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HANDBOOKS for Students and General Readers. 
 
 A HIGHER .. 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 ALEXANDER BAIN, LL.D, 
 
 Professor of Logic in the University of Aberdeen. 
 
 NEW EDITION 
 REVISED AND ENLARGED 
 
 NEW YORK 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 1880 
 
EDUCAT!0 J 
 
 J. 
 
 PBINTEB, 
 
 15 Vande water St., 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST tDITION. 
 
 THE present work has been composed with more par- 
 ticular reference to the class of English Composition 
 (attached to the Chair of Logic) in the University of 
 Aberdeen. 
 
 While availing myself of the best works on the 
 English Language, I have kept steadily in view the 
 following plan. 
 
 Under Etymology, the three departments: 1st, Classi- 
 fication of Words or the Parts of Speech; 2nd, Inflexion; 
 3rd, Derivation, hav<3 been separately discussed. This 
 method I think better adapted for conveying gramma- 
 tical information than the older one, of exhausting 
 successively each of the Parts of Speech in all its 
 relations. 
 
 The practice of explaining the precise meanings of 
 the frequently recurring words of the language, such as 
 pronouns, articles, distributive adjectives, prepositions, 
 and conjunctions, has here been systematically followed 
 out. Words of this description are not numerous. 
 Belonging alike to all subjects and all styles, they are 
 the very hinges of composition. The explanation of 
 them, so long as it is confined to a small compass, is a 
 proper office of the grammarian, although therein he 
 may seem to intrude a little on the province of the 
 lexicographer. 
 
IV . * PREFACE. 
 
 A'-siinilai: fffon. is carried out in the second part of 
 
 f^ynYologyJ Inflexion. Thus, the meanings of the 
 
 " differeM moods and tenses of the verb are explained as 
 
 accurately as the writer's knowledge would enable him. 
 
 Almost all the newer grammars recognise the expediency 
 
 of this course. 
 
 So with regard to Derivation, the meanings of the 
 significant prefixes and suffixes are stated. Under this 
 head, such an account has been given of the sources of 
 the English vocabulary, as in a great measure to dispense 
 with an Etymological dictionary. 
 
 One advantage of the plan now described is the 
 simplifying of Syntax, which, when freed from all 
 matters relating to the meanings of words and of inflex- 
 ions, may fall entirely under the three heads of Concord. 
 Government, and Order or Arrangement of words ; this 
 last part being what in our language most requires the 
 careful attention of the pupil. 
 
 For the sake of the accurate definition of the Parts of 
 Speech, as well as for General Syntax, the recently 
 introduced system of the Analysis of Sentences is fully 
 explained. On this subject the method given by Mr, 
 C. P. Mason has been principally followed. 
 
 A short account of the English Alphabet is prefixed, 
 but Orthography at large is not entered on in this work. 
 The subjects of Prosody, Figures of Speech, and Style, 
 are also reserved, it being purposed to include them in a 
 separate manual of Rhetoric. 
 
 In the discussion of the idioms and constructions of 
 the language, this grammar contains one novelty of im- 
 portance, namely, the explanation of the precise uses of 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 the relatives, 'That,' 'Who,' and 'Which'. The dis- 
 tinction between 'that' on the one hand, and 'who' and 
 ' which ' cm the other, was clearly perceived by our 
 idiomatic writers up to the beginning of the last century; 
 but owing to an unfortunate misapprehension as to the 
 peculiarly English idiom of throwing a preposition to 
 the end of a clause, the relative 'that' is now very little 
 employed in book composition, 'who' and 'which' being 
 made to serve in its stead. For my first knowledge of 
 the real distinction I was indebted, more than twenty 
 years ago, to a communication from Dr. Thomas Clark, 
 then of Marischal College. 
 
 In the preparation of this grammar my acknow- 
 ledgments are more especially due to Mr. C. P. Mason 
 (English Grammar),Dr. Angus (Handbook of the English 
 Tongue), Mr. Ernest Adams (Elements of the English 
 Language), Dr. Latham's Works, Dr. Charles W.Connon 
 (English Grammar), Dr. Crombie (Etymology and Syntax 
 of the English Language), Dr.Morell (English Grammar},, 
 Mr. 0. Allen Ferris (English Etymology), Mr. T. Kerch- 
 ever Arnold (English Grammar), Rev. A. J. D. D'Orsey 
 (English Grammar, Chambers's Course), Mr. Brandon 
 Turner (English Grammar], Mr. Matthew Harrison (The 
 English Language), and Mr. Henry H. Breen (Modern 
 English Literature). I am also much indebted to an out- 
 line of English Grammar, in Chambers's Information 
 for the People, written by Dr. Andrew Findlater, Editor 
 of Chambers's Encyclopaedia. 
 
 ABERDEEN, November, 1863 
 
PREFACE TO THE PRFGENT EDITION. 
 
 IN reprinting the Grammar for the present edition, 
 the typography has been remodelled in such a way as 
 to facilitate the ready apprehension of the learner. At 
 the same time, the matter has undergone both revision 
 and enlargement. The effect of the changes has been 
 to increase the bulk by considerably over one-half. 
 
 In carrying out the original design of the work, as 
 stated in the foregoing Preface, many additional 
 examples have been introduced to illustrate the 
 numerous phases of our grammatical forms and idioms. 
 This I consider to be the most thoroughly practical aim 
 of an English Grammar. 
 
 The chief part of the extension, however, is in 
 relation to the historical development of our grammatical 
 peculiarities. The great advance in the historical study 
 of English in its various forms, from the oldest writings 
 downwards, has been sedulously turned to account. 
 Probably none of the most important authorities have 
 been overlooked. Throughout the work, acknowledg- 
 ments for particular suggestions are made as they occur. 
 While it would be endless to note every source of 
 information, it is necessary to single out for general 
 acknowledgment the help that has been at all stages 
 derived, whether directly, or by way of suggestion, 
 
Till PREFACE. 
 
 from the works of Dr. Kichard Morris. Among the 
 other pioneers of Early English investigation, and of 
 philological research at Jarjje, have to be mentioned 
 Professor Whitney, Mr. Peile, Rev. W. W. Skeat, and 
 Mr. H. Sweet. The German writers on English 
 Grammar have necessarily been included among the 
 authorities. Nevertheless it was incumbent to avoid 
 overloading the work with this class of illustration, and 
 to select only those most fitted for the student of the 
 Higher Grammar. Whether the line has been properly 
 drawn, must be judged differently by different persons. 
 To do the most for the pupils, within given limits, is 
 the object aimed at ; and the class of pupils principally 
 addressed are those that desire, above all other things, 
 to receive aid in attaining the power of English 
 Composition. 
 
 Since the Grammar first appeared, I have published, 
 in addition to a Manual of Rhetoric and Composition, 
 two separate Grammatical works : one A First Gram- 
 mar, preparatory to the study of the present ; the other 
 A Companion to the Higher Grammar. In the 
 present revision, care has been taken to keep the work 
 in its proper place, in relation to these two. 
 
 A very important adjunct to Grammatical teaching, 
 according to my conception of it, is provided in a 
 recent book, entitled First Work in English (Long- 
 mans), by Mr. A. F. Murison, formerly English Master 
 in the Grammar School of Aberdeen. This book is a 
 happy combination of Grammar, properly so called, 
 with an exhibition of the wealth of the language in 
 Equivalent Forms. It may be taught both in advance 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 of the Grammar and along with it ; and, in either 
 case, will largely promote the final end of all instruc- 
 tion in English to give the pupils a mastery of their 
 own language. 
 
 ABERDEEN, January, 1879* 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1-3. Vowel Scheme 1 
 
 4. Consonants 5 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 THE SENTENCE. 
 
 1. Speech is made up of Sentences 8 
 
 2. Usual form of Sentence, of an affirmation or a denial. ib. 
 
 3. A Sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate . 9 
 
 4. The nakwd Sentence. The NOUN and the VERB . 10 
 
 5. The Predicate enlarged by an Object . . . .11 
 
 6. The Subject and the Object enlarged. The ADJFCTIVE ib. 
 
 7. The Predicate enlarged by the manner of the action. 
 
 The ADVERB 12 
 
 8. Adverbial Phrases Many-worded Adverbs . . ib. 
 
 9. The Adverbial Phrase yields the PREPOSITION . . ib. 
 
 10. Two Sentences united by a connecting word. The 
 
 CONJUNCTION 13 
 
 11. The Subject or the Object given by a word of reference. 
 
 The PRONOUN ib. 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 THE NOUN. 
 
 1-8. Definition of the Noun 14 
 
 4. Classes of Nouns. I. PROPER, SINGULAR, MEANING- 
 
 LESS ib. 
 
 5. II. COMMON, GENERAL, SIGNIFICANT Nouns . . ib. 
 
 6. Singular Objects with Significant Names ... 18 
 
 7. CLASS Names are General and Significant . . . ib. 
 
 8. III. COLLECTIVE Nouns . . . . . .19 
 
 9. IV. MATERIAL Nouns ib. 
 
 10. V. ABSTRACT Nouns 21 
 
 11. Abstract Nouns mostly derived from Adjectives . ib. 
 
 12. Other Abstract Nouns formed from Verbs . . 22 
 
 13. Abstract Nouns are by nature Singular . , . ib. 
 
Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Uses of the Noun. 
 
 14. In its typical application, the Noun names the Sub- 
 
 ject 23 
 
 15. The Noun sometimes completes the Predicate . . ib. 
 l(j. The Noun is used in forming Prepositional Phrases . ib. 
 
 17. The Noun frequently acts as an Adjective . . . ib. 
 
 Substitutes for the Noun. 
 
 18. The Pronoun regularly takes the place of the Noun , 24 
 
 19. Adjectives are often turned into Nouns . . . ib. 
 
 20. The Infinitive of the Verb is substantially a Noun . ib. 
 
 21. Even Adverbs occasionally appear as Nouns . . ib. 
 
 22. A Noun Clause is the fullest equivalent to a Noun . 25 
 
 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 1. The Pronoun is a relational word . . . . 25 
 
 2. Classes of Pronouns I. The PERSONAL . ib. 
 
 3. II. DEMONSTRATIVE 26 
 
 4. 5. 'He.' 'She' ib. 
 
 6. Meaning of ' It ' * . 27 
 
 (1) Backward or Retrospective Reference of ' it' . . ib. 
 
 (2) Forward or Anticipative Reference . . . . ib. 
 
 (3) The Vague or Indefinite Reference . . 28 
 Further general examples of the uses of ' it ' . , 29 
 
 7. 'They' . - 30 
 
 8. The Demonstratives ' This ' and ' That ' . . . ib. 
 
 9. Indefinite Pronouns : ' They', 'One' ... 31 
 10. Reflexive Pronouns by means of ' self ' ... 32 
 11-15. III. INTERROGATIVE Pronouns .... 33 
 
 16. IV. RELATIVE. Pronouns ib. 
 
 17. A Relative Pronoun involves the power of a conjunc- 
 
 tion 34 
 
 18. 'Who ' is best applied as co-ordinating . . . ib. 
 ' Who ' is frequently used as restrictive . , . 35 
 
 19. ' Which ' is similarly employed .... ib. 
 ' Which ' may refer to a whole statement ... 36 
 ' Which ' in apparent reference to persons. ' The 
 
 which ' ib. 
 
 20. 'That ' is the proper Relative of Restriction . . ib. 
 Proposed limitation of ' that ' to this special meaning 37 
 
 21. ' What ' and its compounds 38 
 
 22-28. Substitutes for the Proper Relatives : ' as ', ' but ', 
 
 'when', 'where', 'whence', 'whither', 'why' . ib. 
 
 ,29. The Compound Relatives : ' whoever ', ' whoso ', &c. 40 
 
 30. Further examples of Relative Construction . . 41 
 
 31. The Pronoun saves the repetition of a Noun. Other 
 
 modes of serving the same end , . 47 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 PAGE 
 
 47 
 48 
 ib. 
 49 
 50 
 51 
 ib. 
 52 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 1. The Adjective limits the application of tie Noun 
 
 2. The Adjective Inflexion as a distinguishing mark 
 
 3. Classes of Adjectives I. PRONOMINAL 
 4-5. Pronominal Demonstrative Adjectives . 
 
 6. Pronominal Interrogative Adjectives . 
 
 7. Pronominal Relative Adjectives . . 
 
 8. Pronominal Possessive Adjectives . , 
 
 9. II. Adjectives expressing QUANTITY 
 
 10. Quantity in Mass or Bulk .... 
 
 11. Quantity in Number Definite Numeral Adjectives 
 
 12. Indefi-iite Numeral Adjectives 53 
 
 13. Distributive Numeral Adjectives .... 55 
 
 14. III. Adjectives of QUALITY 56 
 
 15. PROPER Adjectives , ib. 
 
 The Articles. 
 
 16. 17. 'An' or < A' 57 
 
 18. ' The ' Its various meanings . . ... 58 
 
 Substitutes for the Adjective. * 
 
 19. The fullest equivalent is the Adjective Clause . . 60 
 
 20. The Participial Phrase, if shorter, is equally useful . ib. 
 
 21. The Prepositional Phrase is still more condensed . ib. 
 
 22. The Noun employed as an Adjective .... ib. 
 
 23. Nouns and Pronouns in the Possessive form . . 61 
 
 24. Adverbs and Prepositions are occasional substitutes . ib. 
 
 Co ordinating or Predicate Adjectives. 
 
 25. The Adjective as complement of Incomplete Verb . 62 
 
 26. This usage shows the Co-ordinating application . ib. 
 
 27. By condensation, co-ordinating Adjectives may be 
 
 prefixed to nouns ib. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 1. The Verb necessary to Predication . . , 63 
 
 2. Classes of Verbs I. TRANSITIVE. Reflexive . . ib. 
 Reci2)rocal Verbs 64 
 
 3. II. INTRANSITIVE Verbs ib. 
 
 Intransitive with preposition treated as Transitives . ib. 
 
 4. III. Incomplete, Apposition, or Copula Verbs . . 65 
 
 5. 6. Auxiliary and Impersonal Verbs .... ib. 
 7. Other parts of Speech used as Verbs .... ib. 
 
XIV TABLE OF CONTE:N 7 TS. 
 
 THE ADVERB. 
 
 1. Limits or modifies the meaning of Verbs, Adjectives, 
 
 or other Adverbs. But of Prepositions, only appar- 
 ently 66 
 
 2. Adverbs divided into Simple and Relative. . . 67 
 
 3. I. Adverbs of -PLACE ib. 
 
 4. Adverbs expressing Rest in a Place .... 68 
 
 5. 6. Motion to a Place, and from a place ... 69 
 7-11. II. Adverbs denoting TIME. Time Present . . ib. 
 
 Past, Future ; Duration, Repetition ... 70 
 
 12. III. Adverbs signifying DEGREE or MEASURE . . 71 
 
 13. Important Adverbs of Comparison : So, As, Than, 
 
 The, Too, &c ib. 
 
 14. IV. -BELIEF, DISBELIEF, and UNCERTAINTY . . 73 
 
 15. V. CAUSE and EFFECT, including Instrumentality . 74 
 
 16. VI. MANNER or QUALITY . . . ib. 
 
 17. Adverbs of Manner transferred to express Degree . 75 
 
 18. Adverbs formed from Participles . . . . ib. 
 
 Substitutes for the Simple Adverb. 
 
 19. Adverbial Phrases and Clauses ib. 
 
 20. Other Parts of Speech used as Adverbs ; Nouns, Pro- 
 
 nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Prepositions ... 77 
 
 THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 1. Preposition defined . 78 
 
 2. Prepositions corresponding to case-endings . . 79 
 
 3. 'Of. Its meanings ib. 
 
 4. 'To'. , 83 
 
 5. 'For'. , 84 
 
 6. 'From'. , 86 
 
 7. 'By'. ib. 
 
 8. 'With'. , ....... 87 
 
 9. Prepositions of I. PLACE 88 
 
 10. Prepositions of Rest in a place ..... 89 
 
 11,12. Motion with direction, and Place and direction . 90 
 
 13. II. Prepositions of TIME 97 
 
 14. III. AGENCY 98 
 
 15. IV. END ib. 
 
 16. V. REFERENCE ib. 
 
 17. VI. SEPARATION and EXCLUSION . . . 
 
 18. VII. INCLINATION and Conformity 
 
 19. VIII. AVERSION 
 
 20. 21. IX. SUBSTITUTION. X. POSSESSION, Material 
 
 22. The Preposition distinguishe^from the Adverb 
 
 ib. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XT 
 
 THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 1. The Conjunction denned 100 
 
 2. Division of Conjunctions as Co-ordinating and Subor- 
 
 dinating . . 101 
 
 3. I. CO-ORDINATING Conjunctions ; their character . ib. 
 
 4. (1.) Cumulative Conjunctions: represented by 'and' ib. 
 
 5. (2.) Adversative Conjunctions : (a) Exclusive 'else' 
 
 &c 103 
 
 (&) Alternative :' either or ', &c. . . .104 
 
 (c) Arrestive : 'but', &c 105 
 
 6. (3.) Illative Conjunctions : as 'therefore' . . 107 
 
 7. II. SUBORDINATING Conjunctions : their character . 108 
 
 8. (1.) Conjunctions of Eeason and Cause ^. . . ib. 
 
 9. (2 ) Supposition, Condition, or Qualification ' 110 
 
 10. (3.) End or Purpose, Precaution . . .112 
 
 11. (4.) Time 113 
 
 THE INTERJECTION EXCLAMATION . . 114 
 
 INFLEXION. 
 INFLEXION OF NOUNS. 
 
 1. Natural Gender. Gender follows Sex. Gender Mas- 
 
 culine, Feminine, Neuter, Common . . .115 
 
 2. Purely Grammatical Gender . . . . .116 
 
 3. Gender distinguished by employing different words . 117 
 
 4. By Prefixes 118 
 
 5. By Suffixes 119 
 
 6. Poetical Gender : Inanimate objects personified . . 122 
 
 7. Pronouns and the Gender of Nouns. The Common 
 
 Gender ib. 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 1. Meaning of Number : Singular and Plural 123 
 
 2. Usual formation of the Plural ..,.>&. 
 
 3. Obsolete modes of forming the Plural . . .126 
 
 4. Nouns having the same form in both numbers . .127 
 
 5. Many Foreign words retain their original Plurals . ib. 
 
 6. Some Nouns have two Plurals, with separate mean- 
 
 ings 128 
 
 7. The Plural sometimes differs in meaning from the 
 
 Singular ib. 
 
 8. Some Nouns are used only in the Plural . . ,129 
 
 9. Some Plural forms are construed as singular * . ib. 
 
Xvi TABLE OP CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGH 
 
 10. A few Singular forms are treated as Plural ^ .130 
 
 11. Proper Nouns sometimes become Plural . . . ib. 
 
 12. 13. Material and Abstract Nouns are naturally Singu- 
 
 lar : special plural cases . . . . .131 
 
 14. Nouns of Multitude : singular form, plural construc- 
 
 tion ib. 
 
 15. Omission of the Article a sign of the Plural . . ib. 
 
 16. Sign of the Plural sometimes dispensed with . . ib. 
 
 17. Special meanings of the Plural 132 
 
 18. Formation of the Plural of Compound Nouns . . ib. 
 
 CASE. 
 
 1 . Meaning of Case . . . . . . 133 
 
 2. Cases in English ib. 
 
 3. General Formation of the Possessive .... ib. 
 
 4. The ' s ' of the Possessive occasionally dropt . . 134 
 
 5. The Possessive formation in Compound Nouns . . 135 
 
 6. The Possessive Inflexion limited to certain classes of 
 Names ib. 
 
 7. 's' the inflexion of personal possession . . .136 
 
 8. Remnants of Case-inflexion in pronouns and adverbs . 137 
 
 INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. Extent of the Inflexion of Pronouns . . . 137 
 
 2. PERSONAL PRONOUNS declined ib. 
 
 3. The DEMONSTRATIVES ... .138 
 
 4. The Reflexive .Pronouns, formed by self ' . 140 
 
 5. The INTERROGATIVES ... .141 
 
 6. The RELATIVES .... ib 
 
 Substitutes for Relative Inflexions . 142 
 
 7. Nouns after Plural Possessive Pronouns . 143 
 
 INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. Adjectives Inflected for Degree Comparison . .143 
 
 fi. Positive, Comparative, and Superlative Degrees . 144 
 
 3. Certain Modifications in Spelling . . . .145 
 
 4. Comparison by help of ' more ' and ' most ' . . ib. 
 
 5. Forms in -ior from Latin, partial comparatives . .146 
 
 6. Irregular and Defective Comparison .... ib. 
 
 7. Double Comparatives and Superlatives discouraged . 149 
 
 8. Certain Adjectives, from their meaning, are not com- 
 
 pared ib. 
 
 9. Roundabout equivalents to a superlative fojTn . .150 
 
 10. Relative Applications of Comparative and Superlative ib. 
 
 11. Eminence or Intensity expressed . . . ib. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV11 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INFLEXION OF ADVERBS. 
 1, 2. Regular and Irregular Comparison of Adverbs . 151 
 
 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 1. The various Relations of the Verb . . ,151 
 
 2. The corresponding Inflexions . . ib. 
 
 3. VOICE : Active and Passive 152 
 
 4. MOOD : Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative ' . * ib. 
 
 5. Infinitive 154 
 
 6. Participle 155 
 
 7. Gerund 157 
 
 8. TENSE. Strong and weak forms .... ib. 
 
 9. PERSON and NUMBER 159 
 
 10. The English Verb undergoes few changes . . .161 
 
 11. Conjugation of two kinds : Old or Strong, New or 
 
 Weak ib. 
 
 12. Example of Strong or Old Conjugation . . . ib. 
 
 13. Example of Weak or New Conjugation . . .162 
 
 The Auxiliary Verbs. 
 
 14. The Auxiliary Verbs ib. 
 
 15. ' Be ' : its forms, and how it helps . 163 
 
 16. ' Have ' : its forms, and how it helps . . . 165 
 
 17. 'Shall' and 'Will' conjugated . . . .166 
 18-25. Meanings of ' Shall ' and ' Will' . . . .167 
 26. ' Shall ' and ' Will ' in Interrogative Sentences . . 170 
 
 27-30. ' Should ' and ' Would ' 174 
 
 31. ' Do ' : its forms, and its applications . . .176 
 32-36. ' May ' and ' Can ' : their forms, and difference of 
 
 use 177 
 
 37-39. 'Must.' 'Ought.' 'Go.' 179 
 
 40. Complete scheme of the Verb as made up by help of 
 
 Auxiliaries . . . . . . . .180 
 
 Meanings of the Moods. 
 
 41-44. Meanings of the Subjunctive Mood : in Subordin- 
 ate Clauses 182 
 
 45. In Principal Clauses 184 
 
 46. The Infinitive. Erroneous use of the perfect form . 185 
 
 Meanings of the Tenses. 
 
 47-49. Meanings of the Present Indefinite . . . ib. 
 
 50. Present Progressive, Imperfect, or Incomplete . . 186 
 
 51, 52. Past Indefinite. Past Progressive . . .187 
 
XV111 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 53. Perfect 183 
 
 54. Progressive Tenses of the Passive Voice : ' The house 
 
 is building ' . ib. 
 
 55. Apparent passive of Intransitive Verbs : ' has come ' 
 
 and ' is come ' 189 
 
 The Strong Conjugation. 
 
 56. Its special forms. Principle of following classification 190 
 57-61. Classified lists of Old or Strong Verbs . . ib. 
 
 The Weak Conjugation. 
 
 62. Its special forms . . . . 197 
 
 63. Classified lists of New or "Weak Verbs . . . ib. 
 
 DERIVATION. 
 
