HA i VI) BOOKS for Students and General Readers HIGHERENGLISH GRAMMA! BAIN lAfa\ BlfcS PROFESSOR BAIN'S ENGLISH GRAMMARS A BRIEF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Oil a Logical Method. 18mo, Boards - $0 45 Key to Above. 18mo, Boards - - - 45 A HIGHER ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 16mo (Handbooks for Students and Gen- eral Readers}, - - - - 1 00 COMPOSITION GRAMMAR. 12mo, cloth, 1 40 HANDBOOKS for Students and General Readers. A HIGHER .. ENGLISH GRAMMAR ALEXANDER BAIN, LL.D, Professor of Logic in the University of Aberdeen. NEW EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1880 EDUCAT!0 J J. PBINTEB, 15 Vande water St., PREFACE TO THE FIRST tDITION. THE present work has been composed with more par- ticular reference to the class of English Composition (attached to the Chair of Logic) in the University of Aberdeen. While availing myself of the best works on the English Language, I have kept steadily in view the following plan. Under Etymology, the three departments: 1st, Classi- fication of Words or the Parts of Speech; 2nd, Inflexion; 3rd, Derivation, hav<3 been separately discussed. This method I think better adapted for conveying gramma- tical information than the older one, of exhausting successively each of the Parts of Speech in all its relations. The practice of explaining the precise meanings of the frequently recurring words of the language, such as pronouns, articles, distributive adjectives, prepositions, and conjunctions, has here been systematically followed out. Words of this description are not numerous. Belonging alike to all subjects and all styles, they are the very hinges of composition. The explanation of them, so long as it is confined to a small compass, is a proper office of the grammarian, although therein he may seem to intrude a little on the province of the lexicographer. IV . * PREFACE. A'-siinilai: fffon. is carried out in the second part of f^ynYologyJ Inflexion. Thus, the meanings of the " differeM moods and tenses of the verb are explained as accurately as the writer's knowledge would enable him. Almost all the newer grammars recognise the expediency of this course. So with regard to Derivation, the meanings of the significant prefixes and suffixes are stated. Under this head, such an account has been given of the sources of the English vocabulary, as in a great measure to dispense with an Etymological dictionary. One advantage of the plan now described is the simplifying of Syntax, which, when freed from all matters relating to the meanings of words and of inflex- ions, may fall entirely under the three heads of Concord. Government, and Order or Arrangement of words ; this last part being what in our language most requires the careful attention of the pupil. For the sake of the accurate definition of the Parts of Speech, as well as for General Syntax, the recently introduced system of the Analysis of Sentences is fully explained. On this subject the method given by Mr, C. P. Mason has been principally followed. A short account of the English Alphabet is prefixed, but Orthography at large is not entered on in this work. The subjects of Prosody, Figures of Speech, and Style, are also reserved, it being purposed to include them in a separate manual of Rhetoric. In the discussion of the idioms and constructions of the language, this grammar contains one novelty of im- portance, namely, the explanation of the precise uses of PREFACE. V the relatives, 'That,' 'Who,' and 'Which'. The dis- tinction between 'that' on the one hand, and 'who' and ' which ' cm the other, was clearly perceived by our idiomatic writers up to the beginning of the last century; but owing to an unfortunate misapprehension as to the peculiarly English idiom of throwing a preposition to the end of a clause, the relative 'that' is now very little employed in book composition, 'who' and 'which' being made to serve in its stead. For my first knowledge of the real distinction I was indebted, more than twenty years ago, to a communication from Dr. Thomas Clark, then of Marischal College. In the preparation of this grammar my acknow- ledgments are more especially due to Mr. C. P. Mason (English Grammar),Dr. Angus (Handbook of the English Tongue), Mr. Ernest Adams (Elements of the English Language), Dr. Latham's Works, Dr. Charles W.Connon (English Grammar), Dr. Crombie (Etymology and Syntax of the English Language), Dr.Morell (English Grammar},, Mr. 0. Allen Ferris (English Etymology), Mr. T. Kerch- ever Arnold (English Grammar), Rev. A. J. D. D'Orsey (English Grammar, Chambers's Course), Mr. Brandon Turner (English Grammar], Mr. Matthew Harrison (The English Language), and Mr. Henry H. Breen (Modern English Literature). I am also much indebted to an out- line of English Grammar, in Chambers's Information for the People, written by Dr. Andrew Findlater, Editor of Chambers's Encyclopaedia. ABERDEEN, November, 1863 PREFACE TO THE PRFGENT EDITION. IN reprinting the Grammar for the present edition, the typography has been remodelled in such a way as to facilitate the ready apprehension of the learner. At the same time, the matter has undergone both revision and enlargement. The effect of the changes has been to increase the bulk by considerably over one-half. In carrying out the original design of the work, as stated in the foregoing Preface, many additional examples have been introduced to illustrate the numerous phases of our grammatical forms and idioms. This I consider to be the most thoroughly practical aim of an English Grammar. The chief part of the extension, however, is in relation to the historical development of our grammatical peculiarities. The great advance in the historical study of English in its various forms, from the oldest writings downwards, has been sedulously turned to account. Probably none of the most important authorities have been overlooked. Throughout the work, acknowledg- ments for particular suggestions are made as they occur. While it would be endless to note every source of information, it is necessary to single out for general acknowledgment the help that has been at all stages derived, whether directly, or by way of suggestion, Till PREFACE. from the works of Dr. Kichard Morris. Among the other pioneers of Early English investigation, and of philological research at Jarjje, have to be mentioned Professor Whitney, Mr. Peile, Rev. W. W. Skeat, and Mr. H. Sweet. The German writers on English Grammar have necessarily been included among the authorities. Nevertheless it was incumbent to avoid overloading the work with this class of illustration, and to select only those most fitted for the student of the Higher Grammar. Whether the line has been properly drawn, must be judged differently by different persons. To do the most for the pupils, within given limits, is the object aimed at ; and the class of pupils principally addressed are those that desire, above all other things, to receive aid in attaining the power of English Composition. Since the Grammar first appeared, I have published, in addition to a Manual of Rhetoric and Composition, two separate Grammatical works : one A First Gram- mar, preparatory to the study of the present ; the other A Companion to the Higher Grammar. In the present revision, care has been taken to keep the work in its proper place, in relation to these two. A very important adjunct to Grammatical teaching, according to my conception of it, is provided in a recent book, entitled First Work in English (Long- mans), by Mr. A. F. Murison, formerly English Master in the Grammar School of Aberdeen. This book is a happy combination of Grammar, properly so called, with an exhibition of the wealth of the language in Equivalent Forms. It may be taught both in advance PREFACE. ix of the Grammar and along with it ; and, in either case, will largely promote the final end of all instruc- tion in English to give the pupils a mastery of their own language. ABERDEEN, January, 1879* TABLE OF CONTENTS. THE ALPHABET. PAGE 1-3. Vowel Scheme 1 4. Consonants 5 ETYMOLOGY. THE SENTENCE. 1. Speech is made up of Sentences 8 2. Usual form of Sentence, of an affirmation or a denial. ib. 3. A Sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate . 9 4. The nakwd Sentence. The NOUN and the VERB . 10 5. The Predicate enlarged by an Object . . . .11 6. The Subject and the Object enlarged. The ADJFCTIVE ib. 7. The Predicate enlarged by the manner of the action. The ADVERB 12 8. Adverbial Phrases Many-worded Adverbs . . ib. 9. The Adverbial Phrase yields the PREPOSITION . . ib. 10. Two Sentences united by a connecting word. The CONJUNCTION 13 11. The Subject or the Object given by a word of reference. The PRONOUN ib. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. THE NOUN. 1-8. Definition of the Noun 14 4. Classes of Nouns. I. PROPER, SINGULAR, MEANING- LESS ib. 5. II. COMMON, GENERAL, SIGNIFICANT Nouns . . ib. 6. Singular Objects with Significant Names ... 18 7. CLASS Names are General and Significant . . . ib. 8. III. COLLECTIVE Nouns . . . . . .19 9. IV. MATERIAL Nouns ib. 10. V. ABSTRACT Nouns 21 11. Abstract Nouns mostly derived from Adjectives . ib. 12. Other Abstract Nouns formed from Verbs . . 22 13. Abstract Nouns are by nature Singular . , . ib. Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS. Uses of the Noun. 14. In its typical application, the Noun names the Sub- ject 23 15. The Noun sometimes completes the Predicate . . ib. l(j. The Noun is used in forming Prepositional Phrases . ib. 17. The Noun frequently acts as an Adjective . . . ib. Substitutes for the Noun. 18. The Pronoun regularly takes the place of the Noun , 24 19. Adjectives are often turned into Nouns . . . ib. 20. The Infinitive of the Verb is substantially a Noun . ib. 21. Even Adverbs occasionally appear as Nouns . . ib. 22. A Noun Clause is the fullest equivalent to a Noun . 25 THE PRONOUN. 1. The Pronoun is a relational word . . . . 25 2. Classes of Pronouns I. The PERSONAL . ib. 3. II. DEMONSTRATIVE 26 4. 5. 'He.' 'She' ib. 6. Meaning of ' It ' * . 27 (1) Backward or Retrospective Reference of ' it' . . ib. (2) Forward or Anticipative Reference . . . . ib. (3) The Vague or Indefinite Reference . . 28 Further general examples of the uses of ' it ' . , 29 7. 'They' . - 30 8. The Demonstratives ' This ' and ' That ' . . . ib. 9. Indefinite Pronouns : ' They', 'One' ... 31 10. Reflexive Pronouns by means of ' self ' ... 32 11-15. III. INTERROGATIVE Pronouns .... 33 16. IV. RELATIVE. Pronouns ib. 17. A Relative Pronoun involves the power of a conjunc- tion 34 18. 'Who ' is best applied as co-ordinating . . . ib. ' Who ' is frequently used as restrictive . , . 35 19. ' Which ' is similarly employed .... ib. ' Which ' may refer to a whole statement ... 36 ' Which ' in apparent reference to persons. ' The which ' ib. 20. 'That ' is the proper Relative of Restriction . . ib. Proposed limitation of ' that ' to this special meaning 37 21. ' What ' and its compounds 38 22-28. Substitutes for the Proper Relatives : ' as ', ' but ', 'when', 'where', 'whence', 'whither', 'why' . ib. ,29. The Compound Relatives : ' whoever ', ' whoso ', &c. 40 30. Further examples of Relative Construction . . 41 31. The Pronoun saves the repetition of a Noun. Other modes of serving the same end , . 47 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll PAGE 47 48 ib. 49 50 51 ib. 52 ib. ib. THE ADJECTIVE. 1. The Adjective limits the application of tie Noun 2. The Adjective Inflexion as a distinguishing mark 3. Classes of Adjectives I. PRONOMINAL 4-5. Pronominal Demonstrative Adjectives . 6. Pronominal Interrogative Adjectives . 7. Pronominal Relative Adjectives . . 8. Pronominal Possessive Adjectives . , 9. II. Adjectives expressing QUANTITY 10. Quantity in Mass or Bulk .... 11. Quantity in Number Definite Numeral Adjectives 12. Indefi-iite Numeral Adjectives 53 13. Distributive Numeral Adjectives .... 55 14. III. Adjectives of QUALITY 56 15. PROPER Adjectives , ib. The Articles. 16. 17. 'An' or < A' 57 18. ' The ' Its various meanings . . ... 58 Substitutes for the Adjective. * 19. The fullest equivalent is the Adjective Clause . . 60 20. The Participial Phrase, if shorter, is equally useful . ib. 21. The Prepositional Phrase is still more condensed . ib. 22. The Noun employed as an Adjective .... ib. 23. Nouns and Pronouns in the Possessive form . . 61 24. Adverbs and Prepositions are occasional substitutes . ib. Co ordinating or Predicate Adjectives. 25. The Adjective as complement of Incomplete Verb . 62 26. This usage shows the Co-ordinating application . ib. 27. By condensation, co-ordinating Adjectives may be prefixed to nouns ib. THE VERB. 1. The Verb necessary to Predication . . , 63 2. Classes of Verbs I. TRANSITIVE. Reflexive . . ib. Reci2)rocal Verbs 64 3. II. INTRANSITIVE Verbs ib. Intransitive with preposition treated as Transitives . ib. 4. III. Incomplete, Apposition, or Copula Verbs . . 65 5. 6. Auxiliary and Impersonal Verbs .... ib. 7. Other parts of Speech used as Verbs .... ib. XIV TABLE OF CONTE:N 7 TS. THE ADVERB. 1. Limits or modifies the meaning of Verbs, Adjectives, or other Adverbs. But of Prepositions, only appar- ently 66 2. Adverbs divided into Simple and Relative. . . 67 3. I. Adverbs of -PLACE ib. 4. Adverbs expressing Rest in a Place .... 68 5. 6. Motion to a Place, and from a place ... 69 7-11. II. Adverbs denoting TIME. Time Present . . ib. Past, Future ; Duration, Repetition ... 70 12. III. Adverbs signifying DEGREE or MEASURE . . 71 13. Important Adverbs of Comparison : So, As, Than, The, Too, &c ib. 14. IV. -BELIEF, DISBELIEF, and UNCERTAINTY . . 73 15. V. CAUSE and EFFECT, including Instrumentality . 74 16. VI. MANNER or QUALITY . . . ib. 17. Adverbs of Manner transferred to express Degree . 75 18. Adverbs formed from Participles . . . . ib. Substitutes for the Simple Adverb. 19. Adverbial Phrases and Clauses ib. 20. Other Parts of Speech used as Adverbs ; Nouns, Pro- nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Prepositions ... 77 THE PREPOSITION. 1. Preposition defined . 78 2. Prepositions corresponding to case-endings . . 79 3. 'Of. Its meanings ib. 4. 'To'. , 83 5. 'For'. , 84 6. 'From'. , 86 7. 'By'. ib. 8. 'With'. , ....... 87 9. Prepositions of I. PLACE 88 10. Prepositions of Rest in a place ..... 89 11,12. Motion with direction, and Place and direction . 90 13. II. Prepositions of TIME 97 14. III. AGENCY 98 15. IV. END ib. 16. V. REFERENCE ib. 17. VI. SEPARATION and EXCLUSION . . . 18. VII. INCLINATION and Conformity 19. VIII. AVERSION 20. 21. IX. SUBSTITUTION. X. POSSESSION, Material 22. The Preposition distinguishe^from the Adverb ib. TABLE OF CONTENTS. XT THE CONJUNCTION. 1. The Conjunction denned 100 2. Division of Conjunctions as Co-ordinating and Subor- dinating . . 101 3. I. CO-ORDINATING Conjunctions ; their character . ib. 4. (1.) Cumulative Conjunctions: represented by 'and' ib. 5. (2.) Adversative Conjunctions : (a) Exclusive 'else' &c 103 (&) Alternative :' either or ', &c. . . .104 (c) Arrestive : 'but', &c 105 6. (3.) Illative Conjunctions : as 'therefore' . . 107 7. II. SUBORDINATING Conjunctions : their character . 108 8. (1.) Conjunctions of Eeason and Cause ^. . . ib. 9. (2 ) Supposition, Condition, or Qualification ' 110 10. (3.) End or Purpose, Precaution . . .112 11. (4.) Time 113 THE INTERJECTION EXCLAMATION . . 114 INFLEXION. INFLEXION OF NOUNS. 1. Natural Gender. Gender follows Sex. Gender Mas- culine, Feminine, Neuter, Common . . .115 2. Purely Grammatical Gender . . . . .116 3. Gender distinguished by employing different words . 117 4. By Prefixes 118 5. By Suffixes 119 6. Poetical Gender : Inanimate objects personified . . 122 7. Pronouns and the Gender of Nouns. The Common Gender ib. NUMBER. 1. Meaning of Number : Singular and Plural 123 2. Usual formation of the Plural ..,.>&. 3. Obsolete modes of forming the Plural . . .126 4. Nouns having the same form in both numbers . .127 5. Many Foreign words retain their original Plurals . ib. 6. Some Nouns have two Plurals, with separate mean- ings 128 7. The Plural sometimes differs in meaning from the Singular ib. 8. Some Nouns are used only in the Plural . . ,129 9. Some Plural forms are construed as singular * . ib. Xvi TABLE OP CONTENTS. PAGH 10. A few Singular forms are treated as Plural ^ .130 11. Proper Nouns sometimes become Plural . . . ib. 12. 13. Material and Abstract Nouns are naturally Singu- lar : special plural cases . . . . .131 14. Nouns of Multitude : singular form, plural construc- tion ib. 15. Omission of the Article a sign of the Plural . . ib. 16. Sign of the Plural sometimes dispensed with . . ib. 17. Special meanings of the Plural 132 18. Formation of the Plural of Compound Nouns . . ib. CASE. 1 . Meaning of Case . . . . . . 133 2. Cases in English ib. 3. General Formation of the Possessive .... ib. 4. The ' s ' of the Possessive occasionally dropt . . 134 5. The Possessive formation in Compound Nouns . . 135 6. The Possessive Inflexion limited to certain classes of Names ib. 7. 's' the inflexion of personal possession . . .136 8. Remnants of Case-inflexion in pronouns and adverbs . 137 INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 1. Extent of the Inflexion of Pronouns . . . 137 2. PERSONAL PRONOUNS declined ib. 3. The DEMONSTRATIVES ... .138 4. The Reflexive .Pronouns, formed by self ' . 140 5. The INTERROGATIVES ... .141 6. The RELATIVES .... ib Substitutes for Relative Inflexions . 142 7. Nouns after Plural Possessive Pronouns . 143 INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES. 1. Adjectives Inflected for Degree Comparison . .143 fi. Positive, Comparative, and Superlative Degrees . 144 3. Certain Modifications in Spelling . . . .145 4. Comparison by help of ' more ' and ' most ' . . ib. 5. Forms in -ior from Latin, partial comparatives . .146 6. Irregular and Defective Comparison .... ib. 7. Double Comparatives and Superlatives discouraged . 149 8. Certain Adjectives, from their meaning, are not com- pared ib. 9. Roundabout equivalents to a superlative fojTn . .150 10. Relative Applications of Comparative and Superlative ib. 11. Eminence or Intensity expressed . . . ib. TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV11 PAGE INFLEXION OF ADVERBS. 1, 2. Regular and Irregular Comparison of Adverbs . 151 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 1. The various Relations of the Verb . . ,151 2. The corresponding Inflexions . . ib. 3. VOICE : Active and Passive 152 4. MOOD : Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative ' . * ib. 5. Infinitive 154 6. Participle 155 7. Gerund 157 8. TENSE. Strong and weak forms .... ib. 9. PERSON and NUMBER 159 10. The English Verb undergoes few changes . . .161 11. Conjugation of two kinds : Old or Strong, New or Weak ib. 12. Example of Strong or Old Conjugation . . . ib. 13. Example of Weak or New Conjugation . . .162 The Auxiliary Verbs. 14. The Auxiliary Verbs ib. 15. ' Be ' : its forms, and how it helps . 163 16. ' Have ' : its forms, and how it helps . . . 165 17. 'Shall' and 'Will' conjugated . . . .166 18-25. Meanings of ' Shall ' and ' Will' . . . .167 26. ' Shall ' and ' Will ' in Interrogative Sentences . . 170 27-30. ' Should ' and ' Would ' 174 31. ' Do ' : its forms, and its applications . . .176 32-36. ' May ' and ' Can ' : their forms, and difference of use 177 37-39. 'Must.' 'Ought.' 'Go.' 179 40. Complete scheme of the Verb as made up by help of Auxiliaries . . . . . . . .180 Meanings of the Moods. 41-44. Meanings of the Subjunctive Mood : in Subordin- ate Clauses 182 45. In Principal Clauses 184 46. The Infinitive. Erroneous use of the perfect form . 185 Meanings of the Tenses. 47-49. Meanings of the Present Indefinite . . . ib. 50. Present Progressive, Imperfect, or Incomplete . . 186 51, 52. Past Indefinite. Past Progressive . . .187 XV111 TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE 53. Perfect 183 54. Progressive Tenses of the Passive Voice : ' The house is building ' . ib. 55. Apparent passive of Intransitive Verbs : ' has come ' and ' is come ' 189 The Strong Conjugation. 56. Its special forms. Principle of following classification 190 57-61. Classified lists of Old or Strong Verbs . . ib. The Weak Conjugation. 62. Its special forms . . . . 197 63. Classified lists of New or "Weak Verbs . . . ib. DERIVATION. SOURCES OF ENGLISH WORDS. 1. English Vocabulary has two principal sources Anglo- Saxon and Latin, and a number of minor sources . 203 2, 3. Introduction of the classical element. I. During the Roman occupation of the island . . 204 4. II. After the introduction of Christianity . 5. III. After the Norman conquest . . 6. IV. After the Revival of Learning . , 7. Celtic words ... . 8. Scandinavian words 9. Dutch, German, and Flemish words 205 206 208 210 212 ib. 10. Words recently introduced from the French 11-24. Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Walloon, Swiss, Tur- kish, Arabic, Hebrew, Persian, Hindu, Malay, Chinese, Polynesian, American .... 213 25. Words derived from Persons . . . . .216 26. from Places 217 27-34. Rules for distinguishing Native from Classical words, based on the Form . . . . . ib. 35. Native words are farther distinguished by what they denote . 219 36. Names of Kindred, Home, and Natural Feelings . ib. 37. Names of familiar Objects and Movements . . ib. 38. Names of common Industry 222 39. Civil and Religious Institutions .... ib. 40,41. National Proverbs. Invective and Satire . . 223 42. Particular Objects as opposed to the General or Ab- stract ib. 43-45. Exceptions . . ib. TABLE OF CONTEXTS. XIX PAGE COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 1. Two kinds of Compounds N 224 PREFIXES. 2. Prefixes of Home origin . ..... 225 3. Prefixes of Classical origin ..... 228 4. Latin Prefixes, and French modifications . . . ib. 5. Greek Prefixes .234 DERIVATION OF .THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 6. Some Nouns are primitive, or not derived from others 236 7. Derived Nouns : whence formed, and how . . ib. 8. I. Nouns derived from other Nouns by various means ib. 9. II. Nouns derived from Adjectives .... 241 10. III. Nouns derived from Verbs . . . .242 11. Derivation of Adjectives : I. From Nouns . . 246 12. II. From other Adjectives . 249 13. III. From Verbs 250 14. Derivation of Verbs : I. From Nouns . . .251 15. 16. II. From Adjectives. III. From other Verbs . 252 17. Derivation of Adverbs : chiefly from Adjectives and Nouns 253 18. Derivation of Prepositions 254 IP. Derivation of Conjunctions 255 20. Derivatives expressing Negation .... ib. 21. Modified Forms 256 COMPOUND WORDS. 22. Description and Examples 257 23. Composition of Nouns .... . 258 24. Composition of Adjectives ..... 259 25. Composition of Verbs 260 26. Composition of Adverbs ib. 27. Composition of Prepositions ib. 28. Simulated Compounds, and Compounds in disguise . ib. SYNTAX. THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 1, 2. Parts of the Sentence. Division of Sentences , 264 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 3-5. The Simple Sentence and its enlargements . . 265 6. The Subject and the Object : their various forms . ib. 7. Enlargements or Adjuncts of Subject or Object . . 266 The Predicate : simple and complex forms 10. The form of Negation is part of the Predicate . 11. Transitive Predicate completed by Object . 12. Predicate enlarged by Adverb or Adverb Phrase 13. Various forms of the Adverbial Phrase . , Absolute Construction of the Participle . Impersonal use of the Participle . . . XX TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAOB 8. Plurality of Adjuncts at one time . . . 268 269 270 271 ib. ib. 272 273 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 14. Nature of the Complex Sentence .... 274 15. Three kinds of Subordinate Clauses .... ib. 16. 17. The Noun Clause 275 18, 19. The Adjective Clause 276 20. The Adverbial Clause 278 21. Con traction of the Adverbial Clause . . . .280 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 22. Nature of the Compound Sentence .... 280 23. Contracted Sentences. Irregular Contractions . . ib. EXAMPLES OF ANALYSTS. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 24. Method of proceeding . . . . . .281 25-37. Examples of Simple Sentences .... 282 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 38. Subordinate Clauses analysed separately . . . 286 39-48, Examples containing Noun Clauses . . . ib. 49-54. Examples containing Adjective Clauses . . 290 55-61. Examples containing Adverbial Clauses . . 293 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 62. The parts to be analysed separately , 295 CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 63, 64. Examples ib. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES. 65. These must be expressed in full . . . 296 66-78. Examples . . 297 CONCORD. 1. General Principles. Concord implied under Etymo- logy 299 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXI CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND VERB. 2. General Rules. Causes of errors . 300 3. Concord of Collective Nouns ib. Plural form with Singular meaning takes Singular Verb 302 4. Singular Nouns coupled by ' and ' take a Plural Verb ib. Exceptions and Peculiarities ..... 303 5. Singular Nouns connected by ' or ' or * nor ' take a Singular Verb 307 6. When the Subject is a Relative Pronoun, we must look to the Antecedent 308 7. Concord of Pronouns of different Persons . . ib. 8. When the Predicate is completed by a Noun, the sub- ject may be ambiguous . . ib. CONCORD OF ADJECTIVE AND OF PRONOUN WITH NOUN. 9. Concord of ' this ' and ' that ' 309 10. Concord of the Distributive Adjectives 'each', ' every ', &c. ....... ib. A Common Gender pronoun of 3rd person wanted . 310 CONCORD OF TENSES. 11. Contemporaneous actions are stated in the same Tense 311 Principal and Subordinate Tenses must not conflict . ib. Speciality of the Present Indefinite . ib. *~" - " Hh^>v--<-->ci GOVERNMENT. 1. Meaning of Government . T . 312 2. Possessive of Noun or of Pronoun preceding Noun or Infinitive . . . . . . ib. 3. Government of Transitive Verbs and of Prepositions . 313 4. The forms ' It is /', 'It is me ' 314 5. Other cases of Objective, where Nominative is expect- ed . . 315 ORDER OF WORDS., 1. Most general principle of Order . . 31 5 SUBJECT AND VERB. 2. General Rule. Exceptions 316 Complement follows incomplete Predicate Verb . ib. XXU TABLE OF CONTENTS. PA3E VERB AND OBJECT. 3. Rule and Exceptions 317 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 4. Rule. Exceptions 317 The ' three first ', and the ' first three ' . .319 5. Placing of the Article . . ib. PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 6. Every Pronoun should have a distinct Antecedent . 320 Rules of Proximity and of Importance . . . ib. Confused reference 321 PLACING OF THE ADVERB. 7. General Rules . 321 8. Placing of 'only' 322 9. Not but only 323 10. Not only but also 324 11. Placing of ' not '. Imperfect Negation . . . 325 12. 'At least' ib. 13. Other examples of misplaced Adverbial Adjuncts . ib. PLACING OF PREPOSITIONS. 14. General Rule, with Exceptions 326 PLACING OF CONJUNCTIONS. 15. Members of double-membered conjunctions to be placed in corresponding positions .... 326 16-18. ELLIPSIS, PLEONASM, and PARENTHESIS, as pro- cesses of Syntax 327 OF PURITY. BARBARISM 328 SOLECISM . 329 IMPROPRIETY. 1. In single words 330 2. In phrases 33J^ List of SCOTTICISMS ..'$>. PUNCTUATION. The COMMA 335 The SEMICOLON and the COLON 338 The PERIOD or FULL STOP. Other POINTS . . , 339 TABLE OF CONTENTS; ;;;:', , xxm P-VGK PARSING.-' , ;; ; : : - / } ; ,..' 1. Parsing for Parts of Speech and Inflexion . 340 2. Parsing for Derivation . . . . . 342 3. Parsing for Syntax 34:3 EXAMPLES of ERRORS, and of inferior forms . . ib. APPENDIX. 1. Celtic words 349 II. Scandinavian words 350 III. Other Teutonic words 35 i IV. Monosyllables of Classical origin . 354 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THE ALPHABET. 1. The Alphabet is the collection of written characters or symbols representing the simple articu- late sounds. The English Alphabet contains twenty-six characters, or letters, but the sounds to be expressed are st : ll more numerous. Moreover, as several sounds have duplicate letters, the available characters are really fewer than twenty -six. 2. Articulate sounds are classed in two divisions as vowels and consonants. A vowel sound (Fr. voyelle, Lat. vocalis, ' sounding ') is voice issuing from the mouth clear and free ; a sound that can be uttered alone 1 , as ah, ee, oo. If any part of the mouth get in the way and check the utterance, the new sound is called a consonant sound. The name 'consonant' (Lat. con, 'together', sonant-, 'sounding') was given as indicating that the peculiar sound cannot be produced alone, but only together with some vowel. Vowels and consonants, ' though their distinction is of tl e highest importance in phonetics, are by no means separate and independent systems, but only poles, as it were, in one unitary series, and with a doubtful or neutral territory between them ; they are simply the opener and the closer sounds of the alpha- betic system '. (Whitney). 3. The Vowels. The characters available for the vowel sounds QXQ five, a, Cj i, O, U. 1 THE ALPHABET. vn o *L.fiek in the history of our alphabet as far as we can, we find three early vowels, from which the others have come by various modifications. These are : a (which, has been doubled, or lengthened, in 'far', 'father', &c. ; and which is still kept in Scotch and German 'man'), i (as in it, bit, fit, &c.), and u (as in 'bull ', ' full', &c.). a ( ' father ', Scot, and Germ. ' man ') is the sound heard when voice issues unimpeded from open mouth and throat, the back of the tongue being drawn well down ; i (feet, fit) is produced when the tongue is raised almost to the middle of the palate ; u (tool, fwll) is then formed by again withdrawing the tongue a little and rounding the lips. The union of a and i produces the diphthong heard in ' fine ', ' mine ', what we call " long i ". Between a and i is e (a, e), heard in ' they ', ' pain ', ' fate ', ' then ', ' pen ' ; the long sound being really a diphthong. Between a and this e is a in 'bat', 'cat', 'fat', 'man', &c. Similarly, between a and u stands o (note, obey) ; the sound being really a diphthong. And between a and this o stands the long sound call it 6 -heard in 'all', 'Austria,', 'awstere'; the corresponding short sound is heard in 'what', 'not'. il (bwt, cwt, &c.) is probably a guttural vowel, though rather indefinite: "the specific quality" of it, says Prof. Whitney, " is due to a dimming action along the whole mouth rather than an approach at a definite point or points," and it is " thus a duller kind of a". When followed by r (Imrt, burn), u seems to modify its sound ; an apparent change probably due to the peculiar pronunciation of the r. Taking the vowels as we find them in use, a prac- tical phonetic representation might be arranged as follows. Accented Vowels. A vowel sound, uttered clearly and with stress of voice, is said to be accented. The accent may fall either on the vowel alone, or on the vowel together with a consonant next following it. d, e, (, 6, IJ, may represent the long vowel sounds heard in ' lay, lee, lie, lo ! loo \ These exemplify such as receive the accent exclusively on the vowel. VOWEL SCHEME. 3 a, &, ), 6, Cl, may represent the short vowel sounds in ' sat, set, sit, not, nut '. These exemplify such as receive the accent on the consonant following as well as on the vowel. Independently of the different kind of accent, these ten vowels are each distinct from the others ; they make up ten separate vowels. e, I, 0, may represent the vowel sounds heard in ' be 6) : we might say ' Caesar crossed the Rubicon when nobody expected it '; ' it ' referring still to the fact of Cesar's crossing, and not to the ' Rubicon '. Now this meaning of ' which ' is not one of the meanings of the relative ' that ' as a retrospective pronoun, although ' that ' may apply to things as well as to persons. There is a peculiar usage where ' which ' may seem to be still regularly used in reference to persons ; as in ' John is a a soldier, which I should also like to be ', that is, ' and I should also like to be a soldier '. But although the complement of the verb is here in the form of a noun, the usual form is the adjective ; and examples like these may be regarded as similar to the following, where the reference is to an adjective : ' He turned quite white from red, which he had been ' that is, ' he had" been red '. The demonstratives ' this', ' that ', ' such ', ' so ', as well as ' either ', ' neither ', and ' both ', are used similarly. The form ' the which ', so common in the Elizabethan period, occurs early in the 1 4th century, as equivalent to the French lequel, laquelle. It obtained much more favour than the com- panion form ' the whom '. ' The whose ' was also used. 20. 'That' is the proper restrictive, expli- cative, limiting, or defining relative. 'That,' the neuter of the definite article, was early in use as a neuter relative. All the other oldest relatives gradually dropt away, and ' that ' came to be applied also to plural antecedents, and to masculines and feminines. When 'as', 'which', and ' who ', canic forward to share the work of ' that ', there seems to 1 THAT ', THE PROPER RELATIVE OF RESTRICTION. 37 have arisen not a little uncertainty about the relatives, and we find curious double forms : ' whom that ', ' which that ', ' which as ', &c. Gower has ' Venus whose priest that I am ' ; Chaucer writes 'This Abbot which that was an holy man,' 'his love the which that he oweth '. By the Elizabethan period, these double forms have disappeared, and all the relatives are used singly without hesitation. From then till now, ' that ' has been struggling with ' who ' and ' which ' to regain superior favour, with varying success. The best writers often appear to grope after a separate employ- ment for the several relatives. 'Who' is used for persons, ' which ' for things, in both numbers ; so is ' that ' ; and the only opportunity of a special application of ' that ' lies in the important distinction between co-ordination and restriction. Now, as ' who ' and ' which ' are most commonly preferred for co-ordination, it would be a clear gain to confine them to this sense and to reserve ' that ' for the restrictive application alone. This arrangement, then, would fall in with the most general use of 'that', especially beyond the limits of formal composition. The use of ' that' solely as restrictive, with ' who' arid 'which' solely as co-ordinating, also avoids amoigiiitiesih&t often attend the indiscriminate use of ' who ' and ' which ' for co-ordinate and for restrictive clauses. Thus, when we say, ' his conduct surprised his English friends, who had not known him long ', we may mean either that his English friends generally were surprised (the relative being, in that case, coordinating), or that only a portion of them namely, the particular portion that had not known him long were surprised. In this- last case the relative is meant to define or explain the antecedent, and the doubt would be removed by writing thus : ' his English friends that had not known him long.' So in the following sentence there is a similar ambiguity in the use of ' which ' : ' the next winter which you will spend in town will give you opportunities of making a more prudent choice'. This may mean, either 'you will spend next winter in town' ('which' being co-ordi- nating), or ' the next of the winters when you are to live in town,' let that come when it may. In the former case ' which ' is the proper relative ; in the latter case the meaning is restric- tive or defining, and would be best brought out by ' that ' : 'the next winter that you will spend in town '. A further consideration in favour of employing ' that ' for ex- plicative clauses is the unpleasant effect arising from the too frequent repetition of ' who and ' which '. Grammarians often recommend ' that ' as a means of varying the style ; but this end ought to be sought in subservience to the stiU greater end 'f perspicuity. 38 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. 21. What and its compounds, * whatever' and ' whatsoever ', apply to things. In the oldest English ' what ' was interrogative ( 14). For the regular relative use in application to things, the other relatives were sufficient, and ' what ' was not very extensively employed. Some such instances as these might be cited : ' The matter what other men wrote', 'nothing what can be said against me ', ' that what I have always maintained '. The transition from the interrogative form to such examples . as the following is easy : * Look, what I speak, iny life shall prove it true'; ' what he bids, tJiat thou shalt do'. The omission of the demonstrative then gives the usual form : ' what I speak my life shall prove true ' ; ' what he bids thou shalt do '. Or, in natural order : ' thou shalt do what he bids ' . This is obviously equal to ' thou shalt do that which (or that} he bids ' ; and hence ' what ' is commonly described as practically a compouttd relative, combining as it were both rela- tive and antecedent. The antecedent is regularly suppressed, except in certain inverted forms. In such expressions as the following, ' what ' may be put for ' that which ', and is generally an improvement : ' In certain cases we refrain from doing that' which we have a natural desire to do, or force ourselves to do that to which we feel a repugnance '. Substitutes for the Proper Relatives. 22. As, preceded by SUCH or by SAME, has the force of a relative, applying to both persons and things, and always with an explicative or restrictive signifi- cation. 'The curse denounced upon such as removed ancient land- marks ' : this might have been ' them that ', or ' those that ', but not so properly ' who '. ' He offered me the same conditions as ;he offered you ' : ' the same conditions that ' would be equally .good ; ' the same conditions which ', though common, may be considered inferior. The true relative force lies, not in ' such ' and ' same ', but in 'as'. By the 14th century 'as' sometimes took the place of ' that ' in the ordinary construction, without a preceding ' such ' or ' same ' ; but this usage did not continue in favour with writers, though it is still familiar in provincial and vulgar English : ' the man as (= that) rides to market '. In the oldest English, ' such ' was followed by ' such ' (swilc . . swlc). King Alfred used 'such . . which* (swelc . . SUBSTITUTES FOR THE PKOPER RELATIVES. 39 In the 12th century 'such . . as ' appears. Chaucer has 'such . . which' and 'such . . that': 'I shall loven such that I will'. 'Who', 'which', and 'that' after 'such' were especially common in the period of Queen Anne. 'Such . . as' has ruled since. The form 'such . . as ' is a convenient substitute for * that ', and enables us to vary the relative construction in restric- tive clauses without loss of clearness. It has the further advan- tage of enabling us to enclose, ike antecedent : ' such skill as he displayed.' * As ' may easily be replaced by * which ' in certain co-ordi- nating cases. 'The ships were frozen in, as not unfrequently happens in these regions ' : * as ' is here very much the same as ' which ' in the reference to a whole clause going before. The adverbial sense of ' as * is more prominent in this application. 23. The word But is substantially a relative in certain constructions ivliere the principal clause, has a negative force. ' But ' is always restrictive. * There was no one but did his best ' is equal to ' there was no one that did not (do) his best '. ' Who is there but commits errors ? ' ' Who is there that does not commit errors ? ' Earlier, it was usual to insert after ' but ' the appropriate demonstrative pronoun : as * there was never yet fair woman but she made mouths in a glass ' ; ' scarce a skull's cast up but well he knew its owner '. 24. The adverb when answers the purpose of the relative (and governing preposition), with a noun of time as the antecedent ; as ' the good news from Ireland reached London at a time when good news was needed '. It is also usual to employ 'in which ' for the same meaning ; but in cases where the relative clause limits or defines, ' that ' is the proper relative, and we can say ' the very day that he arrived '. ' When ' lias not always the explicative meaning ; thus, ' the day of trial will come, when all will be different ' ; ' in which ' would here be the correct relative. We may say, however, that 'when* is perhaps oftener restrictive than co- ordinating. 25. Where is used as a relative when the antece- dent denotes place ; as * I put the book in the place 40 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. where I found it ; for ' in 'which I found it ', or t that I found it in '. The remarks made on ' when ' apply to ' where '. It may be a substitute for either relative, but is perhaps more commonly and better applied when th-j restrictive meaning is intended, as in the above instance. ' Where' takes a much wider range than literal place, being extended to the many metaphorical applica- tions of place ; as, ' the point where your argument fails '. These two adverbial relatives are of great use in varying and lightening composition, which is always liable to be over- burdened with the common relatives. 26. Whence is occasionally used as a relative of place : ' he returned to the place whence he came ', instead of 'from which he came ', or ' that he came from '. 27. Whither is used in like manner in the sense of 'to a place ' ; as 'I followed him to the house, whither ( = to which) he had gone '. 28. Why as a relative is always restrictive, and stands for ' on account of which ', ' that for '. ' There was no reason why he should think so, ' is a short and elegant way of saying ' on account of which or for which he should think so ', or ' that he should think so (for) '. ' Whence ', ' whither ', and ' why ' are of less general application than when ' and ' where '. They are more confined to their principal use as interrogative adverbs. As relatives they are, strictly speaking, the equi- valents of the common relatives with prepositions, ' from which ' (whence), ' to which ' (whither), ' for which ' (why). 29. The compound forms 'whoever', 'whoso', ' whosoever ', ' whichever ', * whichsoever ', ' whatever ', 'whatsoever', 'whenever', 'whensoever', 'wherever', 'wheresoever', 'whithersoever', ' whencesoever ', have a certain indefinite meaning, and have their antecedents often left unexpressed ; thus, ' whoever is found wanting ', means any person that is found ; ' ichoso is wise ' ' whatever be the consequences, I dare not stay' * wherever, whithersoever you go '. THE COMPOUND RELATIVES. 41 The characteristic meanings of these words are more closely allied with the interrogative meanings of ' who', ' which ', ' what', &c., than with their meanings as relatives. Thus the peculiar force of ' which ' as an interrogative is, ' which one of a certain defined number or class ? ' and this is the meaning of ' whichsoever '. 30. Further examples of Relative Construction, (See also Companion to the Higher Grammar, pp. 63-85). The distinction observed by our idiomatic writers between * that ', on the one hand, and ' who ' and ' which ', on the other, although for the present very much lost sight of, deserves to be revived, both for the perspicuity and lightness of the composi- tion. The following examples will serve further to illustrate the distinction. 1. ' In general, Mr. Burchell was fondest of the company of children, whom he used to call harmless little men.' ' Whom ' is here idiomatically used, being the equivalent of ' and them, he used to call ', &c. ' Bacon at last, a mighty man, arose, Whom a wise king and nation chose Lord Chancellor of both their laws.' Here also ' whom ' is equal to ' and him '. In the following instance the relative is restrictive or defining, and ' that ' would be preferable : ' the conclusion of the Iliad is like the exit of a great man out of company whom he has entertained magnificently '. Compare another of Addison's sentences : 'a man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving . Both relatives are introduced discriminatingly in this passage : 'She had learned that from Mrs. Wood, who had heard it from her husband, who had heard it at the public- house from the landlord, who had been let into the secret by the boy that carried the beer to some of the prisoners '. The following sentences are ambiguous under the modern system of using * who ' for both purposes : * I met the boat- man who took me across the ferry '. If ' who ' is the proper relative here, the meaning is ' I met the boatman, and he took me across ', it being supposed that the boatman is known and definite. But if there be several boatmen, and I wish to indicate one in particular by the circumstance that he had taken me across the ferry, I should use * that '. ' The youngest boy who has learned to dance is James.' This means either 'the youngest boy is James, and he has learned to dance ', or ' of the 42 PABTS OF SPEECH. THE PKONOUN". boys, the youngest that has learned to dance is James '. This last sense is restrictive, and ' that ' should be used. 2. Turning now to ' which ', we may have a series of parallel examples. ' The court, which gives currency to manners, should be exemplary': here the meaning is 'the court should be exem- plary, for the court gives currency to manners '. ' Which ' is the idiomatic relative in this case. ' The cat, which you despise so much, is a very useful animal.' The relative here also is co-ordinating, and not restrictive. If it were intended to point out one individual cat specially despised by the person addressed, ' that ' would convey the sense. ' A theory which does not tend to the improvement of practice is utterly unworthy of regard.' The meaning is restrictive ; ' a theory that does not tend '. The following sentence is one of many from Goldsmith that give 'that' instead of 'which': 'age, that lessens the enjoy- ment of life, increases our desire of living'. Thackeray also was fond of this usage. But it is not very common. ' Their faith tended to make them improvident ; but a wise instinct taught them that if there was one thing which ought not to be left to fate, or to the precepts of a deceased prophet, it was the artillery' ; a case where ' that ' is the proper relative. * All words, which are signs of complex ideas, furnish matter of mistake.' This gives an erroneous impression, and should be ' all words that are signs of complex ideas '. ' In all cases of prescription, the universal practice of judges is to direct juries by analogy to the Statute of Limitations, to decide against incorporeal rights which have for many years been relinquished': say instead, 'incorporeal rights that have for many years ', and the sense is clear. 3. It is necessary for the proper understanding of ' which ' to advert to its peculiar function of referring to a whole clause as the antecedent : ' William ran along the top of the wall, which alarmed his mother very much '. The antecedent is obviously not the noun ' wall ', but the fact expressed by the entire clause ' William ran ', &c. ' He by no means wants sense, which only serves to aggravate his former folly ' ; namely, (not ' sense ', but) the circumstance ' that he does not want sense '. ' He is neither over-exalted by prosperity, nor too much depressed by misfortune ; which you must allow marks a great mind.' ' We have done many things which we ought not to have done ', might mean ' we ought not to have done many things' ; that is, 'we ought to have done few things'. 'That' would ghe the exact sense intended : ' we have done many things that we ought not to have done '. ' He began to look after his affairs himself, which was the way to make them prosper. ' . 4. We must next allude to the cases where the relative is VARIETIES OF RELATIVE CONSTRUCTION. 43 governed by a preposition. "We can use a preposition before 'who 'and 'which', but when the relative is 'that', the pre- position must be thrown to the end of the clause. Owing to an imperfect appreciation of the genius of our language, offence 'was taken at this usage by some of our leading writers at the beginning of last century, and to this circumstance we must refer the disuse of 'that' as the relative of restriction.* * Speaking of Dryden, Hallam says, ' His Essay on Dramatic Poesy, pub- lished in 1668, was reprinted sixteen years afterwards, and it is curious to observe the changes which Dryden made in the expression. Malone has carefully noted all these ; they show both the care the author took with his own style, and the change which was gradually working in the English language. The Anglicism of terminating the sentence with a preposition is rejected. Thus, " I cannot think so contemptibly of the age I live in," is exchanged for "the age in which I live". "A deeper expression of belief than all the actor can persuade us to," is altered, " can insinuate into us ". And, though the old form continued in use long after the time of Dryden, it has of late years been reckoned inele- gant, and proscribed in all cases, perhaps with an unnecessary fastidious- ness, to which I have not uniformly deferred, since our language is of Teutonic structure, and the rules of Latin and French grammar are not always to bind us.' On the same subject Dr. Campbell remarks : ' Now that I am on the subject of the prepositions, it will not be improper to consider a peculi- arity which is often to be found with us in their arrangement. In every other language the preposition is almost constantly prefixed to the noun which it governs ; in English it is sometimes placed not only after the noun, but at a considerable distance from it, as in the following example : " The infirmary was, indeed, never so full as on this day, which I was at some loss to account /or, till upon my going abroad I observed it was an easterly wind." Here no fewer than seven words intervene between the relative which and the preposition for belonging to it. Besides, the pre- position doth not here precede its regimen, but follows it. One would imagine, to consider the matter abstractly, that this could not fail in a like ours, which admits so few inflections, to create obscurity. Yet this, in fact, is seldom or never the consequence. Indeed the singu- larity of the idiom hath made some critics condemn it absolutely. That there is nothing analogous in any known tongue, ancient or modern, hath appeared to them a sufficient reason. I own it never appeared so to me.' Rhetoric, Book III., Chap. 4. The following examples, taken from Massinger's Grand Duke of Florence, will show what was the usage of the Elizabethan writers : ' For I must use the freedom / was born with.' ' In that dumb rhetoric which you make use of.' ' - if I had been heir Of all the globes and sceptres mankind bows to.' ' - the name of friend Which you are pleased to grace me with. ' ' - wilfully ignorant in my opinion Of what it did invite him to.' ' I look to her as on a princess / dare not be ambitious of.' ' - a duty Tliat I was born with,' 44 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. 'It is curious that the only circumstance connected with Scott, and related by Lockhart, of which I was a witness, is incorrectly stated in the Life of Sir Walter'. (Leslie's Memoirs.) The relative should be restrictive: 'that I was * witness of'. 'There are many words ivhich are adjectives which have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns to which they are put. ' (Cobbett) Better : ' there are many \yords that are adjec- tives that have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns (that) they are put to '. ' Other objects, of which we have not occasion to speak so frequently, we do not designate by a name of their own.' This, if amended, would be : ' other objects that we have not occasion to speak of so frequently, we do not ', &c. ' Sorrow for the dead is the only sorrow from ivhich we refuse to be divorced ; ' ' the only sorrow (that) we refuse to be divorced from '. ' Why, there is not a single sentence in this play that I do not know the meaning of.' (Addison.) ' Originality is a thing we constantly clamour for, and con- stantly quarrel with.' (Carlyle.) 5. ' Whose ' although the possessive of ' who ', and practically of ' which ', is yet frequently employed for the purpose of re- striction. : ' He spoke of love, such love as spirits feel, In worlds whose course is equable and pure.' This is not felt to be so great a departure from idiom as the prepositional forms * of whom ', ' of which ' are, when used to define or restrict the subject. ' We are the more likely to guard watchfully against those faults whose deformity we have seen fully displayed in others.' This is better than ' the deformity of which we have seen '. ' Propositions of whose truth we have no certain knowledge. ' (Locke.) 6. 'Where', audits compounds 'wherein', 'whereof, &c., are substitutes for both relatives. They may therefore be used instead of ' that ', without the misleading effect of ' which '. The following are examples : ' the happiest condition of society is (that) where the greatest number of persons is (should be are) found possessing a moderate yet sufficient subsistence '; * I ' must supply me With all / am defective in.' ' a copious theme Which would, discoursed at large of, make a volume.' So in Sbakspeare, to take an example out of many : To have no screen between the part he played And him he played it for.' VARIETIES OF RELATIVE CONSTRUCTION. 45 know of no rule whereby it may be done '; ' they (great virtues) often save, and always illustrate the age and nation in which (wherein] they appear'; for 'the age and nation that they appear in '. 7. 'Such as' is restrictive, and is a convenient mode of varying the relative construction : ' Eat such things as are set before you '. ' Whittield's preaching was such as England had never heard before.' ' Hard fare ! but such as boyish appetite Disdains not, nor the palate, undepraved By culinary arts, unsavoury deems.' (Cowper.) 8. ' What ', the equivalent of ' the that ', ' that which ', has the advantage of taking a preposition : * ruin seemed impending and inevitable, though no one could tell in what it would first show itself ', or ' what it would first show itself in '. ' What in me is dark, Illumine ; what is low, raise and support.' * It is probable that any attempt to establish a different classi- fication of the parts of speech, from that which (what) is commonly received, will be found of little utility.' 9. We have also seen that a clause in participial adjection may have a restrictive force : ' a truth long forgotten may have to be rediscovered '. ' What man among you, having a hundred sheep,' equal to 'that has'. 'We give the papers showing (for ' that show ') the concord existing between the four Powers at the time when England and France were engaging in a separate course of action ' (Kiuglake). ' But it would be absurd to expect mercy, justice, or wisdom from a class of men first abased by many years of oppression, and then maddened by the joy of sudden deliverance, and armed with irresistible power ' (Macaulay). 10. In the following examples we shall avail ourselves, as may seem fit, of all the foregoing devices, with a view to amend- ing the relative construction. ' There are one or two objections which have been brought against the study of political economy, which it may be useful to notice,' may be amended thus: 'there are one or two ob- jections (that have been) brought against the study of political economy, which (and these) it may be useful to notice '; ' it may be useful to notice one or two objections brought against the study of political economy '. 'There are two objections, however, by which (whereby) its justness may be possibly controverted.' 'A spirit more amiable, but less vigorous, than Luther's would have shrunk back from the dangers which he braved and surmounted;' 'that he braved'; 'the dangers braved and surmounted by him '. 46 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. 1 Nor is it at all improbable that the emigrants had been guilty of those faults from, which, civilised men who settle among an uncivilised people are rarely free ' (Macaulay). ' Nor is it at all improbable that the emigrants had been guilty of the faults that (such faults as) civilised men that settle (settling, or settled} among an uncivilised people are rarely free from.' 11. The form 'those who ' applied in a restrictive sense is the modern substitute for the ancient idiom ' they that ', an idiom in accordance with the true meaning ot 'that'. ' They that told me the story, said'; 'blessed are they that mourn'; 'and Simon and they that were with him '; ' I love them that love me, and they that seek me early shall find me '; 'they that are whole have no need of a physician'; 'how sweet is the rest of them that labour ! ' ' I cannot tell who to compare them to so fitly as to them that 'pick, pockets in the presence of the judge'; 'they that enter into the state of marriage cast a die of the greatest contingency ' (J. Taylor). ' That man hath perfect blessedness Who walketh not astray, ' if expressed according to the old idiom would be, 'the man hath that walketh'. ' That ', ' those ', as demonstrative adjectives refer backward, and are not therefore well suited for the forward reference im- plied in making use of ' that which ', ' those who ' as restrictive relatives. It is also very cumbrous to say ' that case to which you allude ', for ' the case (that) you allude to '. 12. Take now the following : ' the Duke of Wellington is not one of those who interferes with matters over which he has no control'; 'the Duke is not one of them that interfere in matters that they have no control over (matters that they cannot control, beyond their control, out of their province} '. If ' them that ' sounds too antiquated, we may adopt as a convenient com- promise, 'the Duke is not one of those that'-, or 'the Duke is not one to interfere in matters out of his province '; ' the Duke is not one that interferes with what he has no control over '. 13. ' Prejudices are notions or opinions which the mind enter- tains without knowing the grounds and reasons of them, and which are assented to without examination ' (Berkeley). The ' which ' in both cases should be ' that ', but the relative may be entirely dispensed with by participial conversion : ' prejudices are notions or opinions entertained by the mind without know- ing the grounds and reasons of them, and assented to without examination '. 'The political and moral system of Mahomet is that which (what, such as) might be expected from one who aimed (aiming} only at personal aggrandisement, and who had (having) no generous views beyond. ' SAVING THE REPETITION OF THE NOUN. 47 ' He who thinks that sovereign power is too great, and would desire to limit it, can do so only by setting up a greater ' ; ' he that, thinking sovereign power too great, desires '. 14. The too frequent repetition of 'who' and 'which' may be avoided by resolving them into the conjunction and personal or other pronoun : ' In such circumstances, the utmost that Bosquet could be expected to do was to hold his ground, (which) and this he did '. 31. One of the uses of Pronouns is to save the repetition of a Noun; as 'John is come; he has not been long '. This may be effected by various other means. (1.) By some more general designation ; as in Milton : ' Thus spoke the tempter, the fiend', for Satan. 'We went to see St. Paul's, and admired the vast building.' Such general words are often advantageously combined with the relative : ' touching musical harmony, a thing that (equal to ' which ') delighteth all ages ; a thing as seasonable in joy as in grief ; ' ' he was naturally morose, a peculiarity that 1 do not here take into account'. Also the relative may be dispensed with : ' the nation were unanimous, a thing ( a circumstance) of rare occurrence '. (2.) By the use of synonymes. ' His happiness was much enhanced by his success ; but it was not in the nature of so great bliss to last. ' Under the adjective we shall see other modes of saving the repetition of the principal subject, as by 'former and latter,' 'the one and the other,' ' the first and the second,' &c. It is a very insufficient definition of the pronoun to say that it saves the repetition of the noun, being wholly inapplicable to interrogatives, and to the indefinite pronouns. The relative pronouns, moreover, have in addition the force of conjunctions ; and, as we have just seen, the use of the pronoun is not the sole means of avoiding the repetition of the noun. THE ADJECTIVE. Definition. I. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun to limit its application; as 'my hat;' ' a sweat- sound '. 48 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. Adjectives are commonly said to name a quality. But this can hardly apply to pronominal adjectives, as 'this,' 'our'. Moreover in the classification of adjectives, one class is those of quality ; implying that the other classes, namely, adjectives of quantity and the pronominal adjectives, are not expressive of quality. It is better to treat them as words that go along with nouns to specify or narrow their application. For example, the word ' wise ' joined to the noun ' man,' signifies a more select kind of man, having the distinguishing attribute termed wisdom. Thus while the extent of the noun is narrowed, its meaning is increased by the adjective : * wise men ' are a smaller class than ' men ', but they have one attribute in addition to what is common to men. 2. An Adjective is distinguished from a noun by its inflexion, which is for degree, or what is called Comparison : ' wise, wiser, wisest '; ' fertile, more fertile, most fertile '. In our language, which admits the easy convertibility of the parts of speech, nouns are often used to discharge the office of the adjective ; as ' the gold ring '. These nouns are distinguished from true adjectives by not being compared : we cannot say ' gold, golder, goldest '. On the other hand, the true gram- matical adjective does not undergo the noun inflexion : we do not say ' wise, (plural] vrises. ' By the same criterion we can distinguish an adjective from a verb used to limit a noun ; as ' a brew house '. It follows from the definition, that an adjective cannot be the subject of a sentence. We cannot say ' wise is good '. A word that merely limits can have no meaning standing alone, or with- out a word to limit. Such cases as 'foul is fair ', ' black is not white', are not exceptions; the adjective being used for the corresponding abstract noun. Hence when a sentence or clause begins with an adjective we understand that there is an inver- sion of the usual order ; as ' great was the fall thereof '. An adjective cannot qualify any part of speech but a noun. It cannot be governed by a preposition. Classes of Adjectives. 