs of the upper classes. 
 
 The white race is found to be specially concentrated in 
 the larger centres of population, and is generally extended 
 throughout the country, its individuals revealing in the towns, 
 the large landed properties and the most humble villages, the 
 social qualities that adorn them, by their politenness and 
 agreeable manners, as well as by their hospitable character. If 
 Mexican civilization is not known in Europe, the fault belongs 
 to some of the foreign travellers, who have disdained to enter 
 into relations with the intelligent classes of society. 
 
 Desiring to disseminate a thorough acquaintance with
 
 ^6y 
 
 ii^mmim^msm^ 
 
 m^W^^^^^ 
 
 ^'rii,-...i:f'lJg:iJ^|a#
 
 17 
 
 Mexican society, such as it really is, I fix myself by preference 
 on all those qualities that characterize it and are entirely 
 unknown abroad, without disowning", notwithstanding, the 
 defects it is subject to and which are inherent to all the 
 communities of the world. The distinguished German, E.Sar- 
 torius, who resided for many years in the country, and was 
 without doubt, one of the few well informed foreigners in all 
 concerning the Republic of Mexico, in his interesting dissert- 
 ation, "The importance of Mexico for German emigration," 
 treats of the character of Mexicans, circumscribing their defects 
 and vices to their true limits. This learned German, whose 
 recent death we sincerely deplore, expresses himself in the 
 following terms : 
 
 " Doubtless, there are many names for all the mixed races, 
 according to their origin from white and black, olive and 
 white, olive and black, etc., but these are entirely insignificant 
 politically and socially. There cannot exist any doubt, but 
 that the Caucasian race, by its intelligence and capacity are 
 those that prevail in the country ; and therefore, speaking in 
 common, the population is divided in-to only two classes, 
 namely : white and colored. 
 
 " In Mexico there is no slavery : every one who treads its 
 soil is free, even though he may have lived in a state of bond- 
 age. All the inhabitants are free and equal before the law. 
 Only by judicial sentence can men be deprived of their civil 
 active rights. Every individual, without distinction of color, 
 is eligible to public employs, etc. This is established solely by 
 the constitution and is practiced. Hereditary titles and dig- 
 nities are abolished. 
 
 " On examining how these two bodies are divided in socie- 
 ty, we find that the white population forms the class that 
 fills the first rank in intelligence and position. 
 
 "According to numerical proportion, they compose the 
 smaller fraction, especially in the Southern part of the Republic, 
 whilst in the Northern sections, the white race predominates. 
 Since the independence of Mexico, the prerogative of being 
 a Spaniard by birth has no political importance, and as there 
 are no genealogical trees lo show distinction of blood many 
 consider themselves as pure Creoles who are probably of a
 
 i8 
 
 mixed race, but who from their color might readily pass for 
 white people. It is for this reason that their number has 
 increased to a million and a half According to official data 
 the number of Europeans reaches thirty thousand individuals. 
 
 "The character of the Mexican Creole assimilates consider- 
 ably to that of the Spaniard from whom he descends, although 
 he possesses more of the vivacity of the Andalusians than 
 the gravity of the Castilians or Gallegos. He is active, jovial, 
 ardent and gay, although frequently careless and prodigal. 
 In their social behaviour, the Creoles, both well and poorly 
 educated, have much natural politeness, and in their mode 
 of life possess many private virtues that render them worthy 
 of esteem. I must mention, particularly, the respect paid by 
 children to their parents ; their hospitality : their humane 
 treatment towards their servants, who are considered as 
 belonging to the family, and their protection of orphans. 
 Immediately a child loses its parents, it is adopted by its 
 godfathers, and if these should be wanting, a rivalry is 
 excited between other families to shelter the abandoned crea- 
 ture." 
 
 The mixed race, like that of the whites, occupy in general 
 the larger centres of population, where they apply themselves 
 to mechanical arts or are engaged as servants ; they are also 
 found disseminated over the whole country, employing them- 
 selves in agricultural labors, in mining, in manufacturing, 
 and in mule -driving. As we see, this race as a whole, con- 
 stitutes the working population of the Mexican people. Their 
 language is Spanish, intermixed with a multitude of provincial 
 expressions, of very distinct and marked accents, and com- 
 posed in a great part of words derived from the Indian 
 dialects. The Catholic religion is that which predominates, 
 but it must be observed that it is among this class of people 
 that the Protestant sects principally acquire their proselytes. 
 Sagacious, intelligent and with a special gift for imitation, 
 this race is remarkable for the taste and perfect construction 
 of its manufactures: in printing and book-binding; in car- 
 penters and blacksmith's, work ; in sculpture of stone and 
 wood ; in hat -making, boot and shoemaking, in the manufac- 
 ture of cotton, woollen and silk stuffs, and to conclude, in all
 
 19 
 
 the mechanical arts, the workmen reveal their ability and 
 intelligence. Among them, the first rudiments of well organiz- 
 ed education are not unknown, such as reading and writing, 
 and not a few have acquired other accomplishments as useful 
 in the arts as serviceable to the citizen. 
 
 The desire of improvement in their social condition and in 
 their education has developed itself amongst them, in a most 
 remarkable manner; the idea of forming associations, (which 
 in Mexico do not have as their object the interruption of 
 public order, but fraternity and mutual benevolence,) has been 
 already carried into effect by some of the societies of the 
 working classes, in their late strikes. Not only in the larger 
 cities, but in some of the second and third order, well regulated 
 associations are being founded, at which the artisans con- 
 gregate, in places chosen for the purpose, at times to attend 
 lectures and to promote discussion upon some interesting 
 subject, not even excepting matters of science, and on other 
 occasions to hold evening parties with their families. Nearly 
 all these societies have their libraries which contribute to 
 their instruction, and others have established Schools and 
 classes of declamation. 
 
 The same gentleman, Mr. Sartorius, to whom I have already 
 referred, confirms what I have previously stated regarding 
 the mixed race, and the good qualities of the Indians. The 
 following are his words: 
 
 "It "is in the mixed race ("mestizos") principally that we 
 find the field-laborers and smaller cattle-raisers, called 
 "rancheros," who form a very important and meritorious 
 part of the population, and are the most robust, and consti- 
 tute the mediocrity of the farming people. Proceeding from 
 this class, we have the greater part of the miners, the large 
 number of "arrieros" or mule-drivers, pedlars, artisans, 
 servants of every kind in the city and in the country, the 
 sailors and soldiers and the huntsmen. The Indians agree with 
 them, much less than with the white people, and call them 
 *'coyotl," (a kind of jackal.) The Indians are much addicted 
 to fermented drinks, whilst the others are partial to gambling, 
 to which they give themselves up indiscriminately. In general 
 the "mestizo" possesses many excellent qualities: he is
 
 20 
 
 quick and discreet, industrious, intelligent, faithful in his 
 master's service, hospitable and attentive. 
 
 The number of negros and mulattos is limited; they are 
 only found on the coasts, employed as artisans, fishermen 
 and day -laborers. 
 
 Every one who has lived in Mexico for any length of time 
 and has been in contact with all classes, ought to bear testi- 
 mony that the people in general are good, acute, dexterous, 
 laborious, ingenious and disposed to any improvement. When 
 it be considered how little has been done or is doing to give 
 them an adequate moral and intellectual education, we cannot 
 avoid being surprised at the good fund of probity that 
 prevails amongst all classes. I have lived for many years 
 among the Indians and mixed race, and never have I enjoyed 
 greater security in my person and in my property and interests, 
 than during the period referred to. What could not be done 
 in Europe is practised in Mexico without any fear, and that 
 is to trust to a poor and barefooted day -laborer large sums 
 of money, to be carried by him alone, a distance of many 
 leagues, and it never occurs that the wretched Indian commits 
 a breach of confidence. Such a vice is, up to the present, an 
 exception." 
 
 The individuals belonging to the mixed race are vigorous, 
 especially in the Northern parts of the Republic. Owing to 
 their lively and ardent temperament, they are inclined to 
 pleasure and to certain amusements which like bull -fighting, 
 are fortunately disappearing, in virtue of the laws that govern 
 Mexicans ; but what particularly distinguishes the character 
 of this race especially and of Mexicans in general, is their 
 tenacious and strenuous resistance to submit themselves to 
 force, and their docility in ceding to persuasion. If these 
 qualities had been seasonably known in foreign countries, 
 the European intervention would never have been resolved 
 upon. It was to this race that belonged the greater number 
 of those who rose against Spain and maintained a tremen- 
 dous struggle until gaining the independence of the country. 
 
 In their public rejoicings and festivities, this race reveals 
 its gay and cheerful character, giving way to every species 
 of amusements ; their field sports consisting in "coleaderos"
 
 Lara.S
 
 2r 
 
 or chasing and throwing bulls by the tail, but without prac- 
 tising, in these cases, the acts of cruelty that" are customary 
 in the iniquitous spectacle of public bull fights ; but on the 
 contrary the "rancheros" partake of this favorite diversion 
 in order to display their dexterity in horsemanship and the 
 use of the "lazo": then again they have their dances, which 
 in the interior are of a distinct character from those of the 
 coast, although, in all, the ''jarabe" is one of the most 
 attractive. In the 3rd group of plate II, the types of the 
 people of Guadalajara are represented, one of the gayest of 
 our populations, and who, with reason, presume to have no 
 rivals in the rest of the cities of the Republic, for the grace 
 and skill with which they execute this lively dance. The 
 following notes will give an idea of the kind of music of the 
 "jarabe." (See N° i.) 
 
 The rhymes sung by those playing the instruments, suddenly 
 interrupting the music of the "jarabe", are characterized by 
 piquant and caustic ideas, frequently with allusion to some 
 remarkable local or political event. The following music 
 which is very popular in Mexico, will serve as a specimen : 
 (See N''2) 
 
 In the interior, in the country towns, as well as in the 
 farming districts and mountain villages, the taste for music 
 is exceedingly general, and here I must transcribe one of 
 the most characteristic ballads: (See N" 3.) 
 
 On the coast, the dances called "de tarima" (a raised 
 wooden floor) are of an original character, from the very 
 moment of the invitation. This is carried out by means of 
 loud detonations, which are repeated for the purpose of ma- 
 king known to the guests, (who are generally all the neigh- 
 bours) the place of meeting. In the middle of a street, and 
 but dimly lighted by the glimmering of a lantern, a "tari- 
 ma" or wooden floor is placed, around which accomodations 
 are prepared for the visitors. A harp, a guitar and a "jarana" 
 (a guitar of small dimensions) are the instruments played, 
 at whose first tones the couples ascend the "tarima" and 
 prepare for dancing. The musicians play lively pieces, many 
 of them adapted to pantomimic dances, but in general very 
 exciting and sprightly, such as the '^jarabe". The graceful-
 
 22 
 
 ness and dexterity of the dancers consist in keeping time, 
 and in imitating the melodies of the music, with the soles of 
 their feet. The verses abound in wit, satire and caustical 
 iljuendoes, whose pith and pointedness are increased by the 
 humor of the singers, their mode of expression, and their read 
 or intentional hypocrisy, causing the hilarity of the listeners. 
 On intonating their songs, they affect the greatest serenity, 
 and with a perfectly stoic indifference give vent to their racy 
 and pungent verses, closing their eyes as if overcome by 
 slumber. On many occasions, extemporary improvisations 
 are provoked, frecjuently on a given subject, when consi- 
 derable nonsense is sometimes interspersed with sparkling 
 drollery. 
 
 The "jarochos" of Veracruz, represented in group the 
 1st of Plate III, are those who give the greatest zest to this 
 class of diversions. For a specimen of their festive and joyful 
 musical compositions, see note N° 4. 
 
 Amoig the same group may be seen a Creole woman 
 from the ".mesa de Mitlatloyuca," and the method they 
 have of carrying water. 
 
 As in all the rest of the Republic, the mixed race of Yu- 
 catan is remarkable for their jovial character. It is there that 
 the festivities called "baquerias," acquire the stamp of real 
 frankness. Before dancing commences, pretended matrimonial 
 engagements take place, in order that each individual may 
 know who is to be his companion whilst these diversions last. 
 These apparent contracts, authorized by the head of the 
 house or the most elderly person present, give rise to dis- 
 putes, jealousies and reconciliations all equally feigned, each 
 one of those aggrieved, making his complaints to the person 
 representing the parish priest, 
 
 The "jarabe" (the music of which I have given under note 
 No. i) and other tunes, especially one called the "toro" or 
 bull (piece No. 5) of a lively nature, produce an extraordi- 
 nary animation among the persons assembled ; the whole 
 ending by an imitation of the movements of a bull-iighter, 
 sometimes "capoteando" or dancing before the bull with a 
 cloak and at others pretending to escape from his onsets. On 
 the conclusion of the ball, all the couples seek the open air
 
 ^3 
 
 and proceed in an orderly manner to a place at some distance 
 from the house, where a stake has been previously placed to^ 
 which a young bull or heifer is tied. 
 
 A distinguished traveller, Mr. Stephens, portrays the im- 
 pressions of his journey to Yucatan, in the most lively col- 
 ors and particularly those he felt at a dance in Ticul. What 
 attraction does a "mestiza" dance present to Mr. Stephens, 
 enquires Mr. Nicoli in an article he published ? What is this 
 boisterous dance for the traveller ? A fantastic diversion that 
 excites the admiration and causes unspeakable rapture: — a 
 woman or rather a sylph of an airy figure and more flexible 
 than a reed, with a rich and pretty silk handkerchief careless- 
 ly thrown over her shoulders, a diminutive and exceedingly 
 fine straw hat, scarcely touching the head and adorned with 
 an infinity of ribbons forming a species of crown, a white dress 
 embroidered, but so transparent that her fairy forms are seen 
 exciting fascinating sensations and dreams of enchantment, 
 her locks of matted hair tied with all the colors of the rainbow ; 
 here is a being that by her costume and grace might rival 
 with a trastiberine of the October feasts at Rome. — Now if 
 she plants herself in the centre of the saloon displaying that 
 neat and diminutive foot that would be envied by a Thetis, 
 what soul could resist — what heart would not kindle at similar 
 allurements ? With much reason Mr. Stephens was enchanted, 
 and it is no wonder that it was with difficulty that he with- 
 drew his sight from such voluptuous and graceful movements.
 
 24 
 
 OCCUPATIONS AND CALLING OF THE MEXICANS. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The Mexicans pertaining to the category I am referring to, 
 are employed in agricultural labors, in working the mines, in 
 mechanical arts and professions, and in various branches of 
 manufacture, there now being established in the greater part 
 of the States of the Republic, cotton,woollen, silk, earthenware, 
 glass and paper factories, which will doubtless acquire greater 
 importance in proportion to the depreciation of the valu2 of 
 silver in foreign markets. With regard to agriculture, which 
 is the vital element in all countries, Mexico suffers from the 
 scarcity of population, notwithstanding that the actual pro- 
 duction is more than sufficient for the consumption ; and there 
 are some articles such as coffee, timber, dye-woods, tobacco, 
 vanilla, etc., which are exported in abundance. If all the 
 country were populated, even in proportion to Guanajuato and 
 its territory, the census of the Republic would reach 58.000,000 
 of inhabitants, and then agricultural products would be so 
 much greater, that they would constitute an element of enor- 
 mous wealth. 
 
 Within the territory of the Republic there are more than 
 5,700 "haciendas" (landed estates) and 13,800 farms ("ran- 
 chos " ) and not a few other locations of immense extent. The 
 value assigned to landed property, based simply on its val- 
 uation for taxes, is 161.397,31 1 dollars, the real value of which 
 without any serious error, may be calculated at double the 
 amount or 322 millions of dollars. To be convinced that this 
 calculation is not exaggerated, it will suffice to observe that
 
 25 
 
 in the amount named, each "hacienda" barely represents a 
 value of $45,000 and each "rancho" of $ 5,000, without taking 
 into account that of the streams, grazing lands, orchards and 
 other rural property of less importance. The "maize" which 
 is grown all over the territory, the wheat in the upper table- 
 lands, the rice in the warm and damp sections, the coffee, 
 vanilla, tobacco, sugar and cotton in the hot countries, and 
 many other articles, among which may be mentioned the 
 "agave Mexicano" with its abundant returns, constitute the 
 principal branches of national agriculture, and it may be safe- 
 ly stated that the annual crops produce more than 100 mil- 
 lions of dollars. How immense would be the benefit to be 
 derived by colonists employing their activity and intelligence 
 in making such rich and extensive lands productive, under 
 the influence of a delicious climate and in the midst of bro- 
 thers and not of enemies, as it has been attempted to make 
 believed abroad ! * 
 
 MINING. 
 
 The metalliferous productions in the whole extent of the 
 Republic are extremely rich and varied, for which reason this 
 country has been reputed as essentially mineral. A consider- 
 able part of the laboring population is engaged in working the 
 mines, in the reduction of the ores and in coining silver and 
 gold, and this forms the first branch of our exportation. The 
 want of enterprize, as a consequence of our scarcity of inha- 
 bitants, impedes the natural development of mining, as well
 
 26 
 
 as of agriculture and manufactures. The mineral districts that 
 have been discovered since very remote periods, have produc- 
 ed immense amounts of money, and notwithstanding, it may 
 be said that they are yet in their virgin state. The mines of 
 Guanajuato which, without fear of contradiction, are those 
 that have been the best worked and on the largest scale, still 
 present enormous Avealth. The soil of the State of Guerrero 
 may be considered, according to the expression of one of our 
 most celebrated mineralogists, as one extensive crust of silver 
 and gold. In Sinaloa, the waters have submerged a rich trea- 
 sure in the famous mine of " La Estaca." The States of Zaca- 
 tecas, Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo. 
 Mexico and Michoacan containt within their mountain ran- 
 ges inexhaustible riches, and lastly the other States of the 
 Mexican confederation, in every direction offer up to the 
 assiduit}'- of man an abundance of metalliferous deposits. Sil- 
 ver and gold ores are those that arc principally worked in 
 the mining regions, although other metals and mineral sub- 
 stances are found in great abundance, such as copper, iron, zinc, 
 lead, magistral, antimony, arsenic, cobalt, amianthus and cop- 
 peras. Sulphur is also met with in large quantities in many 
 parts, and that of the mountain of Popocatepetl is considered 
 as exhaustless. Salt mines are plentiful, such as those of the 
 " Penon Blanco" in San Luis Potosi; those of the coast of 
 Tamaulipas, the South of the Isthmus of Tchuantepec and the 
 Islands of the Gulf of California. The lake of Texcoco and its 
 adjacent lands possess an inestimable supply of carbonate of 
 soda. In every State there exist splendid quarries of white 
 and colored marble ; the alabaster at Tecali in the State of 
 Pucbla, has attracted great attention and may be advanta- 
 geously compared for its beauty with the finest marble from 
 the East. 
 
 Ways of comunication will hereafter be the most fruitful 
 gcrmen of commercial prosperity, by facilitating the working 
 of the extensive coal-fields, platina and quick-silver mines 
 existing in the asperities of the mountainous portions of the 
 countr}-. Among the precious stones, we have the opal of 
 hues as varied and beautiful as those of Hungary, the tur- 
 quoise, garnet, topaz, agate and amethj'st. besides a very
 
 27 
 
 pure rock crystal. There is also a great variety of building 
 stone. 
 
 The mineral districts that have been discovered in the Re- 
 public, up to the present, are very numerous, but they are 
 in a great part paralized, for the causes referred to. Those 
 that are actually working, according to the reports of the 
 introduction of ores at the Assaying offices, are 117. The 
 quantity of ore brought for assay in the period of one year 
 amounts to 487,000 kilograms, oi' which 360,101 kilograms 
 were reducible by the "patio" process, 99,330 by smelting 
 and 27,569 by tlip barrel process, the whole representing a 
 value of $ 19.100,178 15. The real mineral production is even 
 greater than the amount stated, if we bear in mind that in 
 consequence of the law permitting the free exportation of 
 mineral ore, many of the mines do not send their products to 
 the assay office, but export them directly. 
 
 The annual coinage is on an average 20 millions and a 
 half of dollars, the whole amount coined since the establish- 
 ment of the mints up to 1875 being $3,001,237,281 62, as 
 follows : 
 
 in£heCkJouiali>eiifKiaJ37lo 1K21J Si!,OS2.260,6.37 11 ;l*.r78,4U &1 ?lii2,3?3 :tT sl',!M.J«,!Wl SI 
 
 iaee the Independence aS32 to ).973) 797.055;C30 77 47.327,383 11 5.272.855 S3 »i9.C5f..319 8t 
 
 •^ )>79.315,7?.8 21 $U6.lCi5.79i 11 sirKSl.-i.TlP M S3.uni.23?,2Sl 0-2
 
 28 
 
 ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 
 
 The favorable disposition shown by Mexicans towards the 
 cultivation of the arts, has attained a considerable progress, 
 if we reflect upon the backward state in which they were found 
 in the early years of the independence. The last industrial 
 Exposition, in spite of the non- concurrence of some of the 
 most important well-doing States, has convinced Mexicans 
 that they can, by themselves, supply all their necessities, 
 without requiring luxury. The printing and lithography can 
 place before the world books and illustrations, worthy o( 
 acceptance to bibliographers. Carved work and filigree work 
 in gold and silver yield in little or nothing to similar pro- 
 ductions from abroad. The carriages and household furniture 
 made in Mexico, with the exception of silk stuffs, can com- 
 pete in taste and solid workmanship with the best that can 
 be imported from foreign countries. In the fine arts, both in 
 painting as well as sculpture and architecture, our Academy 
 of San Carlos, reputed by travellers to be the first in Ame- 
 rica, displays the progress they have acquired. Some of these 
 works will be exhibited to the public at the Philadelphia Ex- 
 position. The fabrication of textures as well as all other ma- 
 nufactures has increased astonishingly. Several factories, su- 
 gar mills and distilleries are established in the States of Mexi- 
 co, Puebla, Veracruz, Jalisco, Morelos, Guerrero, Tabasco. 
 Oaxaca and Yucatan : earthenware is made in Guanajuato, 
 Mexico and Puebla ; in the State of Jalisco and in the Valle}- 
 of Mexico there are various paper-mills; also some glass 
 factories in Mexico and Puebla : cotton factories in the'great- 
 er part of the States: silk -factories in Guanajuato, Quere- 
 taro and Mexico. The number of cotton factories in the Re- 
 public exceeds 70, the States that may be considered as ma- 
 nufacturing districts being those of Puebla. Jalisco, Oueretaro, 
 Mexico and Veracruz.
 
 29 
 
 The data 1 have been able to acquire regarding these fac- 
 tories, will be seen in the following statement : 
 
 l-ACTORIES. 
 
 Xumber 
 
 of 
 Spindles. 
 
 Pne})la. 
 
 Guadalupe. 
 Santa Cruz . 
 Constancia. . 
 Economia 
 Patriotismo. . 
 Beneficencia. 
 Mayorazgo, . 
 De en Medio . 
 Amatlan. . . 
 Teja. . . . 
 Asuncion . . 
 Independencia 
 
 Jalisco. 
 
 Prosperidad J a li i 
 cieuse. . . . 
 Experiencia. 
 Escoba .... 
 Bellavista. . . 
 Jauja 
 
 2,100 
 2,100 
 3,780 
 2,520 
 8,500 
 2,000 
 5,250 
 6,300 
 1,550 
 1,550 
 2,100 
 1,550 
 
 39,300 
 
 2,976 
 
 792 
 3,300 
 
 5,832 
 4,768 
 
 ! Pieces 
 i produced 
 ; yearly. 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 
 90 
 
 60 
 
 200 
 
 50 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 50 
 
 36 
 
 Kilograms 
 of 
 
 926 
 
 90 
 
 69 
 156 
 112 
 
 17,668 427 
 
 Queretaro. 
 
 District and 
 
 State 
 of Jfexico. 
 
 Hercules . 
 La Purisima. 
 
 22,000 680 
 
 Magdalena. . . i 13,000 
 
 Tlalpam | 13,000 
 
 Tizapam. . . . ; 9,000 
 Mirallores. . . . i 7,000 
 
 Abeja ' 1,400 
 
 Colmena .... 4,300 
 
 47,700 1,264 
 
 12,500 
 
 12,500 
 
 22,500 
 
 15,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 9.000 
 
 9,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 8,500 
 
 237,000 
 
 43,723 
 
 44,183 
 
 79,530 
 
 53,847 
 
 174,893 
 
 46,025 
 
 138,074 
 
 124,266 
 
 32,217 
 
 32,217 
 
 46,025 
 
 34,518 
 
 849,518 
 
 33,0841 24,835 
 
 ,, i 41,422 
 
 28,000| 285,353 
 
 24,886 
 
 37,992 
 
 123,962 
 
 35,979 
 
 387,589 
 
 350,000 1.150,615 
 
 376 156,000 
 450 150,000 
 176jl35,000 
 262j 108,992 
 
 167,530 
 
 165,689 
 
 105,303 
 
 46,046 
 
 Kilo, of cot- 1 
 ton consu* | 
 med yearly. ; 
 
 92,0491 
 
 92,0491 
 
 165,687! 
 
 110,459| 
 
 368,197 
 
 92,049: 
 
 266,942i 
 
 230,123! 
 
 69,037' 
 
 69,037| 
 
 92,049! 
 
 69,037i 
 
 1.716,7151 
 
 211,7121 
 
 50,6271 
 299,159| 
 138,0731 
 329,0751 
 
 1.028,6461 
 
 1.380,739 
 
 598,504! 
 603,1061 
 516,394! 
 372,799 
 
 Veracruz. 
 
 Cocolai>an . . . 
 Libert ad . . . . 
 Victoria. . . . 
 Industria Jalapeiia, 
 Lucas Martin . . 
 
 Rosario 
 
 Probidad. . . . 
 
 7,000 
 2,000 
 600 
 4,028 
 3,984 
 1,584 
 1,056 
 
 20,254 
 
 400 
 81 
 22 
 57 
 
 549,992 
 
 75,000 
 1,944 
 
 19,992 
 
 484,568 
 
 415,467 
 118,973 
 133,471 
 124,266 
 124,266 
 
 2.090,803 
 
 560 
 
 96,936 
 
 429,870 
 
 161,081 
 
 138,0731 
 
 67,195i 
 
 914,5431 796,219;
 
 30 
 
 Besides "mantas" (cotton domestics) in some of these 
 establishments and in other special factories, worked by the 
 most improved machinery, other goods are manufactured, 
 such as diapers, madapollans, muslins, bed ticks, satteens 
 and linen drills , fine and coarse carpeting , counterpanes, 
 finespun and ordinary kerseymeres, baize and other textures. 
 In Puebia, Mexico. Jalisco and several places in other States, 
 there are silk spinning and twisting factories, whose products, 
 from the fact of the raw material being of superior quality, 
 are preferred to those from abroad, amongst them, stuffs for 
 ladies dresses, handkerchiefs, scarfs ( "panos de rebozo") and 
 every kind of lace and fancy trimmings. In Mexico are also 
 manufactured kid gloves, cotton lace and hosiery, braces, 
 cotton and woollen gloves, tape, embroidered ribbons and 
 other articles of a similar kind, which with the exception of 
 the first nam.ed, form a peculiar branch of industry among the 
 Indians and some of those condemned to prison. 
 