 SOURCES OF ENGLISH WORDS. 
 
 1. English Vocabulary has two principal sources Anglo- 
 
 Saxon and Latin, and a number of minor sources . 203 
 
 2, 3. Introduction of the classical element. I. During 
 
 the Roman occupation of the island . . 204 
 
 4. II. After the introduction of Christianity . 
 
 5. III. After the Norman conquest . . 
 
 6. IV. After the Revival of Learning . , 
 
 7. Celtic words ... . 
 
 8. Scandinavian words 
 
 9. Dutch, German, and Flemish words 
 
 205 
 206 
 208 
 210 
 212 
 ib. 
 
 10. Words recently introduced from the French 
 11-24. Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Walloon, Swiss, Tur- 
 kish, Arabic, Hebrew, Persian, Hindu, Malay, 
 
 Chinese, Polynesian, American .... 213 
 
 25. Words derived from Persons . . . . .216 
 
 26. from Places 217 
 
 27-34. Rules for distinguishing Native from Classical 
 
 words, based on the Form . . . . . ib. 
 
 35. Native words are farther distinguished by what they 
 
 denote . 219 
 
 36. Names of Kindred, Home, and Natural Feelings . ib. 
 
 37. Names of familiar Objects and Movements . . ib. 
 
 38. Names of common Industry 222 
 
 39. Civil and Religious Institutions .... ib. 
 40,41. National Proverbs. Invective and Satire . . 223 
 42. Particular Objects as opposed to the General or Ab- 
 stract ib. 
 
 43-45. Exceptions . . ib. 
 
TABLE OF CONTEXTS. XIX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 1. Two kinds of Compounds N 224 
 
 PREFIXES. 
 
 2. Prefixes of Home origin . ..... 225 
 
 3. Prefixes of Classical origin ..... 228 
 
 4. Latin Prefixes, and French modifications . . . ib. 
 
 5. Greek Prefixes .234 
 
 DERIVATION OF .THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 6. Some Nouns are primitive, or not derived from others 236 
 
 7. Derived Nouns : whence formed, and how . . ib. 
 
 8. I. Nouns derived from other Nouns by various means ib. 
 
 9. II. Nouns derived from Adjectives .... 241 
 
 10. III. Nouns derived from Verbs . . . .242 
 
 11. Derivation of Adjectives : I. From Nouns . . 246 
 
 12. II. From other Adjectives . 249 
 
 13. III. From Verbs 250 
 
 14. Derivation of Verbs : I. From Nouns . . .251 
 
 15. 16. II. From Adjectives. III. From other Verbs . 252 
 
 17. Derivation of Adverbs : chiefly from Adjectives and 
 
 Nouns 253 
 
 18. Derivation of Prepositions 254 
 
 IP. Derivation of Conjunctions 255 
 
 20. Derivatives expressing Negation .... ib. 
 
 21. Modified Forms 256 
 
 COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 22. Description and Examples 257 
 
 23. Composition of Nouns .... . 258 
 
 24. Composition of Adjectives ..... 259 
 
 25. Composition of Verbs 260 
 
 26. Composition of Adverbs ib. 
 
 27. Composition of Prepositions ib. 
 
 28. Simulated Compounds, and Compounds in disguise . ib. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 1, 2. Parts of the Sentence. Division of Sentences , 264 
 
 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
 
 3-5. The Simple Sentence and its enlargements . . 265 
 
 6. The Subject and the Object : their various forms . ib. 
 
 7. Enlargements or Adjuncts of Subject or Object . . 266 
 
The Predicate : simple and complex forms 
 
 10. The form of Negation is part of the Predicate . 
 
 11. Transitive Predicate completed by Object . 
 
 12. Predicate enlarged by Adverb or Adverb Phrase 
 
 13. Various forms of the Adverbial Phrase . , 
 
 Absolute Construction of the Participle . 
 Impersonal use of the Participle . . . 
 
 XX TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 8. Plurality of Adjuncts at one time . . . 268 
 
 269 
 270 
 271 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 272 
 273 
 
 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
 
 14. Nature of the Complex Sentence .... 274 
 
 15. Three kinds of Subordinate Clauses .... ib. 
 
 16. 17. The Noun Clause 275 
 
 18, 19. The Adjective Clause 276 
 
 20. The Adverbial Clause 278 
 
 21. Con traction of the Adverbial Clause . . . .280 
 
 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 
 
 22. Nature of the Compound Sentence .... 280 
 
 23. Contracted Sentences. Irregular Contractions . . ib. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF ANALYSTS. 
 
 SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
 
 24. Method of proceeding . . . . . .281 
 
 25-37. Examples of Simple Sentences .... 282 
 
 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 38. Subordinate Clauses analysed separately . . . 286 
 
 39-48, Examples containing Noun Clauses . . . ib. 
 
 49-54. Examples containing Adjective Clauses . . 290 
 
 55-61. Examples containing Adverbial Clauses . . 293 
 
 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 
 62. The parts to be analysed separately , 295 
 
 CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 
 
 63, 64. Examples ib. 
 
 ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES. 
 
 65. These must be expressed in full . . . 296 
 66-78. Examples . . 297 
 
 CONCORD. 
 
 1. General Principles. Concord implied under Etymo- 
 logy 299 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXI 
 
 CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND VERB. 
 
 2. General Rules. Causes of errors . 300 
 
 3. Concord of Collective Nouns ib. 
 
 Plural form with Singular meaning takes Singular Verb 302 
 
 4. Singular Nouns coupled by ' and ' take a Plural Verb ib. 
 Exceptions and Peculiarities ..... 303 
 
 5. Singular Nouns connected by ' or ' or * nor ' take a 
 
 Singular Verb 307 
 
 6. When the Subject is a Relative Pronoun, we must 
 
 look to the Antecedent 308 
 
 7. Concord of Pronouns of different Persons . . ib. 
 
 8. When the Predicate is completed by a Noun, the sub- 
 
 ject may be ambiguous . . ib. 
 
 CONCORD OF ADJECTIVE AND OF PRONOUN WITH NOUN. 
 
 9. Concord of ' this ' and ' that ' 309 
 
 10. Concord of the Distributive Adjectives 'each', 
 
 ' every ', &c. ....... ib. 
 
 A Common Gender pronoun of 3rd person wanted . 310 
 
 CONCORD OF TENSES. 
 
 11. Contemporaneous actions are stated in the same Tense 311 
 Principal and Subordinate Tenses must not conflict . ib. 
 
 Speciality of the Present Indefinite . ib. 
 
 *~" - " Hh^>v--<-->ci 
 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 1. Meaning of Government . T . 312 
 
 2. Possessive of Noun or of Pronoun preceding Noun or 
 
 Infinitive . . . . . . ib. 
 
 3. Government of Transitive Verbs and of Prepositions . 313 
 
 4. The forms ' It is /', 'It is me ' 314 
 
 5. Other cases of Objective, where Nominative is expect- 
 
 ed . . 315 
 
 ORDER OF WORDS., 
 
 1. Most general principle of Order . . 31 5 
 
 SUBJECT AND VERB. 
 
 2. General Rule. Exceptions 316 
 
 Complement follows incomplete Predicate Verb . ib. 
 
XXU TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PA3E 
 VERB AND OBJECT. 
 
 3. Rule and Exceptions 317 
 
 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 
 
 4. Rule. Exceptions 317 
 
 The ' three first ', and the ' first three ' . .319 
 
 5. Placing of the Article . . ib. 
 
 PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 
 
 6. Every Pronoun should have a distinct Antecedent . 320 
 Rules of Proximity and of Importance . . . ib. 
 Confused reference 321 
 
 PLACING OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 7. General Rules . 321 
 
 8. Placing of 'only' 322 
 
 9. Not but only 323 
 
 10. Not only but also 324 
 
 11. Placing of ' not '. Imperfect Negation . . . 325 
 
 12. 'At least' ib. 
 
 13. Other examples of misplaced Adverbial Adjuncts . ib. 
 
 PLACING OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 14. General Rule, with Exceptions 326 
 
 PLACING OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 15. Members of double-membered conjunctions to be 
 
 placed in corresponding positions .... 326 
 16-18. ELLIPSIS, PLEONASM, and PARENTHESIS, as pro- 
 cesses of Syntax 327 
 
 OF PURITY. 
 
 BARBARISM 328 
 
 SOLECISM . 329 
 
 IMPROPRIETY. 1. In single words 330 
 
 2. In phrases 33J^ 
 
 List of SCOTTICISMS ..'$>. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 The COMMA 335 
 
 The SEMICOLON and the COLON 338 
 
 The PERIOD or FULL STOP. Other POINTS . . , 339 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS; ;;;:', , xxm 
 
 P-VGK 
 
 PARSING.-' , ;; ; : : - / } ; ,..' 
 
 1. Parsing for Parts of Speech and Inflexion . 340 
 
 2. Parsing for Derivation . . . . . 342 
 
 3. Parsing for Syntax 34:3 
 
 EXAMPLES of ERRORS, and of inferior forms . . ib. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 1. Celtic words 349 
 
 II. Scandinavian words 350 
 
 III. Other Teutonic words 35 i 
 
 IV. Monosyllables of Classical origin . 354 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 1. The Alphabet is the collection of written 
 characters or symbols representing the simple articu- 
 late sounds. 
 
 The English Alphabet contains twenty-six characters, or 
 letters, but the sounds to be expressed are st : ll more numerous. 
 Moreover, as several sounds have duplicate letters, the available 
 characters are really fewer than twenty -six. 
 
 2. Articulate sounds are classed in two divisions as 
 vowels and consonants. 
 
 A vowel sound (Fr. voyelle, Lat. vocalis, ' sounding ') is voice 
 issuing from the mouth clear and free ; a sound that can be 
 uttered alone 1 , as ah, ee, oo. If any part of the mouth get in 
 the way and check the utterance, the new sound is called a 
 consonant sound. The name 'consonant' (Lat. con, 'together', 
 sonant-, 'sounding') was given as indicating that the peculiar 
 sound cannot be produced alone, but only together with some 
 vowel. 
 
 Vowels and consonants, ' though their distinction is of tl e 
 highest importance in phonetics, are by no means separate and 
 independent systems, but only poles, as it were, in one unitary 
 series, and with a doubtful or neutral territory between them ; 
 they are simply the opener and the closer sounds of the alpha- 
 betic system '. (Whitney). 
 
 3. The Vowels. The characters available for the 
 vowel sounds QXQ five, a, Cj i, O, U. 
 
 1 
 
THE ALPHABET. 
 
 vn o *L.fiek in the history of our alphabet as 
 far as we can, we find three early vowels, from 
 which the others have come by various modifications. 
 
 These are : a (which, has been doubled, or lengthened, in 
 'far', 'father', &c. ; and which is still kept in Scotch and 
 German 'man'), i (as in it, bit, fit, &c.), and u (as in 'bull ', 
 ' full', &c.). 
 
 a ( ' father ', Scot, and Germ. ' man ') is the sound heard when 
 voice issues unimpeded from open mouth and throat, the back 
 of the tongue being drawn well down ; i (feet, fit) is produced 
 when the tongue is raised almost to the middle of the palate ; 
 u (tool, fwll) is then formed by again withdrawing the tongue a 
 little and rounding the lips. 
 
 The union of a and i produces the diphthong heard in ' fine ', 
 ' mine ', what we call " long i ". Between a and i is e (a, e), 
 heard in ' they ', ' pain ', ' fate ', ' then ', ' pen ' ; the long sound 
 being really a diphthong. Between a and this e is a in 'bat', 
 'cat', 'fat', 'man', &c. Similarly, between a and u stands o 
 (note, obey) ; the sound being really a diphthong. And between 
 a and this o stands the long sound call it 6 -heard in 'all', 
 'Austria,', 'awstere'; the corresponding short sound is heard 
 in 'what', 'not'. 
 
 il (bwt, cwt, &c.) is probably a guttural vowel, though rather 
 indefinite: "the specific quality" of it, says Prof. Whitney, 
 " is due to a dimming action along the whole mouth rather than 
 an approach at a definite point or points," and it is " thus a 
 duller kind of a". When followed by r (Imrt, burn), u seems 
 to modify its sound ; an apparent change probably due to the 
 peculiar pronunciation of the r. 
 
 Taking the vowels as we find them in use, a prac- 
 tical phonetic representation might be arranged 
 as follows. 
 
 Accented Vowels. A vowel sound, uttered clearly and with 
 stress of voice, is said to be accented. 
 
 The accent may fall either on the vowel alone, or on the 
 vowel together with a consonant next following it. 
 
 d, e, (, 6, IJ, may represent the long vowel sounds 
 heard in ' lay, lee, lie, lo ! loo \ 
 
 These exemplify such as receive the accent exclusively on the 
 vowel. 
 
VOWEL SCHEME. 3 
 
 a, &, ), 6, Cl, may represent the short vowel sounds 
 in ' sat, set, sit, not, nut '. 
 
 These exemplify such as receive the accent on the consonant 
 following as well as on the vowel. 
 
 Independently of the different kind of accent, these ten 
 vowels are each distinct from the others ; they make up ten 
 separate vowels. 
 
 e, I, 0, may represent the vowel sounds heard in 
 ' be<?n, pn'dc, pwll '. 
 
 In some words the accented long vowel sounds are pronounced 
 with force, quickly, and so as to include in the accent a conso- 
 nant that comes after the vowel. This happens in the case of 
 the fifth long vowel ' u ', in several words, as in ' pwll, full ', 
 compared with 'pool, fool'; which may be symbolised thus: 
 ' pftl, ful ' ; ' plil, fill ' The second long vowel ' e ' undergoes 
 a like change of accent in the word ' been ', which is pronounced 
 ' bn ' ; probably too in several other words ; but this particular 
 form of accent has not been much studied heretofore. The 
 third long vowel 'i' becomes 'i', that is to say, carries its 
 accent to the next consonant, as in the word ' pra'de ', compared 
 with the words ' pry ', ' pried ' ; which three words may be sym- 
 bolised thus : ' piid, pri, prid '. The like happens with this 
 vowel in a good many words ; but as yet no care has been taken 
 to discriminate syllables thus accented. 
 
 6 and a may represent the vowel sounds heard in 
 ' saz0 (so), sought (sot) ; palm (pam), far '. 
 
 Accented short vowel sounds have the vowel sound prolonged, 
 in certain words, without any of the accent falling on a follow- 
 ing consonant. This happens particularly in the case of ' 6 ', 
 the fourth of those vowels, as may be seen on comparing the 
 words 'sot, saw, sought,' (which may be symbolised 'sot, so, 
 sot'), 'a' is not prolonged: but the older and broader 'a' 
 remaining in Sc. and Germ. ' man_', Sc. ' cn ', Germ. ' kann ', 
 &c., is prolonged in 'father, far, art', &c. 
 
 The other three accented short vowel sounds (e, i, u) are not 
 thus prolonged, excepting ' e ', which occasionally becomes ' e ', 
 as in the expression ' veri wel veri ! ' 
 
 Vowels unaccented. a, e, I, 6, d, may respectively 
 stand for the vowels a, e, i, 6, u, when out of accent, 
 
 Compare 'da, birthda ; e'z, eiekt; f/n, dea; eJpium, ba 
 krwel, kr^ ' 
 
THE ALPHABET. 
 
 a, 6, i, O, U, may respectively stand for the vowels 
 a, e, i, b, u, when out of accent. 
 
 Compare 'pdlas, palashial; pet, limpet; p*t, kokpit ; politik, 
 n ; zip, wphev '. 
 
 Unaccented e, i, ti can hardly be said to differ from 
 unaccented e, *, u, and may be represented in the same 
 way by e, I, u. 
 
 ' Hav ytt ever ben dhar ? ' Mft he not tri az wel az yfi ? ' 
 'Fulfil, handful'. 
 
 6 and a may represent o and a when out of accent. 
 
 Compare ' otum, otumnal ; ogust, ogust : art, artistik ; 
 arteri, arterial'. 
 
 Di2)lithongs. The chief diphthongs are ou and oi. 
 
 OW or oil in the words ' now ' and * n<mn ', and oy or oi in 
 the words 'boy', boil', are compounds of other vowels ; in the 
 words ' how ' and ' noun ', of ' a ' and ' G ' ; in ' boy ' and ' boil ', 
 of '6' and 'e'. 
 
 eu, 6W, U (= y6) may also be regarded as a diphthong, e-\-u: 
 1 j?wrope ', ' feiv ', ' fwel '. 
 
 d, i, , which are fundamentally diphthongs, are regarded as 
 substantially simple long vowels. 
 
 When out of accent, the diphthongs may be represented thus : 
 ou or o-fr, oi or oy, yu. 
 
 W and Y. w and y are sometimes called consonants, 
 sometimes semi-vowels. 
 
 In any case ' w ' is a ', and ' y ' is ' 8 ', each quickly pro- 
 nounced before another vowel ; as in the words ' we ' and 'way ' 
 (u-e, u-a = we", wa), and in the words ' ye ', ' 2/ ea ' (&-&* 8-6, 
 = ye, ya). 
 
 Wh represents w modified by the aspirate h. The pronuncia- 
 tion remains in accordance with the old form hw. 
 
 u and u often have the sound of y inserted before them ; as 
 in 'tywn (tune), fyu (few), h^wman (human), h^man (humane)'. 
 "We have just seen that this compound sound may be classed 
 with the diphthongs. 
 
CONSONANTS. 5 
 
 Although, as already correctly stated, ' a ' is a different vowel 
 from 'a', as is 'e' from 'e', 'i' from '!', &c., yet it it is an 
 important observation that the individuals of each of these 
 couples of vowels are exchangeable with each other in kindred 
 English words, sometimes accented, sometimes unaccented, 
 as may be seen from a few examples : nashon, nashonal, 
 nashonaliti ; deriv, derivashon, derivativ ; real, re'aliz, realiti ; 
 idea, idealiz, idCaliti ; ral, wa, ralwa; repyut, repytttabl; 
 parent, parental ; papa, papal ; mason, masonic ; continyu, 
 continyuiti ; theatr, theatrical ; Canada, Canadian ; Pariz, 
 Parizian ; revel, revelashon ; repli, replicashon ; repe"t, repeti- 
 shon ; accent, accent ; German, Germanic ; Britan, Brita~nia, 
 Britanic, British ; land, Scot, Scotland ; labor, laborius ; b'ster, 
 osterity (austere, austerity) ; ospis, ospishus (auspice, auspi- 
 cious) ; politik, political.* 
 
 4. The Consonants, and their sounds, are di- 
 vided according to the part of the mouth uttering them 
 and according to the concurrence of breath or voice 
 from the throat. 
 
 The Labials or Lip-consonants (Lat. labia, lips) 
 are p, b ; f, v ; m. 
 
 The consonants, p and b, are called mute, explosive, or mo- 
 mentary labials ; the lips completely check the emission of 
 of breath or voice (mute), and just when they are re-opened 
 these consonantal sounds burst forth (explosive), hut are heard 
 only for an instant (momentary), /and v are called fricative or 
 continuous labials ; the passage is not quite closed and the 
 breath pushes or rubs its way through (fricative), while the 
 sound can in each case be kept up for a little (continuous), f is 
 very nearly p with an added breathing (p + h, pli), and v is 
 nearly an aspirated b (b -f h, bh). In strictness, / and v are 
 dentila.ltiB.ls ('tooth-and-lip ' consonants), not pure labials; for 
 the upper teeth come down upon the lower lip, and breath or 
 voice is expelled between these. 
 
 Again, the members of each of these pairs also differ from 
 each other in this way. When the lips close or open for p, they 
 check or liberate breath; when they close or open for b, they 
 
 * This scheme of vowel symbolisation, which has the pecvMar advantage 
 of indicating at Once the accents and the vowels / words, was com- 
 municated to me by Dr. Clark, who considered it likely to be useful, not 
 only in grammatical discussions, but in English pronouncing dictionaries 
 and in the vowel part of any system of phonetic spelling that may be 
 hereafter attempted for the English language. I have made one or two 
 very slight deviations from the original form, for the sake of uniformity 
 and simplicity. 
 
6 
 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 check or liberate voice. Hence p has been variously called a 
 surd, breathed, hard, sharp, or strong sound ; and b has been 
 called a sonant, voiced, soft, fiat, or weak sound. The two first 
 names in each case are the 'most appropriate, seeing that they 
 describe the essential point of difference. 
 
 In sounding m, the lips are aided by the nose. Hence m is 
 called also a nasal consonont (Lat. riasus, the nose). It is 
 continuous. 
 
 The Dentals or Tooth - consonants (Lat. dent-, 
 ' tooth ') are t, d; th ? dh ; I, n, r. 
 
 t (surd) and d (sonant) are momentary ; all the rest are con- 
 tinuous, th (as in 'smith', 'thin') is surd, aspirated t; dh 
 (as in ' booth ', ' thine ') is sonant, aspirated d : they are formed 
 by expelling breath and voice between the tongue and the upper 
 teeth, n is also nasal. I is sounded by directing the point of 
 the tongue to the boundary of teeth and palate, and passing 
 voice by the sides of it ; r, by passing voice over middle and 
 point of the tongue. (For Scotch and French r, the tongue 
 vibrates strongly against the palate). 
 
 The Palatals, or Palate-consonants, are s, z; 
 sh, zh. 
 
 The palatals are all continuous. 5 and sh (= aspirated s) are 
 surd ; z and zh (=. aspirated z, the middle consonant heard in 
 ' vision ', that is ' vizhon ') are sonant. 
 
 From their hissing sound, these have also been called ' sibi- 
 lants '. 
 
 The Gutturals or Throat-sounds (Lat. guttur, the 
 throat) are k, g ; (kh, gh), h ; ng. 
 
 k (surd) and g (sonant) are momentary ; the others are con- 
 tinuous. The aspirated kh, gh do not occur now in English ; 
 h, a softened sound, or mere guttural breathing, alone remains. 
 ng is nasal. 
 
 m, n, I, r, and ng have also been called ' liquids ', from their 
 flowing continuous sound. But this is obviously an arbitrary 
 limitation of the name, and does not carry with it any advantage. 
 
 It will be seen from the above list, that our alphabet is deficient in 
 characters for expressing the consonant sounds th (thin), dh (thine), 
 sh (shame), zh (azure), ng (ring). It is further redundant as regards the 
 letters c (represented by s or k), q (the same as k before u), and x (either 
 kg or gz). Also j, as representing a compound sound, would be super- 
 fluous, if we had the elementary character zh i azure). At present it is a 
 convenient contraction for dzh (the sonant corresponding to the surd 
 compound tsh or ch). 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY is the study of individual v/ords. 
 
 It is in contrast to SYNTAX, which is the joining of 
 words in sentences. 
 
 Individual words may be viewed in three different 
 ways : 
 
 First, we may divide them into classes, or kinds, 
 and explain the purposes served by each kind. This 
 is to give the classification of words, or the PARTS OF 
 SPEECH. 
 
 Secondly, we may consider the changes that they 
 undergo when they enter into composition, as in the 
 plurals of nouns, the comparison of adjectives, &c. 
 This is INFLECTION. 
 
 Thirdly, we may examine the growth and structure 
 of words. This is called DERIVATION. 
 
 Before entering upon the first division, the Parts 
 of Speech, it is requisite to examine the nature of the 
 Sentence. 
 
s 
 
 THE SENTENCE. 
 
 1. Speech is made up of separate sayings, each com- 
 plete in itself, and containing several words ; and these 
 sayings are Sentences. 
 
 Any complete meaning is a sentence. 
 