3. I. Pronominal Adjectives. These are of four kinds Demonstrative, Interrogative, Relative, and Possessive. The name * pronominal ' indicates that these adjectives (this, PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 49 my, &c.} are all derived from pronouns. Indeed they have often been included among the pronouns. The reason for placing them among adjectives is that they require a noun after them, which the proper pronouns do not. 4. 1. Pronominal Demonstrative Adjec- tives : 'this', 'that', 'the', 'yon', 'yonder', 'such'. This (plural ' these ') applies to persons and things, and means some object near or close at hand, or nearer than some other compared object : ' this man', some one close by ; ' this house', the house that we are in or near ; ' this is my own, my native land '. 4 This' was originally the form joined to neuter nouns. In a succession of things, 'this' means the nearest either the last said, or the next to be mentioned. ' After this speech ' refers to what has just been, or is just going to be, delivered: ' I will put this supposition ' is what is to come next. That (plural ' those ') applies also to persons and things, and means something at a distance. ' That man ' is some one not close by, ' This ' and ' that ' are correlative or contrasting words ; the one excludes or opposes the other. ' That ' was originally the neuter form of the adjective. When two persons, things, 01 facts have teen mentioned, the first in order is sometimes recalled by ' that,' the second by 'this,' in imitation of the Latin pronouns ille and hie. Other forms for the same purpose are ' the one ' and ' the other', ' the first' . and 'the second', ' the first named ' and ' the last named', 'the former ' and ' the latter '. Sometimes, as in the second of the following lines, ' these ' and ' those ' mean ' some ' and 'others', with merely subordinate reference to comparative proximity : ' Fortune her gifts may variously dispose, And these be happy called, unhappy those ; But Heaven's just balance equal will appear. While those are placed in hope, and these in fear.' The frequent ellipsis of the noun with the demonstrative adjectives gives them the character of demonstrative pronouns : ' after that, I shall say no more ' ; ' this being granted '. These adjectives also often help to save the repetition of the main subject, by being joined to a more general noun. Thus, instead of repeating the name ' Csesar ', we may designate him ' that general '. ' that Roman ', * that conqueror '. 50 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. The, a modification of 'that', is commonly called tho Definite Article. It is usually explained along with * a ' or * an', called the Indefinite Article. Yoil and yonder are chiefly applied to things at some distance : * yonder ivy-mantled tower'. The form ' yond ' is now dropt : ' yond star that's westward from the pole ' (Hamlet). Compare the Genoau./ener (' that '). Such is partly demonstrative, having a reference also to quality and quantity. ' Such toil in such an atmosphere was too much for them. ' * Such ' is the modern form of the old * surilc ',= sun-lie, ' so- like', Mike that'. Compare the German solch. 5. The adverbial substitutes for the De- monstrative Adjectives are the same as for the Demonstrative Pronouns : 'so 1 , 'thus', 'then', 'there', (and the compounds, ' herein', therein', &e.), ' hence', 'thence', 'hither', 'thither'. These substitutes cannot he used where nominatives are required. ' Here, there, lies,' are equivalent to ' in this place ', ' in that place '. Both variety and eiegance are attained by the employment of these adverbs as demonstratives. The remarks made respecting 'where', 'when', &c., as equivalents of the relative pronouns, are applicable to the present class of words : ' here is the point '; ' there's the rub ' ; ' herein is love ' ; ' then was the time '. 6. 2. Pronominal Interrogative Adjectives : ' what ', ' which ', ' whether ', and compounds. What applies to both persons and things: 'what man 1 ' ' what woman ? ' ' what country 1 ' 'I see what friends arid read what books I. please.' 'What' was originally a neuter pronoun. By the 13th cen- tury it had come to be used adjectively with nouns of all genders. Which is used similarly: 'which man, or men 1 ?' 'ivhich woman, or women?' 'which country or count- ries 1 ' PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 51 In its earlier use, which ', like 'such/ implied also quality and quantity. Whether is now disused: 'whether case is the better V 7. 3. Pronominal Relative Adjectives : * which ', ' what ', and compounds. Which applies to all genders and both numbers: ' Here we were met by the lieutenant, which officer was to show us over the ship '; * the army refused to march, which circumstance disconcerted all his plans'. Various substitutions are generally preferred : ' we were met by the lieutenant, who was, &c.', or, 'an officer that was' ; 'the army lefused to march, which a circumstance that and this disconcerted all his plans '. What is used in much the same way : 'what friends he gained he kept'; l what time the floods lift up their voice '; * you may take whatever books you choose '. 8. 4. Pronominal Possessive Adjectives: 'my', 'mine', 'our', 'ours', 'thy', 'thine', 'your', 'yours', 'his', 'her', 'hers', 'its', * their', 'theirs'. These are the possessives of the Personal and Demon- strative Pronouns. The double forms 'my, mine', 'our, ours', 'thy, thine', 'your, yours-', 'her, hers', 'their, theirs', have distinct uses. The first form is used with nouns like any other adjectives, as. ' my book'; 'your house'; 'tfieir liberty'; the other form is: employed in predication, and in other cases where the noun does not immediately follow ; as 'the book is mine'', 'the house is not yours'; 'that is your opinion, mine is very different'. In the translation of the Bible, ' thine ' and ' mine ' are used with nouns beginning with a vowel or with ' h ' : ' mine eyes have seen thy salvation'; 'mine honour', &c. A similar difference exists between ' none ' and ' no '; as ' Thy kingdom hath none end at all'; 'friend hast thou none'; 'he gave no reason; in truth, none can be given '. The meanings of the possessive pronouns are so well under- stood and so little subject to irregularity, as to need no special comment. 52 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. 9. II. Adjectives of Quantity. Setting aside the pronominal adjectives, we may include all the others under the two heads of quantity and quality : those of the one class (quantity) are few in number and peculiar in character ; the other class (quality) comprises the great body of adjectives. The adjectives of quantity are subdivided as follows : 10. 1. Adjectives of Quantity in mass or bulk: ' much ', ' little ', ' great ', ' small ', 'some', ' any ': 'much wind'; 'little light'; l great rivers'; 'some feeling'. These are all indefinite. This kind of quantity is also called continuous quantity, and is opposed to broken, numbered, or discrete quantity. Space, 'motion, bulk, and material being in many instances unbroken, ;we do not always apply numbers to designate their amount. When we desire accuracy we suppose these things divided into 'parts, and number the parts ; as ' ten yards '. But where we .cannot do this, as in mental qualities, we use adjectives of degree, and apply qualifying words to specify the differences ; thus, 'small, very small, exceedingly small, diminutive, insig- nificant'; 'great, large, somewhat large, rather large, consider- able, vast, huge, immense, enormous, infinite'; * middling, 'average, moderate, ordinary, sober', &c. ' Some ' and ' any ' are applied alsc to number. 11. 2. Adjectives of Quantity in Number. Under this we have various kinds. (1.) Definite Numeral Adjectives; as 'eight days ' (cardinal number) ; * the eighth day ' (ordinal number). The cardinal numbers one, two, three denote totals made up to the amount of the number- two, five, fifty, &c. The ordinal numbers indicate a series, and state the place of an individual in the series : the ' fifth ' marks one object at a 'certain remove from the commencement. We may include also the multipliers, 'single', 'double', * twofold ', ' triple ', ' threefold ', ' quadruple ', &c. ; and the combination of the numerals with particular subjects, as ( bi- ennial', * quadrilateral', 'heptagons!'. These have also the meaning of quality. An, or a, the Indefinite Article, is the numeral Adjective ' one ', with a somewhat altered signification. - ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY. 53* None, No, expresses the absence, negation, or privation of anything. 'None' is the old English 'nan', made up of ne+an ('not one '), and ' no ' is a shortened form, like ' a ' from ' an '. The., words must be followed by the singular or plural, according to the meaning. An ancient Greek disbelieving his religion would have said there are ' no Gods '; a Jew, there is 'no God'. In the union with plural nouns, the derl.ution of 4 none, no ' is forgotten. So the common expression - no one ' is, in this regard, tautological, being literally ' not one one '. Another is ' an-other\ 'a second', 'one more', in addition to whatever number has gone before. In old English, ' other ' was used as an ordinal where we now use ' second '. A derived meaning of ' another ' implies the sense of differ- ence : ' that is another (= a, different] question '. Both means two taken together, and is opposed to the distributives ' either ' (one of two), and ' neither ', (none of two). This word, being often used without the noun, assumes the character of a pronoun. 12. (2.) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives; as, 'many days', l any books', 'all men'. These express number, but not in the definite form of numeration. Many, although plural in meaning, can be joined'' with a singular noun preceded by ' a': 'many a man'. This usage dates from the beginning of the 13th century. Any old English 'cenig', from 'an' ('one') means ' one ', but no one in particular : ' any knife will do '. It was early applied to plural nouns also : ' any trees ', * any men ', it matters not which, nor how many. After negative words ' any ' renders the exclusive sense em- phatic : 'without any remainder', 'not any doubt'. The application to mass or bulk has been already mentioned ( 10) :. ' any meat ', ' any wool '. The old negative ' nceniy ' (ne-aenig). disappeared in the thir- teenth century. '"None ' and ' not any ' take its place. 54 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. An, a, while indicating definitely one individual and no more, means no one in particular. Hence it is called the Indefinite article. Some indicates one individual not particularise 1, or denotes an uncertain portion of an entire class or number : ' Some enemy has done this f ; * give him some apples '. 'Some' has various meanings. In strict logic it signifies * not none ', a certain number, but how many not stated some at least. There is a more popular meaning, which implies less than the whole, 'some only , or 'some at most'. ' Some men are wise ' insinuates that there are other men not wise. Hence the alternative signification : ' some believed ', and ' some (others) helieved not '. ' Some fifty years ago ' is a very old idiom for expressing an approximate number. The application to mass or bulk has been already mentioned (10): 'wwewood', ' some mischief '. Certain is a small select number. Applied in the singular it means a particular and known individual Several, the Distributive Adjective, is also used to mean a small number without reference to distribution : 'he entered with several followers'; 'several of the palace towers were toppled to the earth '. Sundry and divers, also originally meaning * separate', are now less frequently used to signify a small and indefinite number: 'for sundry weighty reasons'; ' divers townspeople '. ' Compare also different and various : ' for various (or dif- ferent} reasons'. Few is opposed to ' many '. ' Few, few, shall part where many meet.' 'A ^few ' is some not many. Not a few is a more emphatic ' many '; the denying of an opposite being often a stronger form of the affirmative. ' Not inconsiderable ' is perhaps a little less than 'considerable'. Most, the largest number. All is opposed alike to 'none' and to 'some'. Whole, 'or total', is opposed to 'part', and hence to ' some '. NUMERALS, INDEFINITE AND DISTRIBUTIVE. 55 13. (3.) Distributive Numeral Adjectives; as ' each man ', ' neither way '. These are ' each ', ' either ', ' neither ', ' several ', * every ', ' other '. Each is employed to denote two or more things taken separately : * Simeon and Levi took each man his sword '. ' Each ' is a singular word. "When applied to two, * each ' is opposed to ' either ', any one of the two, as well as to ' hoth ', or the two collectively : ' I re- solved to compare the accounts of my two friends, allowing for the prejudice of each, and to form my judgment upon both, without adhering strictly to either'. The correlative of ' each ' is ' other ', as seen in the elliptical expression ' bear each others burdens '. Either means any one of two things. ' Give me a pen or a pencil ; either will serve my purpose ' ; that is, a pen will serve, or, in the absence 01 a pen, a pencil will serve. ' Either ' is often used where the proper adjective would be ' each ', but not so often now as formerly. ' The King of Israel, arid Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, sat either (for each) of them on his throne.' 'There was a huge fireplace at either (more pro- perly each) end of the hall. ' Neither excludes each of two things; it means not the one and not the other : * Truth may lie on both sides, on either side, or on neither side '. Several refers to an indefinite number, and is usually joined to a plural noun : ' they went to their several homes '. Every means each individual of a whole collection separately stated or considered : ' give every man his due'. ' Every ' is a compound of ' ever-each* ; it appeared about the beginning of the 13th century. Excepting in such idiomatic phrases as ' each other ', it might be almost generally substituted for ' each '. ' Every ' is an emphatic word for ' all ', as it seems to address the individuals separately : ' England expects every man to do his duty ' ; ' not every one that saith unto me '. * Every three years ' is an admitted idiom. 56 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. Other, opposed to 'one', is the second or alterna- tive of a couple a dual form : ' Both the hills, the one held by the royal troops, and the other by their enemies, were alive with- armed men '. ' No other ' has the more indefinite signification of ' none besides or anywhere '. Followed by ' than ' it is the same as ' none Lut '. By an incidental consequence, ' the other ' may point out contrariety ; as ' on the one side of the river stood our army, on the other, the enemy'. The meaning of Edition comes naturally to attach to the word : ' get as much other knowledge as you can '. ' The other day' is an idiom for ' lately '. 14. III. Adjectives of Quality; as 'a broad way ', ' a heavy weight ', ' a prudent man'. These embrace the great body of adjectives, and are co-exten- sive with human knowledge. They could be classified only by referring to the sciences, or different departments of knowledge ; as mathematics, natural history, morals, &c. Everything that can be pointed out as a property, power, or agency, is liable to be expressed as an adjective, so as to qualify some object. In Boget's Thesaurus of Words and Phrases, a classification of human knowledge is given as a basis for the classification of words according to their meaning, and it will be found that the words thus arranged are nouns, adjectives, and verbs ; and there is hardly any meaning that cannot appear in all the three forms. The nouns least suited to become adjectives are the names of natural classes or kinds, as ' tree ', ' horse ', ' monkey ' ; because these objects contain too many qualities to be predicated of any- thing besides themselves. We cannot well have a thing different from a tree and possessing all the characters of a tree ; hence when we derive an adjective from tree, as ' arborescent ', we mean only the form of a tree, and not all the attributes. So ' manly ', ' leonine ', or ' lionlike ' merely indicate some prominent .character of a man, or of a lion, and do not transfer the whole of the attributes of a man or a lion to something that is neither. Adjectives formed from the names of metals, minerals, woods, &c., generally signify 'made from' these materials. Adjectives derived from the names of great natural objects, often mean only a reference to those objects ; as the ' the solar, the lunar tables ' tables respecting the sun or moon. 15. The class of Adjectives derived from proper names, and called Proper Adjectives, are princi- pally adjectives of quality; as the l Socratic THE AETICLES. 57 Method', which means a certain peculiar method, invented or employed by Socrates. Some proper adjectives might be looked upon as contributing to form proper names ; as * English law ', ' French literature ', the 'Elizabethan Age'. The Articles. The articles are of great value in our language. They indicate three different forms of the noun, each with a separate meaning : * a virtue ', ' the virtue ', and * virtue ', are all distinct. 16. An or A is called the Indefinite Article : ' a horse ' means no one horse in particular. It gives the species or kind of thing wanted, and leaves the choice of the individual free. The indefinite article is the unemphatic form of the numeral 'one ', and has a meaning of its own, different from the numeral. '.Give me a pen ', means ' give me an object of the species ' pen ' ' ; ' give me one pen ', lays emphasis upon one, and implies that one is asked for, and not two or three. ' A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse,' is any horse, anything that is a horse. The article, having a singular meaning, is a sign of the singular number, and is used with all singular nouns (provided they are such as admit of the plural). Thus we do not say ' house ', ' table ', ' star ', but ' a house ', ' a table ', ' a star '. Hence it is used with general or class names, and not with proper names (Adam, Mary), nor with names of material (air, gold), nor with abstract names (wisdom, bravery). When class nouns have no plural change (sheep, cannon), the presence or absence of the article is a mark of the number (a sheep, sheep). When ' a ' is prefixed to a proper name (a Mr. Brown), one of a class is meant. 17. A is used "before a consonant, and before *h' sounded, ' y ', or ' w ' : 'a meal ', a house \ ' a year ', *a world'. An is used before a vowel, and before silent. *'h ' ; as * an ounce', ' an hour '. Many of the best writers, as Macaulay, use an before ' h ' (not silent) when the accent is on the second syllable : ' an historical parallel '. Some words beginning with a vowel are pronounced as if they began with a consonantal 'y': ewe, eunuch, eulogy, European, useful. &c. Before such words some writers use 'an ', but most use 'a', which is preferable: 'a ewe', 'a European difficulty ', 1 a useful contrivance '. 58 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. 18. The is called the Definite Article, because it points out one object definitely : * the horse ' means some one horse in particular. 'The' is a weaker form than the demonstrative * that '. * That ' in the first instance supposes something actually seen by being pointed out : as when we say, pointing to a candle, ' bring me that candle '. When we cannot point to a thing, we may mark it out by some description : ' that candle whicli had just been lit'. Such descriptions when fully given have the form of the adjective clause, with a relative of restriction : ' that man whom (that) you see '. As a lighter form, we employ ' the ' instead of ' that ' : ' the candle which (that) has just been lit ' ; ' the man whom (that) you see '. A single individual, person or thing, is pointed out by some circumstance that applies to him or it, and not to any other. These adjective clauses of description are often shortened, by leaving out whatever is not essential to the meaning. Thus ' the man that stands in the doorway ', may be * the man standing in the doorway ', or still shorter, ' the man in the doorway ', the verb ' standing ' being understood. In such cases what is left is an adverb phrase, and this is one of the most frequent accom- paniments of the definite article : * The way (that leads) to the castle ' ; ' the tree before the house ' ; ' the church on the hill ' ; ' the water of the river '. The single-word adverb may also be used : ' the evening star ' is the contraction for ' the star that shines in the evening ' ; it might have been the ' star in the, even- ing ' ; or ' the star of evening ' ; but usage prefers ' the evening star '. Any one of 'the forms is distinctive of a particular star, and that is enough. When the important fact is given in the verb itself, the verb must be retained, whatever else is left out : ' Bring the caudle that has been lighted ', if made shorter, must be ' the lighted candle '. The circumstance that distinguishes this candle from the rest is its being lighted, and, therefore, the verb must be kept to show what individual is pointed at by ' the '. ' The standing stones ' ; ' the coming race '. An Adjective, especially in the superlative degree, may serve the same end as the participle : 'the broad walk ' is supposed to be so well contrasted with all other walks by its breadth, that to give this adjective is to point to one walk exclusively. So, ' the great pyramid ', ' the black hole '. ' The heaviest metal ' is the one metal platinum. A Noun may be the defining word : ' the salt lake is a contrac- THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 59 snch, the article is properly used to point out an individual. So, ' the granite formation ', ' the Atlantic cable ', ' the Pitt ministry '. The article may be used without any specifying accompani- ments, as 'thefi.i-e', 'the hill', 'the street', '-the general', ' the lion ', ' the mind ', ' the_ Bar ', ' the rich '. The shortening is here carried to the very utmost ; the defining circumstances are left out altogether. This is because the person addressed knows what is meant. We say ' the fire ', instead of ' the fire that is in tJiis room ', because we are speaking to a person in the room, and using language that precludes all other fires. When we say ' stir the fire ', we can mean only the fire that is in the room : if we did not mean that, we should have to use defining words 'go and stir the bedroom fire '. So, ' the hill 'means someone hill near and familiar ; ' the street ' is the street that is close by, or where we are living at the time, or that has been already mentioned or defined. ' The lion ' is a shorter way of saying, ' the species of animals named the lion '. So with ' the rose ', ' the potato ', ' the palm ', among plants. * The French ' is the people or nation having that name. ' The rich ', the powerful ', * the great ', ' the miserable ', are phrases that leave out the class name men or human beings as being readily understood, and merely give the name of the selection intended, which selection, as being one and definite, receives the article. ' The true ', * the just ', the good ', ' the lawful ', ' the. ex- pedient', are other forms of the abstract nouns truth, justice, goodness, lawfulness, expediency. They may be considered as shortened, for ' the things that are true ', 'the things or actions of men, that are just ', &c. Only the essential word is retained ; the rest can be supposed. ' The ' with a comparative, as in ' the more, the better ', does not show the ordinary use of the definite article ; but is a survival of its ancient ablative form in the stronger demonstrative sense of ' that '. 'Thy (the) ma, thy (the) bet ' is literally ' by that 'or by so much) more, by that (or by so much) better ' ; like the Latin ' quo magis, eo melius '. ' They will ask the more ', docs not properly exemplify a transitive verb with an object. Scotticisms in the use of the Articles. There are various Scotticisms in connexion with the articles : ' How much the pound is it ? ' (what is it a pound ?) ; ' sixpence the piece ' (a piece); ' the sugar is cheaper ' (sugar); ' go to (the) school' ; 'say (the] grace ' ; ' a justice of (the) peace ' ; 'up (the) stairs ' ; ' he is studying (the) Botany '. The names of diseases are recognised as proper nouns : ' he 60 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. has caught cold ', ' he died of consumption, of typhus '. It is an impropriety to treat them as class nouns, and prefix the article the cold, the fever. ' From Tweed to Tay ' is a poetical usage ; for ' from the Tweed to the. Tay '. 'Not worth (a) sixpence.' ' The day ' (to- day). ' Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ', is given by Lowth as an error of the article. The meaning is definite : ' the wheel '. To drop the article from words that it has usually been joined to has a personifying effect. When we say ' society ' instead of ' the society ', we treat society as a person. So with ' Govern- ment ' for ' the Government '. The Americans say ' Community thinks so too '. Substitutes for the Adjective. 19. The Adjective Clause is the longest and fullest equivalent to the Adjective ; it is a sentence serving to limit a noun in the same manner as the Adjective : ' the way that he ought to go ' is ' the right way ' ; ' accidents that result in death ' are 'fatal acci- dents ' ; ' an attempt that has no chance of succeeding ' is * an impossible attempt '. The Adjective Clause is more fully exemplified afterwards (see ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES). We have now seen that it is by con- tracting Adjective Clauses that we obtain the short expressions with the Definite Article. In the same way we explain the extensive employment of Nouns as Adjectives, and the less frequent use of Adverbs and Prepositions. 20. The Participial Phrase gives the same meaning in a condensed form : ' accidents resulting in death ', troops hired to fight ' (mercenary), ' the know- ledge possessed by him ' (his) f * tribes given to the wor- ship of idols ' (idolatrous). 21. The Prepositional Phrase is a still shorter form, by an obvious ellipsis : * the war between Russia and Turkey 1 ( Russo- Turkish) 'disturbances in the colo- nies ' (colonial), ' the book before me ' (this). 22. Nouns employed as Adjectives: 'a gold' crown ' ; * the cotton districts ' ; the police regulations ' ; SUBSTITUTES FOR THE ADJECTIVE. 61 'the Berlin decrees'; 'Health of Towns Act 7 ; 'cod- liver oil '. These are all contracted forms : ' a gold crown ' is ' a crown that is made of gold ', ' a crown made of gold ', ' a crown of gold ' by retaining the. only essential word and putting it in the regular position of the Adjective, we say ' a gold crown '. So, ' the districts where cotton is grown ' ; ' the regulations that are laid down by the police ' ; the decrees that were issued from Berlin ' ; ' the Act that was passed for improving the Healtii of Towns ' ; * oil tlutt is prepared from the liver of the cod '. From what has been already said as to the employment of the Definite Article, it will be seen that words are often left out that are essential to the full expression of the meaning, because the hearer can supply them from a knowledge of the circum- stances. The same noun used as an adjective has not always the same meaning : in ' gold fields ', the meaning of ' gold ' is different ; being the ' fields where gold is gathered or dug '. The word ' house ' has a different application in each of the following in- stances housemaid, house-top, house property, house tax, house surveyor, house fittings, house drainage, house robbery. In expressing the meaning at full in each case, a different verb would be necessary. This, however, we are often able to guess, from the meanings of the words themselves. We see that ' house tax ' is likely to mean a tax imposed upon the owners of houses. In other cases, the circumstances or the context will show what is the connection intended. 23. The Possessive forms of Nouns and Pronouns may serve the purpose of the Adjective : ' God's commands ' are ' tJie divine commands ' ; 'a mother's care ' is 'motherly or maternal care ' ; ' whose image is this 1 ' Again the equivalence to the clause may be shown : ' the commands that God has issued ', 'such care as a mother bestows ', ' an image that represents whom is this ? ' 24. Adverbs and Prepositions may also occa- sionally be employed for Adjectives. This is possible by leaving out part of the complete expres- sion. ' The king that then reigned ' is made ' the then king '. ' The down train ' is a shortened form of ' the train that goes down '. ' After ages ', ' ages that are to come after (the present)'; * the above discourse ', ' the discourse that has been given above (the point where we now are) '. 62 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. Co-ordinating or Predicate Adjectives. 25. The Predicate of a sentence is often made up of an Incomplete Verb and an Adjective : 1 the rose is red ', l the wind became , violent ', ' the king turned pale ', ' it is growing colder ', she was pro- nounced blameless '. 26. Adjectives in the Predicate are not restrictive, but co-ordinating. They do not narrow the class mentioned, but express some new meaning that adds to what we know of it. In the designation ' fixed stars ', the adjective ' fixed ' nar- rows the class ' stars ', and increases its signification, so that the subject denotes not all ' stars ', but such stars as are fixed : this is the usual purpose of an adjective joined to a noun. In the saying 'the fixed stars are remote' the adjective 'remote' does not farther narrow the class ' fixed stars ', but predicates, or says, of them that they are ' remote ' ; that they belong to the class ' remote or distant things '. If we fill in a supposed ellipsis, writing ' the fixed stars are remote things, stars, &c. ', then 1 remote ' is restrictive, limiting ' things ', * stars ', &c., but not limiting ' the fixed stars '. 27. Many Adjectives prefixed to Nouns are not restrictive, but co-ordinating, or predicate Adjectives. This can be known only from the sense. "When an adjective is prefixed to a proper or singular name, it cannot be restrictive. ' Brave soldiers ' expresses a select class of soldiers, possessing, in addition to the qualities of all other soldiers, the quality of being brave. But 'brave Curtius' cannot restrict Curtius: an individual cannot be restricted. The meaning is ' Curtius, who was brave ' ; it is a short way of mentioning Curtius, and of saying also that Curtius was a brave man. ' Glorious Apollo ' is * Apollo, who is glorious '. It names Apollo, and adds that he is glorious. 63 THE VERB. Definition. 1. The Verb is the part of speech concerned in predication ; that is, in affirming or denying in presenting something to be believed or disbelieved, something that can be acted on. There can be no sentence without a Verb. ' Milton wrote Paradise Lost ' ; ' the sun shines ' ; ' the sea is calm '. In affirmation, as has been seen, there must always be two things, a subject and a predicate. The subject is expressed by a noun or its equivalent ; the predicate always contains a verb. Whenever any word has the effect of predicating or affirming, it is from that circumstance a verb. But verbs have the 1'urther grammatical distinction of being inflected to express varieties of time, person, number, manner of action, &c. A verb proper is thus distinguished from a word belonging to some other part of speech that may be used in predication. The adverb ' away ' may be employed for the verb ' go ', but it is not on that account a true grammatical verb ; we do not say ' I away, thou awayest, they awayed '. Classes of Verbs. 2. I. Transitive Verbs : The fire warms the room. Here ' warm ' is called transitive, because the action passes over to and affects a certain object, ' the room '. This is con- trasted with another class of verbs exemplified by ' the fire gloivs ', where the action, ' glowing ', is said not to pass away from, but to adhere to, the fire. It is with a transitive verb that we have a sentence containing subject, action, and object, in other words, the completion of the predicate by an object. Transitive verbs are construed in the passive voice : ' Watt invented the steam-engine ', * the steam-engine was invented bv Watt'. Reflexive Verbs are transitive verbs with the same individual as both subject and object: '/ laid me down', ' they contradicted themselves ', ' the king's policy de- veloped itself \ 64 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE VERB. Reciprocal Verbs are transitive verbs used in the expression of mutual action and reaction of subject and object : ' they help each other '. There is nothing peculiar in the verbs themselves ; they are ordinary transitive verbs ; but from the circumstances of their use they seldom take the passive form. ' They were contra- dicted by themselves ' is not a usual form, being quite unne- cessary ; but we mav say ' they were contradicted by their own evidence,' or such-like. ' They help each other ' is simply ellip- tical for * they help ; each helps (the) other(s) ' ; a:M the passive constmction is equally rare in this case. 3. II. Intransitive Verbs: Come, lie, sit, stand, sleep, walk, run, speak, bark, wonder, groan, breathe, live, die. These give a complete meaning without an object : ' He comes', 'they run', 'I wonder \ 'we shall all die'. 'After life's fitful fever, he sleeps well.' One of the innumerable ways of shortening speech ia to leave out the object of a verb, and express the action generally, or without referring to any object in particular. Thus the verb ' see ' is a transitive verb ; it needs an object, or something to be seen : 'the child sees the candle'. Yet we h^ve this expres- sion : 'The new-born child sees, the puppy is blind'. The verb now expresses the power of seeing things in general, and not any one thing in particular. So, 'men build houses' (tran.) ; 'men build, and time pulls down' (intrans.). 'Blest be the art that can immurtalise.' * Keep (for keep yourself, re- flexive) out of the way '. Intransitive Verbs converted into Transitives. Intransitive verbs are very often modified by adverbial expressions in the form of preposition and noun ; as ' I wonder at his zeal ' ; ' they came to the resolution ' ; ' his friends stood by him '. By an allowable process, the prepositions in such cases become adverbs united to the verbs, constituting them compound verbs, and rendering them transitive likewise : what was the object of the preposition being now the object of the verb. Thus we have : the verbs 'wonder at,' 'come to,' 'standby,' 'speak to/ 'ride about' (the town, the fields), which are often transitive in the fullest sense, as tested by the passive construction : 'his zeal was woni.lcred at ' ; ' the resolution was come to' ; ' the servant was spoken to '. The verbs termed ' Causative ' are a class of Transitive verbs, formed from Intransitive. ' He sets 'is 'he causes to sit '. So INTRANSITIVE, INCOMPLETE, ETC. 65 'stay, lay, fell, raise, soak, drench, dip, ? &c., are short ways of Diving the sense of ' cause or make to stand, lie, fall, rise, suck, drink, dive,' &c. Sonic intransitive verbs are made transitive and causative without any change : 'the horse walks' (intrans.) ; ' the groom. walked the horse ' (trans.); ' the wood floated ', (intrans.); 'the raftsman floated the wood down the river ' (trans.). Many intransitive verbs take a cognate noun after them, which is rather an adverbial modification than a true object ; as 1 they ran a race,' ' I have fought a good fight,' 'sleep the sleep that knows no waking '. Yet, as in the prepositional phrases above, the noun can be subject in the passive construction : ' a race was run,' &c. 4. III. Incomplete, Apposition, or Copula Verbs : Be, become, seera, appear, grow, walk. The verb 'be' usually needs some word to come after it in order to give a meaning : ' he is ' means nothing (except to express simple existence) : ' he is leader ', 'he is strong ', ' he is at a distance ' are sentences where the predicating verb takes some additional words noun, adjective, or adverb to give a complete sense. ' What seemed the likeness of a kingly crown ' ; ' the decision appeared to be just ' ; ' the small acorn will grow a mighty tree '. ' He lived an apostle and died a martyr ' ; the intransitive verbs ' live ' 'die,' appear here as incomplete verbs, completed by the nouns ' an apostle, ' * a martyr '. 5. Certain verbs are designated Auxiliary Verbs, because they contribute to make up various forms in the conjugation of the verb. ' Be,' the incomplete or copula verb by pre-eminence, is the chief ; the others are ' have ', ' will ', ' shall '. 6. The Impersonal Verbs are, strictly speaking, verbs detective in the persons, being used only with the third person singular ; they are hence called also ' unipcraonal '. Such are ' it rains, ' ' it snows '. 7. Other parts of speech are sometimes used as Verbs : as ' Hence; home, you idle creatures ' : ' Up, Guards, and at 'ern '. There is in such instances an obvious ellipsis, or omission of the proper verb : ' go hence '. Nouns and Adjec- tives are freely converted into verbs, and regularly conjugated as such : ' he ages fast ', ' the sun dries the road '. 66 THE ADVERB, Definition. I. The Adverb limits or modifies the mean- ing of the Verb : ' she sings brilliantly ' ; * they ran well '. The verb usually expresses some action, or active exertion, and, as an action may be performed in many ways, words are needed to show this ; the action named by the verb ' sing ' may be performed with every variety of excellence, and under many circumstances ; and instead of employing additional sentences to specify these modes, a single word or phrase is taken for the pur- pose. ' She sang here yesterday for an hour with great applause. ' Four circumstances are given as accompanying or modifying the action one of place, given by the single-word adverb * here ' ; one of time by a single word ' yesterday ', and another of time by a phrase ' for an hour ' ; one of quality or manner by a phrase ' with great applause '. When we say the adverb qualifies the verb, we mean the action expressed by the verb, which action may involve other words- in addition. ' He boldly fought-his-way-to-the-barrier ' : * boldly ' qualifies the entire predicate 'fought his way to the barrier '. The adverb is commonly said to qualify, not verbs alone, but also adjectives and other adverbs. This is not true generally, but applies to one of the smallest classes of adverbs, those express- ing DEGKEE. The attributes expressed by adjectives are usually variable in degree ; and the variations are expressed by adverbs ' good, very good ' ; so with adverbs ' wise.ly, very wisely '. But the most numerous class of adverbs, the class containing ninety- nine out of a hundred of the whole adverbs of manner or quality, could not from their nature qualify Adjectives and Adverbs. 'A being darkly wise ' is partly a poetic figure, and partly exemplifies the practice of using adverbs of quality to express degree, through some accident in their meaning that, suggests quantity. Thus 'scarcely', 'exceedingly', 'confound- edly ', are in the first instance adverbs of quality or manner, but they are adopted to serve for degree. When an adverb seems to qualify a, preposition, it really quali- fies an adverbial phrase : * greatly above his reach ', ' much before the time '. ADVERBS, SIMPLE AND RELATIVE. 67 An adverb may qualify a noun, but the nouns so qualified are transmuted verbs, or verbal nouns : ' I shall study only instruc- tion ', for ' only that I may instruct ' ; ' he was fully master of the subject ', ' he fully mastered '. ' An only sou 'is 'an only bei/otten son '. By such abbreviations adverbs are at last taken for adjectives. ' The house here ' is ' the house that is here '. Napoleon, (who was) lately Emperor of the French.' This is less irregular than ' the late Emperor ' ; the fact of time is more properly stated by an adverb: ' my former teacher ' is a trans- formation of ' he that formerly taught me '. Classes of Adverbs. 2. Before classifying adverbs according to their signification (as place, time, &c.), it is proper to advert to an important dis- tinction running through all these classes. Most adverbs con- tain their meaning within themselves, and are therefore called simple; they might also be called absolute, or notional ; such are ' now ', ' here ', ' greatly ', ' delightfully '. A small number have no meaning in themselves, but refer to some adjoining clause for the meaning ; as, ' when, ' ' while, ' ' where '. 1 whether ', ' whence ', ' why ', ' wherever ', ' as ', ' than ', &c. These are to the other adverbs what the pronoun is to the noun, and hence they are called relative adverbs ; they are also connec- tive or conjunctive adverbs, being in fact commonly reckoned among conjunctions. 'He came while' is not intelligible ; the sense is suspended till some other clause is supplied : ' He came while, I was speaking ' ; ' I know not whence you are '. Most of this class are obvious derivatives of the relative ' who ' (or its root); and we have seen that they are substitutes for the relative pronouns. Taking simple and relative adverbs together, we may classify - them thus : 3. I. Adverbs of Place; as 'here*, 'there', ' without ', * above ', ' near ', * apart ', ' together ', &c. This includes the following regularly formed pronominal group : Place where. Motion to. Motion from. Here Hither Hence There Thither Thence Where Whither Whence Also the compounds, ' hitherward ', ' thitherward ', ' whither- ward '. 68 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE ADVERB. 4. 1. Rest in a place: 'here', 'there ' 'where*, ' by ', ' near ', < yonder ', ' above ', below '. Here, in this place, this place ; opposed to * there ', in that, or some other place ; an adverbial substitute for the demonstra- tive 'this '. It has metaphorical extensions to other subjects : ' here lies the difference '. There, in its primitive meaning, is explained by its contrast to ' here '. The two are coupled together in various idioms ; as ' neither here nor there ' (no matter), ' here a plain, there a river '. ' There ' has a very peculiar use. We employ it to begin sentences without any special reference to the idea of place, and hence derive one of our idiomatic forms of syntax. ' There was once a good king ' ; ' there was not a tree to be seen ' ; ' there came a voice from heaven '. Out of the definite signification 'in that place' has sprung an expression of mere existence. It is not difficult to account for the transition. To be able to say that a thing is in a certain place is to give an emphatic assurance that it exists ; and hence the localising statement has become the statement of existence. Instead of saying ' a road is ', or ' exists ', we say ' there is a road '. This idiom is found very convenient, but is apt to be abused, and the excessive use of it should be avoided. Thus, instead of such circumlocutions as ' there is a sense in which that is true ', ' there is a plan by which you might do it', we might with more elegance, because more, briefly, say ' in one sense that is true ', ' one plan would be '. The following sentence is an example of the effect of the form in question : ' One act James induced them to pass which would have been most honourable to him and them, if there icere not abundant proofs that it was meant to be a dead letter '. (Macaulay.) Where is one of our interrogative words. In form it is an adverb, like ' here ' and ' there ' ; in use it is also a purely con- nective word, serving the function of a relative or of a conjunc- tion. ' She left the place iche-re she was so happy. ' Having the original meaning of place, it has acquired the same meta- phorical extensions as those two other words. ' Where ignorance is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise.' By an ellipsis easy to explain we find it employed as if it were a substantive : ' He had no where to lay his head ', for ' he had no place where he might lay his head '. We have the compound phrase ' somewhere ', like ' somehow 7 ', ' nohow ', &c. Near, by, are the adverbs of nearness or proximity : 'there was no one by ' ; 'he stood fa/ ' ; ' by comes a horseman '. ' By ' shows its difference from ' here ' (in this spot), in the phrase ' put by ', which means put away or remove. ADVERBS OF PLACE AND TIME. 69 Under this head we class the adverbs of numerical order: ' firstly ' or ' first ', ' secondly ', ' lastly '. 5. 2. Motion to a place: 'hither', 'thither', ' whither '. Hither, thither, are likewise an opposed and mutually explaining couple : ' to this place ', ' to that place ' ; ' come hither ', ' go thither ' ; ' where I am, thither ye cannot come '. Whither is ' to what place ? ' as an interrogative ' ; ' to which place ', as a relative. 6. 3. Motion from a place: 'hence', 'thence', ' whence '. Hence, thence, whence ; 'from this place ', 'from that place ', ' from what or which place '. ' Hence ' is extended to time, ' a week hence ' ; also to reason or cause, as ' hence (from this cause) it is ' ; likewise from this source or origin : ' all other faces borrowed hence their light, their grace '. The extension to time hardly takes place with ' thence ' and ' whence ', but these share in the extensions to reason or cause : ' the facts are admitted, whence we conclude that the principle is true '. 'From whence ' seems a tautology, or superfluity of expression, but we find it in good use : ' Who art thou, courteous stranger, and /row whence ? ' Separation in place is expressed by ' apart ', ' separately ', ' asunder '. Conjunction is expressed by ' together .' Place, in a variety of relative positions, is indicated by ' above ', ' aloft ', ' below ', ' under ', ' down ', * beyond ', * yonder ', ' away ', ' through ', ' in ', ' out ', ' without ', ' in- wards ', ' inside ', ' around ', ' fro ', ' forth '. The compounds with the single adverbs of place are exceed- ingly numerous, and many of them pass into other classes, and even into other parts of speech by metaphorical application: hereby, herein, hereupon, thereabouts, thereafter, therefore, thereof, thereon, whereas, whereby, wherefore, whereof, any- where, elsewhere, somewhere, wheresoever, &c. 7. II. Adverbs of Time; as 'ever', 'lately', ' often ', ' before ', &c. Time may be present, past, or future. 8. 1. Time present. Under this we include the following : 'now', 'to-day', 'instantly', 'presently', 70 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADVERB. 'still', 'forthwith', * henceforth 'j together with such phrases as ' this instant ', &c. Closely allied to this class are those adverbs that connect one thing with another in point of time, such as ' while ', ' when ', * then ', ' as ', ' immediately '. The word now is the main or typical adverb of present time, from which signification its other uses are derived. ' Immediately ' is used by the Scotch, when the English use ' presently '. ' I will come presently ' is the current English expression for ' I will lose no time ', * I will come without delay '. The strict use of ' immediately ' is to make one event follow close on another in a narrative ; * he heard the news, and immediately set out '. 9. 2. Time past: 'before', 'heretofore', 'hitherto', 'already', 'lately', 'once', 'yesterday'. The meaning of once is ' some former time not signified '. 10. 3. Time future: 'hereafter', 'afterwards', 'soon', 'henceforth', 'presently', 'immediately', 'to- morrow ', ' no more '. It will be seen that some of these (soon, presently, immedi- ately, henceforth) have been already enumerated under present time. They express an action just about to commence, and there- fore, though strictly future, they are yet also practically present. 11. 4. Duration and Repetition: 'ever', 'never', 'always', 'aye'; 'often', 'seldom', 'rarely', 'occasionally', 'frequently', 'continually', 'continu- ously', 'incessantly', 'perpetually', 'again', 'once', ' twice ', ' daily ', ' monthly ', ' annually ', ' periodically'. Ever is the foremost of the class expressive of duration. Its meaning is ' at all times ', or ' through all time ' ; and owing to the great force or impressiveness obtained through this extensive signification, we find it employed as a word of emphasis : ' if he offer ever so much ', meaning an indefinitely large quantity. By analogy we extend the figure still farther, and say ' ever so little ', although this somewhat borders on a contradiction of; the original meaning ; as also does ' ever the less ' for ' one whit the less '. The same reason explains the applications of ' never '. As it excludes all time, it is a term of strong denial, and is employed for mere purposes of emphasis. ' He answered him ADVERBS OF TIME AND DEGREE. 71 Again means originally ' back ', * opposite ', * on the con- trary ', 'on the other hand', and hence 'a second time', but is not confined to this application. It serves as a conjunctive adverb, or conjunction, introducing a new sentence or paragraph, with the signification 'once more', or ' in. addition '. By the phrase ' once and again ', frequent repetition is denoted. 12. III. Degree, or Measure; as 'much', .'little ', ' very ', ' far ', ' exceedingly '. These refer to the attribute of quantity, which has been seen above to be estimated in two ways, namely, by numbers, and by indefinite words. For a scale of intensity beginning at the least, we have ' very little ', ' little ', ' slightly ', ' scarcely ', ' inconsiderably ', ' pretty ', ' moderately ', * enough ', ' sufficiently ', ' much ', * very much ', * greatly ', ' exceedingly ', ' utterly ', ' thoroughly', 'generally ', * universally ', ' terribly '. ' Gay ', in the sense* of * very ', is a Scotticism. 'Generally' has two very different meanings which are liable to occasion ambiguity. In the one sense it implies ' for the most part ', or ' in the majority of instances ', as ' the plan generally succeeded ', or succeeded in the greater number of trials. In the other sense it means a general or generalised fact or attribute, something common to a whole class, tus ' Animals generallii have a nervous system ', or, it is a general property of animals. The first is the most visual meaning, the second is better expressed by the phrase ' in general '. Defect. The following may be considered as expressing quan- tity under the form of defect or deficiency : ' almost ', ' nearly ', ' little ', * less ', ' least ', ' hardly ', ' but ', * partly ', * well-nigh '. * Partly' is an adverb of division : * partly his, partly yours '. Excess is implied by 'very', 'far', 'exceedingly', 'more', ' most ', ' better ', * best ', ' worst '. Equality, or sufficiency : 'enough', 'sufficiently', 'equally', * exactly ', ' perfectly ', ' truly ', 'just '. Abatement, or gradation : ' liardly ', ' piecemeal ', ' gradually '. Repetition (implies number) : 'seldom', 'often', 'frequently', ' once ', ' twice ', ' thrice ', ' again ', ' once more '. In the sense of addition : ' also ', ' likewise ', ' besides ', ' too '. 13. There are certain important adverbs of Comparison : 'so', 'as', 'than', 'the', and 'too'. With these may be joined 'enough', 'sufficiently', and 'only*. So, in its original etymology, is a demonstrative pronoun, meaning ' by that '. We have seen that it is still employed in this character. It thence became an adverb of comparison: 72 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADVERB. 'it was so dark, that we could see nothing '. It was dark 'by that, to that measure, namely, that we could not see '. To make the comparison, some second clause or statement is requisite. Sometimes it is used with a maiked emphasis : ' Sn frowned the mighty combatants, that hell Grew darker at their frowii.' In colloquial language, we often leave *he comparison un- supplied, and then the word is a mere expression of intensity ; ' the view is so fine '. The application to signify cause and effect is in conformity with the original meaning : he ran with all his might, and so was first'; which is to say, that 'running in that manner, he became first ' ; the relation of cause and effect being inferred from the sequence of statement. As, etymologically, is a contraction of ' ail-so '. In substance it is the same word as ' so ', and admits of the same interpreta- tion. It also retains a pronominal application in the relative combination 'such as', and perhaps in the constructions 'as follows ', ' as regards '. The adverbial signification ' as brave as a lion ' may be explained ' brave by that (or in that degree) by which (or in which degree) a lion is brave '. By an admitt< d ellipsis, we may say ' brave as a lion '. 'As far as we can see '; 'as two is to one, so is twelve to six'; two is to one by that, twelve is to six by that. ' Men are more happy, as they are less involved in affairs '; ' more ' (the more) completes the comparison. 'As ' passes into more remote meanings when used as a conjunc- tion. Thus it means time ' he trembled as he spoke ' ; reason ' as (for since) you are of that opinion '. In combination with ' if ', the comparative signification is still apparent ; ' as if we did not know that '. There is simply an ellipsis. Than (formerly ' then ') follows comparatives. ' He is stronger than you ' is, in full, ' he is stronger ; then (=. next, in a, lower degree) strong are you '. The (O.E. thy, abl. of demonstr. adj. )precedes comparatives. 'The more, the better '='by that more, by that better', 'better in that degree in which more '. Compare ' as '. Too is likewise an adverb of comparison occasionally employed in the absolute sense. Its terseness is fully appreciated in trans- lating into other languages, as the Latin. ' He is too old to learn ' is a happy abbreviation of ' he is so old that he is unable to learn '. When the phrase expressing the comparison is sup- pressed, we must understand the word in the sense of ' more than enough, than what is just, right, convenient, fitting, or desirable'. Oh ! that this too, too solid flesh would melt, Thaw, arid resolve itself into a dew.' ADVERBS OF COMPARISON AND CERTAINTY. 73' Enough and sufficiently are also used in a similar way : ' 1 am old enough to manage my own affairs ' ; ' the irritation is sufficiently great to lead to war '. The longer forms would be : ' 1 am so old that I am able to manage my own affairs ' ; ' the irritation is so great that it may lead to war '. The condensation may be carried even to the omission of the word of comparison, the force of which, however, is felt to be implied : ' He is not a man to put confidence in ' ; 'he had not the prudence to conceal his anger '. The longer forms would be : ' he is not so honourable (trustworthy, good, able, &c. ) a man that one can put confidence in him ' ; 'he was not so prudent as to conceal his anger that he concealed his anger '. The important word only, with the synonymes 'solely', ' merely ', ' alone ', might be included under the present head. The general meaning of ' only ' is ' this one thing by itself ', to the exclusion of other things. 14. IV. Belief and Disbelief, or Certainty and Uncertainty; as ' truly ', ' surely ', ' certainly ', ' nay ', ' not ', ' perhaps ', ' possibly '. This being a distinction of great and leading importance, the words that indicate the degrees of certainty and uncertainty are a marked class, although not very numerous. For the expression of belief or certainty, we have ' certainly ', ' surely ', ' assuredly ', ' truly ', ' verily ', ' undoubtedly ', ' exactly ', ' positively ', 'precisely ', ' indeed ', ' yes ', ' yea ';* with a variety of phrases, as, ' of course ', ' by all means ', ' in .. truth ', ' even so ', 'just so ', ' most assuredly ', ' by all manner of means', ' on every ground ', 'without fail', 'without excep- tion ', ' beyond all doubt ', * beyond the possibility of question ', ' to be sure '. For the expression of disbelief, we have principally the great particle of negation, ' not ', or ' no ',* and phrases deriving their negative force from it : ' no ', ' not ', ' nay ', ' not so ', ' not at all ', ' no wise ', ' by no means ', ' by no manner of means ', ' on no account ', ' in no respect ', ' not in the least ', * The words yes, yea, ay, no, are called adverbs, and seem to have an adverbial force ; but, as Mr. 0. P. Mason remarks, they are never used to qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, and therefore appear scarcely entitled to the appellation. He proposes to call them interjections ; but this too seems objectionable, as they are not outbursts of emotion, like ' alas 1 ' ' hurrah ' ! and the like. They are rather a species of relative words, which express a speaker's assent or denial to a particular state- ment, not by repeating the statement, but by referring to it as having juat been enounced. Many of the words in the above list, may be detached in the same way from the sentence that they qualify : for example 'certainly', 'surely', ' indeed', &c. The adverb then stand* alone by an obvious ellipsis. 74 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADVERB. ' not a whit ', ' not a bit ', * not a jot ', 'forsooth ' (an ironical phrase in modern English, but used at one time seriously, for ' verily '). For probability, contingency, or uncertainty, we have ' perhaps,' 'probably', 'possibly', 'maybe', 'haply', 'mayhap', 'likely,' ' perchance ', ' peradventure ', howbeit '. 15. V. Cause and Effect; as < therefore', ' wherefore ', ' why ', ' whence ', * hence ', ' thus ', and numerous phrases. Under this head we may include instrumentality, which meaning, however, although abundantly expressed by phrases and clauses, is seldom given by any single word. 16. VI. Manner, or Quality; as 'well', 'ill', ' wisely ', ' bravely ', ' softly ', ' quickly ', * remarkably ', ' rightly '. As with adjectives, this is the class that includes the great body of adverbs. Of the five previous classes it is possible to give an exhaustive enumeration, but adverbs of quality make a large part of the vocabulary of the language. The mode or manner of doing an action may be very various, as we may see on a little reflection. Suppose the subject is putting something in motion ; we may move quickly, steadily, violently, suddenly, abruptly, hurriedly, straight, zigzag, strongly, rightly, beautifully, unexpectedly, and so on. And every kind of action that it is possible to mention has varieties of manner peculiar to itself. Thus ' to speak ', 'to sing ', 'to eat ', ' to look ', ' to work ', ' to govern ', ' to die ', have all their special modes, exclusive of the attributes of time, place, and degree, above enumerated ; and the word, or phrase, or clause, expres- sive of that mode, is considered in grammar as an adverb. ' He spoke long, clearly, to the purpose.' 'He looked hard, loitJi anxiety, as if he were in earnest.' ' He governed wisely, with discretion, so as to gain esteem.' ' He died easily, without suffering, as one would have predicted.' A word, or combination of words, answering to the interrogative ' how ' is au adverb of manner, as replying to an inquiry into the special mode or circumstances of an action. If we say ' the sun shines ', any one may demand a more specific account of this fact, which is known to take place in a variety of ways, and the words employed to give such more specific information are adverbs or the equivalents of adverbs : ' the sun shines brightly, or with intermission, or so as to light up the landscape, or as if we were ADVERBS OF CAUSE AND MANNER. 75 in the tropics '. The name for the specifying attribute of a noun corresponds to the adjective in grammar ; the specifying attributes of the verb are given by the adverb. Now, from the great variety of ways and circumstances of the performance of actions, adverbs, and adverbial phrases and clauses, like adjec- rives and their equivalents, are necessarily innumerable. 17. Adverbs of Manner are often used to express Degree : ' seriously ', ' hopelessly ', ' pierc- ingly ', ' provokingly 7 , ' inseparably ', ' inextricably '. ' The patient is seriously, hopelessly ill ' ; ' the air is piercingly cold ' ; ' he was provokingly cool ', ' they are inseparably, inextri- cably connected '. 18.* The formation of adverbs from Parti- ciples is an elegant means of brevity : 'provokingly', ' knowingly ', ' avowedly ', * invitingly '. ' He was provokingly cool ' is a short way of giving the sense of ' he was so cool as to provoke one that one could not but feel provoked '. ' They broke the law knmcingly ' is a condensation for ' they broke the law, and they knew that they were doing so'. ' lie has avowedly retracted his opinion ' ; ' the door is invitingly ajar '. Substitutes for the Simple Adverb. 19. The equivalents of the Adverb in com- position are phrases and clauses. (1.) PLACE. Phrases: 'I was never in that place, quarter, toi'-n, part of the world, <6c.'