 Gold and silver lace work and wire -drawing is carried on 
 in a large scale, in every branch of this department, and of a 
 superior style of workmanship and excellent quality. To con- 
 clude, in every town of any importance, there may be obser- 
 ved a great advancement in arts and manufactures. 
 
 COMMERCE, 
 
 I HE Mexican Uniied .States maintain mercantile relation^ 
 v.-ith England, France, the United States of America, Ger- 
 many. Spain and the Island of Cuba, Belgium, ltal>-. Central 
 America, the United States of Colombia, and the Equator. 
 According to the annual Reports the value of the impor-
 
 3^ « 
 
 tations may be estimated at 29.000,(300 of dollars, in the 
 following form : 
 
 Cotton and cotton goods $ 10.500,000 
 
 Groceries, wines and spirits. 5.000,000 
 
 Articles free of duty, 3.300,000 
 
 Hardware and ironmonger\\ . ... . . . 2.100,000 
 
 Miscellaneous, 2.000,000 
 
 Linen and hemp goods 1.400,000 
 
 Woollen goods 1.400,000 
 
 Mixed goods 1.400,000 
 
 Silks, 1.000,000 
 
 Earthenware, porcelain, glass and crystal ware. 600,000 
 
 Drugs and Chemicals, 300,000 
 
 Total. , $ 29.000,000 
 
 This amount is imported from the following countries : 
 
 England, $ 10.200,000 
 
 United States of America 7.500,000 
 
 France, 4.780,000 
 
 German)-, 3.800,000 
 
 Spain and the Island of Cuba. 1.400,000 
 
 United States of Colombia 1.200,000 
 
 Central America, 100,000 
 
 Italy. Belgium, and American Republics. . 20,000 
 
 $ 29.000,000 
 
 The exportation amounts to 31.000,000 of dollars, as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Gold and silver coin $ 24.000,000 
 
 Ores and minerals 1.800,000 
 
 Carried forward. ... $ 25.800,000
 
 32 
 
 Brought forward .... $ 25.800,000 
 
 Hides and skins in general, 1.800,000 
 
 Henequen, Ixtlc and cordage r. 000,000 
 
 Timber and dycwoods, 1.000,000 
 
 Coffee, 600,000 
 
 Vanilla, 400,000 
 
 Cochineal, 300,000 
 
 Cattle, . . . , 200,000 
 
 Tobacco, 150,000 
 
 Orchilla, 130,000 
 
 Fine pearls, 1 10,000 
 
 Caoutchouc or Indian -rubber, 100,000 
 
 Sarsaparrilla 90,000 
 
 Wool, 90,000 
 
 Sole and upper leather 8o,oco 
 
 Indigo, 80,000 
 
 Jalap root, 80,000 
 
 "Coquito" (a small cocoanut ) 50,000 
 
 "Frijol"' (beans) 40,000 
 
 Cotton, 30,000 
 
 Mother-of-pearl 25,000 
 
 Starch 25,000 
 
 Wheat, 20,000 
 
 Other agricultural and industrial productions. . 100,000 
 
 32.300,000 
 
 These exports are made to the following countries : 
 
 England, to the amount of $ 12.550,000 
 
 United States of America 12.000,000 
 
 France, 5.000,000 
 
 Germany, 1.500,000 
 
 Spain and the Island of Cuba, 800,000 
 
 Central America, 100,000 
 
 Italy and Belgium 50,000 
 
 $ 32.000,000
 
 33 
 
 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 
 
 As the grade of civilization of any country is principally to 
 be inferred from its development in public instruction, I 
 cannot close this chapter without explaining the progress 
 made in this important matter. Senor Don Jose Diaz Covar- 
 rubias, the present Sub -secretary of the Department of Jus- 
 tice and Public Instruction, has just written and issued to the 
 public a luminous book under the title of " Public Instruction 
 in Mexico, " in which abound the most conscientious remarks, 
 demonstrating the increment acquired day by day in this ele- 
 ment of such vital importance to universal progress. 
 
 The principle of obligatory education having been admitted, 
 it is now in force in the greater part of the States of the Re- 
 public, penalties having been decreed for those who contra- 
 vene the law and rewards for those who voluntarily observe 
 the same, a stimulus which cannot fail to contribute towards 
 the accomplishment of so praiseworthy a determination. Pri- 
 mary instruction in the schools of the Republic consists of 
 the following branches : Reading, writing, Spanish grammar, 
 arithmetic, tables of weights and measures, morality and good 
 manners, and moreover in the girls' schools needle -work 
 and other useful labors. In some of the States the study of 
 geography, national history and drawing are also obligatory, 
 whilst in the schools that are not supported by the Govern- 
 ment, notions of algebra and geometry, elements of general 
 and natural history, ornamental and lineal drawing and the 
 French language, are taught. 
 
 The number of primary schools in the whole of the Repu- 
 blic reaches 8,103 instead of 5,000 that existed in the year 
 1870. Of the number referred to, according to the work of 
 Senor Diaz Covarrubias, 603 are supported by the State go-
 
 34 
 
 vernments, 5,240 by the municipal authorities, 378 by private 
 corporations or individuals, 1 17 by the Catholic clergy, besides 
 1,581 private establishments that are not gratuitous and 184 
 not classified. These schools are attended by 350,000 scholars 
 of both sexes. 
 
 Secondary instruction, as well as professional education, are 
 under the charge of the State, with subjection to the pro- 
 grammes established by the law which prescribes as a man- 
 date the liberty of education and professions. 
 
 In the Republic there are 105 establishments of secondary 
 and professional instruction, in the following form : 
 
 BRANCHES OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Namber of Xumber of 
 
 establishments. scholars. 
 
 I Special preparatory school in the city of 
 
 Mexico — Mathematics, geography in all 
 its branches, physics, chemistry, natural 
 history, logic, and moral literature, pro- 
 fessorship, ornamental and lineal drawing 
 and the French and English languages. . 5)i73 
 
 19 Civil colleges of jurisprudence. — Laws 
 of nature, Roman, national, constitutio- 
 nal, administrative, international and ma- 
 rine laws and political economy. ... 771 
 
 20 Schools of medicine and pharmacy and 
 all the branches concerning apothecaries, 
 physicians and surgeons 454 
 
 10 Schools for engineers. — Descriptive and 
 
 analytic geometry, topography & hydrau- 
 lics, algebra, infinitesimal computation, 
 mechanics, practical geodesy and astro- 
 nomy , applied chemistry , mineralogy , 
 geology, construction of roads, rail -roads, 
 bridges and canals; mechanical, architec- 
 tural and topographical drawing .... 251 
 
 50 Carried forward .... 6,649
 
 35 
 
 Number of Number of 
 
 establiahmentR. scholars. 
 
 50 Brought forward 6,649 
 
 2 Naval schools. — All concerning this 
 
 branch 13 
 
 3 Commercial schools . — Arithmetic , 
 mercantile correspondence, book-keep- 
 ing, geography and statistics, political 
 economy, mercantile and maritime law, 
 knowledge of merchandize and languages. 500 
 
 3 Academies of arts and sciences. — Span- 
 ish language, laws of the country, arith- 
 metic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, 
 drawing and modelling, lineal and mecha- 
 nical draughting, physics and notions of 
 chemistry and mechanics, choral singing 
 and various arts 500 
 
 2 Agricultural schools. — Public health, 
 zoology, physics and applied chemistry, 
 natural history, descriptive geometry, 
 and topography, veterinaryship, anato- 
 my, etc 83 
 
 2 Academies of fine arts. — Drawing , 
 
 painting, sculpture and engraving. . , . 700 
 
 2 Conservatories of Music and Declama- 
 tion. — All the matters annexed to the 
 art, from the first scale to harmony and 
 composition, arithmetic, Spanish gram- 
 mar, French and Italian, geography and 
 history, declamation, acoustics and pho- 
 nography, physiology and treatment of 
 the voice and hearing, study of the an- 
 cient and modern stage and dramatic li- 
 terature, prosody and poetry, history of 
 the middle and modern ages, mythology, 
 esthetics and fencing 637 
 
 I Military College. — Besides all the pre- 
 paratory studies, military science in all 
 its branches 200 
 
 65 Carried forward 9,282
 
 36 
 
 Xnmbpr of Number of 
 
 psrablishmenti. scholars. 
 
 65 Brought forward 9,282 
 
 24 Conciliary Seminaries supported by the 
 
 Catholic clergy. — Latin grammar, logic, 
 metaphysics, ethics, mathematics, geo- 
 metry and in some establishments chem- 
 istry and natural history, modern langua- 
 ges, notions of Greek, theology and ju- 
 risprudence, canonical and moral law. . 3,800 
 I Blind school. — Reading and writing 
 by special methods, Spanish grammar, 
 arithmetic (theorical and practical), uni- 
 versal geography and geography and his- 
 tory of Mexico, notions of geometry and 
 astronomy, French, morality, vocal and 
 instrumental music, printing, book -bind- 
 ing, carpenter's work, shoemaking and 
 
 turning 40 
 
 I Deaf and dumb school. — Spanish lan- 
 
 guage, written especially by means of a 
 manual alphabet, catechism and religious 
 principles, elements of geography and ge- 
 neral and national history, arithmetic, 
 horticulture and gardening for the boys, 
 needle -work and embroidery for the 
 girls, book-keeping and drawing. ... 24 
 
 14 Secondary schools for girls — Mathe- 
 
 matics, cosmography, geography, domes- 
 tic medicine, history and chronology, 
 book-keeping, domestic economy and 
 duties of woman in society, natural, figu- 
 red and ornamental drawing, manual la- 
 bors, horticulture and gardening, music, 
 the French and Italian languages . . . 1,663 
 
 105 14,809 
 
 Adding these results to those obtained in respect to pri- 
 mary instruction, the following v/ill be the data acquired: 8,208 
 educational establishments with 364,809 pupils.
 
 37 
 
 Altogether these estabHshments are attended with the 
 following annual expenses : 
 Primary gratuitous school , supported by the 
 
 authorities. $ 1.632,436 
 
 Private schools, by individuals 1.188,168 
 
 Secondary and professional schools , by the 
 
 authorities 1.100,000 
 
 Total $ 3.920,604 
 
 The number of professors and employees in public instruc- 
 tion is 8,770. 
 
 Annexed to the establishments referred to there are 8 
 model schools. 
 
 285,509 males and 79,300 girls receive instruction, which 
 proportion is not to be wondered at if we bear in mind that 
 a great number of girls are educated in their own houses, for 
 which reason there are no statistics in regard to them. 
 
 There are 20 public libraries containing in the whole 
 236,000 volumes, and private libraries containing from 1,000 
 to 8,000 works are innumerable ; and there are some w'ith as 
 many as 20,000 and collections of manuscripts and books upon 
 history and travels, literature, law, biography, eloquence, en- 
 cyclopedias, classic authors, mathematics, physical sciences 
 and antiquity relating to America, Asia, Egypt and Nubia. 
 
 The most remarkable museums of the Republic are those 
 of antiquities in Mexico, Campeachy, Puebla and Merida: 
 
 Those of paintings in Mexico, Oaxaca and Puebla: 
 
 Those of natural history in Mexico and Guadalajara. 
 
 The National Museum of Mexico, to which is annexed that 
 of natural history, contains a rich collection of Mexican an- 
 tiquities, hieroglyphics, manuscripts, arms, utensils, idols, 
 jewels and every species of ornaments. The Museum of Na- 
 tural History at the Mining College, now the School of En- 
 gineers, is composed of two cabinets ; in the first there is a 
 well classified collection of geological specimens and another 
 of zoology, which contains a large assortment, consisting 
 principally of birds and insects ; in the second are found two 
 
 61092
 
 38 
 
 collections of minerals from Europe and Mexico, arranged 
 according to the chemical -mineralogical system of Berze- 
 lius, followed by the work that the learned professor Don An- 
 dres del Rio wrote for the use of the students of the school 
 referred to. 
 
 The Academy of San Carlos is one of the most notable 
 institutions of the city of Mexico. This edifice contains sev^e- 
 ral galleries where numerous original and valuable paintings 
 are to be admired. Among those that most excel for their 
 merit are the following : The seven virtues from the Lom- 
 bardian school, a painting attributed to Leonardo de Vinci ; 
 Saint John of God, by Murillo ; the widow Queen by Carreno, 
 three paintings from the school of Leonardo de Vinci ; the 
 Olympic games by Charles Vernet ; an episode of the Deluge 
 by Coglieti ; the supper at Emmaus by Zurbaran ; Saint Jerome 
 by Alonso Cano ; Saint Sebastian attributed to Van Dycke : 
 a virgin by Pietro de Cortona ; another virgin by Perugino ; 
 Saint John the Baptist from the Spanish school and another 
 by Ingres ; an odelisque woman and Armenian bishop by De- 
 caen ; four large pictures of the Sevillian school ; one of the Ve- 
 netian school attributed to Paul Verone's: two oval paintings 
 representing Saint Barbara and Saint Catharine by Guido 
 Reni ; four large classical landscapes by Marko, other works 
 of Podesti and Silvagni and several of the Flemish and Dutch 
 schools. 
 
 In the other saloons are to be seen the paintings of some 
 of the most proficient students of the Academy, amongst 
 which attention is principally attracted to the Saint Charles 
 Borromeo by Pina ; a Christ and Abraham's sacrifice by Re- 
 bull ; Jesus Christ journeying to the village of Emmaus, by 
 Sagredo ; the captivity of the Hebrews and Noah's ark by Ra- 
 mirez ; Cristopher Colon before the Catholic Sovereigns, by 
 Cordero ; the Angel at the Sepulchre, by Monroy ; Dante and 
 Virgil by Florcs, etc. ; the most of these artists being pupils 
 of Mr. Clave, who on his departure for Europe left us a 
 grateful memento, in his magnificent painting " Craz}^ Queen 
 Jane" which appears among the other works referred to. 
 
 To conclude, some of the saloons are embellished with 
 very remarkable paintings by ancient Mexican artists, such
 
 39 
 
 as Cabrera, Aguilera, the Juarez family, Ibarra, Arteaga, Va- 
 llejo, Echave and others. 
 
 In the Republic there exist 73 institutions dedicated to the 
 cultivation of arts and sciences, of which 29 are scientific, 21 
 literary, 20 artistical and 3 of a mixed character. 
 
 In the year referred to in the work of Senor Diaz Covarru- 
 bias (1874) there where 168 publications, of which 18 were 
 scientific, 9 literary, 2 artistical, 26 religious and 1 18 political ; 
 those for which a copyright had been taken out according to 
 law, being 117. Of this number, 104 were original works on 
 science and literature, 4 translations and 9 artistical, but it 
 must be remarked that only a minority of authors apply for 
 the privilege of copy-right.
 
 41 
 
 HISTORICAL PART 
 
 IMMIGRATION 
 OF THE ANCIENT POPULATORS OF MEXICO 
 
 No one, up to the present, has drawn aside the veil that con- 
 ceals the history of the populators of Mexico, previous to the 
 Toltecs. The ruins of ancient edifices of a growing impor- 
 tance, met with from the North to the South, and the distribu- 
 tion of dialects in this part of the American continent, reveal 
 a series of immigrations, that manifest in my opinion both 
 the successive arrivals of certain tribes in search of lands 
 adapted to their purposes, and the places v/here they defi- 
 nitely fixed their residence, constituting themselves into com- 
 munities. Neither in America nor in Europe does either his- 
 tory or tradition discover the origin of their first populators. 
 In the New Continent as well is in the old one, the remains 
 of grand monuments are found demolished by the lapse of 
 centuries, which only serve to indicate the perseverance of 
 the ancient and unknown generations. What has been re- 
 vealed to us by the magnificent ruins of Palenque and Comal- 
 calco in Chiapas and Tabasco — by those of Uxmal and Chi- 
 chen-Itza in Yucatan and those of Mitla in Oaxaca ? Only
 
 42 
 
 the existence of former and occult generations, very superior 
 in civilization to those of which history speaks to us. 
 
 Various historians, basing themselves on the interpretation 
 of the monumental hieroglyphics and those of the indigenous 
 papyrus, have attributed the origin of the races that popula- 
 ted the rich regions of Anahuac to seven families that im- 
 migrated successively from North America, all speaking one 
 common language, the Nahuatl or Mexican ; but history 
 neither reveals the primitive derivation of those races, nor does 
 it open up the mystery of the multiplicity of tongues and 
 their dialects of so diverse a character. 
 
 According to the descriptive and comparative tables of 
 Pimentel, none of the io8 languages which he has classified 
 have any analogy to the Asiatic tongues, nor even to Otho- 
 mi, which from consisting almost entirely in monosyllables 
 and from its construction, was thought to be similar to the 
 Chinese. 
 
 Notwithstanding, the identity of the language of the Es- 
 quimaux indicates the communication betwixt Asia and Ame- 
 rica, a circumstance, in my idea, which is demonstrated in 
 the form of our ancient monuments and the art of their cons- 
 tructions. The "tumulos" or sepulchres — according to Sir 
 John Lubbock in his work "Prehistoric man" — are found scat- 
 tered o\er all Europe from the Atlantic coasts to the Ural 
 mountains and covering a great part of the immense steppes of 
 Asia from the Russian frontiers to the Pacific and from the 
 plains of Siberia to those of Hindostan. In a similar manner, 
 monuments of a like nature are found disseminated from the 
 banks of the Gila to those of Usumacinta and from the shores 
 of the Atlantic to those of the Pacific, the pyramids on this 
 side, like those on the other, displaying the most admirable 
 development of the same idea. 
 
 In my " Essay of comparison between the Egyptian and 
 the Mexican pyramids," I did not call attention solely to the 
 form of the monuments, but more particularly to their spe- 
 cialities and details both interior and exterior, and from their 
 undeniable analogy I deduced the identity of artistic know- 
 ledge between one and the other people, but without wish- 
 ing that from my conclusions the inference should be drawn
 
 43 
 
 of the Egyptian origin of the first populators of Mexico, as 
 some have pretended to attribute to me, from simply reading 
 the title of my work. 
 
 If we carefully examine the color of the skin, the configura- 
 tion of the cranium and the features of the individuals of the 
 Tartar race and the Mexican race, we shall find such a sim- 
 ilarity between^them that we can scarcely avoid inclining our 
 opinion towards the belief, already somewhat generalized, that 
 the latter descended from some of the former. Perhaps a 
 really physiological study in this respect might throw some 
 light on our hallucination. 
 
 I do not pretend to adduce these arguments with the view 
 of convincing those who entertain contrary opinions to mine 
 in regard to the origin of the primitive American races ; the 
 object by which I am guided is solely to demonstrate the 
 obscurity of history and the distance that separates us from 
 the manifest triumph of one of many conjectures. 
 
 With the view of presenting the greatest amount of data 
 respecting the population of the Republic, and treating of the 
 indigenous race, as unfortunate as it is deserving of an atten- 
 tive study, it may be deemed proper to refer to some of the 
 ancient historical notions, if only with the object of learning 
 their origin. 
 
 The ancient histor}' of Mexico commences with annals of 
 the Toltecs ; nevertheless it is believed that the country was 
 inhabited previously by a wild people, amongst whom the 
 "Olmecas" and "Xicalancas" and even the "Othomies" have 
 been cited, as being considered among tlie very first inhabi- 
 tants of the Mexican territor}'. 
 
 The hierogryphical inscriptions found amongst the ruins of 
 the ancient edifices, which are generally characterized by 
 their pyramidical form, have not even revealed the epochs 
 of the construction of these monuments, nor the nations to 
 which they belonged. As the former Mexicans were ignorant 
 of the existence of any tribes previous to that of the Toltecs, 
 the construction of the pyramids of Tcotihuacan, Papantla 
 and Cholula was attributed by them to the latter, whilst 
 some historians ascribed them to other nations of greater an- 
 tiquity. If therefore, history teaches nothing certain in regard
 
 44 
 
 to those monuments, as of much less antiquity, how can we 
 avoid being at fault on contemplating the magnificent struc- 
 tures of Mitla, Palenque and Uxmal, which for their style, 
 solidity and decorations excite well merited admiration and 
 profound curiosity? 
 
 The Toltecs, if Ave are to judge by the statement of Ixtlil- 
 xochitl, were informed as to the creation of the world, the de- 
 luge, the building of the tower of Babel and the confusion of 
 tongues. They held as a fact that the world had been de- 
 stroyed three times and regenerated on an equal number of 
 occasions, denominating each destruction as an " age " or dark- 
 ening of the sun ; the first catastrophe happening with the 
 deluge, which they called '"sol" or epoch of the waters — the 
 second was by a hurricane, which they called "sol" or epoch 
 of the wind, and the third by an earthquake to which they 
 gave the name of " sol " or epoch of the earth, and lastly await- 
 ed the complete destruction of the world by fire. 
 
 On the Toltecs being expelled from their country, Huehue- 
 tlapalta)i, a place situated, according to Humboldt, towards 
 the North West Coast of America, near 42" of Latitude North, 
 they commenced their peregrination towards the South, in 
 the year 596 of the vulgar era, led by their chiefs, and station- 
 ing themselves at various places and founding towns and 
 cities, but without meeting for some time with an appropriate 
 spot for their purposes. After more than a century of wander- 
 ing, they arrived at ToUancinco, where they remained for 20 
 years, and founded the city of ToUan. which was the metro- 
 polis of their nation. 
 
 According to some writers, Tula, under the name oi Man- 
 he-mi already existed, and owes its rebuilding and its new 
 name to the Toltecs, and the same occurred with the pyra- 
 mids of Teotihuacan, which site w^as chosen by them for their 
 religious ceremonies. The annals of this nation, then prepon- 
 derating by its institutions and civilization, show that the 
 place of their departure was at the city of TlacJiicatzincan in 
 the Huetlapallan country and that they effected their immi- 
 gration, sailing by the Gulf of California and the coasts of 
 Jalisco, until they reached Tochtepec on the borders of the 
 Pacific.
 
 45 
 
 According to the notices of Ixtlixochitl, on the Toltecs 
 founding their monarchy, there already existed in the regions 
 of Panuco and Huexotla, a savage tribe of the "Chichimecas," 
 to whose chief they addressed themselves, soliciting a prince 
 of that race to be elected as their king ; a flattering proposal 
 by which the Toltecs hoped to secure themselves against the 
 ferocious instincts of that barbarous people. 
 
 The same IxtUlxochitlxn another part of his history relates 
 that the first king was chosen from among the Toltecs, and 
 this is the most probable. The catalogue of the Toltec kings 
 began with CJiakhihtictlanetzin ("precious stone") in the 
 year ^^J of the vulgar era, and it was then that the law of 
 succession commenced to rule designating the period of 52 
 years for each reign, the same law providing that if the monarch 
 should die before the expiration of that term, a Republican 
 government should be adopted for the time wanting, on 
 the conclusion of which the legitimate successor should take 
 charge of the destinies of the countr)'. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that all the Toltec monarchs com- 
 pleted the time fixed by law, with the exception of Mitl, 
 whose reign was prolonged for another seven years, in virtue 
 of the meritorious conduct and good qualities that adorn- 
 ed him. 
 
 On the death of the first king at nearly completing the 
 fifty-two years, he was buried with all his insignias, the highest 
 honors being paid to him. 
 
 In 719, Ixtliquechahuac or Ixacateclatl, as the legitimate 
 successor, came to the throne. During his reign he continued 
 the aggrandizement of the nation and was succeeded by prince 
 Huetzin. In 1771, a little before the death of Ixtlilquecha- 
 huac, the astrologist Huetmatzin in his latter days collected 
 in a large volume which was called the Teoamoxtli or divine 
 book, all the rites, sacrifices and ceremonies of the Toltec 
 people, the laws, maxims and sentences, the catalogue of 
 kings and potentates and the astrological, artistic and scien- 
 tific rules ; in one word, all the prosperous and adverse events, 
 forming in this way the history of this great people, whoso 
 ruin he also predicted. 
 
 At the death of Huetzing (823) his son Totepeuh inheri-
 
 46 
 
 ted the throne, his reign being remarkable for the peace and 
 tranquillity enjoyed by the nation. Huetzin was succeeded 
 by prince Necarxoh (875 ) and the latter by his son Mitl, the 
 wisest of the Toltec kings, during whose dynasty the monar- 
 chy reached its greatest eminence. Enlightened and prudent, 
 he dictated memorable laws and extended his authority to a 
 very great distance ; many villages, towns and cities were 
 founded in his time, among which Teotihuacan (the place of 
 adoration) which already existed, excelled the most, and being 
 as it was the grand sanctuary of the Toltecs, it surpassed 
 Tula in the grandeur of its temples, monuments and power. 
 Teotihuacan was not only renowned for its edifices and extent, 
 but also for its lofty pyramids, of which the largest was dedi- 
 cated to the Sun and the smallest to the Moon, and perhaps 
 the innumerable "tlateles" to the stars, if we consider the 
 emblematic character of the people we refer to. These monu- 
 ments, as I have already mentioned in another article, were 
 in my opinion mausoleums and altars. 
 
 To counterpoise the supremacy that Teotihuacan had ac- 
 quired over the capital, Mitl raised the magnificent temple 
 of "la Rana" goddess of the waters, enriching its interior 
 with ornaments of gold and precious jewels, and with the 
 image of the goddess, made from an emerald. In Tollocan 
 palaces were erected whose prepared stone represented, by 
 means of hieroglyphics, the most remarkable events in the 
 Toltec history. Palaces of an analogous style were built in 
 Cuanahuac and other places, to which his dominion extended. 
 
 The Toltecs excelled in arts and sciences, and were so skil- 
 ful therein, that many interpret the word toltec by artist, al- 
 though the probability is that it means a native of Toltan. They 
 worked both in gold and silver, making very curious articles 
 from these metals; they carved the hardest rocks and polish- 
 ed precious stones. They also excelled in the sciences as 
 proved by their astronomical labors, which gave them for 
 result the exact computation of time, Avhich was qualified by 
 the distinguished astronomer Laplace, as original. They di- 
 vided the year into eighteen peripds of twenty days adding 
 other complementary five days called (nememteni) or useless, 
 this completing the solar year of 365 days ; but as this exceed-
 
 47 
 
 ed the period of 365 days, by a little less than six hours, 
 they formed an age of 52 years which they called Huilimolpia, 
 bundle or link of years, and the age or century {^Huehiietilixtlt) 
 of 104 years, adding thereto 25 days, hence resulting a dif- 
 ference of only one day in each 538 years. 
 