 A single word does not give a meaning : the words, ' John ', 
 ' street ', ' star ', ' see ', ' escape ', used separately, do not tell us 
 anything. We need at least two words to convey any informa- 
 tion : 'John stands', is a full meaning. The cases where even 
 two words are sufficient are not very numerous ; most meanings 
 are expressed by more than two words : ' he is in the street ', 
 ' I see the star ', ' the guilty cannot always escape '. 
 
 Any two words, or more, will not give a meaning that is, 
 will not make a sentence : ' heavy gold ', ' thunder lightning ', 
 ' all good men themselves ', are not sentences. There is a par- 
 ticular kind of word needed to complete the declaration or 
 meaning : ' gold is heavy ', ' thunder follows lightning ', ' all 
 good men deny themselves '. 
 
 2. The usual and regular form of the Sentence 
 is to declare that something is or is not to give an 
 affirmation or a denial. 
 
 For affirming, we have the form seen in the examples : ' the 
 sun is risen ', ' gold is heavy ', ' men will die '. 
 
 For denying, we have such forms as ' the sun is not risen ', 
 * feathers are not heavy ', ' men will not live always ', ' the 
 report is not true ', ' a brave soldier will not desert his post '. 
 Such forms differ from the foregoing only in the addition of the 
 negative word ' not '. The distinction between the kinds is of 
 the greatest importance in regard to our belief and conduct, but 
 is seldom considered in Grammar. 
 
 Of sentences that do not assume one or other of these forms, 
 there are two classes imperative and interrogative. 
 
 The Imperative sentence, instead of declaring something, 
 commands, directs, or entreats : ' clear the way ', ' turn to the 
 right ', ' spare his life '. 
 
 The Interrogative sentence asks a question : ' who will go with 
 me ? ' ' Can any one disclose the mystery ? ' 
 
ITS FORMS AND PARTS. 9 
 
 Both the imperative and the interrogative sentence may be 
 regarded. AS slwrtcncd forms of the usual, or declaratory sentence : 
 ' clear the way ', is the same as ' I command yon to clear the 
 way '. For ' spare his life ', we should say, in full, ' I (or we) 
 entreat yon to spare his life '. The interrogative form is a short 
 way of saying ' I ask ', or ' I wish to know something '. 
 
 3. Subject and Predicate. Every Sentence 
 may be divided into two parts. 
 
 One part is the name of the thing spoken 
 about, and is called the Subject. 
 
 The other part is what is said about the Sub- 
 ject, and is called the Predicate. 
 
 * Lions roar ', is a complete sentence. The thing spoken about, 
 the Subject, is ' lions ' ; what is said about lions, the Predicate, 
 is that they 'roar'. (The declaration is affirmative,) Here 
 subject and predicate are each expressed by a single word. 
 
 ' Unsupported bodies fall to the ground '. 
 
 Subject. Predicate. 
 
 Unsupported bodies fall to the ground. 
 
 Any person that understands the meaning of this sentence 
 knows that what is spoken about is expressed in the two words, 
 ' unsupported bodies ' ; and that what is said or declared about 
 unsupported bodies is expressed in the four words, ' fall to the 
 ground '. 
 
 Thus, although a 'great many words may be used in conveying 
 a single meaning, we can always separate those that give the 
 subject from those that give the predicate. 
 
 Subject, Predicate. 
 
 A small leak will sink a great ship. 
 
 The pain of death, is most in apprehension. 
 
 * "* humble. 
 
 Inverted order. Although the general rule in sentences of 
 affirmation and denial is to place the subject first, the order is 
 sometimes inverted : ' short was his triumph ', ' how long he will 
 remain, no one can say ' ; ' it is a law of nature, that disuse 
 diminishes the capabilities of things '. On restoring the regular 
 order, these may be written thus : 
 
 Subject. Predicate. 
 
 His triumph was short. 
 
 U one \ can say how long he will 
 
 ( remain. 
 It, (namely), that disuse diminishes ) . , - 
 
 the capabilities of things, \ ~ M a law of nature - 
 
10 THE SENTENCE. 
 
 Compound and Contracted Sentences. When a sentence can- 
 not be reduced to a single subject and a single predicate, it is 
 because two or more sentences are put together, which occurs not 
 unfrequently : ' The sun gives light by day, and the moon by- 
 night ', contains two subjects' the sun ', ' the moon ', and two 
 predicates agreeing in the main action, 'give light', but differ- 
 ing in the manner of the action, ' by day ', ' by night '. This 
 is a compound sentence, partially contracted. 
 
 The following are additional examples: 'John and David 
 are here ; John is at the door, and David at the window '. 
 ' The river rose, burst the embankment, and flooded the field ' 
 (one subject and three predicates). ' Gold is a metal, yellow, 
 heavy, incorrodible, of great value, and used for coin and for 
 ornament. ' 
 
 4. The Naked Sentence. Parts of Speech : 
 Noun and Verb. A Sentence containing only two 
 words may be called a naked sentence. It contains 
 the kinds of words absolutely essential to a meaning, 
 and no others. 
 
 These words are, in Grammar, different Parts of 
 Speech. 
 
 ' Peter comes ', ' fishes swim l , ' time flies ', ' prudence for- 
 bids ', are the shortest possible sentences ; they are meanings 
 given in the most naked form. One of the words in each ex- 
 presses by itself the subject ' Peter ', ' fishes ', ' time ', ' pru- 
 dence ' ; the second word in each is a complete predicate 
 ' comes ', ' swim ', ' flies ', ' forbids '. 
 
 The words for the subjects are, in Grammar, mainly of one 
 kind or class, or one part of speech the Noun : ' Peter ', 
 ' fishes ', ' time ', ' prudence ', are nouns. 
 
 The words of the predicates are, in Grammar, always of one 
 class, or one part of speech the Verb : * comes ', ' swim ', 
 '-flies ', forbids ', are verbs. 
 
 The predicate word, or verb, has various peculiarities. Among 
 others we may notice here, as never absent, the signification of 
 time ; the fact or thing declared is always given as happening 
 in a certain division of time present, past, future, or, in many 
 cases, during all time : ' Peter comes ' (present time), ' James 
 withdrew ' (past time), ' fishes swim ' (all time). 
 
NAKED AND CLOTHED. 11 
 
 From a naked or skeleton sentence we may consider all other 
 sentences to be derived, being, as it were, clothed or filled out, 
 or expanded by additions ; and most of the words used for this 
 end belong to other grammatical classes, or different parts of 
 speech. 
 
 5. Clothing or Filling out. Object. When 
 the Predicate is clothed or enlarged by naming 
 an object acted on, the word used is still most fre- 
 quently a Noun : 'the Greeks worshipped Apollo': 
 1 fools waste opportunities '. 
 
 'Apollo ' and ' opportunities ' are nonns. They might serve as 
 the subjects of sentences : 'Apollo was the oracular god ', ' oppor- 
 tunities occur '. 
 
 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. This expansion, therefore, 
 does not bring out any new part of speech ; the object, like the 
 subject, is a noun, or some form equivalent to a noun. But 
 we thereby determine a distinction among verbs : those that 
 are thus followed by an object are called transitive verbs, because 
 the action is supposed to pass over to some particular thing. 
 Those that give a complete meaning -without an object ('the sun 
 shines ', ' time flies ') are intransitive. 
 
 Chief uses of the Noun. The noun is not confined to the 
 subject or the object of the sentence ; it may occur in some 
 other situations ; but the chief way to test a noun is to see 
 whether it makes sense when used as a subject or an object. 
 Vo/rn comes ', ' send John ', make sense ; ' will comes ', ' send 
 burned ', are nonsense ; ' will ' and ' burned ' are not nouns. 
 
 6. Enlargement of Subject and Object. 
 The Adjective. The Subject is enlarged by words 
 that modify its meaning : as 'few men live to be 
 
 old ' ; ' all high mountains are imposing '. The word 
 
 * few ' joined to the noun ' men ', to modify its mean- 
 ing, and the words ' all ', ' high ', joined to * mountains ', 
 are words of a distinct grammatical class, or Part of 
 Speech, and are called Adjectives. 
 
 The Object of a Sentence, when a Noun, may be 
 enlarged or modified in the same way : * I see Myht 
 fires ' ; 'he commanded many large armies ' ; * they 
 
12 THE SENTENCE. 
 
 climbed the loftiest peak '. ' Bright ', ' many ', ' large ', 
 ' the ', ' loftiest ', are Adjectives. 
 
 In both places the adjective has the same use to limit the 
 number of things expressed by a noun, and increase the mean- 
 ing ; ' few ' limits the class ' men ' to a smaller number ; ' high ' 
 limits the class mountain, and increases or adds to the meaning 
 or attributes of the class ; the things spoken of have everything 
 belonging to the class mountain, and something besides, namely, 
 what is expressed by the word ' high '. 
 
 7. Enlargement of Predicate. The Adverb. 
 
 The Predicate may be enlarged or extended by 
 words expressing some attributes or circum- 
 stances of action : 'they marched steadily'; 'bring 
 John here '; ' the fruit will soon be ripe '. 
 
 The words ' steadily ', ' here ', ' soon ', are of the class, 
 or Part of Speech, called the Adverb. 
 
 The adverb modifies, limits, or varies the action of the pre- 
 dicate, or adds something to its signification ; the action 
 ' marched ' is qualified by the meaning ' steadily ', which is 
 something more than mere marching. ' The fruit will be ripe ' 
 is changed in meaning by the word ' soon ', which limits the 
 time of the ripening. The word ' here ' gives the place where 
 John is to be brought to ; it is an adverb of place. 
 
 These words are called adverbs, because they are attached to 
 verbs, or to the essential word in the predicate of the sentence. 
 
 8. Many-worded Adverbs. The Adverb, in- 
 stead of being one word, may be made up of two or 
 more words : ' they marched in order '; ' send John to 
 town '; * the apples will be ripe in a week '. The ex- 
 pressions, ' in order ', ' to town ', ' in a week ', are called 
 Adverbial Phrases. 
 
 These phrases serve the very same purpose as the single- 
 worded adverbs : ' in order ' states the manner o( marching 
 1 to town ' gives the place where John is to go to, being an ad- 
 verbial phrase of place ; ' in a week ' is an adverbial phrase of 
 time. 
 
 9. The Preposition. The Adverbial Phrase 
 usually consists of a Noun, and another kind of word 
 connecting the Noun with the Predicate Verb. In the 
 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 13 
 
 phrase ' to town ', ' town ' is a Noun ; ' to ' is a word of 
 a distinct class, or Part of Speech, named the Pre- 
 position. 
 
 The prepositions are few in number ; they are mostly short 
 words, as 'to', 'from', 'by', 'in 7 , 'on', 'over', 'under', 'with', 
 'against'. Their original meaning is direction or situation. 
 Applied to a verb of motion, or action, they indicate the direc- 
 tion of the movement, which, however, is in most cases vague 
 or incomplete, unless some object is named ; ' come to ' is not 
 intelligible without a place or object named ; ' come to school ', 
 4 we ran to the wood '. 
 
 10. The Conjunction. When two distinct sen- 
 tences are united by a connecting word, this is of the 
 class, or Part of Speech, called the Conjunction : 
 * the sun rose, and the clouds dispersed ' ; ' individuals 
 die, but the race is perpetual ' ; ' I will come if I can '. 
 
 'And', 'but', and 'if, are unlike any of the other parts of 
 speech ; they are conjunctions. They are nearly allied to, but 
 yet distinct from, prepositions. 
 
 Sentences often follow one another without any connecting 
 words at all, 
 
 1 1. The Pronoun. The Subject or the Object of 
 a Sentence may be given by a word of reference : ' John 
 said lie would go ' ; ' launch the boat, and take it across 
 the river'. Such words are of the class, or Part of 
 Speech, named the Pronoun. 
 
 'John ' is a noun ; it names a person by his own name : 'he' 
 is a pronoun, having no meaning of itself, but referring back to 
 the person 'John ' previously named. The word would equally 
 apply to any person mentioned in the sentence or clause that 
 goes before. 
 
 In like manner a 'boat* names a thing by its own name : 
 when we hear the word we know what is meant. ' It' has no 
 meaning of itself; we must look back to see what thing was 
 last mentioned, namely, a 'boat '. If the thing last mentioned 
 had been ' tree ', the word ' it ' would have meant a tree. 
 
 The pronouns are a small class of words, of very wide appli- 
 cation. They are called pronouns, or /or-nouns, because they 
 serve instead of nouns. After a person or thing is once men- 
 tioned, a second mention may be avoided by using one of the 
 pronouns, which are usually much shorter words than nouns. 
 
u 
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 THE NOUN. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 I. The Noun is defined by the following marks : 
 
 1. It may be the Subject or the Object of 
 a Sentence ." 'the gardener pruned the tree '. 
 
 Here ' gardener ', the subject of the sentence, and ' tree ', the 
 object, are nouns. 
 
 There are other words besides nouns that maj r be the subject 
 or the object of a sentence. These are pronouns, and .the in- 
 finitives of the verb. ' He wished to go', ' they like reading', 
 ' talking fatigues its ', are sentences whose subjects and objects 
 are not nouns, but pronouns or infinitives : ' he ', 'they', 'us ', 
 pronouns ; ' to go ', ' reading ', ' talking ', infinitives. 
 
 Hence some additional characters are necessary to distinguish 
 the noun from the e other parts of speech. The following mark 
 distinguishes it from the pronoun. 
 
 2. II. The Noun is the name of the thing 
 itself, while the Pronoun names by means of a 
 reference. 
 
 Thus, ' John ', ' kingdom ', * virtue ', are the names 
 of things themselves ; ' I ', ' he ', ' it ', ' they ', ' who ', 
 are names that have no meaning, except by referring 
 to something otherwise pointed out or understood. 
 
 'Augustus found Rome built of brick, and he left it built of 
 marble.' The subject and the object of the first sentence, 'Au- 
 gustus ', ' Rome ', are nouns ; they name the actual objects. 
 The subject and the object of the second sentence, ' he ', ' it ', 
 are pronouns ; they name by referring back, one to Augustus, 
 the other to Rome. 
 
 To distinguish the noun from any part of the verb, we resort 
 to the test of inflexion. 
 
PROPER, SINGULAR, MEANINGLESS NOUNS. 15 
 
 3. III. The Noun is changed or inflected 
 
 for Number, Case, and Gender. The Infinitives of 
 the Verb are not inflected at all. We change ' man ' 
 into * men ', ' men's ' (Number, Case) ; ' lion ' into 
 ' lioness ' (Gender). 
 
 Neither the active infinitive forms, ' to love ', ' loving ', nor 
 the passive infinitives, ' to be loved ', ' being loved ', are now 
 changed in any way. Other parts of the verb are extensively 
 changed ; the chief purpose being to signify time. There is a 
 change for number ; there is none for case or for gender. 
 
 All nouns are not changed for number, case, and gender ; 
 sometimes the meaning, and sometimes the usage, would forbid 
 the change. A large proportion have the plural number ; only 
 a few are inflected for case ; still fewer are inflected for gender. 
 
 The unchangeable nouns, such as ' goodness ', ' gold ', must 
 be known from their character and meaning. ' Goodness ' is 
 known by the ending ' ness ' to be what is called an Abstract 
 noun. ' Gold ', ' silver ', ' steel ', are known by their meaning 
 to be names, or nouns, of Material, which from their nature 
 cannot be plural, and cannot be changed for gender. 
 
 On the other hand, the infinitives are limited to a few forms : 
 * to write ', ' to have written ', ' writing ', ' having written ', &c. 
 
 Classes of Nouns. 
 
 4. Nouns are divided into five classes. 
 
 I. Proper, Singular, Meaningless Nouns : 
 
 'Rome'. ' Jordan', 'Sirius', 'Pharaoh'. 
 
 These are called proper, because they belong to some one indi- 
 vidual thing or person. For the same reason, they are singular. 
 ' Koine ' is the proper and peculiar name of a single city. 
 
 They are called meaningless, in contrast to the next class. 
 
 Examples of Proper Nouns. 
 
 Persons: Noah, Aristotle, Caesar, Luther, Shakespeare. 
 Places, Buildings, Machines, notable Objects: Europe, Medi- 
 terranean, Lebanon, Thames, Malakoff, Mons Meg, Koh-i-noor. 
 Days, Months, Festivals : Monday, May, Christmas. 
 Branches of Knowledge : Algebra, Physics, Botany, Heraldry. 
 Diseases: Catarrh, Typhus, Pleurisy, Aneurism, Diphtheria. 
 
 5. II. Common, General, Significant 
 Nouns : 'city', 'river', 'star', 'king*. 
 
16 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE NOUN. 
 
 Whereas the name ' Rome ' applies only to one object, the 
 name ' city ' is common to many objects ; it is a name for Koine, 
 Paris, London, York, and a great many others. The reason of 
 its being used for all these objects in common, is that they 
 resemble one another ; Rome, Paris, and London, are things of 
 the same kind, they are inhabited places, each under one autho- 
 rity ; to them, and to all such, the name 'city' is applied. 
 It is thus common to a great number of things, instead of being 
 restricted to one ; it is general, or the name of a kind or class, 
 instead of being individual ; it is significant, or has a meaning, 
 because when applied to any thing, it tells us that that thing 
 has a certain character. To say that Jerusalem is a ' city ', is 
 to say that it resembles Rome, Paris, London, Dublin, &c., and 
 possesses the known characters common to all these. . 
 
 A proper noun is a mere mark or sign to designate a thing, 
 and no more ; 'Jordan' is a mark for a particular object, and, 
 if never used for anything else, it recalls that object alone. 
 A common noun, ' river ', is a name and something more ; it 
 tells us what sort of thing is named : ' a body of running water, 
 rising in the mountains, and flowing to the sea'. 'River' is 
 thus general, while 'Jordan ' is particular : the one has a signi- 
 fication, or is significant ; the other has no signification, it .is 
 meaningless. 
 
 Many, probably almost all, proper nouns were originally sig- 
 nificant, conveying some particular meaning. This was first oi 
 all pre-eminently connected with a single individual, and then 
 came by-and-by to be applied to this individual alone. In th ; 
 long run, this signification was dropt, and the name was regarded 
 simply as the distinctive designation of the particular object. 
 Whatever meaning ' Jordan ' may have had at first, it is nothing 
 more now than a mark to know a certain geographical object by 
 it im plies no qualities whatever. ' Moses ' is a meaningless name, 
 serving to point out a great Jewish leader and lawgiver; it does 
 not necessarily recall the fact of his having been drawn out of 
 the water, and it may be applied at will in new cases without 
 reference to that fact. ' Ehrenbreitstein ', ' broad stone of 
 honour ', has passed to the stage of a mere geographical name, 
 and as such is purely meaningless. 
 
 The most characteristic proper nouns are those that have been 
 used for one thing alone, and have never been applied to any- 
 thing else. Such are a few names of persons and places, as 
 (in all probability) Nebuchadnezzar, Rome, Sahara, Gibraltar. 
 These are proper) singular, and meaningless, in the full sense 
 of the terms ; proper, as the exclusive property of a single 
 object ; singular, for the same reason ; meaniniUss, because, 
 unlike the names king, city, desert, port they convey no 
 
COMMON, GENERAL, SIGNIFICANT : CLASS. 17 
 
 information about the things, assign no properties, qualities, or 
 class likenesses of the objects. 
 
 Owing to the great multitude of things we have to find names 
 for, we seldom leave a name in the exclusive possession of one 
 thing. The first known use of the word ' Hercules ' was to 
 name a great fabulous hero, of immense bodily strength and 
 courage. It has, however, been largely applied to other persons, 
 neither fabulous nor heroes, many of them very feeble and very 
 timid. Still, had it been confined to human beings, it might 
 have been so far a common, general, or significant name, as to 
 signify that the object named is a man. But, for want of sepa- 
 rate names, it has been used for ships, dogs, horses, railway 
 engines and other machines things with no resemblance to one 
 another. Hence, although applied to many things, it is not 
 a common, general, or significant name ; when we hear it, 
 without knowing anything further, we do not know whether it 
 means a man, a ship, a dog, or a machine. 
 
 When we hear the name ' Wellington ' alone, we do not know 
 whether it indicates a man, a town, a colony, a bridge, a street, 
 a ship, or a pair of boots. 
 
 ' China ' is a proper name ; it has, however, two applications, 
 but there is no similarity between them ; it is a country, and it 
 is a name for a peculiar manufacture. So ' Nankin ' has two 
 uses ; but it is still a proper name. 
 
 ' Davy ' is the proper name for a man, and the common or 
 significant name for a miner's lamp. 
 
 ' Lincoln ' is a proper name, but is not confined to one single 
 object ; still, it is not a common and significant name, because; 
 there is no similarity maintained in applying it. It is used for 
 places and for persons, and we should not be surprised if it were 
 used for horses, or for machines. 
 
 It is in naming persons that we are most under the necessity 
 of using the same name for many individuals ; thousands of 
 persons are called by the same name, 'Brown'; yet Brown, 
 although so widely applied, is not a common, general, signifi- 
 cant name. There is nothing common to all the Browns, and 
 distinguishing them from all the Smiths, the Johnsons, or the 
 Owens. As names of clans or families, these might indicate 
 common descent, and be to that extent class names ; but, as 
 there are many circumstances that lead to the shifting of names 
 of persons, we are not sure even of this amount of similarity. 
 
 As it is the intention of those names to signify individuals, 
 and not classes, they have to be supplemented by additions that 
 render them, in their own sphere, strictly proper, singular 
 names. In a small village there is probably only one man 
 called ' William Brown ', hence that name is a proper, singular, 
 
 2 
 
18 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE NOUN. 
 
 as well as meaningless name. To make proper names* still more 
 decisively individual, triple or quadruple designations may be 
 used. Combinations of two William Brown, George Brown, 
 David Smith must often recur ; combinations of three would 
 be much rarer William George Brown, David Samuel Smith, 
 are comparatively infrequent. When the middle names are 
 surnames, and not of the more limited class of ordinary Christian 
 names as John Stanley Smith they are still less likely to 
 apply to a plurality of persons. When we make a combination 
 that is used for only one person, present or past, that combina- 
 tion is, in the strictest sense, proper, singular, and meaningless. 
 
 6. Singular and Significant Names. Some 
 Singular objects have names that are significant ; as 
 1 Providence ', for the Deity, ' Nature ', ' Fate '. 
 
 These are very rare instances, and belong rather to the poetic 
 and rhetorical employment of language than to the ordinary uses 
 of words. The word ' providence ' is significant because it is 
 applicable to many things, in virtue of their resemblance ; the 
 act or quality of ' providence ' is shown on many occasions. As 
 a moral virtue it may be manifested by a number of different 
 persons. But, by what is called a figure of speech, the Avord 
 has a special application to the one Being that shows the quality 
 in an extraordinary or infinite degree. 
 
 A singular object may have a significant designation, when 
 several significant names are joined together, so as to apply to 
 only one person or thing. 'Sovereign' is general and significant ; 
 it applies to many persons : ' our sovereign ' singles out one ; 
 the adjective ' our ', by its limiting force, selects from the class 
 one individual. 
 
 It is the function of the adjective thus to narrow or limit a 
 class of things, and the limitation is sometimes pushed to 
 individuality. ' Powerful sovereign ' is more limited than 
 ' sovereign ', but still the designation is not singular ; neither is 
 * reigning sovereign '. ' The reigning sovereign ' is singular, 
 through the peculiar force of the article ' the ', which is, by 
 pre-eminence, an individualising word, as will be afterwards 
 explained. 
 