(= there)'; 'at the seat of judg- ment', 'in the skies', 'under the greenwood tree '. Clauses: 1 wherever one goes ( everywhere), one hears the same story ' ; ' ichere the tree falls, there will it lie ' ; 'whither I go, ye cannot come'; ' go whence you came '. The relative adverbs 'where', 'whither', 'whence', 'wheresoever,' &c. are the connectives of these clauses with the main clause, while they also qualify, by the attribute of place, the verb in the dependent clause. (2.) TIME. Phrases-. ' Their rivalry is active even to this day (==. yet) 1 ', ' every two years ' (= biennially) ; ' once on a time ' ; ' the day before yesterday ', ' next year ', ' a century ago '. Clauses : ' while I live (= ever, always, &c. ) I will follow truth ' ; - 1 will come when I can ' ; ' the thing was done before I came '. These clauses are introduced either by the relative adverbs of time ' ere ', ' until ', 'when ', ' while ', ' whenever 'or by the 76 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADVERB. prepositions ' before ', ' after ', ' since ', which in this applica- tion govern clauses, instead of nouns, but are usually called conjunctions. (3.) DEGREE. Phrases: 'The scene was in a singular degree ( singularly) romantic ' ; ' he is so clever as to surprise one (surprisingly clever) ' ; ' by ever so little ', ' to a small extent ', in a very intense degree '. Clauses : ' He is not so careful as he ought to be (= careful enough] ' ; ' the rain was heavier then we anticipated tJmn could have been anticipated (= unexpectedly heavy) ' ; ' the sea is as d( ep as the mountains are high ' ; l as tlnj day is, so shall thy strength be '. ' As ' is the principal word employed in these clauses. The degree being expressed by comparison with some other thing as a standard, the connec- tive required is a word or words of comparison or proportionality: as as, as so, than, the (the more). ' He knows more -than I (do) ' ; ' the longer we live, the more charitable we become '. (4.) BELIEF and DISBELIEF. Phrases: 'Beyond doubt (= undoubtedly, doubtless) ', ' with the highest certainty ', ' with great hesitation ' ; to confess the truth (= truly, indeed, certainly, &c.), I do not like him. ' Clauses: If my life depended on it, I would maintain my opinion ' ; ' I am as certain as if I had scon it (= perfectly certain) '. Clauses of Belief and Disbelief are introduced by forms for Degree. CONDITION, UNCERTAINTY. 'The King could not legislate without the consent of his Parliament (phrase) unless (or except) his Parliament consented, if his Parliament did not t - ntsent ' (clause). Conditional conjs. introduce these clauses. (5.) CAUSE and EFFECT. CAUSE. Phrases : ' For what purpose (= why) are you doing this ? ' ' owing to these causes (hence, therefore, &c.) the enter- prise failed ' ; 'by the action of the sun,' ' by force of kindness,' 'by the influence of the government*. Clauses: 'The crops are bad, because the spring was ungenial ' ; 'we lost the fight, because our numbers were reduced '. The conjunction ' because', and its equivalents (inasmuch as, by reason that, &c. ) are the connecting links in this kind of clause. EFFECT. Phrases : 'To his own hurt,' 'with the highest success (= most successfully) '. Clauses : ' He stood his ground, so that at last he triumphed '. (6.) MANNER generally. The phrases and combinations for this purpose are innumerable. 'In a manful way', &c. The clauses are introduced by the relative or connecting adverb ' as', upon the same principle of comparison as that involved in degree. ' He behaved as if his all had been at stake ' ; ' he falls to such perusal of my face as he would draw it '. ADVERBIAL EQUIVALENTS. 77 20. Other Parts of Speech are occasionally used as Adverbs. Nouns : ' He sent the man home' (place) ; 'he goes to-morrow' (on the morrow) (time); 'he cares not a groat' (degree). 'Skin deep', 'town made', ' stone dead'. This is not an unfrequent usage. "We can explain it by the abbreviation of the adverbial phrases, ' on the morrow ', ' to his house, or home ', ' so much as a groat, &c. Pronouns occasionally serve as Adverbs: 'what ( = why) should he labour 1 ' * somewhat large ' (Scotch ' some large ') ; ' none the worse '; ' I will not do this either '. Adjectives often appear to stand where Adverbs might be expected ; as ' drink deep ', ' the green trees whispered soft and low ', ' this looks strange ', l standing erect '. "We have also examples of one adjective qualifying another adjective, as ' wide open ', ' red hot ', ' the pale blue sky '. Sometimes the corresponding adverb is used, but with a different meaning ; as ' I found the way easy easily 1 ; ' it appears clear clearly'. Although there is a propriety in the employment of the adjective in certain instances, yet such forms as ' indif- ferent well ', ' extreme bad ', are grammatical errors. ' He was interrogated relative to that circumstance ', should be relatively, or in relation to. It is not unusual to say ' I would have done it independent of that circumstance ', but independently is the proper construction. The employment of Adjectives for Adverbs is accounted for by the following considerations : (1.) In the classical languages the neuter adjective may be used as an adverb, and the analogy would appear to have been extended to English. (2.) In the oldest English, the adverb was regularly formed from the adjective by adding ' e ', as ' soft, softe ', and the drop- ping of the 'e' left the adverb in the adjective form; thus 'clcene', adverb, became ' clean ', and appears in the phrase ' clean gone ' ; 'fceste, fast ', ' to stick fast '. By a false analogy, many adjectives that never formed adverbs in -e were freely used as adverbs in the age of Elizabeth : 'Thou didst it excellent', ' equal (for equally) good ', ' excellent well '. This gives pre- cedent for such errors as those mentioned above. 78 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. (3.) There are cases where the subject is qualified rather than the verb, as with verbs of incomplete predication, ' being ' ' seeming ', ' arriving ', &c. In ' the matter seems clear ', ' clear ' is part of the predicate of ' matter '. ' They arrived safe ' ; ' sate ' does not qualify ' arrived ', but goes with it to complete the predicate. So : ' he sat silent ', ' he stood firm '. 1 It comes beautiful ', and 'it comes beautifully', have different meanings. This explanation applies especially to the use of participles as adverbs, as in Southey's lines on Lodore ; the participial epithets applied there, although appearing to modify ' came ', are really additional predications about ' the water ', in elegantly shortened form. ' The church stood gleaming through the trees '; ' gleaming ' is a shortened predicate of ' church ' ; and the full form would be : ' the church stood and gleamed '. The participle retains its force as such, while acting the part of a coordinating adjective, complement to ' stood ' : ' stood .gleaming' is little more than 'gleamed'. The feeling of ! adverbial force in 'gleaming ' arises from the subordinate parti- cipial form joined with a verb, ' stood ', that seems capable of predicating by itself. ' Passing strange ' is elliptical ; ' passing (surpassing) what is strange '. Verbs J as ' smack went the whip '; ' he let it go bang at the window '; a very rare usage, Prepositions ; as 'I told you before 1 ; 'I have not met him since '; ' we never trusted them after '. THE PREPOSITION. Definition. I. A Preposition is a word prefixed to a Noun or its equivalent to make up a quali- fying or adverb phrase: 'Send the parcel to town, in the evening, by us/ The action of sending the parcel is limited by three adverb phrases ; and the word used in each that goes with the noun or pronoun to make the phrase, is a distinct part of speech, called the Preposition : ' to ', ' in ', ' by ', are prepositions. This is the only definition that effectually separates preposi- tions from conjunctions. A conjunction could not be used with a noun to make a qualifying phrase. We could not say * Send the parcel i/'town, though the evening, or us '. CASE-PREPOSITIONS. 79 The regular place of a preposition is between a verb and a noun : ' taken by force '. Where one noun is connected with another by a preposition, there is usually a contraction : ' We went from house to house ', ' we went /row (one) house, and we went to (another) house '. ' Your Father in heaven ' ; ' your Father who dwells in heaven '. Sometimes a preposition is joined with an adverb (see NOUN, 21 ) : 'until now (= the present time) ', ' for ever (= all time) ', ' from abroad ', ' not above once or twice ', ' by to-morrow '. In such expressions as ' in all ', ' in brief \ * for good ', ' at last ', ' for better ', ' for worse ', prepositions are combined with adjectives, instead of nouns. The ellipsis of the noun is obvious. Case-Prepositions. 2. Certain Prepositions specially corres- pond to the case-endings of nouns in the classical languages; these are 'of, 'to', 'for', ' from ', ' by ', ' with '. 3. Of corresponds to the possessive case in English, and the genitive case in other languages. As the possessive inflection is used only in a small number of nouns, and not uniformly in those, we are dependent on this preposition for conveying the meaning of the possessive case. 'Of expresses a variety of relations, which may be traced up to a common source. The original import of the root was 'from', 'separation', 'proceeding from', which easily led to the meaning now most generally signified, namely, ' belonging to ' or ' referring to '. For example, the ' force of the wind ' means a property proceeding from the wind, or manifested by it, and therefore inhering in it, or belonging to it. (1.) The partitive meaning. 'Of is used to relate the part of anything to the whole: 'the wing of the eagle ', ' the walls of the town ', ' the banks of the river '. Any complicated object may be considered as made up of its parts. A house has a foundation, walls, a roof, doors, windows, rooms, &c. ; these are its parts, or mechanical divisions. Any 80 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. one of these being specified, we signify that it belongs to the house by the preposition 'of: 'the roof of the house '. So we may say * the army of Britain ', ' the children of the family ', ' the property of the corporation '. These are all separable parts of the wholes that they severally belong to. A fraction or division of a total is expressed by ' of ' on the same principle : ' a third of the proceeds ' ; ' few of the host survived ' ; 'a tithe of all he possessed ' ; ' one ninth of the remainder'. Hence the adjectives of fullness or want are naturally followed by ' of ' ; ' full of compassion, of hope ' ; ' destitute of clothes, of money, o/all things '. (2.) The attributive meaning. 'Of is used to connect an abstract property, or quality, with the concrete ; as ' the strength of the lion ', ' the lightness of air ', ' the temper of steel '. There is a second mode of conceiving a complex or concrete object, namely, as made up of properties, or attributes, insepar- able from the object, except in thought. Thus we may speak of the length of a room, but we cannot cut off the length from the other dimensions and properties. We cannot separate the weight, the colour, the value, of gold from the rest of the qualities. These are called abstract qualities ; they are spoken of in language as inhering in the total, or the concrete ; and when any one of them is specified, the preposition 'of is the connecting word : as ' the sweetness of honey ', ' the shape of the mountain ', ' the colour of the snow ' . These two meanings are simple and intelligible, being two modes of the same general idea of ' possession ', ' property ', or ' belonging '. But we find other meanings apparently very remote from this leading idea. (3.) The reference meaning. ' Of ' m.ay serve to specify a subject or make a reference; as 'the Book of Proverbs'. Here 'Proverbs' indicates the subject that the * book ' refers to. ' The love of our neighbour '; love with regard to, or directed upon, a certain party specified as our neighbour. ' Of man's first disobedi- ence sing, heavenly Muse '. This meaning may have grown up thus. If we say ' a book of problems ', we may be understood as implying, that of the whole class of things named problems, as much is taken as will make a book, literally, 'a bookful of problems '. 'A treatise of geometry ', is a portion of the whole subject of geometry, MEANINGS OP t OF '. 81 taken and included in a treatise. The meaning of reference would thus be a branch of the partitive meaning. It is to be noticed, however, that this application of the word is not so fre- quent now as formerly. We prefer ' on ' to ' of ' in specifying a subject under discussion : as ' on geometry ', ' on plants ', &c. ' The love of our neighbour ' is ambiguous if we allow it to mean ' towards our neighbour '. Properly this should be interpreted (attributively) ' the love manifested by our neigh- bour to us ' ; for the other case we should use ' to ' : ' love to God ', ' love to man '. In the phrase ' the fear of God ', the meaning of reference is exclusively involved ; the ' fear ' is a passion belonging properly to us, and is indicated by the possessive of the person, ' man's fear ', -' the wicked's fear ' ; but there must be an object to the passion, some one who, as it were, shares the property of it ; there is an attribute belonging to God that inspires the fear, and this probably leads to our employing 'of in order to indicate this object. ' Sing of man's first disobedience ' is ' let your song arise o\vt of and hence take for its subject, be in reference to man's first disobedience '. 'Tell me truly what thou think' st of him '; that is, ' about, regarding him '. Such a phrase as ' a common of turbary ', is a pure case of reference ; the acceptation is ' a common in so far as regards the right of cutting turf. ' Right of pasturage ' is a ' right having reference to pasturage '. (4.) The Adjective meaning. The Preposition, with its Noun, has often the force of an Adjective ; as 'a crown of gold', for 'a golden crown'; 'an act of grace ' (a gracious act) ; * a pearl of great price ' (a precious pearl). This too might be explained on the partitive principle. 'A crown of gold ' we may interpret as meaning the quantity of gold taken and employed to make up a crown. In ' a man of courage ', we may imagine that of the courage contained in the world a certain portion is represented as inhering in a man, a man filled or supplied with courage. This construction is the chief example of the adjective phrase. (5.) The Apposition meaning. Nouns in appo- sition are sometimes connected by ' of '; as * the city of Amsterdam \ ' this affair of the mutiny ', ' a monster of a man ', ' the crime of murder '. ' The city of London ' is strictly partitive, inasmuch as the city is a part of London ; but * the town of Berlin ' is an ex- 6 82 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION, ample of apposition, ' the town, Berlin '. It is n< apply this form indiscriminately : * the river of not allowable to Jordan ' is an error. ' This affair of the mutiny ' is the same as ' this affair, namely, the mutiny '. We may perhaps consider the present case as a further application of the meaning of reference. ' A brute of a dog ' is colloquial English, and may be interpreted as a case of apposition, or predication, ' a dog that is a brute '. ' The winter of our discontent ' is a Shakespearian figure, indi- cating apposition. Additional examples. ' To ask a favour of, ' to rid one's self of, 'to cure a man of, ' delivered of a child ' (' woes ', ' danger ' Shak.}, are examples of the employment of the preposition in its primary sense of ' proceeding from '. ' He rejoiceth more of that sheep than of the ninety and nine which went not astray ' ; * I will not drink of the fruit of the vine ' ; ' to die of hunger '. In the expression ' of necessity ' we have the equivalent of the adverb ' necessarily '. It may be explained as ' something belonging to or proceeding from necessity '. Shakespeare says ' of force ', where we should say ' perforce '. So, ' of course ', * of consequence ', ' of a truth '. Agency or cause was often expressed by 'of about the time of Elizabeth : ' received of (for ' by ') Edward ', ' the observed of all observers ', ' understanded of the people ', * ye shall be hated of all men ', ' seen of all the apostles '. This application remains in the exceedingly common case where the action, naturally expressed by a verb, is expressed by a noun. ' The baptism of John ' gives in the form of a noun (with adjunct) the fact that ' John baptized ', and the agent or subject is connected with the action by ' of '. In the same way, ' the war party agitated ' is turned, for being conveniently spoken about, into ' the agitation of the war party ' ; and * of* is used as in the preceding example. Again, the object, as well as the subject, of an action is simi- larly connected with the transmuted verb by ' of '. We may say ' Caesar conquered Gaul ', and then speak of this fact as * Csesar's conquest of Ganl ' ; the verb being transmuted into a verbal noun, with which the object is kept connected by * of '. ' Columbus discovered America ' ' the discovery of America ' ; ' Gutenberg invented printing' 'the invention of printing'; ' England lost Calais ' ' the loss of Calais ' ; ' to destroy a city' ' the destruction of a city '. In ' the Earl of Mar ' we have an exact case of partition ; for although such titles are now mere names, they were not always so. Mar was a great district of country containing many con- stituent elements, physical and moral ; among these was its 'OF' AND 'TO'. 83 chief, or Earl : so that ' the Earl of Mar ' was a correct form on the partitive principle, no less than ' the district, the people, the wealth, the history, &c., o/Mar '. 'The Queen of England', the ' Town Clerk of Leeds ', are exactly parallel. The same principle will explain ' Doctor of medicine ', ' Teacher of music ', ' Dean of Guild ', ' Master of the Rolls '. Every one of these supposes a collective institution, made up of many elements, or parts, and of these one is specified : Medicine is a whole, containing its science, its methods, and among the rest, its doctors. In comparing the expressions ' a bust of Cicero ' and ' a bust of Cicero's ', we can farther illustrate the uses of the preposition. In the second case it has the partitive signification ; the meaning is ' a bust of Cicero's collection of busts ' ; in the other it is an example of reference ' a bust whose subject is Cicero'. ' A play of Shakespeare ' is also partitive ; a man's productions are considered as a part of his collective personality. ' The better of it is not so good as ' the better for it '. ' My uncle Toby's heart was a pound lighter for it.' 4. To. The primary idea of motion in the direc- tion of pervades all the applications of ' to '. Considering the extent of its use, the meaning of ' to ' is remarkably uniform. It is pointedly contrasted with ' from ', as in the phrase ' to and fro '. ' He went to the house ', ' leave that to me ', ' add to your faith ', ' duty to our parents ', ' to arms ', ' glory to God ', are obvious instances. Among the more remote applications are to be found such phrases as ' pleasant to the taste ', ' to one's hand ', 'ten to one ', ' to the number of two hundred ', ' to all intents and purposes ', ' to his honour be it said ', ' done to a cinder ', ' ye shall pay to the last penny ', ' they marched to the tune of ', ' to a Christian, this world is a place of trial and preparation '. Even in the examples where motion ' in the direction of ' is not directly stated, proximity, which is the natural result, is indicated ; hence the meaning of reference indicated in the last example. As the sign of the infinitive, ' to ' has still the same signifi- cation. It is remarked by grammarians that certain nouns, adjectives, and verbs take ' to ' after them, and lists of such words are accordingly given for the guidance of the pupil ; as, for example, ' accustom to ', ' adapt to ', ' belong to ', ' equal ', ' prefer ', ' tend ', &c. But it should be noticed that in nearly all these cases the intended meaning is answered by this preposition, and would not be so well answered by any other. Thus the words * attach', ' attend ', ' confirm ', ' consecrate ', ' listen, ', ' give , ' 84 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. ' tell ', ' show ', ' liken ', all indicate the sense of approaching nearer to something, or pointing in some one direction, which is the main signification of ' to '. In a few cases there would appear to be something arbitrary in the choice, and in these wide departures from the fundamental meaning we must look upon the connexion as a special idiom of the language, to be learned from usage, and not to be inferred from the general meaning of the word. Among these, we may perhaps include the following, ' blind to ' (where ' to ' means reference), ' deroga- tory to ', ' foreign to ', ' object to ', ' opposite to '. Such examples as 'true to', 'unknown to', 'dislike to', ' provoke to ', ' impute to ', ' adapt to ', are conformable to the primary signification. We occasionally meet with violations of these special usages, such as ' different to ', for ' different from'. ' To take to wife ' is almost a solitary remnant of this use of ' to ' ; = ' as ', ' for ', ' in the capacity of '. ' With God to friend ' (Spenser) ; ' he hath a pretty young man to his son ' (Bunyan). ' This is nothing to what we expected '. The sense of ' in comparison with ' is easily reached from the original meaning. ' The Greeks are strong and skilful to (in proportion to) their strength '. ' It is altered to the better ', should be 'for the better '. Scotticisms : ' Will you buy a knife to (for) me ' ; 'I have no fault to (with) him ' j ' I entertain no prejudice to (towards) him'. 5. For is much more complicated and various in its applications. Originally connected with, 'fore', meaning ' in front of, it has branched off in different directions, until the original signification is frequently to all appearance lost sight of. (1.) The chief meaning is 'direction, end, purpose, benefit'. ' They set out for their home ' ; ' some toil for money, others for fame ' ; ' every one for himself ' ; ' the Sabbath was made for man ' ; 'for this end came I into the world ' ; ' good for man ' ; 'oh, for a draught of vintage that hath been ' ; 'for Jesus' sake '. This meaning is brought out strongly by th.6 contrasting pre- position ' against ' : ' he fought for his principles and against his interest ' ; ' for the constitution, and against the king '. ' We are for the principles of good government against Walpole, and for Walpole against the opposition.' The meaning of reference, seen in such expressions as ' so much for the first question ', ' bodies depend for their visibility', can be traced to the meaning of end, purpose, benefit. APPLICATIONS OF ' FOR '. 85 "The old idiom now called the gerund form of the verb, is an instance of this application : ' What went ye out for to see ? ' The idea of end or purpose is implied in this verbal construction, although the * for ' is now dropped. ' For a holy person to be humble, for one whom all men esteem as a saint, to fear lest himself become a devil, is as hard as for a prince to submit himself to be guided by tutors.' Here we have a form grown out of the gerund construction, with a reference still to the idea of end, purpose, or direction. This is a useful equivalent of the noun clause (that a holy person be humble, that a prince submit himself, &c.). The meaning of cause, as well as of purpose, readily con- nects itself with the sense ' in front of ' : ' beheaded for treason', ' decorated for bravery ', ' could not act for fear ', ' eminent, famous for ', * frequented for '. In the phrases ' six for a penny ', ' line for line ', ' measure for measure ', we have the meaning of exchange, or ' return for ', which chimes in with the original signification. Perhaps the idea of proportionality in the phrase ' he is tall for his years ', is merely a following out of the same application. So also ' we took him for his brother ', where the meaning shades into the idea of comparison implied in 'as '. ' For an hour ', 'for a little ', 'for once ', for ever ', represent an apparently distinct signification, although we may suppose a connexion between it and the primary meaning ' in front of '. (2.) ' For ' means ' notwithstanding ', ' in spite of ', a meaning not readily connected with the foregoing. ' For all this, they still proceed' ; ' for all his wealth, he was not content'; f for anything to the contrary'; f for all that.' "We may suppose the connexion to arise from the circumstance that men often fail in their enterprises, although possessing the usual means of success, and that the word implies the presence of the means, according to its original force, 'in front of, and yet allows us to infer that the end was not gained, ' For all his wealth with all his wealth in front of him the natural consequences did not follow in h:3 case '. (Compare the uses of ' with '.) Of the list of words given as properly followed by * for ', the greater number have their meaning suited by this preposition, while with a few it has no special appropriateness. Thus ' care for', 'sail for', 'work for', ' design for', 'good for', 'prepared for', ' substitute for ', ' thankful for ', 'answer for', 'occasion for ', ' esteem for ', are all in accord with the principal meaning above given. ' He was accused for ', is a Scotticism for 'accused '. So, ' there is much need for it ' ' need of it ' is the correct phrase ; 86 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. ' burst for (with) laughing ' ; ' insists for (on) it ' j 'he called for (on) me ' ; 'died for (of) thirst '. ' To ' and ' for ' correspond to what is called the dative case of the classical languages, although they have a far wider range of meaning than could be expressed by that inflexion. Our so-called objective forms me, thee, him, her, them are, in their origin, datives, and this signifi- cation still to a certain extent adheres to them. 6. From ; * forth ', ' forwards ', ' beginning at ', proceeding away.' < From door to door ', 'from Dan to Beersheba', 'from home', 'from earth to heaven'. The original reference to place is widely departed from in the use of the preposition, but the more general idea of ' direction from ' is in the main preserved. The application to time is seen in 'from morn to noon, from noon to dewy eve ', 'from my youth up ', 'from age to age '. Anything that indicates a source, origin, or commencement, may be preceded by ' from '. 'He rose from the ranks, from, ohscuritj r ', &c. ; ' authority emanates from, the sovereign ' ; ' won/rora the enemy ' ; ' snatched from the flames ' ; ' the song began from Jove ' ; 'we must probe the story from first to last '. Hence it is used in the sense of ' turn away ', ' quit ', ' leave ', ' abandon '. ' He fled from the city of destruction ' ; ' shrinking from the picture of distress '. Also remoteness and privation ; as 'ab?^nt/rom my sight* ; ' remote from cities' ; ' far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife ' ; 'from thee to die were torture more than death '. It likewise follows words implying deliverance, release, &c. : ' released from his vow '. So, separation, abstraction, destruction, are indicated by the same preposition, and with a like adherence to the main and primary import. Motive or reason may be expressed by ' from ' ; * they acted from no unworthy motive ', 'from gratitude ', 'from fear '. Imitation is a sense closely connected with the original : ' Kneller is said to have painted the figure and hands of ladies from his housemaid. . . He copied from the life only glaring and obvious peculiarities '. (Macaulay). Errors. ' It is inferior from (should be to) what I expected '; ' different to that ', should be /row. 7. By. The primary meaning seems to be ' about', ' alongside of ', * proximity '. ' He sat by the river ', ' by the tree ', * hard by the oracles of God ', ' inhabited FROM', 'BY', 'WITH*. 87 by the great '. The other meanings grow out of this by natural transitions. Thus, defence of, help : ' stand by me '. Agency, instrumentality, cause : ' eaten by wolves ', ' main- tained by the public ', ' watched by angels ', ' shaken by the wind '. Shakespeare uses ' with ' in this sense : ' here is himself, marred, as you see, with traitors' ; we should now say 'by traitors '. ' We hope to gain by you ' ; ' seize him by force ' ; ' by intelligence man raises his condition ' ; 'the power of speaking well should be aimed at by all ' ; ' to know by heart '. Words of measuring take ' by ' after them from the circum- stance that the things measured have to be put side by side : ' greater by half ' ; ' measure your desires by your fortunes, not your fortunes by your desires ' ', ' by the rule 'and the square ' ; 4 it was sold by the ounce '. In phrases of distribution, such as * one by one ', ' house by house ', ' to do things by halves ', we have still the same idea. 'They came by hundreds ' is a somewhat loose a] 'plication ; ' in hundreds ' is perhaps less frequent in good English. The employment of the preposition with nouns of time illus- trates the general signification : ' by this time they are far away', that is ' alongside of, or at this time ' ; ' by the commencement of spring ' ; ' by sunrise '. This is the preposition of adjuration, a purpose still conform- able to the primary meaning : ' by all that we hold dear ' is ' standing by, and under the love or fear or influence of '. 8. With. The radical notion involved in 'with' appeals to be ' towards ', 'joining or uniting'. In old English we find ' with ward ', like ' to ward ' (* to us ward', &c.). The meaning of opposition or contest comes readily from the main root, seeing that combatants must come into close contact. ' With ', in old English, was much used in this sense ; in com- pounds it has always this meaning : ' withstand. '. The meaning of ' in spite of ' may be explained in the same way as the ad ver- sa tive use of 'for'. ' With all his learning, he had but little pi udence '. Company or companionship is a very natural application : 'he travelled with me for some days ' ; ' there is no living with such neighbours ' ; 'he came with the first and remained with- the last ' ; ' his servant was with- him ' ; 'he kindled with, rage'. *I will buy i<:ith you, sell u-ith you, talk withyou, walk 88 PARTS 0$ SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. with you, and so following ; but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you ' : * with Ate by his side '. Possession is readily implied in union: 'with the hope of is the same as ' having the hope of ; so ' with a view to ', ' with power to ', ' with regard to '. From union or companionship comes cause, instrumentality, means : ' fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons ' ; ' paved with gold ', ' enriched with knowledge ', ' elated with joy ', ' filled with wine ', ' planted with firs ', ' wearied with much study ', ' with meditating that he must die once '. (Shakespeare. ) It has been seen that the agent, or prime mover, in an effect, more usually takes ' by ' after it ; but the instrument that the agent employs is expressed by ' with ' ; ' the field was dug by the labourer with his spade '. ' By ' is the preposition that follows the passive voice to express personal agency : ' tried by his peers '. ' With ' is also used for immediately after, the connexion of ideas being apparent : ' with this, he pointed to his face '. Errors. 'They quarrelled among each other', should be ' with each other ' ; ' agreeably with (to) their instructions ' ; ' he is not yet reconciled with (to) me ' ; ' prevailed with (upon) ' ; ' good-bye with (to) you ', or 'good-bye '. * From ', ' by ', and ' with ', are prepositions corresponding to the ablative case in Latin. In Greek, which has no ablative, the genitive and dative are taken instead, or the corresponding prepositions are used. The employing of these detached words is more conducive to variety and precision than the case inflexions. Nevertheless it is proper to signalize the relations that the old languages have thought fit to express by cases, as being in all probability those of most frequent occurrence and of greatest importance. We ; shall now enumerate the entire body of prepositions under different heads, according to their meanings. Classes of Prepositions. 9 I. Place. Under place, we have (1.) Rest in (the' where), as ' in ', < on ', ' at ', ' near ', ' by '. (2.) Motion with direction (the whence and the whither), ' to ', ' into ', ' unto ', ' towards ' (up, down), * from '. (3.) Place and direction, ' on ', ' over ', * under ', ' through ', ' behind ', ' between ', ' among ', ' upon ', 'near ', ' off ', ' across ', beyond ', l abaft ', ' above '. PREPOSITIONS OP PLACE. 89 10. 1. Rest in. In is the chief preposition of rest in, or the where; it is closely connected with ' on '. The primary force of the word is maintained throughout the many applications of it. The idea of ' being contained ' is seen even when place is not the subject under consideration. ' In summer ', ' in a deep slumber ', ' immersed in worldly affairs ', ' employed in carrying ', ' in the power of the enemy ', ' in joy and in sorrow ', ' versed in languages', ' persevere in his design ', ' involved in ruin '. The phrases ' in fact ', * in truth !, ' in that ', ' inasmuch as ', 'in the event of, 'in vain', 'in all', indicate no essential departure from the primary import. ' In the name of ', used in invocation or adjurat on, may be supposed to mean 'resting upon or clothed with the name or authority of '. The old writers often used * in ' for ' into ' ; ' cast yourself in wonder'. The familiar phrases 'fallw love ', 'call in question', ' dash in pieces ', &c. , remain as examples of the usage. Scot. ' He gave me a book in (as) a present '. On. For the most part, * on ' falls under the third class (place and direction) ; but it is often an equivalent of 'in-', as signifying merely rest. ' Chi a rock, ... the poet stood ' ; * the book is on the table '. At. The same as ' near ' or ' close by * : ' at the house ' may mean simply ' near or by the house '. Although thus coinciding in its primary meaning with ' by ', it differs from ' by ' in not being extended to signify causation or agency, except in a very limited way : ' at the instigation (recommendation, &c.,) of ; 'we suffered much at their hands'. Besides closeness, ' at ' may imply in the direction of; as ' to fire at a mark ' ; 'to glance at a question ' ; 'to laugh at ', ' wonder at ', ' bark at ', ' work at ', ' get at ', ' come at '. Applied, to time, it signifies a point or moment of time : ' at present ', ' at the stroke of nine ', ' at noon ', ' at midnight '. There is a distinction between ' at ' and ' in, ' as signifying place ; we say ' at the market cross ', ' at the fountain ', but ' in the town ', ' in France ', ' in America ' ; the one being a limited object, which we may stand close by, but the other a more extended surface, which we are contained in. In some cases both are applicable : ' at, or in school or church ' ; but we must say ' at home '. The phrases involving * at ' are in keeping with the general signification, although some of them constitute peculiar idioms': 90 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 1 at peace ', ' at war ', ' at play ', ' at the price of ', ' at a loss ', ' at fault ', ' at hand ', ' at issue ', ' at variance ', 'at liberty ', ' at an end ', ' at best ', ' at all ', ' at large ', ' at full speed '. Scot. ' Angry at (with) him ' ; ' hatred at (to or against) ' ; ' ask, inquire at (of) a person '. Near (nigh) also means proximity: ' near me', ' near the door ', ' near the city '. This idea is obvious in its metaphorical applications ; thus we have ' near the heart ', ' a translation near the original ', ' near the time '. It contrasts with ' at ' in not signifying direction at a distance, and with ' in ' in not expressing the fact of being contained in. By. See 7. 11. 2. Motion with direction. To ( 4) is the chief preposition for this meaning. The important compound into is very uniform and explicit in its application. 'Go into the house', 'look into a book', 'led into error', ' instilled into his mind ', ' forced into compliance ', ' ages crowded into years ', ' broken up into companies ', ' burst into fragments ', ' into difficulties ', ' infuse more spirit into the com- position ', ' let into the secret ', ' spring into blossom '. Scot. ' He is soon put into (in) a passion ' ; 'sit into (near) the fire '. Unto. Now seldom used, for it signifies almost the same as either ' to ' or ' into '. Toward, towards, in the direction of : ' ad- vance towards the castle ', ' look towards the east '. The metaphorical applications are all obvious : ' contribute towards the expense ', ' towards the end of the speech ', ' towards evening,' &c. From has been already explained ( 6). 12. 3. Place and direction. On. The simple preposition of rest, repose, or support, the foundation or prop being indicated by the noun following : ' on the ground ', ' on the table ', ' on the sea ', l on the coast ', ' leaning on his staff '* PLACE WITH DIRECTION. 91 1 London is situated on the Thames ', shows a slight departure from the strict meaning, as if by a figure of speech. Sometimes a falling or other motion is implied : * The rain falls on the earth ' ; ' I sift the snow on the mountains below ' ; ' we rushed on deck '. The other uses consist more or less in following out these primary significations. ' Depend on me ' is metaphorical rest or support. ' Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight', is highly figurative but still in keeping. ' He plays on the violin ', ' he dined on fish ', are farther extensions of signifi- cation. The constructions ' to gaze on ', * to dote on ', com- ment on ', ' prevail on '. ' insist on ', ' resolve on ', ' reflect on ', ' trespass on ', are well recognised idioms. In signifying time, we have such forms as ' on Monday ', ' on that night ', 'on the occasion ' ; these explain themselves. A somewhat different sense is observable when we say * on the melting of the ice the ships depart'. Here the relation is between two actions ; first the ice melts, then the ships depart. The one follows the other closely. * On ' is much the same as * (immediately) after '. Cause may sometimes be implied in the use of ' on ' : ' on this account ' ; ' on the failure of his plans, he threw up the project ' is both ' when and because his plans failed '. Reference can also find expression by ' on ', as we have seen under 'of ( 3). 'A work on politics, on finance, on music, &c. ' ; 'to speak on the terms of peace '. In Elizabethan English, * on ' was often used where we must now use * of ', especially to express reference : ' to be jealous on one ' ; ' fond on praise ' ; ' he shall hear on't ' ; ' what shall become on me ? ' And in other cases as well : ' at root oris heart ' ; ' the lord on't (of it, the island) ' ; ' i ' the middle on's face ' ; ' we are such stuff as dreams are made on '. Opposition is given by ' on ' in such combinations as 'declare, make war on ', &c. Many phrases involve this preposition : ' on fire ', ' on the wing', ' on the alert ', ' on a sudden', 'on view', 'on a great scale ', ' on the part of, ' on my honour ' ' his blood be on us '. ' Rely in ' is an error for ' rely on ' ; ' founded in truth ', for ' on truth '. Scot. ' He was married on (to) such a person ' ; ' I have waited long on (for) an answer ' ; ' I saw him on or upon (in) the street '. ' On ' is opposed by off, another form of ' of '. By ellipsis, ' off' is more in use as an adverb than as a pre- position : ' off the ground ', ' off my shoulders \ ' off work '. 92 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. The adverbial meaning is the same, and is seen in composition with verbs, as 'get off', 'break off', 'be off', 'draw off', ' drive off ', ' keep off', ' pay off ', ' drink off '. ' Set of (on a journey), should be 'set out'. The phrases 'well off ', ' badly off, are somewhat peculiar ; there is probably an ellipsis of some subject, as if we were to say ' he is well off that business '. Up, down, are opposed meanings. ' Up stairs ', ' down stairs' ; ' up hill, down hill '; ' up the stream ', ' down the stream ' ; ' down the vale of years '. Adverbial form : ' the price of stock is up ' ; ' his spirits were up ;' ' the county is up (in arms) '. ' Look up ', ' fill up ', 'lead up ', ' hush up '. ' Come down ', ' sit down, ', ' bring down ', '^pulldown', 'take do W, 'run down\ 'write down\ 'put dowri. Upon is a modification or variety of the simple pre- position * on ', which can be used for it in nearly every case. ' Upon a hill ', ' upon the right ', ' upon condition ', ' upon security', ' upon a footing', 'upon the parish ' (for subsistence or support), ' upon principle ', ' upon record ', ' upon trial ', ' upon a time ', ' upon occasion ', ' upon this,' 'go upon the ice ', ' enter upon an undertaking '. ' Kings break faith upon com- modity ' (Shakespeare) = ' when and because they can gain by doing so '. In adverbial combinations ; ' dwell upon ', ' descant upon ', ' gaze upon ', ' prey upon ', ' resolve upon '. Scot. ' There is a meeting upon (on) Thursday ' ; ' he plays upon (on) the flute'. Above, below, beneath, adhere with consider- able regularity to their well-known sense higher or lower in place. The metaphorical applications of ' above' to signify superiority, dignity, elevation, are seen in such examples as ' above his rank ', ' above his means ', ' above comprehension ', ' above board ', ' above mean actions ', ' above the brightness of the sun '. The transition is easy to the meaning, more than, ' in excess of; as ' above all', 'above the price of rubies',' 'the serpent is cursed above all cattle '. Adverbially the sense is adhered to ; as in referring to a former place in a book. 'Below', and 'beneath', are applied metaphorically to the 1 TIP, ABOVE, OVER : DOWN, BELOW, UNDER.' 93 opposite states of inferiority and degradation : ' below the mark ', 'beneath the yoke', beneath contempt'. Adv. 'He shrunk beneath '. Scot. ' Who lives above (over) you ? ' * Below (under) water, ground, his clothes '. Over means above in position : ' a naked sword hung over his head ', * a large hole over the mantel- piece '. ' Over ' is extended from place to many other applications, preserving the main idea : ' power over ', ' to watch over ', pre- dominate over', 'muse over ', 'fear came over me'. ' Over the season,' is ' through the season ' : ' overnight ' would he literally ' through the night ', but means also ' after the commencement of the night '. In composition the meaning is still preserved : ' overshoot ', * overhang ', ' overcome '. In some compounds the idea implied is ' excess ' : ' overdo ', ' overcharge ', ' overestimate '. The tran- sition is an obvious one. The idea of ' covering ' distinguishes this preposition from the allied word ' above ', and has given to it a far greater stretch of applications. The number of derivatives obtained from it is very great. Scot. ' They looked over (out at) the window '. Under, the opposite of ' over' : ' under the tree ', ' under hatches ', * under water ', ' under heaven '. * Under ' is often applied metaphorically. It is extended to subjection, dependence, and. protection ; as 'under the sovereign ', ' under God '. To the sustaining of anything as a burden, covering, or envelope: 'under obligation', ' under orders ', under trial ,' ' under apprehension ', ' under reproaches ', ' under necessity ', * under consideration ', ' under the guise, or pretence, or character, or name of, ' under sail', ' under arms ' . To less in quantity ; as ' under age ', * under the mark '. ' Under the seal of ', is a more remote extension, and may he interpreted as ' under the authority or guarantee signified by the putting of a seal '. The adverbial sense is in harmony with the other : 'hring under \ ' put under ', ' come under ', ' go under ', ' bend under '. Through. The simple preposition for the idea of passage : ' through the gate ', ' through the wood ', 94 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. ' through many hands ', ' through the ranks ', through the clouds ', ' through the valley and shadow of death '. The first step in advance of the primitive sense is to signify over the whole extent of a thing, from end to end, or from one side to another ; as ' through all ranks ', ' through all nations ' ; the application depending on the fact that passage implies suc- cessive contact, and a survey of what is gone over. Owing to the facility for gaining our wishes implied in a free passage, an open door, or a medium of conveyance, the word farther takes on the meaning of instrumentality^ cause,, means : ' through industry ', ' through influence ', ' through the minister ', 1 t/irough the swiftness of his horse'. A difference may be noted between this kind of instrumentality and that expressed "by ' with '; a difference arising out of the primitive sense of tht. words. Time : ' through the ages ', ' through the winter ', ' through the session '. Throughout is a strengthened form. Scot. ' He walked through (across) the room ' ; 'he will learn through (in) time ' ; ' he walks through (in) his sleep '. Along is 'by the long or length of ' : ' along the shore ', ' along the road ', * alongside \ No metaphorical extensions of any importance are to be noted. Adv. ' Come along ', ' wander along ', ' drive along ', ' glide along '. Across, ' on the cross ' : * across the river ', ' across the street ', ' across the Atlantic ', ' across his shoulders '. Adv. ' Lay across ', ' swim across \ Before, in the front of, with or without proximity : ' before the door ', ' before Sebastopol ', ' before the face of ', ' before the magistrate ', ' before the wind '. By a natural transition it applies to precedence, preference, or superiority : ' before hi.s betters ', ' before his regiment ', ' he was placed before the knights'. The application to priority of time is one of the chief uses of the word : ' before day ', ' before long ', ' before the ago '. ' THROUGH : BEFORE, AFTER : BETWEEX, AMONG.' 95 In the adverbial applications botli place and time are denoted, more especially time : ' looking before and after'. After, opposed to ' before ' in the signification of precedence in rank, and in expressing time. The full application to place is seen in the adverbial and ad- jective uses of the word : ' lagging after ', 'the after-part of the building '. By an obvious figure it is used with words signifying pursuit and inquiry, and also desire: 'follow after', 'search after', ' hunger and thirst after ', ' longing after immortality '. By a farther extension, also quite accountable, we find it signifying imitation or following a lead : ' after Titieus ', ' after the original, the model ', ' to name after \ Behind, as opposed to 'before', means 'in the rear of ', ' at the back of ' : ' behind the scenes ', ' behind a cloud ', ' behind the back '. Hence such applications as inferiority, being left out, a re- mainder in arrear, at a distance, out of sight, disregarded. The adverbial compounds with verbs are of a like tenor : ' stay behind ', ' fall behind ', ' walk behind ', ' look behind '. Between. When two objects are separated, the intervening space, or anything in a middle position, is expressed by this word in its primary sense : ' between decks ', ' between times '. Hence it is applied to express all that goes on in such a situ- ation : ' passing between ' ; ' intercourse or communication between ; ' ' coincidence, similarity, contrast, or difference be- tween ' (the result of the comparison that may take place when two things are near each other) ; so ' friendship, relationship, understanding between', 'contest and rivalry between', 'to adjudicate between ' ; also community or partnership ; as ' pos- sessing property between them '. ' Between ' expresses ' in the midst of two ' ; but the etymo- logy is often disregarded in its application. ' Such differences between these three great poets ' (Grote) ; ' the days when my mother and / and Peggotty were all in all to one another, and there was no one to come between us, rose up before me' (Dickens). 'Among(st) 1 and 'amid(st)' imply a greater 96 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. number of tilings surrounding ; ' among the trees ', ' among friends ', ' amidst his flock '. ' They parted my raiment among them '. Scot. ' I stuck among (in) the mud '. ' To meditate amongst decay, and stand A ruin amidst ruins.' Strictly, ' to divide between ' implies two ; ' to divide among', more than two. Beyond. The primary meaning is outside of in place, * on the far side of ' : ' beyond sea ', ' beyond bounds ', * beyond hearing '. * Beyond ' is extended met a; horically to signify superiority or excess in a great many other properties ; thus, ' beyond the number or amount ', ' beyond his power or his means ', ' beyond him ', ' beyond description ', ' beyond dispute ', ' beyond measure', ' beyond the grave'. ' To go beyond ' is to deceive, or cir- cumvent. Abaft. A sea term exclusively : * no smoking abaft this funnel '. Round, Around : 'round the house', 'run round the common ', ' around the fire '. ' Round ' adheres literally to its well-known primary significa- cation, except in the one phrase ' to get round a person ', for *to wheedle or prevail with ', 'to circumvent '. About has the primary meaning of ' around ', but is much more vaguely applied. It passes off into signifying a certain indefinite nearness or proximity, the being contained in a place somewhere or other ; as ' about the house ', ' about the town ', * about the country ', ' about the person '. This is also the force of the word as applied to time : ' about midnight ' means not exactly midnight, but some time not far off. So with number : * about a hundred '. From expressing nearness it becomes also a preposition of reference \ as ' about my father's business ', ' about who was greatest ', ' about the origin of evil '. As an adverb, its force is seen in ' go about ', PLACE AND TIME. 97 Against, 'towards', ' opposite to ', 'in opposition to ' : ' agaimt the wall ', ' over against the tower ', ' against the enenrf', ' against the current '. The contrariety to ' for ' has been already exemplified ( 5). ' Against winter ', ' against my return ', &c., shew the appli- cation to time (future). Without, ' on the outside of ', ' beyond the bounds of ' : * without the camp ', ' without the range of the rifle '. Hence the sense of ' being deprived of ', ' not having ' : * without help ', ' without courage ', ' without doubt '. These prepositions of place and motion include nearly all the simple and primitive prepositions of the language. It will be seen from the foregoing explanations that by means of meta- phorical extensions, we employ relationships of place to express most other relationships denoted by prepositions. The relationships of place may be made more explicit and em- phatic by a variety of compound phrases, which have the exact force of prepositions ; as ' in the midst ot ', ' in the heart, centre, interior of ' ; ' close by ', ' hard by ', ' in close proximity to ', ' in the neighbourhood or vicinity of ' ; ' right through ', ' straight at ' ; * in anticipation of. 13. II. Time. 'Since', < till', until ', 'during', ' pending ', * after ', ' ere '. ' Since '. The time after an event : * since the peace '. ' Till ', ' until '. Preceding and up to an event : ' till the end of the century'. * During ', ' pending '. The continuance of the event. Many prepositions of place may be applied to time, by governing a noun of time ; as ' in ', ' on ', ' at ', ' before ', ' between ', ' by ', ' within ', ' about ', ' above ', ' near '. ' In a year ' ; * on this ' ; ' at midsummer ' ; ' before noon ' ; between tiiis and the end of the week ';'&?/ Christmas next ' ; within the month ' ; ' about an hour ' ; ' above a generation ' ; ' near six o'clock '. The expression of time may be rendered more specific and emphatic by a variety of phrases : ' at the moment ot", ' on the eve of, &c. 7 98 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 14. III. Agency. The agent, instrument, or means of an action is indicated by the Prepositions ' by ', * through V with ' ; and by the phrases, l by means of ', * by virtue of ', ' through the instrumentality of ', ' by help of ', * by force of ', &c. The simple prepositions have been already explained. The phrases derive their signification of agency from the noun : l by means of a powerful connexion ' ' by virtue of his position as judge ' ; ' through the instrumentality of a skilful agent ' ; ' by help of favourable circumstances ' ; 'by force of earnest solicita- tion '. 15. IV. End, purpose, motive, or reason : * for ', * from '. Phrases : ' out of ', * on account of ', ' by way of ', ' for the sake of ', * for the ends of ', * in consideration of, 'on the score of, 'from a regard to ', ' with a view to ', ' with an eye to '. As all the actions of human beings are for some end, the statement of the end is often required. The leading preposition is ' for ' ; 'he works for his bread '. When the feeling to be gratified is pointed out, ' from ' is employed : ' he works froni hunger ' ; ' he reads from curiosity (for information) '. ' Out of kindness ' ; ' on account of mere ambition ' ; ' by way of strengthening his case' ; l for the sake of peace ' ; 'for the ends of justice ' ; ' in consideration of his former good conduct ' ; ' on the score of ill health ' ; l from a regard to character' ; 'with a view to a good education '. The meaning of the noun suggests the suitable application of the prepositional phrases. We s!ioiil;i say, 'in consideration of his youth, he was slightly pnni.-hed ', but ' on account of the serious character of the offence' ; consid- eration implying a favourable sentiment. 16. V. Reference : 'on', 'of, 'about', 'touching', * concerning ' ; ' with reference to ', ' as for ', ' as to ', ' as regards ', ' on the subject of f , ' on the matter of ', ' on the point of ', ' in respect of '. ' On the beautiful ' ; ' I sing of war ' ; ' he came to speak to me about his journey'; 'touching the law'; 'concerning his interests' ; ' unth reference to your application ' ; ' asj'or that ' ; ' as to him' ; ' as regards the progress of the suit' ; ' on the subject of explosive mixtures ' ; 'on the matter oj the sale ' j ' in rasped of your wishes '. END, REFERENCE, SEPARATION, INCLINATION, &C. 99 Allied to reference is SUPPOSITION for which there are several prepositional phrases, although the meaning is more usually expressed by conjunctions : ' in the event of ', ' on the supposition of ', ' in case of '. ' In the event ofliis not arriving ' ; * on the supposition of there being an abundant supply ' ; 'in case of failure '. 17. VI. Separation and Exclusion: 'without', ' save ', ' except ', ' besides ', ' but ', ' setting aside ', ' putting on one side ', ' (apart) from ', ' (far) from '. ' Without arms ' ; ' save one ' ; ' except England ' ; ' besides his own ' ; 'setting aside the question of compensation ' ; 'put- ting (leaving) on one side the fear of consequences ' ; 'none but him ' ; ' apart from his companions ' ; 'far from, home '. 18. VII. Inclination and Conformity: 'for', '(according) to', 'in accordance with', '(agreeably) to', * in pursuance of '. ' For (the ends of) justice ' ; ' according to use and wont ' ; ' in accordance with the views of both parties ' ; ' agreeably to your instructions ' ; 'in pursuance of the arrangements already entered on '. 19. VIM. Aversion, Opposition: 'against', ' with '. ' athwart ' ; ' in spite of ', ' in defiance of '. * A decree against law ' ; ' to contend with one ' ; ' athwart the wishes of friends ' ; * in spite of fate ' ; ' in defiance of his professions ' . 20. IX. Substitution: 'for', 'instead of, 'in room of ', 'in place of ', ' on the part of '(as a substi- tute) for '. ' An eye for an eye ' ; ' instead of his brother ' ; (by way of evasion) 'fair words instead of deeds ' ; *in room of the deceased' ; ' in place of one of the officials ' ; ' as a substitute for a bridge '. Scot. ' In place of (instead of) pitying him, they laughed at him '. 21. X. Possession, Material : 'of, '(belonging) to ', ' (the property) of ', ' (made) of '. 22. It has been seen that some words are both prepositions and adverbs. A preposition is known by its governing a noun, or a phrase corresponding to a noun. Thus an infinitive phrase is frequently governed by a preposition : ' on coming home ' ; 1 on breaking the seal ' ; ' after considering the case ' ; ' without straining hard ' ; ' the reason of his answering so soon '. 100 THE CONJUNCTION. Definition. I. Conjunctions join Sentences together: * day ends and night begins ' ; ' they were equal in power, but they were not equally esteemed '. This is the primary use of the words called Conjunctions. When two sentences are joined by a word expressing the relation of the one to the other, the word of relation and, but, if, or is a conjunction. But the remark is also made, that besides joining complete sentences, clauses, or affirmations, the con- junction may join parts of sentences, and even single words : * Abraham saw my day afar off and was glad ; ' ' Napoleon and Wellington were great generals'. These, however, are obviously contractions, and, when restored to the full form, give distinct dictums : * Napoleon was a great general, and Wellington was a great general '. ' He is neither a fool, nor a rogue ' j ' neither he is a fool, nor he is a rogue '. The following examples are not so obviously contractions : ' two and two is four ' ; ' if they stand between you and me ' . Again, * put it under lock and key ', seems impossible to resolve into separate sentences : the reason is that it is the last stage of several abbreviations. Very familiar objects that in the first instance would need to be expressed at some length, are in the end given by the fewest possible words that will make a meaning. A lock is a complicated machine ; it consists of two separable and yet related members ; the one is called the lock, and the other the key ; the two together are called shortly ' lock and key '. So ' man and wife ', ' parent and child ', ' master and servant ', ' north and south ', are abbreviated correlatives united by ' and '. When we say of two persons ' they are hus- band and wife ', we cannot resolve the conjunction immediately into two separate, affirmations, yet remotely the ' and ' connects distinct statements or sentences, such as these : ' human beings are of two classes ; the one class are males, who become hus- bands, and the other class are females who become wives '. We come to abridge these sentences by leaving out all the words, but the two essential husband, wife and couple these by ' and '. But for this we should have to say ' one of these persons is a husband, and the other is (his) wife '. Some words are Conjunctions and never anything else : such are 'and', 'or', 'nor', 'if', 'because', 'leU'. Other words CO-ORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING. 101 are, now at least, principally Prepositions, arfd become con- junctions by being prefixed to a clause ; those are-- ', before ', 'after', 'since', 'ere', 'until', 'for'. The old inglisfc cou- struction was to supply the demonstrative 'that' for the pie- position to govern : ' After that I was turned I repented ', ' after that 1 was instructed, &c.' The dropping of the demon- trative leaves the preposition in direct contact with the clause, and it is then said to be a conjunction. Certain adverbs are included among the conjunctions. These are words that are purely relative, or stand in need of a second clause to give a meaning. ' He is industrious, therefore he is happy.' The word 'therefore' would not suffice of itself to qualify ' he is happy ' ; there must be a previous clause to give the meaning, or the reason why he is happy. By this circum- stance, ' therefore ' serves the office of a conjunction. It is a relative adverb, conjunctive adverb, or adverbial conjunction. Of the same class are ' likewise ', ' also ', ' still ', ' yet ', ' never- theless ', ' notwithstanding ', ' however ', * consequently ', ' hence ', ' accordingly '. Classes of Conjunctions. 2. There are two leading divisions of Conjunctions Co-ordinating and Subordinating. Co-ordinating Conjunctions join co-ordinate clauses J that is, independent affirmations. Subordinating conjunctions unite subordinate or dependent clauses to the principal clause of a sentence. 3. I. The Co-ordinating Conjunctions are classed according to the relation existing between the united clauses. They may indicate that the second is a clause of Addition or Cumulation (' and '), of Opposi- tion or Contrast (' but '), or of Effect or Consequence (' therefore '). 4. (1.) Cumulative Conjunctions are such as unite one clause with a second whose meaning adds to what precedes : f AND ', ' also ', ' likewise ', ' as well as', 'not only but', 'partly partly', 'first then secondly,' &c,, 'further', 'moreover', 'now', 'well'. 102 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. And couples or umtes two affirmations, and does no This is the chief of fhe class ; it is a strict conjunction ; the rest are adverbs having the same general etJ'ect, but with additional circumstances or shades of meaning. Both and puts special emphasis on the com- bination. Also marks some similarity in the second statement. Very often, however, there is little implied in it beyond what would be signified by ' and '. Likewise is nearly the same as * also '. It was considered that there was point in the remr vk made on the son of a famous Scotch judge, who had succeeded to his father's office, but not to his ability ; ' he was a judge also, but not likewise '. ' Likewise ' often connects one sentence with a preceding, having nearly the force of ' and '. As well as gives an especial emphasis to the union ; in most cases more particularly to the first member. ' He as well as you ' is more forcible than ' he and you '. .'No less than' has a similar effect. Both expressions are strictly subordinating connectives. Not only but indicates strongly the fact that the first mentioned circumstance does not stand by itself, and thus emphasises the second. Instead of saying ' England and all the rest of Europe ', we may say, when we mean to put stress on the circumstance of England's not standing alone, * not only England, but all the % rest of Europe '. Partly partly. Half half. Now now. 'He spoke partly from conviction, partly from prudence.' ' He consented, half from cupidity, half from fear. ' ' He dwelt now among the Britons, now among the Mercians.' These and similar forms also couple or add two predications, intro- ducing at the same time a circumstance that seems suitable to the special case. First, then, secondly, &c. The numerr* CUMULATIVE AND ADVERSATIVE. 