 Agriculture was prosperous, the Toltecs dedicating them- 
 selves principally to the cultivation of maize, chile, beans and 
 other products, as Avell as to cotton which gave them good 
 returns. The women spun and wove domestics, plain, twilled 
 and quilted, and with colored patterns and figures. 
 
 The Toltecs were very intelligent in architecture and con- 
 structed their buildings with cut stones, packed at times one 
 above another and at others set in mortar ; they perpetuated 
 their annals by means of hieroglyphic characters, and finally 
 in their laws, their habits and customs.'they exhibited an ad- 
 vanced state of civilization. 
 
 In their religious ceremonies, they excluded human sacrifi- 
 ces, with the exception of those they performed in honor of 
 Tlatotl, the God of waters, whom they worshipped on the 
 summit of one of the highest mountains of the Sierra Nevada, 
 to the East of Texcoco ; and that made to Tonacateciihtli ; 
 offering up to the first six maidens, and to the second a cri- 
 minal who was broken to pieces by the projecting points of 
 revolving stones. 
 
 The laws prohibited polygamy and decreed that the mo- 
 narchs could not contract a second marriage ; and courage was 
 as much admired in the men as modesty in the women. 
 
 A community which, like that of the Toltecs, based their 
 stability on the observance of the law, as shown by their 
 customs and the legitimate succession of their kings, could 
 not be otherwise than prosperous and powerful. 
 
 Wisdom and prudence guided Mitl during his reign, and as 
 an acknowledgement of such commendable qualities, the law 
 was broken for the first time, and he continued on the throne 
 to the day of his death, which happened 7 years after the 
 expiration of the 52 years, and for the same merits, the widow 
 queen Huihtlaltzin continued in power (year 986) with the 
 aquiescense of her son Tecpancalzin. 
 
 On the death of queen Huihtlaltzin, four years afterwards,
 
 48 
 
 (year 990) her son, the prince, held the reins of government, 
 assisted by the nobility, but during his sway, the decline of 
 the monarchy had its beginning. 
 
 A noble Toltec, called Papantzin, had discovered the me- 
 thod of extracting the juice from the "maguey" (agave 
 Americano), and anxious to make his sovereign a present 
 of that liquor, he with this purpose, made his daughter ac- . 
 company him, — a noble maiden as lovely as her name, as she 
 was called "the flower" (Xochitl). The lady presents her- 
 self and offers the beverage to the king, which pleased the 
 sovereign exceedingly, not so much for the present as for the 
 beautiful personage that brought it. He immediately con- 
 ceived a violent passion for her and preoccupied himself solely 
 in the contemplation of a plan to obtain the sinister ends, he 
 desired. He took leave of the father and the daughter, but 
 requesting them to repeat their favor, and intimating that on 
 again doing so, it should be by the captivating Xochitl alone. 
 She returned once more to the royal palace, but never to go 
 back to her home. Seduced by the praises and offers of the 
 monarch, she was prevailed upon to accede to his import- 
 unities and resign herself to live in the place of recreation, as- 
 signed to her by the king, who to screen his proceedings sent 
 to say to Papantzin that wishing to unite his daughter to a 
 king, one of his vassals, he had placed her under the care of 
 a matron to give her a proper education. Some time passed 
 over, when cither from suspicion or from a desire to see his 
 daugther, Papantzin resolved to seek her place of abode. Af- 
 ter many enquiries and some bribery, he attained his object, 
 and was introduced to some gardens where the lady was just 
 at that moment, with an infant in her arms. Not approving 
 of the disloyalty of his king, he addressed his daughter in 
 these words : ''Has the king by chance, placed y 074 here to play 
 ivith children?'' Ashamed and tremulous, she confessed her 
 weakness, and the noble Papantzin decided immediately on 
 presenting himself to the king, demanding satisfaction for this 
 affront. The following day, on Tecpancaltzin's listening to 
 the conplaint of the old man, he consoled him by promising 
 that he would not take a wife to himself, and that the son of 
 Xochitl (who had received the name of Meconetzin or son of
 
 49 
 
 the "maguey") should inherit him. On the expiration of the 
 term of the fifty two years of his reign, Tecpancaltzin fulfilled 
 his promise, by having his natural son Meconetzin sworn in 
 as king, who took the name of Topiltzin, and beca me the ap- 
 ple of discord in the Toltec kingdom. 
 
 The reign of this prince was made remarkable by the excel- 
 lence of his government in the earlier years, by his dissipation 
 and dissolute life in those following and by the energetic and 
 appropriate measures he dictated ultimately, with the view of 
 redeeming his faults. His disorderly conduct contaminated 
 all classes of society and libertinage was such, that the priests 
 in spite of their vows of chastity, lived publicly with some of 
 the principal women : vice and the greatest scandal reigned 
 every where, a state of disorder which was rapidly precipitat- 
 ing the nation towards an abyss, in the same degree that in- 
 dustry, labor and respect for the law, had previously flourished 
 in all their splendor. 
 
 To this commencement of the inevitable decay of the 
 people, other calamities followed as a just punishment of their 
 crimes : at times the heavens sent down heavy rains that 
 inundated the lands and destroyed the crops, and at others 
 they were deprived of water, so that a frightful drought joined 
 to the burning rays of the sun ruined the harvests and even 
 the grain that had been stored in the granaries. 
 
 To crown their misfortunes, the lords of Xalisco, of the 
 same race, alleging rights to the throne of Toltan and believ- 
 ing the law to have been violated by the exaltation of To- 
 piltzin, invaded the possessions of this monarch's dominion 
 with a large army. Neither the friendly expressions of the 
 noble ambassadors sent to meet them by the king, nor the 
 rich presents which, in his name, they offered them, sufficed 
 to make the invaders desist from their intention, but on the 
 contrary they continued their march until they penetrated 
 the precincts of Tollan. 
 
 The persuasive conduct observed by Topiltzin, towards the 
 monarchs of Xalisco, with the view of inducing them to aban- 
 don their undertaking, was fruitless, nothing more being pro- 
 cured from their tyrannical pretensions than a truce of ten 
 years, which was conceded in order that preparations might
 
 5'0 
 
 be made for defense. This 'concession is not to be wondered 
 at from a race that esteemed bravery and loyalty in all their 
 worth. This compact gave as a first result the immediate 
 withdrawal of the invading forces. 
 
 On the conclusion of the time stipulated, which was not 
 misspent by the illustrious Topiltzin, he prepared for war, 
 and posted his troops advantageously and selected the plains 
 of Tultitlan as his headquarters. The enemy's hosts had scarce- 
 ly borne in sight, when the advanced guard of the Toltec 
 army rushed to attack them. The first battle was commen- 
 ced, giving rise to a series of sanguinary struggles that last- 
 ed three years, the Toltecs, in the midst of all, sometimes 
 conquerors and sometimes vanquished, displaying unheard- 
 of traits of bravery. The first division of the army having been 
 completely routed, Topiltzin advanced with the aged Tec- 
 pancaltzin, at the head of their forces, the lovely Xochitl 
 leading the ladies, who like a body of amazons, were also pre- 
 pared for the combat. One and the other of the disputants 
 rush to the struggle with the greatest bravery and courage ; 
 the presence of their sovereigns animates and inspires the 
 warriors who with their unerring arrows spread death and de- 
 solation on all sides, and even the ladies themselves and the 
 women of the soldiers, imitating the example of queen Xochitl,. 
 penetrate into the midst of the heat of the battle, and fight 
 hand to hand with the enemy's men. The battle lasts for three 
 consecutive days and nights without suspension of hostilities, 
 but not without the enemy's receiving fresh reinforcements,, 
 while the Toltecs were not aided by any new warriors. The 
 forces of the latter becoming exhausted by sa desperate a 
 struggle, the enemy's superiority rose in proportion, and 
 they gradually gained ground. At last, the victory was decid- 
 ed in faVor of those of Xalisco, and the Toltec army having 
 dispersed, took refuge in the mountains and lakes , only a 
 small body of the army remaining which commenced its re- 
 treat, led by its two kings and queen Xochitl. This gallant 
 army, closely persecuted and always resisting, reached Xal- 
 tocan ; from thence passed to Teotihuacan, and afterwards" 
 proceeded towards the mountains of the South by Totolapan. 
 The king Tecpancaltzin and queen Xochitl, with some of
 
 51 
 
 their vassals, were overtaken before arriving at Tultecaxochi- 
 tlalpam, which I suppose was at the hills of Tlalmanalco, 
 and had to struggle man to man, the king perishing at the 
 hands of his enemies, without his great age serving him as a 
 protection, and the queen, without any respect being paid to 
 her bravery, her sex or her beauty. This was the tragical end 
 of a heroine worthy of being celebrated in poetry. Topiltzin 
 took refuge in a cave at Xico, from whence he escaped after 
 the retreat of his enemies, marching to Tlalpalan, which as 
 I believe, was the kingdom of Aculhuacan, where he decreed 
 certain laws which were confirmed by Netzahualcoyotl, and 
 lived much esteemed until the day of his death. 
 
 The rest of the Toltecs were disseminated over different 
 parts ; some of them left for the coasts of the Southern Ocean 
 and Cuauhtemalan, and others went to Tehuantepec, Coat- 
 zacoalco, Campeachy and Xacolotlan. 
 
 It was in this way that the monarchy now disappeared, 
 which had left such fair pages in history ; pages which I ha- 
 ve compiled from Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl. 
 
 More than an age (of 52 years) after the destruction of the 
 Toltecs, the numerous and ferocious tribe of " Chichimecas'* 
 arrived in the valley of Mexico, who, guided by their king 
 Xolotl had emigrated from their country, Amaquemecan, a 
 place situated in the Northern regions ofAnahuac. Huaste- 
 ca, Cohuatlicamac and Tepenenee bore traces of their transit, 
 as also other points known by the name of Nopohualco or 
 Contadero (counting -place) and these were the places where 
 they rested some days to pass review. The king Xolotl, with 
 the view of ascertaining the number of his people, at a given 
 spot, ordered the number of stones to be counted, of which 
 one had been thrown down by each individual. During their 
 peregrination, they found the cities and towns, such as Tula 
 and Teotihuacan, which had formerly been prosperous and 
 flourishing, now sad, deserted and in ruins, and on their arrival 
 at the Valley of Mexico, the Toltecs were disseminated over 
 places afar off, such as Tehuantepec, Quauhtemalan, Teoco- 
 tlan, Coatzacoalco and Tiauheohuac, and reconcentrated in 
 a larger number in Quauhtitenco, Chapoltepec, Totoltepec, 
 Tlazalan, Cholollan, Tepexomaco and very particulary in
 
 52 
 
 Colhuacan, which formed a kingdom from whose name came 
 that of the "Colhuis. " 
 
 The Chichimecas were composed of a tribe of hunters and 
 barbarians, principally inhabiting in caverns. 
 
 Their arms were the bow and arrow, and the ancient culve- 
 rin, which drove the projectile with the greatest impetus on 
 being blown with force. They were of a medium stature but 
 strong ; of a darkish color, with black, thick and coarse long 
 hair, and with but little beard. They dressed themselves in 
 the skins of animals, which although cured, still preserved 
 the hair, and with these made their "sayos" or corslets, a 
 kind of leather casque or helmet, and the shields for their de- 
 fense. The chiefs adorned their casques with colored feathers 
 and small pieces of silver or common metal, roughly made, 
 as also with the parasitical plant we now call moss, but which 
 they called pachtli. Lastly, various trinkets of ordinary stone 
 girded their breasts, arms and calves. The women made use 
 of similar skins, encircling them from their waist downwards, 
 and covering the upper part of their person with the huipilli 
 of cotton, the only texture woven by them. 
 
 The Chichimecas fared upon wild vegetables and raw 
 game, without occupying themselves in any kind of cultiva- 
 tion. The sovereign wore a crown of laurel with the plumage 
 of Quetzalliy in the time of peace, and of oak leaves with 
 eagle's feathers in the time of war. 
 
 The king Xolotl knowing the Toltec civilization, dictated 
 such prudent measures from his establishment in the Valley, 
 that they could not fail to redound to the advantage of his 
 people. Various chiefs, by his orders, scouted over the coun- 
 try in every direction, in search of the Toltecs, whom they 
 treated with the greatest kindness and consideration : the in- 
 dependence of their kingdom being conceded to those of 
 Culhuacan, without any other condition than that of paying 
 a small tribute to the Chichimeca sovereign. These disposi- 
 tions gave the desired result ; with the union of the families, 
 the Chichimecas acquired the most useful attainments in arts 
 and commenced to abandon their barbarous customs and the 
 habit of dwelling in caves. A part of this tribe, neglecting 
 this civilizing clement occupied a large territory to the North
 
 53 
 
 West of the Valley, continuing in their savage state Westward 
 of the Othomies. 
 
 Eight years after the foundation of Tenayuca, according to 
 Clavijero, and an age (52 years) thereafter, according to Ix- 
 tHlxochitl, six civihzed tribes arrived successively from the 
 North, under the name of Nahuatlacas : namely the Xuchi- 
 milcas, Chalcas, Tepanecas, Acolhuas, TlaJmicas and Tlaxcal- 
 tecas, the Aztecs having separated from them at Chicomoz- 
 toc (seven caves), a site that Clavijero believes he finds to 
 the South of Zacatecas, in the ruins we know by the name of 
 La Qiieniada. The Xuchimilcas after exploring the circuit of 
 the Great Lake, fixed their residence at the place which to- 
 day bears the name of the South of the Valley, and extended 
 their dominion (without meeting with any opposition, so fear- 
 ed were they by the Chichimecas), as far as Tochimilco on 
 the Southern slope of Popocatepetl and, according to Father 
 Duran, comprising the places known by the names of Ocuitu- 
 co, Tetela Ameyalpam ( Tetela del Volcan ) Xamiltepec, Tla- 
 cotepec, Zacualpa, (Zacualpam Amilpas), Temoac, Tlayaca- 
 pa,Totolapa, Tepuztlan.Chimalhuacan (Chimalhuacan Chal- 
 co), Ehecatzingo, Tepetlizpan, Cuitlahuac (Tlahuac) Mizc^ic 
 and Colhuacan, situated, the major part, in the mountain ran- 
 ge that unites Popocatepetl with the eminences of Ajusco. 
 
 A short time after the Xochimilcas, the Chalcas arrived, 
 and established themselves on the South Eastern part of the 
 lake and to the North Western slope of Popocatepetl, fixing 
 upon Tlalmanalco, as the capital of their nation, comprising 
 the places called Amecamecan, Tenango, Ayotzinco, Chal- 
 co, Atenco and the one now called San Martin, and arrang- 
 ing their boundaries pacifically with the Xuchimilcas. 
 
 The Tepanecas followed after the Chalcas, and populated 
 the Western region of the lake between the Sierra of Guada- 
 lupe and the range of hills of Naucalpam; Atzcapotzalco being 
 the residence of the court, and Tlacopam, now Tacuba, the 
 principal seat of the nation, which on the dominion being af- 
 terwards divided by the nobles, was extended towards the 
 North to Tenayuca and Tlalnepantla, and on the South to 
 Atlacuihuayan (Tacubaya) and Coyohuacan (Coyoacan) bor- 
 dering towards the Sierra, with the Othomies.
 
 54 
 
 The Texcucan tribe, as numerous as that of the Xuchimil- 
 cas, arrived after the Chalcas, and were led by courageous and 
 prudent commanders, taking up their location on the Eas- 
 tern part of the lake and founding the kingdom of Acolhua- 
 can, one of the most extensive and powerful of Anahuac, whose 
 capital was Texcoco. The Chichimecas, connecting them- 
 selves with all the most cultivated of these tribes, rapidly 
 abandoned their customs and even their own language, iden- 
 tifying themselves with them. The nobles of the Texcucan 
 chiefs, divided among themselves the foundation of other po- 
 pulations, some as far as Huexotla, and erected others at Te- 
 petlaoxtoc, Chiautla, Tlautepechpa (Tepexpam) Otompam 
 ( Otumiba ) and many other towns. 
 
 The Tlahuicas, on their arrival, found the shores of the 
 lake populated, and were obliged to leave behind them the 
 Southern mountains of the valley, in order to establish their 
 nation at Cuauhnahuac, afterwards extending themselves tc 
 the warm and rich regions of Yautepec, Huaxtepec (Oaxte- 
 pec), Acapicthlan and Tlaquiltenanco, or in other words to 
 all the Western part of the present State of Morelos. 
 
 Notwithstanding that the lands encompassing the grand 
 lake, were populated, on the arrival of the Tlaxcaltecas, they 
 were assigned the Eastern borders, where for some time they 
 htld tlieir residence. This being a warlike tribe, very nume- 
 rous and increasing rapidly, it created jealousies in the neigh- 
 bouring tribes, from whence dissensions arose, which it became 
 necessary to settle by an appeal to arms. The sanguinary 
 battle of Poyauhtlan, which the Tlaxcaltecas sustained against 
 the confederate tribes, v/as favorable to the former, but in 
 spite of their victory, they preferred to emigrate, passing over 
 the rugged Sierra Nevada, in search of other lands, where they 
 might establish themselves quietly and pacifically and enjoy 
 all the advantages of an entirely free country. Some of them 
 proceeded to ToUanzinco and Quauhchinanco and others to 
 Quauhquechollan, but the greater number with their chief at 
 their head, took the road to Cholula and going round by the 
 wide slopes of Matlalcueyatl, they halted at the town of Con- 
 tla, from whence they undertook the conquest of the country 
 occupied by Ulmecas and Xicalancas, whose principal town
 
 55 
 
 was Cacaxtla, of which some vestiges may yet be seen to the 
 West of the sanctuary of San Miguel del Milagro. 
 
 The sanguinary struggles so tenaciously sustained and the 
 adversebattleofXocoyucan, obliged these tribes to emigrate, 
 some of them taking a direction towards Zacatlan and Otla- 
 tlan to the East of their country, and others towards the 
 plains of Apam until stopping at Huehuechocan, which word 
 means to say "where the old men wept", as at this place the 
 ancients bewailed their misfortunes. 
 
 The Tlaxcaltecas, stimulated by their warlike and enter- 
 prizing spirit, extended their dominions and founded the fa- 
 mous republic of Tlaxcala, governed by a senate of nobles and 
 by the heads of the two districts in which it was divided at 
 the beginning of their government, a division which was af- 
 terwards modified by erecting two more districts. 
 
 The Huexotzincas, alarmed at the Tlaxcaltecas on account 
 of the preponderance they were obtaining, joined the confe- 
 deration of the neighbouring States and promoted a war of 
 extermination, but without any favorable results to them, as 
 the Tlaxcaltecas, always victorious and aided by the Texco- 
 canos, and in presence of the indifference of the Tepane- 
 cas, succeeded in establishing their Republic on the firmest 
 and most solid bases, and whose capital may yet be recog- 
 nized in the ruins very near to the modern Tlaxcala. 
 
 The religion of the Tlaxcaltecas was in reality monothe- 
 ism under the appearance of a symbolical polytheism. Their 
 tutelary God was the gran Camaxtlc, whose relics were guard- 
 ed by the lord of Tepectipac-and to which the prisoners were 
 sacrificed during the public feasts. 
 
 The rivalry sustained by the Tlaxcaltecas against the Mex- 
 icans was the cause of their ruin and the perdition of the 
 other Indian nations, and principally of the Aztec or Mexi- 
 can race, the last that took their seat in the Valley of Mexico 
 and whose annals are of the greatest importance, as much 
 from the events that preceded their establishment, as from 
 those that followed and prepared and completed their en- 
 tire ruin. 
 
 In 1 196, the last and most powerful tribe, that of the Na- 
 huatlatas, arrived at the Valley of Mexico ; their country was
 
 56 
 
 Aztlan (the land of herons or of whiteness) situated in the 
 Northern regions, near Huehuetlapallan and Amequemecan, 
 to the North of the Gulf of California. During their immigra- 
 tion, they halted at Chicomotzoc, separating themselves, as 
 we have already mentioned, from the other tribes who in 
 succession proceeded to the spacious valley of Anahuac 
 ( " surrounded by water " ) a name which was afterwards made 
 extensive to the whole of the Mexican territory, from its 
 being comprised wthin the two Oceans. 
 
 It is very probable that the cause that induced the Nahua- 
 tlatos to abandon their country was that of roaming in search 
 of better lands and more propitious to their permanency, but 
 with respect to the Mexicans, a circumstance is related which 
 decided their emigration, a circumstance which maybe look- 
 ed upon as traditional: — Huitziton, a personage of great 
 authority amongst the Aztecas, heard in the branches of a 
 tree the trilling of a small bird which in its song repeated the 
 sound "■tihui,'' the literal meaning of which is ''let its go.'" 
 Huitziton being struck at this and communicating his im- 
 pressions to another personage called Tecpaltzin, they both 
 induced the Aztecas to leave their country, interpreting the 
 song as a mandate from divinity. Even to the present day 
 there is a bird known among the Mexicans by the name of 
 Tiliuitoehan ( " Let us go home. " ) 
 
 In I i6o they commenced their peregrination, and passing 
 by a large river which historians concur in being the Colora- 
 do and which discharges itself into the Gulf of California; they 
 advanced towards the river Gila, after remaining for some 
 time at a place known to-day by the name of " Casas gran- 
 des, " not far from the shores of that river. From thence they 
 continued their road and again took up quarters at a place to 
 the North West of Chihuahua, now called like the previous 
 stopping place, "Casas grandes, " and whose ruins show the 
 vast proportions of the ancient building and fortress. Leav- 
 ing behind them the wide "Sierra de la Tarahumara, " they 
 afterwards went to Hueycolhuacan, now Culiacan, Capital of 
 the State of Sinaloa, and there remained for three years, du- 
 ring which time they made the statue of their God Huitzilo- 
 pochtli, which was to accompany them in their expedition.
 
 57 
 
 From Hueycolhuacan they passed to Chicomoztoc, where 
 they made another halt with their God Huitzihpochtli, sepa- 
 rating themselves from the other nations of Nahualtlatas, 
 who continued their route. After remaining for nine years in 
 Chicomoztoc, they again commenced their travels going to- 
 wards the South, by Ameca, Cocula and Colima until reaching 
 the region of Zacatula ; from whence they passed to Malinal- 
 co, continuing their route towards the North, and arriving 
 at Tula in 1 196 ; there they remained for 9 years and 1 1 more 
 in other places near there. From Tula they went to Zum- 
 panco in 12 16, whose governor, Tochpanecatl o^^x^d. them a 
 frank and liberal hospitality, to the extreme of making his 
 son IlJtuicatl marry with a noble Aztec maiden called Tlapa- 
 cantzin, from which m.atrimony the Mexican kings descend- 
 ed. In Zumpanco they remained seven years. 
 
 From this last place they passed to Tizayocan, a town si- 
 tuated at 4 leagues towards the East, and it was here that 
 Tlapacantzin gave birth to a male child who was called Huit- 
 zilihuitl. Continuing their excursion, they passed successively 
 to Tolpetlac and Tepeyacac, where with the consent of the 
 king Xolotl, they established themselves, but being annoyed 
 by the Chichimeca tribes, they retired to Chapultepec, where, 
 according to Clavijero, they staid seventeen years, or four 
 according to Don Fernando Ramirez. The belligerent and 
 turbulent character of the Aztecs, who always believed in 
 conforming their actions to divine orders, did not allow them 
 to remain at peace during their residence in Chapultepec. 
 Manifesting, at times, submission to the king of Culhuacan, 
 they established themselves quietly and pacifically at the 
 places that monarch had assigned to them, and afterwards 
 unmasking themselves, they openly declared a war of extermi- 
 nation, arming themselves with missiles and darts shot from 
 cross-bows of their invention, called Atlaltl. After many 
 encounters, the last affray was so calamitous to them, that 
 those who escaped from death or slavery found themselves 
 obliged to seek refuge amongst the rushes of the lake. Con- 
 tinually persecuted by several tribes, they abandoned Cha- 
 pultepec and passed to Acocolco, a group of islands situated 
 at the Southern extremity of the lake of Texcoco. There
 
 58 
 
 they saw on a nopal (cactus opuntia) which sprung from the 
 fissure of a rock, a large and beautiful eagle, with its wings 
 extended and devouring a serpent with its talons. This event, 
 according to their beliefs and traditions, indicated to them 
 the spot where they ought to found their city, as in fact they 
 did build it there, about the year 1325, giving it the name of 
 Tenochtitlan, which, according to some writers, was derived 
 from Taioch, the chief of the founders; and from Tetl, stone, 
 and nochtliy nopal, according to others ; but this last inter- 
 pretation has been victoriously refuted by Don Fernando Ra- 
 mirez and Don Eufemio Mendoza. 
 
 During their peregrination, the tribe was divided into two 
 factions, a dissension which produced its effect after the foun- 
 dation of Mexico, by some of them establishing themselves 
 in a sandy promontory called Tlaltelolco, and others in the 
 group of islands, at a short distance therefrom. 
 
 The name of Mexico was also given to the new city, in ho- 
 nor of the tutelary God Huitzilopochtli, who it is believed by 
 many to a certain degree, is the selfsame chief Huitziton dei- 
 fied. "The Mexican traditions (Treatise of Eufemio Mendo- 
 za) as preserved in the most ancient histories, relate that 
 Huitzilopochtli was born of a virgin who belonged to the no- 
 ble family of Citli (free and ancestral) ; that his cradle was 
 the heart of a "maguey" plant (metl), and hence the name 
 o{ MecitW^ afterwards changing in to Mexitli. 
 
 Senor Ramirez, in 2i,\2\\xz\A& historical- hierogryphical his- 
 tory of the peregrinations of the Aztec tribes, which I publish- 
 ed in my Atlas of the Republic, circumscribes the Aztec 
 peregrination within very narrow limits, which do not extend 
 farther than over a very small part outside of the v^alley of 
 Mexico, and indicating as the point of departure, the town 
 of Culhuacan then situated on the borders of the lake. 
 
 The ruins scattered over our territory, the historical reports 
 and above all the distribution of the languages in accordance 
 with those reports, cause vacillation in regard to the asser- 
 tions of Senor Ramirez. Perhaps the work now being prepa- 
 red by Senor Orozco y Berra may resolve the question. 
 
 The indomitable character of the Mexicans was displayed 
 against the misdeeds of their enemies, and stimulated them
 
 59 
 
 to change the form of the government "^'hich until then had 
 ruled the destinies of the nation, and had been composed of 
 the principal members of the nobility. They resolved upon 
 establishing their monarchy upon the surest bases of order 
 and respectability and chose as their king Acamapitzin (1352) 
 a descendant of Tochpanecatl and one of the most valiant 
 and prudent of men. 
 
 This resolution at once inspired the jealousy ^and fears of 
 their enemies, who moreover, being instigated by the Tlalte- 
 lolcos, the rivals of the Mexicans, oppressed the latter by 
 their extortions and tributes, but without ever succeeding in 
 domineering them. It was thus that this growing nation exist- 
 ed for 50 years, destined as it was to rule in the process of 
 time. 
 