 7. Class Names are the same as General and 
 Significant Names. 
 
 The objects of natural history are arranged in classes ; a*) 
 rocks, metals, palms, birds, apes. So, in geography, there are 
 the classes seas, mountains, rivers, plains, deserts. Many 
 other objects are spoken of as classes, as the nobles, lawyers, 
 
COLLECTIVE AND MATERIAL NOUNS. 19 
 
 traders. These names are all general and significant ; they 
 are the names common to a great number of individuals, in 
 virtue of resemblance or similarity. All the bodies called 
 ' metals ' resemble each other in a number of points ; * nobles ' 
 have peculiarities in common, which are absent from other 
 classes of the community. 
 
 8. III. Collective Nouns: as 'nation', 'regi- 
 ment ', ' fleet ', ' senate ', ' shoal '. 
 
 The Collective noun is the name of a great number of 
 individuals taken as one mass, and spoken of as a single object. 
 A ' nation ' contains thousands, and perhaps millions, of indi- 
 vidual men and women ; but it is spoken of as one object, 
 because they are supposed to go all together. A * fleet' contains 
 many ships, all under one command, and keeping together for 
 one purpose. ' The fleet was victorious ', means that the ships 
 combined to gain a victory. 
 
 Other examples. Parliament was opened by the Queen. The 
 dan was mustered. The mob was dispersed. The Spanish 
 Armada was unsuccessful. The meeting is large. The jury 
 finds the prisoner guilty. The court has passed sentence. The 
 society is soon to meet. The board is about to issue regulations. 
 The committee was not called. 
 
 Collective names are also general and significant names ; for 
 there may be a number of collections of the same things. There 
 are many fleets, armies, regiments, clans, hosts, swarms ; and 
 as the individual fleets, armies, &c., resemble each other, the 
 names are general and significant. Hence all these nouns are 
 both collective and general. 
 
 Nouns of Multitude. Sometimes when the collective noun is 
 used, the things are spoken of individually and separately, as if 
 it were a class noun. * The jury were kept without food ', 
 means that the jurymen were so kept ; because the action of 
 taking food cannot apply to a whole body collectively, but only 
 to men individually. These collective nouns are sometimes 
 called nouns of MULTITUDE. They occasion difficulties in 
 Syntax, as will be afterwards explained (SYNTAX, Concord of, 
 Subject and Verb). 
 
 Peasantry, tenantry, youth, nobility, sisterhood, are examples 
 of collective nouns that may also be nouns of multitude. 
 
 9. IV. Material Nouns: as 'iron', 'clay', 
 
 ' wheat ', ' water ', * snow '. 
 
 ' Iron ' is the name for all the iron existing everywhere, viewed 
 jus a single collection. ' Water ' is the name for all water. 
 
t20 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE NOUN. 
 
 1 Material nouns have thus a resemblance to collective nouns. 
 iThe difference is, that the material masses are more continuous, 
 tor less regularly divided than collections of objects. Compare 
 '* water ' with ' fleet '; 'iron ', ' coal ', ' sand ', with ' artillery ' 
 (collective). 
 
 Again, the material noun 'must be singular, because there 
 cannot be two complete or exhaustive collections of one material : 
 ** silver ' is all existing silver. Unlike the collective noun, the 
 material noun cannot be a class name. Different materials may 
 be united in a class, by their resemblance ; as, when gold, silver, 
 iron, &c., make the class 'metal'; but 'metal' is in every 
 prespect a general and significant noun, and is not either a 
 /collective or a material noun. 
 
 Examples of Material Nouns. Rock, stone, slate, marble, 
 granite, sand, mud, lead, brass, zinc, copper, platinum, gold, 
 ialt, alum, soap, potash, butter, ham, tea, sugar, rice, tobacco, 
 bread, linen, flax, cotton, hemp, paper, wine, beer, brandy, 
 (chloroform, arsenic, cloud, mist, dew, hoar-frost. 
 
 The names of diseases have been classed under proper nouns. 
 tThere is also some resemblance between them and nouns of 
 piaterial. In grammatical construction, they agree with proper, 
 material, and abstract nouns, and differ from the class noun. 
 |We do not say a typhus, typhuses. ' Fever ' is sometimes a 
 class noun, and used in the plural, implying that there are 
 various kinds of fever. 
 
 Apparent Plurals of Material Nouns. When strictly used, 
 the material noun cannot be plural, for the reasons given. Yet, 
 occasionally, we find such nouns used in the plural, as sands, 
 Wines, teas. This happens in three ways. 
 
 (1). When the material name is used to designate the things 
 made of it ; as tins for certain utensils made of tin ; papers for 
 what gives the news. 
 
 (2). When, instead of the whole collection, detached portions 
 of it are meant ; as stones, slates, peats, clouds, lights. 
 
 (3). When a material is divided into distinct kinds, or 
 varieties ; as wines, teas, sugars, salts, cottons, soaps, earths, 
 (waters. This is the commonest case of the material noun used 
 in the plural. 
 
 In such cases the noun can be used in the singular with ' a ' 
 before it : a tin, a stone, a wine, a sugar, a water. 
 
 These nouns are then to be parsed as class or general nouns, 
 thus : ' The botanist studies the grasses, and has found a new 
 crass' (general noun). 'The cow eats grass' (material noun). 
 r ' They had fish (material noun) for dinner ' ; ' they ate four 
 ' (general noun). 
 
ABSTRACT NOUNS. 21 
 
 When number is thought of, we have a plural : ' two men are 
 in the room '. When quantity is thought of, even when expressed 
 in number, we have the singular : 'twenty pounds was the sum 
 charged '. 
 
 10. V. Abstract Nouns: as 'length', 'round- 
 ness ', ' whiteness ', ' health ', * regularity ', ' bravery ', 
 * temperance ', ' wisdom '. 
 
 When we examine an actually existing thing, as a house, a 
 lion, we find that it has many different properties ; a house is 
 high, it is long, it is broad, it is either old or new, and so on. 
 We may look at it, and consider the height, without thinking of 
 the length, or the width, or the colour, or the age, or the new- 
 ness. In so doing we are said to abstract the height from the 
 other properties. So, in turn, we might consider the length or 
 the breadth, each by itself, without expressly thinking of 
 anything else ; we should then abstract the length, or the 
 breadth, as the case might be. These words height, length, 
 breadth, are called ABSTRACT Nouns. 
 
 So with a lion. We might, in looking at the lion, think 
 separately and particularly of his size, or of his shape, or of his 
 colour, or of his strength, or of his fierceness ; and, when 
 thinking of him in each one of these aspects, we should be 
 inattentive to the other points, although we could not entirely 
 keep away the impression of them. These names, therefore, are 
 abstract nouns. 
 
 Concrete Names. As contrasted with the abstract names, the 
 ' house ' and the * lion ', each considered in all its properties 
 together, are named by concrete names. All class nouns, which 
 are also common, general, and significant nouns, are concrete 
 nouns. Material nouns are likewise concrete. 
 
 For every separate power, property, attribute, or aspect of a 
 thing in the concrete, there is an abstract designation, signifying 
 that we are attending more to that property than to any of the 
 others inseparably joined with it. A mountain (concrete) has 
 height, length, width, shape, colour, weight, age all abstract. , 
 
 A man has height, weight, shape, colour, age, strength, 
 hunger, taste, courage, skill, virtuousness or viciousness, and 
 many other qualities, which, when spoken of by themselves, are 
 qualities in the abstract, and are named by abstract nouns. 
 
 11. Abstract Nouns are mostly derived 
 from Adjectives ; as 'length', from long, 'round- 
 ness ', from round, ' regularity', from reyular. 
 
22 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE NOUN. 
 
 The adjective expresses a property or attribute in combination 
 with the concrete noun long road, round tower, wise man. 
 When the property is stated as an abstract noun length, 
 roundness, wisdom, the noun is a derivative from the adjective : 
 ' long ' becomes ' length ', ' round ' becomes ' roundness '. 
 
 The larger number of abstract nouns are derived from adjec- 
 tives, by the addition of ' ness ' ; black, blackness ; brightness, 
 righteousness, foolishness, boldness, graciousness. This is the 
 chief English or Saxon ending. 
 
 A few have the old Saxon termination ' th ' : truth, width, 
 strength, wealth, health, death. 
 
 Many abstract nouns of Latin origin end in *ty': quality, 
 nobility, beauty, curiosity, verity, honesty, probity, temerity, 
 rapidity, veracity, cupidity, stupidity. 
 
 ^ Another class end in ' ce ' : prudence, patience, temperance, 
 violence, benevolence, beneficence, magnificence, maleficence, 
 malevolence, justice. 
 
 12. Other Abstract Nouns are formed from 
 Verbs ; as ' occupation', 'relief, 'conference', 'choice', 
 'service'. 
 
 * Occupation ' is from the verb ' occupy ', and expresses the 
 action of the verb, like the infinitive 'to occupy', or 'occupying'. 
 
 ' Relief ' is from the verb ' relieve ' and is nearly the same as 
 the infinitives ' to relieve ,' ' relieving '. 
 
 Bacon says, ' Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready 
 man '. * Reading ' and ' conference ' both express the action of 
 the verb the one, ' reading', is an infinitive, or else a verbal ab- 
 stract noun, the other, ' conference ' is a verbal abstract noun ; 
 * conferring ' would have been the exact parallel of ' reading'. 
 
 Further examples. Possession, abduction, malediction, con- 
 struction, election, proof, sense, work, revival, reproach. 
 
 In such forms as ' election by lot ', ' vote by ballot ', the nouns 
 are the same as the infinitives of verbs : ' electing by casting 
 lots ', ' voting by balloting ', ' worship (worshipping) is a part of 
 religion '. 
 
 13. Abstract Nouns are by nature Singular. 
 
 When they are used in the Plural, they are converted 
 into common or general nouns. 
 
 They then mean particular examples, acts, or ex- 
 ercises. 
 
 ' Length ' is an abstract noun (adjective abstract). It is 
 naturally singular. When we say ' a length ' and ' lengths ', we 
 
USES OF THE NOUN. 23 
 
 make it a class or general noun, but the meaning is changed ; 
 instead of length in the abstract, we take a particular measure^ 
 as a yard length, a Held length. 
 
 ' Colour ' is abstract, as in ' colour adds to the pleasures of the 
 eye ', ' the colour of the sea ' ; it is a class or general name in 
 ' the colours of the rainbow ', which means different species or 
 varieties of colour. 
 
 'Friendship' is abstract, the state of being and having a 
 friend. ' A friendship ', ' friendships ' are the singular and 
 plural of a class noun, meaning special or particular relations of 
 friendship. 
 
 ' Life ', abstract ; ' a life ' and ' lives ', common or general. 
 ' They were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in their death 
 (abstract) they were not divided.' 'Liberty', abstract; 'liberties', 
 common forms or kinds of liberty. ' Hold your peaces ', ' I drink 
 all your good healths '. 
 
 Other examples. Art, grace, beauty, curiosity, pleasure, pas- 
 sion, feeling, will, memory, industry, government, society, 
 severity, belief, proof, reason, virtue, genius, trial, error, resist- 
 ance, service. 
 
 Uses of the Noun. 
 
 14. The typical application of the Noun to name 
 the Subject or the Object of the sentence, is the 
 basis of the Definition. ( 1.) 
 
 15. Nouns are also used to complete the Predi- 
 cate, with certain verbs of incomplete meaning. ' He 
 is a shoemaker'; 'they are fugitives 1 ; 'Napoleon was 
 elected Emperor \ The fact is not stated with com- 
 plete sense by the verb alone without the added nouns. 
 
 16. Nouns occur very often in prepositional 
 phrases, that is, expressions made up of preposition 
 and noun (or some equivalent of a noun). * A man of- 
 vrrtm', 'cases of-the- utmost-^ ifficulty', 'he came in- 
 gKat-haste '. 
 
 17. Nouns are very extensively used as Adjec- 
 tives : ' sea monsters', 'field guns', 'afoot race', 
 ' (jar den walls'. 
 
 This usage is a very great abbreviation, by ellipsis and 
 rearrangement. ' Monsters that live in the sea, ' is shortened to 
 
24 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE NOUN. 
 
 * monsters living in the sea ', ' monsters in (or of) the sea ' ; and, 
 finally, the only important Wurd is retained and put in the 
 regular position of the typical noun-qualifying word, the Adjec- 
 tive, ' sea monsters '. Compare the use of the formal adjective : 
 ' marine monsters '. 
 
 The Possessive of the Noun (See INFLEXION) 
 is practically an Adjective : ' the King's command ' is 
 the same as ' the royal command'; l & soldier' sliiv' is 'a 
 military life '. 
 
 Substitutes for the Noun. 
 
 18. Pronouns regularly take the place of the 
 Noun. (See p. 25, and following). 
 
 19. Adjectives are often converted into nouns; as 
 ' the deep ', * i\\Q future ', ' an imbecile ', ' extremes ', * the 
 originals '. 
 
 Such examples are to be regarded as cases of ellipsis ; a noun, 
 being readily understood, is omitted, and the adjective there- 
 upon assumes the force of the noun, and may even be inflected as 
 a noun. The full forms of the examples given would be : ' the 
 deep sea ', ' the future time ', ' an imbecile person ', ' extreme 
 positions, opinions, measures', &c., 'the original documents, 
 pictures ', &c. 
 
 The noun thus formed is often abstract, as in Greek and 
 'Latin : ' the true ' for ' truth ', * the beautiful ' for * beauty '. 
 
 20. The Infinitive forms of the Verb are fre 
 
 quently used for nouns. ' To be united is to be strong ' 
 is the same as 'union is strength'; 'to delay (or 
 delaying) is dangerous ' may be said in place of ' delay 
 is dangerous '. 
 
 The infinitive form is more simple than the corresponding 
 abstract noun, and it is better adapted for taking on adjuncts 
 that modify the action expressed. 
 
 21. Adverbs are in a few instances turned into 
 nouns ; as ' the ayes have it ', ' the ups and downs of 
 life ', ' an eternal now ', ' the how, the ivlien, and the 
 why ', ' since then '. 
 
SUBSTITUTES. THE PRONOUN. 25 
 
 This usage is prompted by the desire of shortness and vivid- 
 ness. ' The ayes ' is a short and easily understood way of saying 
 * the members that say Ay' ; ' now ' indicates emphatically and 
 vividly present time, ' how ' indicates manner, ' when ' time, and 
 so on. 
 
 22. A Noun Clause is a complete sentence 
 standing in the position of a norm. * That one should 
 be careless is inexcusable' is another way of saying 
 ' carelessness is inexcusable '. 
 
 The Noun clause gives in a longer, but simpler, form the 
 meaning that would otherwise be expressed by a noun with 
 adjuncts expressed or understood. It is a very opportune 
 equivalent in cases where the adjuncts of the noun would be 
 numerous and complicated. 
 
 THE PKONOUff. 
 Definition. 
 
 1. The Pronoun differs from the Noun in 
 expressing a thing, not by its own name, but 
 by a reference or relation to something else : 
 
 as '/(the person now speaking) say' ; ' he (some one 
 formerly mentioned) remained '. 
 
 The first object of the Pronoun is to save by a reference the 
 mention or the repetition of the Noun. Certain pronouns also, 
 as will presently be seen, obviate the necessity of repeating the 
 great substitutes of the Noun in composition the Infinitive of 
 the Verb and the Noun Clause. One or two of them are, further, 
 extremely useful in anticipating these equivalent forms. 
 
 Classes of Pronouns. 
 
 2. I. Personal : 'I', 'we'; 'thou', 'you', 'ye'. 
 1 1 ' and 'we' are pronouns of the first person ; 
 
 the others, 'thou', 'ye', 'you', are pronouns of the 
 second person. 
 
 1. I means the speaker standing alone : ' / clmrge 
 you to depart '. 
 
20 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. 
 
 We means the speaker, and others associated with 
 him. 
 
 In oral address only one can speak at a time, but that one, 
 speaking for others as well as for himself, says ' we '. The fore- 
 man of a jury addresses the judge in the words, ' We find the 
 prisoner guilty '. In written composition ' we ' is more strictly 
 correct, because the parties signing their names at the end are 
 all equally supposed to be uttering their sentiments. 
 
 Persons in very high authority, in issuing their commands, 
 often use ' we ' instead of ' I ' ; as, ' We, Nicholas, Autocrat of 
 all the Russias '. 
 
 In anonymous writing, as in newspapers and magazines, the 
 writer speaks as ' we '. This is called the editorial l we '. 
 
 ' We ' is used in speaking /o/' humanity generally : ' we fancy 
 that we shall always feel as we do now '. 
 
 2. Thou is addressed to one person. 
 
 In the usages of our language this word is obsolete, except in 
 the following cases : 
 
 (1.) In addressing the Almighty : 'Thou art the Lord alone '. 
 
 (2. ) In poetical use : l thou that rollest in heaven above '. 
 
 (3. ) In expressing familiarity and contempt : ' Thou vile 
 creature '. 
 
 (4.) In the language of the Society of Friends. 
 
 You is the ordinary pronoun of the second person 
 for one or more persons. 
 
 Ye is employed for elevation : ' Ye hills and dales '. 
 
 'Nor you, ye Proud, impute to those the fault.' 
 Also in familiarity : * Ye need not wait'. 
 
 3. II. Demonstrative Pronouns :' he', 'she', 
 
 1 it ' ; ' they ' ; ' this ', ' that '. 
 
 4. He is the pronoun of the male sex in man and in 
 
 the higher animals, and in personified objects. 
 
 ' Henry found that he was mistaken. ' Speaking of the lion, 
 we say, 'he is very strong'; of the sun, 'he is risen', 'he is 
 eclipsed '. 
 
 5. She is the pronoun of the feminine gender in 
 man and in animals, and in personified objects. 
 
 'Elizabeth knew she could have her own way'; 'when the 
 lioness sees her cubs in danger she flies to their help ' ; of France 
 we can say ' she has experienced many vicissitudes '. 
 
PERSONAL AND DEMONSTRATIVE. 27 
 
 6. It is the pronoun of the neuter gender, referring 
 to things without life, and to living beings that have 
 no sex. ' The house is near ; let us go to it '. 
 
 When a human being or an animal is mentioned, 
 without marking the gender, ' it ' is the pronoun used : 
 ' It is a healthy child.' ' Where's the dog 1 I have 
 missed it '. 
 
 All objects spoken of, that have no sex, or whose sex is over- 
 looked, are signified by 'it' : ' Bring the light ; put it on the 
 table ' ; ' I went to the river ; it was swollen ' ; ' Lo, where it 
 (the ghost) comes again ! ' 
 
 The Modes of Reference of ' It '. 
 
 The modes of reference of this pronoun are various, and lead 
 to conflicts of meaning. 
 
 I. The Backward or Retrospective reference, 
 to a noun, an infinitive, or a clause. 
 
 1. The usual form of this is to some single noun 
 going before, as in the examples given. 
 
 2. An Infinitive phrase, which is equivalent to 
 a noun, may also be pointed back to. 
 
 ' To resist your acts was necessary as it (namely, to resist your 
 acts) was just ' ; ' to invoke your pity would be as useless as I 
 should hold it (namely, to invoke your pity) mean '. 
 
 3. Another mode of backward reference, less fre- 
 quently occurring, is to a clause. 
 
 ' The day will be fine ; no one doubts it. ' Here the ante- 
 cedent is not the noun 'day', but the whole assertion or clause 
 ' the day will be fine '. ' I have done the state some service, and 
 they know it,' means that they know the fact that 'I have 
 done the state some service '. 
 
 The reference may be still more comprehensive, as when at the 
 end of a long narrative, the hearer says, ' never mind it ' ; ' who 
 would have thought it ? ' 
 
 II. The Forward or Anticipating reference. 
 
 The subject of the reference in this application is very 
 seldom a noun, it is either a phrase or a clause. 
 
28 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PKONOUN. 
 
 1. The anticipating of a single noun by 'it' is a 
 rhetorical device rather than an ordinary form of plain 
 prose. 
 
 ' Surely, if needful, it is also frightful, this machine '; ' 'tis 
 entirely of the earth that passion '. The plain straightforward 
 form is : ' this machine is also frightful ', ' that passion is entirely 
 of the earth '. 
 
 There are also such examples as the following: 'it is sur- 
 prising the littler-ogress we made '. This, however, is in reality a 
 transmuted clause ; if expressed in the full and regular form, 
 the sentence would stand thus : ' it is surprising how little we 
 advanced that we made so little progress '. 
 
 2. The infinitive phrase is extremely common. 
 
 ' It is healthy to walk '; ' it is useless debating '; ' it is vain 
 
 to make excuses '. 
 
 3. The noun clause is also most frequently anti- 
 cipated by ' it '. 
 
 ' It is probable that the day will be fine '; ' it is said that our 
 army has gained a victory '. The clauses are most commonly 
 introduced by the conjunction ' that ', but other conjunctions 
 may be employed : ' It is uncertain if (or whether, or when) he 
 will come ' ; 'it is laid down how far we should go, and what 
 or how much we should ask '. 
 
 This use of ' it ' gives us something of the power of inversion 
 belonging to languages different in structure from ours, and thus 
 takes away an imperfection of our language as compared with 
 these others. The idiom ' there is ' has the same effect. 
 
 ill. The Indefinite reference. 
 
 This is carried to the utmost in the sayings, ' it rains ', ' what 
 is itl' ' how is it with you ? ' 'it is all over with us ', ' they lord 
 it ', ' we roughed it in the back woods ', ' he stars it in the pro- 
 vinces ', ' trip it as ye go '. In such cases, there is scarcely a 
 possibility of assigning any precise object, circumstance or fact, 
 as an antecedent or reference. We can only in some circuitous 
 way suppose that there is some action in the distance that leads 
 to the employing of the pronoun. ' What's doing outside ? ' 
 some one asks, with reference to the weather, and the answer is 
 ' it rains ' : a short way of saying that the action or on-going in 
 the matter of weather, is the fall of rain. 
 
 This vagueness explains the use of the pronoun in violation 
 of the concords of gender and number : ' It was he, nut she, 
 that I saw '. 
 
 'Tis tlify that give the great Strides spoils.' 
 
VARIETY OF REFERENCE OF ' IT '. 29 
 
 The pronoun ' it ' thus appears to have at least three distinct 
 modes of reference in common use : 1st, to a simple subject, or 
 noun, going before ; 2nd, to a phrase or a clause going before ; 
 3rd, to a phrase or a clause corning after. Hence we are often 
 in great perplexity to say which of several possible references a 
 writer has in view when he uses the word. ' "When wit hath 
 any mixture of raillery, it is but calling it banter, and the thing 
 is done.' Here we judge from the meaning that the first 'it' 
 is forward or anticipative, and the second backward or retro- 
 spective. The full illustration of this difficulty, and of the 
 various modes of obviating it are given elsewhere (Companion to 
 the Higher Grammar, pp. 43-50) ; at the same time we append 
 here a few typical examples. We may farther remark that 
 the relative ' which ' has the same twofold reference, retrospec- 
 tively, to a single subject or to a whole phrase or clause. 
 
 Further examples of the Pronoun 'it'. We have seen that 
 the variety of reference of this pronoun is a frequent cause of 
 ambiguity. The peculiar idiom ' it is ', ' it appears ', ' it is 
 said', ' it comes to pass ', followed by the thing referred to, makes a 
 clash of meaning such as does not occur with the other pronouns. 
 ' I am going to mention the matter. It is right that it should 
 be mentioned. ' The first ' it ' here is prospective, and refers to 
 the clause ' that it should be mentioned ' ; the second refers back 
 to ' the matter '. 
 
 ' It had been well both for England and (for) Scotland that 
 there had been more of such good and moderate kings, as it 
 would have prevented many long wars. ' ' It ' in both instances 
 points to the same clause ' that there had been more of such good 
 and moderate kings ' but the first precedes, and the other 
 follows the clause. 
 