103 adverbs indicate cumulation ; the additional circum- stances being definite order and a means of reference. Further, Moreover, mean tbat the case is not yet exhausted, there is more to be said upon it. Now is transferred from present time to indicate present circumstances. It introduces the middle link in an argument, and it offers explanation. The effect of ' now ' commencing a sentence is to follow up a statement by something that completes it, so as to enable an inference to be drawn. Thus if a condition be premised from which something follows, the compliance with the condition would be expressed by ' now ', and the conclusion by ' therefore'. * He was promised a holiday if he executed his task ; now he has done the task, therefore he is entitled to the holiday '. (The minor premise of the syllogism is correctly introduced by 'now '.) 'Not this man, but Barabbas ; now Barabbfcs was a robber.' Here ' now ' adds an explanatory circumstance. Well implies that hitherto all is satisfactory and indisputable, and that the way is clear for proceeding another step. It is in the consecutive sentences of a Paragraph that these adverbial connectives come most frequently into play, and when carefully employed, they add much to the clearness of the connexion. The omitting of a, conjunction has the force of cumulation ; the mere fact of stating one thing after another, with no word expressing opposition, or conditional ity, or other relationship, leaves it to be understood that they are to the same general effect, just as if we were to employ ' and ' to unite them. This omission may also suggest inference : ' The wind passeth over it ; it is gone '. 5. (2.) Adversative Conjunctions place the second Sentence or Clause in some kind of opposition to what precedes. This Class is subdivided into three species. (a.) Exclusive : * not but ', ' else ', ' otherwise ', 'or'. 104 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. Not but excludes or puts aside one fact to bring another into prominence. ' A struggle, not for empire, but for existence.' * He did not speak, but lie fi.ught.' ' We must think not whom we are fol- lowing, but what we are doing.' Else, otherwise, 'on any other supposition*. These adverb conjunctions have a definite and important signification ; ' it is so, had it not been so, something would have happened '. ' He came to town yesterday, otherwise I should not have met him' ; that is, 'if he had not come to town yesterday '. Or similarly implies the exclusion of the first cir- cumstance. * I must seem to be angry, or (= otherwise, if I do not seem to be angry), she too may begin to despise my authority.' (b.) Alternative : ' either or ', * neither nor ', ' whether or '. ' Whereas ' and ' while ' may be added. The general meaning of each of these couples is well known, but there are some special meanings worth noting. Or sometimes expresses a mere alternative name, or syno?iyme, the thing being the same : * Christ, or (that is) the Messiah '. In judicial proceedings this is expressed by alias. We are hence, sometimes, at a loss to know whether an alternative is merely verbal, or is real. AVe have just seen the use of 'or ' for ' otherwise ' : ' you must study hard, or you cannot succeed '. Nor is sometimes a contraction for ' and not*. * He foresaw the consequences, nor were they long delayed ' (and they were not). These alternative conjunctions are not always con- fined to two things. * He regarded her as either an impostor, or a madwoman, or a compound of both.' 'Neither wind, nor rain, nor aught else, can cool our affection.' ' For I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth, Action, nor utterance, nor the power of speech, To stir men's blood.' ADVERSATIVE AND ARRESTIVE. 105 Whereas and while may often be regarded as co- ordinating no less than as subordinating alternatives. ' The subtle interpretation of laws can put very few in remembrance of their duty, whereas (= ' while ', ' on the other hand ') the plain meaning of the laws is open to every man '. ' Whereas ' is strictly a compound relative adverb, ^ meaning 1 in circumstances wherein, or with reference to which '. (c.) Arrestive, represented by * but ' : 'but then ', ' still ', ' yet ', ' only ', ' nevertheless ', ' however '. Phrases : for all that ', * at the same time '. But is the conjunction of exception and surprise. The characteristic meaning of * but ' is seen when something has been said that suggests, according to the usual course of things, a certain other fact, or con- clusion, which, however, does not follow in this case. ' He was honest, but he was not esteemed.' An honest man usually gains the esteem of his fellows, and when we hear the attribute of honesty affirmed, we are naturally disposed to go on and assume the accompaniment of respect ; this is prevented by the use of 'but', and hence the designation ' arrestive '. ' The meeting dispersed ', the conclusion is that everybody went away ; to check this inference, which may be too hasty and sweeping, we add, ' but the lenders remained '. ' He is rich, but not happy '; 'he tries hard, but he does not prosper'. Loose employment of ''but '. This forcible word should not be used where no exception is taken, or no arrest put upon a natural inference. ' No man taketh it from me, but I lay it down of myself; 'but' is here unnecessary. It is also a common mistake to use ' but ' in the sense of ' now ', as signifying the completing of a case in order to draw an inference. * Men are mortal; but (for 'now') we are men; therefore we are mortal.' The mere stating of a contrast does not justify ' but ' ; ' when pride cometh, then cometh shame ; but with the lowly is wisdom '. The last assertion is in accordance with the first (the denial of the opposite is another mode of affirming the same fact), and therefore there is no sufficient case for * but '. 'While 'is a suitable word in this connexion ; so is the phrase 1 on the other hand '. In the following sentence the propriety of ' but' depends on the facts of the case : ' the Commons passed the bill, but the 106 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. Lords threw it out '. If it were usual for the Lords to agree with the Commons, their opposition would be a surprise, and would be expressed by ' but '. Where there is no surprise, a cumulative conjunction is to be preferred. ' Parliament passed the measure, but the King refused his consent ', would, under the custom of the English constitution, be a proper construction. ' But ' is the conjunction of epigram. But then. A more emphatic form of ' but ' ; equal to ' but in that case, or on that supposition '. Still suggests a pause to hear what is to be said by way of exception or opposition to the previous statements. ' Still ' is an equivalent of ' but ', and even more emphatic : ' everything went against him ; still he persisted '. As it is a greater break in the flow of the composition than 'but', it is a preferable word for commencing a period, or the second mem- ber of a period divided by a semicolon. Yet. The peculiar force of ' yet ' is brought out by its connexion with ' though ' : ' though deep, yet clear '. When ' though ' is not expressed, it is understood, and the meaning of ' yet ' is almost the same. The intention is as it were formally to concede a point that would seem to carry a certain consequence with it, and at the same time to forbid that consequence. Nevertheless. In conveying the same general meaning as the foregoing, this long word makes a con- siderable break or pause. It is therefore suitable for introducing a longer declaration, as in commencing a period, or an extended member of a period. However. A word of like purport to the fore- going. It has the peculiarity of being often placed in the middle of its sentence or clause. ' That course, however, he was not inclined to take. ' The advantage of such an arrangement is, that the conjunction does not stand between the two connected statements, and so per- mits the reference to be emphatically close. Only. Placed at the beginning of an assertion ' only ' has the effect of ' but '. ARRESTIVE AND ILLATIVE. 107 ' Do as yon please ; only let your intention be apparent * ; that is, your doing so is still to permit this one thing, namely, that you make your intention apparent. For all that, in spite of all that, notwithstanding all that, are phrases that produce the arrestive effect, and are suitable to be made use of when a more than ordinary emphasis is demanded. This emphasis they give partly from the force of the words, partly from their occupying the attention by their length. At the same time. Another phrase belonging to the arrestive class, without much speciality in its application. 6. (3.) Illative Conjunctions express effect, or consequence : ' therefore ', ' wherefore ', * hence ', ' whence ', ' consequently ', ' accordingly ', ' thus ', 'so', * so that ', ' then ', ' so then '. Therefore is the typical word of the class. It is also the most frequently made use of. The rest do little more than afford synonymes to vary the composition. Where- fore is equal to ' and therefore ' ; hence, the same as ' from this ' ; whence lite ' wherefore ', dispenses with ' and ' when we should say ' and hence '. Consequently is the equivalent of 'as a con- sequence '. Accordingly may mean ' consequence ' or ' effect ', like the preceding. It is also suited by its etymology to a rather different mean- ing sometimes important to be signified, 'in harmony with '. 'The arrangements are that the cavalry and artillery shall move in advance ; accordingly, you (the cavalry) are to leave your position ', &c. Thus and so, like 'accordingly', are words originally implying comparison or similarity of manner, and ex- tended to signify inference or consequence. 'Thus ' is employed after stating a principle to introduce an example or case in point ; as much as to say ' we shall give an instance of what is intended '. It also expresses a comparison in the strict sense ; as in the passage from the Pleasures of Hope : * At summer's eve, when heaven's ethereal bow ', &c. thus (adv. of manner or comparison) with delight we linger '. 108 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. The existence of these two distinct uses renders the word less apt as an illative conjunction, although still admissible. ' So ', whose primary function is to make a comparison, can also express a consequence. ' There was nothing to be seen, so we went our way '. So that is more specific than ' so ' ; the addition of * that ' excludes the meaning of comparison ; hence this combination is one of our most precise forms of signifying inference. Its most characteristic import is, ' to such a degree that '. Then. From having as an adverb the force of 1 after that ', or ' in the next place ', ' then ' has been included among illative conjunctions ; the fact of one thing following another being given as showing causa- tion or inference. The same explanation applies to the adoption of 'con- sequently', 'it follows that ', as words signifying cause and effect. 'Then' is more commonly used in a compound phrase, 'so then ', * and then ', but it may, standing alone, have the full force of ' therefore ', in drawing an inference, or stating an effect, or a consequence. ' So then the cause was gained ', signifies * by those means it came about as an effect that ', &c. To vary the expression of this important relationship, as. well as occasionally to make it more emphatic and precise, we use phrases of greater length ; as ' the effect, consequence, result, upshot was'; 'the inference is'; 'it follows'; 'it may be concluded, inferred ', &c. 7. II. The Subordinating Conjunctions are divided according to the various relations or modes of dependence ; as Eeason (because), Condition (if), End (that), Precaution (provided that), Time (when). 8. (1.) Conjunctions of Reason and Cause: ' because ', * for ', ' since ', ' as ', ' whereas ', ' inasmuch as', 'seeing (considering, &c.) that'. When we invert an illative connexion, stating the conse- quence as the main clause, the other is then assigned as the reason : 'he is in earnest, therefore he will succeed ' (illative) ; 1 he will succeed, because he is in earnest ' {reason}. The clause ' because he is in earnest ', is a subordinate or dependent clause ; in other words, the fact is given not for its own sake, but as bearing out something else. The conjunctions introducing these clauses are, therefore, called subordinating. - REASON OR CAUSE. 109 Because, by its derivation, is the word for assigning a cause. Moral causes, or motives acting on the mind, are expressed by this conjunction : ' he reads because he has thought himself hungry ; he writes because lie has read himself lull '. Physical causation is stated in this example : ' the crops failed, because the season was dry '. For is used in assigning causation, in giving what is called the logical reason or proof, and in explaining or accounting for a thing. ' The brook will be very high, for a great deal of rain fell the night' (physical cause)-*- 4 * great deal of rain must have fallen, for the brook is high' (the logical reason or proofX_LBJ9~ pressed on, for his ambition was still unsatisfied ' (explanation). The word is especially appropriate in this last sense. A charac- teristic application is seen in such a sentence as ' do as you are told, for much depends on it ' ; here there is a blank or ellipsis, and when that is tilled up, the conjunction shows itself in the sense of giving the reason or proof : ' do as you are told ; if you fail, the consequences will be serious, for (or the proof of which is) much depends on it '. Since literally means something that is past, and hence settled and fixed, so that whatever consequences depend on it must now arise. 1 Since you desire it, I will look into the matter.' It declares a certain circumstance to have occurred, and gives that as a reason for the main affirmation. As derives its use as a subordinating conjunction of reason from the original idea of declaring similarity or comparison. * As we are at leisure, let us see what is to be seen ' ; the ' as' here assigns a reason for our seeing, &c., and it does so by indi- cating a sort of similarity or harmony between the positions of our being at leisure and our seeing all we can : 'it is in accordance with our situation to see ', &c. ' Let us act out, conform to, or resemble our position', &c. Although 'as ' is thus included among the subordinating conjunctions of reason, there is more frequent danger of ambiguity with it than with the others of the class. 110 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. Whereas introduces the preamble in every Act of Parliament, giving the reason or motive of the enactment, or the evil to be remedied by the provisions that follow. Hence it is strictly a conjunction of reason, but its employ- ment in this sense is mostly confined to legal compositions. The meaning belonging to the word in ordinary style is different. ' I offered to take the lot entire, whereas every one else wished it divided.' Here it plainly indicates a contrast between two tilings. See 5 (2) (&). Inasmuch as, forasmuch as. These are compound equi- valents of ' since ', ' as ', and ' whereas ' (in the sense of a pre- amble). Forasmuch as many have taken in hand to set forth in order, *&c. Seeing that, considering that, have a special appropriateness when the reason grows out of circum- stances reflected on by the mind. ' Seeing that you cannot get what you ask, take what you can get.' 'Considering that the world is so intricate, we are not to be surprised that science has progressed slowly.' The only peculiarity of these phrases as conjunctions of reason is derived from the meaning of the words ' seeing ', ' considering '. 9. (2.) Conjunctions of Supposition, Con- dition, or Qualification : 'if', 'supposing (that) ', ' if not ', ' unless ', ' except ', ' without ', otherwise ', ' whether ', * as if ', ' though ', ' notwithstanding ', albeit'. If. When a thing is stated not absolutely or un- conditionally, but under a certain condition, supposition, or qualification, ' if ' is the principal word for expressing the condition. ' I will, if I can ; ' 'if I could, I would '. This is the main use of the conjunction, to which it adheres with considerable uniformity. A peculiar and somewhat ambiguous employment of the word is seen in the fable, where the ant says to the grasshopper, ' If you sung in summer, dance in winter', where 'if has the force of a reason, the condition being a realised fact, ' since, or as you sung '. These are cases where the conjunction is always followed by the indicative mood. SUPPOSITION OR CONDITION. Ill Supposing that, on the supposition, presumption, allegation, hypothesis that, are phrases that vary the mode of introducing conditional statements ; they carry their own meaning with them. In case (that) is a very convenient and often-wanted phrase for anticipating contingencies or even- tualities. The prepositional phrase 'in the event of is of the same tenor. Provided that. See 10, end. If not is a conjunction of negative condition. ' Aristotle, the most sagacious, if not the most comprehensive, mind of antiquity ', conveys an insinuation of doubt, although the context and the manner will often show that the speaker either believes or disbelieves the statement. Unless and except are also conjunctions of negative condition. ' Unless (=if not) I hear to the contrary, I will be there.' ' Except (=. unless, if not) ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. ' Without was formerly used to signify ' if not ' : ' without you go, I will not '. The connexion of this sense with the usual force of the preposition is apparent. Whether or, whether, indicate a double case of conditionality. ' Whether he like it or not, he will have to go' : that is 1 whichever of the two suppositions be the fact, he will have to go ' ; ' if he like it, he will have to go ' ; ' if (though) he do not like it, he will have to go '. In the expression 'I know not whether he will come,' the word 'if sometimes takes the place of 'whether', as if con- ditiouality were still suggested. The transition from stating conditionality to implying mere doubt is an obvious one ; the meanings are still distinct. As if is a compound conjunction carrying out the sense of both words. ' He started as if he saw a spirit ', is elliptical for ' as lie would have done if he,' &c. Though, although, express concession, which is condition, with the circum stance that parties are willing to allow something that they might perhaps refuse. 112 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. ' Though all men deny thee, yet will I not ' ; 'grant the sup- position that all men, &c. ' When something is given as true with a certain limitation, we may use this word : ' they advanced steadily, though slowly '. The use of ' yet ' to preface the principal clause increases the emphasis of that clause, but does not affect the meaning of ' though ' in connexion with the subordinate clause. The omission of 'though' in the above example would make the clauses co-ordinate, united by the co-ordinating arrestive conjunction 'yet'. We have a variety of phrases for the present meaning : pro- vided that, allowing that, granting that, &c. Sup- posing that also frequently implies that a concession is made. Notwithstanding falls under the same head as the foregoing. It is a verbal phrase converted into a preposition in the first instance, and then into a conjunction. It obviously means ' 1 am prepared to do a certain thing, granting what appear to be strong considerations or forces on the other side '. ' For all that, in spite of all that ', are expressive synonymes for the co-ordinating meaning. ' Anyhow ', ' at all events ', are other phrases of allied signification. Albeit is an expressive combination, and ought not to be considered as obsolete, or old-fashioned. 10. (3.) Conjunctions of End, or Purpose : ' that ', ' in order that ', ' so as ', ' as as ', ' lest '. That is the demonstrative pronoun, converted into our chief conjunction of end. ' We sow, that we may reap ' ; * men toil, that they may attain to leisure '. The transference of the demonstrative to this peculiar use may be explained by supposing that after a fact is stated, the hearer is ready to ask ' what then ?' ' what next ?' ' what of it ?' ' for what end ?' whereupon the demonstrative supplies the information desired, ' that, (namely) we may reap '. Without assuming the natural desire to know why a thing is, or why an assertion is made, we cannot well account either for this conjunction or for the still greater blank of con- necting words shown in the gerund construction : ' we sow to reap ' ; ' they stoop to rise ; ' ' born but to die ' ; in all which the action expected to follow is simply named in its most naked form, the hearer being looked upon as asking why ? or wherefore? PURPOSE AND TIME. 113 In order that is somewhat more explicit than the simple 'that'; still it fails to .express the fact of end hy a direct meaning : the words ' in order ' mean only ' this first, that next ' ; the hearer must himself suppose that the one leads to, or points to, the other. The same phrase is interposed in the gerund construction ' we read in order to be informed '. So as. ' He so acted as to gain the confidence of others.' This is a kind of relative construction, the ' so ' being demonstrative, the ' as ' relative. * He acts in that manner, by which manner he gains.' The end is still a matter of inference more than of direct information. The effect of the construction is to indicate not merely end, but a certain express suitability in the means employed to compass the end. Lest is the end of avoidance : ' in order not to '. ' They set a strong guard, lest any one should escape.' In the use of this conjunction we should notice that if the principal verb contains the meaning of avoidance, ' that ' is preferable to ' lest '; 'I feared that (not lest) I should be deceived '. Precaution is indicated by the phrases, provided that, with the understanding that, with this proviso, &c. Precaution may be viewed either as condition or as end. It is a collateral object to be kept in view, and fulfilled along with the main purpose. In doing what is chiefly aimed at, we are to secure certain other things : ' provided that all is safe, you may depart '. In Acts of Parliament the phrase used is ' pro- vided always that '. II. (4.) Conjunctions of Time are partly rela- tive Adverbs, partly Prepositions before clauses :. 'when', 'while', 'as'; * until', 'ere', 'before', 'after'. ' I will come when I am at leisure '; 'I will praise thee while (so long as) I live '; ' as I looked, some one came near ' ; * they remained until night set in '; 'it will be long ere you have suck a chance ' ; ' the truth will come out before we are done ' ; ' after the vote was taken, the assembly broke up '. Immediate consequence is signified by various compound connectives : 'nosooner-^than ', 'just when', 'hardly before', * the moment that ', * as soon as ', &c. 8 114 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE INTERJECTION. The INTERJECTION is not properly a part of speech, as it does ' not enter into the construction of sentences. It is a sudden exclamation prompted by some strong feeling or emotion. There are various utterances suited to the different emotions of the mind : as, joy, l huzza !' ' hurra !' grief, ' !' ' ah !' ' alas !' wonder, 'hah! ' approbation, l bravo !' aversion, 'pugh !' 'tush !' For calling attention, ' lo !' ' hush !' &c. EXCLAMATION, one of the figures of rhetoric, employs words of ordinary language in the manner of interjections : ' what !' ' for shame ! ' ' ah me ! ' ' how strange !' ' hark J* X 115 INFLEXION. The second part of Etymology, called Inflexion, treats of the changes made on words to express various relations and meanings. Thus the Noun and the Pronoun are changed in three ways, namely, to express difference of Gender, Number, and Case. These changes constitute Declension. The Adjective and the Adverb are inflected for Degree. This process is named Comparison. The Verb is changed to signify Person, Number, Time, &c. This is called Conjugation. The uninflected Parts of Speech are the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection. INFLEXION OF NOUNS. GENDER. I. Natural Gender: Gender follows Sex. In Modern English, the natural difference of sex determines the gender. Beings possessing animal life are divided into the two classes or Sexes, male and female ; as man, woman ; bull, cow. Plants and things destitute of life have no sex. To this natural distinction corresponds the division of naines ; according to Gender. Names for individuals of the male sex are of the Masculine gender; as 'king', 'man', 'bull'. Names for the female sex are of the Feminine gender ; as ' queen ', * woman ', ' cow '. Strictly speaking, these two are the only genders in Modern English. 116 INFLEXION. GENDER OF NOUNS. Names for things without sex are said to be of the Neuter Gender, that is, are simply left as of no gender ; as ' gold ', ' mountain ', ' bread ', l oak '. ' Neuter ' is Latin for ' neither ' ; that is, here, neither masculine nor feminine. Many words are applied to both sexes alike ; as ' parent ', ' child ', * cousin '. These are said to be of the Common Gender. The names applied to the greater number of the inferior animals are of this sort, it being only in the more important and best known species that we are at the pains to note the sex. Thus, ' trout ', ' ant ', ' lizard ', are common to both sexes. If we wish, on occasion, to mark the sex, we use a special designa- tion, as the prefix 'he' or 'she', or the adjectives 'male', * female '. ' Man ', and ' mankind ', are often used comprehen- sively for both sexes. We also use other designations, such as ' actor ', ' author ', ' painter ', * poet ', for both sexes, although they are properly masculine, and have feminine derivatives (' actress ', &c.) The effect of this is to give very different meanings to the two phrases : ' the greatest of living actors ', and * the greatest of living actresses ', applied to a woman. By the first she is designated the first actor of either sex, by the second the first of her own sex. 2. Purely Grammatical Gender. In Old English, the gender is often determined, not by the meaning, but by the form. In modern English, gender follows sex (with a few exceptions) ; that is, masculine words and forms are confined to the male sex, feminine words and forms to the female sex. But in old English, as well as in many other languages, as Latin, Greek, &c., a poetical or figurative 'process of personifying things without life was in extensive operation, by which the distinction of gender was extended to nouns generally; and the adjective was regularly inflected in three forms, for masculine, feminine, and neuter. Masculine endings were -a, -end, -ere, -ing (patronymic), -dom, -had, -scipe, &c. ; as 'mona' (moon), 'wealderatf' (wield- ing one, ruler), ' fiscere ' (fisher), ' Wo&ning ' (Woden's son); ' wisdom ', * cildhad ' (childhood), * freondscipe ' (friendship). Feminine endings were the abstract -nis (from adj.), -u, -ung or -ing (from verbs), &c. ; as ' blithras ' (joy), ' cam ' (care), 'leomung' or 'learning' (learning). Neuter endings were -em, -lac, -en (diminutive), &c. ; as '"bern (for 'bere-aern', barley-house, barn), 'cnawZoc' (know- ledge), ' maegdw, nueden ' (maiden). HOW TO DISTINGUISH GENDER. 117 In many cases the distinctive termination was dropt in course of time, the original gender still remaining : ' street ' (for ' streets ', fern., street), &c. In the 13th century there was great confusion of the genders ; and in the 14th century, the modern system was pretty well established. 3. There are three ways of distinguishing the Gender of Nouns. I. By employing different words: as 'king, queen ' ; ' husband, wife ' ; ' boy, girl ' ; * cock, hen '. This is a question of the meaning of words, and not of grammar. It is not a method of inflexion, but a substitute for inflexion. The number of such words is not great. The fol- lowing are the chief: MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE. Bachelor Maid Father Mother Nephew Niece Boar Sow Friar Sister Papa Mamma Boy Girl Gander Goose Ram or ) -& Bridegroom Bride Gentleman Lady Wether f Ewe Brother Sister Hart Roe Ruff Reeve Buck Doe Bull Cow Horse or \ M Stallion j Mare ;,--) ( Madam L t I Darae <* Bullock or) TT p jf,,, Husband Wife &ire j ( dam Steer $ Helfer King Queen Sloven Slut Cock Hen Lad Lass Son Daughter Colt or Foal Filly Dog or Hound Bitch Lord Lady Mallard Wild duck Stag Hind Tailor Seamstress Drake Duck Man Woman Tiitor Governess Drone Bee Milter Spawner Uncle Aunt Earl Countess Monk Nun Wizard Witch Some of these names, though distinct in appearance, are very closely connected in their original forms. Thus, ' gander ' (old gan-d-ra, = ganr-a = gaiis-a ; d being euphonic, r being sub- stituted for an older s, and a the masc. termination) and 'goose ' (old gos, for gons, gans) are radically the same word. ' Nephew ' and ' niece ' come through French from Lat. nepos and neptis. According to Dr. Morris, ' lord ', old English hluford, is for hluf- weard (loaf- keeper), and the corresponding feminine is hluf- weardige, contracted to old hl&fdige, which in course of time became 'lady'. 'Colt', 'foal', and 'filly', have been traced to a radical connexion. ' King ' and ' queen ' may possibly be, at bottom, the masc. and fern, forms of the same word. ' Lass' may be for ' lad-ess '. ' Man ', in old English, was of both genders ; ' woman ' is 0. E. wif-man (wife-man). ' Bridegroom ' is a corruption of old brydguma, (bride's man) ; guma (man) being cognate with Lat. homo, as gans 118 INFLEXION. GENDER OF NOUNS. (goose) is cognate with Lat. (h)anser. ' Countess ' is the derivative feminine of ' count ', the French name for ' earl '. 4 Ciirl ' was of either gender as late as the 14th century, signifying ' a little child '. ' Drake ' is explained, by reference to cognate forms, as a con- traction of end-rake (duck -king) : cp. Germ, enterich (drake) : it is wholly distinct from ' duck '. The giving of different words to denote gender is an exceptional usage, and is accounted for in most cases by the great difference of function of the two sexes. Thus men and women perform offices so different, and sustain characters so distinct through the various relationships of life, that we are not surprised at their being designated by different words. A * daughter ' is literally ' the milker ', or 4 milkmaid ', because that was the office that the daughters of the house fulfilled in early pastoral times. So the ' horse ' and 4 mare', the 4 bull or ox* and 'cow', the 'ram' and 'ewe', &c., have broadly marked distinctions in their uses and employ- ments, which probably suggested the difference of appellation in each case. In a few instances there is a noun of common gender as well as separate designations of the sexes. Thus Child Deer Fowl Horse Son or Daughter Hart or Roe Cock or Hen Stallion or Mare Sovereign Parent Pig King or Queen Father or Mother Boar or Sow Earn or Ewe. These are also various compounds : Foster-father Foster-mother Gaffer (grand- Gammer fgrand'- pere) mere) Gentle-man Gentle-woman Grand-father Graud-mother Land-lord Land-lady Mer-man Mer-maid Milk-man Moor-cock Pea-cock Step-father Step-son Turkey-cock French-man Milk-maid Moor-hen Pea-hen Step-mother Step-daughter Turkey-hen French-woman 4. II. By prefixing a word indicating the sex ; MASCULINES. Male-servant Jtfon-servant A/cra-kind 7/e-bear We-goat FEMININE. .Female-servant .Afe'd-servant Woman-kind Sfo-bear S/ic-goat MASCULINE. Boar-pig .Bwc/t-rabbit .Bit-calf now lost. The original plural of ' man ' was ' manni ' ; and the :modifying influence of final -i softened -a- into -e- ; so that on the falling away of the inflexional ending, the plural .appeared as ' men '. So ' fet ' is for 'foti ', ' lys ' for ' liis-i ', ' mys ' for ' miis-i ', &c. In 0. E. a few other nouns similarly modified their root vowels: as *boc (book), bee'; ' broc, bre'c' ('breeches', Scot. ' breeks '), ' turf, tyrf ; ' burh (burgh, borough), byrig ' ; 'furh (furrow), fyrh orfyrig ' ; ' wilit (wight, creature), wuht '. The ending -en now remains only in *ox-ew* (0. E. ' ox-an '). In old English -an was a very common termination ; later it was modified to -en. Other examples, not long obsolete or still in provincial use, are 'een' (Chaucer's and Spenser's ' eyen ', * eye-en ' 0. E. eag-ari), ' esen ' (eaves, 0. E. efescn, esen), ' hosen ' and ' shooa ' (=:' shoe-en ', 0. E. scon), ' house-n ', 'peat-en', 'pesen' (peas), 'pull-en' (fowls), 'toon' (toes), *tree-n', &c. A few nouns were later assimilated to the -en ending ; as ' brethren ', ' children ', ' kine '. ' Brethren'. The plural of ' brothor ' was first ' brothr-w ' or * brothr-a ' ; later * brothr-e ', ' brethr-e ', ' brether ' ; then 1 brotlum ', ' brethren- '. OBSOLETE AND FOREIGN FORMATIONS. 127 Afodor (mother), dohter (daughter), siveoster (sister), were declined in the same way in 0. E., and had a partly similar history. ' Children '. 0. E. ' cild ' (child) had for plural ' cild-r-w ', which was modified to l childr-e' and 'child-er', ' child-rcn '. and ' child-er-w '. Compare ' calvren ' (from 0. E. cealf, ' calf '), ' eyren ' (from 0. E. ceg, ' egg '), and ' lambren ' (from 0. E. lamb), all long obsolete. 'Kine'. 0. E. 'cu' (cow) formed its plural, as we have seen, ' cy ', or ' ky ' ; later, it took on ' -en ', and became * kin ', * ken ', ' kine ', a double plural. * Cows ' is now the regular and common usage. 4. Some Nouns have numbers : as * deer'. the same sheep ', form swne in both * grouse ', * teal ', ' mackerel ', ' trout ', ' salmon ', * heathen ' cannon '. This corresponds to a class of neuter nouns that had lost their (nominative) plural inflexion in the oldest English : O. E. dear (sing, and plur. ), * deer ' ; sceap (sing, and plur. ), ' sheep ' ; swin (sing, and plur.), 'swine' ; &c. 5. Foreign Words. Many words borrowed from other languages retain their original plurals : ' foczis, foci ' ; ' genws, genera ' ; ' beau, beaux ' ; * cherub, cherubim.' PLURAL. Analyse* Axes The following are a few of the most usual : SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. Formula Formula Analysis Larva Larvae Axis Nebula Nebulae Basis Magwa Magi Appendia? Radius Radii Radix Tumulus Tumuli Vortex Ammalculum Animalcula Series Datum Data Species Effluvium Effluvia Superficies Medium Media Apparatus Momentum Momenta Sir Stratum Strata Madame Criterion . Criteria Bandit Phenomenon Phenomena Virtuoso Miasma Miasmata Seraph Appendices Radices Vortices change.) Messieurs Mesdames Banditti Virtuosi Seraph im ' Messieurs ' is French ; ' mes sieurs ' being literally * my sirs '. We have not adopted the corresponding singular 1 monsieur ' (mon sieur). So ' madam ' is our form of ' madame ' 128 INFLEXION. NUMBER OF NOUNS. (ma dame, 'my lady'); and 'mesdames' (mes dames} is the unmodified French plural. When a foreign word passes into common use, the tendency is to adopt the English plural. Thus we have ' genius-es ', 'crocus-es' 'vivariums', ' memo- .randums ', ' encomiums ', ' dogmas ', ' formulas ', ' cherubs ', 'seraphs', 'bandits'. Some foreign words have currency chiefly in the plural ; as ' errata ', ' arcana ', ' dilettanti ', ' antipodes '. 6. Some Nouns have two plurals, with separate meanings. SING. Brother Cloth Die Genius Index Pea Pen 113' Shot PLURAL. Brothers (by blood) ; brethren (of a community). Cloths (kinds or pieces of cloth) ; clothes (garments). Dies (stamps for coining) ; dice (for gaming). Geniuses (men of original power) ; genii (spirits). Indexes (to a book) ; indices (signs in Algebra). Pe;is (separate seeds) ; pease (collective). Pennies (separate coins) ; pence (collective ; as ' fourpence 0. Shot (the number of balls) ; shots (the number of times fired). " ' Pea ' is a modern formation from ' pease ' (0. E. pisa, pese), which was singular. The old plural pesen (and pescs) dropt its distinctive ending, and thus plural and singular became the same in form : the -s end-sound gradually restricted the common form to the plural use, and ' pea ' carne to be used as singular. From ' pea ', the plural ' peas ' is a regular and modern forma- tion. 1 Penny ' is 0. E. pening or penig ; pi. penigas, later penny es, pens, pence. The restriction of the separate forms to the different mean- ings is quite modern. 7. The Plurals of a few Nouns seem to differ in meaning from the Singulars: 'compass, com- passes ' ; ' corn, corns ' ; * iron, irons ' ; salt, salts ' ; ' content, contents ' ; ' domino, dominoes ; ' ' good, goods ' ; ' vesper, vespers '. Some nouns seem to have two meanings in the singular, only one of which, and this the least common, corresponds to the plural. 'Corn', 'iron', &c., being names of materials, do not take a plural form ; * corns ', ' irons ', &c. are the plurals of new singulars with different meanings (See below, 12 ; and p. 20), ' a corn ', ' an iron ', &c. ' Compass ', ' content ', ' good ', and other abstract nouns, similarly give rise to new singulars (or might do so), and hence ' compasses ', ' contents ', &c. (See below, 13; and page 22, 13). Other words, such as SPECIAL CASES. 129 'domino', have quite distinct singular meanings, and conse- quently quite distinct plural meanings. Further examples are : ' antic, antics ' ; ' beef, beeves ' (see 2); 'draught, draughts'; 'forfeit, forfeits'; 'grain, grains'; 'ground, grounds'; 'scale, scales'; 'spectacle, spectacles '. Some nouns have two meanings in the plural, one correspond- ing to the singular, the other distinct from it : SING. Custom Letter Number Pain Part PLURAL. Customs : (1) habits ; (2) revenue duties. Letters : (1) of alphabet ; (2) literature. Numbers : (1) in counting ; (2) in poetry. Pains : (1) sufferings ; (2) trouble, care. Parts : (1) bits, divisions ; (2) faculties, abilities. ' Custom ' is often used collectively or abstractly in the second sense of the plural form. The second meaning is, in all these cases, a rhetorical extension of the first. 8. Some Nouns are used only in the Plural. * Aborigines ', ' amends ', ' annals ', ' antipodes ', ' assets ', ' archives ', ' banns ', ' bellows ', ' billiards ', * bowels ', 1 breeches ', ' calends ', ' credentials ', ' dregs ', ' entrails ', ' filings ', ' gallows ', ' hustings ', ' ides ', ' lees ', ' matins ', ' measles ', ' molasses ', ' news ', ' nones ', ' nuptials ', ' oats ", ' obsequies ', ' odds ', ' pincers ', ' pliers ', ' premises ', ' scissors ', 'shambles', 'shears', 'snuffers', 'spectacles', 'thanks', ' tidings ', ' tongs ', ' trappings ', ' trousers ', ' tweezers ', ' vespers ', ' victuals ' , ' vitals ', ' wages '. Some of thesQ nouns name complex objects with an obvious plurality of parts : Especially tools, instruments, &c. ; as 'bellows', * pincers', ' pliers ', ' scissors ', ' tongs ', &c. And articles of clothing ; as ' breeches ', ' drawers ', ' trousers '. Others name collectively masses or aggregates of individuals, real or imagined. Such are ' aborigines ', ' archives ', ' ashes ', ' billiards *, ' bowels ', ' dregs ', ' filings ', ' molasses ', ' moustaches ', 1 proceeds ' ; ' dumps ', ' measles ', ' sulks '. 9. Plural forms construed as Singular are not uncommon : * amends ', ' barracks ', 4 bellows ', * gallows ', ' innings ' (at cricket), * means', * news', ' odds ', * pains', ' shambles ', * tidings ', &c, y 130 INFLEXION. NUMBER OP NOUNS. 'A gallows' (Goldsmith); ' the gallows itself (Cooper). * Means ', according to most grammarians, is to be u.sed in the singular when the signification is singular, and in the plural when the signification is plural. We may soy, accord- ingly, ' this means', or 'these means', as the case requires. The singular form 'mean' is to be found in the present century (Sir W. Hamilton, Carlyle, &c.). * News ' in old English was commonly plural : * thc-se are news indeed ' (Shak.) ; but now it is uniformly singular: 'ill news runs apace '. The singular form ' new ' never existed. ' Small-jt>oa? ', is a plural disguised by a new spelling : ' pox ' is for ' pocks '. As the name of a disease, ' small-pox'' is singular. 'Tidings' is plural. It is commonly used by Shakespeare as a plural noun, but in some instances he makes it singular : ' that tidings came ' ; ' a tidings ' (Antony and Cleopatra). Names of sciences, or of parts of sciences, often appear in plural form, being literal translations of the classical terms : 'acoustics', 'economies', 'mathematics', 'optics', 'physics', ' politics ', ' statics ', &c. Yet as naming collective i I es of doctrine, they take a singular verb: 'optics is the science of light'. Sometimes the singular form is found: 'logic '(and, in the Irish universities, ' logics '), ' metaphytdc ' and ' meta- physics', &c. The singular forms ' amend ', * gallow ', * mean ', ' nuptial ', ' pain ', ' tiding ', ' thank ', ' wage ', occur in old English. 10. Singular forms treated as Plural : * alms ', ' eaves ', ' riches '. ' Alms '. O. E. celmesse, almesse, dimes ; plur. celmc*san, elmessen, almessex. ' None was heard to ask ftn alms ' (Macaulay). 'The alms they receive are ' shows the transition. ' Eaves '. 0. E. yfes, efese, eves ; Jplr. e/csen (esen), crcses. 'Riches'. O. E. ruhe. is a very doubtful example. We require to take in the help of another verb ( 14 ). Where a passive inflexion exists in languages nearly allied to the English, it seems to have arisen from a mode of applying a reflexive pronoun. Old Norse at kalla, ' to call ', at kallast (for at kallask, = at kalla-sik, ' to call-(one)self '), 'to be called'. Danish at kalde shows a still further worn passive, at kaldes, ' to be called '. So the Greek passive forms were at first adopted from the middle voice (reflexive). The Latin passive is most probably a reflexive formation : 'amor' ('I am loved') = amos ~=z amo -f- se ('I love self) ; ' amaris ' (' thou art loved ') = amas-i-s = amas -f- se ('thou lovest self); 'amatur' ('he is loved ') = amat-u-se = amat -\- se ('he loves self), &c. Compare French se ineler, * to be mingled ', s'appd&r , ' to be called ', &c. 4. The Moods are the Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. Under the same head we may include the Participle and the Gerund. Mood means the manner of the action. VOICE AND MOOD. 153 Indicative and Subjunctive. One important distinction of manner is the distinction of uncondi- tional and conditional. ' I see the signal ', is unconditional ; ' if I see the signal ', is the same fact expressed in the form of a condition. The one form is said to be in the Indicative mood, the inood that simply states or indicates the action ; the other form is in the Subjunc- tive, conditional, or conjunctive mood. There is sometimes a slight variation made in English, to show that an affirmation is made as a condition. The mood is called ' subjunctive ', because the affirmation is subjoined to another affirmation : ' if I see the signal, I will call out'. Such forms as ' I may see ', ' I can see ', have sometimes been considered as a variety of mood, to which the name ' Potential ' is given. But this cannot properly be maintained. There is no trace of any inflexion, corresponding to this meaning, as we find with the subjunctive. More- over, such a mood would have itself to be subdivided into indicative and subjunctive forms : ' I may go ', ' if I may go '. And farther, we might proceed to constitute other moods on the same analogy, as. for example, an obligatory mood ' I must go ', or ' I ought to go ' ; a inoo-1 of resolu- tion ' I will go, you shall go ' ; a mood of gratification ' I am delighted to go ' ; of deprecation' I am grieved to go*. The only difference in tho two last instances is the use of the sign of the infinitive ' to ', which does not occur after ' may ', ' can ' ' must ', ' ought ', e PARTICIPLE AND GERUND. TENSE. 157 party', ' my admitting the fact', 'the Icing's dissolving parliament ', are short expressions for 'the fact that John left', 'we met', "the king dissolved ', quell smoke tug (draw) \ writhe j" quench sneak wade (go) yell reap reek spew spurn walk wash yield 70. A few of the most common errors in the conjugation of the mote irregular verbs, whether old or new, may be noted. The chief misleading circumstance is that in the new verbs we are habituated to the identity of form of the past tense and the past participle, whence we are apt to apply the same rule to the old verbs. ' The letter was wrote (for written] ' ; ' the wine was drank (for drunk)'; 'he has broke (broken) the win- dow'; 'I have much mistook your passion'; 'I have already chose (chosen) my officer '. ' I have struck ' is now in use foi the ancient form, * I have stricken '. ' I had neither ate nor drank ' should be ' eaten nor drunk '; ' and now the years a numerous train have ran ' (for run). There is a confusion between the verbs ' lay ' and ' lie '. "We often see such errors as ' the book lays (for lies) on the table ' ; 'let it to/' (for lie). In poetry especially there is a strong tendency to confound the past tense and the past participle : ' I begun ' (for began), ' the latest minstrel sung '. Technical language retains older forms: 'the charge was found proven ' (the ordinary p. part, being ' proved '). DERIVATION. SOURCES OF ENGLISH WORDS. I. The English Vocabulary has drawn words from many languages ; especially from Latin, directly or indirectly. The Grammar of our language is exclusively native. In the early centuries of the Christian era, Britain was in- vaded from the country that now forms Denmark and the North-west of Germany by certain tribes under the names of Jutes, Angles, and Saxons. The year 449 is assigned as the date of the landing of the Jutes in the Isle of Thanet, in Kent, under Hengist and Horsa. Other invasions followed ; and in the course of a hundred years the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles were established over the greater part of England. There were different dialects spoken among these several tribes, although they were closely allied to each other. The early compositions that have come down to us nearly all exemplify one dialect the dialect of the western counties. A few fragments illustrate the dialectical peculiarities of the counties of the North. In the midland counties there was yet a third dialect ; and from this the modern English of literature has more directly de- scended. As the Angles or English established the political superiority of their name, so the common term for the language of the Teutonic conquerors was English. Taking together the contri- butions of all the united tribes, we assume these as the basis of the present English tongue. The other great element is the Roman, by which is meant the aggregate of English words drawn from the Latin language, but derived by tie for the most part through the French. The early English and Latin together constitute the mass of our vocabulary. The remaining constituents are : words from languages be- longing to the common stock called Teutonic, of which English is a member Dutch, German, and Scandinavian ; words from the Keltic languages spoken in Britain before the English con- quest Welsh and Gaelic ; words from the Greek ; and words from the languages of distant countries connected with us by colonisation, trade, &c. 204 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. 2. The Classical element of our language, by which is meant the Latin, together with the Greek, was introduced at different periods. 3. I. During the Roman occupation of the island, between A.D. 43 and A.D. 410. The words that remain from this period are chiefly local names connected with military stations. Castra (a camp) gi ves 'Lancaster', 'Gloucester', 'Winchester', 'Exeter', &c. Colonia (a Roman settlement) : ' Lincoln '. Fossa (a trench) : ' Fossway ', ' Fosbrook ', ' Fossbury '. Portus (a harbour) : ' port ', ' Portsmouth ', ' Porchester '. Strata (paved road) : ' Stratford ', ' Streatham ', ' street ', &c. Vallum (a palisaded rampart) : ' bailiff ', ' Old Bailey ', 'Wallbury'. 4. II. During the four centuries following the introduction of Christianity, A.D. 596. The contributions during this interval include many words of a religious character, and the names of institutions and natural productions introduced by the missionaries. ECCLESIASTICAL. Latin. altar cowl disciple mass pall saint chalice creed feast offer porch shrine ; cloister cross font pagan preach sacrament Greek. alms bishop clerk hymn monk psalter .angel canon deacon martyr priest stole .apostle church heretic minister psalm synod NATURAL OBJECTS. Latin. ;beet fig millet pine 'box laurel mule pumice cedar lettuce oyster rue chalk lily palm tiger cherry lion pard trout cucumber mallow pea-cocfc turtle elm marble pearl vulture Greek. agate crystal phoenix anise hellebore sponge camel myrrh sycamore INTRODUCTION OP CLASSICAL WORDS. 205 acid chancellor ell nurse rule anchor chest empire ounce sack ark circle fever palace senate axle city fork plant spnde belt cook gem plume table bench, coulter grade pound temple bile crisp mile prone title 'candle crest mortar provost tunic capital crown muscle purple verse Greek. cymbal metre rheum epistle philosopher school giant plaster theatre The words * baptize ', ' synagogue ', ' disciple ', ' resurrection', ' parable ', ' repentance ', and many others superseded names of native origin for the same things. 5. III. The great accession of Latin words took place subsequent to the Norman Con- quest, forming what is called the Norman-French element of our Language.* The Normans gave the names pertaining to feudal- * ' Tbe Normans were originally Scandinavians, who settled in France as their brethren had done in England. In 912, Charles III. ceded to them the province called Normandy after them. Here they came into , contact with a people speaking a language derived from the Latin, and. like the Franks and the other barbarian invaders of Gaul, Italy, and .Spain, they gradually ceased to use their own Scandinavian tongue, and adopted the language spoken by the inhabitants of their new home. This language has obtained the name of French, from the Franks, who conquered Gaul in the fifth century, and, like the Italian, Spanish, and other languages derived from the Latin, is frequently called a Romance language, to commemorate its Roman origin. The first introduction of French into England dates from the time of the lat^r Saxon kings. Ethelred II. married Emma, daughter of Richard, Duke of Normandy ; and his son, Edward the Confessor, who was brought up at the Norman court, and spoke the French language, gave great offence to his English subjects by his partiality for this tongue, and by his introducing French ecclesiastics into the kingdom. But the important event, which firmly planted the French language in England, was the conquest of the country by William, Duke of Normandy, in the year 10(56. For two centuries French was the language of the English court ; Norman settlers, speaking French, were spread over the country, and filled all the ecclesiastical and civil posts ; and French was spoken in the courts of law and taught in the schools. In this way a large mass of the population must have become acquainted with French ; and a very great number of French words was gradually introduced into the English language '. {.Marsh's Lectures, II.) 206 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. ism, war, law, and the chase, as well as additions to the general vocabulary. Feudalism and ivar. aid buckler guardian mail trumpet armour castle hauberk peer truncheon array champion harness relief vassal assault chivalry herald scutage vizor banner dower homage scutcheon war baron esquire joust tallage ward battle' fealty lance tenant warden Law. advocate case felony paramount statute approver contract judge plaint sue arrest estate justice plea suit assize fee larceny sentence surety The Chase. bay couple (v), forest quarry tiercel brace covert leash reclaim venison chase falconer mew sport verderer But in addition to the names on these special subjects, many hundreds, if not thousands, of words of French origin were in- corporated with the general vocabulary in the course of three or four centuries. In Lay am on, in Chaucer, in Wyclifie, the acquisition of French words is seen going on. Few words seem to have been derived at this period from the i Latin directly. It cannot, however, in all cases be known whether words from the Latin have passed through the French ; but nouns in ' our ' (ardowr), ' ier ' (cavalier), ' chre ' (sepulchre), * eer ' (auctioneer), adjectives in ' que ' (unique), and words beginning with ' counter ', ' pur ', and ' sur ' (counteract, purpose, surprise), are of this class. And, generally speaking, when words of classical origin are greatly altered in the English spelling, they have not come directly from the Latin ; as 'reason' (Fr. raison, Lat. rationem), 'journal' (Fr. journal, Lat. diurnalis), ' ally ' (Fr. allier, Lat. allegare), ' accomplice ' (Fr. complice, Lat. complex), 'beauty' (Fr. beaute, Lat. bellus), 'obey' (Fr. obe'ir, Lat. obedire, from audire).* 6. IV. After the Revival of Learning, many words were taken directly from the Latin, and a smaller number from the Greek. The greater number of words bearing evidence of being obtained directly from the Latin, have been introduced since the revival of letters in the beginning of the sixteenth century. * Angus on the English Language, p, 10. EFFECTS OP THE REVIVAL OP LEARNING. 207 A few are selected by way of specimen : abdicate adhere beatify cardinal cogitate abhor admire benevolence case command abject adopt biennal cause council abjure affirm biped celebrate commit abnegate agent calamity celestial common abominate aggravate callous chain compassion absent alacrity camp chance complacent accelerate allocate cant charity compose * accede alternate capillary circumference concord address announce carbon circle confess, &c. Our abstract nouns ending in y and ion a pretty numerous class are very slightly altered from the Latin original : 'calamity' (calamita-tem) ; 'compassion' (compassio-nem). They follow the forms of the earlier derivation of these through French. The diffusion of Latin words in English is most comprehen- sively seen by examining a list of Latin roots, and noting their respective prevalence in the language. The following are a few of the best known : Verbs : ago facio pendeo scribo cado fero plico sentid cerno gen- pono sequor claudo habeo porto servo credo jaceo premo solvo curro J un go probo specio dico lego pungo spiro do levo puto statuo duco mitto qusero sto eo moneo rego struo esse nascor salio sumo Nouns: anima cura jus munus caput forma lex nomen cor gratia mantis pars Adjectives : sequus firmus alter fortis bonus gravis The number of Greek roots is smaller, but some of them are fruitful of compounds. Conspicuous examples are : ago (to lead) demos (the people) logos (speech) archo (to begin) grapho (to write) ode (a song) cycles (a circle) nudor (water) pan (all) magnus malus medius tango tendo teneo traho venio verto video voco volvo signum tempus testis primus similis unus 208 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. pathos (feeling) polls (a city) tithemi (to place) phaiuo (to show, ap- poieo (to make) topos (a place) pear) scoped (to see) zoon (an animal) phileo (to love) techne (art) &c. Of the words derived from these roots, the following are a few examples : demagogue, archaeology, hydrography, cyclopaedia, melody, pantheon, sympathy, phenomenon, telescope, technical, hypothesis, topography, zoology. 4 The importance of these roots may be seen from the fact that from pono and positum we have in English two hundred and fifty words ; from plico, two hundred ; from fero and latum, one hundred and ninety-eight ; from specio, one hundred and seventy-seven ; from nitto and rnissum, one hundred and seventy-four ; from tenec and tentum, one hundred and sixty-eight ; from capio and captum, one hundred and ninety -seven ; from tendo and tensum, one hundred and sixty-two ; from duco and ductum, one hundred and fifty-six. Lo'jos gives us one hundred and fifty-six ; graphein, one hundred and fifty -two. These twelve words, therefore, enter into the composition of nearly two thousand five hundred English words. One hundred and Jifty-four Greek aud Latin primitives yield nearly thirteen thousand words.'- (Angus, English Language, p. 46.) A great many Latin and Greek words are still imperfectly in- corporated in the language. All the nouns that make the plural according to classical forms, and not according to the English form, are of this kind. The demands of science, and even of industry and the common arts, lead to the unceasing introduction of new classical words : telegraph, microphone, telephone, bicycle, photography, locomotive, terminus, caloric, basic, colloid, aeronaut, diagnosis, amalgam, cataclysm, onomatopoeia, &c. It would form a useful exercise to note and compare words that have come directly, and words that have come indirectly through French, from Latin or Greek. For example : ' aggra- vate, aggrieve'; 'benediction, benison'; 'blaspheme, blame'; 'captive, caitiff'; 'diurnal, journal'; 'fact, feat'; 'faction, fashion'; 'fragile, frail'; 'gaud, jewel, joy'; 'juncture, jointure'; 'loyal, royal, legal, regal '; 'major, mayor'; 'nutriment, - nourishment'; 'phantasy, fancy'; 'pedestrian, pioneer'; 'pro- vidence, purveyance, prudence'; 'sequel, suit'; 'species, spice'; 'superficies, surface'; 'supreme, sovereign'; 'tradition, trea- son'; &c. 7. Keltic dialects existed at an early period, and still partly exist in Britain. The Keltic dialects now remaining are the Welsh, Gaelic, Manx, and Irish. One large class of names derived from them are names of places. KELTIC INFLUENCE. 209' Rivers: Clyde, Don (Doon, Devon, Tyne, Teign, Tone), Dee, Thames, Avon, Stour, Severn, Trent, Esk (Usk, Exe, Wash, Ouse), Leven, Wye, the Tors (Derby and Devon). Hills : Malvern, Meudip, Cheviot, Chiltern, Grampian, &c. Islands : Wight, Man, -A mm, Bute, Mull. Counties: Kent, Devon, Glamorgan, Dor-set, Dnr-ham, Wilt-s. Towns: Liver-pool, Carlisle, Penzance, Peel; Pen-rith, Car- diff, Llandaff.* Among Keltic names of places we are to include those con- taining the following elements : Aber (mouth of river) : Aberdeen, Aberbrothwick (Arbroath), Aberwick (Berwick), Aberystwith. Al (white) : Albyn, Allan, Lune. Aid, Aird (high) : Ardrossan, Arran ; Dysart, Lizard. Ath (ford) : Athlone. . Audi, auchin (field) : Auchmull, Auchinleck ; Aughrim. All chter (height): Auchterarder, Auchtergaven, Auchterless. Bal, Lally (village) : Balgownie, Ballymahon. Bala (issue of river from lake) : Bala, Balloch. Ban (white) : Bandon, Banna. Beg (little) : Ballybeg, Killybegs. Ben, or Pen (head, mountain) : Benlomond, Pendleton, Penmaenmawr, Peutland. Blair (field, clear of wood) : Blairgowrie, Blair Athole. Bottom (valley) : common in Sussex, and in personal names. Brae (billy rough piece of land) : Braemar. Caer, Car (fort, town) : Caerleon, Cardiff, Cardow Cain (white) : Ken, Kenuet. Cairn (heap of stones, rocky hill) : Cairnbanno, Cairngorm. Cam (crooked) : Cambeck, Cambuskenneth. Cefn (back, chine] : Chevin, Cheviot, Keynton. Coed (wood) : Cotswold, Chatmoss Combe, comp (hollow or bent side of a hill) : Compton, Ilfracombe, Melcombe, Wycombe. Craig, Carrick, crick (rock, crag) : Craigdam, Carrick- fergu.s, (Jricklade. Cul (back or hind part) : Culdaff, Culross. Dal, dol (plain) : Dalkeith, Dairy, Dolgelly. Dim (black) : Douglas, Diggles, Dublin, Cardow, Tomdow. Don (water) : Bandon. (See also above : Rivers.) Dour (water) : Darent, Dart, Darwin, Derwent. Drum (ridge) : Dromore, Dundrum, Tyndrum. Dun (hill) : Dunblane, Dunkeld, Dumbarton, the Downs, Suowdoa. * Adams on the English Language. 210 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS, Esk (water, current) : Esker, Esthwaite, Ashbourne, Ease- burn, I sis. (See also above : Rivers.} Fell (hill) : Carterfell, Scafell, SnafelL Garw (rough) : Garry, Yarrow. Glen, glyn (narrow valley) : Glencoe, Glenshee, Glynneath. Gonn (blue) : Cairngorm. Gwent (plain) : Nantglyn, Winchester. Inch, Ennis (island) : Inchcolm, Inehkeith, Enniskillen. Inver (mouth of river, laud fit for tillage) : Inverness. Ken, Kin (head) : Kenmare, Kenmore, Kent, Kinnaird, Kinross, Cantire. Kill (cell, chapel, burying-ground) : Kilmarnock, Kilsyth, Icolmkill. Lin (deep pool) : Linlithgow, Dublin, Roslin. Lis (mound) : Lismore. Llann (church) : Llandaff. Magh (plain) : Maynooth, Armagh, Mor (great) : Benmore. Mor (sea) : Moray, Glamorgan Rath (mound) : Rathlin. Kin (point) : Penrhyn, Rins (of Galloway). Bos (promontory) : Ross, Kinross, Melro'se, RoseneatK Strath (broad valley) : Strathmore, Strathspey. ^am (spreading, broad) : Tamar, Thames. * (town) : Coventry, Oswestry. , y (water) : Conway, Medway, Solway.* The words in the general vocabulary derived from the Keltic dialects are given in the Appendix I. 8. Our intercourse with the Danes and other nor- thern nations has brought us a considerable number of Scandinavian words. These are chiefly names of places and of persons. The Scandinavian nations are the Icelanders, Danes, ^ISTor-- wegians, and Swedes. The oldest Scandinavian language is the Old Norse of Norway, now spoken with little alteration in Iceland. The Danish invasions of Great Britain have left us a number of Scandinavian words. In the counties north of tl.e Wash and the Mersey many of the names of places are from this source. * Angus on the English Language, p. 18. Se also Chambors's Exercises IB Etymology. SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCE. 211 A. ay, ea, ey, oe (island) : Staffa, Cumbray, Chelsea, Anglesey, Orkney, Faroe. A, ea, ey (water, river) : Greta, "Waveney. Ark (temple) : Arkholm. Beck, batch (brook) : Caldbeck, Wansbeck, Snailbatch. Brek (steep) : Norbrek. By (Norse byr, farm, village) : Derby, Grimsby, Netherbyres, Netherby. Dale (valley) : Borrowdale, Tweeddale, Arundel, Dan (Dane) : Danby. Den, Dean (hollow valley): Hawthornden, Tenterden, Southdean. Ding, thing (meeting-place) : Dingwall. Fiord (inlet) : Milford, Seaford, Waterford. Fleet (flood) : Ebbsfleet, Northfleet, Purfleet Force (fors, a waterfall) : Mickleforce. Garth (yard, enclosure) : Applegarth, Dalegarth, Dnrmgarth, Gate (passage, way) : Gallowgate, Margate, Reigate. Gil (narrow cleft in side of valley) : Ormesgill. Frequent in Iceland. Holm (island in lake or river ; plain near river) : Arkholm, Flatholm, Langholm. Kell (spring) : Kelby. Kirk (church) : Laurencekirk, Ladykirk. Lax (salmon) : Laxay, Laxford, Laxweir. NeSS (headland) : Bowness, Caithness. Scale (shealing) : Portinscale, Shields, Galashiela. Scar (cliff) : Scarborough, the Skerries. Scaw (wood) : ScawfelL Skip (ship) : Skipwith, Skipton. Ster (place) : Lybster, Ulbster, Ulster. Slither (south) : Sutherland. Tarn (mountain lake) : Tarnsyke. Thorpe, Throp (village) : Raveusthorpe, Woolthorpe, Hey- throp. Thwaite (piece of land) : Crosthwaite. Toft (small field) : Lowcstoft. Wick, wig, wich (Norse vik t creek, bay) : Ipswich, Sandwich. With (wood) : Langwith. The termination ' son ' appended to names is Norse : ' Swain- son ', 'Ericson'. ' Ulf ' or 'Ulph', found in proper names, is Norse for 'wolf', The Scandinavian words in the general vocabulary are given in the Appendix II. * 212 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. 