 The following gives the succession of its kings : 
 
 Acamapitzin 1352 to 1389 
 
 Huitzilihuitl . . . . 1389 to 1410 
 
 Quimalpopoca 1410 to 1422 
 
 Izcoatl 1423 to 1436 
 
 Moctezuma Ilhuicamina or Moctezuma I. . . 1436 to 1464 
 
 Azayacatl 1464 to 1477 
 
 Tizoc 1477 to 1480 
 
 Ahuitzotl 14S0 to 1502 
 
 Moctezuma Xocoyotzin or Moctezuma II . . 1502 to 1520 
 
 Chitlahuatzin 1520 
 
 Cuauhtemotzin 1521
 
 6r 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHICAL PART 
 
 There is much to be said in regard to the indigenous race, 
 numerous and extended as it is throughout the territory of 
 the Mexican Republic : its habits and inveterate customs, 
 diametrically opposed to those of the white and mixed races, 
 influence as much in its non- increase, as they tend to the 
 growth and invigoration of the other two. 
 
 If we make a careful examination of the state of the popu- 
 lation in different parts of the Republic, we shall find the fact 
 confirmed and our assertions corroborated, when stating that 
 the indigenous race is gradually approaching towards its com- 
 plete extinction. 
 
 The numerous tribes that formerly populated the fertile 
 lands of our frontier States have completely disappeared, as 
 may be observed in New Leon ; or are found only in a very 
 limited number, sojourning on the banks of the rivers or in 
 the hidden depths of the mountain ranges, as happens in the 
 States of Sonora and Chihuahua ; or are intermixed with the 
 other races in the larger towns. 
 
 The preponderance of the "Marascos" in the ancient king- 
 dom of Michoacan, no longer exists in that State of the Mex- 
 ican Confederation. Although it be certain that a small 
 portion of the "Tarascos," especially in the Western part of 
 the State, still preserve their traditions and customs, the rest 
 have incorporated themselves with the mixed race, adopting 
 their habits and even forgetting their primitive language.
 
 62 
 
 Nearly all the States of the Republic offer us a like examples. 
 Of the traits that characterized the indigenous race, some are 
 similar and others differ remarkably. In the craggy ravines 
 of Tarahumara between Chihuahua, Sonora and Sinaloa, the 
 natives exist in their natural and independent state, still 
 preserving their ancient traditions and customs : in the cen- 
 tral table -lands, and in general in a state of degradation, 
 they exercise those acts of the religion that was imposed upon 
 them by the conquest, always propending towards idolatry 
 and a blinded fanaticism : in the mountainous districts, im- 
 bued in their ancient habits, they preserve their customs, 
 dress and dialect, and there maybe frequently found amongst 
 them, the practice of their former religious ceremonies, simu- 
 lated under the safeguard of the public manifestation of their 
 newer faith. 
 
 Pantomimic dances are the general and most character- 
 istic expression of their rejoicings; composed on the frontier 
 of savage evolutions around some unfortunate victim ; on 
 the river -borders of merry and inoffensive rustic sports ; in 
 the wild mountainous regions, imitating the dances, of the 
 Cegador, the TcJmacanzi and Zempoalxochitl, and again in 
 the distant highlands of Tabasco, of pantomimes, in which 
 the Indians dress themselves up in the old Spanish fashion. 
 
 Misconfidence, dissimulation, cunning, obstinacy and an 
 inclination for spirituous drinks, are other general character- 
 istics of the Indian, although he is brave, daring and long- 
 suffering. Occasionally we see in him the dexterous hunter, 
 climbing the heights of craggy mountains, and again we 
 meet with him as the fearless soldier in the midst of battle, 
 frequently after a fatiguing march of perhaps some twenty 
 leagues or more. 
 
 Many circumstances show that the degradation of the In- 
 dian race is not derived from<their original nature, but from 
 their customs and mode of living. In a former treatise, I re- 
 ferred to the causes that are inimical to their natural develop- 
 ment, which from their aptness, I shall now repeat. If we 
 consider the Indian from the time he is born or even before 
 his birth, we shall only find a series of lamentable wretched- 
 ness. The Indian women, even when far advanced in preg-
 
 ^3 
 
 nancy, do not abstain from hard labor, and without any care 
 for their coming offspring, continue grinding their corn; an 
 occupation that cannot be otherwise than injurious to partu- 
 rition. Then, before the proper time for taking the child from 
 the breast, it is fed with improper nourishment and difficult 
 of digestion; which occasions diarrhea or other infirmities that 
 either cause its death or at the least contribute to an imper- 
 fect development. 
 
 The small -pox, owing to the carelessness, repugnance or 
 indolence of the parents as regards vaccination, is the cause 
 of deplorable ravages in this race, more especially among the 
 individuals that live at any considerable distance from cen- 
 tral populations. 
 
 The Indians are strong by nature ; and it is only for this 
 reason that it can be understood how many of them reach an 
 advanced age, in spite of their scarce and humble food, their 
 unhealthy mode of living, and their damp and unwholesome 
 habitations, consisting of miserable huts, where whole fami- 
 lies are huddled together. 
 
 Another circumstance, to which attention should be called, 
 causes the degeneration of the Indians, and this consists in 
 their premature marriages. In this Republic, the marriage- 
 able age for women, medically considered, has been fixed at 
 eighteen years, and in the tierra calicnte or hot country, at 
 fourteen, but between this doctrine, and the actual results, 
 so fatal to propagation, there exists an immense distance. 
 
 To these causes, which contribute so directly to the falling 
 off of the Indian race, must be added their gradual disappear- 
 ance, arising from their incorporation with other races, and 
 the heavy decrease from losses in campaign, composing, as 
 they do, the major part of the army. 
 
 On studying the character, habits and customs of the dif- 
 ferent tribes inhabiting the Mexican Republic, it is observed 
 that not all of them are found in like circumstances respecting 
 their condition, docility and civilization. Amongst some, such 
 as the ComancheSy Apaches and Seris of the Northern frontier, 
 barbarism is met with in all its plenitude : perfidy, treachery 
 and cruelty are the essential qualities of their character : wan- 
 dering away from their hordes, they are those who principally
 
 6a 
 
 infest our border States, destroying and killing all before 
 them and preventing, by their depredations of every species, 
 the development of the boundless wealth of that country. 
 Other Indians, more or less civilized, dwell in the midst of 
 distinct races, dedicating themselves to agricultural pursuits, 
 to making coarse cotton cloth, baskets and mats, as well as 
 to the manufacture of common earthenware and hats, and to 
 the production of butter and cheese, and burning charcoal, and 
 disposing of all these articles in the larger towns or at the 
 fairs called '' tiangiiis'' or markets, that are held weekly in 
 the villages, where they attend in large numbers, in their 
 showy costumes. 
 
 I shall now proceed to give the distribution of the different 
 races that inhabit the territory of the Republic, showing the 
 numbers of which each one is composed, according to my 
 opinion, for which purpose I have not spared in my calcula- 
 tions any of the means advised by prudence for obtaining, as 
 exactly as possible, the relation which each one bears to the 
 others. Consulting the " Geography of languages" by Senor 
 Orozco y Berra ; the memoirs of the Government of Oaxaca, 
 the reports from the Bishopric of San Luis, and especially 
 those for which I am indebted to the kindness of the Curates 
 of the States of Mexico, Morelos, and Hidalgo and the Fe- 
 deral District, as well as to the authorities and private indi- 
 viduals of other important States of the Republic, such as Mi- 
 choacan, Tlaxcala, Jalisco, Aguascalientes and Sinaloa, I 
 have been enabled to bring to a close a task which is in it- 
 self very laborious. 
 
 Like to every statistical work that is engaged in, some de- 
 fects will naturally occur, which time alone can rectify. 
 
 Senor Orozco y Berra, by his "Geography of languages" 
 laid the groundwork of the Ethnographical monument of the 
 Republic, and Senor Pimentel by his philological comparisons 
 and his appropriate classification, solidly constructed the edi- 
 fice. Reassuming this interesting work, my only desire has 
 been to contribute towards crowning the whole with statist-^ 
 ical data, with my own observations and with the Indian 
 types, in the collection of which I have now been engaged 
 more than ten years :
 
 6s 
 
 SYNOPSIS of tlie Indian lans^uages of M'exioo, fbrmed stooording to tho 
 
 olassineatioii of IT. Fraiicisoo I?iiTieiatel. 
 
 FAMILIES, 
 
 I. 
 
 Mexican, 
 
 L^KTGtJ^GES. 
 
 Is' Order. — Languages polysylabic, 
 polysynthetic of sub-flexion. 
 
 l._Mexlcan, Nahuatl nr Azteca. 
 
 1-2 
 
 Soiiorcnsc or 
 Opata-Pima. 
 
 Cultlateco 
 
 3. Opata, Teguima or Teguima Sonorense 
 
 4. Eudebe, heve or hegue, dohme or dohtnia- 
 batuco 
 
 5. Joba, joval ova 
 
 6. Pima, nevome, ohotama or Otama -I 
 
 7. Tepehuan 
 
 8. PapaRO or Papabicotan 
 
 9 to 12. El Yuma compx-ising el Ciichan, el Co- 
 
 comaricopa or Opa, el Mojave or Mahao, el 
 Dieguefio, or Cufieil, el Yavipal, Yampai 
 and yampaio 
 
 13. * El Cajuenche, Cucapa or Jallicuaiuay 
 
 14. El Soliaipure 
 
 la. El Julimu 
 
 IC. El Taralmmar ■< 
 
 17. El Caliita or Sinaloa. 
 
 Mexican- 
 Opata. 
 
 18. Guazavo or Vacoregue. 
 
 19. Cliora, Chota, Cora del Nayarit. 
 
 Conchos, Si- 
 nalopiise, • Ma- 
 zapil, Jali.scien- 
 se, Ahualulco, 
 Pipil, Nlqulran. 
 
 Tecorlpa. 
 Sabaqui. 
 Various. 
 
 Varogio or Clii- 
 
 nipa , Ouaza - 
 
 pare, Paehera 
 
 aud others. 
 
 Yaqui, Mayo 
 Teliueco oZua- 
 que. 
 
 Muutzicat , 
 Teacucitzin, 
 Ateanaca, 
 
 J 
 
 Coiiiauclie 
 shoiie. [_ 
 
 TV. 
 
 Te.taua or t'oa- 
 liiiiltcca. 
 
 -V. 
 
 * Kci'cs Ziiiii. 
 
 20. ColoUan 
 
 21. Tubar 
 
 22. lluicliola 
 
 23. Zacateco 
 
 24. Acaxee or Topia, comprising el Sabaibo, Te- 
 Ijaca, aud el Xixime, the la.st of doubtful 
 classification 
 
 25. Comanche, Nauni, Paduca,Hietan orGotan. 
 
 26. Caigua or Kioway.— 27. Shoslione or Clio- 
 chone.— 28. Wihlnasht.— 29. Utah, Yutah or 
 Yuta.— 30. Pah-Utali or Payuta.— Sl.Cheme- 
 gueorCheme-huevi.— 32, CaliuilloorCawio. 
 —33. Kechi.— 3t. Netela.— 35. Kizhor Ki.i.— 
 36. Fernandofi').— 37. Moqul and some others 
 spoken in the United States 
 
 3S. Texano or Coahailteco. 
 
 Mntsun. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Guaidira. 
 
 ( Kiwomi or Ki- 
 I vome , Coclu - 
 
 39. Keres o Quera •< teumi or Qui- 
 
 i me, Acomaand 
 I Acuco. 
 
 40. Te.^uque or Tegua Variou.s. 
 
 41. Taos, Piro, Suraa, Picori 
 
 42. Jeraez, Tauo, Peco 
 
 . 43. Zuni or Cibola 
 
 44. Mutsun. — 15. Rumsen. — 46. AchastU.— 47. 3o- 
 ledad. — 18. Costeno or Coatanos and other 
 languages of California 
 
 49. Oaaicura, Vaicura orMonqui.— 50. Aripa.— 
 51. Cchita.— 52. Cora.— 53. Concho or Lau- 
 retano 
 
 __ ., r 64 to 57. Cochimi, divided into four sister-lan- 
 
 V III. ] t?uages, vizt. el Cadepomo and the l;iiigua- 
 
 ,, ., . J ges used in the missions of San Javier, San 
 
 lOCllinil-Laiinon. ) Jnaquiu and Santa Maria 
 
 I 58. El Laimon or Layamon 
 
 IX. 
 
 ( 59. Si 
 -< 60. O 
 ^ 01. U 
 
 ri or Con 
 
 Ouairaa or Gayama. 
 panguaima
 
 66 
 
 T-.A.Na-XJA.C*HS. 
 
 bULBCti^. 
 
 Families 
 imdependent 
 among them 
 selves and of" 
 Hie Mexican- 
 Opata gronp. 
 
 Tarasca. 
 xr. 
 
 Zoqae-mixe. 
 
 XII. 
 
 Totouaca. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Mixteeo Zapo- 
 teca. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Pirinda or Ma- 
 tlalzinca. 
 
 62. El Tarasco :•••• 
 
 63. El Chorotega de Nicaragua 
 
 M. ElMixe Various. 
 
 65. El Zoque 
 
 66. El Tapyulapa 
 
 67. El Totonaco (mixed language) Four 
 
 2"d Order. — Languages polysylabic 
 polysynthetic of juxta-position. 
 
 6R. El Mixteeo Eleven. 
 
 69. ElZapoteco Twelve. 
 
 70. El Chuchon Two. 
 
 71. El Popoloco 
 
 72. El Cuicateco Two. 
 
 73. El Chatino 
 
 74. El Papabuco 
 
 75. El Amus!;o 
 
 76. El Mazateco Two. 
 
 *77. El Solteco 
 
 *7S. El Chinanteco 
 
 79. Pirinda or Matlalzinea Varloiw. 
 
 Order. — Languages Paulosylabic 
 SyntetMc. 
 
 Yucateco or Maya 
 
 Punctunc 
 
 Lacandon or Xochinel 
 
 Peten or Itzae 
 
 Chaflabal, Comiteco, Jocolobal 
 
 Choi or Mopan 
 
 C'horti or Chorte 
 
 Cakclii, Caichi, Cachi or Cakgi 
 
 Ixil.lzil 
 
 Coxoli 
 
 Quiche, Utlateco 
 
 Zutuhil, Zutugil, Atiteca, Zacapula 
 
 Cachiquel, Cachiquil 
 
 Tzotzll, Zotzil, Tzinanteco, Cinanteco 
 
 Tzendal, Zendal 
 
 Mame, Mem, Zaklohpakap 
 
 Poconchl, Pocoman 
 
 Atche, Atchi 
 
 . Huaxteco 
 
 . Haitiano, Oulzqueja or Itis, with their ai- 
 
 flnities, el Cubano, Borlgua and Jamaica. . 
 
 3rd 
 
 Various 
 
 XVI. 
 
 Choutal. 
 xvn- 
 
 Deriratires of 
 
 "100. El Chontal doubtful ia itB morphologic 
 character 
 
 *101. Iluave, Huazonteca 
 
 »102. Chiapaueco 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 Apache. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 Othomi. 
 
 103. Apache . 
 
 4\>» Order. — Languages cuasi-mo- 
 nosylabic. 
 
 104. Othomi or Hiahlu 
 
 106. Serrano 
 
 106. Mazahua 
 
 107. Fame 
 
 108. Jonaz or Meco. (Perhaps the rests of the 
 ancient ChlcUlmeco) 
 
 North Ameri - 
 can Apache, 
 Mexican Apa- 
 che, Mlmbre- 
 fio, PinaleSo , 
 NavaJo.Xiearl- 
 Ua or Faraon, 
 Llpan Meaaa 
 lero 
 
 NOTE : Th« »ign ■•■ indic«t«« thut the classification i» doubtful.
 
 6y 
 
 THE MEXICAN FAMILY. 
 
 The Mexican family, which is the most numerous, extends 
 itself from the river of Sinaloa to the Austral or Southern 
 regions of the Republic, and occupies a part of the State of 
 Sinaloa, a very few portions of Durango, the Southern part 
 of San Luis Potosi ; the districts 8 and 9 and other towns of 
 Jalisco ; 7 to 8 towns of Colima ; the seaboard littoral of Mi- 
 choacan ; the greater part of the country in the States of 
 Guerrero, Mexico, Tlaxcala, Morelos, Puebla, the Federal 
 District, and Veracruz, and a part of the State of Hidalgo ; 
 and is found in smaller numbers in Oaxaca, Tabasco and Chia- 
 pas. In Aguascalientes, native population is scarce, and the 
 same occurs in the State of Chihuahua, towards the regions 
 occupied by the Conchos and Chinarras, in regard to whose 
 existence I have been unable to obtain any data. 
 
 In the Mexican family in particular, there may be observ- 
 ed the same results as in the Indian race in general : that is 
 their decrease in the Northern regions and their greater con- 
 course towards the South. In Sinaloa but few families have 
 survived the former inhabitants. Jalisco has retained a larger 
 number of them, and once in Mexico and the other more 
 Southerly States they are still more numerous. 
 
 The Mexican race, similar to the others that populate the 
 territory of the Republic, is extremely debased and prostrat- 
 ed in the vicinities of the large cities. It is here that those 
 types of repugnance are observed, covered with rags and fre- 
 quently intoxicated, carrying their loads on their backs and 
 returning to their miserable huts, after selling their articles 
 at a vile price. 
 
 For a better knowledge of the races, their real character- 
 istics, their uses and customs should be studied, as I have men- 
 tioned on another occasion, in the depths of the mountainous 
 regions where they still preserve their ancient habits and their
 
 68 
 
 dialects with greater purity. Tlapacoyan at the foot of the 
 Sierra of Tezuitlan, and Amatlan in the neighbourhood of 
 Cordoba, both in the State of Vera Cruz, display to us the 
 best types of the Mexican family. (See the plates at the end 
 of work. 
 
 The Indians of Tlapacoyan are engaged in agriculture and 
 especially in the production of tobacco and coffee, which plant- 
 ations compose the principal wealth of the district. The men 
 who are less active and industrious than the women, dedicate 
 themselves to field -labor, land are simply dressed in white 
 drawers of "manta" (a coarSE" cotton cloth) and a black or 
 coffee -colored woollen coton or shirt. The women who are 
 much more cleanly than the men, use petticoats and quichi- 
 quimel of white linen, a plain garment, which is converted in- 
 to an elegant dress on Sundays and feast-days. On these 
 occasions they really attract attention, on observing them 
 parading through the towns, almost always, in company two 
 by two, going to or coming from the churches and stores and 
 displaying their gay attires. These are composed of a white 
 skirt, terminating in a border of blue or red check, and of a 
 pretty htiipilli which descends in graceful folds, down to the 
 knee, and which is tastefully embroidered with braiding and 
 ribbons of various colors, that have a very showy effect. 
 Around their necks, are hung strings of rosaries, which are 
 nothing else but necklaces of coral or glass beads, or small 
 silver coins, whilst their ears are ornamented by large gilt 
 metal earrings ; and lastly they wear the viastahnal, a head- 
 dress of ribbons, above their braided and lustrous jet black 
 hair which so well becomes their clear and olive complexions. ) 
 
 When external religious demostrations were allowed, th^ 
 men took great pains, especially during the festivities of 
 Corpus Christi, in ornamenting poles of a bamboo called tarro 
 (giant cane), each endeavouring to excel the other in the 
 dimensions of his bamboo, and in the beauty of its de- 
 corations. The young unmarried men attached a species of 
 doll to the extremity of the tarro, in representation of their 
 betrothed, thus making known their conquests amidst public 
 rejoicings. 
 
 A custom which is essentially oriental, is still preserved
 
 60 
 
 among these Indians. They revere and respect the moral 
 duties of ■woman, so deeply, that on the occasion of their 
 marriage, they make known whether she has preserved her 
 purity or not, which influences in a decisive manner the es- 
 teem or contempt her person is entitled to. 
 
 In the first event, on the day after the wedding, the grand 
 feast and ball of the Teluiacanzi takes place, at which the 
 bouquet of the zempoalxoclutl "^Xz-ys, an important part. In the 
 course of the feast, in front of each other they are made to 
 dance the "ramo" and \.\vq: coconete, which is a wax doll that 
 is introduced intentionally for the purpose of indicating to 
 the woman, her future destiny. The axole is circulated, which 
 is a kind of atole or gruel made from indian corn and choco- 
 late of which all partake, and after the warmest demonstrations 
 of gladness, the feast concludes by the withdrawal of the 
 bride and bridegroom ; she honored and beloved and he con- 
 tented and satisfied. 
 
 In the second case, the dance of the coconete is suspended, 
 and on distributing the axole, it is presented to the bride and 
 her father in 2. jicara or large cup perforated at the bottom, 
 so that on taking into their hands, the liquid is spilt. The 
 father and daughter know what this means, and both re- 
 tire under the most disagreeable impressions, to hide their 
 shame in their humble dwelling. 
 
 In Sinaloa, the virgins were accustomed to wear a mother- 
 of-pearl shell, hanging from the neck which it was ignomi- 
 nious for them to lose before their marriage. This, they re- 
 tained until the moment in which the husband publicly de- 
 tached that ornament from their bosom, as a manifestation 
 that they had preserved their maidenhood. This proves that 
 the custom of the Indian women of Tlaliscoyan is very 
 primitive. 
 
 In Amatlan, near Cordoba, the same neatness and elegance 
 in the dress of the Indians, is observed. The labors of the 
 "amatecos" are dedicated to agriculture, and especially to 
 the cultivation of ananas, pine -apples and coffee, of which 
 they possess large plantations, and it may be safely asserted 
 that from the crops of the last few years, they have obtained 
 a profit of more than $ 300,000. These Indians are great pro-
 
 -• 70 
 
 ducers and are much inclined to trading in the Cordoba mar- 
 ket, but, as I am assured by the merchants of that place, they 
 have the custom of hiding away the money they receive from 
 the sale of their produce and merchandize. 
 
 The second group of Plate III represents the types of the 
 "Amatecos," as well as of the natives of Maltrata, which are 
 worthy of appearing in this collection. Both places pertain 
 to the State of Vera Cruz and are on the line of Mexican 
 Railway. 
 
 The Mexican family, as I have before stated, is the most 
 numerous, consisting of 1.203,270 individuals. 
 
 II 
 
 THE SONORA OR OPATA-PIMA FAMILY. 
 
 This family is sufficiently numerous. According to the class- 
 ification of Pimentel, it comprises twenty two languages, 
 spread over the States of Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, Sina- 
 loa, Jalisco and Zacatecas. The Opatas, the Pinias, the Pd- 
 pagos, Viivias, Yaqtus and Mayos constitute the indigenous 
 population of Sonora. The Coras inhabit the mountains of 
 Nayarit and Xalisco. The Hjiicholes are in theDistrict of Colo- 
 tlan in the same State, and finally the rests of the Tepehua- 
 nes and the Acaxes reside in Durango and Sinaloa. Very few 
 are those that now remain of the other tribes, and some have 
 totally disappeared. 
 
 The Opatas inhabit the centre and the Eastern slope of 
 the Sierra Madre, and are composed of a civilized tribe, as 
 friendly to the white race as they are inimical to the Apaches, 
 against whom they are always disposed to make war. Their 
 occupations consist in the cultivation of land and cattle breed- 
 ing, and in the manufacture of hats, coarse textures and a 
 species of baskets, the materials for which latter are obtain-
 
 n 
 
 fed from the gayest plumage of the feathered tribe. They live 
 in several of the towns where the mixed race predominates, 
 called Opodepe, Cucurpe, Tuape, Aconchi, Babiacora, Ari- 
 vechi, Santo Tomas, Bacanora and Nuri in the centre ; Opo- 
 sura, Guazavas, Bacadehuachi, Nacori, Mochopo and Oputo 
 in the Sierra ; Chinapa Bacoachi, Cuquiurachi and Cumpas to 
 the North. The Opatas are able-bodied, are dexterous hunt- 
 ers and as fleet as the game they pursue. 
 
 An anecdote which I shall permit myself to relate, will 
 portray in a remarkable manner, the haughty character of 
 this race : 
 
 Persecuted by Governor Gandara with very superior forces, 
 in consequence of an insurrection, they refused to surrender 
 themselves, even after each one at his post had shot his last 
 arrow. Their Captain with some few who had survived the 
 contest, took refuge on the summit of an almost inaccessible 
 mountain and there awaited the approach of General Ganda- 
 ra's emissaries who had intimated their submission : beleiving 
 themselves humiliated at the demand for the delivery of their 
 arms, they declared to the envoys of the General their reso- 
 lution to deliver themselves up to the conqueror, without 
 abandoning their arms. Upon General Gandara's insisting in 
 his demands and they in their resolution, their c6nduct deci- 
 ded him to take them prisoners by force, which they avoid- 
 ed by an act worthy of the ancient Spartans, in throwing 
 themselves over the precipice, at the moment the General's 
 troops were ascending the heights. 
 
 The Pimas are composed of two groups ; those of the Up- 
 per and those of the Lower Pimeria. The first named inhabit 
 the towns of Caborca, Pitiquito Oquitoa, Santa Teresa, Tu- 
 butama, Magdalena, San Ignacio, Imuris, Cocospera, Tuma- 
 cacori and San Javier del Bac ; the second, Comuripa, Suaqui, 
 Tocaripa, Sayopa, Onavas and San Jose de Pimas. This tribe 
 is very similar in civilization to the Opatas. 
 
 The Pdpagos are robust and of a good stature ; they are 
 warlike and very skilful in the use of the bow and arrow. They 
 are husbandmen, and are industrious, especially in the ma- 
 nufacture of tasteful baskets called coriias, so well woven and 
 resistant, that water can be carried in them ; they cure skins
 
 ^2 
 
 and make coarse cotton textures. They inhabit the to-v^ns 
 of Buzani, Quitovac and Zoni, but the greater part of them 
 are to be found in the territory of Mesilla, now belonging to 
 the United States. The Papagos, Hke the Opatas, are enemies 
 of the Apaches, who seldom or ever expose themselves to 
 their terrible vengeance. 
 
 The Yumas have their settlements on the borders of the 
 rives Gila and Colorado. 
 
 The Yaquis and Mayos are the principal tribes dwelling on 
 the banks of the rivers bearing their names. The Yaqui 
 settlements are divided between eight towns or villages call- 
 ed Rahun, Potan, Bicam, Huirivis, Belem, Cocori, Torim and 
 Bacum. The settlements of the Mayos are: Macoyagui, Co- 
 nicari, Camoa, Tecia, Navajoa, Cuirimpo, Santa Cruz and 
 Masiaca. They recognize the authority of the Government of 
 the State, but, with the consent of the latter, they are under 
 the immediate orders of a chief of their own race. 
 