 'There are so many advantages of speaking one's own lan- 
 guage well, and being a master of it, that let a man's calling 
 be what it will, it cannot but be worth our taking some pains 
 in it.' The variety of reference here is very great. The first 
 ' it ' has ' language ' for its antecedent, the prominent subject 
 of the previous clause, and is therefore unexceptionable ; the 
 second ' it ' readily refers us to the noun immediately preceding, 
 'calling'; the third is an indefinite reference rather than a 
 reference to ' language ' ; and the fourth carries us back to 
 ' language '. To remedy the confusion, the third ' it ' should 
 be done away with, and the second removed to the end : ' the 
 advantages of speaking one's own language well are so many, 
 that the taking of some pains to be master of it, cannot but be 
 worth while to every man, let his calling be what it will '. 
 The pronouns remaining are so placed that their antecedents ( 
 are obvious. Even the second 'it' may be easily dispensed' 
 
30 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. 
 
 with by changing the last clause to 'whatever may be his 
 calling '. 
 
 When we intend to employ the prospective 'it ', 'it is ', &c., 
 we should not bring the retrospective use into collision with the 
 other. 'The best way in the world for a man to seem to be 
 anything is really to be what he would seem to be. Besides 
 that, it is many times as troublesome to make good the pretence 
 of a good quality as to. have it ; and if a man have it not, it is 
 ten to one but he is discovered to want it, and then all his pains 
 and labours to seem to have it are lost.' Here the two modes 
 of reference are inextricably confused together. One of them 
 ought to be done away with. ' Besides, to make good the pre- 
 tence of a goo_i quality is many times as troublesome as to 
 have it; and if a man have it not, ten to one but he is discovered 
 to want it, and then all his pains and labour to seem to have it 
 are lost. ' The sole reference now is to the one subject ' quality '. 
 
 ' If it were spoken with never so great skill in the actor, the 
 manner of uttering that sentence could have nothing in it 
 which could strike any but people of the greatest humanity 
 nay, people elegant and skilful in observations upon it.' The 
 first 'it' refers to 'sentence', the others to 'manner'. The first 
 might be left out, the clause being converted into a participial 
 expression which would be readily interpreted as in connection 
 with ' that sentence ' : ' if spoken with never so great skill '. 
 
 ' It is a sign of great prudence to be willing to receive in- 
 struction ; the most intelligent persons sometimes stand in 
 need of it.' 'Willingness to receive instruction is a sign of 
 great prudence ; the most intelligent persons sometimes stand 
 in need of it' is better; although the natural antecedent 
 would still be, not 'instruction', but 'willingness'. Or the 
 first ' it ' may stand, and the repetition of ' instruction ' be 
 saved by the use of another noun of much the same meaning ; 
 as ' information and suggestion '. 
 
 7. They is the plural of ' He ' and ' She ' applied 
 to persons, and of * It ' applied to things. 
 
 ' I met the soldiers ; they were on the march. ' * I saw his 
 daughters ; they were in the field. ' ' Gold, silver, and platinum 
 are the noble metals ; they are so called because they do not 
 rust. ' 
 
 8. This and That are properly Demonstrative 
 Adjectives. 
 
 They usually have a noun expressed or understood, as ' I take 
 tkfjt place, you take that '. In the first clause, the noun ' place ' 
 
DEMONSTRATIVES, DIRECT AND INDEFINITE. 31 
 
 is expressed, in the second it is understood ; in the one, ' this ' 
 is an Adjective, in the other, ' that ' may be classified as either 
 an Adjective or a Demonstrative Pronoun. 
 
 The case where ' that ' seems to have most of the nature of a 
 true pronoun is seen in the following sentences ; ' he mistook 
 his own room for that of the stranger ' : ' the song of the nightin- 
 gale is more various than that of the thrush '. This is a form 
 derived from the French ; our native idioms applicable to the 
 case, which are to be preferred when they can be used, are, 1st, 
 to repeat the noun, ' his own room for the stranger's room ' ; 
 and 2nd, to use the possessive without the noun, ' for the 
 stranger's '. The possessive inflexion being so rarely in use, we 
 are thrown principally upon the first form when we wish to 
 keep clear of the Gallicism. 
 
 In the line, 'to be, or not to be, that is the question', 'that' 
 may be considered as a pronoun, having a whole clause for the 
 antecedent, as we have seen with the demonstrative 'it'. We 
 might still consider the word as an adjective with a noun 
 dropped, or put in a different place, and so look upon the pas- 
 sage as an abbreviation of ' to be, or not to be that question 
 is it '. ' One thing have I desired of the Lord, that (thing) I 
 will seek after.' 
 
 ' This ' is of the nature of a pronoun in the phrases ' before, 
 this', ' after this' ; there being, however, an ellipsis of 'time '. 
 
 For the full illustration of the various uses of ' this ' and 
 'that', see the Companion to the Higher Grammar, pp. 52-61. 
 
 9. Certain Pronouns of Demonstrative 
 signification are called Indefinite, from signi- 
 fying not any particular subject, but persons or things 
 taken generally. Such are One and They \ 'one 
 cannot be sure of that ' ; ' any of the little O'lies '. 
 
 They is also used colloquially in this indefinite sense : ' they 
 say that the harvest is good ' ; but ' the harvest is said to be 
 good ' is better English. 
 
 In the first example, one is a special application of the 
 numeral, taking the place of the old indefinite 'man', perhaps 
 under some slight influence of the French on, which is a cor- 
 ruption of homine man. "When the subject of the verb is 
 unknown, or of little consequence, the French use on, as en dit 
 'it is said' (by no one in particular); 'on commence & 
 6riger' 'people begin to build' ; it being no matter who are 
 to be employed, provided the work is done. We use the passive 
 voice in such cases : ' the building is begun '. We employ ' one ' 
 in somewhat diiferent circumstances. Thus, if we were putting 
 
32 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. 
 
 a supposition by way of argument or illustration, we might 
 give it in the following forms : ' suppose / were to lose my way 
 in a wood ' ; or, ' suppose you were to lose your way ' ; or, 
 
 * suppose one were to lose one's way '. All are made use of, but 
 as a general rule, the last is preferred as a matter of good taste. 
 The first is objectionable as verging on egotism, the second as 
 using freedoms with another person, whereas the third is indif- 
 ferent. ' If one's honesty were impeached, what should one 
 do ? ' is a politer mode of making the supposition than to take 
 either one's self, or the person addressed, for the example. 
 
 ' One ' should be followed by ' one ', and not by ' he '. * What 
 one sees or feels, one cannot but be sure that one sees or feels. ' 
 This may sound stiff, but the following is lax : ' the better 
 acquainted one is with any kind of rhetorical trick, the less 
 liable he is to be misled by it ' . 
 
 In the second example given above 'the little ones' 'one' 
 is the numeral employed in the manner of a pronoun, by indi- 
 cating something that has gone before (or perhaps has to come 
 after) : ' I like peaches, but I must have a ripe one, or some ripe 
 ones '. 
 
 Other adjectives are used in almost the same way ; as ' give 
 me one or two ' ; ' I will take either, or neither, or loth, or any 
 , one, or some, or all, or none '. 
 
 ' Such ' and ' same ' are employed as demonstrative pronouns : 
 ' if you are a man, show yourself such '. The use of ' same ' in 
 common style is inelegant. The adverbs, ' so ', ' thus ', ' then ', 
 ' there ', ' here ', ' hence ', ' thence ', ' hither ', ' thither ', serve 
 the purpose of the demonstratives : ' do so then ', for do it ', or 
 ' do that ' ; ' and if so be that he find it '. 
 
 10. Compound Personal and Demonstra- 
 tive Pronouns Reflexive. The word self enters 
 into compounds with both the Personal and Demon- 
 strative Pronouns; as 'myself, 'thyself, ' onrself , 
 
 * ourselves ', ' yourself ', ' yourselves ', ' himself ', ' her- 
 self ', * itself ', ' oneself ', or ' one's self ', ' themselves '. 
 These are called Reflexive Pronouns. 
 
 The true reflexive use is seen in cases like ' I hurt myself, 
 'he does himself injustice ', ' mind yourself ; the action of the 
 subject being turned back upon himself, so that he is object as 
 well. These pronouns also impart emphasis: as 'I myself, 
 'he himself, 'they themselves'; and this is the original 
 application. Both the intensive or emphatic and the strictly 
 reflexive use appear in Tennyson's line: "And I myself some- 
 times despise myself". 
 
REFLEXIVE. INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE. 33 
 
 Nearly always "in the oldest English, and very frequently 
 later, especially in poetry, the simple pronouns are used as 
 reflexive objects : ' ic me reste (I rest me) ', * he threw him 
 down ', ' I will bethink me ', * quit you like men ', * comfort ye t 
 comfort ye, my people '. 
 
 11. III. Interrogative Pronouns: 'who', 
 * which ', * what ', ' whether '. 
 
 1 2. Who applies to persons, and is entirely indefinite. 
 ( Who goes there 1 ' supposes complete ignorance of the 
 person alluded to. 
 
 13. Which, unlike its use as a Relative, applies to 
 persons as well as to things. Its peculiar force is 
 selective. 
 
 The application to all genders is in accordance with the 
 original derivation ; the old English form of ' which ', hwilc, 
 being for ' hwi-lic ' (who-like or what-like), and -lie being open 
 to the necessary inflections. 
 
 ' Which ' supposes a known class or group, and inquires the 
 specific individual or individuals : ' Which of you convinceth 
 me of sin ? ' ' Which is the way ? ' ' Whidi is the best ? ' 
 
 14. What applies exclusively to things ; as ' what 
 did you see ? ' ' What is to be done ? ' 
 
 In the earliest period of the language ' what ' was the regular 
 neuter corresponding to the masculine and feminine ' who '. 
 
 It may be called by pre-eminence the interrogative of know- 
 ledge, or the expression of a desire to be informed respecting 
 some part of the world : ' What is man ? ' ' What is light- 
 ning ? ' ' What is the cause of the tides ? ' 
 
 15. Whether, an old dual, was formerly applied 
 to ask ' which of two ' : ' Whether is greater, the gold, 
 or the temple 1 ' l Whether of them twain did the will 
 of his father 1 ' 
 
 16. IV. Relative Pronouns: 'who', 'which', 
 
 ' that ', ' what '. These are the proper relatives. 
 
 ' Who ', ' which ', and ' what ', were all previously interroga- 
 tives ; ' that ' was demonstrative. The relative usage is a later 
 application. 
 
 3 
 
34 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PKONOUN. 
 
 There are several other words that answer the purpose of 
 relatives ; ' (such) as ', ' but ', ' when ', ' where ', ' whither \ 
 * whence ', and the compounds, * whoever ', ' whoso ', whoso- 
 ever ', ' wliichever ', ' whichsoever ', ' whatsoever ', ' whenever ', 
 'whensoever', &c. 
 
 17. A Relative Pronoun stands for a noun, 
 or subject otherwise mentioned, with the 
 power of a conjunction besides. It joins sen- 
 tences and clauses by referring back directly to some- 
 thing just named. 
 
 In the sentence, ' I found an old acquaintance, whom I had 
 not seen for some time ' ; ' whom ' is the same as * and him I 
 had not seen '. I do not know -what you say ' is equivalent 
 to ' I do not know that that you say ', ' you say that, but I do 
 not know that '. 
 
 18. Who and its compounds, 'whoso', 'whoever', 
 ' whosoever ', apply to persons ; and l who ' sometimes 
 applies to the higher animals. 
 
 In the earliest English, ' who ' was interrogative. The 
 inflected forms 'whose' and 'whom' appear as relatives in 
 the 12th century ; 'who' itself was much later in 'being used 
 as a relative, and did not freely act as such till the 36th 
 century. 
 
 In the Elizabethan times 'who' was not un frequently 
 applied to lifeless objects ; mostly, perhaps, with a feeling of 
 personification. Shakespeare has: 'a gentle flood, who, K'irig 
 stopped, the bounding banks oVrflows ' ; ' the winds, who take 
 the ruffian billows by the tops ' ; and such like. 
 
 ' Who ' is commonly applied in two very different 
 significations. 
 
 I. To connect two co-ordinate sentences : 
 
 as ' I met the watchman, who told me there had been a 
 fire '. 
 
 Here the two sentences are distinct and independent ; in such 
 a ease 'and he' might have been substituted for * who'. 
 
 Another form of the same use is when the second clause is of 
 the kind termed adverbial, where we may still resolve ' who ' 
 into a personal or demonstrative pronoun and a COD junction. 
 4 Why should we consult Charles, who (for he, seei'iig that he) 
 nothing of the matter ? ' 
 
CO-ORDINATING AND RESTRICTIVE. 35 
 
 II. In modern use, more especially in books, ' who ' 
 is frequently employed to introduce a clause 
 intended to restrict, define, limit, or explain 
 a noun (or its equivalent) ; as ' that is the man ivho 
 spoke to us yesterday '. 
 
 If ere the clause introduced by ' who ' is necessary to define or 
 explain the antecedent ' the man ' ; without it we do not know 
 who ' the man ' is. Such relative clauses are typical adjective 
 clauses : i.e., they have the same effect as adjectives in limiting 
 nouns. This may be called the restrictive use of the relative. 
 
 Now it will be found that the practic e of our most idiomatic 
 writers and speakers is to prefer * that ' to ' who ' in this appli- 
 cation ; whereas, for the other meaning, ' that ' would be less 
 proper. 
 
 19. Which refers to lifeless objects. The com- 
 pounds, ' whichever' and * whichsoever', may refer also 
 to persons. 
 
 Though original! y interrogative, 'which' appears very early 
 as a relative ; and this use was confirmed and extended by 
 French influence. By the 13th century it was not uncommon. 
 
 The exclusion of ' which' from reference to persons (compare 
 ' which ' interrogative, 13), has become more and more 
 strict, since the end of the 17th century. Before then the 
 application of ' which ' to persons was quite common. ' Our 
 Father which art in Heaven ', is a familiar representative of 
 numerous examples in the Bible. Even Tennyson wrote : 
 ' The one true lover which you ever had ' ; but the newest edi- 
 tion (1878) reads ' The one true lover whom you ever owrid '. 
 
 1 Which ' is employed with reference to things in both 
 the senses just given of ' who ' with reference to 
 persons. 
 
 First, in co-ordinate sentences, where 'it', or 'they', and a. 
 conjunction .night answer the purpose ; thus, 'at school I 
 studied geometry, which (and it) I found useful afterwards '. 
 Here the new clause is something independent added to the 
 previous clause, and not limiting that clause i any way. So 
 in the adverbial clause, as ' he struck the poor dog, which (and 
 or although it) had never done him harm '. Such instances 
 represent the most accurate meaning of 'which ', as of ' who'; 
 and accordingly, we might term these the CO-ordinating 
 relatives. 
 
36 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. 
 
 1 Which ' is likewise used in restrictive clauses that limit or 
 explain its antecedent ; as ' the house which he built still 
 remains '. Here the clause introduced by ' which ' specifies, or 
 points out, the house that is the subject of the statement, 
 namely, by the circumstance that a certain person built it. As 
 remarked with regard to ' who ', our most idiomatic writers 
 prefer ' that ' in this particular application, and would say 
 ' the house that he built remains '. 
 
 Theie is a special reference of ' which' attaching to it 
 as the neuter relative. 
 
 'Caesar crossed the Rubicon, which was in effect a declaration 
 of war'. The antecedent to ' which ' in this instance is not the 
 ' Rubicon ', but the entire clause, ' Caesar crossed the Rubicon '; 
 this fact being what amounted to war. It will be remembered 
 that the neuter demonstrative 'it' in like manner may have a 
 clause for its antecedent (> 6) : we might say ' Caesar crossed 
 the Rubicon when nobody expected it '; ' it ' referring still to the 
 fact of Cesar's crossing, and not to the ' Rubicon '. Now this 
 meaning of ' which ' is not one of the meanings of the relative 
 ' that ' as a retrospective pronoun, although ' that ' may apply 
 to things as well as to persons. 
 
 There is a peculiar usage where ' which ' may seem to be still 
 
 regularly used in reference to persons ; as in ' John is a 
 
 a soldier, which I should also like to be ', that is, ' and I should 
 also like to be a soldier '. But although the complement of the 
 verb is here in the form of a noun, the usual form is the 
 adjective ; and examples like these may be regarded as similar 
 to the following, where the reference is to an adjective : ' He 
 turned quite white from red, which he had been ' that is, ' he 
 had" been red '. The demonstratives ' this', ' that ', ' such ', ' so ', 
 as well as ' either ', ' neither ', and ' both ', are used similarly. 
 
 The form ' the which ', so common in the Elizabethan period, 
 occurs early in the 1 4th century, as equivalent to the French 
 lequel, laquelle. It obtained much more favour than the com- 
 panion form ' the whom '. ' The whose ' was also used. 
 
 20. 'That' is the proper restrictive, expli- 
 cative, limiting, or defining relative. 
 
 'That,' the neuter of the definite article, was early in use as 
 a neuter relative. All the other oldest relatives gradually dropt 
 away, and ' that ' came to be applied also to plural antecedents, 
 and to masculines and feminines. When 'as', 'which', and 
 ' who ', canic forward to share the work of ' that ', there seems to 
 
1 THAT ', THE PROPER RELATIVE OF RESTRICTION. 37 
 
 have arisen not a little uncertainty about the relatives, and we 
 find curious double forms : ' whom that ', ' which that ', ' which 
 as ', &c. Gower has ' Venus whose priest that I am ' ; Chaucer 
 writes 'This Abbot which that was an holy man,' 'his love 
 the which that he oweth '. By the Elizabethan period, these 
 double forms have disappeared, and all the relatives are used 
 singly without hesitation. From then till now, ' that ' has 
 been struggling with ' who ' and ' which ' to regain superior 
 favour, with varying success. 
 
 The best writers often appear to grope after a separate employ- 
 ment for the several relatives. 'Who' is used for persons, 
 ' which ' for things, in both numbers ; so is ' that ' ; and the 
 only opportunity of a special application of ' that ' lies in the 
 important distinction between co-ordination and restriction. 
 Now, as ' who ' and ' which ' are most commonly preferred for 
 co-ordination, it would be a clear gain to confine them to this 
 sense and to reserve ' that ' for the restrictive application alone. 
 This arrangement, then, would fall in with the most general use 
 of 'that', especially beyond the limits of formal composition. 
 
 The use of ' that' solely as restrictive, with ' who' arid 'which' 
 solely as co-ordinating, also avoids amoigiiitiesih&t often attend 
 the indiscriminate use of ' who ' and ' which ' for co-ordinate 
 and for restrictive clauses. Thus, when we say, ' his conduct 
 surprised his English friends, who had not known him long ', 
 we may mean either that his English friends generally were 
 surprised (the relative being, in that case, coordinating), or 
 that only a portion of them namely, the particular portion 
 that had not known him long were surprised. In this- last 
 case the relative is meant to define or explain the antecedent, 
 and the doubt would be removed by writing thus : ' his English 
 friends that had not known him long.' So in the following sentence 
 there is a similar ambiguity in the use of ' which ' : ' the next 
 winter which you will spend in town will give you opportunities 
 of making a more prudent choice'. This may mean, either 
 'you will spend next winter in town' ('which' being co-ordi- 
 nating), or ' the next of the winters when you are to live in 
 town,' let that come when it may. In the former case ' which ' 
 is the proper relative ; in the latter case the meaning is restric- 
 tive or defining, and would be best brought out by ' that ' : 'the 
 next winter that you will spend in town '. 
 
 A further consideration in favour of employing ' that ' for ex- 
 plicative clauses is the unpleasant effect arising from the too 
 frequent repetition of ' who and ' which '. Grammarians often 
 recommend ' that ' as a means of varying the style ; but this 
 end ought to be sought in subservience to the stiU greater end 
 'f perspicuity. 
 
38 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. 
 
 21. What and its compounds, * whatever' and 
 ' whatsoever ', apply to things. 
 
 In the oldest English ' what ' was interrogative ( 14). For 
 the regular relative use in application to things, the other 
 relatives were sufficient, and ' what ' was not very extensively 
 employed. Some such instances as these might be cited : ' The 
 matter what other men wrote', 'nothing what can be said 
 against me ', ' that what I have always maintained '. 
 
 The transition from the interrogative form to such examples 
 . as the following is easy : * Look, what I speak, iny life shall 
 prove it true'; ' what he bids, tJiat thou shalt do'. The 
 omission of the demonstrative then gives the usual form : 
 ' what I speak my life shall prove true ' ; ' what he bids thou 
 shalt do '. Or, in natural order : ' thou shalt do what he 
 bids ' . This is obviously equal to ' thou shalt do that which 
 (or that} he bids ' ; and hence ' what ' is commonly described as 
 practically a compouttd relative, combining as it were both rela- 
 tive and antecedent. The antecedent is regularly suppressed, 
 except in certain inverted forms. 
 
 In such expressions as the following, ' what ' may be put for 
 ' that which ', and is generally an improvement : ' In certain 
 cases we refrain from doing that' which we have a natural desire 
 to do, or force ourselves to do that to which we feel a 
 repugnance '. 
 
 Substitutes for the Proper Relatives. 
 
 22. As, preceded by SUCH or by SAME, has the 
 force of a relative, applying to both persons and things, 
 and always with an explicative or restrictive signifi- 
 cation. 
 
 'The curse denounced upon such as removed ancient land- 
 marks ' : this might have been ' them that ', or ' those that ', but 
 not so properly ' who '. ' He offered me the same conditions as 
 ;he offered you ' : ' the same conditions that ' would be equally 
 .good ; ' the same conditions which ', though common, may be 
 considered inferior. 
 
 The true relative force lies, not in ' such ' and ' same ', but in 
 'as'. By the 14th century 'as' sometimes took the place of 
 ' that ' in the ordinary construction, without a preceding ' such ' 
 or ' same ' ; but this usage did not continue in favour with 
 writers, though it is still familiar in provincial and vulgar 
 English : ' the man as (= that) rides to market '. In the 
 oldest English, ' such ' was followed by ' such ' (swilc . . 
 swlc). King Alfred used 'such . . which* (swelc . . 
 
SUBSTITUTES FOR THE PKOPER RELATIVES. 39 
 
 In the 12th century 'such . . as ' appears. 
 Chaucer has 'such . . which' and 'such . . that': 'I 
 shall loven such that I will'. 'Who', 'which', and 'that' 
 after 'such' were especially common in the period of Queen 
 Anne. 'Such . . as' has ruled since. 
 
 The form 'such . . as ' is a convenient substitute for 
 * that ', and enables us to vary the relative construction in restric- 
 tive clauses without loss of clearness. It has the further advan- 
 tage of enabling us to enclose, ike antecedent : ' such skill as he 
 displayed.' 
 
 * As ' may easily be replaced by * which ' in certain co-ordi- 
 nating cases. 'The ships were frozen in, as not unfrequently 
 happens in these regions ' : * as ' is here very much the same as 
 ' which ' in the reference to a whole clause going before. The 
 adverbial sense of ' as * is more prominent in this application. 
 
 23. The word But is substantially a relative in 
 certain constructions ivliere the principal clause, has a 
 negative force. ' But ' is always restrictive. 
 
 * There was no one but did his best ' is equal to ' there was 
 no one that did not (do) his best '. ' Who is there but commits 
 errors ? ' ' Who is there that does not commit errors ? ' 
 
 Earlier, it was usual to insert after ' but ' the appropriate 
 demonstrative pronoun : as * there was never yet fair woman 
 but she made mouths in a glass ' ; ' scarce a skull's cast up but 
 well he knew its owner '. 
 