9. Various other members of the Teutonic Stock of languages (to which English belongs) have contributed words to the English vocabulary. It happens that a certain number of English words are not found in early English writings, but occur in Dutch, German, Flemish, &c. We thence infer that such words have been derived from those languages, although it is also possible that they may have existed in ancient English dialects, as spoken, if not as written, or that they may belong in origin to a period when English and these other languages had not yet branched off from the common stock. We do not know the history of the actual introduction of all our foreign words. The words derived from the other Teutonic languages are given in the Appendix III. 10. Words introduced from the French, and more or less perfectly assimilated, have reference to various subjects : Wax: aide-de-camp emeute materiel retreat bayonet epaulet melee reveille bivouac fusee mitrailleuse ruse casern glacis mobilise scarp chevalier hors-de-combat parley sortie cordon intern parole squad corps manoeuvre picquet tirade elan marque (lettre de) redan tirailleur Literature, art, and affairs : aper9u attache critique cue laissez faire mise-en-scene programme redaction ballet debut naivete" regime belles lettres denouement nom de plume renaissance brochure doctrinaire parliament resume bureau encore parvenu role clef esprit persiflage rondeau clique facade personnel routine connoisseur feuilleton portfolio savant coup d'etat finesse portrait tapis coupon crayon hautboy jeu d'esprit pourparler precis troubadour vers de societe" Fashion, manners, and pleasure: ilr.mode badinage billet-doux blase tmende honorable beau belle bizarre bonbon TEUTONIC FRENCH ITALIAN. ' 213 croquet distingue eau de Cologne e-clat e"lite . ennui entree etiquette fete rechauffe foible recherche" mesalliance roue* millionaire rouleau le beau monde sangfroid nonchalance soiree outre ton pas valet modiste moire paletot pelisse queue (cue) rouge surtout trousseau bonhomie bonne boudoir bouquet brusque carte chaise conge 1 Dress : blonde chignon crochet blouse coif deshabille bonnet coiffure fichu busk crinoline golosh Cookery : biscuit, dejeuner, entries, entremets, fricasse*e, gout, menu, omelet, ragout. Miscellaneous : accouchement apropos cafe canard chagrin chateau chef cortege 11. Italian has contributed words relating to music, sculpture, and painting, with some miscellaneous words. creche cul de sac debris d6p6t dernier ressort devoir douceur douche e"clat entourage fracas immortelles lieu penchant prestige protege rapport reverie soi-disant souvenir tete-a-tete tic-douloureux vis-a-vis vogue akimbo alert allegro alto arquebusa askance askant attitude avast ballad bandit banquet bass bassoon bigot boa bravo breve brigand brigantine brocade broccoli bronze brush, bubble burlesque buzz cameo cannon canteen cape caper captain caravel (a kind of ship) Caricature carmine carnival cartel cartoon casino cassock castle charlatan cicerone citadel company companion conceit concert cosset cozen crate crypt 214 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. cuff (blow) grate (noun) pigeon cupola curry (dress leather) grime grotto pilgrim pistol cutlass grotesque policy (insurance) cnrtal (axe) despatch group harlequin porcupine portico dilettante hazard profile dimity ditto domino indigo inveigle invojce punch (stage puppet) purl (edging for lace) puttock dram embrocation list (catalogue) lupines regatta scaramouch ferret lurch sketch fib luscious soprano fit (an attack of pain) macaroni stanza folio madrigal stiletto freak (whiin) mere (adj.) stucco gabion mongrel studio gallant motto tenor gambado nun terra-cotta garnet opera torso gazette paladin umbrella gondola palette virtuoso gorge parapet vista granite parasol volcano grapple pedestal zany 12. Spanish : alcove castanets fumadoes alligator cigar gabardine almond clarion gala armada cochineal galleon armadillo cockatrice garbage barilla cork garble battledore bezel (basil) corridor corsair grandee hidalgo booby crab (a windlass) jade borachio desperado javelin bustard discard .jennet calabash calenture dismay don jmita junto lawn (cloth) caparison embargo levant (v.) capon embarrass maroon caracal filigree molasses cargo filibuster mosquito cask (casket, casque) flotilla mulatto SPANISH ARABIC HEBREW &0. 215 negro pickaroou pounce (the talon of ninny pillion a bird of prey) pail pint punctilio pamphlet plate (vessels of gold savannah pawn (chess man) and silver) sherry peccadillo potato tornado 13. Portuguese: caste fetish porcelain cocoa mandarin palaver commodore marmalade verandah 14. The following words are traced to the Walloon, a dialect poken in some districts in the north-east of France and in Belgium : fester, funk, harridan, 15. Swiss: daw dismal fetlock glimpse 16. Turkish:- bey candy bosh carviare caftan chouse caique divan 17. Arabic :- horde janizary khan odalisque mart seraglio shagreen (leather) simmer admiral attar (otto) fakir minaret shrub alchemy azimuth felucca moonshee simoom alcohol borax firman moslem sirocco alcove cadi gazelle mosque sofa alembic caliph giraffe mufti sultan algebra camphor harem mummy syrup alkali carat hegira nadir tabor almanac chemistry jar (bottle) naphtha talisman amber cipher julep nard , tamarind amulet civet koran rice .^,. tambourine arrack coffee lemon saffron tare arsenal cotton lute salaam tariff artichoke asa(fcetida) dragoman elixir magazine mameluke sandal (wood) sheik vizier zenith assassin emir mattress sherbet (drink) zero 18. Hebrew: abbey cherub hosanna abbot cinnamon jubilee amen ephod leviathan behemoth gehenna manna cabal hallelujah pharisee sabbath sapphire ' seraph shekel 216 DERIVATION. SOURCES OP WORD8, 19. Persian: chess azure backsheesh balcony barbican bashaw bazaar caravan check-mate curry dervise emerald hookah howdah jackal jasmin kaffir lac (resinous substance) lilac musk orange pasha saraband 20. Hindu : coolie muslin cowrie nabob jungle pagoda lac (100, 000 rupees) palanquin lascar pariah loot punch mullagatawny pundit banian betel "buggy bungalow calico 'cassowary chintz 21. Malay :- a-muck cajeput bamboo gamboge (Cambodia) bantam (Java) gingham (Java) 22. Chinese : bohea congou hyson caddy gong nankeen ash satrap scimitar shawl taffeta tiffin tulip turban rajah rupee sepoy shampoo sugar suttee toddy mango mangrove orang-outang pekoe atin sago dugoag taol tea 23. Polynesian tattoo taboo kangaroo alpaca cannibal 24. American: hurricane jerked (beef) (Chili) jaguar (Braz.) jalap (M.ex.) lama mahogany maize canoe cayman caoutchouc condor hammock 25. Names of Persons : braggadocio hermetic cinchona lazaretto davy (safety lamp) macadamize galvanism macintosh herculean maudlin mocassin pampas skunk squaw tapioca tapir tobacco tomahawk tomato wampum wigwaui yam orrery ottoman pander philippic quixotic simony spencer stentorian tantalize &c. NATIVE WORDS DISCRIMINATED. 217 26. Names of Places : academy arras artesian bayonet currants (Corinth) copper (Cyprus) cambric (Cambray) damask ermine (Armenia.) guinea japan magnet milliner muslin (Mussoul) parchment (Perga- mos) peach (Persia) spaniel (Hispaniola) toledo worsted ("Worstead) &c. 27. For practical purposes it is useful to be able to discriminate the words of classical origin from those belonging originally to English. This may be done to a considerable extent by the help of a few general rules. 28. I. Certain divisions of the parts of speech are native English : The pronouns. Adjectives : pronominal, numeral, irregularly compared, and the Articles. Verbs : auxiliary and defective. Adverbs : the simple adverbs of place, time, and cause and effect. The prepositions. The conjunctions. The exceptions are extremely few : ' second ', ' except ', ' save ', &c. 29. II. All words undergoing vowel changes are old English. Nouns forming verbs: ' bliss, bless '; * blood, bleed '. Nouns changing vowel in the plural : ' man, men ' ; ' tooth, teeth '. ;Adjectives forming nouns : ' long, length ', ' strong, strength '. Verbs : the old or strong verbs ; the new verbs making vowel 'changes: 'bereave, bereft'; the causative verbs formed by vowel changes : ' lie, lay '. Vrords modifying the final con- sonant : * grass, graze ' ; "' stick, stitch '. 30. III. Most words with distinctive English endings are of home make. If we had a complete list of the Hybrids, formed by joining English roots to classical endings, or the converse, such a list would give all the exceptions to this rule. These words are very numerous. The following are examples : Classical roots with English endings : principal??/, politely, roundfy, beast/i/; aptness, correctness, passivewess, righteousness, nutaMM ; art/it?, direful, graceful, grate/uZ, peaceful ; armless, &rtlcss, cheerless, motionless, resistless, useless, viewless ; 218 DERIVATION. SOURCES OP WORDS. humoursowie, juicy, falsehood, subscriber, martyro'owt, suretisfrip, monkish. English words with Classical endings : shepherdess, songstress, wondrows, wittimm, furtherance, behaviour, withdrawal, bearaWe. 31. IV. Most words with distinctive English prefixes are of home make. Some of the prefixes, however, are ambiguous. Thus ' a ' and ' in ' are English, Latin, and Greek ; ' mis ' is English and Latin. But where there is no ambiguity, we may presume that an English prefix betokens an English word, and a classical prefix a classical word. The unmistakable English prefixes are : ' al ', ' after ', ' be ', ' for ', ' ful ', ' on ', ' over ', ' out ', ' under ', ' up ', ' with '. When we find words commencing with the prefixes ' circum ', 'contra', 'extra', 'inter', 'ob', ' omni ', 'prse', 'pro', 're', ' retro ', * super ', we may almost always take for granted that they are of Latin origin : when we find ' cata ', ' epi ', ' hyper ', 'hypo', 'pan', 'peri', ' sym ', we may infer a Greek origin. Some of these are in hardly any case joined with English roots. There are a good many exceptions, or hybrids. The following are a few : because, belabour, besiege, out-face, prewarn, sublet, superfine, thorough-bass, thorough-paced, unchain, unjust. When we meet with such compounds as ' graceful ', ' peace- ful', we ought also to take notice that these roots 'grace', ' peace ', are far more frequently allied with classical prefixes' and endings ; as ' gracious ', ' ingratitude ', ' ingratiate ', 4 gratify ', ' pacify ', ' appease '. If it is the habit of any word to contract classical alliances, we may presume that it is classical, unless it is recognised as a hybrid. 32. V. Most words of one syllable are native English or Teutonic. The list of exceptions, that is to say, of words of one syllable derived from the Latin, French, or Greek, is given in the Appendix IV. 33. VI. Most words of more than one syllable are of classical origin. The words of more than one syllable of native origin almost all occur in the following illustrations of the things denoted by native names. ($ 35 and following.) A tew not otherwise NATIVE WORDS DISCRIMINATED. 219 mentioned are here subjoined : behalf, behest, biestings, brustle, caltrop, chafer, commark (a frontier), dimple, dwindle, harbinger, hobnob, holster, nether, slobber, snattock, staddle, utter. 34. VII. Provincial terms are to be assumed as not of classical origin. If not English, they are either Keltic or Teutonic. 35. The things denoted by native terms are to a great extent distinct from those denoted by names of classical origin. 36. I. From native sources we obtain the names connected with kindred, home, domestic life, and the strong natural feelings and their expression : father mother husband wife friend kindred gaffer gammer home hearth roof fireside leman (sweet- shelter heart) ashes widow embers neighbour smoulder henchman bed carle cradle swaddle pillow midwife kettle bolster mingle bellows bundle naked kitchen slumber early oven taper morrow hovel marrow errand threshold tidbit sunder tongs wallet bottom ladle wassail lumber flagon fiddle besom ewer welcome gossip bucket token riddle tippet breeches attire : hat shirt feelings : harm (lit. grief) wonder hunger weary sorrow bitter anger tear drawers stockings Bmile blain blush laugh weeds shoes groan weep yearn burden 37. 1 1 . From the same source are derived the names of the familiar objects of sense, and the familiar movements of moving things : DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. Natural Objects, ?/-name, bystander, byword '. 'j5?/-law', or ' bye-law ', is connected by some with the Scan- dinavian by ('hamlet ') : a law made by a hamlet or township for the regulation of its own affairs. 2. In Verbs, ' be ' retains much of its original force : 'around, about, over, upon, t ^ ' i and generally expresses the fact of 15 226 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. communicating to an object the prominent qualities indicated by the other part of the compound. (1) Be + noun : 'fteeloud, bedew, befriend, betroth', &c., all transitive. In one, ' ftehead ', be has privative force. (2) Be + adjective : ' becalm, bedim '. (3) Be + verb. With transitive verbs, the sense of be = ' about ', *over ', * upon ', is sometimes very distinct, and always to some degree intensive : ' bedaub, begird, beset, besmear, be- sprinkle ; behold, beseech, bestir, bestow, dedeck, dedazzle '. The meaning of the new verb is also transitive. With intransi- tive verbs, ' be ' still maintains the same sense, and sometimes renders the new verb transitive : ' bemoan, bespeak, bestride, bethink '. At other times, it signifies more pointedly direction towards an end, and the new verb then often remains intransi- tive : ' become, befall, behove, belong, betake, betide '. 3. In Adverbs (sometimes becoming prepositions or conjunc- tions) : ' because, before, behind, betimes, between '. Bul (large) : ' bulrush '. For (O.K. for- : cp. German ver, Lat. per and pro), 'through, thoroughly ', intensive ; then the contrary, ' wroiigness, per- version, privation, prohibition'. Prefixed to verbs: 'forbear, forbid, for(e)fend, forget, for- give, for(e)go, forlorn, forsake, forswear '. This prefix is at bottom the same word as the following, 'fore '. Fore (0. E. fore : cp. Germ, vor, Lat. pro and pros) : before, in front, previous. Nouns : '/oreground, forehead ; forenoon \ Verbs : '/orebode, foreordain, foresee, forewarn '. Forth: '/oncoming'. Ful (full) : 'fulfill ; full-blown, fullgrown '. Gain (back, against) : ' gainsay '. In, im (in, into, within) : ' inborn, inbred, income, inland, inlay, inside, insight ' ; ' imbed, imbitter, imbody, imbrown, imbrue '. ' In, im ' has sometimes given place to the Romance en, em : ' endear, enkindle, enliven, enshroud, entangle, entrust, en- twine ' ; * embed, embitter, embody, embolden, embosom, em- bower '. The force of the prefix is frequently intensive, sometimes perhaps (though not necessarily) causative. Mis (wrong, ill, failure) : ' ?m'sbehave, misgive, mislay, mis- lead, misname, mistrust ; misdeed'. ' Mis ' is joined at will to words of classical origin : ' misapply, miscall, miscount, misinterpret, misplace '. But in certain apparent cases of this nature, the ' mis ' is really of classical origin. (See 4, under mis). NATIVE PREFIXES. 227 Ne (not) : ' naught, nought, not, nay, neither, never, none, nor '. Off : 'offal (=o^-fall), offset, offshoot, offspring '. See modi- fied forms under a (7), above. On : ' onlooker, onset, onslaught '. For modified forms see a (1), above ; and un (3), "below. Out (O.E. ut), opposite to ' in ' ; ' beyond, excelling '. ' Out- break, outcast, outfit, outpour, outside, outhouse ; outdoor, outlaw ; outspread, outstretch ; outbid, outdo, outlast, outlive, outrun, outvote '. Over (0. E. qfer), ' above, beyond, excess, down '. ' Over- arch, overflow, overhang, overlap ; otwhear, oversight ; orer- board ; orercoat ; overdue, overwise ; overdraw, over-estimate, overload, overwork ; overbear, overthrow, overturn '. Thorough, ' from side to side ; completely '. ' Thorough- fare ; thoroughbred, thoroughpaced '. To (the, this); 'to-day, to-morrow, to-night'. To (the prep. ) : ' together '. To (Germ, zer, Lat. dis), 'asunder, in pieces', was veiy common in O.E. 'A certain woman cast a piece of millstone upon Abimelech's head, and all to brake his skull ' (Judges ix. 53) : 'all (^altogether, quite) to (in pieces) brake', &c. Twi (two) : ' ftiilight '. Un. (1) (O.E. on-, Gothic and-, Germ. ent-) t ' back; reversal of an action '. ' Z7?ibind, undo, unfold, unhand, unhorse, unlearn, unsay '. With verbs of classical origin, freely : ' unfix, unnerve, un- people, untune, unyoke'. In ' wdoose ', the prefix is intensive ('back', 'away'), 'loose* itself implying reversal. (Cp. the cases where and-, on, has be- come a; above, a (5).). Un. (2) (O.E. un), not. Nouns : ' unbelief, unreason, unrest, untruth, un wisdom '. Adjectives : ' unfair, unwise, unknown, unseen '. Un. (3) (on) : 'unless, until, unto '. Under, below ; too little or deficiency ; support. ' Under- current, undergrowth ; underground ; imderestimate, undersell ; underhand; undergo, understand, undertake '. Up : ' wpheave, uphold, uplift, uproot ; uproar, upshot, up- start ; jt?hill ; upland '. ' Upbraid '. Wan (root of ' wan, wane, want ', &c.), wanting. Cp. un. Our only remaining example is ' wanton ' =. wan-towcn or -togen, l untrained, undisciplined, wild ', from teon (draw, lead). There were many in O.E. : 'wanhal ' (unhealthy) ; ' (wnhope, despair). Wei, well : welfare, well-being, well-bred '. 228 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. With (against, back ; opposition) : withdraw, withhold, withstand '. Sometimes a letter has been prefixed for greater ease or ful- ness of pronunciation, especially s : 'scratch, scream, skip, smelt, sneeze, snip, splash, squabble, squash, squeamish, squeeze, swear, sword '. On the other hand, a letter is sometimes dropt. Gif is now 'if ' ; genoh has become ' enough ', gelic, ' alike ' (see a (4)), and ge- has disappeared from past participles. Similarly, initial g and k, though written, are not pronounced before n : 'grnarl, knee '. Compare also ' knit ' and ' net ', ' knot ' and ' node '. Initial h, while often silent before a vowel, has fallen away before I, n, r : ' laugh (O.E. 'Alilihan'), lord (O.E. '/da ford'), loud (Mud); neck (/mecca) ; raven (Araefn), rough (/z-reoli), ring (Tiring), ridge (Arycg) '. So, 'it' was formerly 'hit', and 'ostler' was 'Hostler '. Initial iv is not used now before I : ' (w)lisp ' ; and it is not pronounced before r : ' wreck, write '. ' Orange ' dropt initial n from a mistaken association with Lat. aurum (gold). In other cases there has been a transference of n to or from the article : ' an ?iadder ' is now ' an adder ' ; ' a nap(e)ron 'is ' an apron ' ; while ' an ewt' has become ' a newt', and ' an ouch ', ' a ?iouch '. ' A ?iag ' may be for ' an ag ' (cp. Lat. cquus}. 3. Classical Prefixes. There are a number of prefixes derived from the classical languages. Such of them as are still employed to form new compounds may be considered English prefixes ; as ' ante ' in ' antedate '. Some, of the Latin and Greek prefixes and suffixes are known only as parts of the words that they are found in, and we never think of their separate meaning, nor employ them to make new combinations. Such are the Greek ' a ' in ' atrophy ', ' anarchy ' ; ' cata ' in ' catastrophe ', and many others. A good many of the Latin prefixes and suffixes, and a small number of the Greek, may be regarded as of living application, being adopted in their separate character into the English language. 4. The following Prefixes are from the Latin. Many of the secondary forms are due to French influence. ab, a, abs (from, away from): *J>ject, abhor, abolish, abound, absolve, absorb, abuse ; amanuensis, avert, avocation, avoid - t abscess, abscond, absent, abstract '. ROMANCE PREFIXES. 229 , The prefix is disguised in ' advance, advantage, avaunt, van ' all through Fr. avant (Lat. ab + ante). Compare 'abridge' and ' abbreviate ', the first through Fr. abrdycr, the other direct, from Lat. abbreviare. " ^ssoilzie ', in Scots law, comes through Fr. from Lat ab-solvere. ad, a, Fr. a (to), with numerous assimilations ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at : ' address, adhere, admit, adore, adulation, adverse (ad, here, = ' to ' in hostile sense, ' against '), advert ; abandon, adroit, agree, a-l-loy (Fr. a la loi), amass, ascend, apart, avalanche, avenue ; accede, acclaim, account, acquit; a-f-fair (Fr. dfaire), aj feet, affirm, affront; aggravate, aggrieve : aZlege, allow, ally ; annihilate, annul ; appal, apparel, approve ; arbiter, arrange, arrear ; ascertain, assent, assist ; attempt, attract '. ' ^-1-arm ', 'a-l-ert' are from Ital., through Fr. 'Aid' is Lat. adjutare. New formations : ' admeasurement, attune '. The prefix has been dropt in ' raiment, size, cess (assess) '. ambi, amb, am, an (both, on both or all sides) : ' amMent, ambiguous, ambition, ambulance, amputate, ancipital '. ante (before) : ' a?iccedent, antedate, anteroom '. ' v4?/i!icipate ' must not be referred to the Greek prefix ' anti ' : it brought the i from the Lat. ' Ante ' is at the root of * anterior, antique, antic ; ancient '. bene (well) : ' benefit, ocrtevolent, benign '. bi, bis, bini (twice, two by two) : ' fo'ennial, bifurcate, bisect, bivalve ; biscuit, bissextile ; binocular '. New compounds. ' Pimpernel ' is a curious corruption : Fr. pimprcncl/e, Ital. pimpinella, low Lat. bipinnella, from bipennis, ' two-winged ', ' double-leaved '. circum, circu (about, round) : ' circumcise, circumlocution, circumscribe; circuit'. New compounds. com (Lat. cum, orig. com, 'with, together'; often little more than intensive) ; also as col, COn, COI, and CO : ' co?nbat, combine, commit, compound ; collapse, colleague, collide ; conceal, concede, concentrate, concur, condemn, consanguineous, contract, correct, corrupt ; cognate, cognition, co-operate, co- ordinate, co-partner, covenant'. New formations abundant, especially with co : ' commingle, compatriot ; correspond, correlate ; co-pastor, co-tenant, co-worker ', &c. The prefix is further modified, or even obscured, in a f&w words : cogent (Lat. co-tujent-), cost (0. Fr. covster, ItaL coatare, Lat. constarc), costive (Ital. costipativo, Lat. constipare), costume (through Fr. and Ital., from Lat. con.nu'tudinem), couch (Fr. coucher, O. Fr. colcher, Lat. collocare), council, counsel, count (verb : 0. Fr. conter, Lat. compittare), count (noun, title: Fr. comte, Lat. comitem, from com-itum, ' go with '), countenance, 230 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OP WORDS couple and copula (co- root ap, to join), cousin (Fr., from Lat. consobrinus), cover (Fr. couvrir, Lat. co-operire), cull (Fr. cueillir, Lat. collijere), curry (Fr. corroyer, Ital. corred- are ; root red = prepare, make ' ready',) custom (Fr. coulume, Ital. and Lat. costuma, from Lat. cottsuctudinem), quail (Ital. quagliare, Fr. cailler, 0. Fr. coailler, Lat. coagiilare), quaint (Fr. coitt, Lat. comptus). contra, COntro, N. Fr. counter (Lat. contra, from con ; Fr. contre, ' against ') : ' co?z/radict, contrast ; controversy ; counterfeit, countermand '. New formations : ' contraband, contradistinguish, contra- vene ; controvert; counteract, counterbalance, counterpoise, -scarp, -sign, -vail', &c. Hence ' contrary '. ' Counter ' is used as an independent adv. and adj. 'Country ' is ' the land opposite you,' Fr. contrte, Lat. contrata. Compare Germ, gegend from geycn. ' Country- dance ' is a corruption of Fr. ' eowfo-e-danse ' (the partners being ranged in lines facing each other). ' Control ', Fr. controle, = contre-role, ' counter roll '. de (down, away, from) : decay, declare, deduct, deject, delegate, deny, descend '. While often merely intensive, it sometimes indicates deficiency or reverses the root meaning : * depletion, depopulate, demented'. A large number of words derive initial de- from ' dis ' (French dfs, de, de), which is merely another form ' de '. ' Ztebonair ' and ' demure ' contain ' de ' as preposition. New compounds are common : ' debase, decipher, decom- pound, default, denationalise ', &c. ; and in technical words like * ctecarbonise, deodorize ', &c. demi (Fr. ; Lat. dimidium, half) : ' demigod '. di, dis, Fr. des, de (asunder, in two), with assimilation to dif- : ' rfzgress, diligent, dilute, diverge ; disbelieve, disfavour, dislike, dismember, disloyal, disturb ; differ, difficult. Descant, descry, deshabille, despatch. Defer, defy, delay (Lat. dilatum), deluge (Lat. diluvium), &c. ' Dirge ' is a contraction of Lat. dirige. New compounds are abundant, with native as well as with classical roots: ' dilacerate, dipetalous ; disable, disabuse, disadvantage, dishonour, dis- respect, distrust ', &c. CC, 6, ex, 0. Fr. es, (e)s (from, out of ; exceeding ; reversal of action), with assimilation to ef- : ' eccentric ; edit, educate, egregious, elect, eminent, enormous (out of, beyond rule or measure), emerge (opp. of ' merge ', lit. plunge out ') ; exact, exasperate, exceed, exculpate, express ; efficient, effete, effigy '. Less obvious cases : escape, escheat, essay, issue ; sample, ecarce, scorch, (Fr. escordier (ecorcher), Lat. excorticare, fiv.m ROMANCE PREFIXES. 231 corticem, 'bark'), scourge (Fr. escourgde, Lat. excorrigiata), soar (Fr. essorer, Lat. ex-aurare, from aura) ; abash (Fr. esbakir), afraid (Fr. cffrayer, 'terrify', Lat. cxfrigidare), amend ('emend '), award (eswarder, 'look at'), astonish (0. Fr. estonner, Lat. extonare), assay (= 'essay', Fr. essai, Lat. exagium). New compounds are especially frequent to express past office : * e#-emperor, ex -may or ', &c. equi, equ (equal) : ' equiangular, equilibrium, equinox, equipoise, equivalent ;' equanimity '. extra (from ex : without, beyond) : ' mrajudicial, extra- mural, extraordinary ; extra-charge '. ' Extra ' forms ' extraneous ', and ' strange '. for (Lat. foris, for-, out of doors, out) : '/creeps, forfeit '. in (1), (not : comp. un (2), with which it is frequently inter- changed), with modifications to i, il, im, ir : ' inaction, indiscipline, infant, injustice, mactive, infirm, inhuman ; ignoble, ignominy, ignore ; iZlegal, illiberal ; immaculate, impiety, impure ; irrational, irregular, irresponsible '. ' .fifaemy ' is Fr. ennemi, Lat. inimicus (in, amicuff). '" Compare ' inability ' and ' unable ', ' infidelity ' and ' un~ faithful ', ' injustice ' and ' unjust ', ' incertitude ' and uncer- tainty ', &c. New formations are abundant. in (2), Fr. en, em (in, into, upon), with assimilations to il, im, ir ' 'income, increase, incur, induce, infer, innate; illusion, illumine ; imbecile, immerse, impair, import, imprison ; irradiate, irrigate ; enamel, encage, enclose, engrave ; embark, embower, embroil, employ '. A good many words have in- or en- ; as ' inquire ' or ' wiquire .'. ' Censer ' and ' print ' want the prefix : comp. ' incense ' and ' MM print '. Disguised forms are : ambush (Fr. embuche, Ital. imboseare, from im, ' in ', bosco, ' bush, wood ')> annoy (Ital. annmare^ Fr. ennuyer, Lat. in-odio), anoint (Fr. en-oindre, Lat. in-unct-). New formations are abundant. inter, 0. Fr. enter, (from in : between, among), with assimilation to intel : ' i?i^rcede, interdict, intermarry, interval ; intellect, intelligent ; efiferprise, entertain '. intro (from in : within, into the inside) : ' Produce,, intromit, introspection. juxta (near to, close by) : 'juxtaposition '. magni, magn- (great) : ' magniloquent ; maa?ianimous '. male, mal (badly, ill) : 'malefactor, maZtreat' ; and new compounds. ' Alaugre ' (in spite of) is Fr. malgre = Lat. male-gratum, ' disagreeable ' ; ' malady ' is from Fr. malade, ' ill ', from Lat. male-aptus. 232 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION" OF WORDS. manu, mani, man, Fr, main, man (Lat. manus, hand): * wrtvtwfacture, manumit, manuscript ; manifest, manipulate ; mandate ; maintain ; manoeuvre, another form of which, with another sense, is * manure '. medi (mid, middle) : 'mediseval, mediterranean '. ' Meridian ' is commonly accepted as from mcdius-dies (mid- day). mis, 0. F. mes (Lat. minus: less, not, wrongness) : ' mis- adventure, mischance, mischief, miscreant '. It has practi'.rally the same effect as the English ' mis '. ne, nec (not), only in l^atin compounds : ' wefarious, ^science, neutral ; negation, negligent, negotiate '. non (not ; = ne + conum, irnum, 'not one thing') is very useful in new formations : * nonage ; nonentity, nonsense ; non -political, non-resistance '. ob, 0, o(b)S, with assimilations OC, of, op (to, towards, upon ; in the way of ; against, down, away) comes to ns in Latin compounds : ' obdurate, obey, object ; omit ; ostensible ; occasion, occur ; o/fend, offer ; opportune, oppress '. ' Office ' (Lat. qffici-um, opi-ficiuin, ' help-making *) is some- times wrongly given as from ' ob '. pen (Fr. ; Lat. poem, almost) : 'peninsula penultimate, penumbra'. per, Fr. par (through ; thoroughly) : *jtwrceive, perdition, perennial, perplex, pervert ; paramour, pardon '. New formations are common : 'perad venture, perchance, perdurable, peroxide ', &c. ' Pellucid ' is an assimilation. ' Pilgrim ' is for Pro- ven^-al 'pelegrin, ltd. pellegrino, Lat. ptrtgrinvs. Compare ' appertain ' and ' joz1;enance ', ' a]^7wrtenance ' (Fr. ' apjwrr- tenance '). ' Pierce ' is a great contraction ; Fr. percer, Ital. pertuyiarej Lat. per-tusum (-tundere). post ( ' after ' ; in place, and chiefly in time) : 'postdate, postfix, post-obit, post-pnindial '. ''Puny' (' Puisne' (judges) preserves the older and fuller form) = Fr. p-uhie = jneis-ne, Lat. post-natus. pre, Lat. pr ment ' (lit. ' not reasonable '). ' Widow ', Lat. vidua, is generally given as from ve (without), dhava (husband) ; better, from root -vid (separate) in ' divide ', &c. vice, Fr. vis (in place of) : ' wee-admiral, vice-chairman,. viceroy ; Discount '. New compounds are frequent. Hence ' vicar '. 6. The following are the Greek Prefixes : am phi (both, on both sides: Lat. amb, 0. E. ymb, umbe,- Germ. urn): ' amphibious, amphitheatre'. GREEK PREFIXES. 235 an, a (negative : Lat. in, Engl. un) : ' awarchy, anecdote, anodyne, anonymous ; abyss, adamant, amnesty, apathy, asylum '. ana (up, back, again) : ' anabaptist, anachronism, anaglyph, analysis, anatomy '. anti (against) : 'antidote, antipathy ; a?iagonist'. 'Anthem', 0. E. antcfn, antcm, is the same word as ' antiphon '. New formations : antipope, anti-slavery, &c. apo (from, away : Lat. ab, Engl. off} : ' apocalypse, apogee, apology, apoplexy, apostasy, apostle ; aphelion, aphorism '. arch (chief) : ' archangel, arc7ibishop, architect '. New formations : arch-conspirator, arch-heretic, &c. auto (self) : ' allograph, autonomy ; authentic '. cata (down) : ' catalogue, catarrh, catastrophe ; cafar&ct, catechise ; mtfhedral, catholic. ' Chair ' is Fr. chaire, Lat. and Gr. cathedra. dia, di (through : connected with Lat. dis, de] : ' diadem, diagnosis, diameter ; diocese, o'torama '. Compare ' oYaconate ', and ' deacon ' (Greek diakouos) ; ' diabolical ' and ' devil ' (Gr. diabolos, O.E. deofol). ' Diamond ' is an accidental similarity : Fr. diamant, Gr. a*damant- (see an, a). di (two, twice) : ' digraph, dilemma, dipthong, diploma, distich '. ' Di-s-syllable should have only one s. dys (hard, ill) : ' dysentery, dispepsia '. 6C, ex (from, out of) : 'ecclesiastic, eclectic, eclipse, ecstasy ; regesis, exodus '. en, em, el (Gr. en, in) : 'encyclopaedia, endemic, energy, enthusiasm ; emblem, embryo, emphasis, emporium ; eZlipse '.. epi, ep (upon) : ' epidemic, epigram, episcopal, epistle, epitaph ; ephemeral '. CU (well) : ' ewcharist, eulogy, euthanasia '. The v in * evangel-ic, -ical, -ist', &c., is due to Latin. hemi (Lat. semi : half) : ' ^?nz'sphere, hemistich '. hyper (Lat. super, Germ, iiber, Engl. over(comp. up, upper) : over, beyond, excess) : ' A^^borean, hypercritical'. hypo, hyp (Lat. sub: under) : ' hypocrite, hypothec, hypothesis ; Ay^hen '. meta, met (among, with ; after ; change) : ' wctomorphose, metaphor, metaphysics ; metsil, mettle, meteor, method '. micro (small) : ' microcosm (opposed to * macrocosm '), microphone, microscope. mono, mon (alone) : ' monogamy, monograph, monomania, monotone ; monarch, monody '. pan, panto (all) : '^?aworama, pantheism, pantomime '. para, par (beside, against) : parable, paradox, paragraph ; ^/enthesis, parhelion, parish, parody'. 236 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OP WORDS. ' Parabola, parable, parlance, parley, parliament, parlour, parole ' all from Gr. parabole, some of them through low Lat. parabolare, Ital. parlare, FT. parlcr. peri (round) : 'pericardium, period, peripatetic '. 'Pm'winkle' (plant) is 0. E. pineunncle, penance, Fr. per- vert che, Lat. perrinca, or vincapervinca, from per and vincio (bind). _ 'Periwig' is a corruption of 'peruke'. Neither has any connexion with Gr. peri. philo (friendly to) : 'philo- Athenian, philo-Spartan ' (Grote). poly (man}') : 'polygamy, polygon, polytheism '. pro (-before) : 'problem, proem, programme, prologue'. pros (towards) : 'proselyte, prosody '. pseudo (false) : 'pseudonym, pseudo-martyr'. Syn (comp. Lat. cum : with), modified to syl, Sym, sy : ' synagogue, synod, synopsis (comp. Lat. conspectus), syntax ; syllable sympathy; system. '. Derivation of the Parts of Speech. THE NOUN. 6. Root Nouns. Some Nouns are simple, primitive, or underived words. These are sometimes called roots ; as eye ', * ear ', ' hand ', foot ', cow ', 'sheep', 'heart/ 'hope*. These are root words as far as concerns English grammar In the comparison of languages they may sometimes be traced to forms still more radical or fundamental. To do so is the province of comparative grammar, or philology. 7. Derived Nouns are formed from simple Nouns, from Adjectives and from Verbs The means of formation are : (1) Internal modification change in the vowel, or in the consonants, or in both ; (2) Prefixes ; and (3) Suffixes or Endings. Adjectives are very commonly used as Nouns by simple omission of the nouns they should limit ; but these must always be readily understood. Verbs are also sometimes used as nouns without any change. 8. I. Nouns are derived from other Nouns. JL) By internal modification. By change of vowel, or of vowel consonant, we have such derivatives as 'chick' (0. E. cycen, from ' cock '), ' kit ' (cat), ' tip ' (top). In such cases as NOUNS FORMED FROM NOUNS. 237 .' tip ', from ' top ', we must infer from the nature of the case, or from analogy, which is the primitive and which the derivative. ' Kit ' and ' chick ' are abbreviations of ' kitten ', ' chicken ' ; and the vowel change is owing to the influence of the final syllable now dropt. These are all diminutives. (2.) By Prefixes. Already exemplified ( 2-5). (3). By Suffixes, Native and Classical. (a). The following group have reached, from various original meanings, the same general signification of state, Quality, or condition. In accordance with the usual tendency, the abstract name has in many cases been taken to express col- lectiveness, the body of individuals possessing the abstract quality. Some examples have passed to the more remote application of general or class, or even material, names. ' Native Suffixes, craft (strength, skill, condition) : ' book- craft, priestcraft, witchcraft, woodcraft '. dom (jurisdiction, authority, condition): 'Christendom, heathendom, kingdom (in 0. E., however, it was cynedom : see 9, 2), martyrdom, rascaldom, serfdom '. hood, head (0. E. Jmd : rank, condition) : ' boyhood brotherhood, childhood, manhood ; godhead, maidenhead (-hood) '. lock (0. E. lac : gift, play) : ' wedlock '. In 0. E. : brydlac ('bride-lock', marriage), gulhlac ('war-play', battle), &c. ness (state, condition) : ' wilderness (from wil(d)deor, ' wild beast'); nothingness, somethingness (Goldsmith)'. Also, perhaps, ' witness '. red (0. E. rcedcn : reckoning, law, condition) : ' kindred ' (O. E. cynred, cynren, for cynrceden) ; ' hatred ' is a late example (12th cent. ). ' Hundred ' is doubtful. lie (rule, jurisdiction) : ' bishopric '. Ship (0. E. stipe, : shape, manner, condition) : ' fellowship, friendship, guardianship, lordship, worship (= 'worthship') '. The chief of these suffixes dom, hood, ship, seem to be employed somewhat indiscriminately in new compounds, the preference being governed probably by suitability of sound. When the same word is combined with more than one suffix, a distinctive meaning is connected with each compound : compare ' kingdom ' and ' kingship '. Classical Suffixes. acy (Lat. atus : condition, office) : 'celibacy, magistracy'. So: 'curacy, papacy, &c. '. ade (on analogy of same suffix to verb roots) : ' balustrade, jolonnade, fusilade, lemonade '. , age (Fr. ; Lat. -aticus, orig. forming adjectives) ; ' homage, 238 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OP WORDS. pee foli rage, vassalage, voyage ; brokerage, mileage ; cellar^ ; oliage, herbage ; cottage, personage '. archy (Gr. ; rule) : ' squirearchy '. ate (Lat. atus, 4th decl. ; office) : ' consulate, iLarshalate, protectorate '. Compare acy. ' Celibate, magistrate, potent- ate ', are concrete applications. cide (Lat -cidium, -murder): 'matricide, regicide, suicide'. Shelley has * libertieide '. cracy (Gr. -kratvi ; rule) : * democracy, ochlocracy, pluto- cracy ; bureaucracy, mobocracy '. cy (see acy) : ' advocacy, bankruptcy, colonelcy, ensigncy '. ine (Lat. ina) : ' discipline, doctrine, medicine ; famine '. ism (as from Greek verbs in izo ; see ma . S-m, 10, 3, (3)) : ' absentee/sw, despotism, journalism, materialism, pietism '. mony (Lat. -mon-ia, -ium) : 'ceremony, matrimony, patri- mony, testimony '. ry, ery (Lat. aria, eria, Fr. (e)rie) : ( carpentry, chivalry, devilry, knavery, poetry '. So : ' buffoonery, coquetry, popery, rivalry '. ty (Lat. tat-em< Fr. te} : 'authority, city*. So, 'laity'. y (Lat. atus, 4th decl.) : ' county, duchy'. y (Gr. and Lat. eia, ia, Fr. ie) : ' barony, energy, euphony, Italy, monarchy, phantasy (fancy)'. y (Lat. -ium) : 'mastery, ministry, mystery'. So, 'burglary, fishery, robbery'. Other cases in -y are seen in -ac-y, -arch-y, -crac-y, -mon-y. (b.) The next group contains examples of endings whose prevailing force is diminutive. There must have been some powerful motives at work to lead to so many forms of expressing diminution. In this case we must look to the feelings even more than to the intellect. The two strong sentiments endearment and contempt are gratified by these modes of designating things. They are also applied to the young of all living beings, and to the instances of things occurring below the average size. Many of the terms have now lost their diminutive force, and are applied to discriminate things specifically or generically different, so that the emotional impulses have here, as in other instances, contributed to extend the number of words available for the objects of nature and art. Native Suffixes. k, ock (dimin.): 'bullock, hillock; hawk (0. E. hq/oc) \ Patronymics : ' Pollock (Paul), Willock, "Willox '. In Scotch, -ick : ' lass?'c& ' as well as ' lassock '. ikin, kin (ock -f- -n) : ' bootz'&'W, maunikin ; firkin (four), lambkin, uapkiii '. Patronymics : ' Diwkin(*) (David) ; Haw- NOUNS FORMED FROM NOUNS. 239 kin(s) (Hal. Henry); Perkin(s), Peterkin; Tomkin, Tomkyns ; Wilkiu(s) ; Watkin(s) (Wat, Walter)'. ing (nasalized -k, dimin.) : ' farthfo<- (fourth), tithing (tithe, tenth), riding (Yorkshire; for ' Striding' : 'thrid' = 'third')- Patronymics: * JEthelwu.lfm#, Wecting', and regularly in oldest English. So ' setheling ' ; ' king ' (0. E. cyniii'j, cine/) is not certain. ling (= l-ing) : ' duckling, gosling, squireling, yearling '. y, ie : * babjr, Willy ; lassie, la&s-ick-ie '. This ending may be regarded as a weaker mode of -k (ock, &c.). en : ' chickc?i (cock), kitten (cat), maiden '. fill (full; the opposite of diminution) : 'cap/wZ, handful, pocketi'ul '. Classical Suffixes. aster: 'oleaster (wild olive), pinaster; pilaster (pillar only partly shown), poetaster (inferior poet) '. cule, cle, ule, le, el, il (Lat. culum, ulus, ellus, illus, &c.) : 'aniirialcwfe, reticule; particle (parcel), tubercule, uncle, ven- tricle, versicle ; globule, nodule, pilule ; castle, chapel, libel, morsel, vessel (vasez&bulum ; vestibule ; fable, stable, vocable '. -bra, as in ' verte&Va ', is a slight modification for euphony. 244 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. culum (Lat), cule, cle ; slightly modified to cmm (Lat), chre : ' curriculum ; ridicule ; miracte, article, vehicle ; ful- erum, simulacrum ; sepulture '. pie (Lat pulum] : ' example, temple '. Compare also -trum. 66 (Lat p. part -atus, -ata ; Fr. e,-ee] : 'legatee'. So, ' absentee, committee, consignee, devotee, payee, refugee '. ma, m, me, -S-m (Gr. and Lat, -ma, -mos(mus), -s-m-} : diploma, poem, problem, scheme, theme ; chasm, spasm, baptism, chrism, prism, isth?/t?w, cosmos, microcosm '. The -s- belongs originally to derivatives from Greek verbs in -izo. Many of these words are, in the first instance, abstract ; as ' baptism, spasm '. mus, m, me (Lat. -mus, &c. , instrumental agency) : ' animus, arm, fame, flame, fume '. men, me, m (Lat men, passive subject) : 'specimen-, crime, volume, charm, germ (germen)'. ' Noun ' is from ' nomen ', through French. mnus, mn (Lat. mnus, &c., passive subject) : 'alumnus, autumn, column '. n, ne (Lat. -n-us,-a,-um ; Gr. nos, &c. , ; ' possessing '; cognate with -n, en of p. part.) : 'fane, pen, plain, plane, reign, sign, throne '. ndum (Lat. ), nd (gerund. ) : ' mem.oTandi.tm ; deodand, multiplicand, reprimand, viand ; dcvidend, legend, prebend '. nt (Lat. impf. part): 'defendant, merchant, servant; accide?i, agent, current, student'. Cp. Adjectives in -nt, many of which become nouns, sometimes with change of ' -ent ' to ' -ant '. ion, On, eon, OOn (Lat. -on-, &c.) : 'legion, region; dra- gon, glutton, lesson (lection), mason ; pigeon ; buffoon, spittoon '. Cp. abstracts. CSS (see INFLEXION, Gender, 5) : ' cateress, murderess, pro- curess '. The fern, ending replaces, instead of being added to, the masc. ending. ' Empress ' is an assimilation ; contracted, through French, from imperatricem (-trix). t, ate, it(Q\ S(e), ce, te, Ute (Lat. parts, of verbs) : ' advo- cate, curate, legate, mandate (Cp. -ade) ; debt, convent, desert, fact, fruit, insect, jet, joint, post, rent, tract, verdict ; spouse, assize, expense, fosse, response, verse ; sauce, source ; note, vote ; statute, tribute '. t, te (Gr. tea, Lat. to) : ' apostate, corned, planet '. S-t, ast, ist (the -s- belongs originally to the Greek verb) 'dikast, enthusiasm ; bapt?'s, catechist, Christ '. Similar forma- tions from nouns and adjectives by -ist are abundant. t-OI, S-OI, 01, er (Lat. t-orcm, s-orem, Fr. -teur, seur, &c.) : ' creditor, debtor, doctor, factor, monitor, victor ; censor, NOUNS FROM VERBS. 245 sponsor, successor '. ' Author ' is a misspelling of Lat. and 0. E. auctor. 'Emperor, governor, juror, &c. ' have been curtailed. ' Er ' has often usurped the place of -or : ' interpreter (Lat. in- terprctcitorem), lever, preacher, &c.' t-OI-y, S-OP-y, or, our, er (Lat. t-or-ium, s-or-ium; Fr. -oir(e)) : * auditory, dormitory, oratory, refectory ; mirror, razor, scissors ; parloztr ; censer, counter , laver. ' trum, tre, ter, S-t-r (Lat. trum) : ' rostrum, spectre, cloister, monster '. y, ey (Lat. p. part, ata, Fr. 4e) : 'arm?/, assembly, destiny, entry, jelly, jetty, jury, levy, quarry ; chimney, covey, medley '. y (Fr. -ie) : ' battery '. (2) Expressing action ; with frequent new applications to con- crete meanings. Native Suffixes. ing (O.E. ung : verbal nouns) : 'beginnmo, blessing (0. E. Uetsung), cleansing, drawing, ending, meeting, reasoning, suffering, writing'. ledge (O.E, lac; see lock, 8) : ' knowledge (O.E. cnaudac, cnowlech)'. ter : ' laughter, slaughter '. th, t (past partic. ending) : ' birth (bear), broth (brew), earth (ear, ' to plough '), filth (file), growth, ruth (rue), tilth ; draught, drift, flight, frost, thought '. Classical Suffixes. ad, ade, ada, ado (Lat. atus,-a: 'ad' for Fr. ade; 'ade' Ital. through Fr. ; 'ada', 'ado', Span.) : ' ballad, salad ; barricade, blockade, escapade, promenade, tirade ; armada ; bravado '. age (Lat. -aticum, Fr. age : orig. adjective ending, then collective, finally abstract) : * breakage, carriage, cleavage, mess- age, marriage, passage, tillage '. al (Lat. dlis ; cp. age) : ' arrival, committal, denial, re- moval, reversal, revival, upheaval, withdrawal '. el, le (Lat. -ela) : ' candte, cauteZ, quarrel, tutelage '. Igp (Lat. cp. ago, 8) : ' impetz^o, vertigo ; origin (Lat. orlginem). in, ine-(Lat. ma) : 'nmt; rapine '. ment (Lat. mentum) : ' attainment, argument, bewilderment, confinement, fulfilment, impalement, torment '. New forma- tions, like some of the foregoing, are very abundant. They all tend strongly to be used in the concrete application ; as ' argument, document, instrument, ornament '. mon-y (Gr. and Lat. mon-ia, -ium) : ' alimony, harmony, parsimony ' (for ' parcimony ', from verb parco, or from adj. parcus). nee (See nouas from Adjectives). New formations from verb 24:6 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. roots are plentiful: ' alliance, insistance (-ence), remembrance, tarriance, variance ; existence, occurrence '. 01, OUr (Lat. orem, Fr. eur) : 'clarnor, error, favour, honour, labour'. sis, sy, S6 (Gv- arid Lat. sis, Fr. sie, se) : ' analysis, basis, metamorphosis, periphrasis, thesis ; epilepsy, hypocrisy, palsy (paralysis), poesy ; base, dose, ellipse, phrase '. t, it(e), S(e)/&c. (see above): 'appetife, aud#, credit, habit, merit ; desert, quest ; applause, course, lapse, use ; access, pro- cess '. See also forms in -acy and -y. t-ion, s-ion, ion, son, som, ation (Lat. -onem, Fr. -on} : 'action, conviction, detrition, fiction, lotion, restitution, station ; cession, convulsion, fusion, oppression ; contagion, oblivion, opinion, suspicion ; fashion (faction), poiso?t (potion), 'reason (ration), season, treason (tradition), venison '. ' Ransom' is through Fr. from Lat. rcdemptionem. The ending -ation gives the appearance of derivation from verbs of the -are con- jugation : * bothera#o?i, insultation ' ; and especially with -fic- before it : ' glorification, mystification ', corresponding to verbs in -fy, ' glori/y, mystify ', which modify the Lat, form -fac- or -fie- under French influence. t-ure, S-Uie, (Lat. -ura ; often becoming concrete) : ' cap- ture, censure, composure, fissure, gesture, posture, pressure ; adventure, aperture, creature, discomfiture, embrasure, failure, forfeiture, lecture, picture, seizure, soilure '. ' Armour ' (Lat. amatura). Several words take this ending by assimilation : ' leisure, pleasure, treasure '. y, him, (Lat. ium) : ' colloquy, study ; odium '. New formations : ' delivery, discovery, inquiry ', and many others. Compare similar abstracts from nouns. For other cases of -y, see -mon-y, above. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. II. Derived Adjectives are formed from Nouns, from other Adjectives, and from Verbs. Nouns are very largely used as adjectives without any change of form. Verbs are very sparingly employed in the same way. I. Adjectives are derived from Nouns, by means of Suffixes. Native Suffioccs. d, ed (past partic. ending: 'endowed, furnished with ') : ' certificated, feathered, experienced, gifted, moneyed, ragged, sainted, skilled ', Especially common when an adjective accompanies the noun : ' close-fisted, left-handed,, middle-aged, right-minded, wrong-headed, &c. '. ADJECTIVES FROM NOUNS. 247 I), en ('of of 'belonging to* ; material) : 'brazew, flaxen, golden, leathern, oaken, waxen, wheaten, wooden, woollen '. er-n : ' east-er-w, northern, southern, western '. er-ly (compare -ly, below) : ' caster/?/, &c. '. fast (0. E. fcest, firm) : * rootfast, shamcfast (usually spelled ' fkvrtitfaeed '), stedfast '. ful : ' awful, careful, gainful, hopeful, truthful '. ish (possessing some leading quality of the noun ; attached to ; belonging to) : ' bookish, boyish, foolish, selfish, slavish ; Englw/t, WeM, 'Dutch '. less (0. E. leas, ' loose ' ; privation or negation) : ' artless, cheerless, fearless, friendless, lawless, senseless, sleepless '. like, ly (resemblance, likeness) : ' childlike, courtly, godlike, lordly, lovely, manlike, manly, yearly, warlike '. some (0. E. -mm, Germ, -mm ; another form of ' same ' ; possessing the quality of the noun) : ' adventuresome, burden- some, delightsome, handsome'. ward (becoming, turned in the direction of) : ' homeward, landward, southward'. These words are probably to be con- sidered as adverbs. y, ey (the quality of the noun) : ' airy, balmy, cloudy, flowery, foggy, grassy, lofty, oily, seedy, silvery, watery, &c. ' Classical Suffixes. able (See 13): ' fashiona&Ze, marketable, objectionable, serviceable '. -C, ac, ic, -tic, -ge -(Or. and Lat. -ic-, -tic-): 'demoniac, maniac ; Britannic, civic, cleric, dogmatic, generic, magic, mystic, public, schismatic, strategic ; aquafo'c, Asiatic, domestic, fanatic, lunatic'. With -ist-i characterise, fetichistic, medium- istic, ritualistic'. With additional ending : ' cleric- al, magical, mystical, pvagmatic-al ; belh'e-ose ' ' Savage ' is Lat. silva-tic.us, through Fr. sauv-age. -d, id (Gr. eides ; like) : ' alkaloid, ovoid, typhoid '. form (Lat. -form-is) : ' dendri/o^i, penniform, poriform '. -1, al, el, il(e), le, (Lat. -alis, -elis, -llis) : ' annua/, capital, literal, nominal, regal ; additional, professional, regimental, &f . ; crueZ ; civiV, gentzVe (gent/e, genteel), hostile, jaunty, puerile ; hum-b-Ze '. \ r ery many adjectives in -al are converted into nouns. (See 8.) Occasionally al is added to or takes the place of other endings. Especially it is added to -ic (See above) : ' bibl/c-a?, cubical, logic-al ('logic ' having become a noun). Cp. ' celest-i-al (Lat. ccel-est-is), kst-iv-al(Lsit.fest-iv-us), 'pa.ter-n-al (Lat. pater-nus).' lent (Lat. lentus) : ' corpuZen*, fraudulent, opulent, somno lent, turbulent '. n, an, ane, ian (Lat. anus, Fr. an, ain, aine t ten) : ' human, 248 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. pagan ; American, Elizabethan, Roman ; \\mnane, mundane, urbane ; Christian, Ciceronian, prietorian ; Neapolitan, cosmo- politan '. There are numerous new formations without reference to the original Latin ending : ' barbarian (Lat. -its), Corintlii;ui, Etruscan, plebeian, Unitarian ; civilian (Lat. -is), equestrian (-estris), pedestrian ; Spenserian. Walpolian '. -n, an-eous, an-ean, aign, eign, en, (Lat. an-eus, Fr. ain): ' contemporaneous, spontaneous, subterranean, ehampair/tt, foreign (older * foren '), sudden '. -H, ene, ine (Lat. -en-, -f?i-) : * terrene ; Nazarene ; adaman- tine, asinine, bovine, divine, equine, feline, marine, saline ; Jugurthine '. -r, ar, ary (Lat. arts) ; ' particular, perpendicular, popular, regular, secular ; military, palmary '. -r, ary, ari-OUS, aii-an (Lat. arius) : 'arbitral?/, custom- ary, hereditary, honorary, imaginary, legionary, parliamentary, revolutionary, tributary ; gregarious, nefarious ; valetudin-arz- an, latitudinarian, utilitarian '. 686 (Lat. ensis, Ital. ese) : ' Chinese, Maltese ; Johnsonese '. ' Courteous ' (0. Fr. curteis) has assimilated itself to -ows. ' Peasant ' is Fr. paysan, 'L&t.pagensis. esque, -ice, -is (Lat. iscus, Fr. esque: cp. Engl. ish} : ' arabesque, grotesque. Moresque ('momce* or ' morris ' dance, = ' Mooris/i '), picturesque, statuesque '. 086, OUS (Lat. OSMS, Fr. eux, oux) : ' operose, schistose, verbose ; calamity*., envious, glorious, perilous, pernicious, studious, victorious '. New formations are abundant : ' avari- cious, burglarious, felonious, murderous, rapturous, slanderous, uproarious, wondrous ; contentious, contradictious, disputa- ious, ostentatious*. For Lat. -us : ' consanguineous (Cp. ' sanguine '), decorous, igneous, noxious, uxorious*. For Lat. -is : * illustrious, scurrilous '. Added to -ac-: ' f&rin-ac-e-ous (Lat. -ac-e-us\ gallinaceous, herbaceous ' ; so ' carbonaceous, crustaceous, pearlaceous *. To -ari.-: ' greg-ar-i-ous (Lat. ar-i-us), nefarious, precarious '. To -IC-: ' bell-zc-ose '. To -fer-: 'auri^r-ows (Lat. -fer], car- boniferous '. To -ger- : ' armi-g'er-oMS (Lat. -ger), plumigei ous *. ' Boisterous ' (0. E. bostois), ' oourteoi^s * (see ese), and ' right- eous' (for 'right-wise', O.E. rihtuns], are assimilations. t (Lat. tus) : ' honest, modest, robust '. t, ate, ute (on analogy of participles) : 'delicate, dentate, laureate ; astute, cornute '. So, ' affectionate, (com-)passiouate '. time (Lat. timus) : ' mari^me ; legi^??i-ate '. ive (Lat. n?ws) : * festive, furtive, instinctive '. ADJECTIVES FROM ADJECTIVES. ' 249 y (Lat. ivus, Fr. if] : 'jolly, massy (massive), testy'. y (Lat. -ius, as if added to nouns in -tor, -sor) : ' accessory, amatory, hortatory, mandatory, persuasory '. 12. II. Adjectives are formed from other Ad- jectives, partly by Prefixes, and partly by Suffixes. Prefixes. Both Native and Classical Prefixes have already ( 2-5) been exemplified : ' a-weary, rc-one, over-confident, un- able, -dogmatic, -wieldy, &c.' ' Coterminous, demi-p&gan, dis- courteous, -creditable, -interested, -passionate, ?7-liberal, m-mutable, Mi-attentive, inter-colonial, -national, wow-sequa- cious, postdiluvian, ^re-scientific, ^reter-natural, sw&-acid, super- fine, supra-renal, w^ra-Catholic, ^Ai7o-Turkish.' Native Suffixes. fold : 'tenfold, sixtyfold, manifold'. ish (diminutive : 'slightly') : ' blackisA, dullish'. ly : ' cleaner/, deadly, elderly, goodly, likely, lonely, only (one), sickly, weakly '. Some : 'darksome, irksome, lissome (lithe), lonesome', teen ( = ten) : ' thirteen, nineteen '. th, d (ordinal numbers) : ' fourth, fifth, hundred^ ; third '. ty (ten) : ' twenty, thirty, ninety '. Classical Suffixes. sad, heart (8) : 'dullard, sweetheart, wizard '. -C, ic(ll). Added to -ens-: ' for-ens-ic (Lat. forensis : cp. ese). To -est-: ( &.gr-est-ic (Lat. agrcstis : cp. 'majestic'). ique (Lat. -icus, Fr. ique) : '"unique '. 1, al ( 11). Added to -ic : ' &ngel-ic-al, canonical, comical, historical, whimsical '. Often the form in -ic does not now exist. To -id (Gr. -eid-, 11) : ' amygdalo-id-a/, ovoidal '. To -r-H- : 'eternal (Lat. ceternus), infernal, nocturnal'. To -CS-t-: ' cvl-est-ial ' (Lat. ccel-est-is). To -str-: ' terr-es^?*-i-aZ ' (Lat. (-estris). -1, el (Lat. ellus, &c.) : * novel '. -n, an, ain, &c., en (Lat. an-, en-: 11) : 'mean, tertian, veteran ; certain ; alien, dozen '. Added to -ari-; ' antiqu-ari-on, septuagenarian '. To -ic- : publ-ic-a?i ; patr-i'c-i an, tribun-iciau '. To -estr-: 'eqn-estr- ian, pedestrian '. Sle, ble (l-^at. -plex, ' fold ') : ' simple, double (Lat. duplex), le, triple, quadruple, quintuple, &c.' -r, ar (Lat, aris) : ' singular '. ' Similar ' is for Lat. simil-is. r, ary (Lat. arius) : ' primary, secondary, solitary ', OUS ( 11) : ' precipitows, wrongous '. Added to -ac-, -ic-, -an-, -fer-, -ger- : see 11. 250 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OP WORDS. et, ette (Fr.) : 'brunette, dulcet, russet'. -t, ate (11) : ' aureate, candidate (orig. an adj.), roseate; intim-ate, legitim-ate '. 13. III. Many Adjectives are formed from Verbs. (1) The Participles, imperfect and perfect, of the Verb are often converted into Adjectives : ' a paying occupation ', ' a roaring lion', 'outlying districts', 'a seeming discrepancy'; * conquered provinces ', ' departed spirits ', ' the doomed ship '. ' escaped criminals ', ' pent-up energy ', * runaway horses ', ' his bounden duty ', ' molten gold ' ; ' w?itaught, wncomforted, unfed '. * Uncouth ' is literally ' unknown '. (2) Adjectives are formed from Verbs by Suffixes. Native Suffixes. ful : 'forgetful, wakeful '. Compare 0. E. gitol, wacol. The -ful is an assimilation. le : 'brittle, fickle (0. E.^coZ,) nimble (0. E. numol) '. less ' exhaustZess, quenchless, shunless '. I, er ' ' bitter (bite), slipper-?/ '. Some ' buxom (= bugh-some, from bugan, ' to bow '), meddlesome, noisome (Fr. noisir), tiresome '. t (past partic. ) : ' bright, right, swift '. y : ' blowy, doughty (from dugan, ' to be able, to prevail '), shaky, sticky, sultry (swelter-y).' Classical Suffixes. id (Lat. -idus) ; * said, candid, frigid, humid, rapid, splendid, timid, turbid '. ' Keat ', Fr. net, is Lat. nitidus. -1, b-1, bile, able, ible, (i)le (Lat. (-6)^7^), able ; mostly passive, sometimes active) : * mobile ; commendable, laudable, probable ; credible, defensible, horrible, plausible, terrible ; feeble (Lat. fle-bilis), noble, stable, voluble ; fertile, fissile, fragile (frail), versatile ; able (formerly '^.able', Lat. hab-ilis)'. Numerous new formations : ' attainable, believable, credible, changeable (mutable), eatable (edible), killable, maintainable, renovable, thinkable, warrantable '. -nd, und, bund, cund, ond (Lat ; gerund form ; parti- cipial sense) : 'fcound, jocund, moribund, rotund (round), rubicund, second, vagabond. nt (Lat. impf. part.) : 'abundant, distant, constant, dormant; eminent, latent, provident (prudent), urgent '. -I, re (Lat. -r-} : ' clear, dire, meagre, pure '. OUS : ' conscious (Lat. -us), omnivorous, superfluous, viviparous '. Added to -ac- : ' cap-ac-ious (Lat. ~ac-s), fallacious, tenacious '. U-OUS (Lat. u-us = mis ; particip. sense, active or passive) : ' eongrwows, conspicuous, deciduous, ingenuous '.. ul-OUS (Lat, ADJECTIVES FROM VERBS. VERBS FROM NOUNS. 251 ul-us, prone to ; participial sense) : ' bibulous, credulous, garru- lous, querulous, sedulous '. it-ious (Lat. ic-ius, &c. ; added to supine): ' advent^ ions, nutritious supposititious, surreptitious'. -t, ate, ete, ite, Ute, Se (Lat. p. part.) : ' cognate, con- siderate, desolate, private ; complete, concrete, discreet, secret ; composite, finite, erec, strict ; acwte, minute, mute, resolute ; chaste ; close, immense, sparse, tense, terse '. S-or-y, t-or-y (Lat. -s-or-ius, 't-or-ii(s): ' amatory, expository, hortatory ; promissory, sensory '. Compare 10, and 11, y, end. ive, iff, y (Lat. ivus, -us, Fr. -if ; joined to supines with sense of impf. participle, rarely of p. p.) : 'active, attentive, executive, fugitive, pensive, subversive ; captive, native (naive), caitiff (captive).' Many of these are used as nouns. 'Bailyf, plaintiff ' are, perhaps always nouns now. ' Hasty, pursy (Fr. pourcif, poussif}. New formations are not uncommon : ' com- bative, forgetive, talk-at-ive '. The passive application, as in Shakespeare's ' insuppresswe mettle ', is not to be encouraged. DERIVATION OF VERBS. 14. Derived Verbs are formed from Nouns, from Adjectives, and from other Verbs. Nouns and Adjectives are very frequently used as Verbs without any change. L Verbs are derived from Nouns. (1.) By Prefixes, ( 2-5). (2.) By Suffixes. Native Suffixes. 1, el: 'kneeZ, muffte, quibble (quip), sparkle, throttle '. -n, en (causative) : ' heighten, lengthen, strengthen '. Classical Suffixes. ate (Lat. supine, atum) . 'animate, culminate, exaggerate, germinate, militate, modulate, populate, stagnate '. eer, er (Lat. are, ari ; Fr. -er) : ' domineer (cp. ' dominate ') ; cuter '. fy ( 15) : ' de-i-/y, edify, modify '. ize, ise, (Gr. izo, Fr. iser : causative) : * appet*X epitomize, pulverize, sermonize, subsidize, tantalize, tyrannize '. iBhandite. See 16. (3,) By change, (a) of Vowel, (b) of Consonant, or (c) of both. 252 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. (a.) 'Bleed' (blood), 'gild' (gold). (b.) ' Bulge (bulk), calve, clothe, halve, house, prize (price), shelve, thieve, wreathe'. (3.) ' Bathe (bath), breathe, glaze, graze (grass), hitch (hook)'. Many words are nouns or verbs according to tlie place of tfo accent: 'abstract, abstract'; 'Accent, accent'; 'Augment, augment ' ; ' compound, compound ' ; ' conflict, conflict ' ; 'contrast, contrast'; 'digest, digest' ; 'import, import'; ' subject, subject ' ; ' survey, survey ; ' torment, torment '. These are all of Latin origin. It has also been seen that our language permits the free con- version of a noun into a verb, and the opposite, without any change. The general effect of these derivations is to enable the meaning of the noun to become active, or to express the fact of its being imparted to something. The chief exception is seen in the negative prefixes. 15. II. Verbs are derived from Adjectives. (1.) By Prefixes ( 2-5). (2.) By Suffixes. Native Suffixes. n, en (causative) :' 'blacker, fatten, ripen, shorten, sweeten '. -I, er (causative) : ' hinder, lower '. S6 (causative) : ' cleanse, rinse (cp. Germ, rein, 'pure').' Classical Suffixes. ate (Lat. supine, atum) : 'alienate, celebrate, integrate, participate '. With formative syllable -it- : ' debil-it-ate, facilitate, gravi- tate '. fy (Lat. ficare, Fr. fier : causative) : ' clar-i-/t/, fortify, purify, sanctify . ' ize. is (14) : 'civilize, fertilize, humanize, realize'. ish. See 16. . (3.) By Change of Vowel : ' fill ' (Ml). The effect of this conversion is almost uniformly to signify the imparting of the quality connoted by the adjective. 16- III. Verbs are extensively derived from Verbs. (1.) By Prefixes ( 2-5). (2.) By Suffixes. Native Suffixes. k (frequentative) : ' hark (hear), talk (Ml) '. le (the same) : 'crumple (crimp), dazzle (daze), dribble (drip), grapple (grip), straddle (stride), waddle (wade)'. er (diminutive and frequentative) : ' batter (beat), flutter, glimmer (gleam), patter (pat), sputter FORMATION OF VERBS AND ADVERBS. 253 Classical Suffixes. ate (Lat. supine, atum) . 