 These warlike tribes, badly advised and worthy of a better 
 fate, have rebelled upon several occasions, sustaining disas- 
 trous struggles, which have greatly influenced in their decline. 
 T he first insurrection with which history acquaints us, occurred 
 in 1740, and was initiated by thesuggestions of a criminal es- 
 ctiped from prison. Their uprise did not produce the result they 
 desired, as notwithstanding that more than 9000 Indians rose 
 against the whites, they were completely routed, and suffered 
 a similar fate in their second rising, which happened shortly 
 after that same occasion. From that period, we do not again 
 find them at war, until the year 1825, since when, with longer 
 or shorter intervals, they have continued their incursions. 
 
 The Yaquis and Mayos like all Indians are mistrustful, 
 tenacious and apprehensive ; they have but little ambition and 
 in general conform themselves to what suffices to attend to 
 their most urgent necessities; they live in the cane-brakes 
 of the meadows adjoining the rivers, rather than in towns or 
 villages, which makes it difficult to form their census. 
 
 They are the principal field -laborers of the State and are 
 also employed in mining and various mechanical arts and 
 trades, for which they display considerable ability ; they re- 
 fine saltpetre and also manufacture coarse cotton stuffs. They
 
 Lam 3.
 
 n 
 
 are strong, well-featured and of a bronze complexion. Among 
 the women, there are several that are white and of extraordi- 
 nary beauty,born of Spaniards and Indians, from which circum- 
 stance they are given the name of " coyotes " (a kind of wolf). 
 The language of the Yaquis, as well as that of the Mayos, is 
 composed of the dialects of the Cahita or Sinaloa tongue. 
 These Indians, of a docile, jovial and lively character, are ex- 
 ceedingly partial to music and dancing, and close up their la- 
 bors in the field with these entertainments. Their favorite dan- 
 ces are the "Venado," the "Coyote," the "Tesguin" and the 
 " Pascola;" and the music, of which an idea is given at the end 
 of this work, reveals the sprightly disposition of the people I 
 refer to. I regret not being able to present the types of these 
 races, in spite of my earnest efforts to obtain them. 
 
 The TaraJiumares, (or foot-racers, from " huma" to run and 
 "tala" or"tara," foot) which name bears allusion to the 
 custom these Indians have of running at their greatest speed 
 and driving a wooden ball before them with their foot, during 
 their career, inhabit the mountains which, on the South 
 Western part, form the frontiers of Chihuahua with the State 
 of Sonora. This rugged and extensive region is divided into 
 upper and Lower Tarahumara, the first composed of the 
 highest part and the second of the declivities of the Sierra. 
 
 Scattered, as these Indians are, by the unevenness of the 
 country, they live almost in a state of nature, in accordance 
 to their former condition and customs, although subject to 
 the Government of the State. Their hovels, disseminated 
 through the ravines, can hardly be distinguished from above, 
 and the existence of their miserable haunts can only be disco- 
 vered by the light of their fires at night time. But very few of 
 them present themselves in the neighbouring farms, in search 
 of employment, but are mostly confined to their fastnesses, 
 subsisting by hunting deer, squirrels, guanas and other ani- 
 mals and by the cultivation of maize, beans, pepper and po- 
 tatoes of good quality. The Tarahumares are robust and 
 of a medium size ; they have very little beard and their com- 
 plexion is swarthy 'and almost copper - colored ; their hair 
 is black, long and thick, and is worn twisted into one or two 
 braids. Their dress consists of a kind of shirt, covering the
 
 H 
 
 upper part of their body and joining underneath their thighs : 
 the women on the contrary only cover the lower part from 
 the waist downwards, by wrapping around them a woollen 
 cloth which descends to their feet. They also use sandals and 
 straw hats. )From the age of 17 to 40 years, the Tarahmiar 
 is under tlie imprescriptible obligation of rendering military 
 service, and of marching with his bow and quiver well pro- 
 vided with arrows, wherever circumstances may require it. 
 Amongst their civil customs, their marriages are worthy of 
 being mentioned. When an Indian arrives at manhood, the 
 woman chosen , with her father , establish themselves for 
 some days in the house of the bridegroom, in order that he 
 may thus become acquainted with the qualities of his promis- 
 ed spouse. If the result should be favorable, his pretensions 
 are made in due form, and the two families, as a wedding 
 present, hasten to construct the new habitation and to pro- 
 vide it with all requisites and to form a garden. The race of 
 the TaraJmmares was discovered by the Jesuit Juan de Fon- 
 te, and he found in them a tribe, entirely different from any 
 others he had previously met with. The docile character of 
 these natives contributed principally to their reduction, not- 
 withstanding their large number, which now scarcely reaches 
 15,000 in both Tarahumaras, although some writers make 
 their population ascend to 40,000. The places that were for- 
 merly inhabited by them, as well as some of those that still 
 exist, are recognized by their termination in "chic," such as 
 Cusihiiiriackic, BasigocJuc, Norogachic, Panalachic, etc. 
 
 In the mass of the population, the Sonora or Opata-Pima 
 family, represents 69,150 individuals, divided as follows : 
 Yaquis , . . 13,500 on the borders of the river of their name. 
 Mayos. . . . 7,000 on the margins of the river of their name. 
 Opatas (pure) . 5,500 Centre of the State of Sonora. 
 Pimas. . . . 2,500 Frontier and centre of Sonora. 
 Tepehuanes. . 650 Interior of the Sierra of Durango. 
 
 Papagos ... To the West of Sonora, on the Upper Cali- 
 
 fornia route. 
 Tarahumaras. . 15,000 "Sierra Madre, " between Sonora, Chihua- 
 hua & Sinaloa. 
 Coras. . , . 20,000 Sierra of Nayarit, State of Jalisco. 
 Huichola. , . 5,000 In some of the towns of Colotlany Jalisco. 
 69.150
 
 75 
 
 All these races have gradually decreased in the process of 
 time. Sonora, a few years since, showed us a much larger in- 
 digenous population than that which it now represents. In 
 Sinaloa, besides the Mexican family (which is the most ex- 
 tensive ) there exist other tribes in reduced number, such as 
 the Tehuecos or Zuaquis between the Fuerte and Sinaloa ri- 
 vers ; the Vacoregnes near the mouth of the Fuerte ; the Aca- 
 xecs, who formerly occupied the Topia Valley in Durango, in 
 the Sierra Madre ; the Sabaibos, the Teobacas in Badirahuato 
 and the Xiximas at the boundary of the State with the District 
 of San Dimas in Durango. Many other tribes have disappear- 
 ed from the Sinaloa territory. 
 
 Ill 
 
 THE COMANCHE OR SHOSHONE FAMILY. 
 
 The ConiancJie family considered ethnegraphically comprises 
 many languages, namely : Cojuariche in the Western region 
 of Texas and Eastern part of New Mexico: Caigiia or Kio- 
 'cuay, Shoshone, in the Rocky Mountains, near the heads of 
 the Colorado and Columbia rivers ; the WihinasJitto the West 
 of the former; thQ-Pah-t'tah or Payntain i\\Q neighbourhood 
 of the Great Salt Lake, the Chencque or cheine-huevi, to the 
 West and South of the Yutas ; the Calmillo or Caizuio, the 
 Kechi in the mission of San Luis Rey ; the Netela in that of 
 San Juan Capistrano, the Kizh or kij in that of San Gabriel, 
 the Fernandeilo, and finally many others spoken in the United 
 States, to whose territory all the Comanche tribes now be- 
 long. Their devastating incursions into the Republic of Mex- 
 ico are organized in Texas and New Mexico. 
 
 The Comanches have no precise idea of their origin, and 
 only preserve a confused tradition that they came from the 
 North ; but are ignorant as to the place and period of their 
 emigration. They also have a tradition that another race in- 
 habited the country before them, and add that there was a 
 time when the whole earth was covered with water, and that 
 its inhabitants were converted into birds, in order that they 
 might be saved from the terrible inundation. After this ca-
 
 f6 
 
 tastrophe, the Great Spirit created the Comanche, notwith- 
 standing that they give themselves the name oi Na~nni 
 which signifies tlie "first living being" or "the living people." 
 
 The Great Spirit is for them the Supreme Being, although 
 they worship other Gods, amongst which they count the Sun, 
 the Moon and the Earth. The Great Spirit lives far beyond 
 the Sun ; his will is supreme and he dispenses good and evil, 
 as also life and death. They tribute adoration to him, by of- 
 fering up certain sacrifices, making use of fire, both in their 
 religious ceremonies as well as in their revelries and on mi- 
 nistering medicines. 
 
 When the Comanches give a promise, they swear by their 
 father the Great Spirit or by their mother, the Earth. 
 
 According to observation, these tribes do not recognize 
 any priestly orders, nor any real system of government. Each 
 tribe elects a military chief from amongst its bravest and most 
 sagacious members, who is degraded immediately any act of 
 cowardice is noted in him. 
 
 Matters of general interest are resolved in a council, which 
 initiates the discussions by invoking some divinity. The tribes 
 have the right of calling their separate meetings ; and the 
 chiefs of all of them, that of summoning the general assem- 
 blies. 
 
 Without subjection to any law whatever, as a consequence 
 of their total ignorance of any form of government, each in- 
 dividual is the judge of his own actions and administers jus- 
 tice by himself, avenging the offenses he may have received. 
 It is thus that they comprehend liberty, which they believe 
 to proceed from the Great Spirit. 
 
 Disacknowledging the right of property, the Comanches 
 enjoy their lands in common, so much so that the one who 
 kills an animal, can only dispose of the skin or hide whilst 
 others share out the meat : only prisoners of war can belong 
 to them privately, and whom they sometimes put to death 
 and at others exchange for the articles they require or retain 
 them as slaves. When the captive is a child, he is considered 
 as one of the family and is given a proper education. 
 
 As polygamy is permitted amongst them, they keep their 
 wives as long as it suits them, even although mutual consent
 
 11 
 
 may be necessary to get rid of them, without which circum- 
 stance they expose themselves to the vengeance of the rela- 
 tions of their consorts. 
 
 Adultery by the women is punished, sometimes by death, 
 but frequently by cutting off their noses. 
 
 Led as they are by their instincts of liberty and prefer- 
 ring a nomadic life, the Comanches do not trouble them- 
 selves with tilling their lands, but are engaged only in hunting 
 or in stealing horses and mules, depredations which they 
 commit principally in Mexican territory. 
 
 Buffalo meat is their general food. They start on their 
 hunting expeditions on the approach of the winter, the sea- 
 son at which they meet in their neighbourhood with large 
 droves that come down from the mountains. It is very seldom 
 that they eat mule or horseflesh, as when they decide upon 
 stealing these animals, it is generally for the purpose of ex- 
 changing them for powder, arms or other effects. 
 
 The Comanches count with their fingers, whence it results 
 that their system of arithmetic is decimal. 
 
 As respects medicine, the knowledge they possess is very 
 limited, and may be confined to the use of a few roots and 
 herbs with which they heal their wounds. Singing and various 
 superstitious practices are inherent to the application of their 
 remedies. 
 
 Their astronomical attainments are reduced to knowing the 
 polar star, which serves them as a guide in their travels and 
 is called by them the "immovable star:" they are accustom- 
 ed to divide time by lunar periods, but they are more com- 
 monly ruled by the change in the seasons ; by cold, heat, the 
 growth of the grass, the falling of the leaves, etc. 
 
 They believe that the earth is one immense and immova- 
 ble plain, but they know very well that the cause of the eclip- 
 ses is the interposition of some planet. One of the customs 
 of the Comanches, before the grave of their relation or friend, 
 is to sacrifice one of his horses and to burn his best chattels ; 
 and formerly they used to put his wife to death. They believe 
 in the immortality of the soul , and maintain the illusion 
 that the brave men or those of eminent merit, after their 
 transit on earth, reside at a place that is paradise for them,
 
 78 
 
 the mansion of plump and innumerable buffaloes. At stated 
 periods they commemorate their deceased, and on these oc- 
 casions the widows scarify their arms and legs in, sign of 
 grief 
 
 nrhe costume of the Comanche is of coarse cloth or of buf- 
 falo hide and consists in a kind of loose jacket ("sayo") and 
 trowsers or leggings sometimes adorned with pieces of silver. 
 They paint their faces with different colors and ornament 
 their hair profusely. In their fights, they present themselves 
 almost in a state of nudity. > 
 
 The Comanches are in general very robust and tall, good 
 horsemen and proverbial for their skill in the use of their 
 arms which consist principally in the bow and arrow. 
 
 They have no regard for females and only consider them 
 necessary for domestic labor, notwithstanding the participa- 
 tion they concede them in all the acts of their errant and 
 warlike life. After an affray, it is they who commit the great- 
 est acts of cruelty, martyrizing the prisoners for the space of 
 three days, after which they kill them. The Comanches eat 
 the flesh of their prisoners, not so much as food, as to assuage 
 their repugnant spirit of revenge. Notwithstanding, it is said 
 that these savages are hospitable with friendly foreigners. 
 
 IV 
 
 THE TEXANO OR COAHUILTECA FAMILY. 
 
 Mr. Pimentel has denominated as the Texian or Coahuilte- 
 €0 language that which was formerly the most used in Coa- 
 huila and Texas and was spoken from Candela to the river 
 of San Antonio. These tribes w^ere known by the names, of 
 Pajaletes, Orcjones.Pacaos, Pacoas, jfiltjayos, Alasapas, Pan- 
 sancs, Pacttachcs, Mcscales, Painpopas, Tacames, Chayopines
 
 Veitados, Patnaques, Pihtiinques, BorradoSy Sanipaos and Ma- 
 no s de perro ( dog's paws. ) 
 
 The frontier States and very particularly, Coahuila, New 
 Leon and Tamaulipas, present us the evident proof of the gra- 
 dual disappearance of the indigenous race. 
 
 In the New Leon territory, there existed several wander- 
 ing tribes without any political organization, who were only 
 subject to the obedience of a Chief and lived on game and 
 wild fruit. 
 
 Of the tribes whose names are hereafter expressed and who 
 have disappeared, some have been classified by Mess-- Oroz- 
 co y Berra and Pimentel, and others have not received any 
 classification on account of their languages having been lost. 
 
 The South of New Leon was inhabited by the Panics ( Otho- 
 vii family) Janambres, Pasitas and Aliguancs. 
 
 In the lands of Linares, the Cademas, Hualafmises, and 
 Ccnne-pcscados (fish eaters.) 
 
 In those of Monte Morelos and Teran, the Borrados and 
 Ray ados. 
 
 In those of Monterey, the Huachichiles, Agtiaceros and Ma~ 
 lincenos. In Salinas and Marin the Cuanales and Aiguales. 
 
 In Vallecillo, the Ayaguas and Garzas. 
 
 In Lampazos and Agualeguas, the Indians of the Malnoni- 
 bre and Tobosos tribes, who came from Coahuila and inhabi- 
 ted the Northern part of this State, and pertained to the Apa- 
 che family. 
 
 In Bustamante, the Alzapas and Coahuiltecos. 
 
 At the period of the conquest of New Leon by Carbajal, 
 the whole of the tribes of that territory counted upon a po- 
 pulation of 35,000 individuals. The thraldom to which they 
 found themselves reduced, compelled them to rise and main- 
 tain a war of casts which lasted two hundred years. The loss- 
 es incurred in so prolonged a struggle, their emigration to 
 distant parts and their indifference as to the preservation of 
 their race and language, caused their ruin to such an extent, 
 that not one of these natives exists in this State of the Mex- 
 ican Confederation. 
 
 The numerous ruins of ancient edifices now to be found in 
 the State of Tamaulipas, indicate the existence of other inha-
 
 8o 
 
 bitants long before the conquest, and show that they were 
 not in the same state of barbarism, as was met with at that 
 period. The ruins of the valley of Santa Barbara and those 
 that exist in the "canadas" of the Sierra, prove an antiquity 
 and civilization much greater than that of the former popu- 
 lations of Altamira. According to Orozco y Berra, the re- 
 mains that are still to be found at Santa Barbara, may be 
 traced to the civilized nations that perished at the time of 
 the irruption of the "Chichimecas." 
 
 The Hiiastecas who separated themselves from the Toltecs 
 and intermingled with the Nahoan nation, which inhabited a 
 part of Tamaulipas, established themselves from the river 
 Tuxpam up to the borders of t he Panuco. At the present, bu 
 very few of this indigenous race remain in Tamaulipas. 
 
 V 
 
 THE KERES ZUPlI FAMILY. 
 
 According to Pike, the Keres Indians form the principal 
 part of the indigenous population of New Mexico, and are 
 distinguished in their physical nature for their tall stature, 
 and in their moral qualities for the mildness of their charac- 
 ter : they live isolated from the whites, still preserving their 
 former habits and dedicating themselves to agricultural la- 
 bors in the towns of Santo Domingo, San Felipe, Laguna 
 Acoma, Santa Ana Silla and Cochiti. 
 
 The Tesugues or Tcguas belong to this family and inhabit 
 the towns of San Juan, San Ildefonso, Nambre, Santa Clara 
 Pojuaque and Tesuque. The Taos, residents of the places 
 called Taos, Picori, Sandia and Isleta : the Jeniez o{\.\\q. place 
 of the same name and the inhabitants of Zuiii, numbering alto- 
 gether 2,000 persons, also belong to it. 
 
 The capital of the Zufiis was the famous city of Cibola,
 
 8l 
 
 which figures so much in the narrations of the first explorers 
 of New Mexico, and which appeared to Father Niza even more 
 considerable than Mexico, and the finest and most impor- 
 tant city of all those then discovered. Father Zarate, like 
 many others, did not participate in the admiration of the for- 
 mer missionary respecting the grandeur of Cibola, as he 
 states simply that **Juan de Onate arrived at the province of 
 " Zuni, where the country was more thickly populated with 
 "hares and rabbits than with Indians: there are six towns, 
 " in the whole of which there are not over three hundred hou- 
 " ses of several stories like those of New Mexico : the largest 
 "town and the head of the others is Cibola, which in their 
 " language they call Ha-huico ; it has one hundred and ten 
 " houses : the food like that of these parts in general, consists 
 " of maize, beans, pumpkins and game : the people dress them- 
 " selves in cloth made from the fihre^pita) of the agave, as 
 " they have no cotton. " The same exaggeration regarding 
 the grandeur of Cibola, occurs with Quivira, as appears in his 
 different writings. 
 
 This is the information, respecting this family, which I 
 have taken from Mr. Pimentel's work ( " Cuadro descripti^-o y 
 comparativo de las lenguas indigenas de Mexico"), in which 
 will be found many other details that I omit, for the reason 
 that they treat of an ethnographic family, not pertaining to 
 Mexican territory. 
 
 YI 
 
 MUTSUN FAMILY, 
 
 The Indians of this family inhabit Upper California, and their 
 number has decreased to so gradual and considerable a de- 
 gree that it is believed that the race has disappeared. 
 
 Belonging to the Mutstin family, are the Rionsens, Achas- 
 tlis, the Indians of La Soledad, the Costefws and others com- 
 posing the tribes of CaHfornia.
 
 In accordance with the purpose I have proposed in treating 
 of the indigenous tribes that inhabit the Mexican territory, I 
 have made only a slight indication as to those who dwell in 
 the United States, so as not to vary from the order of classi- 
 fication made by Mr. Pimentel. 
 
 YII & VIII 
 
 r r . GUAICURA AND COCHIMI-LAIMON FAMILIES IN 
 LOWER CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The native Indians of Lower California, whose number in the 
 earlier years of the conquest was estimated at more than 
 20,000 have followed the lot reserved by destiny to all the 
 race in general. The principal populators were the Cochimis 
 in the Northern districts; the Guaictiras in the centre, and the 
 Pericues in the Southern extremity of the Peninsula. Of these 
 three nations the Pericues were the most indomitable and 
 those that disappeared the first ; the other two sharing the 
 same fate, some time afterwards, being gradually annihi- 
 lated by the profound grief with which they Were filled at find- 
 ing themselves obliged by the missionaries to abandon their 
 ancient creeds, their customs and even their own language. 
 
 According as the indigenous race has continued dissappear- 
 ing from the Californian soil, it has been successively super- 
 seded by another population, generally of a mixed race pro- 
 ceeding from the immigration that has taken place especial- 
 ly from Sonora, Sinaloa and Jalisco.
 
 83 
 
 The population of Lower California now consists of 22,000 
 inhabitants, including in this number 2,500 wandering Indians, 
 scattered over the North Eastern part of the Peninsula be- 
 tween the Cordillera and the river Colorado, 
 
 IX 
 
 SERI FAMILY 
 
 The Seri family, according to the classification of its dia- 
 lects, includes the Gtmyinas and the Upang^taymas. . 
 
 The Seris, savage Indians of ferocious instincts and much 
 addicted to the vice of drunkenness, are met with in a very 
 reduced number in the Island of Tiburon and the adjacent 
 coasts of Sonora. They support themselves by fishery and by 
 stealing cattle ; they use poisoned arrows which cause imme- 
 diate death, however slight many be the wound, and are al- 
 ways at war with the white race. 
 
 Formerly there was a numerous tribe which extended it- 
 self from the coasts of Guaymas to the river Altar, and from 
 the same coasts to San Miguel de Orcasitas, San Jose de Pi- 
 mas and Suaqui towards the interior. In the last century the 
 troops garrisoned at Altar and Orcasitas, after a tenacious 
 persecution undertaken against the Seris, succeeded with 
 some of them in establishing the towns of Populo and Seris, 
 near to Hermosillo, and in pacificating the rest of the tribe ; 
 but this peace was ephemeral and of but short duration, as 
 they again rose, destroying "haciendas "and "ranchos"and 
 have since continued being the dread of travellers, especially 
 in the route from Hern^osillo of Guaymas.
 
 84 
 
 Fortunately for humanity, their number has been much re- 
 duced and barely consists of some two hundred, of more than 
 two thousand that existed towards the end of last year. 
 
 X 
 
 THE TARASCA FAMILY. 
 
 The rich and extensive territory of Michoacan, which now 
 constitutes an integral part of the Mexican Confederation, 
 previously formed the kingdom of the Tarascos, whose boun- 
 daries on the North were the independent tribes of the Az- 
 tec Empire, on the East this same empire, and on the West 
 and South the great Pacific Ocean. Its inhabitants who were 
 immigrants from the Northern regions, according to their 
 own indications, founded their capital on the borders of la"ke 
 Patzcuaro, calling it Tsintzuntzan, (which signifies home of 
 the "colibri" or humming bird, derived from izuntzun in imi- 
 tation of the buzzing sound produced by these diminutive 
 birds.) From the plumage of the "colibris" which are so 
 abundant in these parts, the former inhabitants of Michoacan 
 made elegant pictures, which formed one of their most im- 
 portant branches of art and still continues with their descen- 
 dants. The language of the Tarascos is rich and harmonious 
 although less abundant than Mexican in its terminations and 
 derivatives. The Tarasca nation, of an indomitable character 
 and very numerous, was never subject to the Aztec empire, 
 with which by its civilization it possessed some points of con- 
 tact, having acquired a knowledge of the use of hieroglyphics.
 
 85 
 
 Its religion like that of the Aztecs, permitted the custom of 
 sacrifices, but dissented in the form, its theogony not ad- 
 mitting the mythological complication of the Mexicans, as 
 by all preference they rendered acts of devotion to an idol 
 whose temple, besides that of the High Priest, was located at 
 the summit of a high mountain of the environs Tzacapn. The 
 Tarascos lived in towns and cities subject to the observance 
 of certain laws that guaranteed individual security and which 
 were framed under the form of an absolute government. The 
 sovereign designated his successor. According to the very 
 interesting and curious work lately brought to light in Spain, 
 whose narratives were extracted from the original old ma- 
 nuscripts that exist in the library of the Escorial and were 
 printed in a very limited number : the sovereign " was the re- 
 presentative of the God Ciiricaberis, and consequently his 
 mandates were considered as emanating from that God. The 
 kingdom erected into a seigniory until the arrival of the Span- 
 iards, was divided into four parts or provinces under the im- 
 mediate command of their respective caciques, who combined 
 with their people to undertake the wars of conquest. Various 
 chiefs accompanied the Cazonci as also the sub- delegates 
 who filled different offices, the Ocambecha collected the tri- 
 butes of the rich and the pirovaqiie ve?idari those of the poor, 
 consisting in cotton and domestics, the tareta vaxatati had 
 charge of the crops belonging to the crown with other infe- 
 rior sub -delegates : the cacari was the superintendent of the 
 quarries and stone-cutters ; \.\\.q giiavicoti^z.?, the head game- 
 keeper for quadrupeds and the curnhapindi for birds, the 
 game being sometimes intended for sacrifices in honor of the 
 Goddess Xaratanga and at others for the table of the Cacon- 
 ci: the varuri was the chief of the fishermen with a net, and 
 the tarafna the head of the fishermen with hook and line ; 
 the cavaspati was the head harvestman and another officer 
 received and stored the cane -juice and honey. The atari 
 was the head butler who received all the wine made from the 
 "maguey" (agave); the cvsari-^-A.'s, the master fellmonger 
 and manufacturer of the leather garments for the cazonci; the 
 
 * The name of the grand Caltzontzin was generally given to the king Sinziecha, the last so- 
 vereign of Michoacan, inhumanly sacrificed by Nuflo de Guzman.
 
 usguariairi was the principal feather-maker, who worked with 
 others of his class the ornaments made with the red plumes 
 of the "guacamayo" (psittacus macao) and the white feathers 
 of the heron and other birds. The Puairignari was the chief 
 woodsman and furnisher of timber and firewood ; the Curin^ 
 guri was encharged with making the drums and kettle-drums ; 
 the carpenters also had their master. The Treasurer-gene- 
 ral had in his safe -keeping the silver, gold and jewelry com- 
 posed of ear-rings and bracelets of silver, and mitres and gar- 
 lands or wreaths of gold ; the Chercqiiegari was the guardian 
 of the bows and arrows ; there was a master -maker of buck- 
 lers or shields of rich feathers of birds, and a storekeeper who 
 had charge of the extensive granaries of the Cazonci. The///- 
 chariitavandari built the canoes and the paricuti supplied 
 them with rowers. The war spies were commanded by a chief. 
 The Vazanoti was the head of the couriers and messengers 
 and, in the time of war, of the banners composed of magni- 
 ficent plumes of feathers ; a sub -delegate had charge of the 
 eagles and other birds confined in cages, and several men 
 took care of the wild beasts ; lastly there were many other 
 officers, such as the head of the medical staff of the Cazonci, 
 and masters of the painters, potters, earthenware -makers, 
 sweepers, flower-makers and shop-keepers. 
 