 24. The adverb when answers the purpose of the 
 relative (and governing preposition), with a noun of 
 time as the antecedent ; as ' the good news from 
 Ireland reached London at a time when good news was 
 needed '. 
 
 It is also usual to employ 'in which ' for the same meaning ; 
 but in cases where the relative clause limits or defines, ' that ' 
 is the proper relative, and we can say ' the very day that he 
 arrived '. ' When ' lias not always the explicative meaning ; thus, 
 ' the day of trial will come, when all will be different ' ; ' in 
 which ' would here be the correct relative. We may say, 
 however, that 'when* is perhaps oftener restrictive than co- 
 ordinating. 
 
 25. Where is used as a relative when the antece- 
 dent denotes place ; as * I put the book in the place 
 
40 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. 
 
 where I found it ; for ' in 'which I found it ', or t that 
 I found it in '. 
 
 The remarks made on ' when ' apply to ' where '. It may be a 
 substitute for either relative, but is perhaps more commonly 
 and better applied when th-j restrictive meaning is intended, as 
 in the above instance. ' Where' takes a much wider range than 
 literal place, being extended to the many metaphorical applica- 
 tions of place ; as, ' the point where your argument fails '. 
 
 These two adverbial relatives are of great use in varying and 
 lightening composition, which is always liable to be over- 
 burdened with the common relatives. 
 
 26. Whence is occasionally used as a relative of 
 place : ' he returned to the place whence he came ', 
 instead of 'from which he came ', or ' that he came 
 from '. 
 
 27. Whither is used in like manner in the sense 
 of 'to a place ' ; as 'I followed him to the house, 
 whither ( = to which) he had gone '. 
 
 28. Why as a relative is always restrictive, and 
 stands for ' on account of which ', ' that for '. 
 
 ' There was no reason why he should think so, ' is a short and 
 elegant way of saying ' on account of which or for which he 
 should think so ', or ' that he should think so (for) '. 
 
 ' Whence ', ' whither ', and ' why ' are of less general application than 
 
 when ' and ' where '. They are more confined to their principal use as 
 interrogative adverbs. As relatives they are, strictly speaking, the equi- 
 valents of the common relatives with prepositions, ' from which ' (whence), 
 ' to which ' (whither), ' for which ' (why). 
 
 29. The compound forms 'whoever', 'whoso', 
 ' whosoever ', ' whichever ', * whichsoever ', ' whatever ', 
 'whatsoever', 'whenever', 'whensoever', 'wherever', 
 'wheresoever', 'whithersoever', ' whencesoever ', have 
 a certain indefinite meaning, and have their antecedents 
 often left unexpressed ; thus, ' whoever is found wanting ', 
 means any person that is found ; ' ichoso is wise ' 
 
 ' whatever be the consequences, I dare not stay' 
 
 * wherever, whithersoever you go '. 
 
THE COMPOUND RELATIVES. 41 
 
 The characteristic meanings of these words are more closely 
 allied with the interrogative meanings of ' who', ' which ', ' what', 
 &c., than with their meanings as relatives. Thus the peculiar 
 force of ' which ' as an interrogative is, ' which one of a certain 
 defined number or class ? ' and this is the meaning of 
 ' whichsoever '. 
 
 30. Further examples of Relative Construction, 
 (See also Companion to the Higher Grammar, pp. 
 63-85). 
 
 The distinction observed by our idiomatic writers between 
 * that ', on the one hand, and ' who ' and ' which ', on the other, 
 although for the present very much lost sight of, deserves to be 
 revived, both for the perspicuity and lightness of the composi- 
 tion. The following examples will serve further to illustrate 
 the distinction. 
 
 1. ' In general, Mr. Burchell was fondest of the company of 
 children, whom he used to call harmless little men.' ' Whom ' 
 is here idiomatically used, being the equivalent of ' and them, he 
 used to call ', &c. 
 
 ' Bacon at last, a mighty man, arose, 
 Whom a wise king and nation chose 
 Lord Chancellor of both their laws.' 
 
 Here also ' whom ' is equal to ' and him '. 
 
 In the following instance the relative is restrictive or defining, 
 and ' that ' would be preferable : ' the conclusion of the Iliad is 
 like the exit of a great man out of company whom he has 
 entertained magnificently '. Compare another of Addison's 
 sentences : 'a man of polite imagination is let into a great many 
 pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving . 
 
 Both relatives are introduced discriminatingly in this 
 passage : 'She had learned that from Mrs. Wood, who had 
 heard it from her husband, who had heard it at the public- 
 house from the landlord, who had been let into the secret by 
 the boy that carried the beer to some of the prisoners '. 
 
 The following sentences are ambiguous under the modern 
 system of using * who ' for both purposes : * I met the boat- 
 man who took me across the ferry '. If ' who ' is the proper 
 relative here, the meaning is ' I met the boatman, and he took 
 me across ', it being supposed that the boatman is known and 
 definite. But if there be several boatmen, and I wish to 
 indicate one in particular by the circumstance that he had taken 
 me across the ferry, I should use * that '. ' The youngest boy 
 who has learned to dance is James.' This means either 'the 
 youngest boy is James, and he has learned to dance ', or ' of the 
 
42 PABTS OF SPEECH. THE PKONOUN". 
 
 boys, the youngest that has learned to dance is James '. This 
 last sense is restrictive, and ' that ' should be used. 
 
 2. Turning now to ' which ', we may have a series of parallel 
 examples. ' The court, which gives currency to manners, should 
 be exemplary': here the meaning is 'the court should be exem- 
 plary, for the court gives currency to manners '. ' Which ' is 
 the idiomatic relative in this case. ' The cat, which you despise 
 so much, is a very useful animal.' The relative here also is 
 co-ordinating, and not restrictive. If it were intended to point 
 out one individual cat specially despised by the person addressed, 
 ' that ' would convey the sense. ' A theory which does not tend 
 to the improvement of practice is utterly unworthy of regard.' 
 The meaning is restrictive ; ' a theory that does not tend '. 
 The following sentence is one of many from Goldsmith that 
 give 'that' instead of 'which': 'age, that lessens the enjoy- 
 ment of life, increases our desire of living'. Thackeray also 
 was fond of this usage. But it is not very common. 
 
 ' Their faith tended to make them improvident ; but a wise 
 instinct taught them that if there was one thing which ought 
 not to be left to fate, or to the precepts of a deceased prophet, 
 it was the artillery' ; a case where ' that ' is the proper relative. 
 
 * All words, which are signs of complex ideas, furnish matter 
 of mistake.' This gives an erroneous impression, and should 
 be ' all words that are signs of complex ideas '. 
 
 ' In all cases of prescription, the universal practice of judges 
 is to direct juries by analogy to the Statute of Limitations, to 
 decide against incorporeal rights which have for many years 
 been relinquished': say instead, 'incorporeal rights that have 
 for many years ', and the sense is clear. 
 
 3. It is necessary for the proper understanding of ' which ' to 
 advert to its peculiar function of referring to a whole clause as 
 the antecedent : ' William ran along the top of the wall, which 
 alarmed his mother very much '. The antecedent is obviously 
 not the noun ' wall ', but the fact expressed by the entire clause 
 ' William ran ', &c. ' He by no means wants sense, which 
 only serves to aggravate his former folly ' ; namely, (not ' sense ', 
 but) the circumstance ' that he does not want sense '. ' He is 
 neither over-exalted by prosperity, nor too much depressed by 
 misfortune ; which you must allow marks a great mind.' ' We 
 have done many things which we ought not to have done ', 
 might mean ' we ought not to have done many things' ; that is, 
 'we ought to have done few things'. 'That' would ghe the 
 exact sense intended : ' we have done many things that we 
 ought not to have done '. ' He began to look after his affairs 
 himself, which was the way to make them prosper. ' 
 
 . 4. We must next allude to the cases where the relative is 
 
VARIETIES OF RELATIVE CONSTRUCTION. 43 
 
 governed by a preposition. "We can use a preposition before 
 'who 'and 'which', but when the relative is 'that', the pre- 
 position must be thrown to the end of the clause. Owing to 
 an imperfect appreciation of the genius of our language, offence 
 'was taken at this usage by some of our leading writers at the 
 beginning of last century, and to this circumstance we must 
 refer the disuse of 'that' as the relative of restriction.* 
 
 * Speaking of Dryden, Hallam says, ' His Essay on Dramatic Poesy, pub- 
 lished in 1668, was reprinted sixteen years afterwards, and it is curious 
 to observe the changes which Dryden made in the expression. Malone 
 has carefully noted all these ; they show both the care the author took 
 with his own style, and the change which was gradually working in the 
 English language. The Anglicism of terminating the sentence with a 
 preposition is rejected. Thus, " I cannot think so contemptibly of the 
 age I live in," is exchanged for "the age in which I live". "A deeper 
 expression of belief than all the actor can persuade us to," is altered, 
 " can insinuate into us ". And, though the old form continued in use 
 long after the time of Dryden, it has of late years been reckoned inele- 
 gant, and proscribed in all cases, perhaps with an unnecessary fastidious- 
 ness, to which I have not uniformly deferred, since our language is of 
 Teutonic structure, and the rules of Latin and French grammar are not 
 always to bind us.' 
 
 On the same subject Dr. Campbell remarks : ' Now that I am on the 
 subject of the prepositions, it will not be improper to consider a peculi- 
 arity which is often to be found with us in their arrangement. In every 
 other language the preposition is almost constantly prefixed to the noun 
 which it governs ; in English it is sometimes placed not only after the 
 noun, but at a considerable distance from it, as in the following example : 
 " The infirmary was, indeed, never so full as on this day, which I was at 
 some loss to account /or, till upon my going abroad I observed it was an 
 easterly wind." Here no fewer than seven words intervene between the 
 relative which and the preposition for belonging to it. Besides, the pre- 
 position doth not here precede its regimen, but follows it. One would 
 imagine, to consider the matter abstractly, that this could not fail in a 
 like ours, which admits so few inflections, to create obscurity. 
 
 Yet this, in fact, is seldom or never the consequence. Indeed the singu- 
 larity of the idiom hath made some critics condemn it absolutely. That 
 there is nothing analogous in any known tongue, ancient or modern, hath 
 appeared to them a sufficient reason. I own it never appeared so to me.' 
 Rhetoric, Book III., Chap. 4. 
 
 The following examples, taken from Massinger's Grand Duke of Florence, 
 will show what was the usage of the Elizabethan writers : 
 
 ' For I must use the freedom / was born with.' 
 ' In that dumb rhetoric which you make use of.' 
 
 ' - if I had been heir 
 Of all the globes and sceptres mankind bows to.' 
 
 ' - the name of friend 
 Which you are pleased to grace me with. ' 
 
 ' - wilfully ignorant in my opinion 
 Of what it did invite him to.' 
 ' I look to her as on a princess 
 / dare not be ambitious of.' 
 
 ' - a duty 
 Tliat I was born with,' 
 
44 
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. 
 
 'It is curious that the only circumstance connected with 
 Scott, and related by Lockhart, of which I was a witness, is 
 incorrectly stated in the Life of Sir Walter'. (Leslie's 
 Memoirs.) The relative should be restrictive: 'that I was * 
 witness of'. 
 
 'There are many words ivhich are adjectives which have 
 nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns to which they are 
 put. ' (Cobbett) Better : ' there are many \yords that are adjec- 
 tives that have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns 
 (that) they are put to '. 
 
 ' Other objects, of which we have not occasion to speak so 
 frequently, we do not designate by a name of their own.' 
 This, if amended, would be : ' other objects that we have not 
 occasion to speak of so frequently, we do not ', &c. 
 
 ' Sorrow for the dead is the only sorrow from ivhich we refuse 
 to be divorced ; ' ' the only sorrow (that) we refuse to be divorced 
 from '. 
 
 ' Why, there is not a single sentence in this play that I do 
 not know the meaning of.' (Addison.) 
 
 ' Originality is a thing we constantly clamour for, and con- 
 stantly quarrel with.' (Carlyle.) 
 
 5. ' Whose ' although the possessive of ' who ', and practically 
 of ' which ', is yet frequently employed for the purpose of re- 
 striction. : 
 
 ' He spoke of love, such love as spirits feel, 
 In worlds whose course is equable and pure.' 
 
 This is not felt to be so great a departure from idiom as the 
 prepositional forms * of whom ', ' of which ' are, when used to 
 define or restrict the subject. 
 
 ' We are the more likely to guard watchfully against those 
 faults whose deformity we have seen fully displayed in others.' 
 This is better than ' the deformity of which we have seen '. 
 
 ' Propositions of whose truth we have no certain knowledge. ' 
 (Locke.) 
 
 6. 'Where', audits compounds 'wherein', 'whereof, &c., 
 are substitutes for both relatives. They may therefore be used 
 instead of ' that ', without the misleading effect of ' which '. 
 The following are examples : ' the happiest condition of society 
 is (that) where the greatest number of persons is (should be are) 
 found possessing a moderate yet sufficient subsistence '; * I 
 
 ' must supply me 
 
 With all / am defective in.' 
 
 ' a copious theme 
 
 Which would, discoursed at large of, make a volume.' 
 So in Sbakspeare, to take an example out of many : 
 
 To have no screen between the part he played 
 And him he played it for.' 
 
VARIETIES OF RELATIVE CONSTRUCTION. 45 
 
 know of no rule whereby it may be done '; ' they (great virtues) 
 often save, and always illustrate the age and nation in which 
 (wherein] they appear'; for 'the age and nation that they 
 appear in '. 
 
 7. 'Such as' is restrictive, and is a convenient mode of 
 varying the relative construction : ' Eat such things as are set 
 before you '. ' Whittield's preaching was such as England had 
 never heard before.' 
 
 ' Hard fare ! but such as boyish appetite 
 Disdains not, nor the palate, undepraved 
 By culinary arts, unsavoury deems.' (Cowper.) 
 
 8. ' What ', the equivalent of ' the that ', ' that which ', has 
 the advantage of taking a preposition : * ruin seemed impending 
 and inevitable, though no one could tell in what it would first 
 show itself ', or ' what it would first show itself in '. 
 
 ' What in me is dark, 
 Illumine ; what is low, raise and support.' 
 
 * It is probable that any attempt to establish a different classi- 
 fication of the parts of speech, from that which (what) is 
 commonly received, will be found of little utility.' 
 
 9. We have also seen that a clause in participial adjection 
 may have a restrictive force : ' a truth long forgotten may have 
 to be rediscovered '. ' What man among you, having a hundred 
 sheep,' equal to 'that has'. 'We give the papers showing (for 
 ' that show ') the concord existing between the four Powers at 
 the time when England and France were engaging in a separate 
 course of action ' (Kiuglake). ' But it would be absurd to 
 expect mercy, justice, or wisdom from a class of men first abased 
 by many years of oppression, and then maddened by the joy 
 of sudden deliverance, and armed with irresistible power ' 
 (Macaulay). 
 
 10. In the following examples we shall avail ourselves, as 
 may seem fit, of all the foregoing devices, with a view to amend- 
 ing the relative construction. 
 
 ' There are one or two objections which have been brought 
 against the study of political economy, which it may be useful 
 to notice,' may be amended thus: 'there are one or two ob- 
 jections (that have been) brought against the study of political 
 economy, which (and these) it may be useful to notice '; ' it may 
 be useful to notice one or two objections brought against the 
 study of political economy '. 
 
 'There are two objections, however, by which (whereby) its 
 justness may be possibly controverted.' 
 
 'A spirit more amiable, but less vigorous, than Luther's 
 would have shrunk back from the dangers which he braved and 
 surmounted;' 'that he braved'; 'the dangers braved and 
 surmounted by him '. 
 
46 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PRONOUN. 
 
 1 Nor is it at all improbable that the emigrants had been guilty 
 of those faults from, which, civilised men who settle among an 
 uncivilised people are rarely free ' (Macaulay). ' Nor is it at all 
 improbable that the emigrants had been guilty of the faults 
 that (such faults as) civilised men that settle (settling, or settled} 
 among an uncivilised people are rarely free from.' 
 
 11. The form 'those who ' applied in a restrictive sense is the 
 modern substitute for the ancient idiom ' they that ', an idiom 
 in accordance with the true meaning ot 'that'. ' They that 
 told me the story, said'; 'blessed are they that mourn'; 'and 
 Simon and they that were with him '; ' I love them that love me, 
 and they that seek me early shall find me '; 'they that are whole 
 have no need of a physician'; 'how sweet is the rest of them 
 that labour ! ' ' I cannot tell who to compare them to so fitly as 
 to them that 'pick, pockets in the presence of the judge'; 'they 
 that enter into the state of marriage cast a die of the greatest 
 contingency ' (J. Taylor). 
 
 ' That man hath perfect blessedness 
 
 Who walketh not astray, ' 
 
 if expressed according to the old idiom would be, 'the man 
 hath that walketh'. 
 
 ' That ', ' those ', as demonstrative adjectives refer backward, 
 and are not therefore well suited for the forward reference im- 
 plied in making use of ' that which ', ' those who ' as restrictive 
 relatives. It is also very cumbrous to say ' that case to which 
 you allude ', for ' the case (that) you allude to '. 
 
 12. Take now the following : ' the Duke of Wellington is 
 not one of those who interferes with matters over which he has 
 no control'; 'the Duke is not one of them that interfere in 
 matters that they have no control over (matters that they cannot 
 control, beyond their control, out of their province} '. If ' them 
 that ' sounds too antiquated, we may adopt as a convenient com- 
 promise, 'the Duke is not one of those that'-, or 'the Duke is 
 not one to interfere in matters out of his province '; ' the Duke 
 is not one that interferes with what he has no control over '. 
 
 13. ' Prejudices are notions or opinions which the mind enter- 
 tains without knowing the grounds and reasons of them, and 
 which are assented to without examination ' (Berkeley). The 
 ' which ' in both cases should be ' that ', but the relative may 
 be entirely dispensed with by participial conversion : ' prejudices 
 are notions or opinions entertained by the mind without know- 
 ing the grounds and reasons of them, and assented to without 
 examination '. 
 
 'The political and moral system of Mahomet is that which 
 (what, such as) might be expected from one who aimed (aiming} 
 only at personal aggrandisement, and who had (having) no 
 generous views beyond. ' 
 
SAVING THE REPETITION OF THE NOUN. 47 
 
 ' He who thinks that sovereign power is too great, and would 
 desire to limit it, can do so only by setting up a greater ' ; ' he 
 that, thinking sovereign power too great, desires '. 
 
 14. The too frequent repetition of 'who' and 'which' may 
 be avoided by resolving them into the conjunction and personal 
 or other pronoun : ' In such circumstances, the utmost that 
 Bosquet could be expected to do was to hold his ground, (which) 
 and this he did '. 
 
 31. One of the uses of Pronouns is to save the 
 repetition of a Noun; as 'John is come; he has 
 not been long '. 
 
 This may be effected by various other means. 
 
 (1.) By some more general designation ; as in Milton : ' Thus 
 spoke the tempter, the fiend', for Satan. 'We went to see St. 
 Paul's, and admired the vast building.' 
 
 Such general words are often advantageously combined with 
 the relative : ' touching musical harmony, a thing that (equal to 
 ' which ') delighteth all ages ; a thing as seasonable in joy as in 
 grief ; ' ' he was naturally morose, a peculiarity that 1 do not 
 here take into account'. Also the relative may be dispensed 
 with : ' the nation were unanimous, a thing ( a circumstance) of 
 rare occurrence '. 
 
 (2.) By the use of synonymes. ' His happiness was much 
 enhanced by his success ; but it was not in the nature of so 
 great bliss to last. ' 
 
 Under the adjective we shall see other modes of saving the 
 repetition of the principal subject, as by 'former and latter,' 'the 
 one and the other,' ' the first and the second,' &c. 
 
 It is a very insufficient definition of the pronoun to say that 
 it saves the repetition of the noun, being wholly inapplicable to 
 interrogatives, and to the indefinite pronouns. The relative 
 pronouns, moreover, have in addition the force of conjunctions ; 
 and, as we have just seen, the use of the pronoun is not the 
 sole means of avoiding the repetition of the noun. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 Definition. 
 
 I. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun 
 to limit its application; as 'my hat;' ' a sweat- 
 sound '. 
 
48 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Adjectives are commonly said to name a quality. But this 
 can hardly apply to pronominal adjectives, as 'this,' 'our'. 
 Moreover in the classification of adjectives, one class is those of 
 quality ; implying that the other classes, namely, adjectives of 
 quantity and the pronominal adjectives, are not expressive of 
 quality. It is better to treat them as words that go along with 
 nouns to specify or narrow their application. For example, the 
 word ' wise ' joined to the noun ' man,' signifies a more select 
 kind of man, having the distinguishing attribute termed 
 wisdom. Thus while the extent of the noun is narrowed, its 
 meaning is increased by the adjective : * wise men ' are a smaller 
 class than ' men ', but they have one attribute in addition to 
 what is common to men. 
 
 2. An Adjective is distinguished from a 
 noun by its inflexion, which is for degree, or what 
 is called Comparison : ' wise, wiser, wisest '; ' fertile, 
 more fertile, most fertile '. 
 
 In our language, which admits the easy convertibility of the 
 parts of speech, nouns are often used to discharge the office of 
 the adjective ; as ' the gold ring '. These nouns are distinguished 
 from true adjectives by not being compared : we cannot say 
 ' gold, golder, goldest '. On the other hand, the true gram- 
 matical adjective does not undergo the noun inflexion : we do 
 not say ' wise, (plural] vrises. ' By the same criterion we can 
 distinguish an adjective from a verb used to limit a noun ; as ' a 
 brew house '. 
 
 It follows from the definition, that an adjective cannot be the 
 subject of a sentence. We cannot say ' wise is good '. A word 
 that merely limits can have no meaning standing alone, or with- 
 out a word to limit. Such cases as 'foul is fair ', ' black is not 
 white', are not exceptions; the adjective being used for the 
 corresponding abstract noun. Hence when a sentence or clause 
 begins with an adjective we understand that there is an inver- 
 sion of the usual order ; as ' great was the fall thereof '. 
 
 An adjective cannot qualify any part of speech but a noun. 
 It cannot be governed by a preposition. 
 
 Classes of Adjectives. 
 
 3. I. Pronominal Adjectives. These are of 
 four kinds Demonstrative, Interrogative, Relative, 
 and Possessive. 
 
 The name * pronominal ' indicates that these adjectives (this, 
 
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 49 
 
 my, &c.} are all derived from pronouns. Indeed they have often 
 been included among the pronouns. The reason for placing 
 them among adjectives is that they require a noun after them, 
 which the proper pronouns do not. 
 
 4. 1. Pronominal Demonstrative Adjec- 
 tives : 'this', 'that', 'the', 'yon', 'yonder', 'such'. 
 
 This (plural ' these ') applies to persons and things, 
 and means some object near or close at hand, or nearer 
 than some other compared object : ' this man', some 
 one close by ; ' this house', the house that we are in or 
 near ; ' this is my own, my native land '. 
 
 4 This' was originally the form joined to neuter nouns. 
 
 In a succession of things, 'this' means the nearest either 
 the last said, or the next to be mentioned. ' After this speech ' 
 refers to what has just been, or is just going to be, delivered: ' I 
 will put this supposition ' is what is to come next. 
 
 That (plural ' those ') applies also to persons and 
 things, and means something at a distance. ' That 
 man ' is some one not close by, ' This ' and ' that ' are 
 correlative or contrasting words ; the one excludes or 
 opposes the other. 
 