'create, dictate, instigate, migrate, navigate '. With formative syllable -it- (frequentative) : ' ag-it-ate, cogitate, hesitate, palpitate'. esce, ish (Lat. -escere; Fr. -iss- (Lat. ~iso, -esc-) in verbs in .ir, Lat. -ire : growing or tending to) : ' coalesce, effervesce ; abolish, languish, perish, ravish, relinquish '. A step further back would sometimes bring us to nouns : 'famish, finish, punish'; or to adjectives: 'flourish, cherish, diminish, embellish, establish, replenish '. ge (Lat. -ware, Fr. ger): 'chargre, judge, -venge'. it, ite (Lat. supine ztum) : ' edit ; expedite, ignite '. The Latin forms of the two last are from noun roots. (3.) By modifying tJie Vowels, or Consonants, or both : 'drip (drop), fell (fall), roost (rest), raise (rise), reel (roll), set (sit) snuff (sniff), dodge (dog), blench (blink), dredge (drag), drench (drink), twitch (tweak), watch (wake), wrench (wring)'. Most of these derivatives are causative verbs. (4.) By postfixing Adverbs and Prepositions: as 'findow^', * pluck out ', ' bear with ', ' bring in ', ' fall in ', ' climb up ', ' heave to ', ' despair of. These postfixed words are to be con- gidered in many cases as part of the verb, although not only not fused with it, like the ordinary suffixes, but susceptible of being removed to a distance by the object coming between : ' find hiin out ', ' pluck it out '. ' bring the messenger in ', ' send the things away '. They often acquire a meaning not explained by the separate meanings of the parts : ' find out ' is no more to be parsed as two words than ' invent '. Moreover, we find verbal nouns formed from them : ' the looker on ', ' entrance in r , 'goings out ', ' the climber upward ' (Shakespeare). We may have two different meanings from the same constituents differ- ently placed : as ' overcome ', ' come over '. To sum up ; in deriving verbs from verbs, we have sometimes little more than a synonyme ('arise ') ; in other cases, a diminutive, or frequentative force ; and in some instances an intensive effect. The causative verbs are a distinct class. Among the most import- ant derivatives are those that negative in some way or other the meaning of the simple verb. DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 17. Adverbs are formed principally from Adjectives and Nouns. (1.) By Prefixes, These have already been exemplified ( 2-5) : *-bed, -ground, -head; awry; a-dowii ; alone, -so ; fc.fore, . 254 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. -hind, -sides, -times ; w-ever ; -or ; to-day, -night; underground '. ' apart, across ; per-ad venture -chance, -haps '. (2.) By Native Suffixes. ly is now by far the principal ending whereby adverbs are derived from adjectives: ' careful^/, gently (for 'gentle-ly '), honestly, hopelessly, probably (for ' probable-ly '), smoothly, swiftly '. Also from participles : ' beseechingly, confidingly, disappoint- ingly, falteringly, perplexingly ; unflinchingly ; decidedly, disconnectedly, pointedly ; unweariedly '. From nouns : * hapfo/, purposely ; month??/, weekly '. ling, long : * darkZm#, flatting ; headlong '. meal (division) : ' limbmeal, piecemeal '. Ward, Wards : ' downward^), forward (s) (= fortA-w outward (s)'. ' Froward' and 'wayward' are adjectives. way, way-S : ' straightway, noways '. wise ' likewise, otherwise '. Various inflexional endings may also be noted : Genitives end in s, CS, S6, C6 : ' always, besides, betimes, needs, nowadays, unawares, upwards ; else (0. E. ettes) ; onc0, twice, thrice (older ones, twies, thries} '. The -t in some words of this class is an accretion : ' amidst, amongst, betwixt, whilst ', for ' amiddes ', &c. Datives : * seldom, whilom (0. E. -um) '. In Oldest English, the adv. was formed from the corresponding adjective by adding -e a dative suffix : fast (' fast ' : adj.), fasst-e (' fast ' : adv.). Accusatives : ' alway, noway, otherwise, sometime, back- ward ; then, than '. Instrumental : ' the (with comparatives), thus (this), how, why'. ' Here, there, where, hither, thither, whither ', are locatives from pronominal roots. ' Hertcc, thence, whence ', seem to combine a locative and a genitive suffix : -n- -j- -ce (= es~). Setting aside the regular formation in ' ly ', and the instances of inflexional endings, the remaining adverbs are really phrases. One leading class shows a union of preposition (chiefly ' a ') and noun : ' a-sleep, fo-sides, ^er-chance '. Others show an adjective and a noun coalescing, the preposition being absent : ' noway, otherwise '. DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS. 18. The chief Prepositions are primitive words of the English language, and have corresponding forms in the other languages of the Indo-European family : ' at, by, fo:-, in, of, on, to, \vith '. PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 255 In ' from ', the -m is a superlative ending. Comparative endings appear in a few prepositions : ' sifter (a/ of, ' from ') ; over (0. E. of-er, from root of of) ; under (compare Lat. inter : from in). Also in 'ere' (0. E. ce-r 1 earlier, before '). ' To-ward(s) 'is 'in the direction of ', in the direction indi- cated by ' to '. A large number of prepositions are really shortened phrases : ' amid(st), beside, behind, &c. ' ; in the midst (= middes-t, mid being adj. and t an accretion) of, 'by the side of, &c. 1 Like, near, next, &c. ' are adjectives practically used as prepositions, through the omission of ' to ' : ' like to ', ' near to ', &c. Participles : ' notwithstanding, owing to '. Classical Prepositions. Simple : ' per, pro, sans '. ' Across ' is a shortened phrase. ' Maugre, minus, round ', adjectives. The chief instances are originally participles : ' concerning, during, excepting, regarding, touching ; except(ed), past, save'. DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 19. A very few are simple words of the language : * and, if, that '. Nearly all the words that serve as Conjunctions are appropriated from other parts of speech, chiefly and more immediately from the Adverb and the Pre- position. Adverbial conjunctions : ' also, likewise, then, further, still, only, therefore, accordingly, else, because, since, as, when'. ' Or, nor ', are condensations of ' other or either ', ' nother or neither '. Prepositional conjunctions : ' but, for, except, after, before, until '. And some of these are fundamentally adverbial. 20. Of all the purposes of forming derivatives, none is of more consequence than the signifying of nega- tion, contrariety, or opposition. After expressing a thing, quality, or action, we need to have the means of expressing the absence or negation of the thing. This has been largely provided for in our system of Prefixes and Suffixes, but still not adequately ; and it is useful to know the circumlocutions that are in reserve when these fail us. The chief prefixes are, ' dis, in, mis, n, non, re, un ', and the suffix is ' less '. The employment of these has been capriciously 256 DEEIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. limited ; but the use of negative prefixes to nouns is slowly reviving. Tennyson uses ' rf&fame, wmfaith, unMfh, u*- charity', &c. In some cases we have separate words for the opposite of a meaning : * Light, dark ' ; ' hot, cold ' ; ' light, heavy ' ; 'hard, soft ' ; ' rich, poor ' ; ' industrious, idle ' ; ' north, south ' ; ' pleasure, pain ; ' action, passion ' ; ' clever, stupid ' ; ' seeing, blind '. In technical and scientific language we can prefix ' not '. To signify all colours except white, we may say ' not- white ' ; ' me. not-me ', ' round, not-round '. The chief circumlocutions are seen in such examples as the following : ' That was the very opposite (or reverse) of candour' : 4 that would be anything but reasonable ' ; ' very far from reasonable ' ; ' his conduct showed a great want (absence) of selfishness '. These forms are often used to avoid the harshness of the other more direct negative forms : ' to relate disagreeable truths of a neighbour is far from innocent ' ; so, * far from pretty ' is softer than ' ugly ' ; ' a great want of consideration ' is hardly so strong as ' inconsiderate '. 21. Modified Forms. The following are examples of shortened forms : ' aim ' (0. Fr< esmer, Lat. cestimare, ' to estimate '), ' alms ' (Gr. HlfeinZsyrte, 0. E. celmesse), 'ant' (0. E. cemet, 'emmet'), 'binnacle' (formerly 'bittacle'; Fr. habitacle, Lat. habitaculum) ; 'brig' (brigantine), 'bus* (omnibus), 'cab' (cabriolet), 'cad' (cadger), 'change' (ex- change), 'censer' (incense), 'cess', (asses), 'cit' (citizen), 'con' (for 'contra', in 'pro and con'), 'consols' (consolidated moneys), 'coz' (cousin), 'drawing-room' (%'^/idrawing), 'dropsy' (formerly ' hydropisy ' ; from Gr. hy drops, from hydor 'water ') ; 'furl' ('fardel', bundle up); 'jury-mast, -rudder' (injury); ' larceny ' (Lat. latrocinium) ; ' limn ' (illuminate), ' lone ' (alone), ' miss ' (mistress), ' mite ' (minute), mob (0. E. mobile, Lat. mobile (vulgus), ' easily moved, fickle '), ' parrot ' (Fr. perroquefy ' phiz ' (physiognomy), ' prentice ' (apprentice), ' print ' (imprint ; Fr. empreinte, ' impression ', imprimer, 'print'; ~Lat.im primere) ; 'purl' (purfle, Fr. pourfilcr, 'to overcast with gold thread '), ' sir ' (Fr. sire, sieur, Lat. senior), 1 size ' (assize), 'spite ' (despite), ' sport' (desport), ' store ' (Fr. cstorer, Lat. instnurare) ; ' tire-woman ' (attire) ; ' story ' (history), 'vail' (avail), 'van' (caravan), 'ware' (aware), ' wig ' (for ' periwig ', itself a corruption of ' peruke ', Fr. perruque). Frequently a word is assimilated to a more familiar form, or otherwise changed : ' acorn (0. E. ceccrn, ' of the oak ' ; as if COMPOUND WORDS. 257 ' oak-corn') ; * beaver* (Lat. fiber ; transposition of consonants) ; ' cartridge ' (corruption of Fr. cartouche ; as ' porridge ' of * pottage', 'estridge* of 'ostrich') ; 'corporal' (Fr. caporal, Lat. caput ; not connected with corpus) ; * coy ' (Fr. eoi, Lat. quietus) ; * curse ' (in ' not care a curse ', is for kers, an older form of ' cress ') ; * cutlet ' (Fr. cotelette, dim. from cote, Lat. costa, ' r^^^Xl ' daffodil ' (asphodel) ; * ewer ' (O. E. hwer, Fr. aiguiere, from aigue, Lat. aqua, l water ') ; ' lias ' (layers) 'nonce' ('n* belongs to the inflexion of the demonstr. adj. : ' for thaw anes'); 'oakum' (0. E. acumba, cemba; 'what is combed ', * tow ') ; ' pox ' (pocks) ; ' saveloy ' (Fr. cervelas, from cervelle, Lat. cerebellum, 'brains'); 'tansy' (Fr. tanaisie, Gr. athanasia, 'immortality'); 'whack' (thwack); 'wherry' (ferry). Further examples of shortening, assimilation, and other varieties of change may be seen under the Prefixes, or may be gathered by careful observation in the course of using the etymological dictionary. Compound Words. 22. Compound words are those that are made up of simple words of independent significance ; as ' day -star ', ' sun-beam ', ' free-man ', ' rose-tinted ', * stout-hearted ', * Commander-in-chief '. As a general rule the first word qualifies the second. * Finger- ring ' is a ring for the finger; ' rwgr- finger' is the finger that wears the ring. A ' rose-tree' is a tree of the kind that grows roses ; a * tree-rose ' is a rose of the kind that grows on trees. A ' ground-n\Lt ' is a nut growing in the ground ; a ' niU-groand.' is a ground for producing nuts, A change of accent is usually required to make two words into a compound word. The crow is a ' black bird ', not a 'black- bird ' ; a ' rd house ' is a house that is red. A ' mad house ' would be a family all gone deranged ; but a ' mad-house ' is a house for receiving mad persons. 4 Lay thy bow of pearl apart And. thy silver sJiininy quiver.' This is either ' thy shining quiver made of silver ' (silver shining), or ' thy quiver shining like silver ' (silver-shining). Euphony may sometimes interfere with this rule ; as ' monks- hood ', ' well-head ', ' hop-pole ', which can hardly avoid accent on both members. Those compound words are often connected with the hyphen. The compound with the hyphen enables us to express a distinction, seeu in comparing ' horse-hair ' with ' a torse's 17 258 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. hair ' ; the one is the material, without regard to quantity : the other the hair of one horse. 23. Composition of Nouns. Nouns are combined with near! a all the other Parts of Speech ; and in a few cases compound nouns are formed by union of two words belonging to other parts of speech. Nouns with Nouns. ' Birthday, churchyard, coffeehouse, coppersmith, cornfield, handbook, moonlight, rosebud '. To these we should add ' drawing-room, resting-place, riding- whip, turning-lathe, walking-stick ', as the words 'drawing', 'riding', &c., are verbal equivalents to nouns. In 'self-love', 'self'i. substantially a noun. Sometimes a genitive case-ending is retained : ' craft-s-man, herdsman, kinsman, landsman (compare 'sea-man') ; catspaw ; deathshead ; Thursday '. ' Cynosure ' (= dog's tail). In * Jack-o'-lantern ', ' Will-o'-the- Wisp ', 'of is retained. 'Catamount is a corruption of 'cat o' mountain'. Compare ' aide-de-camp, corduroy (Fr. corde du roi, ' king's cord ') ', &c. Nouns with Adjectives : ' fortnight, goodwill, greensward, highland, highway, hotbed, midday, redbreast, stronghold'. Nouns with Verbs: 'cutwater, daredevil, makeshift, pick- pocket, singsong, spendthrift, spitfire, stopgap, turncoat '. In these words the verb governs the noun, and the meaning is some person or thing that performs the action indicated. The same meaning is expressed in another class of words by adding ' er ' to the compound : ' landowner, peacemaker, shipbuilder, stockbroker, talebearer '. By suffixing ' ing ' the act is ex- pressed : ' shipbuilding ', &c. A verb preceded by a noun is rare ; as ' godsend '. ' Bloodshed ' is participle joined to noun ; .so are ' ormolu ', ' treasure-trove '. ' Bakehouse ' exemplifies yet another combination : so ' washhouse, drawbridge, draw- well, grindstone, &c, '. Cp. ' scape-goat '. Noun* with Adverbs: 'by- play, by-word, forethought, in- gathering, instep, lockup, onset, out-going, outlaw, out-rider, sundown, up-rising '. These adverbs are to be distinguished from the same words used as prepositions, as will be seen in the following class. Nouns with Prepositions : ' forenoon, afternoon '. In these the noun is under government by the preposition. In ' after- thought', the meaning of 'after' is adverbial, something ' thought after '. Pronoun and Adjective : ' nonesuch '. COMPOUND NOUNS AI D ADJECTIVES. 259 Adverb and Verb: 'outlay, thoroughfare'. Verb preceding: 1 breakdown, cast-away, drawback, pinafore, run-away '. Verb and Verb : ' hear-say, hobnob, make-believe '. Verb and Preposition : ' go-between '. 24. Composition of Adjectives. The chief ele- ments are Adjectives and Participles, with Nouns and (occasionally) with Adverbs. Noun and Adjective* 'Bloodred, child-like, fancy-free, heart- whole, pitch-dark, sea-green, snow-white '. The noun in most of these instances adds its meaning to or defines the adjective : ' as red as blood', 'green like the sea ', &c. In 'headstrong, heart-whole, sinful', the noun is the subject of reference : ' whole as regards the heart '. Numeral and the noun ' fold ' : ' twofold '. Adjective and Adjective -. ' pale-blue (blue of a pale shade), red-hot (so hot as to be red) '. Noun and Imperfect Participle: 'all -seeing, fruit-bearing, heart-breaking, spirit-stirring, truth-telling '. The noun is the object of the transitive participle. It is an adverbial adjunct to the intransitive participle : ' night-walking ' is ' walking by night '. Noun and Past Participle : ' awe-struck, coal-laden, heart- felt, home-grown, moss-grown, moth-eaten, sea-born(e), tempest-tossed, thunder-riven, terror-stricken, vine-clad, weather-beaten, woe-begone '. In all such cases the noun is really adverbial, being the sole representative of an adverbial phrase : ' awe-struck ' is ' struck with awe ' ; ' home-grown ' is ' growu at home ', ' ice-built mountains ' are ' mountains built of ice'. In ' chapfallen ', the participle may agree with the noun, or the noun may be regularly adverbial. Adjective (complement) and Imperfect Participle : ' clear- sounding, simple-seeming, stern-looking '. Adjective or Participle and Adverb. 'All-powerful, far- fetched, high-born, highly-wrought, inbred, overcharged, over- done, well-bred, well-meant '. Verb and Noun. ' Break-neck (speed), do-nothing (days) '. Compounds with ' ed ', simulating participles : Noun and Noun : ' hook-nosed, lion-hearted, ox-eyed, '. ^ Adjective and Noun : ' able-bodied, bandy-legged, four- sided, long-headed, Roman-nosed, sober-minded, warm- hearted, weak-kneed'. 260 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 25. Composition of Verbs. Noun and Verb . ' back-bite, brow-beat, way -lay '. Adjective (complement) and Verb : ' ful-fil, rough-hew, safeguard, vouchsafe, white-wash '. Adverb and Verb : ' cross-question, doff (do off), don, fore- tell, gain -say '. 26. Composition of Adverbs. Noun and Noun : ' length-ways ', ' sideways '. Adjective and Noun: 'always, likewise, otherwise, some- times, straigh tway '. Adverb and Adverb : *as(=al-so), whereas, thenceforward'. Adverb and Preposition : ' hereupon, whereby, whereof '. Adjective and Adverb : ' nowhere, somehow '. Complex compounds: nevertheless, notwithstanding, more- over. 27. Prepositions are compounded of one another : 1 into ', ' within ', ' without ', ' upon ', * throughout '. 'But' (as adverb, preposition, or conjunction) is compounded of ' by ' (be) and ' out ' (like the Scotch phrase ' out by '). Originally it signified closeness with separation, and its various meanings are in accordance with this. 28. Compounds, disguised and assimila- ted. Many words that are really compound have lost the appear- ance of compounds, and look like simple words ; and in other cases, a simple word has been corrupted into a compound form ; and it often happens that one or both parts of a real or simulated compound have been assimilated to some other (probably better known) words, with which, however, they have no radical connexion. * Apricot ' (older ' apricock ', Fr. abricot, Lat. (malum) prce- cox, ' early ripe (apple) ') ; * as ' (0. E. als, alse, eall-swa, ' al-so ') ; ' ballast ' (0. E. bat-last, ' boat-load ') ; ' barley ' ( 8, 1> (3), (c)) ; 'barn '((). E. berern, ( bere-cern', 'bere-place or barley -house ') ; ' bice ' or ' bise ' (for 0. E. asure-bice, Fr. bes-azur, 'an inferior blue'); 'biscuit' (Fr., from Lat. bis coctus, 'twice cooked'); 'bridal' (O. E. bryd-ealu, 'bride-ale 01 -feast'); 'burglar' (Fr. burglaire, Lat.burgi-latro, ' burg- 01 house-robber ') ; ' bustard ' (Sp. dbutarda, Fr. ou(s}tarde, Lat. avis-tarda, ' slow bird ') ; ' chaffer ' (chap-fare, ' way or course _(fare) of bargaining (chap, 0. E. ceap)'); 'constable' (Fr. "conne'table, Ital. coneetabile, Lat. comes stabuli, 'count of the COMPOUNDS IN DISGUISE. 261 stable ', ' master of the horse ') ; ' cormorant ' (Fr. ; Ital. corvo marmo, 'sea-crow'); 'coverlet' (Fr. couvre-lit, 'cover-bed': not a dim. from 'cover'); 'curfew' (Fr. couvre-feu, 'cover- fire'); ' daisy ' (' day's-eye ') ; 'every' (0. E. cefer-celc, 'ever- each'); ' futtocks ' ('foot-hooks', or 'foot-locks'); 'gospel (0. E. god-spell, 'good news') ; 'gossamer' (' God's-summer ') ; 'gossip' (0. E. god-sib, ' God- related ', orig. 'sponsor'); 'gozzard* (= goose-herd); 'greatling fishery' (great line) ; 'groundsel (0. E. grund-swelige, 'ground-dwelling or -covering' plant); ' groundsil ', 'grunsel'(0. E. grund-syl, ' ground -sill ' or -base, threshold) ; ' halliards ' (or ' halyards ', that is ' haul- ' yards'); 'handsel' (0. E. hand-selan or -syllan, 'hand -to give'); ' heifer ' (0. E. hca-fore, 'stall-cow'); 'huzzy' (0. E. hus-wif, ' house-wife ') ; ' icicle ' {0. E. is-gicel, ' ice-congealed lump, -cone': cp. Germ, kegel) ; 'janizary' (Turkish yeni- ischeri, 'new-troops'); 'jeopardy' (Fr. jeu parti, Lat. jocus partitus, ' a divided game, an even chance ') ; 'julep ' or ' julap ' (Arab, julab, Pers. (tul-ab, 'rose-water'); 'kerchief (Fr., couvrc-ch(i)efy ' cover-head ') ; ' lady ' and ' lord ' (See INFLEXION, Gender, 3) ; ' lammas ' (0. E. hlaf-mcesse, ' loaf-mass, or -feast'); 'lamprey' (Fr. lamproie, Lat. lampetra, 'lambo- petra ', ' lick-rock ') ; ' liquorice ' (Gr. ghjlcijrrhiza, glykys- rhiza, ' sweet- root '); 'lute' (Arab, al-' ud, 'the wood'); ' manure ' (= ' manoeuvre ', Fr. ; from mainceuvre, Lat. manus- opcra, ' hand- work ') ; ' marshal ' (0. H. Germ, marcih-scalh, 'horse-servant', 0. Yr.mareschal: compare 'seneschal', senc-sccdh, 'old servant'); ' midriff ' (0. E. mid-lirif, 'mid-body') ; 'mole' (0. E. mold-weorp, 'mould-thrower') ; 'neighbour' (0. E. nca/i- bur, 'near-dweller'); 'nostril' (O.E. nasihyrla, nosc-thyrel or -thril, 'nose -doorlet (cp. Germ, thur-le, nose- hole) '); ' oleander' (corruption of ' rhodo-dendron '); 'orchard' (O.E. ort-yard, ort- geard, wyrt (wort)-geard, 'root- or herb- -arden') ; 'osprey' (Fr. orfraie; a corruption of ossifrage, Lat. ossifraga, 'bone-breaker') ; 'pastime' ('pass-time'); 'porcupine' (Ital. porco-spinoso, Lat. porcus spinosus, 'thorny, prickly hog'); 'porpoise', ' porpess ' (Ital. porco pesce, Lat. porcus-piscis, 'hog(like)-fish ') ; ' prince ' (Fr. ; Lat. princeps, from primus- capio} ; ' prithee ' ('I-pray-thee ') ; 'quandary' (Fr. qu' en dirai-jef ' what shall I say of it ? ') ; ' samphire ' (corruption of Fr. Saint Pierre, the herb of St. Peter) ; ' scabbard ' (0. E. scaubcrk : Icel. skafa- biarga (Germ, bergen}, ' scraper (sharp instrument) -to hide'); ' scaffold ' (0. Fr. eschafaud, escadnfaut, orig.' a platform, whence to see a tourney, Lat. scadnfaltiim, from ex and cndfifaUiun, Ital. catafalco, from Romance catar, ' to view, look ', and Teutonic falco, 'a planking') ; 'sheriff' (0. E. scirfej-g.'.r.fa, ' shire-reeve, district- or county -governor ') ; ' steward (0. E. 262 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. sti (Icel. stia)-weard, ' sty-ward ', ' domestic affairs-manager ') ; ' stirrup ' (0. E. stifgej-rap, ' mounting -rope ') ; ' such ' (p. 50, 4) ; ' tawdry ' (said to be for /. Awdrey, St. Etheldreda] ; 'threshold' (0. E. threscivald, threswold, ' threshwood ') ; ' vamp ' (Fr. avant-pied) ' vinegar ' (Fr. vin-aigre, ' sour- wine '); 'viper' (Lat. vipera, for iiivi-pera, from vivus-pario ' bring forth -alive ') ; ' walrus ' (Germ, wallross from wal, as in ' whale ', Germ, icallfcsch, and hross, ' a horse ') ; ' warlock ' (O.E. wcer-locja, 'treaty-breaker or -liar') ; 'wassail' (0. E. icces heel, ' be of (good) health ', ' your good health ! ') ; ' which ' (p. 33, 13) ; ' whisky ' (Kelt, uisye-beatha, ' water of life ') ; ' window ' (Icel. windauga, 'wind-eye'); 'woman' (O.E. wifmari). 'Beef-eater' (corruption of Fr. buffetier, one that attends at the buffet or sideboard) ; ' causeway ' (or ' causey ' : Fr. chausdc, Lat. calceata)', 'Charter-house' (Fr. Chartreuse, 'Carthusian monastery'); 'crayfish' or 'crawfish' (Fr. e.crevisse, Germ. krebiz, krcbs) ; ' lanthorn ' (former spelling of ' lantern ') ; ' lanyard ' (or ' laniard ' ; Fr. laniere, ' thong ') ; ' pent-house ' (0. E. pentice, Fr. appcntis, 'sloping shed' ; as if from 'pente- house', 'slope-house'); ' pickaxe ' (0. E. pikois\ the ending assimilated to 'axe'); 'rakehell' (0. E. rakel, rakle, 'rover, rioter ') ; ' runagate ' (for ' renegate, renegade ') ; ' sparrow- grass ' (for 'asparagus'). In Scotch, 'misdemeanours' sometimes become ' rnisty manners ', and ' colocynth pills ', in one district at least, are called ' Collieston pills '. 'Bandog' (= 'band-dog', chained dog); 'Bedlam' ('Bethlehem'); 'belfry' (Fr. bcfroi; 0. Fr. berfroi, Lat. bcrfrcdus, belfrcdus ; Germ, bervrit, bercvrit, ' watch-tower, tower for defence ' ; berg- or burg- friede, from bcrgen-fricden ' to protect- to watch or defend ') ; ' Billy Ruffian ' (Bellerophon) ; 'blunderbuss' (Dutch donderbus, 3erm. donncrbiichse, 'thunder- gun ') ; ' brimstone ' (= 0. E. bren-ston, ' burn-stone ') ; 'buckwheat' ( ' foecA-wheat ' ; cp. Germ, buch-weitzen ') ; 'carnival' (given as carne-m vale, 'farewell to flesV '.. and also as carnis levamen, ' solace of the flesh ') ; ' catamount ' ( 23) ; ' chance-medley ' (for Fr. chaudc-melee, ' a hot fight or affray ') ; ' checkmate ' (Fr. e'chcc et mat, Germ, schactmatt, Pers. shah mat, 'the king is dead'. Assimilated to verb 'check'); ' claymore ' (Gael. = ' sword-great ') ; ' cockchafer ' (= ' clock (Scorch; = 'beetle') -chafer'); 'cockloft' (= ' cob or cop (= top)-loft') ; 'cockswain' (or ' coxen', = ' 50<^-swain ') ; 'counterpane' (corruption of 'counterpoint', Fr. contre-pointe, for ' courte-poinie, 0. Fr. coultc-pointc, from Lat. culcita pi/wcta, ' st'itched-cushion ') ; 'cowslip' (for ' covtslcck ' : see 8, 1, (3), (c)); 'coxcomb' (' cock's-comb ') ; ' cupboard' (for 'cup-^?w or bower'); ' curtail' (Fr. court-tailler, ' cut short '); 'domesday- VARIOUSLY MODIFIED FORMS. 2C3 book* (for domus Dei, 'house of God'. Also dei'ived simply from dom, 'judgment'); 'dormouse' (Fr. donnctisc, 'the sleeping animal'; merely, perhaps, assimilated to 'mouse'); ' everywhere ' (for cver-gehwcer, tvcr-ihwar : not from ' every ') : 1 fieldfare ' (0. E. fc.ala'-for, f collar, from its pale yellow or dun (fealu) colour) ; ' furlong ' (0. E. furh- or J'ur-lang, ' furrow- long'); 'gooseberry' (corrupted from Germ. krous(d}-bcerc, * the rough berry ') ; ' handy work ' (0. E. ha/nd-yciceorc : not from ' handy ') ; ' hangnail ' (for ' agnail ' : 0. E. angnayl, from angc-ncegcl, 'sore nail*. The Scotch often use 'ragnail', the broken bits of flesh appearing like rags) : 'harbour' (0. E. hereberga, from here-beorgan, ' army -to protect' : orig. ' lodging or station for an army'); 'hauberk' (0. Fr. Jiauberc, O. E. h(e)alsbeorg ; from h(c)a?s-beorgan, 'neck- to protect'); 'hautboy ' (or ' oboe ' : Fr. hautbois, ' high -wood ', Ital. oboe) ; ' humble-pie ' (for ' umble-\ne ', pie made of (/fumbles or numbles (Fr. nomblcs), entrails of deer ; assimilated to ' humble ') ; ' husband ' (0. E. husbonda, * house-cultivator, -possessor, -master'; cultivator of soil attached to a house) ; 'jerked-beef (Chilian charqui) ; 'Jew's harp' (perh. from Fr. Jeu, ' toy ') ; ' Jerusalem-artichoke ' (for Ital. girasole, ' sun- ' flower') ; 'John Dory or Doree ' (Fr. jaune d&re'e, 'golden- yellow'; if not a corruption of il janitore, 'the gate keeper', the fiah being so called in the Adriatic, in reference to St. Peter) ; ' jollyboat ' (for ' yawl-boa,t ') ; ' keelson ' (Dan. kol-svin, or 'Svill, -syll, 'keel-sill'); 'kickshaw' (Fr. qudque, chose, 'something') ; 'landgrave* (Germ, land-grqf ; graf, 'earl'); ' linsey-woolscy ' (linen and wool) ; ' loadstar ' or ' lodestar ', * loadstone ' or ' lodestone ' (from ' lead ', 0. E. Icedan, lad. Perh. in the last case there is also a confusion with ' Lydian stone ' : cp. ' magnet ' = ' magnesian stone ') ; ' loggerhead ' (' log-head ') ; ' maulstick, mahlstick, mostick ' (Germ. malerstock ' painter's-stk-k ') ; ' nightingale ' (0. E. nihte- gy an adjective or the equivalent of an adjective : ' a man of any sense ' ; ' a pearl of great price '. With or without this qualification, the prepositional phrase may be conjoined with an adjective : 'a grown man of sense' ; 'a goodly pearl of great price ' ; 'a wary statesman in difficult times '. (4.) The participial phrase may be combined with other quali- fications : 'a powerful mind engaged on great problems'. Here 'mind 'is restricted both by the adjective and by the participle. As every noun occurring in a phrase may be the subject of new qualifications, .the main subject may be enlarged without any other limit than that of becoming too complicated to be easily understood. All the attributes that constitute the enlargement of the subject may also be predicated of it, as will be seen presently. Things in the attribu- tive relation to a subject are assumed to belong to it, instead of being predicated of it: 'a valiant man', 'a man of bravery', 'a man having a stout heart', &c., suppose or assume the characteristic of bravery as belonging to a man, and distinguishing him from the rest of men. If this cannot be assumed, and needs to be asserted, we must predicate it ; as ' he is valiant, is a man of bravery, is a man of stout heart ', e where to lay his head ' (no place that he might lay his head ?'/<,> ; 'you have no cause to hold my friendship doubtful ' (gerund : = no cause why ~on account of which you should hold, *fcc.). The Co-ordinating Adjective Clause, which joins on an additional statement in a convenient way, is best introduced by ' who ' and * which ', or their equivalents. ' The prince, who is an excellent horseman, kept his seat ' ; ' the king, who was more prudent than his advisers, accepted the armistice' ; 'let pride, which she calls plainness, marry her ' ; ' Goethe's heart, which few knew, was as great as his intellect, which all knew ' ; ' some of the dragoons came up to the hall, where they took possession ' ; ' the Interrex held office for five days only, when a successor was chosen ' ; ' he is in the 278 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. garden of Naboth, whither he is gone down to possess it '. (See THE PRONOUN, 17, &c.). When the subject is of itself vague and undetermined, we are prepared for regarding the accompanying clause as restrictive. When, on the other hand, the subject is sufficiently denned, we then look upon the clause accompaniment as adding new facts ; in other words, as a co-ordinating clause. This consideration and the context generally, are all that we have to guide us in interpreting the moaning of the relatives ' who ' and ' which ' in modern English style, where they are used in both the senses now mentioned. THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 20. An Adverbial Clause is the equivalent of an Adverb, and modifies a Verb : 'he went away after the sun had risen ' (after sunrise). Adverbial clauses form the greater number of subordinate clauses, and may be divided into as many classes as adverbs, and, like them, may qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. (I.) Place: 'we remain where we are' ; l wherever you go I will go '. Such clauses are introduced by the relative adverbs of place : ' where ', ' whither ', ' whence ', ' wherever ', ' whereso- ever ', &c. These adverbs both connect the dependent clause to the principal, and also qualify the verb of the dependent clause. Thus, in the expression ' it stands where I placed it ', ' where ' connects ' I placed it' with 'it stands', and also qualifies '/ placed it ' by an adverb of place (' there ') : * I placed it there, and it stands there still '. , (2.) Time : 'he wrote as soon as the news arrived' ; 1 we left wliile lie was speaking ' ; ' you may go there as often as you please '. Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the relative adverbs Of time ' when ', ' while ', ' whenever ', and by the prepositions or the conjunctions of time 'before , ' after ', ' since ', ' ere ', ' until ', ' as soon as ', ' no sooner than', 'just when ', ' the moment that ', &c. (3.) Degree : ' the sea is as deep as the mountains are high ' ; 'the result was greater than I anticipated* ; *the more you have, the more you want '. THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 279 There is always some expression denoting comparison in clauses of degree. They are introduced by ' than ', ' as ', ' the '. They are attached to adjectives and adverbs rather than t> verbs ; the reason being that degree applies more properly to qualities than to actions : 'he is stronger than I am ' ; 'he behaves as well as was anticipated '. These adverbial clauses of degree undergo the peculiar ellipsis seen in such examples as 'he is as rich as Croesus (is rich) ' ; 1 he works harder than ever (he worked hard) '. (4.) Certainty or Uncertainty: 'assure as I speak, you will repent of this '. Here we have merely the phraseology of degree applied to assurance, doubt, or denial. We may also include under the present head the relation of Condition, introduced by 'if, 'unless', 'except', 'though', ' however ', &c. : ' we shall reap if we faint not ' ; ' though he slay me, yet will I trust in him ' ; ' however you may try, you will not gain your end '. In sentences containing a condition, the clause expressing the consequence is the principal clause, and the clause expressing the condition, supposition, or conces- sion, is the subordinate clause : ' I will go (principal) if it should rain Duke Georges for nine days ' (subordinate). (5.) Cause or Reason : the garrison surrendered, \beeaitse their provisions failed '. These clauses are introduced by the conjunctions ' because ', ' as ', ' since ', &c. Consequence is expressed by ' so that ' : ' a storm arose, so that we could not leave the harbour '. For signifying end or purpose, ' that ', ' in order that ', are employed. (6.) Manner in general. Among the relations not included in the foregoing heads are likeness, unlikeness, and various unclassifiable modes of action : ' lie did as he was told '. ' Manner ' is often expressed by an adverbial adjunct containing an adjective clause ; as ' train up a child in the way that it should go '. Here the clause ' that it should go ' qualifies the noun ' way ', and is not an adverbial clause, though occurring in an adverbial adjunct. The words ' mode ', ' manner ', &c., occur in the same construction. In the sentence 'we should have arrived sooner, but that we met with an accident', the subordinate clause is considered to be a noun clause, governed by ' but ' as a preposition ; the entire expression (' but ' and clause) being simply an adverbial prepositional phrase. 280 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 21. The Adverbial Clause is contracted by omitting the Verb, or by changing it into a Participle : ' while (I am) on this part of the subject I may remark ' ; ' riding (as we rode) through the wood, we met an old man '. The Compound Sentence. 22. A Compound Sentence contains two or more (Simple or Complex) Sentences united : 'the sun rose, and the mists disappeared'; 'he came, but we did not see him'; 'he was there, else I should not have seen him '. In these examples the separate clauses are noways dependent on each other. Either assertion might have been made alone ; we might have said ' the sun rose ', or ' the mists disappeared ', separately, without incompleteness of sense ; whereas we could not break up a complex sentence into clauses with independent meaning : ' I will, if I can '. It is true, that when assertions are coupled together in the same period, there is an intention that they should be thought of together, but still they are not such that the one is dependent on the other for a complete meaning. The co-ordinating conjunctions (PABTS OF SPEECH Con- juncticm) are so called because they unite co-ordinate clauses. CONTRACTED SE. TENCES. 23. When the Co-ordinate Clauses of a Compound Sentence have the same Subject, the same Predicate, or any other part in common, we may avoid repeating the com- mon part and thereby shorten or contract the expression of the sentence; as 'the sun gives light and (the sun gives) heat'; 'either you (must go) or I must go '. One subject may have two or more Predicates, as in the first example now given. One predicate may have a plurality of Subjects ; as ' Hannibal and Ccesar were great generals '. There may be a plurality of Objects ; as ' whosoever shall leave houses and lands for my sake '. ' The Adverbial adjunct of the predicate may be the common part : ' he advances and retires sl&wly '. EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. 281 ' Often the common part is a Subordinate Clause : ' the evil that men do lives after them ; the good (that men do) is oft interred with their bones '. The cumulative conjunction 'and' does not always indicate a compound sentence, as there are cases where it joins words or phrases without joining assertions (PARTS OF SPEECH Conjunction). But the alternative conjunction ' or ' can couple only clauses. When we say ' he drove a carriage, and pair ', ' carriage and pair ' makes but one object ; but the use of ' or ' excludes a combination of this kind : ' bring either a carriage or a saddle horse ' is a contracted sentence. In co-ordinate contracted sentences the parts joined by the conjunction must stand in the same relation to the common part. ' I add no more and believe me yours truly' is an irregular construction, for the conjunction couples' a verb in the indicative 'add ', with another in the imperative. ' believe ' : ' I ' is not the subject of both verbs. The following are irregular contractions : 'This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published ' : this must be ' has been, is, or shall be, published '. ' There are principles in man which ever have, and ever will incline him to this offence'; for 'ever have inclined, and ever will incline '. When clauses are placed side by side without a Conjunction expressed, or other grammatical link (as a relative pronoun, or a relative adverb), they are sometimes termed. collateral ; as ' I came, I saw, I conquered ' ; ' this is the way ; that road goes nowhere '. In such constructions a certain rhetorical effect is produced by the ellipsis of the conjunctions. EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. Simple Sentences. 24. Form of Analysis. In analyzing Simple Sentences the manner of proceeding is as follows : I. Set down the Subject of the sentence. II. Set down the enlargement, or attributive Adjuncts of the Subject. These may be assumed to be restrictive, unless mentioned as co-ordinating. 282 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. III. Give the Predicate Verb. If this be a verb of incomplete predication, state the Comple- ment also. IV. When the predicate is a transitive verb, state the Object. V. Set down the enlargement, or attributive Adjuncts of the Object. VI. Adverbial Adjuncts of the Predicate. When the various parts may assume different forms, the particular form present should be mentioned. 25. Example : Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne. In rayless majesty, now stretches forth Her leaden sceptre, o'er a slumbering world,* I. Subject, 'night'. II. Attributive adjunct of subject, ' sable goddess ', noun in apposition (with adj. adjunct). III. Predicate, * stretches ' (or ' stretches-forth *). IV. Object, 'sceptre'. V. Attributive adjuncts ( 1. ' her ' ; possessive adjective. of object t ( 2. ' leaden ' ; adjective. ' 1. ' from her ebon throne ' ; phrase of place, prep, and noun. 2. 'in ray less majesty' ; phrase of VI. Adverbial adjuncts^ of predicate, manner, prep, and noun. 3. ' now ' ; adv. of time. 4. ' forth ' ; adv. of place. 5. ' o'er a slumbering world ' ; phr. of place, prep, and noun. 26. ' The neglect to lay down in distinct terms the opposition between the true and the false, has been the occasion of the generally unintelligible character of metaphysics.' I. Subject, 'neglect*. SIMPLE SENTENCES ANALYSED. 283 II. Attributive adjun :ts of subject, 1. 'the'; adj., or article. 2. ' to lay down in distinct terms the opposition between the true and the false ' ; infin. phrase object to the verbal noun 'neglect'. 'Indistinctterms', adverbial adjunct of manner, prcL h r., u the verb 'to lay down ' ; * the (attribute to} 0] - position', obj. of 'to lay down ' ; ' between the true and the false', prep, phr., adjunct to ' opposition '. (I. Verb of incomplete pred., 'has been '. 2. Complement of pred., 'the occa- sion ' ; noun, modified by ' of the generally unintelligible character of metaphysics ', III. Predicate. { prep, phr., the noun ' charac- ter' being modified by (1) ' the ', adj. ; (2) ' unintelligi- ble ' (adj.), qualified in turn by adv. of extent ' generally ' ; ' of metaphysics ', prepl. phr. 27. ' Having first procured guides, we began our ascent of the mountain.' I. Subject, ' we ' ; pron. II. Attributive adjunct ( ' having first procured guides ' ; eo- of subject, \ ordinating participial phrase. III. Predicate, 'began'. IV. Object, 'ascent'. V. Attributive adjuncts ( 1. ' our ; ' poss. adj. of object, | 2. 'of the mountain ' ; prep, phrase. The attributive adjunct of the subject, ' having first procured- guides ', might be further analysed into verb, object, and adverb. 28. ' There are twenty men here.' I. Subject, ' men '. II. Adjunct of subject, 'twenty', adj. TTT T) j- t S 1- Incompl. vb.. 'are*. [II. Predicate, \ 2 Complem., 'here', adv. of place. ' There ', originally an adv. of place, has entirely lost its force hi this application, and is merely a formal means of allowing the inversion of the sentence. 284 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 29. ' He gave me a letter to read. 1 I. Subject, ' he '. III. Predicate, 'gave'. IV. Object of verb, 'letter'. V. Adjunct of object, 'a', adj. or article. VI. Adverbial Adjuncts i 1. ' me ' (i.e., ' to me '), dative pron. of predicate, 12. 'to read', plir. of purpose (gerund}. 30. ' It is vain to pretend ignorance of the fact.' I. Subject, 'it,' anticipative pronoun. II. Adjunct of subject, 'to pretend ignorance of the fact'; infill, phr. in apposition. TTT T> i- t ( Verb of incomplete, predication, 'is'. \ Complement of predicate, 'vain', adj. 3I< * Who are you?' I. Subject, ' you ', pron. Verb of incomplete predication, ' are '. III. Predicate. Complement of predicate, ' who ' pronoun. 32. 'In France there was less material for the Reformers to work upon.' I. Subject, ' material '. II. Adjunct of Subject, ' less ' ; adj. III. Predicate, ' was' (= existed). VI. Adverbial Adjuncts of Pred. : 1. * in France ' ; phr. of place, prep. and. noun. 2. ' for the Reformers ' ; prepl. phr. of purpose or "benefit. 3. ' to work upon ' ; phr. of end or purpose, gerund. 4. ' there '. May be set down as formally adverbial, but has become a mere help to inversion. ( 28) . The expression ' for the Reformers to work upon ' may also be regarded as a contracted equivalent to an adj. clause limiting ' material ' ; as if ' less material that the Reformers might work upon '. 33- * Two may keep counsel, putting one away.' I. Subject, 'two' (see explanation below). TTT ,. , 11. Incompl. verb, III. Predicate, IV. Object (of Compl. Infin.), 'counsel'. VI. Advl. Adjunct of Pred., ' putting one away ' ; phr. of con- dition, impersonal participle (13, (4).). SIMPLE SENTENCES ANALYSED. 285 Strictly, the Subject is ' persons ' understood ; and ' two ', a numeral adj , is limiting Adjunct to the Subject. So 'one' in strictness limits 'person', which is left unexpressed, because easily supplied by every hearer. The omission of the noun throws the force of it upon ' two', which may therefore be allowed to stand as subject. 34. ' Respecting ourselves, we shall be respected by the world.' I. Subject, < we ', pron. II. Adjunct of Subject, 'respecting ourselves', co-ordinating participial phrase, with the force of an advl. expression of con- dition modifying the principal clause ; = ' if or since we respect ourselves, &c.' III. Predicate, ' shall be respected '. VI. Advl. Adjunct of Pred., ' by the world ' ; prepl. phr. of agency. 35. ' Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to figure to myself the miseries of confinement.' I . Subject, ' I ' ; pron. II. Adjunct of Subject, 'leaning my head upon my hand' ; co-ordin. parti, phr. The participle ' leaning ' has obj. ' head ' ' (limited by the poss. adj. ' my '), and advl. phr. of place or posi- tion f upon my head' (prepl.). III. Predicate, 'began'. IV. Object, ' to figure ', in/in. 1. 'the miseries of confinement' ; V. Adjuncts of Object, obj. to ' to figure '. 'to myself; advl. phrase of end, prepl. 36. * Partakers in every peril, in the glory shall they not partake ? ' I. Subject, ' they ' ; pron. II. Adjunct of Subject, 'partakers in every peril' ; noun in- apposition, with the force of an advl. expression of cause or reason, modifying the principal clause : = ' seeing that they have been 1 partakers have partaken in every peril '. The noun ' partakers ' is limited by ' in every peril ', a prepl. phrase that is formally adjective but really advl., the noun ' partakers ' having the force of the verb ' partake ', as is seen in the equivalent lengthened expression just given. 286 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. TTT JW7 /.// fl- Incompl. verb, 'shall not', (negative). 111. Predicate, -j 2 Complem. '(to) partake', infin. VI. ^c?uZ. Adjunct of Pred., 'in the glory ', ^repZ. phr. of reference. 37. ' To impose fresh taxes on England in defiance of law would, at this conjuncture, have been madness.' I. Subject, ' to impose ' ; infin. II. Adjunct of Subject : 1. ' fresh taxes ' : obj. to ' to impose '. 2. ' upon England ' ; advl. prepl. phr. of end. 8. ' in defiance of law ' ; advl. prepl. phr. of opposition. TTT PreMwtP J ll Incom P L vb -> ' would have been'. III. fred ^ 2 Complem) < ma( i n e S s' ; noun. VI. Advl. Adjunct of Pred., 'at this conjuncture'; prepl. jphrase of time. The Adjuncts of the Subject in this example are in the usual ; forms of the Object and the Adverbial Adjunct of the Predicate. .The reason is that the subject is, not a noun, but the Infinitive of a transitive verb. Compare the Adjunct of the Object in 35. Complex Sentences. 38. Form of Analysis. These are to be ana- lyzed in the first instance as if each subordinate clause were a single word or phrase. The subordinate clauses are then to be analyzed separately. EXAMPLES CONTAINING NOUN CLAUSES. 39. ' That he committed the fault, could be judged from his looks.' I. Subject, ' that lie committed the fault ', noun clause (a). TTT T> j- f ( Verb of incompl. pred. 'could'. t Complement of predicate, 'be judged'. VI. Adverbial adjunct of predicate, * from his looks ', prepl. phrase of means or cause. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, 'he'. III. Predicate, ' committed '. IV. Object, 'fault'. V. Adjunct of object, ' the '. The conjunction ' that ' does not enter into the construction of the dependent clause. COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH NOUN CLAUSES. 287 40. ' I told him that we should be there '. I. Subject, T. III. Predicate, 'told'. IV. Object, ' that we should be there ', ' noun clause, (a). VI. Adverbial adjunct of Predicate, ' him ', = ' to him ', phrase of direction. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, 'we'. TTT Pndjj-ats I Vb ' of incowpl. pred., 'should be'. ate > \ Complement, ' there ', adv. of place. In these constructions the practice has been to term ' him ' the indirect object of the verb, but we may also regard it as an adverbial word indicating a circumstance connected with the act of telling. It is important to compare this example with the following. 41. 'I strongly warned him that disaster would follow such perversity '. I. Subject, ' I . III. Predicate, 'warned*. IV. Object, 'him'. VI. Adverbial Adjunct? of Predicate : 1. ' strongly ', adv. of', degree. 2. 'that disaster would follow such perversity, noun clause (a), used as advl. expression of reference. Analysis of (a), I. Subject, ' disaster '. III. Predicate, ' would follow '. IV. Object, ' perversity '. V. Adjunct of object, 'such', adj. ' That ' introduces the noun clause and connects it with the principal. Here ' him ' is the direct object of ' warned '. We might say ' I told or mentioned the fact that we should be there ' ; but not ' I warned the fact that disaster would follow '. Hence in the one case the noun clause is the real object of the verb ; in the other case it is not the object, and must be considered as modifying the predicate. ' I dreamt that I dwelt in marble halls '. ' Dreamt' may bo regarded as transitive, = ' thought in a dream ' ; in which case the noun clause, ' that I dwelt in marble halls ', is the object. . If ' dreamt' be regarded as intransitive, the noun clause is used as an adverbial expression of reference. 288 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 42. ' It is singular that you should make that mistake.' I. Subject, 'it'. II. Adjunct of Subject, ' that you should make that mistake', 'noun clause in apposition, (a). III. Predicate, \ % erb f incomplete predication is '. ( Complement of Pred. , singular , adj. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, 'you'. III. Predicate, ' should make '. IV. Object, 'mistake'. V. Adjunct of Object, ' that ', demonstr. adj. The first ' that ' is merely the formal word introducing the noun clause. The aj^osition is more impressively brought out hy the stronger pronoun ' this '. ' We know this, that in three campaigns we have done nothing '. Compare also the following 'example. 43. ' Morality is deeply interested in this, that what is immoral shall not be made attractive.' I. Subject, ' morality '. ITT Predicate Jl. Incompl. verb, < is'. ate > 12. Complem., 'interested',^/. VI. Adv I. Adjuncts of Predicate : 1. ' deeply ', adv. of degree. 2. ' in this ', prepl. phr. of reference, the reference being given in ' that what is immoral shall not be made attractive ', noun clause (a) in apposition to ' this '. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, ' what is immoral ', noun clause (a?). (\. Incompl. Verb, 'shall not', negative. III. Predicate, \ 2. Complem. , ' be made attractive ', itself an incomplete infinitive I with adjective complement. ' That * introduces the noun clause. Analysis of (a 2 ). I. Subject, 'what'. TTT -n j' j 11. Incompl. verb, 'is*. III. Predicate, \ 2 Comp f em , , immoral , f ^ 44. ' Tell me how you are.' I. Subject, * you ' (understood). NOUN CLAUSES ANALYSED. 289 III. Predicate, 'tell'. IV. Object, l how are you ', noun clause (a). VI. Adverbial Adjunct of Predicate, 'me', = 'to me', phrase of direction or benefit. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, 'you'. TTT zwftv/y/* J 1 - Verb of incomplete predication, 'are'. aie > \ 2. Complement of predicate, 'how', adv. 45. ' I wish to know where you live.' I. Subject, 'I'. III. Predicate, 'wish'. IV. Object, l to know ', infinitive. V. Adjunct of Object t ' where you live ', noun clause (a), object to ' to know '. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, 'you'. III. Predicate, 'li\e*. VI. Adverbial adjunct of Predicate, 'where', adv. of place. 46. * What seems most extraordinary in the battle of Sedgemoor is that the event should have been for a moment doubtful.' I. Subject, ' what seems most extraordinary in the battle of Sedgemoor '. noun clause {a, 1). III. Predicate-. 1. Incornpl. verb, ' is *. 2. Complem., 'that the event should have been for a, moment doubtful ', noun clause, (a 2). Analysis of (a 1). I. Subject, ' wh it '. TTT T> j- t J 1- Incompl. verb, 'seems*. III. Predicate, \ ^ Com / em ^ < e itraordinaiy ', adj. VI. (1). Adverbial Adjunct of Predicate, 'in the battle of Sedgemoor ', prepl. phrase of place. (2.) AdvL Adjunct of CompUm. of Pred. t 'most', adverb of degree. Analysis of (a 2). I. Subject, 'event*. II. Adjunct of Subject, ' the ', adj. m D ,. , ( 1. Incompl. verb, 'should have been*. . Predicate, j 2 Comp { cm ^ ^ d ' oubtfll r 5 adj . VI. AdvL Adjunct of Prod., 'loramoment\prepl.2)hr.oftime. ' That ' introduces the noun clause. 19 290 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 47. ' They brought home numerous evidences that the expedition had been successful.' I. Subject, ' they ', pron. Til. Predicate, ' brought '. I V. Object, ' evidences '. V. Adjuncts of Object : 1. ' numerous ', adj. 2. ' that the expedition had been successful ', noun clause, (a), object to 'evidences' (in consequence of the verb force contained in it; for 'evidences' = 'objects, &c., evidencing or proving'. See 16.). VI. Advl. Adjunct of Predicate, ' home ', = ' to home ', phr. of place. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, ' expedition '. II. Adjunct of Subject, ' the ', adj. Ill Predicate J 1 ' I/)lc omp?. verb, 'had been*. ate > 1 2. Complem., ' successful ', adj. 1 That ' introduces the noun clause. 48. 'I felt certain that the expedition would be successful.' I. Subject, 'I'. TTT r> j- t f ! Incompl. verb, 'felt'. III. Predicate, \ 2 CompLn., < certain >, adj. IV. Object, ' that the expedition would be successful ', noun clause (a) ; the pred. ' felt certain ' being the same in force as ' firmly believed ', or some such regular transitive verb form. (See 16). Or, the noun clause may be regarded as an Advl. adjunct of Predicate, explaining what it was in reference to that ' I felt certain '. (Compare 41, end.). EXAMPLES CONTAINING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 4-9. * The hill that you see in the distance commands a fine prospect.' I. Subject, 'hill'. !1. 'the', adj., or article. 2. ' that you see in the distance ', adjective clause, (a). III. Predicate, ' commands '. IV. Object, 'prospect'. -r r .,. /. ^ 7 . , ( 1. ' a ', adj. or article. V. Adjuncts of Object, t* I. Subject, 'you'. III. Predicate, 'see'. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES ANALYSED. 291 Analysis of (a). IV. Object, ' that ', relative pronoun. the dis a verb implied, as ' standing, rising, stretching away in the distance ' ; and the adjunct is co-ordina- V. Adjunct of Object, 'in the distance ', prepl. phrase ; really adverbial, modifying ting. 50. ' Who was it that told you.' I. Subject, 'it'. II. Adjunct of subject, ' that told you ', adjective clause (a). ITT Predicate 4 Verb f incom P l - predication, ' was '. I Complement of predicate, ' who '. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, ' that ', relative pronoun. III. Predicate, 'told'. VI. Adrl. Adjunct of Predicate, 'you', = ' to you', prepl. phrase of direction or benefit. 51. ' The labour we delight in physics pain.' I. Subject, ' labour '. 1. ' the ', adj. II. Adjuncts of Subject : 2. '(that) we delight in', adj. clause (a), III. Predicate, 'physics'. IV. Object, ' pain '. Analysis of (a), I. Subject, ' we ', pron. III. Predicate, 'delight'. VI. Advl. adjunct of Predicate, ' (that) in' (= 'in which'), prepl. phrase of reference or cause. 52. * Such kings as regard not the solemn promises they make are dangerous.' I. Subject, 'kings'. " 1. ' such ', adj. 2. ' as regard not the solemn pro- II. Adjuncts of Subject : mises they make', adj. clause (a). TTT B^.JXM*. \ ! Incmnpl. verb, ' are '. [II. Predicate: j 2 Comp f em ^ < danger ous', adj. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, 'as', relative pronoun (adverbial equivalent to that ' or ' who ') 292 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. III. Predicate, ' regard not ', negative. IV. Object, ' promises '. V. Adjuncts of Object : 1. ' the ', adj. 2. ' solemn ', adj . 3. ' (that) they make ', adj. clause (a 2 ). Analysis of (a 2 ). I. Subject, ' they ', pron. III. Predicate, 'make'. [IV. Object, 'that', rel. pron., understood.] 53. ' We saw the place where the Jacobite standard was raised.' Here the object, ' place ', is qualified by the adjective clause ' where the Jacobite standard was raised ', which is analyzed thus : I. Subject, l standard '. III. Predicate, ' was raised '. VI. Adverbial Adjunct of Predicate, 'where' ; relative adv. of place ( = ' in which ', or ' that- in '). 54. * The judges of the common law, who held their situations during the pleasure of the King, were scandalously obsequious.' I. Subject, ' judges '. II. Adjuncts of Subject : 1. ' the ', adj. 2. ' of the common law ', prepl. phr. 3. ' who held their situations during the pleasure of the King', adj. clause, co-ordinating, (a). This co-ordinating adj. cl. has the force of an adverbial adjunct of cause or reason : ' The judges were obsequious, for (because, feeing that, &c.,) they held their situations during the pleasure of the King'. (Cf. p. 34, bottom, 18.) TTT T> j- t ' 1- Incom.pl. verb l were '. : )2. Complem., 'obsequious', adj. VI. Advl. Adjunct of (Compl. of) Pred., 'scandalously', adv. of manner and degree and effect or consequence. Analysis of (a). I. Subject* ' who ', rel. pron. III. Pred., 'held'. IV. Object, ' situations '. ADJECTIVE AND ADVERBIAL CLAUSES ANALYSED. 293 V. Adjunct of Object, ' their ', poss. adj. VI. Advl. Adjunct of Predicate, ' during the pleasure of the King', prep. phr. of time and condition. EXAMPLES CONTAINING ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 55. ' When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies in me.' I. Subject, ( emotion '. ( 1. * every ', adj. II. Adjuncts of Subject, J 2. 'of envy', adv. phr., prep, and [ noun. III. Predicate, 'dies'. VI. Adverbial Adjuncts\ \ of Predicate, J thegreat', adverbial clause (a). Analysis of (a). I. Subject, !'. III. Predicate, 'look upon'. IV. Object, 'tombs'. v. w**// S Verb of incomplete predication, ' \s\ \ Complement of predicate, 'deep '. VI. Adverbial adjunct of complement of predicate, ' as ' (adv. of degree), modified by ' as the mountains are high ', advl. clause qf degree (a). Analysis of (a). I. Subject, ' the mountains '. TIT D j- t $ Verb of incomplete predication, 'are'. 111. frea ate, { Complement of predicate, ' high '. VL Advl. adjunct of compl., 'as', relative adv. of degree. 60. It is only through their adverbial force that some conjunctions enter into the construction of the dependent clause. In adverbial clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunc- tions 'if, 'though', * because', 'that', &c., the conjunction does not enter into the construction of the clause. It is the adverbial conjunctions, ' when ', ' where ', ' whenever ', ' wher- COMPOUND AND CONTRACTED SENTENCES ANALYSED. 295 ever ', ' as ', &c., that are considered as qualifying the subordinate clause introduced by them. 61. * ^e must not think the life of a man begins when he can feed himself.' Principal clause, ' We must not think ' (A). Subordinate noun clause, " (that) the life of a man begins * (a). Adverbial clause subordinate to la), ' when he can feed him- self '(a*). Here we have subordination of the second degree, and the whole may be symbolically expressed Compound Sentences. 62. The Co-ordinate Sentences are to be analyzed separately, and the link of connexion indicated. These separate sentences, when complex, are to be analyzed as such. "The house fell, and great was the fell thereof. [A] 'The house fell ; [B] great was the fall thereof. ' And ' connects [A] and[B]. 'He goes [A! (but) it is intended that I should remain till 1 grow stronger' [B +b+ V s ]. Contracted Sentences. 63. In these the omitted parts must be expressed at full length, after which the analysis proceeds as above. ' Frogs and seals live on land and in water '. Here there are four sentences. 'Frogs live on land'; 'frogs live in water'; ' seals live on land ' ; * seals live in water '. * I am the first and (I am) the last' In the following example the contraction takes place in the subordinate part of a complex sentence : * when a man is from necessity his own tailor, tent-maker, carpenter, cook, huntsman, aud fisherman, it is not probable that he will be expert at any of his callings '. So in this : ' say first, for Heaven hides nothing from thy view, nor the deep tract of Hell '. Again : tin all times and in all places, man has sought to understand the language of nature '. 64. Let .us present an analysis of the following compound sentence : 296 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 'The theory of the Mahometan government rests npon the maintenance of a clear .separation from the unbelievers ; and to propose to a Mussulman of an}' piety, that the Commander of the Faithful should obliterate the distinction between Mahometans and Christians would be proposing to obliterate the distinction between virtue and vice : the notion would seem to be not merely wrong and wicked, but a contradiction in terms. ' Analysis of sentence : A. ' The theory unbelievers '. I. Subject (with adjuncts), 'the theory of government '. III. Predicate, ' rests upon '. (Compare ' look upon ': 55. ) IV. Object (with adjuncts), 'the maintenance unbelievers'. B. ' To propose virtue and vice '. I. Subject, ' to propose '. infinitive. II. Adjuncts of Subject : 1. 'that the Commander Christians', noun dause (5). 2. 'to a Mussulman of any piety 1 , advl. phrase (prep, and noun) of end or direction. Ill Predicate J Vrr ^ f incom P l - P> ed - * would to'. 1 Com.pl. oj'pred., 'proposing', infin. IV. Object of verb, ' to obliterate ', infinitive. V. Adjunct of Object : ' the distinction between virtue and vice ', object (with adjuncts) to infin. ' to obliterate '. Analysis of (b). I. Subject (with adjuncts), ' the Commander of the Faithful '. III. Predicate, ' should obliterate '. IV. Object (with adjuncts), ' the distinction between Mahome- tans and Christians'. The third division of the sentence is greatly contracted. The full expression is : ' the notion would seem to be not merely wrong [c] and (the notion would seem to be not merely) wicked [D], but (the motion wonld seem to be) a contradiction in terms ' [E]. Sometimes such an expression as * wrong and wicked ' may be viewed as a compound predicate, the two words being intended to convey but one notion to the mind. ' And ' con- nects A and B, C and D ; 'but' connects E with C and with D, being anticipated by ' not merely ' ; there is no connecting link expressed between B and C. ' That ' connects b aaid B. Elliptical Sentences. 65. Ellipsis is the omission of some part essential to a complete construction for the sake of brevity and strength. What is left is regarded assuincient to convey the intended meaning. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES ANALYSED. 297 The Contracted Sentences aBove spoken of are one class of Elliptical Sentences ; the part common to two or more Co-ordinate Sentences being expressed only once. Another class, somewhat more difficult, are those involving the Comparative Adverbs, ' as ', ' than ', and ' the '. 66. 'He is as tall as I am.' In full, ' he is as tall as I am tall '. Principal clause, ' he is as tall ' ; adverbial adjunct of the complement of the predicate, * as ' (modified by the adverbial clause) ' as I am tall '. The predicate of the elliptical or dependent clause is ' tall ', and this is compared, by means of the relative adverb ' as ', with the degree of tallriess expressed in the principal clause. It is analogous to the sentence already given, 'the sea is as deep as the mountains are high '. 67. ' He is taller than I am.' In full, ' he is taller than I am tall '. Principal clause, ' he is taller ' ; adverbial clause, ' I am tall than ', where ' than ' (which is originally ' then ') is an adverb of degree, qualifying * tall '. ' He is taller, then (next, in an inferior degree) I am tall.' 68. ' He is more industrious than clever.' In full : * he is more industrious than he is clever '. Analyzed thus : I. Subject, 'he*. TTT n // / Verb of incomplete predication, 'is '. 