 If we were obliged to judge of the civilization of the Taras- 
 cos by their inhuman acts, during their religious feasts, it 
 would be necessary to acknowledge that it was in a barbarous 
 state. Fantastic and even grotesque dances preceded the hu- 
 man sacrifices ; the priests pointing out beforehand the slaves 
 who had to be offered up and more particularly in the princi- 
 pal feast called Seadndiro. They drew out the hearts of their 
 victims and cast them still reeking into the thermal waters 
 o{ Araro, doing the same with their blood in the other foun- 
 tains of the place referred to, all in honor of the Goddess Ctie- 
 ravapcri, who was considered as the mother of all the Gods 
 of the earth. Two priests called hauripicipccJia, cut off the hair 
 of the men and women and threw it into the fire, saturated 
 in the blood of the sufferers. On the day after the feast, 
 and some of them wearing the skins of those that had been 
 sacrificed, they took part in the dances and gave themselves
 
 8; 
 
 over to inebriety ; these abominable acts lasting for five days 
 consecutively. 
 
 In the narratives which I have extracted, mention is made 
 of the town af Cinapecnaro and not of Tzacapu, according to 
 some historians, as the place where the Cz/^ or temple of their 
 principal idol was erected on the summit of some eminence. 
 In each cue or temple, there was a high priest, who was called 
 the curate or grand -father, who exercised supremacy over 
 the others and was distinguished from them by a gourd adorn- 
 ed with turquoises worn on the head, similar to a mitre, as 
 well as by other ornaments, accompanied by a flint spear which 
 they used as a kind of symbol. The other priests carried a 
 gourd over the shoulders and discharged various duties in a 
 manner analagous to what we have observed in civil affairs : 
 those called tiniecJia carried their Gods on their backs when 
 they went to war ; the axaniecha were the executioners, the 
 /'^^arzVr//^ the keepers of the Gods, Xhe opttiecha those who 
 held the feet and hands of the victims who were about to be 
 sacrificed, and the quiquiecha those who dragged the captives 
 and slaves to the place of execution. Lastly the priests held 
 their services and preached in the temples and presided over 
 the drummers, the musicians and the common criers. 
 
 In the time of warfare, their plagaries asking for the triumph 
 of their arms preceded their ceremonies. When war was de- 
 clared against any unfriendly nation, the caciques commen- 
 ced preparations immediately with all their people, placing 
 themselves under the direct command of a Captain general 
 ■whom they called the Casonci. This general presented him- 
 self, richly accoutred with his plume of green feathers, a large 
 silver shield slung over his shoulders, a quiver of tiger's skin, 
 a doublet of scarlet cotton, ear-rings and bracelets of gold 
 and "calzones" or leggings of tiger skin. The priests, as I 
 have already stated, carried their Gods on their backs, and 
 especially the God Curicaberi and the Goddess Xaratanga, 
 in whose names the Captain general harangued his warriors. 
 
 When the legions were on the march, the people living on 
 the route they passed by, came to meet them with provisions 
 and cheered them enthusiastically to battle, which was near- 
 ly always for the purpose of conquest. When once the field of
 
 action was decided upon, according to the indications of the 
 spies, and the combat was commenced, there might be seen 
 among the armed masses, more than three hundred standards 
 of white heron's feathers, glittering in the rays of the sun, as 
 well as the magnificent plumes of the warriors composed also 
 of heron and eagle's feathers or the red plumage of the "gua- 
 camaya. " 
 
 Generally speaking, the Mexican frontiers were the points 
 selected for their assaults and where the Othomies, troops in 
 the service of Mexico, received their first onsets. — They laid 
 ambuscades, made false retreats and feigned repulses, in or- 
 der to attract the enemy to a suitable spot and fall upon him 
 in mass at a given signal, whether this were a column of smoke 
 or a sound from the bugle. In this way they succeeded in 
 annihilating the enemy's forces and in capturing the greatest 
 number of prisoners, who were afterwards sacrificed, the young 
 boys being condemned to field labor. Their victories were 
 signalized by massacre and incendiarism. The Tarascos held 
 it as a high honor to die in battle, so much so that the Ca- 
 zonci distributed recompenses to their widows and orphans, 
 and gave symptoms of his deep sorrow. 
 
 Justice was administered in the name of the Cazonci and 
 penalties were enforced according to the gravity of the 
 crimes committed. Adulterers and thieves were sentenced to 
 death and a like punishment was inflicted upon any one ap- 
 propriating one of the CasoncVs women, this penalty being 
 made extensive to the family and relations of the delinquent, 
 as concealers of the crime ; sorcerers had their mouths cut to 
 pieces with knives and were trailed alive and stoned to death. 
 Any serious fault of a cacique or other officer was punished 
 by death from blows on the neck given with a club, his bo- 
 dy being afterwards buried or given over to the voracity of 
 the birds of prey. Habitual drunkenness of the son or brother 
 of the C^^<?;/a' was expiated by death, the tutors or gover- 
 nesses of the delinquents being subject to a similar penalty 
 which in certain cases was proportioned to the fault by im- 
 prisonment for a few days, by banishment, by prohibition 
 from wearing the insignias af a warrior or by stripping the 
 consort.
 
 89 
 
 In their marriages the Tarascos performed various ceremo- 
 nies, according to the rank of the contracting parties. At the 
 matrimony of the daughter of the sovereign, a curitiecha priest 
 officiated, assisted by other dignitaries. Many women accom- 
 panied the princess, dressed out and adorned with ear-rings 
 and necklaces, and carrying the jewels, baskets and trunks. 
 The priest made the presentation of the bride, saying to the 
 bridegroom, ''here is the lady sent to you by the king : 1 bring 
 her to you; do 7iot quarrel; be good spojtses ; bathe one another" 
 and he then exhorted the princess in the following words : 
 '^ thou must give to eat to this man and make him his clothing 
 and do not quarrel: be good spouses, and if any one should en- 
 ter into your hojise give him clothing ; the king says that wJiat- 
 everyou may give, he gives to you. " Other exhortations follo- 
 wed which were answered by the parties, conforming thereto. 
 
 In the matrimonies of the grandees and nobles, a messenger 
 sent by the father of the wooer demanded the daughter of 
 any noble in marriage, who after many compliments and 
 previously consulting the case with his wives, * gave his con- 
 sent, manifesting the greatest amiability. To the request for 
 marriage, followed the preparations for the wedding, by dress- 
 ing the maiden, packing the household goods and chattels, 
 collecting the cloth for the shirts of the husband and prepar- 
 ing the hatchets for cutting the timber designed for the Cues. 
 Matters being thus arranged, the bride departed in company 
 with her relations and by the other women, bearers of the 
 jewels trunks and cotton, and on arriving at the house of the 
 bridegroom, which was already prepared for her reception 
 with the best of entertainment, the priest presented himself, 
 saying " This maiden is sent to you by such a person and is 
 his daughter : May the Gods grant that you speak the truth in 
 asking for her and that yoti may be good spouses and that you 
 render her benefits''' and then addressing himself to the woman, 
 he spoke to her in these terms : See that thou art not found on 
 the road speaking ivith any man, and that they seize thee a?id 
 that then we give catise to be ill-spoke?i of in our homes ; be 
 what thou oughtest to be, as I have come to shoiv thee the home 
 that thou zvilt have here and the habitation thou hast to form.'' 
 
 f 1"his phrase shows that polygamy was permitted among the Tarascos.
 
 90 
 
 Last'y he exhorted the man as follows : and thou, Sir, if thou 
 shouldst note any act of adultery in thy wife, leave her quietly 
 and send her to her house, without doing her harm, and with- 
 out throwing the blame on any one but herself if she should 
 be bad : this is so, May the Gods grant that thou mayst have 
 understood me. The priests admonitions to the betrothed 
 continued and the ceremony concluded with the banquet that 
 had been prepared. 
 
 The plebeians arranged their marriages through the inter- 
 vention of their families and not that of the priests. The fa- 
 ther of the maiden counselled his daughter, saying to her : 
 ^^ Daughter, thou 7nust 7iot leave thy husband lying down at 
 night, whilst thou gotst elsewhere to commit adultery : see that 
 thoti art not bad, that thou dost not inflict this evil upon fne, 
 that if thou art a bad omen thou wilt fiot live loiig : perhaps thy 
 husband may e?iter the ^^ cue" at vespers a?id thou alone seeketh 
 thy death : remember that I did not do this ; that I am thy fa- 
 ther ; that thoji tuilt make me shed tears, entangling me in thy 
 corruptness, and not only zvill they kill thee btit me also with 
 thee : " 
 
 Others married without the interference of their parents 
 and some were united in fulfilment of the mutual promise of 
 their families. Relations married with each other and repu- 
 diation was made a custom when the woman did not comply 
 with her obligations or committed adultery. 
 
 The foregoing lines serve to show that the Tarasca nation 
 by its civil and political institutions, constituted a really civi- 
 lized people, whilst it equally deserved the title of barbarous 
 by its religious practices. 
 
 To-day the descendants of this numerous people pay their 
 tribute like other races to the inflexible law of destiny. As it is 
 intermingled and incorporated in populated places with the 
 mixed race, it decreases remarkably, forgetting its traditions, 
 its customs and its language ; and it is only in the Western 
 part of Michoacan and in some places in the centre and the 
 South, that they preserve their primitive customs. 
 
 The types I present in Plate IV, group 2 nd. belong to the 
 Chilchota people to the South East of Zamora, a place where 
 the Indians retain their customs in all their purity. The dress
 
 am. 4
 
 91 
 
 of these Indians is composed of a woollen cassock called a 
 gabardine, wide trowsers or " calzoneras " of cloth and leather, 
 a woollen zarape or cloak called quixchan, leather shoes with 
 folds, lined with green or red morocco and a straw hat. The 
 rich women wear cloth skirts and the poor people a coarse tex- 
 ture woven by themselves ; they use a shirt of white linen 
 and a striped mantle or shawl, sometimes of different colors. 
 Their trinkets consist of ear-rings of common metal or of gold 
 or silver and coral or bead necklaces, with ribbons of colored 
 worsted with which they adorn their hair and embroider their 
 petticoats very prettily, and the quichquemel. When they 
 marry they give the husband, as a wedding present, a waist- 
 band exceedingly well made and a napkin. 
 
 The present Tarascos have not lost the spirit of their pre- 
 decessors, as they are proving daily in their contests in Mi- 
 choacan, where the revolutions that now agitate that State 
 would exist with difficulty without their help. More than fifty 
 individuals at once have been seen to march to the place of 
 execution and meet their death valiantly, solely for not be- 
 traying a delinquent. 
 
 The Tarascos, like all the Indian race in this particular, are 
 extraordinarily fond of music, and the numerous orchestras 
 they invent attract attention, formed as they sometimes are 
 of guitars of all dimensions and even ill constructed, but from 
 whose sounds a really remarkable harmony is produced, as also 
 from other instruments similar to clarinets with which a like 
 effect is produced. 
 
 The Tarascos are extended all over the State of Michoa- 
 can, in the Southern part of Guanajuato, in the valley of Ma- 
 zamitla in Jalisco and in some places in Guerrero, and their 
 number may well be estimated with very slight difference in 
 200,000 individuals.
 
 94 
 
 XI 
 
 THE ZOQUE-MIXE FAMILY. 
 
 The Zoquez Indians inhabit the Western part of Chiapas, to 
 the North of the Sierra Madre, a small portion of the South 
 of Tabasco and the mountainous district where the towns 
 of Chimalapa are situated in the State of Oaxaca, and the 
 Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Formerly they occupied a small 
 tract of land on the borders of the territory of Tabasco, for- 
 ming an independent nation and well populated, which was 
 subjugated by Marin, during his expedition to Chiapas. Their 
 capital was called OhcaJuiay and in Mexican Tecpayitlati which 
 signifies " the seat of palaces. " The remains of the habitations 
 of the former Zoquez are still to be met with both in Oaxaca 
 and Chiapas. 
 
 Those who reside in the districts referred to and in some 
 parts of Chiapas, principally in the towns ofTuxtla Gutierrez 
 and Tapijulapa are of an athletic form and are easily distin- 
 guished by the rare custom of shaving their heads all except- 
 ing on the front part. (See group 3rd. Plate IV.) As the ge- 
 nerality of these Indians are of a docile character, but addict- 
 ed to spirituous drinks, they are employed in agricultural labor, 
 particularly in the cultivation of maize, tobacco and delicious 
 oranges; their manufactures consisting of articles made from 
 "pita" (the filaments of the agave) and ixtle and are much 
 esteemed. The Mixes are found in the Eastern part of the 
 State of Oaxaca where the range of mountains known as the 
 " Sierra de los Mixes, " rises between the districts of YautepeCj 
 Tlacolula, Villa Alta and Tehuantepec, Quetzaltepec and 
 Atitlan.
 
 93 
 
 They formerly composed a numerous tribe, but are now 
 extremely reduced. These natives, as I have already had 
 occasion to mention, embraced Christianity, but without aban- 
 donig their former creeds. They are superstitious and secretly 
 exercise some ancient religious practices, by sacrificing birds 
 and other animals to some of their deities. 
 
 The Mixes like the Zoqties are addicted to fermented liquors 
 and occupy themselves by preference in the labors of the 
 fields, cultivating in their rich lands, watered by the streams 
 of the Coatzacoalcos, maize, beans, rice and plantains. They 
 are strong, courageous and warlike, qualities that characte- 
 rized their ancestors, who were never conquered by the Me- 
 xicans and Zapotecas, notwithstanding the numerical supe- 
 riority of these two nations. Their ferocious instincts and their 
 inclination to eat human flesh and to encourage rebellion for 
 this purpose, have disappeared, even although their actual 
 civilization and morality leave much to be wished for. 
 
 The soque-mixe family numbers 47,600 individuals, namely 
 21,600 zoques and 26,000 Mixes. 
 
 XII 
 
 THE TOTONACA FAMILY. 
 
 The Totonacas extended from the Sierra of Huachinango, 
 North of the State of Puebla to the Gulf coast, comprising a 
 zone of the State of Vera Cruz between the river of Chacha- 
 lacas and that of Cazones and limited by the country of the 
 Huastecos, on the North. 
 
 According to Torquemada, the Totonacos arrived at Ana- 
 huac before the Chichimecas, coming from the same direction,
 
 94 
 
 (the North) divided into twenty bands or families. The first 
 place where they were established was at Teotihuacan, and 
 there, according to their statement, they constructed two 
 famous temples dedicated to the Sun and the Moon, the ruins 
 of which still exist ; but according to other accounts, these 
 were not their work but that of the Olmecas, and were after- 
 wards rebuilt by the Toltecas. From Teotihuacan they passed 
 to Tenamitic and from thence to the places where they still 
 remain. The capital of the Totonacos was Mixquihuacan, and 
 they had besides, many well populated cities, such as Cem- 
 poala on the Gulf coast, the first that was trodden by the 
 Spaniards : 
 
 They were governed by kings whose names were 
 
 Umeacatl. 
 
 Xatonton. 
 
 Tenitztli. 
 
 Panin. 
 
 Nahuacatl. 
 
 Ithualtzintecuhtli. 
 
 Tlaixchuatenitztli. 
 
 Catoxcan. 
 
 Nahuacatl and Ixcahauitl. 
 
 The first of these kings was the one that the Totonacos 
 brought as their chief from the Northern countries and who 
 reigned in peace, but during his period a terrible famine and 
 plague came and destroyed the greater part of the population. 
 
 In the time of the second king, the Chichimecas arrived 
 and established themselves at Nepecalco, six leagues from 
 the Totonaco capital. 
 
 During the other three reigns, the greatest peace was pre- 
 served and nothing remarkable occurred ; but Ithualtzinte- 
 cuhtli had a war with those of Tecpanquimichtlan, in which 
 he was the conqueror and left his enemies severely chastised. 
 
 The 7th and 8th kings governed in peac^ the latter leaving 
 the kingdom divided between his two sons Nahuactl and 
 Ixcahuitl, who shortly afterwards quarrelled and the people 
 being severed in bands, a struggle commenced, which result- 
 ed in the kings absenting themselves. Observing this, the 
 Chichimecas charged down upon the Totonacos, and the lat-
 
 95 
 
 ter being conquered were placed under the command of a 
 chief of the other nation called Xihuitlpopoca, who was suc- 
 ceeded by Motecuhzuma and Quauhtlaebana. 
 
 Later on the province of the Totonacos was conquered by 
 the Mexicans, whose tributaries they had been on the arrival 
 of the Spaniards, which circumstance caused the first named 
 to unite with Cortes in making war against Moctezuma. " 
 
 As regards religion adds Pimentel, it appears that they 
 adopted that of the Mexicans with its horrible human sacri- 
 fices : every three years they immolated three children whose 
 blood mixed with a certain gum, they preserved as something 
 sacred. Notwithstanding, in a high mountain there was a 
 celebrated temple dedicated to the Goddess of harvests, who 
 as we have said, did not require sacrifices of men but of ani- 
 mals. It is remarkable, according to Torquemada that the 
 Totonacos practised circumcision. 
 
 The etymology of the word Totonaca adopted by Busch- 
 man, in his work " The names of Aztec places," is not exact, 
 as this author adopted it as stated by D. Francisco Domin- 
 guez, saying "Totonaca signifies to the letter three hearts 
 in one sense and three beehives in another," as toto means 
 three and naca heart. Notwithstanding, this literal traslation 
 does not define the meaning the word should express, which 
 has evidently been take in a metaphorical sense. It is a fact 
 that the number three appears to have had something myste- 
 rious about it among the Totonacos, as they not only applied 
 it to their language, but also as we have seen, every three 
 years they made a solemn sacrifice of three children. 
 
 In my excursion to the Sierra of Huauchinango, I had an 
 opportunity of observing the habits and customs of the actual 
 Totonacos, which I make known in the following lines : 
 
 The Huauchinangos are of medium stature, strong and 
 well formed ; their hair is long, black and glossy and their 
 complexion dark. Their appearance, looking at the profile 
 of the face, is distinguished from that of the other natives 
 known in the country, as much as it assimilates with that of 
 the inhabitants of some of the Asiatic regions/ With respect 
 to their costume, all the Huauchinangos dress exactly alike, 
 using white and wide trowsers folded nearly up to the knees,
 
 96 
 
 a blue woollen "coton" or shirt, a handkerchief used as a 
 cravat and a hat made from the palm -leaf Simple and moral 
 in their customs, if they know any vice it is only that of in- 
 toxication. 
 
 The Totonacos, of a better and more docile character than 
 the Mexicans, from Xico and beyond there, are of a yellower 
 complexion, which in my opinion proceeds from the elevat- 
 ed temperature in which they live as well as from the humid- 
 ity of the soil and their proximity to the coasts. Their dress 
 differs from that of the Huauchinangos in the tunic, the stuff 
 of which is of a coffee -colored and white linen. 
 
 The native women are extraordinarily clean in their per- 
 sons and dress, the style of the latter being sometimes ele- 
 gant. A narrow skirt called chincue and a quichmequel taste- 
 fully embroidered compose their attire. Their headdress is 
 no less attractive ; they tie their long and jet-black hair with 
 colored ribbons and bind their heads with their well-plaited 
 braids. (See Plate V. group 2nd.) 
 
 All those deceive themselves who pretend to know the 
 indigenous race by the forbidding types that are seen in the 
 large cities and their vicinities : the importance of this race, 
 their real character, their habits and customs should be 
 studied in the depths of the sierra, where people exist who 
 are susceptible of the highest grade of civilization and where 
 also may be known those who are incapable of acquiring it. 
 The sierra of Huauchinango and the high sierra of Zacualti- 
 pan display to us, people of a distinct race and diversity of 
 character : the one distrustful but docile and the other equal- 
 ly distrustful but moreover perfidious. In such a limited space 
 of country two people are found of instincts and characters 
 diametrically opposed to each other ; qualities that are found 
 even in their respective languages, the one being sweet and 
 harmonious and the other harsh and guttural : such are the 
 Mexican and the Otomi of which I shall treat towards the end 
 of this part of my work. 
 
 The Huauchinangos are engaged in agriculture, in the fish- 
 eries and in raising cattle : they cultivate sugar cane on the 
 slopes of the mountains and make brown sugar and "aguar- 
 diente. " (rum of the country.)
 
 Lam 5
 
 9; 
 
 It frequently happens that the traveller finds himself sur- 
 prised, in the midst of his repose, by the natives who come 
 to felicitate him, playing on their harps and other instruments, 
 and accompanying the music with characteristic songs or 
 executing pantomimic dances. '^The music, at times languid 
 and sad and at others lively and inspiring, excites and charms 
 the attention. They execute their dances gracefully and skil- 
 fully)K^the most curious and remarkable of all, known by the 
 name of the ccgador, is performed by men. The master of ce- 
 remonies carries a sprig of "ojite" in his hand, larger than 
 that of the others, with which he indicates the figures that 
 are to be successively executed by the dancers, who are ar- 
 ranged with symmetry, and at the first signal the dance com- 
 mences, now composed of complicated pieces in which time 
 is kept with the feet and again imitating the evolutions of 
 the cegador, and lastly at a given sign from the director, they 
 change attitudes and on meeting, touch each other with the 
 shoulder, for the purpose of giving the body a revolving mo- 
 vement, which obliges them, with a certain grace, to vary their 
 position. The dance concludes at last by executing the same 
 figure that is observed at the termination of quadrilles, -but in 
 a more graceful way, as they never fail to keep step with the 
 music or to imitate the movements of the cegador. In some 
 places on performing these evolutions they entwine ribbons 
 of different colors, which each one carries in his hand and 
 this gives a very pretty effect. A 
 
 In their public feasts, in their simulachres of battles, in 
 their games and even in their religious acts, these Indians 
 preserve their ancient traditions, but the inveterate diffidence 
 towards civilized persons, causes a certain reserve and fear 
 in them. 
 
 Such, in compendium, are the principal distinctive charac- 
 teristics of these people who inhabit the most beautiful part 
 of the Republic. 
 
 According to my calculation, the number of the Totonacos 
 reaches 85,000 individuals distributed over the States of Vera 
 Cruz and Puebla.
 
 98 
 
 XIII 
 
 MIXTECO-ZAPOTECO FAMILY. 
 
 This family is composed of the individuals who speak the 
 following languages, the last two of doubtful classification ; 
 Mixteco, Zapoteco, CJiuchon, Popolaco, Cuitlateco, Chatino, 
 Papabuco, Anuisgo, Masateco, Solteco and Chianteco. 
 
 The Mixtccos occupy a large extent of land, situated on the 
 maritime littoral of the Grand Pacific Ocean, stretching itself 
 towards the interior of the country and embracing a great 
 part of the State of Oaxaca, a fraction of the State of Pue- 
 bla and the Eastern portion of the State of Guerrero. It is 
 divided into two regions known by the names of the Upper 
 and Lower Mixteca. The first is composed of the mountain- 
 ous range and the second of the plains adjoining the coast. 
 According to the chronicles of the Mixteca nation, the place 
 they proceeded from is unknown, it being simply ascertained 
 that on their immigration by the Panuco river, they went to 
 Tula and that having found this part well populated, they 
 continued on to Cholula, where they were perfectly well recei- 
 ved by the natives who related themselves to them ; their first 
 Captain being a Mixteco. After a long residence at this place, 
 they commenced populating the broken territory of the Mix- 
 teca, whose asperities presented a natural barrier for their 
 defense against their enemies or persecutors, as is inferred 
 from the account of Father Burgoa. To the asperities of the 
 soil they owed, in a great part, their victories over the Me- 
 xicans sent against them by Moctezuma. It is stated that 
 Tilantongo was the Court of the king of the Mixtecos and that
 
 99 
 
 near to this frontier town, in Acliutla, which is towards the 
 West, there was a temple raised to their first Deity, to which 
 many pilgrims came from very distant parts. 
 
 Another sif nctuary, the residence of the high priest, exist- 
 ed in Yanhuitlan, and it was here that aged persons and wo- 
 men came to pray and make their offerings, who from fatigue 
 and debility or from coming from far-off lands, were not able 
 to scale the sharp ascents of Achutla. 
 
 The Mixtecos, in their historical annals, traced their lineage 
 and descent by means of hieroglyphic paintings and charac- 
 ters on the bark of trees and on prepared skins, and it is as- 
 serted that in these inscriptions they chronicled the deluge 
 of the world and the genealogy and biography of their fore- 
 fathers and of the patriarchs. The perfect age adopted was 
 52 years, as in the Toltec century, that period being divided 
 into other four of 13 years each, which they made to corres- 
 pond respectively to the four cardenal points, attributing a 
 prosperous time to some seasons and a disastrous one to 
 others. 
 
 The period pertaining to the East was fertile and healthy ; 
 that to the North, variable : backward for the harvests, but 
 propitious for the generation and increase of the population, 
 that of the West ; and lastly adverse and the origin of all evils, 
 that of the South. Their year commenced approximately 
 about the Spring equinox and consisted of 18 months of 20 
 days, and another month more of 5 days, which was made 6 
 every four years, and which was called '" iiicuf^iado''' (dimi- 
 nished). 
 
 The Mixtecos, who were almost naked, did not use any 
 thing more than an apron, not to offend delicacy, and more 
 sociable than the chontales, they joined together in clans 
 under the immediate command of four caciques, distributed 
 over the districts pointed out by the four cardinal points. 
 
 The whole number of the Mixtecos reaches 220,000. 
 
 The origin of the arrogant Zapoteca nation has remained 
 enveloped in obscurity. History has simply gathered some 
 data relating to the former members of this family, whose tim- 
 bres of grandeur were ciphered in their antiguity, in their war- 
 like instincts and in their strengh of spirit, believing that they
 
 100 
 
 proceeded from lions and other wild beasts, from lofty trees 
 or from immense rocks, as appeared from their pictures. 
 
 As the Emperor Moctezuma was desirous of extending the 
 dominions of his vast empire, still more, he ulRiertook the 
 conquest of the Mixteco nation, with the view of leading to 
 that of the Zapotecos, but his intentions having been frus- 
 trated by the heroic resistance of the Mixtecos, his caciques 
 decided upon a direct invasion against the Zapotecos, and 
 the Mexican armies took the road by Teotitlan, without touch- 
 ing the Mixteco possessions. 
 
 This measure was completely successful, as it allowed the 
 Mexicans to penetrate into the territory of the Zapotecos and 
 continue their route to Tehuantepec, with the view of extend- 
 ing their conquests towards the East. Whether it was from 
 want of elements to repel the Mexican invasion or from 
 strategic considerations, he opposed only a slight resistance. 
 When the Mexicans were in possession of Tehuantepec, the 
 Mixteco and Zapoteco kings formed an alliance, and uniting 
 their forces, they charged upon the Mexicans, the first of 
 these kings recovering his lost possessions. From the differ- 
 ences occurring between the two sovereigns during the expe- 
 dition, there arose an enmity on the part of the Mixteco king 
 "Vfho was desirous of domineering over his enemy's country, 
 which he carried into effect by taking possession of various 
 places and blocking up the population of Zachila. The king 
 of the Zapotecos retired with his court to a small mountain 
 called "the teat of Maria Sanchez." In this state both kings 
 were found, when they were surprised by the Spanish invasion. 
 