 ' That ' was originally the neuter form of the adjective. 
 When two persons, things, 01 facts have teen mentioned, the 
 first in order is sometimes recalled by ' that,' the second by 'this,' 
 in imitation of the Latin pronouns ille and hie. Other forms 
 for the same purpose are ' the one ' and ' the other', ' the first' . 
 and 'the second', ' the first named ' and ' the last named', 'the 
 former ' and ' the latter '. Sometimes, as in the second of the 
 following lines, ' these ' and ' those ' mean ' some ' and 'others', 
 with merely subordinate reference to comparative proximity : 
 
 ' Fortune her gifts may variously dispose, 
 And these be happy called, unhappy those ; 
 But Heaven's just balance equal will appear. 
 While those are placed in hope, and these in fear.' 
 
 The frequent ellipsis of the noun with the demonstrative 
 adjectives gives them the character of demonstrative pronouns : 
 ' after that, I shall say no more ' ; ' this being granted '. These 
 adjectives also often help to save the repetition of the main 
 subject, by being joined to a more general noun. Thus, instead 
 of repeating the name ' Csesar ', we may designate him ' that 
 general '. ' that Roman ', * that conqueror '. 
 
50 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 The, a modification of 'that', is commonly called 
 tho Definite Article. It is usually explained along 
 with * a ' or * an', called the Indefinite Article. 
 
 Yoil and yonder are chiefly applied to things at 
 some distance : * yonder ivy-mantled tower'. 
 
 The form ' yond ' is now dropt : ' yond star that's westward 
 from the pole ' (Hamlet). 
 
 Compare the Genoau./ener (' that '). 
 
 Such is partly demonstrative, having a reference 
 also to quality and quantity. ' Such toil in such an 
 atmosphere was too much for them. ' 
 
 * Such ' is the modern form of the old * surilc ',= sun-lie, ' so- 
 like', Mike that'. 
 
 Compare the German solch. 
 
 5. The adverbial substitutes for the De- 
 monstrative Adjectives are the same as for the 
 Demonstrative Pronouns : 'so 1 , 'thus', 'then', 'there', 
 (and the compounds, ' herein', therein', &e.), ' hence', 
 'thence', 'hither', 'thither'. These substitutes cannot 
 he used where nominatives are required. ' Here, there, 
 lies,' are equivalent to ' in this place ', ' in that place '. 
 
 Both variety and eiegance are attained by the employment of 
 these adverbs as demonstratives. The remarks made respecting 
 'where', 'when', &c., as equivalents of the relative pronouns, 
 are applicable to the present class of words : ' here is the point '; 
 ' there's the rub ' ; ' herein is love ' ; ' then was the time '. 
 
 6. 2. Pronominal Interrogative Adjectives : 
 
 ' what ', ' which ', ' whether ', and compounds. 
 
 What applies to both persons and things: 'what 
 man 1 ' ' what woman ? ' ' what country 1 ' 'I see what 
 friends arid read what books I. please.' 
 
 'What' was originally a neuter pronoun. By the 13th cen- 
 tury it had come to be used adjectively with nouns of all genders. 
 
 Which is used similarly: 'which man, or men 1 ?' 
 'ivhich woman, or women?' 'which country or count- 
 ries 1 ' 
 
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 51 
 
 In its earlier use, which ', like 'such/ implied also quality 
 and quantity. 
 
 Whether is now disused: 'whether case is the 
 better V 
 
 7. 3. Pronominal Relative Adjectives : 
 
 * which ', ' what ', and compounds. 
 
 Which applies to all genders and both numbers: 
 ' Here we were met by the lieutenant, which officer was 
 to show us over the ship '; * the army refused to march, 
 which circumstance disconcerted all his plans'. 
 
 Various substitutions are generally preferred : ' we were met 
 by the lieutenant, who was, &c.', or, 'an officer that was' ; 'the 
 army lefused to march, which a circumstance that and this 
 disconcerted all his plans '. 
 
 What is used in much the same way : 'what friends 
 he gained he kept'; l what time the floods lift up their 
 voice '; * you may take whatever books you choose '. 
 
 8. 4. Pronominal Possessive Adjectives: 
 
 'my', 'mine', 'our', 'ours', 'thy', 'thine', 'your', 
 'yours', 'his', 'her', 'hers', 'its', * their', 'theirs'. 
 These are the possessives of the Personal and Demon- 
 strative Pronouns. 
 
 The double forms 'my, mine', 'our, ours', 'thy, thine', 
 'your, yours-', 'her, hers', 'their, theirs', have distinct uses. 
 The first form is used with nouns like any other adjectives, as. 
 ' my book'; 'your house'; 'tfieir liberty'; the other form is: 
 employed in predication, and in other cases where the noun does 
 not immediately follow ; as 'the book is mine'', 'the house is 
 not yours'; 'that is your opinion, mine is very different'. In 
 the translation of the Bible, ' thine ' and ' mine ' are used with 
 nouns beginning with a vowel or with ' h ' : ' mine eyes have 
 seen thy salvation'; 'mine honour', &c. A similar difference 
 exists between ' none ' and ' no '; as ' Thy kingdom hath none 
 end at all'; 'friend hast thou none'; 'he gave no reason; in 
 truth, none can be given '. 
 
 The meanings of the possessive pronouns are so well under- 
 stood and so little subject to irregularity, as to need no special 
 comment. 
 
52 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 9. II. Adjectives of Quantity. 
 
 Setting aside the pronominal adjectives, we may include all 
 the others under the two heads of quantity and quality : those 
 of the one class (quantity) are few in number and peculiar in 
 character ; the other class (quality) comprises the great body 
 of adjectives. The adjectives of quantity are subdivided as 
 follows : 
 
 10. 1. Adjectives of Quantity in mass or 
 bulk: ' much ', ' little ', ' great ', ' small ', 'some', ' any ': 
 'much wind'; 'little light'; l great rivers'; 'some feeling'. 
 These are all indefinite. 
 
 This kind of quantity is also called continuous quantity, and 
 is opposed to broken, numbered, or discrete quantity. Space, 
 'motion, bulk, and material being in many instances unbroken, 
 ;we do not always apply numbers to designate their amount. 
 When we desire accuracy we suppose these things divided into 
 'parts, and number the parts ; as ' ten yards '. But where we 
 .cannot do this, as in mental qualities, we use adjectives of 
 degree, and apply qualifying words to specify the differences ; 
 thus, 'small, very small, exceedingly small, diminutive, insig- 
 nificant'; 'great, large, somewhat large, rather large, consider- 
 able, vast, huge, immense, enormous, infinite'; * middling, 
 'average, moderate, ordinary, sober', &c. 
 
 ' Some ' and ' any ' are applied alsc to number. 
 
 11. 2. Adjectives of Quantity in Number. 
 
 Under this we have various kinds. 
 
 (1.) Definite Numeral Adjectives; as 'eight 
 days ' (cardinal number) ; * the eighth day ' (ordinal 
 number). 
 
 The cardinal numbers one, two, three denote totals made 
 up to the amount of the number- two, five, fifty, &c. The 
 ordinal numbers indicate a series, and state the place of an 
 individual in the series : the ' fifth ' marks one object at a 
 'certain remove from the commencement. 
 
 We may include also the multipliers, 'single', 'double', 
 * twofold ', ' triple ', ' threefold ', ' quadruple ', &c. ; and the 
 combination of the numerals with particular subjects, as ( bi- 
 ennial', * quadrilateral', 'heptagons!'. These have also the 
 meaning of quality. 
 
 An, or a, the Indefinite Article, is the numeral 
 Adjective ' one ', with a somewhat altered signification. - 
 
ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY. 53* 
 
 None, No, expresses the absence, negation, or 
 privation of anything. 
 
 'None' is the old English 'nan', made up of ne+an ('not 
 one '), and ' no ' is a shortened form, like ' a ' from ' an '. 
 
 The., words must be followed by the singular or plural, 
 according to the meaning. An ancient Greek disbelieving his 
 religion would have said there are ' no Gods '; a Jew, there is 
 'no God'. In the union with plural nouns, the derl.ution of 
 4 none, no ' is forgotten. So the common expression - no one ' 
 is, in this regard, tautological, being literally ' not one one '. 
 
 Another is ' an-other\ 'a second', 'one more', in 
 addition to whatever number has gone before. 
 
 In old English, ' other ' was used as an ordinal where we now 
 use ' second '. 
 
 A derived meaning of ' another ' implies the sense of differ- 
 ence : ' that is another (= a, different] question '. 
 
 Both means two taken together, and is opposed to 
 the distributives ' either ' (one of two), and ' neither ', 
 (none of two). 
 
 This word, being often used without the noun, assumes the 
 character of a pronoun. 
 
 12. (2.) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives; as, 
 'many days', l any books', 'all men'. These express 
 number, but not in the definite form of numeration. 
 
 Many, although plural in meaning, can be joined'' 
 with a singular noun preceded by ' a': 'many a man'. 
 This usage dates from the beginning of the 13th century. 
 
 Any old English 'cenig', from 'an' ('one') 
 means ' one ', but no one in particular : ' any knife will 
 do '. It was early applied to plural nouns also : ' any 
 trees ', * any men ', it matters not which, nor how many. 
 
 After negative words ' any ' renders the exclusive sense em- 
 phatic : 'without any remainder', 'not any doubt'. The 
 application to mass or bulk has been already mentioned ( 10) :. 
 ' any meat ', ' any wool '. 
 
 The old negative ' nceniy ' (ne-aenig). disappeared in the thir- 
 teenth century. '"None ' and ' not any ' take its place. 
 
54 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 An, a, while indicating definitely one individual 
 and no more, means no one in particular. Hence it is 
 called the Indefinite article. 
 
 Some indicates one individual not particularise 1, 
 or denotes an uncertain portion of an entire class or 
 number : ' Some enemy has done this f ; * give him some 
 apples '. 
 
 'Some' has various meanings. In strict logic it signifies 
 * not none ', a certain number, but how many not stated some 
 at least. There is a more popular meaning, which implies less 
 than the whole, 'some only , or 'some at most'. ' Some men 
 are wise ' insinuates that there are other men not wise. Hence 
 the alternative signification : ' some believed ', and ' some (others) 
 helieved not '. ' Some fifty years ago ' is a very old idiom for 
 expressing an approximate number. 
 
 The application to mass or bulk has been already mentioned 
 (10): 'wwewood', ' some mischief '. 
 
 Certain is a small select number. Applied in the 
 singular it means a particular and known individual 
 
 Several, the Distributive Adjective, is also used to 
 mean a small number without reference to distribution : 
 'he entered with several followers'; 'several of the 
 palace towers were toppled to the earth '. 
 
 Sundry and divers, also originally meaning * separate', 
 are now less frequently used to signify a small and indefinite 
 number: 'for sundry weighty reasons'; ' divers townspeople '. 
 ' Compare also different and various : ' for various (or dif- 
 ferent} reasons'. 
 
 Few is opposed to ' many '. ' Few, few, shall part 
 where many meet.' 'A ^few ' is some not many. 
 
 Not a few is a more emphatic ' many '; the denying of an 
 opposite being often a stronger form of the affirmative. ' Not 
 inconsiderable ' is perhaps a little less than 'considerable'. 
 
 Most, the largest number. 
 
 All is opposed alike to 'none' and to 'some'. 
 
 Whole, 'or total', is opposed to 'part', and hence 
 to ' some '. 
 
NUMERALS, INDEFINITE AND DISTRIBUTIVE. 55 
 
 13. (3.) Distributive Numeral Adjectives; 
 
 as ' each man ', ' neither way '. These are ' each ', 
 ' either ', ' neither ', ' several ', * every ', ' other '. 
 
 Each is employed to denote two or more things 
 taken separately : * Simeon and Levi took each man 
 his sword '. ' Each ' is a singular word. 
 
 "When applied to two, * each ' is opposed to ' either ', any one 
 of the two, as well as to ' hoth ', or the two collectively : ' I re- 
 solved to compare the accounts of my two friends, allowing for 
 the prejudice of each, and to form my judgment upon both, 
 without adhering strictly to either'. The correlative of ' each ' is 
 ' other ', as seen in the elliptical expression ' bear each others 
 burdens '. 
 
 Either means any one of two things. ' Give me a 
 pen or a pencil ; either will serve my purpose ' ; that 
 is, a pen will serve, or, in the absence 01 a pen, a pencil 
 will serve. 
 
 ' Either ' is often used where the proper adjective would be 
 ' each ', but not so often now as formerly. ' The King of Israel, 
 arid Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, sat either (for each) of them on 
 his throne.' 'There was a huge fireplace at either (more pro- 
 perly each) end of the hall. ' 
 
 Neither excludes each of two things; it means 
 not the one and not the other : * Truth may lie on both 
 sides, on either side, or on neither side '. 
 
 Several refers to an indefinite number, and is 
 usually joined to a plural noun : ' they went to their 
 several homes '. 
 
 Every means each individual of a whole collection 
 separately stated or considered : ' give every man his 
 due'. 
 
 ' Every ' is a compound of ' ever-each* ; it appeared about the 
 beginning of the 13th century. Excepting in such idiomatic 
 phrases as ' each other ', it might be almost generally substituted 
 for ' each '. ' Every ' is an emphatic word for ' all ', as it seems to 
 address the individuals separately : ' England expects every man 
 to do his duty ' ; ' not every one that saith unto me '. * Every 
 three years ' is an admitted idiom. 
 
56 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Other, opposed to 'one', is the second or alterna- 
 tive of a couple a dual form : ' Both the hills, the one 
 held by the royal troops, and the other by their enemies, 
 were alive with- armed men '. 
 
 ' No other ' has the more indefinite signification of ' none 
 besides or anywhere '. Followed by ' than ' it is the same as 
 ' none Lut '. By an incidental consequence, ' the other ' may 
 point out contrariety ; as ' on the one side of the river stood our 
 army, on the other, the enemy'. The meaning of Edition 
 comes naturally to attach to the word : ' get as much other 
 knowledge as you can '. ' The other day' is an idiom for ' lately '. 
 
 14. III. Adjectives of Quality; as 'a broad 
 
 way ', ' a heavy weight ', ' a prudent man'. 
 
 These embrace the great body of adjectives, and are co-exten- 
 sive with human knowledge. They could be classified only by 
 referring to the sciences, or different departments of knowledge ; 
 as mathematics, natural history, morals, &c. Everything that 
 can be pointed out as a property, power, or agency, is liable to 
 be expressed as an adjective, so as to qualify some object. In 
 Boget's Thesaurus of Words and Phrases, a classification of 
 human knowledge is given as a basis for the classification of 
 words according to their meaning, and it will be found that the 
 words thus arranged are nouns, adjectives, and verbs ; and there 
 is hardly any meaning that cannot appear in all the three forms. 
 
 The nouns least suited to become adjectives are the names of 
 natural classes or kinds, as ' tree ', ' horse ', ' monkey ' ; because 
 these objects contain too many qualities to be predicated of any- 
 thing besides themselves. We cannot well have a thing different 
 from a tree and possessing all the characters of a tree ; hence 
 when we derive an adjective from tree, as ' arborescent ', we 
 mean only the form of a tree, and not all the attributes. So 
 ' manly ', ' leonine ', or ' lionlike ' merely indicate some prominent 
 .character of a man, or of a lion, and do not transfer the whole 
 of the attributes of a man or a lion to something that is neither. 
 
 Adjectives formed from the names of metals, minerals, woods, 
 &c., generally signify 'made from' these materials. 
 
 Adjectives derived from the names of great natural objects, 
 often mean only a reference to those objects ; as the ' the solar, 
 the lunar tables ' tables respecting the sun or moon. 
 
 15. The class of Adjectives derived from proper 
 names, and called Proper Adjectives, are princi- 
 pally adjectives of quality; as the l Socratic 
 
THE AETICLES. 57 
 
 Method', which means a certain peculiar method, 
 invented or employed by Socrates. 
 
 Some proper adjectives might be looked upon as contributing 
 to form proper names ; as * English law ', ' French literature ', 
 the 'Elizabethan Age'. 
 
 The Articles. 
 
 The articles are of great value in our language. They indicate 
 three different forms of the noun, each with a separate meaning : 
 * a virtue ', ' the virtue ', and * virtue ', are all distinct. 
 
 16. An or A is called the Indefinite Article : 
 
 ' a horse ' means no one horse in particular. It gives 
 the species or kind of thing wanted, and leaves the 
 choice of the individual free. 
 
 The indefinite article is the unemphatic form of the numeral 
 'one ', and has a meaning of its own, different from the numeral. 
 '.Give me a pen ', means ' give me an object of the species ' pen ' ' ; 
 ' give me one pen ', lays emphasis upon one, and implies that 
 one is asked for, and not two or three. ' A horse, a horse, my 
 kingdom for a horse,' is any horse, anything that is a horse. 
 
 The article, having a singular meaning, is a sign of the singular 
 number, and is used with all singular nouns (provided they are 
 such as admit of the plural). Thus we do not say ' house ', 
 ' table ', ' star ', but ' a house ', ' a table ', ' a star '. Hence it 
 is used with general or class names, and not with proper names 
 (Adam, Mary), nor with names of material (air, gold), nor with 
 abstract names (wisdom, bravery). When class nouns have no 
 plural change (sheep, cannon), the presence or absence of the 
 article is a mark of the number (a sheep, sheep). When ' a ' is 
 prefixed to a proper name (a Mr. Brown), one of a class is meant. 
 
 17. A is used "before a consonant, and before *h' 
 sounded, ' y ', or ' w ' : 'a meal ', a house \ ' a year ', 
 *a world'. An is used before a vowel, and before silent. 
 *'h ' ; as * an ounce', ' an hour '. 
 
 Many of the best writers, as Macaulay, use an before ' h ' (not 
 silent) when the accent is on the second syllable : ' an historical 
 parallel '. 
 
 Some words beginning with a vowel are pronounced as if they 
 began with a consonantal 'y': ewe, eunuch, eulogy, European, 
 useful. &c. Before such words some writers use 'an ', but most 
 use 'a', which is preferable: 'a ewe', 'a European difficulty ', 
 1 a useful contrivance '. 
 
58 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 18. The is called the Definite Article, because 
 
 it points out one object definitely : * the horse ' means 
 some one horse in particular. 
 
 'The' is a weaker form than the demonstrative 
 * that '. 
 
 * That ' in the first instance supposes something actually seen 
 by being pointed out : as when we say, pointing to a candle, 
 ' bring me that candle '. When we cannot point to a thing, we 
 may mark it out by some description : ' that candle whicli had 
 just been lit'. Such descriptions when fully given have the 
 form of the adjective clause, with a relative of restriction : ' that 
 man whom (that) you see '. As a lighter form, we employ ' the ' 
 instead of ' that ' : ' the candle which (that) has just been lit ' ; 
 ' the man whom (that) you see '. A single individual, person or 
 thing, is pointed out by some circumstance that applies to him 
 or it, and not to any other. 
 
 These adjective clauses of description are often shortened, by 
 leaving out whatever is not essential to the meaning. Thus 
 ' the man that stands in the doorway ', may be * the man standing 
 in the doorway ', or still shorter, ' the man in the doorway ', the 
 verb ' standing ' being understood. In such cases what is left is 
 an adverb phrase, and this is one of the most frequent accom- 
 paniments of the definite article : * The way (that leads) to the 
 castle ' ; ' the tree before the house ' ; ' the church on the hill ' ; 
 ' the water of the river '. The single-word adverb may also be 
 used : ' the evening star ' is the contraction for ' the star that 
 shines in the evening ' ; it might have been the ' star in the, even- 
 ing ' ; or ' the star of evening ' ; but usage prefers ' the evening 
 star '. Any one of 'the forms is distinctive of a particular star, 
 and that is enough. 
 
 When the important fact is given in the verb itself, the verb 
 must be retained, whatever else is left out : ' Bring the caudle 
 that has been lighted ', if made shorter, must be ' the lighted 
 candle '. The circumstance that distinguishes this candle from 
 the rest is its being lighted, and, therefore, the verb must be 
 kept to show what individual is pointed at by ' the '. ' The 
 standing stones ' ; ' the coming race '. 
 
 An Adjective, especially in the superlative degree, may serve 
 the same end as the participle : 'the broad walk ' is supposed 
 to be so well contrasted with all other walks by its breadth, that 
 to give this adjective is to point to one walk exclusively. So, 
 ' the great pyramid ', ' the black hole '. ' The heaviest metal ' is 
 the one metal platinum. 
 
 A Noun may be the defining word : ' the salt lake is a contrac- 
 
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 59 
 
 snch, the article is properly used to point out an individual. 
 So, ' the granite formation ', ' the Atlantic cable ', ' the Pitt 
 ministry '. 
 
 The article may be used without any specifying accompani- 
 ments, as 'thefi.i-e', 'the hill', 'the street', '-the general', ' the 
 lion ', ' the mind ', ' the_ Bar ', ' the rich '. The shortening is here 
 carried to the very utmost ; the defining circumstances are left 
 out altogether. This is because the person addressed knows 
 what is meant. We say ' the fire ', instead of ' the fire that is in 
 tJiis room ', because we are speaking to a person in the room, and 
 using language that precludes all other fires. When we say 
 ' stir the fire ', we can mean only the fire that is in the room : if 
 we did not mean that, we should have to use defining words 
 'go and stir the bedroom fire '. So, ' the hill 'means someone 
 hill near and familiar ; ' the street ' is the street that is close by, 
 or where we are living at the time, or that has been already 
 mentioned or defined. 
 
 ' The lion ' is a shorter way of saying, ' the species of animals 
 named the lion '. So with ' the rose ', ' the potato ', ' the palm ', 
 among plants. * The French ' is the people or nation having 
 that name. 
 
 ' The rich ', the powerful ', * the great ', ' the miserable ', are 
 phrases that leave out the class name men or human beings 
 as being readily understood, and merely give the name of the 
 selection intended, which selection, as being one and definite, 
 receives the article. 
 
 ' The true ', * the just ', the good ', ' the lawful ', ' the. ex- 
 pedient', are other forms of the abstract nouns truth, justice, 
 goodness, lawfulness, expediency. They may be considered as 
 shortened, for ' the things that are true ', 'the things or actions 
 of men, that are just ', &c. Only the essential word is retained ; 
 the rest can be supposed. 
 
 ' The ' with a comparative, as in ' the more, the better ', does 
 not show the ordinary use of the definite article ; but is a survival 
 of its ancient ablative form in the stronger demonstrative sense 
 of ' that '. 'Thy (the) ma, thy (the) bet ' is literally ' by that 'or 
 by so much) more, by that (or by so much) better ' ; like the 
 Latin ' quo magis, eo melius '. ' They will ask the more ', docs 
 not properly exemplify a transitive verb with an object. 
 
 Scotticisms in the use of the Articles. There are various 
 Scotticisms in connexion with the articles : ' How much the 
 pound is it ? ' (what is it a pound ?) ; ' sixpence the piece ' (a 
 piece); ' the sugar is cheaper ' (sugar); ' go to (the) school' ; 'say 
 (the] grace ' ; ' a justice of (the) peace ' ; 'up (the) stairs ' ; ' he 
 is studying (the) Botany '. 
 
 The names of diseases are recognised as proper nouns : ' he 
 
60 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 has caught cold ', ' he died of consumption, of typhus '. It is 
 an impropriety to treat them as class nouns, and prefix the 
 article the cold, the fever. 
 
 ' From Tweed to Tay ' is a poetical usage ; for ' from the 
 Tweed to the. Tay '. 'Not worth (a) sixpence.' ' The day ' (to- 
 day). 
 
 ' Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ', is given by Lowth as 
 an error of the article. The meaning is definite : ' the wheel '. 
 
 To drop the article from words that it has usually been joined 
 to has a personifying effect. When we say ' society ' instead of 
 ' the society ', we treat society as a person. So with ' Govern- 
 ment ' for ' the Government '. The Americans say ' Community 
 thinks so too '. 
 