1 CompL of predicate, ' industrious '. VI. Adverbial adjunct of the complement, ' more ' (adv. of de- gree], modified by ' than he is clever ' (advl. clause of degree) (a) (analyzed, 'he is clever than'). Literally, this construction means, ' he is industrious more then he is clever '. There, would seem to be a tautology in the English idiom, for either word, * more ' or ' than ', would have expressed the comparison. 69. ' He has not written so much as I have.' In full, ' so much as I have written much '. The adverb 'as ' is an adverb of degree qualifying ' much ' understood. ' I have written much, he has not written much (to the same degree)', is the mode of rendering the construction. Or. ' 1 have written much so (compared by a certain quantity), he has not written much so (compared by the same quantity)'. 298 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 70. * He has written' more letters than you.' In full, ' he has written more letters than you have written many letters ' ; ' he has written many letters more (' many more ', or 'more many', = more, or many-er) then you have written many letters '. 71. 'He does not write so well as you.' ' He does not write so well as you ivritc well. 1 * As ' modifies the second ' well ', iu correspondence with ' so ' modifying the first ' well '. ' He does not well so (in that degree) a* (in which degree) well you write.' 72. ' I would as soon die as suffer that.' * I would as soon die, as I 'would soon suffer that.' In other words, ' I would die as soon as soon I would suffer that '. The ' as as r here is precisely similar to the ' so as ' in the preceding example (71). 73- ' As ', after ' such ' and ' same ', employed as equivalent to the restrictive relative, is a case of ellipsis. ' The house is not such as I want.' ' The house is not such a house as I want a house. ' ' A house I want is so, the house is not such ' (or so-like, or 'like to that'). The full correspon- dpin-e was well given by the ancient 'such such '. 74. ' I am not such a fool as to believe that.' hi lull, ' I am not such a fool as I should be a fool to believe dial '. ' 1 should be a fool to believe that (if I were to believe th:it). ' ' I am not a fool such (or so, or ' like that ', or ' to that d'-.grei; ') a-s (in which degree) a fool I should be to believe that.' 75- ' Our habits are costlier than Lucullus wore.' 4 Than Lucullus wore costly habits ', or ' than the habits wer$ costly that Lucullus wore '. ' Our habits are costly more then costly habits Lucullus wore.' 76. ' Moderation in the use of food is a better ruinody than medicine for an oppressed state of the cii-nulation.' ' Than medicine is a good remedy.' 77. To resolve a compound sentence into the simple or complex sentences composing it, often enables us to detect a fault in its construction. CONCORD. 299 ' Because he had committed a crime, he was shut up in prison and let out again only yesterday.' As it stands, the sentence is resolvable into these two : ' because he had committed a crime, he was shut up in prison ', and ' because he had committed a crime, he was let out only yesterday '. It should be, ' because he had committed a crime, he was shut up in prison ; and he was let out again only yesterday ' ; or, ' and it was only yesterday that he was let out again '. 78. A Relative Pronoun, as subject, is frequently omitted in poetry, not often in prose. In the sentence, ' there was a man showed me the way ', the analysis will determine exactly what is wrong. There is but one subject, ' man ', to two finite verbs, making up two distinct assertions. Now this is admissible only in a compound contracted sentence ; but the form of such a sentence would be * a man was there and showed me the way '. Every assertion, and consequently every finite verb, must have a subject, and every subject must have a predicate or finite verb. The insertion of the relative would supply a subject to the second verb in the above sentence. Further instances : ' there is a garden goes along with the house ' ; ' who was it took the news to Hall Farm ? ' ' haply I see a man will save my life ' ; ' now who be ye would cross Lochgyle ? ' CONCORD. I. The general principles or processes regulating the grammatical union of words in sentences are three in number Concord, Government, and Order or arrangement of words. When two connected words are of the same Gender, Number, Person, or Tense, they are said to agree with one another, or to be in Concord. Speaking of a man we have to say he, of a woman she, of a plurality of persons, they ; these are agreements or concords. In point of fact, these concords are already taught under Etymology. We have seen that 'he' means a man, 'she' a woman, &c. ; that when a noun is in the plural, there is a 300 SYNTAX. CONCORD. peculiar inflexion of the verb to correspond with it ('they call', not calls), and also a certain inflexion of the demonstrative adjectives (' these, not this, houses '}. Hence the expressions, ' the trees grows ', ' those sort of things ', are errors of Etymology as well as of Syntax. What is left to Syntax is merely to explain sonic difficult and doubtful cases, where we are not quite sure what flhu person, n umber, gender, or tense of a word really is. Concord of Subject and Verb. 2. A Verb must agree with its Subject in Number and in Person ; and the Subject of the Verb is always in the Nominative Case. The verb and the subject, being both spoken of the same thing, must agree with each other ; if they did not, there would be a contradiction in terms. If 'John' is the name for one individual, and 'write' is the form that predicates the action, ' writing ', for a plurality of individuals, then ' John write ' is a discord, or wrong combination. This rule is seldom transgressed in short sentences except by ] mi-sous altogether untaught. Such expressions as ' says I ', 1 ho do ', ' we sees ', ' the shops is not open ', are mistakes of the grossest kind. But in longer sentences, where several names oc-'ur, the verb is sometimes inadvertently referred to what is not tlw real subject. The following are examples of the kind of sti licture retered to : ' the origin of the city and. state of Eome is involved in great uncertainty ' ; ' the momentary junction of several tribes produces an army '. These are correct ; but many instances of errors arising in similar constructions could be produced. For example : ' his reputation was great, and some- what more durable than that of similar poets have generally Iwen '. ' Railroads seem now, however, to be likely to supersede most other methods of conveyance, in so far, at least, as the transit of goods and passengers are concerned. ' ' The patronage vhich the British Colonies affords to the home government is immense. ' ' The lighting and cleaning of the streets is not nearly so good as in the large towns of England.' 'The opinion of .si-veral eminent lawyers ivere in his favour.' 3. Collective Nouns, though Singular in form, take a Plural Verb if the Predicate applies to the objects taken individually ; as ' the peasantry yo barefooted, and the middle sort make use of wooden shoes ' ; ' one half of men do not know how the other half live '. VERB WITH ORDINARY AND COLLECTIVE SUBJECTS. 301 "When what is affirmed of the noun is an action that can be true of the whole mass in its collective unity, the verb is then singular ; as ' the fleet is under orders to set sail '. When wi* say ' the British nation has not sprung up in a generation ', v\>- speak of the nation as a collective organized whole. So ' the House (of Lords, or of Commons) resolves ' ; ' the Assembly ha.s decreed ' ; ' the Senate is of opinion ' ; ' the army was dis- organized ' ; 'the mob was dispersed ' ; 'the invading force (army and fleet) was in progress towards Attica ' ; ' one fourth of the men at the diggings is composed of convicts '. Contrast these with the cases where the predicate applies to the individuals of the collection acting separately. ' The people of the rude tribes of America are remarkable for their artifice and duplicity.' Here what is affirmed applies to the individual Americans acting singly and apart. ' The generality of his hearers were favourable to his doctrines ' ; ' the public are often deceived by false appearances and extravagant pretensions ' meaning the members of the community taken individually ; ' a considerable number were induced to quit the body '. The following sentence sounds awkward, but it is strictly correct : ' The Megarean sect was founded by Euclid, not the mathema- tician, and were the happy inventors of logical syllogism, or the art of quibbling ' (Tytler). In the first part, the sect is spoken of in its collective capacity ; and, in the second, as individuals. ' There is a certain class of men who never look', &c., may be justified on the same ground. So ' the people is one, and they have all one language '. The pronoun before the second verb is a great improvement. ' Their cattle was their chief property ; and these were nightly exposed to the southern Borderers' (Scott). There are a few cases where usage is not invariable. In speaking of small bodies, such as those indicated by a Board, a Commission, a Council, a Court, the plural verb is frequently used : ' the Board are of opinion ' ; ' the Committee consider ' ; ' the Court are disposed '. This may be explained on the ground that the members in a body of, say two, three, or six, stand forward more prominently in their individual capacity, whereas in an assembly of three hundred, the individual is entirely merged in the collective vote. The following examples are incorrect : ' The meeting were large ' (would mean that it was composed of large men) ; 'Stephen's party were entirely broken up ' ;- ' mankind was not united by the bonds of civil society ' ; ' the Church have no power to inflict corporal punishments' ; 'in this business the House of Commons have no w?ight ' ; ' a detachment of two hundred men were immediately sent ' ; ' one man of genius 302 SYNTAX. CONCORD. accomplishes what a crowd of predecessors has essayed in vain ' ; ' not one fourth of provincial tradesmen or farmers ever take stock ; nor, in fact, does one half of them ever keep account- books deserving of the name '. The following is at least inconsistent : ' when a nation forms a government, it is not wisdom, but power, which they place (it places) in the hands of the Government ', &c. A judge charging a jury, vacillated in the construction of the word * Court ', thus : ' It was satisfactory to the Court to find that it would be incumbent on them, &c. . . . The Court, therefore, in the discharge of their duty. . . . The Court believe. . . . The Court is not entirely satisfied with the finding of the jury. . . . The Court, in the sentence which it is about to pronounce by my mouth ', &c. Pleasures of Memory was published in 1792, and became at once popular.' The pro-ioun in the following should be singular : ' His (Thomson's) Seasons will be published in about a week's time, and a most noble work they will be '. Johnson says ' my Lives are reprinting ', which it might be harsh to alter, owing to the great prominence of the nption of plurality. In the next example the singular idea of distance is prominent : ' By my valour, then, Sir Lucius, forty yards is a good distance. Odds levels and aims ! I say it is a good distance. ' (Rivals). | Nine-tenths of the miseries and vices of mankind proceed from idleness ' (Carlyle) ; the verb is plural, because predicating about a number. But ' nine-tenths of the misery and vice of mankind proceeds from idleness ' ; the verb being singular, because the subject expresses, not plurality of number, but an amount or quantity. But those nouns that have plural forms on account of a plurality of the subject, such as ' bellows ', ' scissors ', ' snuffers ', ' lungs ', ' ashes ', &c., are more usually found with plural verbs. Although we should say, ' there are two, there are three ', yet usage permits in familiar language the singular contracted form, ' there's two or three '. (Craik, English of Shakespeare). 4. If the subject consists of two or more nouns (or equivalents of nouns) united by the conjunction 'and f , the Verb must be put in the plural: 'John and James are in the field'; ' Mars and Jupiter are visible '. * Dr. Angus would prefer the plural, as least likely to call attention to the mere grammar of the sentence : ' the means used were not commend- able ' ; ' great pains were taken '. VERB WITH MORE THAN ONE SUBJECT. 303 Exceptions and Peculiarities. (1). If the nouns are names for the same subject, the plurality is apparent only, and not real. The verb is then singular. ' A laggard in love and a dastard in war Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar.' 'This murderous chief, this ruthless man, This head of a rebellious clan, Hath led theesafe.' ' The spectator and historian of his exploits has ohserved. ' ' When the Duke died, his son and namesake and successor was an infant. ' With inversion : ' so says the wisest poet, and perhaps the wisest statesman and politician of antiquity '. (Chatham). (2). In cases where the two names are almost synony- mous, or denote objects closely connected together, or express different views of the same fact, or are used chiefly for the sake of emphasis, there is still a kind of unity in the subject, and the verb is often made singular. 'Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings'; 'the head and front of my offending hath this extent'; 'the hardship and exposure of a savage life speedily destroys those who are not of a robust constitution'; 'why is dust and ashes proud'? ' What is the use and object of' building pinnacles ' ? (Helps). ' The peace and good order of society was not promoted by the feudal system ' (Hallam). ' The very scheme and plan of his life differed from that of other men.' (Ecce Homo). ' The condition and growth of Attic comedy before this period seems to have been unknown even to Aristotle ' (Grote). ' The general defence of the country and the maintenance of order among the inhabitants was entrusted to Saganos, who was invested with the revenue necessary for the purpose ' (Finlay). ' The language and history of the Lithuanians is closely connected with that of the Greeks ' (Freeman). ' To recover Silesia, to humble the dynasty of Hohenzollern to the dust, was the great object of Maria Theresa's life ' (Macaulay). The first object involved the second ; hence ' was ', not ' were ', With this compare the following : ' to exalt the Lancastrian party, to depress the adherents of the house of York, were still the objects of his pursuit ' (Hume). Looked at broadly, the two objects were, substantially the same, and ' was ' might have been used ; at the same time ' were ' directs attention forcibly 304 SYNTAX. CONCOED. to each of the two sides of the same fact. In the next example, the subject is given twice ; first, more generally, and then with some detail and explanation : ' that the fair prospects which had begun to open before the king were suddenly overcast, that his life was darkened by adversity, and at length shortened by violence, is to be attributed to his own faithlessness and con- tempt of law ' (Macaulay). In many such cases it is not easy to draw the line and decide when the subject is singular and when plural. But it is always undesirable to vacillate between the two. Thus : ' neither on the one side nor on the other was there the strength and unity of action which remit from single and undivided aims ' (Trench) ; ' with a deep insight into life, and a keen and comprehensive sympathy with its sorrows and enjoyments, there is combined [in the lyrics] that impetuosity of feeling, that pomp of thought and imagery which belong peculiarly to Schiller ' (Carlyle), ' Fair and softly goes far' ; 'poor and content is rich enough '. (3). A singular verb may sometimes be justified on the ground of an ellipsis. * The whole book, and every component part of it, is on a large scale' (Macaulay). With the most common cases of ellipsis, there is also inversion of subject and verb. ' There was a hen and (there were) chickens in the court ' ; ' there was racing and (there was) chasing on Cannobie Lea ' ; upon this there was a fearful cry from heaven, and great claps of thunder' (W. Irving) ; * such was the intelligence, the gravity, and the self-command of Cromwell's warriors ' (Macaulay) ; * where is Lysander and sweet Hermia ' ? (Shak.). When the same noun is coupled with two adjectives, so as to mean different things, there is a plurality of sense, and the plural is required : ' in the latter also religious and grammatical learning go hand in hand ' ; 'the logical and the historical analysis of a language generally in some degree coincide '. When a verb separates its subjects it agrees with the first, and is understood of the rest : ' the earth is the Lord's, and the fullness thereof '. See also the cases of ' as well as ', and ' every ', at end of 4. The last examples under (2) are very elliptical. (4). Sometimes a compound subject is named by a union of the names of its chief parts ; and then the 'verb is singular. Another exception to the general rule is exemplified in the following constructions : ' the wheel and axle was out of repair' j SEVERAL SUBJECTS WITH SINGULAR VERR 305 ' a block and tackle was made use of ' ; ' bread and butter is my usual breakfast '. In these instances, the two things named make but one subject by their combination, called a compound subject. We may say, ' a needle and a thread were given to her, but she could not thread the needle ' ; and ' a needle and thread was given to her, but she could not sew the button on ' : the reason of the difference being apparent. 'Hanging and beheading is the punishment of treason ', means that the criminal is both hanged and beheaded ; ' hanging and beheading are ', would mean that there are two separate punishments, and that sometimes one is made use of and sometimes the other. Sand and salt and a mass of iron is easier to bear than a man without understanding ', is allowable on the supposition that we mean a combination of those several ingredients. So : ' all the furniture, the stock of shops, the machinery which could be found in the realm, was of less value than the property which some single parishes now contain '. (Macaulay). 'To injure, to insult, and to save himself from the consequences of injury and insult by lying and equivocating, was the habit of his life ' (Macaulay) : ' was ' predicates regard- ing a course of action indicated by the enumeration of three several steps. Often in similar cases, there is introduced a pronoun, or some other subject, gathering up a number of points into one whole, which is then predicated of by a singular verb : ' to be the leader of the human race in the career of improve- ment, to found on the ruins of ancient intellectual dynasties a more prosperous and a more enduring empire, to be revered by the latest generations as the most illustrious among the benefactors of mankind, all this was within Bacon's reach* (Macaulay).* The ' and ' is sometimes omitted, but the rule remains the same if there be a plurality of idea in the subject : ' honour, justice, religion itself were involved '. ' With' for 'and'. Instead of 'and*, the preposi- tion ' with ' is sometimes used to connect the parts of an aggregate subject. It is then a disputed point whether the verb should be singular or plural. Thus : ' the captain with his men were * We hear sometimes ' two and two are four' ; 'three times four are twelve ' ; but the ' are ' is scarcely defensible in either case. It would be correct to say ' two pounds and five pounds are (or make) seven pounds ' ; but with numbers in the abstract, what we mean is that the numerical combination of 'two and two" is the same as four. So ' twice one are two ' must be wrong, because there is no plurality in the strict sense ; and ' three times four ' should be i-egarded aS a combination or unity made up iu a particular way. 20 306 SYNTAX. CONCORD. taken prisoners '. The sense requires the plural, but grammati- cally the subject is singular. ' The king, with the lords and commons, constitute (or constitutes) our government'; 'the p-.ir.sti, with its contents, was found on the person of the thief. The true solution of the difficulty is to employ ' and ' if the sense is plural. The phrase ' with his men is an adjunct of ' captain ', being as much as to say ' accompanied with his men', and should be used only when the attention is concentrated upon him ; in which case the verb is regularly singular. If the men are also to be formally predicated about, we should say ' the captain and his men were'. So : ' the king, the lords, and the commons constitute our government '. ' As well as ' for l and '. Nouns coupled by ' as well as ' take the singular or the plural according to the context. If the predicate is meant to be affirmed of both, the plural is employed, the phrase being then a synonyme for 'and': ' Pompey as well osCnesar were great men '. But if the ' as well as ' merely quotes an illustrative comparison, the predication must then be understood as confined to the first noun : ' Africa as well as Gaul was gradually fashioned by imitation of the capital ' ; that is, by ellipsis, ' as well as Gaul had been fashioned by imitation of the capital ', ' after the manner of Gaul'. ' His curiosity, as well as his anxiety, was highly excited ' : we are supposed to know that his anxiety was more or less excited,' and now, when his curiosity alone is spoken of, his anxiety is referred to for illustration. 4 The opulence of the monks, as well as the number of them, in the time of Henry II., was enormous.' The last case is the original and strictly proper application of ' as well as '. * Every' with connected subjects. The strong indi- vidualizing force of ' every ' affects the number of the predicate verb. It has been doubted whether we could say ' every officer and soldier claim a superiority in regard to other individuals' ; or even ' every officer and every soldier claim '. Plurality is certainly implied, but there is a disagreeable effect produced by joining 'every' with a plural verb, and we might take shelter under the elliptical usage, and say * every officer (claims) and every soldier claims', the singular verb is powerfully favoured by the decisively singular meaning of ' every '. On the same gro,und x vye must uphold the expression, ' every clergyman and VERB AFTER ALTERNATED SUBJECTS. 307 every physician is a gentleman'. So we may defend the following : ' it has been observed by writers on physiognomy, that every emotion and every operation of the mind has a corres- ponding expression of the countenance ' ; ' every limb and feature appears with its appropriate grace '. 5. Two or more Singular Nouns, connected by 'or' or 'nor', implying that they are separately taken, must have a Singular Verb: ' John, James, or Andrew intends to accompany you ' ; * neither this nor that is the thing wanted '. Such sentences are always contracted co-ordinate sentences, and their construction is singular. So in the example, ' my poverty, and not my will, consents ', there is a contraction : ' my poverty consents, but my will does not consent '. The omission of the connective makes no difference if the meaning is the same : ' a word, an epithet, paints a whole scene '. Sometimes ' or ' is used when the real meaning would require ' and '. ' To win or to lose (at cards) is unpleasant. ' Here there is a partial alternation of meaning from the circumstance that we cannot both win and lose at the same time ; still the sense is that both the one and the other are unpleasant, if we were speaking of one game, where we must either win or lose, the ' or ' is suitable ; but speaking generally it would be better to say ' winning and losing are both unpleasant '. So : ' life or death, felicity or lasting sorrow, are in the power of marriage ' (Jer. Taylor) ; 'disobedience, desertion, mutiny, or theft were visited with death ' ; ' death, emigration, or personal slaver} 7 , were, the only alternatives' (Freeman). In an instance above quoted (hanging and beheading, &c.) we might have a third form : * hanging or beheading is the punishment of treason ', to show still more decisively that the judge must sentence a man to one, and not to both. ' Nor heaven nor earth have been at peace to-night ' (Shak. ). Dr. Craik remarks on this passage, that where, as here, the two singular substantives are looked at together by the mind, it is more natural to regard them as a plurality, and to use the plural verb, notwithstanding the disjunctive conjunction. Compare : * neither the king nor either of his two oldest sons are permitted to leave the island' (Swift) ; * neither peace nor war, nor summer nor winter, were a season of repose' (Gibbon) ; 'neither Kent nor Sussex were among the greatest of the kingdoms which our forefathers founded in Britain' (Freeman); 'neither Mr. Adderley nor Mr. Roebuck are by nature inaccessible to considerations of this sort ' (M. Arnold). Notwithstanding such 308 SYNTAX. CONCORD. examples, the singular verb has most reason on its side ; the occasional use of the plural seems to testify tc a considerable tendency to use this form after two or more subjects, even though the conjunction connecting these may indicate that they are to be predicated about in separation. When one of two subjects separated by ' or ' or ' nor ' is in the plural, the verb should be plural : ' he or his servants were to blame '. It is proper in such cases to place the plural nominative next the verb. 6. When the Subject is a Relative Pro- noun, the Antecedent determines the number of the verb : * all ye that pass by '. The following is a common error : ' That is one of the most valuable books that has appeared in any language '. The antecedent to ' that ' is ' books ', not ' one '. So : ' this is the epoch of one of the most singular discoveries that has been made among men ' (Hume) ; ' I resemble one of those animals that has been forced from its forest to gratify human curiosity' (Goldsmith). ' O Thou my voice inspire Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.' But for the exigencies of the verse, Pope would have written ' touched* '. The dropping of the inconvenient inflexional ending is not uncommon in poetry. Pope has several more examples. The phrase 'as follows', applied to a plural antecedent, is now a settled usage. If ' as ' were a true relative pronoun, there would be a breach of concord ; but we must consider the expression as now substantially adverbial, like ' as regards ', or ' so far as concerns '. Perhaps the construction suitable to the most common case, the third person singular, has been extended to all cases. Or ' as ' may be regarded as equivalent to ' in the manner that '. It is not uncomnx n for speakers and writers to seek the appearance of grammatical correctness by using 'as follow '. 7. When two or more Pronouns of dif- ferent persons, are connected by Alternative Conjunctions, there is much difficulty in deciding the form of the predicate verb. Dr. Latham lays down that, (1) where the Pronouns are singular and are preceded by ' either ' or ' neither ', the verb is in the third person : ' either he or I i* in the wrong ' ; ' neither he nor I w in the wrong '. CONCORD OF PRONOUN AXD OF ADJECTIVE. 309 And (2) when the Pronouns are not preceded by 'either* or 1 neither ', the verb agrees with the first : ' I or he am in the wrong ' ; ' he or I is in the wrong ' ; 'he or you is in the wrong '. It is open to grave doubt whether the verb depends so entirely upon the ' either ' and the ' neither '. Among other suggestions, the most important is that the verb should agree with the nearest of the subjects. All difficulty is obviated when the predicate verb is uniuflected : ' can, will, sent, grew, planted, must', &c. Further examples; 'neither you nor any one else can save her ' ; ' either the Prior or thou has made some singular altera- tions ' (Scott) ; ' those are far more able to give your son help than either you or I are ' (Scott) ; ' nothing which Mr. Pattison or I have said disprove, &c. ' (M. Arnold) ; ' I hope neither my fellow nor I am thieves ' (Massinger). 8. When the completion of the Predicate is a Noun, it may not be always apparent what is the real subject, seeing that the order is not decisive. Hence the expression ' his pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds of the sky ', may be justified on the ground that the sentence is inverted, ' pavilion ' being the completion of the predicate, and not the subject. Concord of Adjective and of Pronoun with Noun. 9. Pronominal Adjectives in English being alone inflected, questions of concord are confined to them. The rules for the Concord of the Demonstratives ' this ' and ' that ' are the same as for the Concord of the Subject and the Verb : * these means are this means is not enough '. When we decide that a noun should have a plural verb, we must apply the same rule to the demonstrative adjectives (and pronouns) agreeing with it. The word ' means ' furnishes the chief doubtful instance ; and we may either adopt the suggestion of making it uniformly plural, on account of the form, or look to the sense, and consider it plural when we have a plurality of agencies involved. Such expressions as ' this forty years '. ' this many summers ', are defended on the ground that a period of time may be treated as a unity Or ' this ' may be really plural, a surviving instance of one of the old forms of ' these '. 310 SYNTAX. CONCORD. 10. The Distributive Adjectives, 'each', 'every', &c., are joined to a Singular Noun, and consequently the Verb is singular: * every tree is known by its fruits '. The following are examples of a not uncommon error : ' neither of the sisters were very much deceived ' (Thackeray's Vanity Fair). ' Neither of my brothers do anything to make this place amusing ' ( Virginians). They also take a Singular Pronoun when applied to one Gender : ' England expects every man to do Ids duty ' ; 'it seems natural that every mother should suckle her own child '. But when both Genders are implied, it is allowable to use the Plural : ' let each esteem other better than themselves '. Grammarians frequently call this construction an error : not reflecting that it is equally an error to apply ' his ' to feminine subjects. The best writers furnish examples of the use of the plural as a mode of getting out of the difficulty. ' Every person's happiness depends in part upon the respect they meet in the world ' (Paley). ' Every one must judge of their own feelings ' (Byron). ' If the part deserve any comment, every considering Christian will make it to themselves as they go ' (Defoe). 'Everybody began to have their vexation.' 'Every- body around her was gay, was busy, prosperous, and important : each had their objects of interest, their part, their dress, their favourite scene, their friends and confederates.' * Had the doctor been co i tented to take my dining tables, as anybody in their senses would have done ' (Miss Austen). Sometimes strict grammar is preserved thus : * Everybody called for his or her favourite remedy, which nobody brought '. But this construction is felt to be too cumbrous to be kept up, as we see in the following example: 'The institution of property, reduced to its essential elements, consists in the re- cognition, in each person, of a light to the exclusive disposal of what he or she has produced by their own exertions ', &c. (J. S. Mill). ' The heart is a secret, even to him (or her) who has it in his own breast ' (Thackeray). A very ingenious device is seen in the following example : ' either a horse or a mare has lost its shoe '. No doubt there are more instances of the employment of * his ', but it must by no means be maintained that this form is exclusively right. HARMONY OF TENSE. 311 The following examples further illustrate the preference of the plural when both genders are involved : * if an ox gore a, man or a woman so that they die '. ' Not on outward charms should man or woman build their pretensions to please' (Opie). ' If I value my friend's wife or son, on account of their connexion with him* (Angus). 'When either party fix tJieir attachment upon the substantial comforts of a rental, or a jointure, they cannot be disappointed in the acquisition ' (Scott). ' My lord says that nobody wears their own hair ' (Thackeray). ' If the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question ' (J. S. Mill). Concord of Tenses. II. There is also a certain congruity of Tenses to be observed. Contemporaneous actions should be expressed in the same tense. In the narration of past events, the writer for the most part uses the past tense ; but, in order to recount vividly a rapid series of exciting incidents, he may for the occasion pass to the present tense, called, in this application, the historic present. He is not permitted, however, to flit between the two. The following is a harsh incongruity : ' Fierce as he moved, his silver shafts resound '. The Subordinate Tenses and the Principal Tense must not conflict. ' He affirmed that he will (for ' would ') go to-morrow ' ; ' hQ hid himself lest he shall (for ' should ') be impressed '. ' It were well for the insurgents, and fortunate for the king, if the blood that was now shed had been thought a sufficient expiation for the offence ' ; ' it had been well ' is the tense suiting ' had been thought '. ' If you please to employ your thoughts on that subject, you would conceive the miserable condition many of us are in ' ; this should be either ' if you please, you will ', or, ' if you pleased (it pleased you), you would '. The use of the present indefinitive tense to express a proposi- tion true for all time, is an apparent exception. We say ' Galileo maintained that the earth moves ' (not ' moved ') ; the fact of the motion of the earth being true at all times and not being restricted to the time implied in 'maintained'. 'He denied that gold was (for 'is') the most precious metal.' ' All night long the northern streamer* Shot across the trembling sky : Fearful lights, that never beacon, Save when kings or heroes die.' 312 f\f\\ IT- GOVERNMENT. 1. Government means the power that a word has to regulate the Case of a Noun or a Pronoun ; as when a Pronoun coming after a Pre- position takes the objective form : * after me ' (not ' after / '), ' to Mm ' (not * to he '). There being only one case inflexion in English nouns, and that occurring only in a limited number, the rules of govern- ment apply principally to pronouns. 2. The Possessive of Nouns (and of Pro- nouns) signifies personal possession or agency. Preceding a Noun y a possessive noun (or pronoun, or pronominal adjective) expresses that the object be- longs to or is somehow connected with the person whose name or designation is given in the possessive word. * John's house * is ' the house possessed by John ; owned, occupied, built, &c., by John '. ' Johns gospel ' is ' the gospel proclaimed or written by John, or named after him '. ' Poor's rates ' are ' rates levied for the support of the poor '. The meaning of possession or belonging is often stretched to include very remote connexions. Preceding an Infinitive Phrase, a possessive word indicates the subject of the action of the verb. ' I am surprised at John's (or his, your, &c.) refusing to go/ Very frequently the participle is found in place of the infini- tive, in which case the objective is used in place of the possessive : * I am surprised at John (or him,, you, &e. ) refusing to go '. The latter construction is not so common with pronouns as with nouns, especially with such nouns as do not readily take the possessive form. ' They prevented him going forward ' : better ' they prevented his going forward ', or ' they prevented him from going forward '. ' He was dismissed without any reason being assigned ' : this shows the influence of Latin construction. ' The boy died through his clothes being burned '. ' We hear little of any connexion being kept ' up between the two nations'. "The men rowed vigorously for fear of the tide turning against us before we reached our destination': POSSESSIVE AND OBJECTIVE CASES. 313 'for fear of the tide's turning* would be felt awkward and unusual ; say ' for fear the tide should turn ', ' lest tlu tide should turn ', &c. ' Tacitus asserting the fact and remaining a heathen is not so strong an argument as Tacitus asserting the fact and becoming a Christian in consequence of it ' (Dr. Chalmers) : substitute noun clauses thus ' That Tacitus should assert the fact and remain a heathen, is not so strong an argument as that Tacitus should assert the fact and become a Christian in con- sequence of it'; or say 'If Tacitus asserted the fact and remained a heathen, this is not so strong an argument as if Tacitus had asserted the fact and become a Christian. &c. '. The possessive seems to be entirely excluded when there is inversion : ' Suppose the very common case of there being no ivill ' (J. S. Mill) : apart from the question of construction this is perhaps more elegant than any regular substitute that could be proposed : * the very common case where there is no will ' ; ' suppose a very common case ; suppose there is no will ' ; ' the very common case of the absence of a will ' ; &c. But most examples of the construction without the possessive form are obviously due to mere slovenliness. With a very little trouble, there could nearly always be found some satisfactory variety of correct expression. 3. Transitive Verbs (with their Participles and Gerunds) and Prepositions govern the Objec- tive Case. This rule is not often violated when the objective immediately follows the verb or preposition. It is when the object is at a distance from the governing word that a nominative is liable to be used. ' He that promises too much, do not trust ', for ' him that ', &c. ; many cases of this nature seem to result from an unexpected change in the construction before the verb is reached. There is a mixture of two forms : ' he that promises too much is not to be trusted ', and ' do not trust him that promises too much '. ' My father allowed my brother and / to accompany him ' ; ' between you and I ' ; 'let you and / advance '. On the supposition that the interrogative ' who ' has ' whom ' for its objective, the following are errors : ' who do you take me to be ? ' ' who should I meet the other day ? ' ' who is it by ?' * who did you give it to ? ' ' who to ? ' * who for ? ' But considering that these expressions occur with tlie best writers and speakers, that they arc more energetic than the other form, and that they lead to no ambiguity, it may be doubted whether grammarians have not exceeded their province in condemning them. The following are a few examples to show the usage of some of our greatest writers ; ' Who servest thou under 1 * 314 SYNTAX. GOVERNMENT. (Shak.) ' Who should I meet the other day but my old friend ?' (Steele). * My son is going to be married to I don't know who', (Goldsmith). ' Who have we here ? ' (Goldsmith, &c.). Even the relative ' whom ' is sometimes shortened to ' who '. ' The shepherd . . . who you saw sitting by me on the turf ' (Shak. ). * The remaining place was engaged by a gentle- man ivho they were to take up on the road ' (Thackeray). Macaulay (Essay on Croker's Boswell's Life of Johnson) denounces the following as a solecism : ' Markland, who, with Jortin and Thirlby, Johnson calls three contemporaries of great eminence '. 4. The Verb ' be ' has the same case after it as before it : ' it is I'; ' ye are they '. This follows from the principle adopted from the classical languages that when the complement of the predicate is a noun, it is of the same case as the subject. Most grammarians have laid down this rule. Macaulay (as just cited, 3) censures the following as a solecism : ' It was him that Horace Walpole called a man who never made a bad figure but as an author '. Thackeray (Philip, I. 16) similarly adverts to the same deviation from the rule : ' " Is that him ? " said the lady in questionable grammar '. But notwithstanding this, we certainly hear in the actual speech of all classes of society such expressions as ' it was me ', ' it was him ' , ' it was her ', more frequently than the prescribed form. ' This shy weature, my brother says is we' ; 'were it me, I'd show him the difference ' (Clarissa Harlowe). * It is not me* you are in love with ' (Addison). ' If there is one character more base than another, it is him who ' &c. (Sydney Smith}. ' If I were him ' ; ' if it had been her ' ; &c. The authority of good writers is strong on the side of the objective forms. There is also the analogy of the French language ; for while ' / am here ' is *j& suis ici ', the answer to ' who is there ? ' is * moi ' (me) ; and ' c'est moi ' (it is me), is the legitimate phrase, never ' c'estje' (it i /.)t * It may be confidently affirmed that with good speakers, in the case j>f negation, ' not me ' is the usual practice. f ' It is remarked by Dean Alford that ' it is /' is suitable to an occasion of dignity ; as ' He said unto them, ' It is /; be not afraid '. ' ' Who does not, feel that here there is a majesty and prominence given by the nominative person ; which makes the assurance what it was to the disciples ? JJut from this very prominence it is that we shrink in ordinary talk. We shelter ourselves in the accusative case " me," which, though ungraminaticHl, yet is acquiesced in, as better suiting 1 the feeling of the mind. We all remember the story of George III. reading Paley's fable about a pigeon, and exclaiming " Wky, that't ine !" The king was just ORDER. 315 5. In certain other cases the Objective often occurs where the Nominative is ex- pected. Similar to the foregoing is the case with regard to the use of me, him, &c., after the conjunctions 'than', 'as', &c., iu whose favour there is the authority of an extensive if not pre- dominating usage. ' He is taller than me. ' 'No mightier than thyself or me', (Shaks.).* 'She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me' (Thackeray). ' Satan, than whom None higher sat.' Perhaps ' whom ' is the uniform usage ; ' than who ' seldom or never occurring. Of course, in all these cases, when the ellipsis is filled in, the nominative necessarily replaces the objective form : ' no mightier than thyself or I am mighty '. The construction ' nobody said so but him ', is defended by some grammarians on the ground that ' but ' is a preposition as well as a conjunction. Still ' but he ' is of frequent occurrence : 1 no man hath ascended up to heaven but he that came down from heaven ' ; ' there is none justified but he that is in measure sanctified '. ' Every one can master a grief but he that hath it ' (Shak.) ; ' within that circle none durst walk but he ' (Drydeii). Compare : ' I do entreat you, not a man depart, Save I alone, till Antony hath spoke ' (Shak., /t*Z. Cat.). ORDER OF WORDS. I. The most general principles of the arrange- ment of words are, that what is to be thought of first should be metioned first, and that things to be thought of together should be placed in close connexion. as right in the expression of the interpretation, as he was in the inter- pretation itself. He could not have said, " Why, that's I".' Good Words, March, 1863. * On this Dr. Craik remarks ; ' Of course, in strict grammar, it should be than I. But the personal pronouns must be held to be, in some measure, emancipated from the dominion or tyranny of syntax. Who would rectify even Shelley's bold " lest there be No solace left for thou and me " ? The grammatical law has so slight a hold that a mere point of euphony is deemed sufficient to justify the neglect of it'.- English of Shakespeare. The effect of euphony appears to be well illustrated also in Shak., Macb., III. iv. : ' 'Tis better thee without than lie within '. 316 SYNTAX. ORDER. In inflected languages, the connexion of one word with another is indicated by means of inflexions. The English, on this point, trusts chiefly to position ; and hence the order of words in a sentence is more fixed in English than in the classical languages. Subject and Verb. 2. The Subject precedes the Verb: 'the earth moves ', ' the stars twinkle '. Exceptions. 1. When a question is asked, without an interrogative pronoun in the nominative case : ' arc ye alone ? ' ' when did he come ? ' ' may we go in V ' ' what will he do ? ' But ' who said, so ? ' ' what is to be done ? ' 2. With the imperative mood : ' come ye ' ; ' laud ye the gods ' ; ' look thou to that '. 3. In the conditional mood, when the conjunction is suppressed : ' had 1 known that' ; ' were /in his place '. 4. When a wish or exclamation is expressed : ' may she be happy ' ; ' how would we wish that Heaven had left us still ' ; ' ah ! mayest thou ever be what now thou art ! ' 5. When 'neither' or 'nor', signifying 'and not', precedes the verb : 'this was his fear, nor was the apprehension ground- less'. 'Dr. Lancaster was desirous to serve a boy of such promise ; nor was an opportunity long wanting. ' ' He will not go ; neither will I.' 6. In introducing the parts of a dialogue : ' said he ' ; ' thought I ' ; ' replied James '. 7. For the sake of emphasis ; as when a sentence is intro- duced by ' there ', ' here ', or other adverbial expressions : ' up started he' ; ' now abideth faith, hope, charity '. ' On the distant mainland is seen the town or village of Stromness' (Scott). c Above, below and behind the city, as far as the eye can reach, extends the unbroken forest ' (A. B. Wallace). 'Over the crushing vines, over the desolate streets, over the amphi- theatre itself, far and wide, with many a mighty splash in the agitated sea, fell that awful shoicer ' (Ly tton). The Complement of the predicate follows the predicate verb. ' The day is clear ', ' kings are but men ', ' thig question is of the utmost importance '. When the complement is a noun, we distinguish it from the subject by its position : ' angels are spirits '. SUBJECT VERB OBJECT. 317 Inversion for emphasis. The usual order is not unfrequently inverted, especially in poetry, for the sake of effective statement : ' Fair laughs the morn ' ; ' all bloodless lay th' untrodden snow ' ; 'great is Diana'; 'bitter but unavailing were my regrets'. 1 Childe Harold was he hight.' Verb and Object. 3. The Transitive Verb precedes its Object: * we gained a victory '; ' you did not see me '. Exceptions. 1. When the objective is a relative or interrogative pronoun, or a noun limited by a relative or interrogative adjective : 'this is the letter that he wrote, ' ; ' the dead which he slew at his death were more than they which he slew in his life' ; 'ichat does the man want ? ' ' which house do you prefer ? ' 2. For emphasis: 'treason and murder he had been taught early in life to expect from everybody ' ; ' talent I will marry, for talent I adore ' ; ' what I did I did in honour '. 3. For the sake of closer connexion with a previous sentence. This inversion always put emphasis on the object. ' His passions and prejudices had led him into a great error. That error he determined to recant.' ' He insisted upon my asking pardon for affronting his king and him. This proposal I would by no means comply with.' This inversion cannot often be practised in English, on account of causing ambiguity. Apart from the context, our only means of knowing which is subject and which is object is the order ; hence the following expressions are of themselves uncertain : ' when thus the son the fervent sire addressed ' ; ' when Thebes Epaminondas rears again ' ; ' and all the air a solemn stillness holds '. Inversion is admissible when either the subject or the object is an inflected pronoun : 'two men I know ', 'me their swords encompassed '. Also when subject and object differ in number, and the Verb shows its agreement with the subject : the sentence ' death lays all men low ' may have its parts arranged in any order without loss of clearness. ' Wars into peace he turns ' combines both conditions. is a Scotticism. Noun and Adjective. 4. The Adjective immediately precedes the Noun : ' bright prospects '. 318 SYNTAX. ORDER. Exceptions. 1. When the adjective is accompanied by another adjective : as ' a man just and wise ' ; * across the meadows bare and brown ' ; ' gods partial, changeful, passionate, unjust '. 2. When the adjective is enlarged by qualifying phrases : as ' a question too important to be neglected ' ; ' a patriot disinterested in a high degree ' ; ' in other words, the country was to be absolutely governed by a hereditary aristocracy, the most needy, the most haughty, the most quarrelsome in Europe '. Hence the adjectives * adverse ', ' afraid ', ' conformable ', which require an enlargement to make complete sense, always follow the noun they qualify. In poetry the adjective is often placed last : as ' the garden fair ', ' my own mother dear ', ' the primrose pale '. A few expressions, including certain titles of French origin, . almostly uniformly show the inverted arrangement : ' Prince Regent ', ' Heir Apparent ', ' Poet Laureate ', ' Governor- General', 'States General ', ' court martial', ' time immemorial', ' knight errant '. The most general direction is to keep the noun and its qualifying adjuncts as close together as possible. Accordingly such sentences as the following are ill arranged : 1 the death is announced of Mr. Henry Archer, inventor ', &c. ; 1 the country beyond which the arts cannot be traced of civil society or domestic life ' ; ' the ignorance of the age in mechanical arts rendered the progress very slow o/ this new invention ' ; ' the legitimacy is conceded of repressing violence or treachery ' ; ' / cannot blame thee, who am myself attacked with weariness ' (Shak.) ; ' this way will direct you to a gentleman's house that hath skill to take off these burdens ' (Bunyan). "When the enlargements are of great length we are to avoid entangling them with other parts of the sentence. In the following passage some of the adjuncts precede, and the others follow, the noun : ' Born to inherit the -most illustrious monarchy in the world, and early united to the object of her choice, the amiable PRINCESS, happy in Jierself, and joyful in her future prospects, little anticipated the fate that was so soon to overtake her '. Sometimes the enlargement is resumed after the verb. ' The spirit of Francis Bacon was abroad ; a spirit admirably compounded- of audacity and sobriety.' 'Ye shall die, all of you. ' ' The emperor, nominally invested with the loftiest of THE NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. 319 titles, was, in fact, no more than the head of a confederacy of secular and ecclesiastical princes ; the head of a body whose members were seldom in harmony.' ' The only course left was to imitate the fatal policy by which the empire had invited its own doom while striving to avert it ; the policy of matching barbarian against barbarian. ' We are always disposed to take the word preceding a substantive as a word modifying it ; and hence our facility in using nouns and phrases adjectively. * A gold ring' ; 'a carriage gentleman' ; 'the home-to -house visitation '. Strictly regarded, these are highly condensed or elliptical expressions, interpreted by their juxtaposition : ' a ring made of gold ' ; ' a gentleman that rides in a carriage ' ; 4 visitation from house to house '. The three first, or the first three ? Great doubt exists as to which of these expressions is correct. Difficulties seem to attach to both. When we say the three firtt, it is asked, how can three be first ? and when we say the first three, we seem to imply that this should be followed by a second three, a third three, and so on. The form most commonly used is the first three ' ; ' the first six books of Euclid ' ; ' the first ten men you meet ', ' the first forty years of the century ', But there are occasions when good writers think the other form preferable ; thus, ' the three first gospels ' ; ' the two eldest of the family ' ; ' the six nearest your hand ' ; ' the fathers of the five first centuries '. ' I have not numbered the lines except of the four first books ' (Cowper). We may conceive the ground for the distinc- tion on some such principle as this. Suppose a number of persons waiting for admission to a public spectacle. The manager wishes to give directions as to the order of admission. Now if we suppose it settled beforehand that three shall be admitted at a time, the only question remaining is which three, to which the answer is the three first. But if it be understood that they are to be admitted in the order that they stand in, the question is how many at a time, and the answer is the first three. The place of special emphasis is the second word, the first three, the three first. This is indicated in the phrase, ' the first six books of Euclid ' ; for it is taken for granted that in geometry the order of proceeding is fixed, and the only inquiry that remains is, hoio many books are prescribed : the first two, the first four, the first six. In speaking of the ' three first gospels ', it is supposed that a division is made of the gospels into two groui>s (there might be more if the number were greater) ; and that the first group contains three, and the second group one. The question then is supposed to be put - where are the three situated, and where the one ? and the reply is, the three first, the one last ; or it might have been the two first, thetwo/as. If, as in Euclid, it had been necessary to study the gospels in a fixed consecutive order, the question would then have arisen, how many go to make the first division ? and we might have said the first two, the first three, as many actually do say. 6. The placing of the Article. The rule of most practical importance as to the articles is to this effect : When two or more substantives following each other denote the same object, the article is placed only with the first : 320 SYNTAX. ORDER, as * a (or the) secretary and treasurer ', the two offices being held by the same person. On the other hand, when the substantives denote different objects, the article is repeated before each : as ' the secretary and the treasurer '. Violations of this rule are frequent. ' The old and new method ' is wrong ; but we may say correctly ' the old and new methods ', ' the Old and New Testaments . The following are examples of the rule : ' He shall come again with glory to judge both the quick and the dead ' ; ' by their tumultuous election, a Syrian, a Goth, or an Arab was exalted to the throne of Rome, and was invested with despotic power over the conquests, and over the country of the Scipios ' ^ ' he had compassion on the poor and needy ' ; ' a cool head, an unfeeling heart, and a cowardly disposition, prompted him, at the age of nineteen, to assume the mask of hypocrisy, which he never after laid aside '. The incorrect construction is seen in these examples: 'When therefore the chief priests and (the) officers saw him '; 'some of the most sacred festivals in the Roman ritual were destined to indulge the pious remembrance of the dead and (the) living '. ' He made a better soldier than a poet ', means a better soldier than a poet would make. The same principle applies to the repetition of other words, as prepositions, conjunctions, &c. : ' eternity invests every state, whether of bliss, or of suffering, with an importance entirely its own ' ; ' I speak as a father and as a friend '. Pronoun and Antecedent. 6. Every Pronoun should have a distinct Antecedent. When there are two words in a Clause, each capable of being an antecedent, the determining circumstances are Proximity and Importance. 1. As regards proximity : ' Solomon, the son of David, who slew Goliath '. Here the relative ' who ' refers to the word immediately preceding, ' David '. ' John gave James the book : he was very much in want of it ', i.e. , James, the last mentioned. 2. As regards importance : 'Solomon, the son of David, who built the temple ', might be justified on the ground that ' Solomon ' is the principal subject, and ' the son of David ' is merely an apposition or explanatory clause, which should not interfere with the reference of the relative to Solomon. In fact ' Solomon-the-sou-of-David is, as it were, a many-worded name. PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 321 'He hath made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin', is to be interpreted on the rule of prominence ; otherwise . ' who' might apply to ' he ' or to ' us '. The rule of proximity should be observed as the preferable plan. ' ' The time drew near at which the Houses must re-assemble.' Re-aiTange thus : ' Now drew near the time at which (or when) the Houses must re-assemble '. One of the examples given in 4 would be better arranged thus : ' this way will direct you to. the house of a gentleman that hatli skill to take off these burdens '. It is always desirable that the relative should stand as close to the antecedent as possible. The following are examples of a Confusion of Pronouns : ' They were summoned occasionally by their kings, when compelled by tJieir wants and by their fears to have recourse to their aid.' Reduce the reference to the subject alone thus : ' by want and by fear '. ' Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others ; and think that their reputation obscures them, and that tJieir commendable qualities do stand in their light ; and, therefore, they do what they can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure tJiem' (Tillotson). Here there are two subjects, and we cannot tell from the con- struction which of the two the pronouns severally refer to. Again : ' All which, with the king's and queen's so ample promises to him (the treasurer) so few hours before the conferring the place on another, and the Duke of York's manner of receiving hi>n (the treasurer) after he (the chancellor) had been shut up with him (the duke), as lie (the treasurer) was informed, might very well excuse him (the treasurer) from thinking he (the chancellor) had some share in the affront he (the treasurer) had undergone ' (Clarendon). Thackeray is responsible for this : ' She had met the most .distinguished governors, generals, and their ladies, several of; whom wt- re noblemen '. The neuter pronoun ' it ' gives rise to the greatest ambiguity, s has previously been shown. (See p. 29.) Placing of the Adverb. 7. The Adverb is placed before an Adjective, or another Adverb. 21 322 SYNTAX. ORDER. ' A very good man ' ; ' extremely hard work *. * He behaves very well ' ; * he works extremely hard '. The Adverb is placed after an Intransitive Verb. ' She dances well ' ; ' they work hard ', When the verb is transitive, the Adverb usually follows the Object. ' He treated them handsomely ' ; 'I met him very unex- Ipectedly ' ; ' bring the letter instantly '. When the object is either emphatic or long (by means of adjuncts), then a short adverbial expression is best placed between the Transitive Verb and the Object ' He imparts without reserve secrets of the highest moment.' 1 He explains with perfect simplicity vast designs affecting all the governments of Europe.' 'The Captain whispered some- thing- in Sir Roger's ear, that lasted till the opening of the fifth act ' : here the object ' something ' precedes the adverbial phrase, but is separated by it from the limiting adjective clause that ends the sentence. The arrangement suggested renders the sentence compact : ' the Captain whispered in Sir Roger s car something that lasted till the opening of the fifth act '. In cases like the following the adverbial expression is liable to be attached wrongly to the subordinate predicate : ' He might be seized by any one that met him as a robber' (Hallam). Ke- arrange : ' he might be seized as a robber by any one that met him '. The Adverb is placed between Auxiliary and Participle. 1 1 have gently hinted my intentions ' ; ' I shall never forget your kindness '; 'he has carefully studied the case '. The most general rule is to place Adverbs, and Adverbial Adjuncts, or qualifying circumstances, so as to affect what they are intended to affect. 8. The word requiring most attention is only. According to the position of ' only ', the very same words may be made to express very different meanings. (1.) 'He only lived for their sakes.' Here 'only* must be held as qualifying ' lived for their sakes ', the emphasis being on PLACING OF ADVERBS. 'ONLY*. 323 'lived', the word immediately adjoining. The meaning then is ' he lived ', hut did not work, did not die, did not do any other thing for their sakes. (2.) 'He lived only for their sakes/ Only 'now qualifies ' for their sakes ', and the sentence means he lived for this one reason, namely, for their sakes, and not for any other reason. (3.) 'He lived for their sakes only.' The force of the word when placed at the end is peculiar. Then it often has a diminu- tive or disparaging signification. ' He lived for their sakes ', and not for any more worthy reason. ' He gave sixpence only ', is an insinuation that more was expected. (4.) By the use of ' alone ', instead of ' only ', other meanings are expressed. ' He alone lived for their sakes ' : that is, he, and nobody else, did so. ' He lived for their sakes alone ', or ' for the sake of them alone ' ; that is, not for the sake of any, other persons. ' It was alone by the help of the Confederates that any such design could be carried out. Better ' only '. It has already been seen (page 106) that ' only ' preceding a sentence or clause has the force of an adversative conjunction : ' I should be ashamed to offer at saying any of those civil things in return to your obliging compliments in regard to my trans- lation of Homer, only (but, yet, still) I have too great a value for you not to be pleased with them ' (Pope). Further examples of the construction of 'only*. 