 The Zapotecos as well as the Mixtecos were intelligent 
 and industrious : they cultivated maize, fruit and cocoa, which 
 besides game, served as their nutriment. The ruins which are 
 met with in the neighbourhood of Teotitlan del Valle, prove 
 the grandeur of these nations. Mitla or Liobaa, (in the Zapo- 
 teco language, place of rest) was the sanctuary of their Gods, 
 the palace of the high priest and the crypt of the kings, the 
 building being divided into various compartments. It was 
 there where the Zapotecos dissented from their culture by their 
 barbarous and inhuman sacrifices, and where they display- 
 ed the greatest magnificence in the interment of their kings.
 
 J
 
 Lam. 6 
 
 V DCSRM V Cf
 
 lOI 
 
 These palaces have always caused the admiration of travel- 
 lers by the beautiful style of their decoration and construc- 
 tion, six monolith columns without either base or capitl 
 being especially remarkable, so much so that Baron de Hum- 
 boldt believed them to be the only ones in the New World. 
 Sahagun says that among the ruins of the city of Tula, there 
 might be seen at one time some columns in the figure of a 
 sake that had the head for the base and the tail for the ca- 
 pital. In my last expedition to this town, guided by the most 
 lively desire of investigating objects so useful towards acqui- 
 ring a knowledge of historical facts, I discovered three blocks 
 of a column, artistically sculptured, in which the correctness 
 of style and good taste of the design were admirable: these 
 blocks were made to be adjusted to each other in such a way 
 that they would give the greatest solidity to the column when 
 raised. These three masses measure : the first o™ 63, the se- 
 cond o™ 56 and the third i"" 20 and the diameter of the three 
 o" 83. Besides these masses and other curious objects, I found 
 buried in an eminence that had been the seat of ancient Tol- 
 lan, three monolith basaltic blocks of 2"' 60 in height by i"' 
 o in diameter. Among these blocks, perfectly well finished, 
 some double columns are distinguished, with their oblique 
 bases towards the front and their capitals terminating in two 
 circles, intended for the volutes of an Ionic capital. Symme- 
 trically placed in both blocks are seen four tlapillis or orna- 
 ments in the shape of a bow or knot, of which, it is likely that 
 each one may represent the period of thirteen years and the 
 four together the Tloltec age or century. 
 
 The Zapotecas, according to an article of the Mexican Dic- 
 tionary of History and Geography, compose the greater part 
 of the population of the Southern part of the Isthmus, and are 
 without comparison, superior to the other Indians. The heal- 
 thiness of the climate, the extraordinary fertility of the soil 
 and the variety and richness of its productions, contribute 
 towards the happiness of the inhabitants, who, since the most 
 remote period of their history, have been distinguished for 
 their progress in civilization. * 
 
 * Clavijero remarks that "they were civilized and industrious; that they had their laws, that they 
 exercised the arts of the Mexicans, they had the same mode of computing time and the same paint- 
 ings to perpetuate the recollection cf events, in which were represented the creation of the world
 
 I02 
 
 Even in the days of the conquest, their acquaintance with 
 mechanical arts was not at all scanty, and their well fortified 
 towns did not fail to excite the admiration and awaken the 
 jealousy of the old kings of Anahuac. Bernal Diaz on refer-, 
 ring to the labors of the expedition to Tehuantepec in 1522, 
 says: "When he saw the quantity of gold the inhabitants 
 possessed, he ordered them to make him a pair of spurs of 
 the best quality, giving them as a pattern one of his own, and 
 indeed they proved very good." 
 
 The Indians of Tehuantepec display more than middling 
 qualities and arc intelligent, docile and vigorous : their ap- 
 pearance is remarkable for the symmetry of their forms, the 
 singularity of their features and the energy and sprightliness 
 of their character. The women are of a delicate figure, volup- 
 tuous and exceedingly lively : they are noted for the exqui- 
 site grace of their walk, their pleasing expression and their 
 love for showy dresses ; they are intriguing and of licentious 
 customs, but are sober and laborious. Many of them manufac- 
 ture textures of silk and cotton which are unequalled in Me- 
 xico. The inhabitatns of the town of Tehuantepec employ 
 themselves in different occupations, and the shops of the car- 
 penters, silversmiths, tanners, harnessmakers and bakers give 
 a lively appearance to the place. The quantity of soap made 
 there is very considerable and the exportation of prepared 
 deer skins forms a very lucrative branch of trade. 
 
 The Indians of Juchitan, although less numerous than those 
 of Tehuantepec, compose a very important part of the inha- 
 bitants of the Isthmus, for their superiority in everything to 
 the others. They are daring, independent, industrious and 
 sober, they have considerable strength and a high degree of 
 capacity, and the usefulness of their services as journeymen in 
 construction works or as laborers in the field, is not to be 
 doubted. Their appearance is less agreeable than that of those 
 of Tehuantepec, and their disposition not so docile ; a circums- 
 tance that may be attributed to their impatient character and 
 their knowledge of the state of physical and mental degrada- 
 tion in which they find themselves. 
 
 tlic iinivcrs.al deluge and the confusion of tongues, although all mixed with fictions. The Zapotecos 
 have been the most industrious of the people of New Spain, since the conquest: whilst there was a 
 trade in silks, they cullivatsd the silk-worm, and it is to their labor that is owing all the cochineal 
 imported into Europe, proceeding from Mexico from many years back up to the present time.
 
 103 
 
 The number of these Indians who are extended over the 
 central region of the territory of Oaxaca reaches 239,600 dis- 
 tributed in the following manner. 
 
 Principal Zapotecos . . 120,000 Valley of Oaxaca, Etia, Zumatlan 
 
 Ejutla, Tlacolula and Ocotlan. 
 Nexitza Zapotecos. . . 40,000 Sierra of Villa Aha to the North 
 
 East of Oaxaca. 
 Zapotecos Serranos of . Sierra de Ixtlan, to the North East 
 
 Ixtepeji 32,000 of Oaxaca. 
 
 Zapotecos Serranos of . West of Oaxaca and South of Vi- 
 
 Cajones 10,600 11a Alta. 
 
 Zapotecos Serranos of. South of Ejutla and the capital. 
 
 Miahuatlan 27.000 
 
 Zapotecos of Tehuan tepe e 10,000 In the Isthmus. 
 239,600 
 
 The Popolocos occupy different districts, such as the South 
 of the State of Puebla, the District of Acatlan, the North of 
 Oaxaca, the District of Coixtlahuaca, where they are known 
 by the name of Ckochos, the East of Guerrero, the District of 
 Tlapa, by the name of Tlapajiecos ; in Michoacan by that of 
 Tecos, and in Guatemala by that oi Popidacas and formerly 
 Topes. 
 
 Their number ascends to 34,700 individuals. 
 
 Seiior Pimentel separates the Popolacos from the Chuchofies, 
 stating that both belong to the Mixteco-Zapoteco family. 
 
 The Cuicatecos appertain to the Mixtecos, are found at 
 Cuicatlan to the North of Oaxaca, and consist of 10,000 in- 
 dividuals. 
 
 The Chatinos, a part of the Mixteca family, inhabit the re- 
 gion to the South of the capital, limited to the towns of Elo- 
 tepec, Ixtayutla, Yola, Yuchatengo and the coast, and are 
 composed of 8,000 individuals. 
 
 The Papabucos, a part of the Mixteca family, inhabit the 
 town of Elotepec, and District of Zimatlan with 400 indi- 
 viduals. 
 
 The Aniusgos are found in the South Eastern part of the 
 State of Guerrero, in the District of Ometepec, on the con- 
 fines of Oaxaca ; they are also found in the latter State, border-
 
 104 
 
 ing with the former in the parishes of San Pedro de los Amus- 
 gos, San Francisco Soyultepec and Cacahuaxtepec. Their 
 number is 12,600. 
 
 The Mazatecos reside in the region to the North of Oaxaca, 
 between the rivers Tonto and Quiotepec ; they count 28,000. 
 
 The Soltecos are met with amongst the Chatinos, but in the 
 last report from Oaxaca, the Solteco language does not appear 
 as existing. 
 
 The Chinajitecos are extended to the North of the Zapote- 
 cos and the Sierra of Villa Alta, to the number of 12,000. 
 
 According to Seiior Pimentel work, the classification of 
 these last is doubtful. 
 
 Summary of the Mixteco-Zapoteca family : 
 
 Mixtecos 220,000 
 
 Zapotecos 239,600 
 
 Popolocos 34,700 
 
 Cuicatecos 10,000 
 
 Chatinos 8,000 
 
 Papabucos 400 
 
 Amusgos 12,600 
 
 Mazatecos 28,000 
 
 Chinantecos 12,000 
 
 Total 565,300 
 
 XIV 
 
 THE MATLATZINCA OR PIRINDA FAMILY. 
 
 The Pirindas or Matlanzincas who formerly inhabited the 
 valley of Toluca and were the founders of that city, have al- 
 most completely disappeared, some few individuals only be- 
 ing met with as the remains of that nation in the town of 
 Charo in the State of Michoacan. According to Seiior Oroz- 
 co y Berra and from the original data in my possession, for
 
 J. am. 7 
 
 

 
 I05 
 
 which I am indebted to the three rectors of the Archbishop's 
 palace of Mexico, it appears that there still exist ]\[atlanzin~ 
 cas, speaking their own language in the the towns of San 
 Martin and Santa Cruz, in the District of Temascaltcpcc of 
 the Valley, in San Juan Azinco in the District of Ocuila ; in 
 San Mateo Mexicalzinco in that of Calimaya and in San Ma- 
 teo of Temascaltepec. 
 
 The Matlatzincas "says Clavijero," formed a considerable 
 state in the fertile valley of Toluca, and although the fame 
 of their bravery might have been formerly great, they were, 
 notwithstanding, subjected by King Axayactl, to the crown 
 of Mexico. 
 
 According to Basalenque the Matlatzincas of Charo were 
 originaries of Toluca and left their country in order to aid in 
 a war against the people of Michoacan, locating themselves 
 from Indaparapeo to Tiripitio, which was the centre of the 
 kingdom, for which they w^ere called piriudas or rather piriii- 
 tas, which in the "tarasca" language signifies those of the 
 middle. 
 
 Matlat:iinco is a Mexican word which signifies place of nets 
 "as it is composed of matlata" a net and the particle "tzin- 
 co" which means diminution. 
 
 The number of the Matlatzincos reaches 4,460 individuals. 
 
 XV 
 
 MAYA FAMILY. 
 
 This large family, whose number has decreased notably 
 owing to the disastrous wars of casts, inhabits the peninsula 
 of Yucatan, and extends itself with its divers languages over 
 Tabasco, Chiapas and Guatemala and is also found in the 
 Northern part of Veracruz, called the Huasteca, as appears by
 
 io6 
 
 the classification of indigenous languages by Francisco Pi- 
 mentel. In the peninsula of Yucatan they are found in two 
 groups : that of the pacific Indians in the Southern regions, 
 where they are incorporated with the other races in the towns 
 and haciendas, and that of the insurrectionary Indians in the 
 Eastern parts, the principal location of the latter being in 
 Chan -Santa Cruz. 
 
 The Piinchinc Indians are found in the vicinity of Palenque, 
 in the State of Chiapas. 
 
 The Lacandoncs are in the Eastern portion of the same state, 
 extending themselves to Guatemala and occupying them- 
 selves preferentially in hunting, fishing and the cultivation 
 of maize and tobaco. They use bows and arrows which they 
 manage with dexterity, their dress being composed of a shirt 
 or jacket of "manta" (cotton domestics) which reaches half 
 way to the knee, and of a band of raw silk, dyed a red color. 
 Obliged to traverse through the woods, they use no hat, and 
 are frequently found to be bald from the loss of their long 
 hair, -torn away little by little, by the dense brambles and 
 briers in the bushy places into which they penetrate. The 
 women wear folded skirts and hidpilli. 
 
 The Lacandones smoke tobacco and are not fond of fer- 
 mented liquors. They trade in tobacco, vegetable wax, honey 
 and the skins of the animals they hunt, receiving in exchange 
 glass beads, hatchets and salt which the natives of Chiapas 
 take them ; they live in clans without knowing any form of 
 government or system of religion, and only by their gestures 
 is it supposed that they tribute adoration to the Sun. 
 
 The P denes or Petcn-itzacz in the Southern part of Yuca- 
 tan, inhabit the neighbourhood of the lake Peten-Ixta. 
 
 The Chaiiabales, Coinitecos and Jocolohalcs are extended 
 over Zapaluta, Comitan and Chicomucelo in Chiapas. 
 
 The C holes or Mopanes form a tribe that has been establish- 
 ed since a very remote period in the Eastern part of Chiapas 
 and in Verapaz in Guatemala. 
 
 The Chortis or CJiortes are found on the borders of Monta- 
 gina in Guatemala. 
 
 The CakcJus, CaicJiis, Cachis or Cakgis, in Guatemala. 
 
 The Ixilis or Izilis in the same Republic.
 
 I07 
 
 The CoxoJi in the same Republic. 
 
 The Quiches or Utlattxos in Chiapas and Guatemala. The 
 former kingdom of Quiche was the most powerful and civili- 
 zed of Guatemala, as is testified by the ruins of a city of the 
 first order, Utlatan, which rivalled with the palaces of Moc- 
 tezuma and the Incas. Their capital was Ralimamet or Tec- 
 pancuauhtemalan. They understood hieroglyphic inscrip- 
 tions and accustomed human sacrifices. 
 
 The Zutuchil, Zuttigil, Atitecas and Zacap2ilas inhabited 
 Guatemala. 
 
 The CacJiiqiicles or Cachiquiles, also in Guatemala. 
 
 The Tsotziles, Zotsiles, Tzinantecos or Cinantecos dwelt in 
 the Northern, Central and Southern districts of Chiapas. The 
 city of Tzinacantlan (habitation of bats) was the capital of 
 the Qiiclencs and afterwards of the Tsotziles, yihosc descen- 
 dants and especially those of the town of Chamula are strong, 
 of a domineering character and ably disposed to the arts, 
 whereby they exercise several trades advantageously : they 
 are gardeners, tanners, shoemakers, lime -burners, stone- 
 masons, carpenters and manufacturers of harps, violins and 
 guitars, all instruments highly appreciated for their superior 
 construction (Plate 8, group i^'). 
 
 The Tzendalcs or Zcndalcs exist in many parts of Chiapas 
 (Plate 8, group i''.) 
 
 The Manies or Alcincs, Zaklolipakap are found in Tapachu- 
 la, in Chiapas and in Guatemala. The Mamcs composed a 
 powerful State in Guatemala, that extended over Quetzalte- 
 nango, Huehuetenango and Soconusco in Chiapas and at 
 other places in Guatemala and San Salvador. The ancient 
 Mames of Soconusco governed independently until the mo- 
 ment of their being conquered by the Olmecas, who, without 
 doubt, were of that nation to which Ixtilzochitl attributed 
 the construction of the pyramid of Cholula, previous to the 
 Toltecas. To free themselves from the yoke of the Olmecas 
 the Mames immigrated to other parts, removing as far as Ni- 
 caragua : those who remained at Soconusco, suffered another 
 invasion from the Toltecas, who conquered them, an event ; 
 which doubtless ocurred at the period of the destruction and 
 dispersion of that people. The Toltecas, united to the Mames,
 
 io8 
 
 sustained various wars with their neighbours the Kiclies, un- 
 til being defeated by the king Kikab II, they found them- 
 selves obliged to hide in the woods. 
 
 Later on, Ahuixotl, the i8*'' king of Mexico, carried his 
 conquests as far as Guatemala; Soconusco from that date re- 
 maining subject to the Mexican Empire. 
 
 The Atcliis or Atchcs inhabited Guatemala. 
 
 The Hnastecos with their dialects, in the region comprising 
 the Northern part of Veracruz and the South East of San 
 Luis, limited by the Gulf coasts from the bar of Tuxpan to 
 that of Tampico. The origin of the Huastecos, like that of 
 the other indigenous races is doubtful. On the arrival of the 
 Spaniards they inhabited, independently of the kingdom of 
 Texcoco and the empire of Mexico, the places situated on 
 the frontiers of these two nations. Hitaxtlan signifies a place 
 where hiiaxi abounds, a fruit known by the name oi Jmajc. 
 
 The Haitianos, Quizqiiejas or Itis with their affinities the 
 Ciibanos, Boriquas and Jainaicas were residents of the An- 
 tilles. 
 
 According to the chronicler Herrera, the former inhabi- 
 tants of Yucatan related that their ancestors had come from 
 the East, and others relying with more or less certainty on 
 the classification of languages and in the identity of ancient 
 monuments revealed by various ruins, imagine to have dis- 
 covered an immigration from the West and the traces of this 
 peregrination in the ruins of Comalcalco in Tabasco. In the 
 peninsula of Yucatan, these pyramids are again observed, 
 with the small hillocks called cues, with the singular circums- 
 tance of their being hollow, in like manner to what is noticed 
 in the pyramid of the Moon at Teohotihuacan, it being also 
 remarked that in the ate at Yucatan, explored by Mr. Ste- 
 phens, the interior compartments were distinct. 
 
 The Mayas having united under the command of a mo- 
 narch, formed a vast empire, whose capital was the city of 
 Mayapan, and which was afterwards divided into various 
 States governed by special rulers. The Aztecs designated the 
 positions occupied by the Mayas and the natives of Tabasco 
 by the name of Onohiialcos, which means "independent pro- 
 vinces."
 
 109 
 
 Torquemada states that the Mayas inhabited the kingdom 
 of Yucatan, which covered an extent of more than three hun- 
 dred leagues, and that it was well populated and administered 
 by individual authorities. They were ruled by good laws and 
 customs ; they enjoyed peace and justice, which is an argu- 
 ment that favors their good government, and he attributes 
 this particularly to their all speaking the same language, and 
 is not a little surprised that so many people and so extended 
 over a place of so many leagues, should understand with each 
 other in the same dialect. 
 
 Yucatan was discovered by Francisco Fernandez de Cor- 
 dova in 1 5 17 and was conquered by Captain Francisco de 
 Montejo in 1527. The multitude of stone buildings and tem- 
 ples which the Spaniards met with and the celebrated ruins 
 of palaces which have caused the admiration of intelligent 
 travellers, demonstrate the highly advanced state of civili- 
 zation of a people whose origin is entirely unknown. 
 
 The Mayas understood hieroglyphic inscriptions and com- 
 puted time in in the same way as the Mexicans. Their des- 
 cendants have now forgotten this knowledge and limit them- 
 selves to regulate time by the movement of the stars. Agri- 
 culture is their principal calling and they dedicate themselves 
 particularly to growing maize, subjecting themselves to the 
 system of their ancestors. They are also engaged in the man- 
 ufacture of sacks, hammocks and cordage ofhenequen and in 
 making straw hats. Their ordinary food consists of boiled 
 vegetables seasoned with salt, "chile" or pepper, and some- 
 times with orange or lemon juice. At their feasts they have 
 an abundance of game, which they roast underground, 
 after being previously heated according to the method gene- 
 rally adopted throughout the country. This dish is known by 
 the name oibarbacoa. They frequently intoxicate themselves 
 with "aguardiente" and "pitarilla," which is a drink made 
 from an infusion of the peel of a plant called balche\ sweetened 
 with honey. 
 
 Timid, crafty and mistrustful they attack their enemies 
 with superior numbers, and after a defeat scatter themselves 
 in the depths of the thickets to meet again at some place 
 previously designated. They are good marksmen and manage
 
 no 
 
 the "machete" (a species of cutlass) wth dexterity. A hut 
 built of sticks covered with mud, with its roof made of guano 
 or turf, some common hammocks and a few utensils of abso- 
 lute necessity for domestic use, is all that is required by a 
 family of the Maya Indians. Music, which preserves its tradi- 
 tional rhythm and of which a sample is given at the end of 
 this work, and dancing, form the constant manifestation of 
 their rejoicings. They accompany their characteristic sonnets 
 with the harsh tones of a small flute , with those of a turtle's 
 shell beaten by a deer's horn and by those of a ^^m itote " a 
 wooden instrument of cylindrica l shape and hollow, of about 
 one yard in length and one third in diameter, diminished and 
 completely open at its foot and perforated in the upper part, 
 forming two small languets or plates that vibrate on being 
 struck by two small wooden balls, producing a confused 
 sound. This instrument under the name of tcponaxt le is very 
 general among the Mexican natives. 
 
 Like to all the Indian races of Mexico, the Mayas are ido- 
 laters, preferring to devote their principal acts of worship to 
 images of the Saints than to the Supreme Being. They are 
 under the impression that the souls of those who die return 
 to this world, and in order that they should not lose their 
 way, they mark the road from the burial place to their home, 
 with lime. 
 
 Their belief in witches and ghosts increases their errors : 
 they fear Baldin, the Lord of the fields, to such a degree that 
 they do not commence their agricultural labors, before first 
 venerating this ideal being with incense. At times this spec- 
 tre is a woman who, in the costume of the "mestizas" and 
 wearing in her hair the fruit of a plant called sacJicxtabay, flies 
 away or approaches, hastens or retards her steps, disappears 
 or allows herself to be reached, if the one who follows her is a 
 lover ; who at last loses his senses, his fascination arriving to 
 such a degree that he is seized with fever on finding his illu- 
 sion destroyed and on embracing within his arms a figure full 
 of thorns, with the feet as thin as those of a fowl, in place of 
 the enchanting "mestiza. " At other times it is a giant who 
 haunts the towns at midnight and places his feet on each of 
 the side walks to prevent any one from passing, and if any
 
 Ill 
 
 careless passenger should take the middle path, he closes 
 his legs and crushes him. Lastly other phantoms continually 
 disturb them and terrify them with noises. 
 
 The dress of the Maya Indians consists of a white cotton 
 shirt falling outside of the drawers which are wide and reach 
 down to the knee, a handkerchief, a straw hat and sandals 
 with leathern soles, tied with henequen strings. When they 
 are at work in the field they undress themselves and only 
 wear a *'pampanilla" or covering to screen their nakedness, 
 which they call huit, made of a piece of cotton cloth around 
 the waist, the ends of which pass between the thighs and arc 
 again tied at the waist. 
 
 The Indian women, inside their houses, only use fustian or 
 a white cotton skirt, reaching from the waist to the knee ; 
 their personal cleanliness is remarkable, as they consider it 
 irrational not to bathe themselves every day. When they 
 visit the towns they cover their heads with a white cotton 
 garment or perhaps with a red handkerchief, whose ends fall 
 over the shoulders, and change their dress to a "huipilli" and 
 fustian embroidered white colored thread. 
 
 The Indian women are generally sober, economical, hospi- 
 table and well disposed to work for the purpose of helping 
 their husbands, but on the other hand are very vindictive ; so 
 much so that they never forget an offense as long as they 
 remain without avenging it. Their domestic labors are redu- 
 ced to grinding maize, making tortillas (pancakes), atole 
 ( gruel ) and pozolc^ washing, sowing and spinning and weav- 
 ing ordinary cotton stuffs. 
 
 The Indians of Yucatan are robust and of a little more 
 than medium stature, they are round-faced, their hair is 
 black, straight and thick and they have little or no beard. 
 Their forehead is low, the eyes bright and expressive, the 
 cheek bones projecting, the mouth regular, the lips thin and 
 with splendid teeth : the neck is thick and the breast and 
 shoulders broad ; the arms, thighs and legs strong and mus- 
 cular ; the color of their skin is copperish and becomes dark- 
 er by constant exposure to the sun ; in the women it is much 
 clearer. Among the latter there are many of a pretty appear- 
 ance, well formed and with a graceful walk and a sweet voice ;
 
 112 
 
 but the rude and habitual labors to which they dedicate them- 
 selves from childhood, soon cause their attractiveness to fade. 
 These are some of the most characteristic traits of the In- 
 dians of Yucatan, who by their uninterrupted insurrections 
 have devastated their beautiful and opulent country. 
 
 The reports that I have consulted and very particularly 
 those that were furnished me by D, Santiago Mendez, who 
 was the Governor of Yucatan, have allowed me to give these 
 statements regarding the race referred to. 
 
 In the numerical part, I shall limit myself solely to the 
 people of this family that belong to the Mexican Republic. 
 Maya Indians of Yucatan, 
 
 Comprising Chiapas and Tabasco . . . 268,000 
 
 Chanabales 6,500 
 
 Clioles 4,000 
 
 Quiches 3, 000 
 
 Tzotziles 36,000 
 
 Tzeendales 34, 000 
 
 Mames 3,000 
 
 Huaxtecos 37,ooo 
 
 Maya family 391,500 
 
 XVI 
 
 CHONTAL FAMILY. 
 
 The CJiontal Indians inhabit the State of Tabasco principal- 
 ly, and in a scarce number Guerrero, Oaxaca, Guatemala and 
 Nicaragua. Formerly they were distinguished by their fero- 
 city, but their character being modified with the process of
 
 "3 
 
 time, they have lost their barbarous instincts, although they 
 have advanced but little in the road of civilization. They arc 
 brave, of a robust constitution and in general indolent, and 
 are satisfied by laboring to obtain a little maize, cocoa, to- 
 bacco and aguardiente to fill their requirements. Their reli- 
 gious ceremonies and particularly those of the festivities of 
 the Santa Cruz, serve rather as a pretext for dissoluteness 
 than as a commemoration of the services celebrated by the 
 Catholic church. On these occasions the women prepare the 
 chorotc and the men collect bees -wax and honey and kill an 
 ox or a lizard on the day they make their candles. They 
 commence the festivity by all proceeding to the church, 
 carrying the offerings they are about to render the Saint of 
 their devotion, these consisting in large baskets filled with 
 parboiled trout and rations of meat, and in 25 or 30 jars of 
 chorotc or posolc^ a beverage made of ground maize, prepared 
 and boiled in water. On presenting the offering, they pray 
 to the Saint to restore health to those who are sick ; to fatten 
 some domestic animal ; to deliver them from the bites of 
 snakes and from all other evils, or again to multiply their 
 crops. They offer the provisions to the Saint, in order that 
 he may eat of the substance, whilst it is they who finish by 
 profiting thereby and drinking to satiety the balche, a fer- 
 mented beverage made from the juice of the sugar-cane, 
 burnt corn and molasses, and winding up by dancing their fa- 
 vorite pantomimic dances in the church itself, such as the ca~ 
 ballito ( little horse ) the pdicano ( the pelican ) the gigantc 
 (the giant) and Saint Michael, dressed in the old Spanish 
 fashion, with blue stockings, shoes with cascabels, knee-bree- 
 ches with motley -colored fringes and a handkerchief tied 
 round the neck ; this grotesque figure being completed by the 
 hideous wooden masks that covered the face. 
 
 The CJiontals are fanatic and superstitious to the degree 
 of attributing their infirmities to witchcraft ; and apply the 
 remedies that are prescribed to them by their quack doctors 
 who are practically acquainted with the properties and vir- 
 tues of certain herbs and roots : they also believe in the trans- 
 migration of souls into the bodies of animals.
 
 114 
 
 The Indians were domineered by the Spaniards more by 
 the force of persuasion than by that of arms. 
 
 To day, they maybe numbered in all at 30,000 individuals. 
 See the Chontal types in Plate 8, group 2°^- 
 
 XVII 
 
 LANGUAGES ORIGINATING FROM NICARAGUA. 
 
 The Hnaves, called by some Huazontccos, according to Pi- 
 mentel, proceed from Nicaragua and occupy the-narrow strips 
 of land that are left free by the large lakes ( ''albuferas" ) to 
 the South of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and inhabit the 
 places called Santa Maria del Mar, San Mateo del Mar, San 
 Francisco del Mar, San Dionisio del Mar and Ixhuatan ; their 
 number ascends to 3,000 individuals who live divided into 
 four factions and in the most complete anarchy as regards 
 local interests. 
 
 The strifes they maintained between themselves or against 
 their neighbours, decided them to emigrate from their native 
 country, to launch upon the sea in frail barks and to navigate 
 along the coasts in the direction of Tehuantepec, of whose 
 plains they took possession and extended themselves to the 
 foot of the Cordillera, but not without overcoming the Mixes 
 who were the owners of the land and obliging them to seek
 
 115 
 
 refuge in the depths, of the mountainous ranges. The Huave 
 settlers being first conquered by the hosts of Moctezuma and 
 afterwards reduced by ^he Mixtecos and Zapotecos united, 
 circumscribed their lands to the narrowest limits. 
 
 In the work entitled " Reconnoisance of Tehuantepec, 
 1844," the following notices appear: 
 
 "The Huaves differ in their appearance from the other in- 
 habitants of the State of Oaxaca, being generally robust and 
 well formed. They habitually go very nearly naked and their 
 occupations are reduced to the fishery in which they do a con- 
 siderable trade. The Chiapanecos also natives of Nicaragua, 
 as results from the comparison of their language with others 
 of that Republic, have so mixed themselves with the so-cal- 
 led Ladmos of Chiapas that they have caused their habits, 
 their customs and their dialect to disappear." 
 
 Clavijero expresses himself in the following terms regard- 
 ing this tribe : 
 
 The Chiapanecos, if we are to give credit to their traditions, 
 were the first populators of the New World. They said that 
 Votan, the grandson of that venerable old man who built the 
 great bark to save himself and his family from the Deluge, 
 and one of those who undertook the work of the grand edifice 
 which was made to reach to heaven, went by express com- 
 mand of the Lord to populate that land. They said, also, 
 that the first populators had come from Northern parts and 
 when they arrived at Soconusco, they separated, some going 
 to inhabit the country of Nicaragua and others remaining in 
 Chiapas. 
 
 This nation, as related by some historians, was not govern- 
 ed by a King, but by two military chiefs, who were nominat- 
 ed by the priests. They thus maintained themselves, until 
 the last Mexican kings made them submit to their crown. 
 They made the same use of their paintings as the Mexicans, 
 and had the same mode of computing time, but adopted dif- 
 ferent figures from them to represent the years, months 
 and days.
 
 u6 
 
 XVIII 
 
 THE APACHE FAMILY. 
 
 The Apaches with the divert names of their several tribes, 
 Chiricahues, ToJitos, Mimbreiios, Gilcnos, Mescaleros, Sacra- 
 inentetios, Carrizaleiios, Mogollones, Lipanes, Farao7ies, Nava- 
 jocs and others, live a wandering life in that part of the United 
 States bordering upon our frontiers. They make their incur- 
 sions into Sonora, by the District of Altar and Magdalena, as 
 those denominated Gilefios and Mescaleros effect the same 
 by the North East, invading the whole of the State. The 
 Apaches of Chihuahua are spread over the neighbourhood of 
 Janos and like those of Sonora, employ themselves by prefe- 
 rence in stealing cattle, and in assassinating and rejoicing in 
 the martyrdom of their victims. 
 
 These savages are exceedingly fleet, both in traversing the 
 vast plains and in climbing the rugged eminences of the 
 mountains, and are moreover excellent horsemen. Their arms 
 are the bow and arrow, and a lance with a flint point ; they 
 use a leather quiver and a shield or chimal of leopard's skin, 
 ornamented with feathers, and with small mirrors in the cen- 
 tre, with which they succeed in dazzling the enemy. 
 
 Endowed with a belligerent character and of ferocious in- 
 stincts, they are nearly always at war with the whites, with 
 the CoinancJies and even among themselves. Their mode of 
 warfare consists in surprises to ensure the triumph and in re- 
 treats to evade a combat with a superior enemy, but without 
 failing to prove themselves brave and resolute when the oc- 
 casion to fight presents itself. They fly with extreme velocity 
 and endeavour to allure their persecutors to a convenient
 
 "7 
 
 spot in order to fall upon them unexpectedly, and celebrate 
 their victories by infernal dances around the scalps torn from 
 their victims. They make use of smoke for their telegraphic 
 signals whether it be for congregating together, for communi- 
 cating some danger or for carrying out some expedition. 
 
 They believe in a Supreme Being, and without rendering 
 him external homage, they venerate him under the name of 
 Yaxtaxitaxitanne, which signifies Captain of Heaven, and in 
 order to assuage the anger of the bad Spirit, they have their 
 prophets and soothsayers who are highly esteemed among 
 them. So great is their horror of epidemic infirmities that 
 they fly to very distant places and do not return to their for- 
 mer abodes until after they have assured themselves of the 
 disappearance of the pest. They go nearly naked and are so 
 uncleanly that it is generally believed that the wild animals 
 foreknow by their scent the approximation of these savages. 
 The Apache women do not comb themselves during the time 
 their fathers or their husbands are in campaign. 
 
 The Indians belonging to the Atapasca nation, were ins- 
 tructed in the Christian faith by Franciscan priests, shortly 
 after the conquest. They are not known to have any system 
 of government, as they only obey the orders of the chiefs of 
 the tribes, who are selected from amongst the most able and 
 courageous in the time of war. These Indians, in their lan- 
 guage, apply the name of Apaches to those who rebel, there- 
 fore it is to their insurrections that they owe their own name. 
 
 They are much addicted to hunting deer, wild boars, "ci- 
 bolos" or Mexican bulls, black bears and wild goats and 
 rams. Their dress consists of a strip of linen, passing between 
 their thighs and fastened at the waist, and in leggings of 
 deer-skin with fringes ornamented with beads and garnished 
 with leather strings ; their shoes called " teguas " of the same 
 skin are joined to the leggings. They pierce their ears and 
 wear ear-rings and pendants of metal, and in their hair they 
 fasten a long false braid adorned with trinkets, shells or sil- 
 ver buckles. 
 
 ( The women who are as active as the men in their habits, 
 use very short garments of deer skin or kid, which they call 
 ilacalee, with fringes of leather strings on whose edges arc
 
 II 
 
 g 
 
 hung cascabels, tassels and red beads ; they- also wear a kind 
 of jacket called bietli, made of an entire deerskin, open in 
 front, ornamented exactly the same as the rest of their dress, 
 and they also use ''teguas." 
 
 The Apaches are strong, of a bronze color, with long hair 
 and without any beard. They have all the faculties of the 
 senses admirably developed, of which circumstance they avail 
 themselves in their depredations. They marry with all the 
 women they choose and dissolve the matrimony when they 
 please, sometimes returning their consort to the father, bro- 
 ther or relation, if she has been the cause of the separation, and 
 at others paying back the price of the marriage contract, 
 or in case of infidelity they punish her by cutting off her 
 nose. 
 
 The barbarous customs of the Apaches are specially exhi- 
 bited in cases of death. If an Indian dies, the men cut off their 
 long hair and make incisions in their faces, arms and legs with 
 sharp -edged flints, or wound themselves in the breast on the 
 sideof the heart, and the women burn their clothes and throw 
 themselves naked upon prickly plants. 
 
 Horse-flesh is the favorite food of the Apaches, giving the 
 preference afterwards to the other quadrupeds chased both by 
 the men and the women. They also feed themselves with wild 
 fruit, maize, beans and pumpkins which the women cultivate 
 on a very limited scale. They have no other enjoyment than 
 that of drinking the liquor distilled from the "maguey" and 
 that of smoking tobacco. 
 
 The Apaches, by their mistrustful character, prefer living 
 in the asperities of the mountainous regions, where they build 
 their circular hovels with branches of trees and skins of qua- 
 drupeds, and are continually changing their domicile, accord- 
 ing to the season or their incursionary plans. 
 
 The Mescaleros inhabit the watering places and mountain 
 ranges near to Coyame and San Carlos, formerly military 
 posts : 
 
 The Lipanes to the East of San Carlos and banks of the 
 river Bravo, by Santa Rosa : 
 
 The Gilefios on the banks of the river Gila : 
 
 The Sacramentenos, iii the Sierra of Sacramento :
 
 119 
 
 The Carrizalcilos and Coyoteros in the Sierra dc Arados, 
 Carmen and Fierro, in the vicinity of Carrizal : 
 The Mimbrefios in the Sierra de los Mimbres : 
 The Faraones in the Sierras between the River Grande and 
 the river Pecos : 
 
 The Xicarillas are a branch of the Faraones : 
 The Navajoes in various "rancherias" of the Sierra de Na- 
 vajo, and are those who are the most towards the North. 
 
 For the special reasons that I have already indicated, the 
 number of Apaches that inhabit the States of Sonora, Chi- 
 huahua, and Coahuila, within our territory, cannot be stated 
 correctly, but by the data that I have been enabled to con- 
 sult, they may be calculated at 10,000 
 
 XIX 
 
 THE OTHOMI OR HIU-HIU FAMILY. 
 
 The Othomies including all the indigenous Indians who 
 speak the languages of this family, occupy a large extent of 
 the territory of the Republic. 
 
 The principal Othomies are met with in the States of Gua- 
 najuato and Queretaro, and the Western part of Hidalgo, and 
 in a part of the North Western region of Mexico. Isolated
 
 120 
 
 from this principal group, they are also found in the town of 
 Ixtengo, pertaining to Tlaxcala, in a part of the Sierra of Za- 
 cualtipan in the State of Hidalgo, and in some places situated 
 to the South of Zacatlan in the State of Puebla, in some of the 
 towns in the district of Tuxpan, mixed with the Mexicans ; 
 in the parish of Zitacuaro in the State of Michoacan, in union 
 with the Mazahuas, and in the town of Santa Maria del Rio 
 in San Luis Potosi, 
 
 The Serrano s in the Sierra -gorda of Guanajuato : 
 
 The Mazahuas inhabit a great part of the Districts of Ix- 
 tlahuaca and the Villa del Valle in the State of Mexico, and 
 in the parishes of Taximaroa, Tlalpujahua and Zitacuaro in 
 Michoacan. 
 
 The Fames are established in the ancient mission of Cer- 
 ro~prieto (in the parish of Jacala, State of Hidalgo), in the 
 town of Santa Maria Acapulco in Queretaro, and in the mis- 
 sion of the Purisima Concepcion, at Arnedo, about a league 
 from Xichu in the State of Guanajuato. The principal body 
 of the Pames is found in the Eastern provinces of San Luis 
 Potosi : 
 
 The Jonaces or Mecos, so called by the Spanish mission- 
 aries, inhabited a part of the Sierra -gorda of Guanajuato. 
 
 According to certain writers, the Othomies constitute the 
 most ancient population of Anahuac. Expelled by the Tol- 
 tecas from the places where the latter founded or rebuilt Tula, 
 according to Clavijero, they extended their province to the 
 Northern part of the Valley of Mexico, at 90 miles from the 
 capital. Many persons have imagined to have discovered an 
 analogy between the Chinese language and the Othomi, one 
 of these being our distinguished philologer Father Najera, 
 but this idea has been lately combatted by Pimentel in his 
 classification of languages. For many centuuies, these Indians 
 remained in a savage state, preserving very vague recollec- 
 tions of their peregrinations, wandering among the moun- 
 tains and subsisting principally by hunting game, until being 
 subjected to the kings of Texcoco in the 15*'' century, they 
 began to live in society, although many of them continued in 
 their primitive condition. Up to the present, their descen- 
 dants have improved but little upon these uncultured people.
 
 121 
 
 Mistrust, indifference and ignorance are revealed in the spirit 
 of their character, which among- the Indians of the Sierra, is 
 shown to be astute, hypocritical and treacherous, differing in 
 this peculiar respect from the other natives, who without be- 
 ing free from other defects, possess in exchange very good 
 qualities. 
 
 The Othomies are composed of 450,000 individuals, includ- 
 ing the Serranos and Jonaces. 
 
 The Mazahuas^ who in the time of the Aztec empire per- 
 tained to the kingdom of Tlacopan, and whose dominions were 
 bordered by Michoacan, consist of some 50,000. 
 
 On the missionary Father Soriano treating of the character, 
 habits and customs of the Fames, he expresses himself in the 
 following manner: "The nature of these Indians and of all 
 those in America is indefinible, as the more one treats with 
 them, the less one knows them : to deal with them is a slow 
 and protracted martyrdom ; in general it is rare that they 
 requite a benefit, as if one gives them anything, they say, it 
 is not given me for nothing. They are as mahcious as they 
 are ignorant. The men are generally very indolent and are 
 only fond of roving through the mountains like wild beasts. 
 It was for this that they so much disliked our doctrine, in the 
 principles to which the ministers subjected them, even so far 
 as to mutiny and attempt the lives of the missionaries. The 
 men are ingenious and humble : with good treatment they 
 will learn anything ; the women are very cleanly, useful and 
 industrious ; they make good cotton cloth (manta), Jiiicpilcs 
 (petticoats), mats and very curious trunks. The woman carries 
 the water, brings the fire -wood and in fact does the most 
 of the labor, whilst the husband is accustomed to lie down 
 to sleep, The houses of the Fames are of grass, turf or of 
 palm -leaves ; they walk bare -footed ; their dress approaches 
 to nakedness, as the most of them use a covering for the head 
 or a blanket : their food consists of toasted maize and ma- 
 ny herbs. The majority arc still inclined to idolatry ; they 
 yet retain many abuses and nearly all of them believe in 
 soothsayers and witches. Formerly these Fames venerated 
 Moctezuma greatly, to whose dominion they were subjected 
 for many years, and whom they looked upon as a deity ; they
 
 125 
 
 all worshipped the Sun for their God. Others had their par* 
 ticular deities such as idols of stone or of wood. They also 
 have their dances, calling the houses where they hold them, 
 catiz manchi, which means to say "virgin house." They give 
 these dances at sowing- time, when the grain is in the ear, 
 and on gathering in the maize, to the sound of a tabor and 
 many fifes, and very leisurely commence to play their dole- 
 ful and melancholy tunes. The soothsayer sits in the middle 
 with his small drum and with many gestures stares at the 
 company ; he then rises slowly and after dancing many dan- 
 ces he sits down on a bench and pricks the calf of his leg 
 with a thorn and sprinkles the blood over the corn-field by 
 way of a blessing, and before this ceremony, no one dared to 
 take a single cob, but left the crop intact : after the cere- 
 mony, they paid the soothsayer ( cajoo or liechiccro ) and all 
 comenced to eat corn-cobs, and afterwards gave themselves 
 up to intoxication, to which the Indians are much addicted. . . 
 The faith that most of these Indians have in these soothsayers, 
 is very great ; the latter have their superiors who are called 
 Maidajaboo, which signifies "great soothsayer," and this ca- 
 naille is employed in curing the sick, which is done by breath- 
 ing all over their bodies, and then preserving the breath in a 
 small earthen jar, perfectly well covered up and afterwards 
 buried near the idols or stones to which I have referred .... 
 These accursed rabble called cojoos or wizards, are venerated 
 by them, and looked upon in the same way that the Cathol- 
 ics look upon their priests. . . . When a woman gives birth 
 to a child, and after she is able to walk, they fix upon her 
 feast day, and afterwards they take her out of the house giv- 
 ing many turns, and if the child is a girl they bring her a 
 pitcher called oaxaquita and other articles, and finish by all 
 getting drunk. When any one dies in a house they open a 
 door for the body to go out of, and if the body is carried 
 through the one already made, they close this and open an- 
 other." 
 
 Of all the indigenous tribes referred to, the Othomies, and 
 more especially the inhabitants of the Sierras or mountainous 
 regions, are remarkable for their extremely mistrustful cha-
 
 123 
 
 racter and their bad inclinations, contrasting essentially in 
 this respect with the former Mexican race. 
 
 In Plate 8, group 3rd, the types of the principal Othomics 
 and those of the Fames are represented. 
 
 The total number of the latter may be calculated at 25,000. 
 Total number of the Othomi family: 
 
 Principal Othomies. . . 550,000 
 
 Mazahuas 50,000 
 
 Fames 25,000 
 
 Total. . 625,000
 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 The population of the Mexican United States reaches the 
 number of 9.495,157 inhabitants, in which number are com- 
 prised 3.517,580 native Indians distributed in the following 
 manner, excluding those families who do not inhabit the Me- 
 xican territory : 
 
 Mexican family extending over the States of Si- 
 naloa, Jalisco, Aguascalientes.Durango, South 
 of San Luis Potosi, Colima, the coasts of Michoa- 
 can, Guerrero, Morelos, Mexico, Puebla, the Fe- 
 deral District, Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, Veracruz and 
 in less number, in Tabasco, Oaxaca and Chiapas 1.503,270 
 SONORA or Opata-Pima family, which pertains to 
 the States of Sonora, Sinaloa, Durango, Chihua- 
 hua, Jalisco and Zacatecas . . 69,150 
 
 GUAICURA and Cochimi-Laimon family in Lower 
 
 California 2,500 
 
 Carried forward 1,574,920
 
 126 
 
 Brought forward 1.574,920 
 
 Seri family, on the coasts of Sonora and the Is- 
 land of Tiburon 200 
 
 Tarasca family, in the State of Michoacan, part 
 of Guanajuato, in the Valley of Mazamitla in 
 Jalisco, and in some few parts of Guerrero, bor- 
 dering on Michoacan 200,000 
 
 ZOQUE-MIXE family, in the Western region of 
 Chiapas, to the North of the Sierra Madre, in a 
 small part of the South of Tabasco, and in 
 mountainous districts of the Isthmus of Tehuan- 
 tepec 47,600 
 
 TOTONACA family, to the North of the State of 
 Puebla, in the Sierra of Huachinango, and in 
 the State of Vera Cruz, in the zone comprised 
 between the rivers Chachalacas and Cazones, 
 bounded by the Huasteca 85,000 
 
 MiXTECO-ZAPOTECA family, in the greater part 
 of the State of Oaxaca,. the District of Acatlan 
 in Puebla and the Eastern portion of Guerrero. 565,300 
 
 Matlatzinca or pirinda family, in the town of 
 Charo, State of Michoacan and in those of San 
 Martin and Santa Cruz, in the District of Te- 
 mascaltepec, in San Juan Azinco,in the environs 
 of Ocuila, in San Mateo Mexicalcinco, in that 
 of Calimaya and in San Mateo in the mineral 
 district of Temascaltepec, all in the State of 
 Mexico 4>46o 
 
 Maya family in Yucatan and Campeachy, Tabas- 
 co, Chiapas and in the Huasteca, between the 
 States of Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi and Ve- 
 racruz 391.500 
 
 Chontal family in the States of Tabasco, Oaxa- 
 ca and Guerrero 30,600 
 
 HUAVE family, originating from Nicaragua, on the 
 Southern coast of Tehuantepec and in the cen- 
 tral part of Chiapas 3.000 
 
 Apache family in Sonora and Chihuahua . . . 10,000 
 
 Carried forward 2.912,580
 
 is; 
 
 Brought forward 2.912,556 
 
 OthoMI family in the States of Mexico, Michoa- 
 can, Hidalgo, Queretaro, Guanajuato, the Eas- 
 tern portion of San Luis Potosi and other parts 
 isolated from the principal group 625,000 
 
 3-537,580 
 
 Not without great difficulty have I been enable to acquire 
 the greatest possible amount of data which permit me to es- 
 timate and classify the population of the Republic in the fol- 
 lowing manner : 
 
 20 per Cent of the European race and nearest 
 
 descendants of the Spaniards 1.899,031 
 
 43 per Cent of the mixed race ..... 4.082,918 
 37 per Cent of the native Indian race . . 3.513,208 
 
 9495,157 
 
 In 1 8 10 according to the census of Don Fernando Navarro 
 y Noriega, as appears in the " Political Essay of New Spain, " 
 the population of this part of the American continent, con- 
 sisted of 6,122,354 inhabitants classified as follows : 
 
 Europeans and American Spaniards. . . . 1.097,928 
 
 Indians 3.676,281 
 
 Mixed races or casts 1.338,706 
 
 Secular ecclesiastics 4.229 
 
 Regular ecclesiastics 3,112 
 
 Nuns 2,098 
 
 6.122,354 
 
 These statistical data suggested the most important con- 
 siderations. Baron Humboldt remarked in his Political Essay, 
 as a consolatory idea for humanity, that the increase of the 
 Indian race was a fact and that the extensive region that was 
 comprehended under the general name of New Spain, was
 
 128 
 
 found to be more populated than before the arrival of the 
 Spaniards. The statement of this distinguished traveller, as- 
 suring this fact might have found its confirmation in the events 
 that were occurring at the period to which his work referred ; 
 but as it was then impossible to foresee the numerous causes 
 that might be brought to bear against so respectable an opi- 
 nion, that circumstance, then so propitious to the Indian race, 
 has since taken another aspect. 
 
 The indolence of the Indians, their attachment to their 
 ancient customs, their bad nourishment, their little shelter 
 against the inclemency of the weather, their wretched atten- 
 dance in their sicknesses, and other adverse causes which I 
 have pointed out in the course of this work, have contributed 
 towards the degeneration and decline of the race. 
 
 On comparing the census of 1810 with that of 1875, in the 
 part relating to the indigenous race, the decrease may be ob- 
 served. As an evidence that the cipher of the last census is 
 not too high, as some seem to pretend, it will suffice to fix at- 
 tention on the fact that the mixed race is that which prevails 
 in the greater part of the Republic and that the number of 
 the Indian race has diminished remarkably in the Northern 
 domains, even to such a degree, in some of the States, as to be 
 reduced to a nullity. Thus it is, that any error that may have 
 been committed in the calculations, notwithstanding the care 
 and prudence with which I have been guided in forming them, 
 would alter that cipher in but very little, and would not in- 
 fluence in the least against this general conclusion : that the 
 Indian race has decreased and continues on the road of its de- 
 cline, unless civilization and other unforeseen causes should 
 modify these lamentable results, converting them into others 
 of a more favorable character. 
 
 That manifest destiny is successively observed from North 
 to South. In the States of Tamaulipas, New Leon and Coa- 
 huila and in the major extent of San Luis Potosi, Zacatecas 
 and Aguascalientes, there now remains nothing more than 
 the reminiscence of their ancient and warlike inhabitants : in 
 Chihuahua the mixed race has taken the lead by exiling the 
 Tarahumares to the mountain wilds and the Apaches to the 
 deserts of Janos: Sonora, in spite of the importance of .some
 
 129 
 
 tribes, loses much of its Indian population : Durango scarcely 
 retains the rests of the Tepehuancs : in Sinaloa and Jalisco, 
 the Indian element is gradually disappearing and to conclude, 
 Michoacan itself, once ruled by the indomitable Tarascos, 
 has entered upon its decline. Only in the Southern States, 
 that so far have not exhibited the effects of that law of dest- 
 ing, to which it would seem the Indian race is condemned, ts 
 a greater density of population to be found. 
 
 The decay of this race becomes still more palpable on com- 
 paring their number with that of the other two, which have 
 attained a natural in crease, but in order that the comparison 
 should be more exact, it is requisite to deduct from the cen- 
 sus of 1810, the numbers that were represented by the popu- 
 lations of the former provinces of New Mexico, Texas and 
 Upper California, which no longer belong to the Mexican 
 territory. 
 
 The census of 1 8 ro becomes reduced in the follow; n g form : 
 
 Europeans and American Spaniards including the 
 
 ecclesiastics 1.106,041 
 
 Indians 3.646,032 
 
 Casts 1.311,943 
 
 6.064,016 
 
 Census of 1875 9495.157 
 
 Increase of the population in 65 years. . 3.431,141 
 
 - From the preceding data it appears that the European race 
 nearly doubled its population in the space of 65 years, and at 
 the rate of 1,1 per Cent of increase per year ; that the mixed 
 race has trebled it at the rate of 3,25 ; and that the native race 
 by its incorporation with the preceding and for the other cau- 
 ses indicated in the course of this work, has diminished at the 
 rate of o, 058 per Cent per annum. 
 
 If other germs of destruction did not exist in the Indian 
 race and only its incorporation with the mixed race should 
 have acted against its augmentation, that lamentable de- 
 crease in the mass of its population would not be observed, 
 against which many favorable circumstances ought to have 
 an influence, such as the strong constitutions of their indivi-
 
 I30 
 
 duals, their resistance to the inclemencies of the weather, 
 their naturalization to every climate and the early proclivity 
 of the females to pregnancy and their extraordinary fecun- 
 dity. 
 
 Considering all these circumstances, the natural increase 
 of the Indian race ought, at the least, to have doubled its 
 number, and have reached up to the present time 7 millones. 
 
 I now conclude this work by stating that the white race 
 has had a natural increment : that in the mixed race the in- 
 crease is greater, owing to the incorporation of the Indian race 
 and that as regards the latter no indications whatever are to 
 be observed that might tend to repress their declension.
 
 CARTA ETNOGR^ 
 
 T ._.. Mexicana. 
 1 1 ... Sonorense Opata-Pima. 
 III... Comanche Shoshone. E U. 
 IV... Tejana Coahuilteca.E U. 
 
 V ..-Keree Zuni. 73 u. 
 
 VI ..Xutsiin. E U. 
 Vll...tiuaicura. 
 
 VIII Cochimi Laimon. 
 
 IX ... Scri. 
 
 X .... 'J'arasca. 
 
 XL... Zoque Mixe 
 
 XII...Totonaca. 
 
 XIIJ.. Mixteca y Zajinteca. 
 
 XrV. Pirinda 6 Matlatlcing-a>casi desapareoid 
 
 XV.... Maya. 
 
 XVI...Ohontal. 
 
 XVI t Oriiindos de Nicaragua. (S. de Tehuantepec.) 
 
 XVIII .^^paches. (Mexico y E U.) 
 
 XIX....OtlIomi'. 
 
 Entre los Estados dc Coahuila, Chihuahua, Diirango, Zacatecas, S. Luis y Tamaulipas, se 
 encuentra la region antes habitada per las sigwentee tribus: 1. Los Tobosos.tribu Apache; 
 2. I..08 IiTitilas; 3. Los Cuachiles, de los cuales, segun ee cree, descienden los Huichole8,de 
 la Faiuilia ')pata-Pima; 4. L<>k TamauUpecos
 
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