'When men grow virtuous in their old rge, they only make a sacrifice to God of the Devil's leavings ' (Pope). Here ' only ' is rightly placed. ' Think only of the past as its remembrance gives you pleasure ', should be ' think of the past, only as its remembrance ', &c. ' As he did not leave his name, it was only known that a gentleman had called on business ' : ' it was known only '. ' I can only refute the accusation by laying before you the whole' ; this would mean ' the only thing I am able to do is to refute ; I may not retaliate, or let it drop, I must refute it '. ' The negroes are to appear at church only in boots ' ; that is, when the negroes go to church they are to, have no clothing but boots. ' The negroes are to appear only at church. in boots', might mean that they are not to appear anywhere but at church, whether in boots or out of them. The proper arrangement would be to connect the adverbial adjunct 'in boots' with its verb 'appear', and to make ' only ' qualify ' at church ' and no more ; ' the negroes are ' to appear in boots only at church '. ' Others killed partridges he only killed time ' ; this might imply that he did nothing else but kill time. This is a proper case for the diminutive p'^ntion of the word. ' Others killed time ' ; this might imply that he did nothing else but kill time. This is a proper case for the diminutive p'^ntion of the word. ' Others killed partridges, he killed time only ', i.e. (sarcastically) nothing of more consequence than time. 9. Not but only. Errors frequently arise in the use of 'not but only', to under-, stand which we must attend to the force of the whole expression. 'He did not pretend to extirpate French music, but only to cultivate and civilize it.' Here the 'not' is obviously mis- placed. 4 He pretended, or professed, not to extirpate.' SYNTAX. ORDER. 10. Not only- but also. There is still greater complication with these. We may illustrate the construction as follows : Suppose it v said, (1) ' He gave them food and clothing '. This means simply that he gave those two things. (2) 'He gave them both food and clothing ' ; that is, it would have been liberal to give either, but he gave both. (3) ' He gave not only food, but also clothing ' : food he might have. b( en expected to give, but besides that, he gave, what was hardly to be expected, clothing. The ' but ' has its usual power of causing a surpiise : the ' not only ' gives the ordinary course of things ; the ' but ' marks an addition, or something not included in our natural expectations. In the following sentence ' not only but ' does not give the; author's meaning: 'We are monished here of charity, and^ taught that God is not only a private Father, but a common Father to the v hole world '. Here the meaning is that God is not a private Father ; the expression supposes that he is a private Father. The ' only ' should be omitted. In the passage, from Addison ' By greatness I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view considered as one entire piece ' the same error is committed, and there is also a misplacement of the ' not '. ' By greatness I mean not the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view'. Shorter : ' By greatness I njean largeness, not in any single object, but in a whole view '. Another point is raised by the following : ' not only Lydia, but all were concerned ' ; i. e. , it was understood that Lydia was concerned, but not that all. (including Lydia) were concerned, i It would be necessary to say ' not only Lydia, but all the rest of the family were concerned ' : or, ' not Lydia alone, but all were concerned '. ' Not only England, but also France and Austria, protested ' is correct ; ' not only England, but all Europe was, alarmed ' would involve the same error as above : ' not England. alone, but all Europe ', or ' not only England, but also the rest of Europe '.* ' It is not only hard to distinguish between too little and tooi * The translation of Paul's appeal to Agrippa is not in strict accordance, with the English idiom. ' I would to God that not only thou, but also all that hear me this day, were both almost and altogether such as I am, except these bonds '. He here wishes both Agrippa and all that heard him to be as himself. But Agrippa was one that heard him, and should be excluded. Then again, they could not be both ' almost ' and ' alto-, gether '. The following rendering -would avoid these objections ; ' I. would to God that not thou alone, but all that hear me this day, were not almost merely, but altogether such as I am, except these bonds '. ' I say not unto thee, until seven times, but until seventy times seven*. Here the ' not ' is manifestly out of its place. ' I say unto thee, not until ( seven times only, but until seventy times seven '. PLACING OF ADVERBS. SPECIAL CASES. 325: much reform, but between the good and evil intentions of different reformers.' We here expect 'not only hard, but impossible '. ' It is hard to distinguish not only between too little and too much reform, but between the good and (the) evil intentions of different reformers. ' 11. The wrong placing of 'not* often gives rise to an imperfect form of negation. 'John and James were not there', means that John and James were not there in company. It does not exclude the presence of one of them. The negative should precede in this case : ' neither John nor James was there '. ' Our company was not present ' (as a company, but some of us might have been) ; ' no member of our company was present '. 12. At least. 'The Romans understood liberty at least as well as we.' This must be interpreted to mean ' the Romans understood liberty as well as we understand liberty '. The intended mean- ing is ' that whatever things the Romans failed to understand they understood liberty '. To express this meaning we might put it thus : ' the Romans understood at least liberty, as well as we do ' ; ' liberty, at least, the Romans understood as well as we do '. 'A tear, at least, is due to the unhappy ' ; ' at least a tear is a due to the unhappy'; 'a tear is due at least to the unhappy ' ; ' a tear is due to the unhappy at least ' ; all express different meanings. 'This cannot, often at least, be done'; ' this cannot be done often, at least '. (1. 'It often happens that this cannot be done.' 2. ' It does not often happen that this can be done.') So, ' man is always capable of laughing ' ; ' man is capable of laughing always '. 13. Misplaced circumstances, or adverbial adjuncts, generally. To bring every clause into juxtaposition with the part thut it is meant to qualify is as requisite as to place single words properly. Examples have been given incidentally. The following are a few more instances of misplaced clauses and adjuncts : 'All these circumstances brought close to us a state of things which we never thought to have witnessed (to witness) in peaceful England. In the sister island, indeed, we had read of such horrors, but now they were brought home to our very household hearths' (Swift). 'We had read, indeed, of such horrors occurring in the sister island ', &c. 326 SYNTAX. ORDER. 'The savage people in many places of America, except the government of small families, have no government at all, and live at this day in that savage manner as I said before ' (Hobbes). Perhaps the second and third clauses had better to be trans- posed. ' Some dozen years afterwards, I had an editorial successor (in the Exi.miner), Mr. Fonblanque, who had all the wit for which I toiled, without making any pretensions to it ' (Leigh Hunt). Here the concluding clause, if we were to judge by its position, would qualify /; but it is meant to qualify ' who ' (Mr. Fonblanque). More explicit thus : ' without his making any pretensions to it '. ' I shall have a comedy for you, in a season or two at farthest, tJiat I believe will be worth your acceptance' (Goldsmith). Place the second clause first, in order to connect the relative with its antecedent' comedy '. Placing of Prepositions. 14. Prepositions should be placed as near as possible to the words they govern. The following sentence is faulty in this respect: 'appears Lausanne with at its foot tJie little village of Ouchy '. But it is to be remarked that there is a certain inversion allowable in English, whereby a preposition is far removed from its regimen. The principal case is wJien it governs a relative or interrogative word. ' The gipsies are a people whom we know next to nothing about. ' ' What we are going to, is abundantly obscure ; but what all men are going from, is very plain ' (John Sterling). ' Whit are you looking/or ? ' There are also not unfrequent cases of emphasis, where the word governed by the preposition is required to go prominently 'forward : ' Now Sir Francis, though he was for a long time our hero, we never exchanged a word with. ' Further examples : ' Me, whom their foundation binds them to pray for, they suffer to die like a houseless dog ' (Scott). 'The oddity of character which great men are sometimes remarkable for, Mapertuis was not entirely free from ' (Gold- smith). ' That which ordinary men are fit for t I am qualified t ' (Sliak.). Placing of Conjunctions. 15. The members of double-membered conjunctions should be placed in right correspondence. The single- word conjunctions cause very litlie trouble. ELLIPSIS AND PLEONASM. 827 Perhaps the chief blemish to style arising from mismapagomont of these is seen when ' however ' or ' therefore ' is postponed too far. 4 Not but ', and ' not only but (also) ' have already received attention ( 9, 10). It remains to exemplify 'neither nor'. * lie would neither give wine, nor oil, nor money ' (Thackeray) : the conjunctions should be placed each before one of the excluded objects ; ' neither gire ' implies ' neither (some other verb) ', a meaning not intended. Re-arrange thue, taking all the common parts of the contracted sentences together : ' He would give neither wine, nor oil, nor money '. So : ' she can neither help her beauty, nor her courage, nor her cruelty ' (Thackeray). ' He had neither time to intercept nor to stop her ' (Scott). ' Some neither can for wits nor critics pass ' (Pope.) 16. Ellipsis : the leaving out of some part of the full expression. In addition to the three great processes, named Concord, Government, and Order of words, grammarians consider that certain cases of the syntax of sentences are explained by ELLIPSIS, which would therefore be ranked as a fourth binding process of composition. Many examples of ellipsis have already occurred. The following are further examples : ' I sent to the bookseller's (shop) ' ; * whose (is) this image and superscription ?' 'that (point) is the point' ; 'the greatest man (of the men) on (the) earth ' ; ' they love each (one loves the) other ' ; ' come (you) ' ; ' how shall 1 curse (him) whom God hath not cursed ? ' who's that (that) knocks ? ' An honest man, close buttoned to the chin, Broad cloth without, and a, warm heart within. Here there is an ellipsis of the participle. ' Can you sing ? ' 'I will try to (sing) '; ' (1) thank you'; 'nothing (is) so good, but it may be abused '; ' they applied to the Duke of all men '. The virtuous ( ) alone are happy ( ).' ' ( ) Better ( ) be '( ) Please, don't ( ).' 'When did you ( ) reach ( ) home ? ' ' ( ) An hour later than we with the dead ( ).' expected ( ).' 'His future ( ) is as dark ( ) as ever ( ).' ' Though ( ) defeated, he still pushes ( ) onwards.' 'You and I, if not he ( ), will certainly ( ) go soon. ' 17. Pleonasm : the expression or indication of some part of the meaning more than once ; excess of words. This is the opposite of Ellipsis. It is a device sometimes resorted to for rhetorical force. The following are further 328 PURITY. examples in addition to those that have already occurred: : * for ttie deck, it was their field of fame ' ; ' my banks, they arc furnished with bees ' ; ' the night it was gloomy, the wind it was high '. * We all of ?AS complain of the shortness of time '. ' The friends of my youth, where are they ? ' ' The interests of his family, the security of his dynasty, these were his end and aim.' 'Truth, like a torch, the more it's shook, it shines.' * He that witholdeth corn, the people shall curse him. ' * Make speed from hence.' 'Because I believed, therefore have 1 spoken.' Double Negation. Here may be mentioned the nse of more than a single negative to express denial. This was usual in Old English. In the Elizabethan age, the double negative appears often to strengthen the 'denial. ' I never was -nor never will l>; false ' ; ' 1 would not have believed no tongue but Hubert's '. Now, however, it is the rule in E-igli-sh that two negatives make a positive ; the one neutralizes the other ; aa ' 1 entertain a nc wttfavourable opinion of him '. Hence, when denial is intended, it is an inconsistency to use move than one negative. * They cannot utter the one, nor will they not utter the other ' ; * this is not always the case neither'. 'They will not be dis- appointed at the result no more than you are yourself.' 18. If we were to dwell on incidental and exceptional constructions, we might note the following as a ease of Parenthesis, or the insertion of an unconnected expression h> the middle of a sentence : ' our ideas are movements of tlie nerves of sense, as of the optic nerve, in recollecting visible ideas, suppose of a triangular piece of ivory '. OF PUlilTY. Besides observing the rules of grammar, we must employ only such words as really belong to the language, ami \ve must use them in their correct sense. To attend to these conditions is to have regard to Purity. The errors against purity are classed under three heads : Barbarism, Solecism, and Impropriety. Barbarism. This consists in using words that are not English. ISuch are 1. Obsolete words. BARBARISM. SOLECISM. 329 In old writers there occur many words that hare now ceased to be current ; some of them being no longer intelligible.. Such are 'bight', 'clept', 'erst', 'umwhile', 'behest', ' addulce ', ' surcease ', ' uneath ', ' whilom ', &c. 2. New Beards not fully adopted into the language. New words are in part borrowed from foreign languages, Some are introduced for good reasons, as new scientific terms, and the names of new materials (' gutta-percha', for example), But many are used without much necessity. Such are most of the following words from the French : ' sortie ', ' dernier resort', 'beaux arts', 'Kiles lettres' (polite literature V ' pplitesse ', ' delicatesse ', ' liauSiur ', ' connoisseur ', ' recon- noitre', ' agrements ', 'opine', 'ignore', 'fraicheur', 'esprit de corps', 'cortege', 'soubriquet', 'habitue', 'boudoir', ' espionage ', ' souvenir ', ' parole ', ' en rapport *, ' arriere pensee', 'en passant', 'en revanejle '. Some indicate shades of meaning that we cannot express by English words, and hence the pretext for using them ; for example : ' ennui ', ' prestige \ * naivete ', ' dolce far niente ' (ItaL), ' verbiage ', ' solidarity '. ' It is a special objection to the employment of these words, that the pronunciation of them is totally different from the pronunciation of our language. In books they are generally printed in Italics, to mark that they are not English. A number f Latin words and phrases have obtained currency in their original form ; as 'onus probandi\ ' obiter dictum , ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' re gcAac ', ' a priori ', a, posteriori ', ' a fortiori' t ' turn ttquUu r ', 'ad hominem', ' verbatim et literatim', 'in the interim, 'a sine qua turn', 'in exUiuo', tc. It is well to employ such phrases as little as possible. Newly-coined words are barbarous until their adoption has become general There is a constant tendency to coin new words, a great number of which never obtain currency. Thus, martyrised', for 'martyred', ' incmnhcrment' for 'encum- brance', 'proclivity', 'productivity', 'aeqwusts', are words suggested, but not adopted. Many new words and phrases that have come from America have been more or less freely adopted ; as ' outsiders ', ' coin- cidences ', 'immigrants', 'progress* (as a verb), fce. The ground of their adoption is necessity or convenience. Solecism. The words employed may be English, bat they may be combined in a form that is not English, This is Solecism. 330 PURITY. Bad Syntax is included in the definition, but there may be Solecisms that do not violate grammar ; they are then said to be violations of idiom. If we say ' I have hunger ', we do not commit had grammar ; still the combination is not English : it is French. ' 1 feel a smell ' is grammatical, but not according to idiom. ' I will speak my mind', 'get thee gone' (we cannot say 'make thee gone'), 'many a man', 'you had best', 'do honour to' (Shakespeare says 'do grace to Caesar's corpse'), 'once and again ', are English idioms, which have come into use from very different causes and must now be observed. Impropriety. This means employing words in a wrong sense. 1. Impropriety in single words. Scott and Thackeray use the expression, 'There was a quantity of people present ', for 'there were a number '. It often happens that two words have similar, bnt not identical meanings, so that the one cannot be used for the other on every occasion. Such terms are called synonymous, or synonymes. The following are examples: 'all, every, each ' ; ' allow, permit ' ; ' assist, help 1 ; ' astonish, surprise ' , ' belief, faith ' ; ' pleasure, delight, joy ; ' repentance, remorse ' ; 'principle, truth' ; 'observe, remark' ; 'on the contrary, on the other hand '. Another class of improprieties originate in not adverting to the composition of a word, or to the precise force of the prefix or the suffix combined with the root. Thus : ' Ramus published a Greek grammar, with many important variances from his precursors', for 'variations' ; 'the observation of the Sabbath'; ' the observance ' ; ' the Greek is a language superior in riches ' (' richness ') ; 'he felt himself compelled to acknowledge the justice (jmtncss) of my remark ' ; ' the negligence (neglect) of this leaves us exposed '. Sometimes we are misled by similarity of sound, as in using the word ' demean ' (signifying ' to behave ', ' to conduct one's self, as in ' demeanour ') in the sense of ' lowering ', ' debasing', ' making me-an '. Thackeray, indeed, seems to use ' demean ' as equivalent to 'degrade', ' debase', three times out of four; alternating with this the sense of ' behave '. (See Philij)). ' They form a procession to proceed (precede) the palanquin of ambassador ' ; ' he rose (raised) the price of bread last week ' ; * it lays (lies) on the table ' ; ' they wrecked (wreaked) their vengeance '. IMPROPRIETY. 331 2. Impropriety in phrases. This refers to expressions that contain, when analyzed, some inconsistency or absurdity. A common inst.uice of the clas> i^ seen hi the following example : 'it celebrates the Chuich of England as the most perfect of all others', meaning ' the most periect of all '. So : ' Northumberland was the most extensive of any Anglo-Saxon state' (Hallam) : for either 'the most extensive of all the Anglo- Sn&on states ', or ' more extensive th-m any other Anglo-Saxon state'. 'He has made the hi^he t number of marks ever made in any former year. ' 'Shakespeare was the man who of all modern, and perhaps ancient poets, had the largest and most comprehensive soul ' (Dry den) : there is at least some ambiguity here. ' The c.>n;eliest man of men since horn His sons. The fairest of her daughters Eve '. This makes Adam one of his sens and Eve one of her daughters ! ' I had like to have gotten one or two broke n heads lor my impertinence ' ; 'I was once or twice likely to get my head broken for my impertinence '. ' Like kings we lose tbe conquests gained before, By vain ambition still to make them more'. * Conquests gained before ', cannot 1 e made ' more '. Pleonastic expressions are sometimes to be ranked as im- proprieties. For example, the case of double negatives (page 328). So : ' These two men are both equal in strength ', is an inconsistent expression, if it be mei.nt that one is equal to the other. Many improprieties are provincialisms, or district pecu- liarities. Thus, we have Scotticisms, Irishisms, Americanisms, Cockneyisms. The Scotticism consists, not in the employment of purely Scotch words, but in the employment of English words in a Scotch meaning or construction. A list of Scotticisms is here appended, in addition to those already noticed. SCOTTICISMS. 1. Un-Eiiylish use of Words. He was amissing. Missing. I have nothing ado, or nothing else ado. To do. He has been ailing for some weeks. -Unwell. I would rather go CM stay. Than. He is away. -He is absent, not present. How nre you to-day ? Very bad, III Badly. -VL His watch is before. Fast. Your watch is behind. Slow. I fear I shall be behind. Late. When I shall be beside you. With. By-gone, by-past. Past. Shakes- peare has gone-by. A sugur-fcontf. Musin. He walked at the burial. Funeral. They never cast-out. Disagree, or quarrel. 332 SCOTTICISMS, Cattle in Scotch includes cows, oxen, &c. , but not so particularly horses as in England. I was his caution. Security. Close the door. Shut. For common. Commonly. Compliment. A present. Corn the horses. Feed. A couple of hens. Two hens. A coarse day ; coarse weather. Bad. But we may say, a fine day, and fine weather. Are your children at the counting ? Studying arithmetic. A cloth-brush. A clothes-brush. To crave a man for a debt, To dun him or demand payment of him. To crave a debt, or to crave pay- ment, might be proper. Were you crying on me ? -Calling. To disabuse is sometimes used for ' to abuse '. He is dull. Deaf. The day is dull. Overcast. An oaken deal. Plank. Deals, or deal-boards are made of fir or pine. He is much distressed with an inward trouble. With an inter- nal disease. Give me a drink. Give me drink, some drink, or something to drink. A faint. A fainting-fit ; a swoon. I feel afraid. I nm afraid. I feel a sweet smell. I smell a sweet smell, I smell something agreeable. To feel a smell is as repugnant to the English idiom as to see a sound. He fevered; he took a fever. He had fever ; or he was taken, or seized, with fever. I find no pain. FeeL Flesher.- Butcher. A flower (bunch of flowers). A nosegay. Fog is a Scotch name for moss. For ordinary. Ordinarily, usually, commonly. A four-square table. A square table. Fresh weather. Soft, open, not, frosty. Friend. Used for a relation (in blood). Frighted. Afraid, frightened. The frost is slippery. The ice. Gear. Wealth or riches. I was unable to get. Get away. My glasges. Spectacles. Goblet. Saucepan. ' Greedy ' and ' greediness ' are English, but greed is Scotch. The boy was itt-guided. Ill-used, iJl-treated. He fell in the gutter. In the dirt, What's o'clock? Half six.- Half an hour past five, or half past , five. Five minutes fi-om twelve. Five minutes to twelve, or before twelve ; or, it wants five minutes of twelve. (By floe minutes from twelve an Englishman would un terstand five minutes past twelve.) Hard fish. -Dried fish, or salt fish. I was in London last harvest. Autumn. He id of a street. Upper end. HOT head.- Headache. A hirer in Scotland is one who lends a horse for hire. In Eng- land it is one who borrows a thing, and pays money for the use of it; or who employs another and pays him wages. Irikholder. Inkhorn. To km. To know. In modern poetical English to ken is to descry, to see at a distance. Kindle a fire {Not improper, but the more usual English word is 'Light'.) To labour the ground. To till the ground. Fodder is large. Plentiful, in plenty. Every lawful day. Every week- day. In old English and in Scotch, to leam means both to give and to receive instruction : but in Eng- lish it is now confined to the latter meaning. He is still in life. Alive. I lifted a pin from the carpet. Picked up. Lime for mortar is Scotch. Mortar is the cement when prepared ; and lime, sand, and water are the materials. He was lost in the river. Drown- ed. If the body be carried away, or not found, the person may be said to be lost. In old English and in Scotch, meat means food in general. In modern English it denotes flesh- meat. SCOTTICISMS. 333 I do not mind that I ever saw you before. Remember. To mind is in English to attend to, as ' mind your business '. The project misgave. Failed, or miscarried. ' My mind misgave me ', is correct. The boy misguides his clothes. Abuses or sullies. To misguide is to mislead. On the morn , Morrow. Napkin . Pocket-handkerchief. The omission of a point sometimes . makes great odds in the sense. A great difference. Jf I had it in my offer, I would not accept of it. In my choice. The offer is here supposed to be not mine, but made by another. This bread is old. Stale. Cut out your hair. Off. Take out your glass. Take your glass. In an overly manner. Cursory, or . superficial. A pair of ducks ; a pair of par- tridges. Two ducks ; a brace of partridges. The park is well ploughed. Field. Plainstones. -Pavement. He was pointed in his answers. Exact and concise Pointed, in the figurative sense, applied to language ; conveys the idea of wit or conceit. A gentleman's policies. Pleasure- grounds. Pouch is used in Scotland, and was used in England, for pocket. But a pocket is inserted in the clothes, a pouch is not. He lives presently in London. At present. To pull up by the roots. To pluck up by the roots. To pull a flower. To pluck a flower. One might pull a flower without pucking it. Separation .seems to be implied in the latter word. Queer, in English, is odd, strange. particular. In Scotland it is \wed in the sense of comical, humorous. He will not readily do that. He is not likely to do that. One would readily imagine. Natu- rally. Readily, in English, de- notes with little delay or hind- rance. Considerable arrears being now resting to the soldiers. Remain- ing. The babe roars. Cries. Roasted cheese. Toasted cheese. Roof of a room. Ceiling. He roves in a fever. Raves. To rove is to roam or wander. I am scarce of fodder. Short of fodder, have not a sufficiency. A Scots idiom. A Scotch idiom. He scoured the knives. Cleaned. That dress sets her well. Becomes. For my share I can only say, &c. For my part. Shearers. Reapers. A shearer, in England, is one that cuts with shears. ' A sheep before her shearers is dumb.' The ship is at the shore. Quay, wharf. The shore is the coast of the sea. Have you any silver?- Change. I will answer the letter so soon as I receive it. As. It is correct to say, ' I did not receive the letter so soon as I expected it '. A soft day. --Wet. The" candlestick is sitting in the press. Stands in the cupboard. Some better. A little, something. You will some day know it. One. Do you snuff? Take snuff. The servan t was sorting the room at the time. Putting in order. Is your watch out of sorts?- Out of order. Speak to me. Listen to me. In Scotland spice is used for pepper, and corn for oats. But pepper, cloves, cinnamon, mace, are different sorts of spice ; and oats, barley, rye, wheat, are different kinds of corn. A winding stair goes from top to bottom. Winding stairs. The horse stammers. Stumbles. He stopped three months with them. Remained, resided, stay- ed. In Scotland the word storm is used to signify a storm of snow, or snowy weather. Even the ex- pression lying storm is made use of. A man's subjects. Effects. Send me a swatch of the cloth. Sample. Sweet butter. Fresh butter. 334 SCOTTICISMS. Sweet milk. New milk. Tell the man to come here. Bid the man come here or hither. Or tell the man that 1 wish to speak to him. The two boys strove. Quarrelled. Pope was a tender man. Weakly. This donation was the more ac- ceptable, that it was given with- out solicitation. Because. He is twenty years old, or thereby. Thereabout, or thereabouts. The church was very throng. Full, crowded. A timber candlestick. Wooden. Tradesman, in Scotland, is one that works with his hands at a trade. In England it is a shopkeeper, who either does or does not work with his hands. Sore trouble. Painful disease. James is turned a. great student. Has become. Wtrinxeot, for ' oak ', ia a Scot- ticism. Wainscot.in the English sense, is the inner lining of a wall with any sort of wood. Lend me your knife. I cannot want it. Do without it. The water of Don. The River Don. I weary when I sit alone. Become weary. Weary, in England, is a transitive verb; as ' walking wearies me '. The weaving or working of stockings is a great manufacture in Aber- deenshire. Knitting, I rose whenever I heard you call. When, as soon as. Whenever is at what ever time. Wh itsu n day. - Whitsu u tid e. Some say that our whole actions are selfish. All our actions. His whole fiiends forsook him. All his friends. An old wife. An old woman. A wife is a woman who has a husband. What's your will? What do you want ? I never witnessed anything so ridiculous. Beheld, or saw. Last night I witnessed a very agreeable conversation. Was present at. Mr. is come ; I hear his word. Voice. Have you any word to your brother. Have you any message ? Carpenters, joiners, cabinet- makers, fec., are, in Scotland, called wrights, and sometimes square-wrights. Wright is work- man or artificer ; but in England is used in composition only ; as ' ship- wright ', ' wheel-wright '. A writer.- An attorney. In Eng land a writer is an author. A yard. A garden. Yesternight. Last night. 2. Un-English Phrases. Butter and bread. 'Bread and butter. In all similar phrases bread has the precedency ; as ' bread and milk ', ' bread and cheese', &c. / behoved to go. It behoved me to go. I was obliged to go. I would die before I would break my word. Rather than break. A bit bread, a bit paper. A bit of bread, a bit of paper. To cause him to do it, is better than to cause him do it. But to make him do it is better than to make hiir* to do it ; which last phrase, however, though uncommon, is not without authority. Again, / made him do it is right ; but he was made do it is wrong. It must be, he was made to do it. I would have you to know. I I would have you kuow. To play cards. To play at cards. To cast up a fault to one. To upbraid one with a fault. A letter conceived in the following words. Containing. To hinder to do. To hinder from What like is it ?- What is it like ? Well, there is no matter. No matter, or it is no matter. The child took the pox. Was seized with, or taken ill of, small-pox. Give me a clean plate. Change my plate. A piece bread. A piece of bread. To think shame. To be ashamed. He thinks long for summer.- He longs for summer. (' Think long ' occurs in Roister Doister, the earliest English Comedy, 1553.) Everything succeeds to a wish.' PUNCTUATION. 335 As one would wish, according to our wishes. He wat in use to walk every day. He used to walk, or was wont to walk. He has a good hand of write. He writes well. I am going to play myself. To play. Who do you sit under? Whose Church do you go to ? You may lay your account with opposition. You may expect, or reckon upon, opposition. The clock is standing. Has stop- ped. He wants out. Be wishes to go out. I slipped a foot and fell down. My foot slipped and I fell. James and John are perpetually quarrelling with one another. Are perpetually quarrelling. It is ten years ago since he died. It is ten years since he died. / can sing none. I cannot sing at all. When dots the church go in? When does service begin ? Take it (to) yourself. Are you for any pudding ? Will you take ? Getting his breakfast. Taking breakfast. I take an egg to (for) breakfast. I can't get into my box. I can't open. I will let you see it. Show it you. I am going to (my) bed (my) dinner. Almost never. Seldom or never. How far does he go with you? No more than to Edinburgh. Farther. PUNCTUATION. Punctuation divides paragraphs and sentences by points or stops, with a view to assist us in discovering readily the connexions of the words, and to indicate the pauses required in reading. It has been seen that the reference of qualifying adjuncts is to he determined principally by their proximity to the words they qualify. Punctuation is an additional help. The chief Stops are these : the comma ( , ), the semicolon (;), and the full stop, or period (.). The colon ( : ) is something intermediate between the semicolon and full stop, but is not often required. The other stops are the interrogation (?), put at the end of a question ; the parentheses ( ), and the brackets [ ], to indicate a remark thrown in without connexion with the rest of the sen- tence ; the dash ( ) ; and the exclamation ( 1). The Comma. SIMPLE SENTENCES. I. A very long Subject is separated from the Predicate by a comma. 336 PUNCTUATION. The comma is used before the verb if the subject is rendered very long by means of adjuncts : ' The circumstance of his being unprepared to adopt immediate and decisive measures, was represented to the Government'. But in ordinary cases a stop should not be placed between the subject and the verb : ' To be totally indifferent to pnaise or censure is a real defect of character '. 2. Co-ordinating adjuncts of the subject are isolated by commas. The comma is used before and after a participle or participial ; phrase when co-ordinathig, and not restrictive: 'The jury, ^having retired for half an hour, brought in a verdict for the 'defendant' ; ' encouraged by his first successes ; he redoubled his efforts '. But when the participial phrase is restrictive, the comma is not used, it being improper to separate a limiting adjunct from the word limited by it : ' A king ^depending on the support of his subjects cannot rashly go to war '.' The same rule extends to adjectives and nouns in apposition, i when they are qualified by other words, and are in their effect j co-ordinating rather than restrictive : ' The stranger, unwilling ito obtrude himself on our notice, left in the morning' ; 'Borne, ' the city of the Emperors, became the city of the Popes '. Even without adjuncts, a word in apposition, especially when adding new information, is often enclosed in commas : ' Paul, the Apostle ', &c. But it is advisable so to punctuate as to main- tain the distinction between restrictive and co-ordinating adjuncts. 3. An Adverbial Phrase preceding the verb, or its subject, is usually followed by a comma. ' In truth, I could not tell ' ; ' to sum up, the matter is this ' ; ' everything being ready, they departed ' ; ' by looking a little deeper, the reason will be found '. When complex adverbial phrases come between the subject and the verb, they are placed between commas. 4. The name of a person addressed is isolated by commas. ' John, come here ' ; ' tell me, boy, what is your name ? ' 5. A Phrase or quotation that is either the subject or the object of the verb, is usually followed or preceded by a comma. THE COMMA. 337 The most frequent cases perhaps do not occur in simple sentences, and often, especially if the phrase or quotation be long, a colon is used. ' He said, " Let us go hence V COMPLEX SENTENCES. 1. A Noun Clause that is the subject of a verb, if long, should be followed by a comma. ' That the work of forming and perfecting the character is difficult, is generally allowed.' If the clause follows the verb, a comma does not usually precede : ' It is known that a full examination took place '. So an object noun clause is not usually preceded by a comma, unless it is of very great length. 2. A restrictive Adjective Clause is not separated by a comma from the noun. This is on the principle already laid down concerning restric- tive adjuncts. On the other hand, a co-ordinating clause, introduced by the relative, is preceded and, if need be, followed by a comma : ' I went to view the river, which I found greatly swollen '. An adjective clause has a comma placed after it when it has the effect of very much lengthening the subject of the principal verb : ' Any one that refuses to earn an honest livelihood, is not a subject for charity '. This is on the same principle as Rule I. for the simple sentence. A comma is also necessary at the end of such clauses if fol- lowed by an adverbial adjunct of the principal verb, which otherwise might be referred to the subordinate clause ; ' I refused to employ the man that he recommended, because of his unfit- ness for the post'. 3. Adverbial clauses are separated by commas unless they are short and closely connected with the main sentence. * If the premises were admitted, I should deny the conclusion ' ; * where your treasure is, there will your heart be also ' ; ' send me word before you come '. COMPOUND SENTENCES. Co-ordinate sentences, expressed at full length, are generally separated by commas. ' But his pride is greater than his ignorance, and what he wants in knowledge he supplies by sufficiency.' 2.2 338 PUNCTUATION. A slight amount of contraction does not dispense with the rule : ' A man of polite imagination can converse with a picture, and find an agreeable companion in a statue '. But when the sentences are very closely related to each other, and connected by the conjunctions ' find ', ' or ', ' nor ', the comma is omitted : ' I made haste and overtook him ' ; ' neither mon e y nor men were wanting '. A clause introduced by an anestive conjunction, 'but', &c., must be separated by a comma from what precedes, owing to the break in the sense : ' He went to market, but did not find what he wanted '. When the conjunction is omitted between two co-ordinate sentences, they must be separated by a comma if short, and by a semicolon if long and complicated. ' He came, he saw, lie conquered.' When such sentences (sometimes called collateral) are contracted, the remaining portions are still divided by commas : ' Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise ' ; or ' healthy, wealthy, wise '. ' Peter, James, Thomas, and Mary formed the party.' These rules are all pervaded by one general principle, namely, that when words are closely connected in grammar or in sense they must not be separated in the pointing ;* but if an inter- ruption takes place, or a transition is made, a point is necessary. An expression enclosed between commas is in some sort paren- thetical ; there*would be no break in the grammatical connexion, or in the sense, if it were passed over. The Semicolon and the Colon. The Semicolon is introduced when a greater pause is required than what is usually indicated by the comma. In the construction of sentences, or periods, we may have some clauses more closely connected than others, and the degree of connection may be suggested by the absence of a stop, by a comma, or by the semicolon : ' Children without any design imitate the language, the tone, the pronunciation, the looks, the gestures, the gait of those with whom they live ; and if the imitation be continued sufficiently long, no efforts in after life can overcome the effects of it, the flexibility or docility, so to speak, of the tissues or organs concerned seeming to diminish rapidly with the approach to maturity, or the cessation of growth'. Here it is felt that the break or pause is much greater after ' they live ', than at the end of the various words * The only exception to this is Rule 1 (simple sentence) ; but that is justified on the ground that the inordinate length of the subject renders a pause desirable. SEMICOLON AND FULL STOP. 339 where commas are used. There is also a considerable break in the sense after ' can overcome the effects of it ', where also there would have been no impropriety in placing another semicolon. When a pause is not sufficiently marked by the semicolon, the colon may be used at the writer's discretion. But no fixed rules can be laid down respecting the use of this stop. One application of it is to introduce a quotation, a narrative, an argument, or an enumeration of particulars : ' He spoke as fol- lows ' :- The Period or Full Stop. This stop is used at the close of a complete sentence. The rules for the use of it are the rules for the composition of peiiods and paragraphs. The most usual error is to include in . one period the matter that should be divided into two, or ' perhaps more. The full stop is used after abbreviations : 'MS. ', 'LL.D. ', 1 Lond. ', ' Mr. ', ' Esq. ', ' Bart.'. The note of interrogation must not be used after indirect questions ; as ' he asked me who called '. The parentheses enclose some remark that does not enter into the construction of the sentence : ' The bliss of man (could prido that blessing find) Is not to act or think beyond mankind.' The dash marks an unexpected or emphatic pause, or a sudden break or transition : ' Why, perhaps it is but what was his intention ? ' Sometimes it is used to mark words in apposition, or in explanation : They plucked the seated hills, with all their toad- Rocks, waters, woods and by the shaggy tops Uplifting, bore them in their hands,' Two dashes may be used to enclose an explanatory paren- thetic clause ; ' In truth, the character of the great chief was depicted two thousand five hundred years before his birth, and depicted such is the power of genius in colours which will be fresh as many years after his death '. Inverted commas are used to mark quotations. The note of exclamation or admiration is used after interjections and passionate exclamations, or after any passages that are intended to be especially emphatic : ' A dread eternity I how surely mine ! ' 340 PARSING. The various parts of every sentence may be examined in five different modes. In giving a complete account of a sentence, we might parse it five times, for as many different purposes. We might state first the part of speech of each word ; secondly, the inflexion of every inflected word ; thirdly, the derivation of each word ; fourthly, the analysis of the sentence ; and fifthly, the applica- tion of the syntactical rules of concord, government, and order to the sentence. But there being very little to do under the second head inflexion, we may conveniently join that with the first. Also, the analysis and the other parts of syntax are so closely allied, that we may take the whole under one parsing. (The analysis might also be easily included in the first mode of parsing.) There will thus be three distinct parsings appli- cable to any one passage. I. Parsing for Parts of Speech (including Inflexion.) Under this we state the Part of Speech of each word (whether Noun, Pronoun, &c.), showing how it comes under the Definition ; also the class or sub- division that the word belongvS to ; and the inflexional changes it exhibits. It is necessary even for this limited purpose to understand .the syntax of the sentence, for we must often treat a phrase of ;two or more words as grammatically one. Moreover, we must , determine the part of speech according to the actual function of : the word in each case ; seeing that the same word falls under ' different parts of speech at different times. We shall take as an example the following passage from Milton : Far less abhorred than these Vex'd Scylla, bathing in the sea that parts Calabria from the hoarse Trinacrian shore.' 1 Far ' ; an adv. of degree, modifying ' leAs '. ' Less ' ; adv. of degree, comparative, modifying ' abhorred '. Not in usual compar. form, the -r ending being assimilated to the final consonant of the positive (Joes). ' Abhorred ' : adj. of quality (derived from past participle of verb ' abhor ') ; limits ' hell-fcounds ', understood. ' Than ' : adv. of degree, comparative, modifying a verb understood ' were abhorred ', the completion of the clause commencing with ' these '. (The whole lause i than these PARSING FOR PARTS OF SPEECH. 341 (Ml-hounds) were abhorred ' is equivalent to an adv. of degree, modifying ' less '.) 'These': adj., pronominal, demonstrative; plural; limits 'hell-hounds', understood. Or, pronoun, demonstr. ; plur. ; having for its antecedent (or pointing to) ' hell-hounds '. ' Vex'd ' : verb transitive ; active voice, indicative mood, past indefinite tense, third person, plural number ; subject, ' hell- hounds ', understood after ' abhorred '. ' Scylla ' : noun, proper, singular, meaningless ; or simply proper)* ; feminine ; the object of the verb ' vexed '. ' Bathing ' : verb, intransitive ; (imperfect or incomplete) participle ; subject, ' Scylla ' ; co-ordinating use. ' In ' : preposition, place, rest in ; placed before ' sea ' to mark the relation between ' sea ' and ' Scylla bathing ' (or joined with ' sea ' to make up an advl. phrase modifying 'bathing'.) 'The ' : adj., pronoml., demonstr., (usually called the definite article) ; limits 'sea'. (The complete limitation is given by the expression 'that parts . . . shore' adj. clause re- strictive. ) ' Sea ' : noun, general and significant (or simply general, or common),* connected with ' bathing ' by ' in ' (or taken with 'in ' to make up a phr. as above.) ' That ' : pron. relative, restrictive ; arltecedent ' sea ' ; subject to the verb ' parts '. ' Parts ' : verb, transitive, predicate to ' that ' ; act. voice, indie, mood, pres. indef. tense, sing, number, 3rd person. ' Calabria ' : noun, proper ;* object to ' parts ' . ' From ' : preposition (one of the case prepositions), place, motion with direction ; placed before ' shore ' to mark the re- lation between 'shore 'and 'parts' (or joined with 'shore' to to make up an advl. phr. of place, motion with direction, modi- fying 'parts'). ' The ' (as above) ; limits ' shore '. ' Hoarse ' : adj. of quality ; qualifies ' shore '. Co-ordinating. ' Trinacrian ' : adj. derived from a proper name ; limits ' shore '. * It would be too much trouble to keep up the full distinctions on all occasions, and I should therefore propose that when a noun is a proper (or meaningless) name, and also the name of one object, it should simply be called ' proper ' ; as the names that are proper and not singular are the exception, and may be noted when they occur. The significant nouns are nearly all ' general ', and might be parsed as ' general ', (or if preferred ' common '), and therefore ' general ' or ' common ' might be held to mean ' general and significant ', unless the contrary be stated. The parsing of. nouns would thus continue as at present, except that when such a word as the ' Browns ' or the ' Jameses ' occurred, it would be stated as ' proper and common ' ; and when ' Providence ' or ' the emperor ' occurred, it would be stated as ' singular and significant '. 342 PARSING. 'Shore': noun, general (or common) ;* taken with 'from*. (The combination ' the Trinacrian shore ' constitutes a singular name, partly significant and partly proper.) II. Parsing for Derivation. This consists of two parts ; first, assigning the source of each word, as ' Native ', 'French', &c. ; and secondly, giving account of its composition when it is a compound word. The rules and lists given under DERIVATION Sources of Words, together with the lists given in the Appendix, are intended to afford the means of determining the etymological origin of all our words. The rules to be absolutely relied on are those in sections 28, 29, 32, 33. It is to be seen first whether a word belongs to the parts of speech, &c., that are of home origin (28, 29). If this is not decisive, the rules relating to the number of syllables (32, 33) are to be referred to, together with the lists of exceptions. The pupil should gradually master all the smaller lists of the languages given in the text Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic, &c. He should also master the native words of more than one syllable, of which a tolerably complete enumeration is given in the account of the things named from native sources ; in which account the examples are purposely drawn from dis- syllable words. When a word of more than one syllable occurs, 'form that we are to deal with according to the rules (32, 33.) The question will then be decided by a reference to the lists in the Appendix. The first of these lists the Celtic, might be readily mastered ; the Scandinavian list is somewhat longer, but if the pupil were familiar with it likewise, the actual refer- ence would be confined to two lists the other Teutonic words and the list of classical monosyllables. A key is thereby ifurnished to the sources of the language, upon a plan preferable to the use of the dictionary, as it deals with classes and not with individuals, and renders it possible ultimately to master the entire language. The rules drawn from the endings and prefixes (30, 31) are very useful for giving the probable origin of words at the first glance ; but in consequence of the great number of hybrids, of which no complete list has been made, they are not the rules that are depended on. In distinguishing between a Latinized and an English style generally, they are a tolerably safe guide. If pupils have been disciplined in Latin, Greek, and Saxon roots, or if they have made some progress in Latin and Greek, .or in French, they will have an additional means of discrimiua- FOR DERIVATION AND FOR SYNTAX. 343 ting the sources of our vocabulary ; and the teacher will then appeal to this part of their knowledge in parsing for derivation. The other exercise under Derivation consists in reducing words that are not simple to their simple elements. Thus ' greatness ' is made up of the adjective ' great ' and the suffix ' ness ' ; ' embitter ' is the adjective ' bitter ' combined with the prefix ' em ', which is employed to convert adjectives into verbs, with the meaning of 'to make'; 'powder-horn' is a compound word made up of two nouns. III. Parsing for Syntax. The analysis of sentences has been sufficiently exemplified. There remains only the illustra- tion of the rules of Concord, Government, and Order, as given under those several heads. Numerous examples of detailed parsing for Syntax are given in the Key to First English Gram- mar, pp. 157-186. EXAMPLES OF ERRORS, AND OF INFERIOR, AMBIGUOUS, OR PECULIAR FORMS. (The arrangement is designedly made ynwniscuous. ) The separation did not take place till after the language had attained the ripeness of maturity. The Church has, through its Committee on Education, in their last report, recommended a more liberal endowment, so that we have now reason to count upon their cordial co-operation. What is the reason that our language is less refined than those of Italy, Spain, or France ? Prompted by the most extreme vanity, he persisted in the writing bad verses. By letters, dated the third of May, we learn that the West India fleet arrived safely. If I want skill or force to restrain the beast that I ride upon, though I bought it and call it my own ; yet, in the truth of the matter, I am at that time rather his man than he my horse. This great philosopher, with whom I am always unwilling to differ, refers, .) Scowl. G. Snip. D. Trifle. D. Prop D. Pudgv. G. Scrabble. D. Scramble. D. Snipe. D. Snort. D. Trip. D. Troll. G. to roll. Puke." G. Scratch. G. Snout. G. Trollop. G. Punt. D. Screw. D. Snub. D. Trull. G. Purblind. D. Scrub. G. Snuff. D. Tub. D. Purl. D. (v.) Sculk. D. Sod. D. Twinge. D. Quack. G, Scum. G. Sop. D. Twirl. D. Quarto, G. Seem. G. Souse. G. Twist. D. Queer. G. Shalm. Shawm. Spang. G. Twitter. D. Quoit D. G. a musical Spite. D. Uproar. D. Rabbit. D. pipe. Splice. D. Vampire. G. Race. D. Shatter. D. Splinter. D. Vane. D. Raff. G. Shingle. G. Split. 1). Veneer. G. Rail. G. an iron Shive. D. a slice. Sport. G. (?) Wad. G. bar. Shore. D. Spot. D. Wafer. D. Rail. D. to mock: Shrimp. G. Spout. D. Wage. G. Ramble. D. Shudder. G. Sprat. D. Wainscot. D. Rant. D. Shy. G. Squander. G. Waltz. G. Rash. D. Simnel. G. a, cake. Squint. D. Wamble. D. Rattle. D. Skate. D. ice shoe. Stadholder. D. Wand. D. Rave. D. Skellum. G. Stagger. D. Warble. G. Havel. U. Skiff. G. Stamp. D. Wee. G. Reef. D. (nautical Skim. G. Start. D. Whelp. D. term). Skipper. D. Steep. G. Whimper. G. Reef. G. a chain Slabber. G. Stilt. D. Whisk. G. of wci*. Slap. G. Stiver. D. Wreck. D. Revel. D. Slatter. G. Stop. D. Wriggle. D. Riff-raff. G. Slave. G. Stout. D. Yacht. D. Rifle. G. Slaver. G. Strip. D. Zinc. Q. Rob. G. Sled. Sledge. D. 354 APPEXDIX. IV. MONOSYLLABLES OF CLASSICAL ORIGIN. (F. FrencJi, G. Greek, I. Italian, L. Latin, S. Spanish). Ace. F. Brach. F. Cede. L. Coil. F. L. Act. L. Bract. L. Cell L. Coin. F. Add. L. Branch. F. Cent. F. Cone. F. L. G. Age. L. Brave. F. Cere. L. Cook. L. Aim. F. Beam. F. Cess(pool). L. Coop. L. Air. L. Bre*>ze, F. Chafe. F. Copse. F. G. Aisle. F. Breve. I. Chain. L. Cord. G. Alb. L. Bribe. F. Chair. F. Core. L. Apse. L. G. Brick. F. Chaise. F. Cork. S. Apt. L. Brief. F. Chance. F. Corps. F. Arc. L. Brisk. F. Change. F. Corpse. F. L. Arch. L. Broach. F. Chant. F. Cost. F. L. Arch(c/ne/>. G. Broil. F. Chape. S. Couch. F. Art. L. Bronze. F. I. Char (burn). F. Count. F. Asp. L. Brooch. F. Charge. F. Course. L. Aunt. L. Browse. F. Charm. F. Coy. F. L. Bail. F. Bruit, F. Chart. L. Crab (windlass). S. Bale (bundle). F. Brush. F. I. Chase. F. Crack. F. Bale (?'.). F. Brusque. F. Chasm. G. Crape. F. Ball (round boily ; Brute. F. Chaste. L. Crass. L. dance). F. Budge. F. Cheat. F. ( ratch. L. Balm. F. Bulb. L. Check. F. Crate. I. L. Bar. F. Bull. L. (Pipe's Cheer. F. Craze. F. Barb. F. edict). Chief. F. Cream. F. Jiarge. F. Bun. F. Chine. F. Creed. L. Barque. F. Bur. F. Choir. F. Crest. L. Base. F. Burr. F. Chord. G. Crime. L. Band. F. Bust. F. Chrism. G. Crisp. L. Bass. I. Butt. F. I. Christ. G. Croak. L. Bay. F. Buzz. I. Chrome. G. Cross. I. F. L. Beak. F. Cade. L. a cask. Churn. F. (?). Crown. F. L. Beau. F. Cage. F. Chyle. G. Crude. L. Beef. F. Calk. L. Chyme. G. Cruise. L. Belle. F. Call. L. Cist. L. Crase. F. Em (paper). F. Calm. F. Cives. F. Crush. F. Bice, Bise. F. Camp. L. Clack. F. Crust. L. Bile, L. Can. (n.)L. Claim. L. Crutch. L. Blame. F. Cane. L. Clang. G. Cry. F. L. Blanch. F. ant (talk affec- Class. F. L. Crvpt. I. G. Bland. L. tedly). L. Clause. F. L. Cue. F. Blank. F. Cant(^)- F. Clef. F. Cube. F. L. G. Block. F. Cape. L. I. Clime. L. G. Cuff. I. L. G. Blonde. F. Car. L. Clique. F. Cull. F. L. Blouse. F. Card. F. Cloak. F. Culm. L. Boil(>.). L. Carp. F. Close. F. L. Cup. F. L. Bomb. F. arte. F. Clove. S. F. L. Curb. F. Boon (adj.). L. Case. F. Clown. L. Cure. L. Boot (for feet). F. Cash. F. Coach. F. Curt. L. Boss. F. Cask. F. 8 Joarse. L. Cusp. L. Bound. F. (to Catch. F. I. Coast. L. Cyst. G. spring). Jaul, cowl. I. L. Coat. F. Dab. F. Bowl. F. Cause. F. Cod(fish). L. Dace (/?.<$) F. Box. F. (a shrub). Cave. F. ode. L. Dam. F. Brace. F. Cease. L. Coif. F. Dame. F. CLASSICAL MONOSYLLABLES. 355 Damn. F. L. Fence. F. Fringe. F. Grate. I. L. (noun) Dance. F. Fend. L. Frizz. F. Grate. F. (verb.) Dart. F. Feud (flef)-L. Frock. F. Grave. F. Date. F. L. Fib. I.'L, i rond. L. Grease. F. Daunt. F. L. Fief. F. Front. L. Graves. F. Dean. F. L. Fierce. F. Frounce. F. Grebe. F. Debt. L. Fife. F. H row 11. F. Grief. F. Deign. F. L. Fig. L. Fruit. L. Grill. F. Dense. L. File. L. Fry. F. (cooking.) Grime. I. Derm. G. Fine. F. showy. Fry. F. spaum. Gross. L. Deuce. F. Fine. L. a penalty. Fugue. V. Grot. F. Die. (noun) F. L. Firm. L. Fume. L. Group. F. I. Dine. F. Fisc. L. Fund. L Grudge. F. Lire. L. Fit (attack of Fur. F. Grume. F. Dirge. L. pain) I. Furl. F. Guard. F. Diso, dish. L. G. Fit. F. Fuse. L. Guide. F. Doge. 1. L. Fitch. L. Fust. F. Guise. F. Doit. F. L. Fix. L. Gage. F. Gules. F. Dole. L. Flail. F. L. Gain, F. Gulf. G. Dome. L. G. Flame. L. Gall.* 1 , (gall nut.) Gum. F. L. G. Don. S. L. Flank. F. Gall. F. to fret. Gurge. L. Dose. F. G. Flask. F. Gaol. F. ' Gust. I. L. taste. Doubt. F. L. Fleam. F. G. Garb. F. Gyre. G. Douche. F. L. Flotch. F. Gaud. L. Hack. F. hackney. Drab (doth) F. Flock. L. a lock Gauge. F. Hash. F. Drachm. G. of wool. Gauze. F. Hatch. F. Dram. I. G. Flog. I,. Gay. F. Haught. F. Drape. F. Floss. I. L. Gem. F. L. Haunch. F. Dredge. F. Flounce. F. L. Germ. L. Hauut. P. Dress. F. L. Flour. F. Gest. L. Hawse. F. Droll. F. Flue. F. L. Gig. F. Hearse. F. Drug. F. Flute. F. I. L. Gill. L. a measure. Heir. F. Drupe. L. G. Flux. L. Gimp. F. Herb. L. Duct. L. Foil. F. Gist. F. Host. L. landlord. Due. F. Foil. F. leaf. Gland. L. Host. L. (Rom. Duke. F. L. Foist. F. Glave. L. Cath.) Dupe. F. Font. L. Glean. F. Host. L. (army.) Dure. L. Fool. F. Glebe. L. Hour. G. Ease. F. Fop. I. L. Globe. L. Hue. F. (Hue and Err. L. Force. L. Gloss. L. G. com- Cry.) Eyre. F. L. Forge. F. ment. Hulk. G. Face. F. L. Form. F. Glue. L. Hymn. L. G. Fact. L. Fort. F. Glume. L. Ides. L. Fail. F. L. Fosse. L. Glut. L. Ire. L. Faint. F. Found. L. in Glmph. G. Isle. F. Fair (market) building. Gnome. G. Jack. F. F. L. Found. L. to cait. Goal. F. Jade. S. Faith. F. L. Fount. L. Gob. F. Jail. F. False. L. Fract. L. Gorge. F. I. L. Jamb. F. Fame. L. Frail. F. Gouge. F. Jaw. F. Fane. L. Frank. F. Gourd. F. Jay. F. Farce. F. Fraud. L. Gout. F. Jest. L. Fate. L. Fray. F. Grace. F. L. Jet. G. Fault. F. Freak. I. Grade. L. Jet. F. Faun. L. Fret. F. interlac- Grail. F. Jig. F. Fawn (deer) F. ing bars, &c. Grain. L. Join. L. Fay. F. Fret. F. wire on Grand. L. Joke. L. Feast. F. L. musical instr. Grange. F. L. Jot. G. Feat. F. L. Frieze. F. Grant. F. Joust. P. Feign. F. L. Frill. F. Grape. F. Joy. F. 356 APPENDIX. Judge. L. Mask. F. Noun. L. Pile. L. an arrow- Juice. P. Mass. L. a heap Nude. L. head. June. L. Mass. L. religious Null. L. Pill. L. (n.) Just. L. ceremony. Nun. I. Pinch. F. Ketch. P. Match. F. Nurse. F. Pine. L. a tree. Lace. F. Mate. F. Nymph. G, Pint. S. Lache. F. Maund. F. Ode. G. Pip. L.* Lamp. G. May. L. the month Orb. L. Pique. P. Lance. L. Meal. F. Ore. L. Pix. L. Lapse. L. Mean. L. middle Ounce. L. Place. P. Lar. L. Mere. I. L. Oust. F. Plague. O. Larch. L. Merge. L. Pace. F. Plain. L. Lard. L. Merle. L. Pact. L. Plait. L. Large. L. Mess. P. Page. L. Plan. F. Laud, L. Mew. F. Page. F. Planch. P. Lave. L. Mien. F. Pail. G. S. Plane. L. Lawn(cloM). 8. Mime. G. Paint. P. Plunk. F. Lax. L. Mine. F. Pair. L. Plant. L. Lay. G. the laity. Mix. L.* Pale. L. (n.) Plasm. G. Lay. F. a song. Moat. F. Pale. L. (a.) Plat. G. League. F. Mob. L. Pall. I,.* a cloth. Plate. S. G. Lease. F. Mock. F. G. Palm. L. Plea. F. Leash. P. Mode. F. Pane. F. Plead. F. L. Lees. F. Moil. F. Pant. F. Please. F. Lens. L. Moist. F. Pap. L.* a teat. Pledge. F. Liege. P. Mole. L. a mound Pap. L. * soft, food Plinth. G. Lieu. F. Mome. F. Par. L. equality. Pluuib. F. Lime. F. Mood. L. in gram- Pard. L. Plume. L. Limn. F. mar. Pare. F. Plunge. P. Line. L. (noun.) Moor. L. an Afri- Parse. L. Poach. F. Link. G. can. Part. L. Point. L. Lint. L. Mop. L. Pasch. G. Poise. F. List. F. I. Mosque. P. Pass. L.* Pole. G. Loach. P. Mount. F. Paste. L. Pomp. G. Lobe. G. Move. L. Paunch. L. Poop. L. Long. L. (adj.) Mulct. L. Pause. G. Poor. F. Lote. G. Mule. L. Pave. L. Pope. L. Lounge. F. Mull. L. wine. Pawn (chess) S. Porch. F. Luce. L. Mumm. G- Pay. F. Pore. G. Luff. F. Munch. F. Peace. L. Pork. L. Lurch. I. Mure. L. to wall. Peach. F. Port. L. mien. Lure. F. Muse. L. Peel. F. Port. L. a gate. Lute. F. Musk. L. Peep. Ls Port. L. a harbour Lymph. L. Must. L. Peer. F. Post. L. Lynx. L. Must. F. Peg. G. Pot. F. Lyre. L. Mute. L. Pelt. L. (n.) Potch. P. Mace. L. a club. Mute. P. Pelt. L. (v.) Poule. F. Mace. L. a kind Nave. L. Pen. L. Poult. L. of spice. Nard. G. Perch. F. a mea- Pounce. P. L, Mail. F. armour. Neat. F. sure. powder. Mail. F. a bag. Nep. L. a plant. Perch. L. a fish. Pounce. S. talon Male. F. Nerve. L. Phlegm. G. Pout. F. Kail. L. Net. F. Phrase. G. Praise. F. Mange. F. Niche. F. Pie. F. Pray. F. Map. L. Niece. F. Piece. F. Preach. P. March. L. the Node. L. Pierce. F. Press. L. month. Noise. F. Pike. F. Prest, F. March. F. Nome. G, Pile. L. hair. Prey. F. Marque. P. Noose. F. Pile. L. a heap. Price. F.* Mars. L. Note. L. Prime. L. CLASSICAL MONOSYLLABLES. 357 Prince. P. Print. F. Reins. L. kidneys. Rest. L. as ' the Seal. L. a stamp. Search. F. Stage. F. Stanch. F. Prize. P. rest of,' t&c. Seat. L. State. L. Prompt. L. Rheum, G. Sect. L. Stay. F. Prone. L. Rhomb. G. See. L. (noun.) Stew. F. Prose L Rice, G. Seel. F. Still. L. distil- Prow. F. (nauti- Bill. L. Seize. F. lation. cal.) Risk. F. Sell. L. Stole. L. Prow. F. valiant Rite. F. Sense. L. Strain. L. Prude. F. Roan. F. Serf. F. Strait. L. Prune. L. Roast. F. Serge. F. Strange. F. Psalm. G. Robe. F. Serve. F. Strict, L. Pule. F. Rock. F. Sex. F. Style. L. Pulp. L. Roist. F. Sheet. F. (nauti- Sue. F. Pulse. L. Roll. F. cal.) Suit. F. Pump. F. Rook. F. Shock. F. Sum. L. Punch. I. Rose. F. Shot. F. Surd. L. Pure. L. Rouge. F. Sice. L. (at dice.) Sure. F. Purge. L. Round. F. Siege. F. Sr.rge. L. Purl. I. Rout. F. Sign. F. Sylph. G. Purse. F. Route. F. Sine. L. Syrt. L. Pus. L. Rude. F. Sir. F. Tack. F. Push. F. Rule. F. Sire. F. Tact. L. Pyre. G. Ruse. F. Site. L. Taint. L. Quaff. F. Rut. F. the track Skain. Skein. F. Tan. F. Quail. F. a bird. of a wheel. Sketch. I. Tang. G. Quaint. L. Sack. F. sweet Slate. F. Tant. F. Quart. F. wine. Sneer. L. Tap. F. Quay. F. Safe. F. Soar. F. Tare. F. Quest. F. Sage. F. Sock. L. Tart, F. Quill. F. Sage. F. a plant. Soil. L. earth. Task. F. Quilt. L. Saint. F. Sole. F. (noun.) Taste. F. Quince. F. Salt. L. a leap. Sole. F. (adj.) Taunt. F. Quint. F. Sane. F. Solve. L. Tax. F. Quire. G. Sans. F. Sore. F. Tell. L. Quire. F. sheets of Sap. F. (verb.) Sort. L. Tempt. L. paper. Sash. F. Sound. L. Tench. L. Quit. F. Sate. L. Source. L. Tend. L. Quite. F. Save. F. Souse. L. Tense. L. in gram- Quote. F. Say, F. Space. L. mar. Race. F. lineage. Scald. F. Sparse. L. Tense. L. tight. Raft. L. Scale. L. Sphere. G. Tent. L. Rag. G. Scan. L. Sphinx. G. Terse. L. Rage. F. Scar. G. Spice. F. L. Test. L. Ramp. F. Scarce. F. L. Spike. L. Text. L. Range. F. Scarf. F. Spine. L. Theme. G. Rap. L. Scene. G. Spire. G. Threne. G. Rape. L. Scent. L. Spiss. L. Throb. G. Rape. L. a plant. Scheme. G. Spleen. G. Throne. L. Rare. F. School. L. Spoil. L. Thrust. L. Rase. L. Scoff. G. Sponge. L. Thyme. G. Rate. L. Scope. G. Spouse. L. Tick. F. Ray. F. light. Scot. F. tax. Spume. L. Tierce. F. Ray. L. a fish. share. Spurge. L. Tiff. F. Raze. L. a root of Scout. F. Spy. F. Tinge. L. ginger. Scourge. F. Squad. F. Toast. L. Raze. L. Screen. F. Square. L. Toil. L. Rear. L. Scribe. F. Squill. L. Tomb. G. Reign. F. Srrc.ll. F. Staff. F. (mili- Tome. G. Reiu. F. Scroyle. F. tary.) Tone. L. 358 APPENDIX. Tope. F. Trine. L. Vail. F. Verse. L. Torch. F. Tripe. F. Vain. L. Vert. L. Tort, F. Triat, L. Vale. L. Vest, F. Touch. F. Trite. L. Valve. L. Vetch. L. Tour. F. Troop. F. Van. F. Vex. L. Trace. L. Trope. G. Vase. L. Vice. L. Track. L. Trot. F. Vast. ]j. Vice. F. apreti Tract. L. Trounce. F. Vault. L. (n.) View. F. Trade. L. Truce. F. Vault. L. (v.) Vile. L. Train. F. Truck. F. Vaunt. F. to Vine. L. Trait. F. Truck. G. boast. Vogue. F. Trance. L. Trump. F. Vaunt. F. the first Voice. F. Trap. F. Trunk. L. dart. Void. L. Trave, F. Truss. F. Veal. P. Vote. F. Tray. L. Try. F. Veer. F. Vouch. L. Treat. F. Tube. L. Veil. L. Vow. F. Trench. F. Tuft. F. Vein. L. Wage. L. Tress. F. Tune. L. Vend. L. Wait. L. Tret. L. (?) Type. G. Venge. L. Wall. L. Trey. F. Urge. L. Vent. L. (?) Wince. L. Tribe. L. Urn. L. Verb. L. Zeal. G. m - : ck. L. Use.L. Verge. L. (n.) Zone. G.* L IETURN CIRCULATION! PARTAAENT !"O *> WH brat f& .OAN PERIOD 1 2 3 HOME USE l 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS Renewals and Recharges may be made 4 days prior to the due date. Books may be Renewed by calling 642-3405 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW SENT ON ILL MAD *i 4 ~"7 v... ..-< - 3 POT . C. 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