 Substitutes for the Adjective. 
 
 19. The Adjective Clause is the longest and 
 fullest equivalent to the Adjective ; it is a sentence 
 serving to limit a noun in the same manner as the 
 Adjective : ' the way that he ought to go ' is ' the right 
 way ' ; ' accidents that result in death ' are 'fatal acci- 
 dents ' ; ' an attempt that has no chance of succeeding ' 
 is * an impossible attempt '. 
 
 The Adjective Clause is more fully exemplified afterwards (see 
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES). We have now seen that it is by con- 
 tracting Adjective Clauses that we obtain the short expressions 
 with the Definite Article. In the same way we explain the 
 extensive employment of Nouns as Adjectives, and the less 
 frequent use of Adverbs and Prepositions. 
 
 20. The Participial Phrase gives the same 
 meaning in a condensed form : ' accidents resulting in 
 death ', troops hired to fight ' (mercenary), ' the know- 
 ledge possessed by him ' (his) f * tribes given to the wor- 
 ship of idols ' (idolatrous). 
 
 21. The Prepositional Phrase is a still shorter 
 form, by an obvious ellipsis : * the war between Russia 
 and Turkey 1 ( Russo- Turkish) 'disturbances in the colo- 
 nies ' (colonial), ' the book before me ' (this). 
 
 22. Nouns employed as Adjectives: 'a gold' 
 crown ' ; * the cotton districts ' ; the police regulations ' ; 
 
SUBSTITUTES FOR THE ADJECTIVE. 61 
 
 'the Berlin decrees'; 'Health of Towns Act 7 ; 'cod- 
 liver oil '. 
 
 These are all contracted forms : ' a gold crown ' is ' a crown 
 that is made of gold ', ' a crown made of gold ', ' a crown of gold ' 
 by retaining the. only essential word and putting it in the regular 
 position of the Adjective, we say ' a gold crown '. So, ' the 
 districts where cotton is grown ' ; ' the regulations that are laid 
 down by the police ' ; the decrees that were issued from Berlin ' ; 
 ' the Act that was passed for improving the Healtii of Towns ' ; 
 
 * oil tlutt is prepared from the liver of the cod '. 
 
 From what has been already said as to the employment of the 
 Definite Article, it will be seen that words are often left out 
 that are essential to the full expression of the meaning, because 
 the hearer can supply them from a knowledge of the circum- 
 stances. 
 
 The same noun used as an adjective has not always the same 
 meaning : in ' gold fields ', the meaning of ' gold ' is different ; 
 being the ' fields where gold is gathered or dug '. The word 
 ' house ' has a different application in each of the following in- 
 stances housemaid, house-top, house property, house tax, house 
 surveyor, house fittings, house drainage, house robbery. In 
 expressing the meaning at full in each case, a different verb 
 would be necessary. This, however, we are often able to guess, 
 from the meanings of the words themselves. We see that ' house 
 tax ' is likely to mean a tax imposed upon the owners of houses. 
 In other cases, the circumstances or the context will show what 
 is the connection intended. 
 
 23. The Possessive forms of Nouns and 
 Pronouns may serve the purpose of the Adjective : 
 ' God's commands ' are ' tJie divine commands ' ; 'a 
 mother's care ' is 'motherly or maternal care ' ; ' whose 
 image is this 1 ' 
 
 Again the equivalence to the clause may be shown : ' the 
 commands that God has issued ', 'such care as a mother bestows ', 
 ' an image that represents whom is this ? ' 
 
 24. Adverbs and Prepositions may also occa- 
 sionally be employed for Adjectives. 
 
 This is possible by leaving out part of the complete expres- 
 sion. ' The king that then reigned ' is made ' the then king '. 
 ' The down train ' is a shortened form of ' the train that goes 
 down '. ' After ages ', ' ages that are to come after (the present)'; 
 
 * the above discourse ', ' the discourse that has been given above 
 (the point where we now are) '. 
 
62 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Co-ordinating or Predicate Adjectives. 
 
 25. The Predicate of a sentence is often made 
 up of an Incomplete Verb and an Adjective : 
 
 1 the rose is red ', l the wind became , violent ', ' the 
 king turned pale ', ' it is growing colder ', she was pro- 
 nounced blameless '. 
 
 26. Adjectives in the Predicate are not 
 
 restrictive, but co-ordinating. They do not narrow 
 the class mentioned, but express some new meaning 
 that adds to what we know of it. 
 
 In the designation ' fixed stars ', the adjective ' fixed ' nar- 
 rows the class ' stars ', and increases its signification, so that 
 the subject denotes not all ' stars ', but such stars as are fixed : 
 this is the usual purpose of an adjective joined to a noun. In 
 the saying 'the fixed stars are remote' the adjective 'remote' 
 does not farther narrow the class ' fixed stars ', but predicates, or 
 says, of them that they are ' remote ' ; that they belong to the 
 class ' remote or distant things '. If we fill in a supposed ellipsis, 
 writing ' the fixed stars are remote things, stars, &c. ', then 
 1 remote ' is restrictive, limiting ' things ', * stars ', &c., but not 
 limiting ' the fixed stars '. 
 
 27. Many Adjectives prefixed to Nouns 
 are not restrictive, but co-ordinating, or 
 predicate Adjectives. 
 
 This can be known only from the sense. 
 
 "When an adjective is prefixed to a proper or singular name, it 
 cannot be restrictive. ' Brave soldiers ' expresses a select class 
 of soldiers, possessing, in addition to the qualities of all other 
 soldiers, the quality of being brave. But 'brave Curtius' 
 cannot restrict Curtius: an individual cannot be restricted. 
 The meaning is ' Curtius, who was brave ' ; it is a short way of 
 mentioning Curtius, and of saying also that Curtius was a brave 
 man. 
 
 ' Glorious Apollo ' is * Apollo, who is glorious '. It names 
 Apollo, and adds that he is glorious. 
 
63 
 
 THE VERB. 
 Definition. 
 
 1. The Verb is the part of speech concerned 
 in predication ; that is, in affirming or denying 
 
 in presenting something to be believed or disbelieved, 
 something that can be acted on. There can be no 
 sentence without a Verb. ' Milton wrote Paradise 
 Lost ' ; ' the sun shines ' ; ' the sea is calm '. 
 
 In affirmation, as has been seen, there must always be two 
 things, a subject and a predicate. The subject is expressed by 
 a noun or its equivalent ; the predicate always contains a verb. 
 Whenever any word has the effect of predicating or affirming, it 
 is from that circumstance a verb. But verbs have the 1'urther 
 grammatical distinction of being inflected to express varieties of 
 time, person, number, manner of action, &c. A verb proper is 
 thus distinguished from a word belonging to some other part of 
 speech that may be used in predication. The adverb ' away ' 
 may be employed for the verb ' go ', but it is not on that 
 account a true grammatical verb ; we do not say ' I away, thou 
 awayest, they awayed '. 
 
 Classes of Verbs. 
 
 2. I. Transitive Verbs : The fire warms the 
 room. 
 
 Here ' warm ' is called transitive, because the action passes 
 over to and affects a certain object, ' the room '. This is con- 
 trasted with another class of verbs exemplified by ' the fire 
 gloivs ', where the action, ' glowing ', is said not to pass away 
 from, but to adhere to, the fire. It is with a transitive verb 
 that we have a sentence containing subject, action, and object, 
 in other words, the completion of the predicate by an object. 
 
 Transitive verbs are construed in the passive voice : ' Watt 
 invented the steam-engine ', * the steam-engine was invented bv 
 Watt'. 
 
 Reflexive Verbs are transitive verbs with the same 
 individual as both subject and object: '/ laid me down', 
 ' they contradicted themselves ', ' the king's policy de- 
 veloped itself \ 
 
64 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE VERB. 
 
 Reciprocal Verbs are transitive verbs used in the 
 expression of mutual action and reaction of subject 
 and object : ' they help each other '. 
 
 There is nothing peculiar in the verbs themselves ; they are 
 ordinary transitive verbs ; but from the circumstances of their 
 use they seldom take the passive form. ' They were contra- 
 dicted by themselves ' is not a usual form, being quite unne- 
 cessary ; but we mav say ' they were contradicted by their own 
 evidence,' or such-like. ' They help each other ' is simply ellip- 
 tical for * they help ; each helps (the) other(s) ' ; a:M the passive 
 constmction is equally rare in this case. 
 
 3. II. Intransitive Verbs: Come, lie, sit, stand, 
 sleep, walk, run, speak, bark, wonder, groan, breathe, 
 live, die. 
 
 These give a complete meaning without an object : ' He 
 comes', 'they run', 'I wonder \ 'we shall all die'. 'After 
 life's fitful fever, he sleeps well.' 
 
 One of the innumerable ways of shortening speech ia to leave 
 out the object of a verb, and express the action generally, or 
 without referring to any object in particular. Thus the verb 
 ' see ' is a transitive verb ; it needs an object, or something to 
 be seen : 'the child sees the candle'. Yet we h^ve this expres- 
 sion : 'The new-born child sees, the puppy is blind'. The 
 verb now expresses the power of seeing things in general, and 
 not any one thing in particular. So, 'men build houses' 
 (tran.) ; 'men build, and time pulls down' (intrans.). 'Blest 
 be the art that can immurtalise.' * Keep (for keep yourself, re- 
 flexive) out of the way '. 
 
 Intransitive Verbs converted into Transitives. Intransitive 
 verbs are very often modified by adverbial expressions in the 
 form of preposition and noun ; as ' I wonder at his zeal ' ; ' they 
 came to the resolution ' ; ' his friends stood by him '. By an 
 allowable process, the prepositions in such cases become adverbs 
 united to the verbs, constituting them compound verbs, and 
 rendering them transitive likewise : what was the object of the 
 preposition being now the object of the verb. Thus we have 
 : the verbs 'wonder at,' 'come to,' 'standby,' 'speak to/ 'ride 
 about' (the town, the fields), which are often transitive in the 
 fullest sense, as tested by the passive construction : 'his zeal 
 was woni.lcred at ' ; ' the resolution was come to' ; ' the servant 
 was spoken to '. 
 
 The verbs termed ' Causative ' are a class of Transitive verbs, 
 formed from Intransitive. ' He sets 'is 'he causes to sit '. So 
 
INTRANSITIVE, INCOMPLETE, ETC. 65 
 
 'stay, lay, fell, raise, soak, drench, dip, ? &c., are short ways of 
 Diving the sense of ' cause or make to stand, lie, fall, rise, suck, 
 drink, dive,' &c. 
 
 Sonic intransitive verbs are made transitive and causative 
 without any change : 'the horse walks' (intrans.) ; ' the groom. 
 walked the horse ' (trans.); ' the wood floated ', (intrans.); 'the 
 raftsman floated the wood down the river ' (trans.). 
 
 Many intransitive verbs take a cognate noun after them, 
 which is rather an adverbial modification than a true object ; as 
 1 they ran a race,' ' I have fought a good fight,' 'sleep the sleep 
 that knows no waking '. Yet, as in the prepositional phrases 
 above, the noun can be subject in the passive construction : ' a 
 race was run,' &c. 
 
 4. III. Incomplete, Apposition, or Copula 
 Verbs : Be, become, seera, appear, grow, walk. 
 
 The verb 'be' usually needs some word to come after it in 
 order to give a meaning : ' he is ' means nothing (except to 
 express simple existence) : ' he is leader ', 'he is strong ', ' he is 
 at a distance ' are sentences where the predicating verb takes 
 some additional words noun, adjective, or adverb to give a 
 complete sense. 
 
 ' What seemed the likeness of a kingly crown ' ; ' the decision 
 appeared to be just ' ; ' the small acorn will grow a mighty tree '. 
 ' He lived an apostle and died a martyr ' ; the intransitive verbs 
 ' live ' 'die,' appear here as incomplete verbs, completed by the 
 nouns ' an apostle, ' * a martyr '. 
 
 5. Certain verbs are designated Auxiliary Verbs, because 
 they contribute to make up various forms in the conjugation of 
 the verb. ' Be,' the incomplete or copula verb by pre-eminence, 
 is the chief ; the others are ' have ', ' will ', ' shall '. 
 
 6. The Impersonal Verbs are, strictly speaking, verbs 
 detective in the persons, being used only with the third person 
 singular ; they are hence called also ' unipcraonal '. Such are 
 ' it rains, ' ' it snows '. 
 
 7. Other parts of speech are sometimes used as 
 
 Verbs : as ' Hence; home, you idle creatures ' : ' Up, Guards, and 
 at 'ern '. There is in such instances an obvious ellipsis, or 
 omission of the proper verb : ' go hence '. Nouns and Adjec- 
 tives are freely converted into verbs, and regularly conjugated 
 as such : ' he ages fast ', ' the sun dries the road '. 
 
66 
 
 THE ADVERB, 
 Definition. 
 
 I. The Adverb limits or modifies the mean- 
 ing of the Verb : ' she sings brilliantly ' ; * they 
 ran well '. 
 
 The verb usually expresses some action, or active exertion, 
 and, as an action may be performed in many ways, words are 
 needed to show this ; the action named by the verb ' sing ' may 
 be performed with every variety of excellence, and under many 
 circumstances ; and instead of employing additional sentences 
 to specify these modes, a single word or phrase is taken for the pur- 
 pose. ' She sang here yesterday for an hour with great applause. ' 
 Four circumstances are given as accompanying or modifying the 
 action one of place, given by the single-word adverb * here ' ; 
 one of time by a single word ' yesterday ', and another of time 
 by a phrase ' for an hour ' ; one of quality or manner by a phrase 
 ' with great applause '. 
 
 When we say the adverb qualifies the verb, we mean the 
 action expressed by the verb, which action may involve other 
 words- in addition. ' He boldly fought-his-way-to-the-barrier ' : 
 * boldly ' qualifies the entire predicate 'fought his way to the 
 barrier '. 
 
 The adverb is commonly said to qualify, not verbs alone, but 
 also adjectives and other adverbs. This is not true generally, but 
 applies to one of the smallest classes of adverbs, those express- 
 ing DEGKEE. The attributes expressed by adjectives are usually 
 variable in degree ; and the variations are expressed by adverbs 
 ' good, very good ' ; so with adverbs ' wise.ly, very wisely '. But 
 the most numerous class of adverbs, the class containing ninety- 
 nine out of a hundred of the whole adverbs of manner or 
 quality, could not from their nature qualify Adjectives and 
 Adverbs. 'A being darkly wise ' is partly a poetic figure, and 
 partly exemplifies the practice of using adverbs of quality to 
 express degree, through some accident in their meaning that, 
 suggests quantity. Thus 'scarcely', 'exceedingly', 'confound- 
 edly ', are in the first instance adverbs of quality or manner, but 
 they are adopted to serve for degree. 
 
 When an adverb seems to qualify a, preposition, it really quali- 
 fies an adverbial phrase : * greatly above his reach ', ' much before 
 the time '. 
 
ADVERBS, SIMPLE AND RELATIVE. 67 
 
 An adverb may qualify a noun, but the nouns so qualified are 
 transmuted verbs, or verbal nouns : ' I shall study only instruc- 
 tion ', for ' only that I may instruct ' ; ' he was fully master of 
 the subject ', ' he fully mastered '. ' An only sou 'is 'an only 
 bei/otten son '. By such abbreviations adverbs are at last taken 
 for adjectives. ' The house here ' is ' the house that is here '. 
 Napoleon, (who was) lately Emperor of the French.' This is 
 less irregular than ' the late Emperor ' ; the fact of time is more 
 properly stated by an adverb: ' my former teacher ' is a trans- 
 formation of ' he that formerly taught me '. 
 
 Classes of Adverbs. 
 
 2. Before classifying adverbs according to their signification 
 (as place, time, &c.), it is proper to advert to an important dis- 
 tinction running through all these classes. Most adverbs con- 
 tain their meaning within themselves, and are therefore called 
 simple; they might also be called absolute, or notional ; such 
 are ' now ', ' here ', ' greatly ', ' delightfully '. A small number 
 have no meaning in themselves, but refer to some adjoining 
 clause for the meaning ; as, ' when, ' ' while, ' ' where '. 
 1 whether ', ' whence ', ' why ', ' wherever ', ' as ', ' than ', &c. 
 These are to the other adverbs what the pronoun is to the noun, 
 and hence they are called relative adverbs ; they are also connec- 
 tive or conjunctive adverbs, being in fact commonly reckoned 
 among conjunctions. 'He came while' is not intelligible ; the 
 sense is suspended till some other clause is supplied : ' He came 
 while, I was speaking ' ; ' I know not whence you are '. 
 
 Most of this class are obvious derivatives of the relative ' who ' 
 (or its root); and we have seen that they are substitutes for the 
 relative pronouns. 
 
 Taking simple and relative adverbs together, we may classify - 
 them thus : 
 
 3. I. Adverbs of Place; as 'here*, 'there', 
 
 ' without ', * above ', ' near ', * apart ', ' together ', &c. 
 
 This includes the following regularly formed pronominal 
 group : 
 
 Place where. Motion to. Motion from. 
 
 Here Hither Hence 
 
 There Thither Thence 
 
 Where Whither Whence 
 
 Also the compounds, ' hitherward ', ' thitherward ', ' whither- 
 ward '. 
 
68 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE ADVERB. 
 
 4. 1. Rest in a place: 'here', 'there ' 'where*, 
 
 ' by ', ' near ', < yonder ', ' above ', below '. 
 
 Here, in this place, this place ; opposed to * there ', in that, 
 or some other place ; an adverbial substitute for the demonstra- 
 tive 'this '. It has metaphorical extensions to other subjects : 
 ' here lies the difference '. 
 
 There, in its primitive meaning, is explained by its contrast 
 to ' here '. The two are coupled together in various idioms ; as 
 ' neither here nor there ' (no matter), ' here a plain, there a river '. 
 
 ' There ' has a very peculiar use. We employ it to begin 
 sentences without any special reference to the idea of place, and 
 hence derive one of our idiomatic forms of syntax. ' There was 
 once a good king ' ; ' there was not a tree to be seen ' ; ' there 
 came a voice from heaven '. Out of the definite signification 
 'in that place' has sprung an expression of mere existence. It 
 is not difficult to account for the transition. To be able to say 
 that a thing is in a certain place is to give an emphatic assurance 
 that it exists ; and hence the localising statement has become 
 the statement of existence. Instead of saying ' a road is ', or 
 ' exists ', we say ' there is a road '. This idiom is found very 
 convenient, but is apt to be abused, and the excessive use of it 
 should be avoided. Thus, instead of such circumlocutions as 
 ' there is a sense in which that is true ', ' there is a plan by which 
 you might do it', we might with more elegance, because more, 
 briefly, say ' in one sense that is true ', ' one plan would be '. 
 
 The following sentence is an example of the effect of the form 
 in question : ' One act James induced them to pass which would 
 have been most honourable to him and them, if there icere not 
 abundant proofs that it was meant to be a dead letter '. 
 (Macaulay.) 
 
 Where is one of our interrogative words. In form it is an 
 adverb, like ' here ' and ' there ' ; in use it is also a purely con- 
 nective word, serving the function of a relative or of a conjunc- 
 tion. ' She left the place iche-re she was so happy. ' Having 
 the original meaning of place, it has acquired the same meta- 
 phorical extensions as those two other words. ' Where ignorance 
 is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise.' By an ellipsis easy to explain we 
 find it employed as if it were a substantive : ' He had no where 
 to lay his head ', for ' he had no place where he might lay his 
 head '. We have the compound phrase ' somewhere ', like 
 ' somehow 7 ', ' nohow ', &c. 
 
 Near, by, are the adverbs of nearness or proximity : 
 'there was no one by ' ; 'he stood fa/ ' ; ' by comes a horseman '. 
 ' By ' shows its difference from ' here ' (in this spot), in the 
 phrase ' put by ', which means put away or remove. 
 
ADVERBS OF PLACE AND TIME. 69 
 
 Under this head we class the adverbs of numerical order: 
 ' firstly ' or ' first ', ' secondly ', ' lastly '. 
 
 5. 2. Motion to a place: 'hither', 'thither', 
 ' whither '. 
 
 Hither, thither, are likewise an opposed and mutually 
 explaining couple : ' to this place ', ' to that place ' ; ' come 
 hither ', ' go thither ' ; ' where I am, thither ye cannot come '. 
 
 Whither is ' to what place ? ' as an interrogative ' ; ' to 
 which place ', as a relative. 
 
 6. 3. Motion from a place: 'hence', 'thence', 
 
 ' whence '. 
 
 Hence, thence, whence ; 'from this place ', 'from that 
 
 place ', ' from what or which place '. ' Hence ' is extended to 
 time, ' a week hence ' ; also to reason or cause, as ' hence (from 
 this cause) it is ' ; likewise from this source or origin : ' all other 
 faces borrowed hence their light, their grace '. The extension to 
 time hardly takes place with ' thence ' and ' whence ', but these 
 share in the extensions to reason or cause : ' the facts are 
 admitted, whence we conclude that the principle is true '. 
 'From whence ' seems a tautology, or superfluity of expression, 
 but we find it in good use : ' Who art thou, courteous 
 stranger, and /row whence ? ' 
 
 Separation in place is expressed by ' apart ', ' separately ', 
 ' asunder '. 
 
 Conjunction is expressed by ' together .' 
 
 Place, in a variety of relative positions, is indicated by 
 ' above ', ' aloft ', ' below ', ' under ', ' down ', * beyond ', 
 * yonder ', ' away ', ' through ', ' in ', ' out ', ' without ', ' in- 
 wards ', ' inside ', ' around ', ' fro ', ' forth '. 
 
 The compounds with the single adverbs of place are exceed- 
 ingly numerous, and many of them pass into other classes, and 
 even into other parts of speech by metaphorical application: 
 hereby, herein, hereupon, thereabouts, thereafter, therefore, 
 thereof, thereon, whereas, whereby, wherefore, whereof, any- 
 where, elsewhere, somewhere, wheresoever, &c. 
 
 7. II. Adverbs of Time; as 'ever', 'lately', 
 ' often ', ' before ', &c. Time may be present, past, or 
 future. 
 
 8. 1. Time present. Under this we include 
 the following : 'now', 'to-day', 'instantly', 'presently', 
 
70 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADVERB. 
 
 'still', 'forthwith', * henceforth 'j together with such 
 phrases as ' this instant ', &c. 
 
 Closely allied to this class are those adverbs that connect one 
 thing with another in point of time, such as ' while ', ' when ', 
 * then ', ' as ', ' immediately '. 
 
 The word now is the main or typical adverb of present time, 
 from which signification its other uses are derived. 
 
 ' Immediately ' is used by the Scotch, when the English use 
 ' presently '. ' I will come presently ' is the current English 
 expression for ' I will lose no time ', * I will come without 
 delay '. The strict use of ' immediately ' is to make one event 
 follow close on another in a narrative ; * he heard the news, 
 and immediately set out '. 
 
 9. 2. Time past: 'before', 'heretofore', 
 'hitherto', 'already', 'lately', 'once', 'yesterday'. 
 
 The meaning of once is ' some former time not signified '. 
 
 10. 3. Time future: 'hereafter', 'afterwards', 
 'soon', 'henceforth', 'presently', 'immediately', 'to- 
 morrow ', ' no more '. 
 
 It will be seen that some of these (soon, presently, immedi- 
 ately, henceforth) have been already enumerated under present 
 time. They express an action just about to commence, and there- 
 fore, though strictly future, they are yet also practically present. 
 
 11. 4. Duration and Repetition: 'ever', 
 'never', 'always', 'aye'; 'often', 'seldom', 'rarely', 
 'occasionally', 'frequently', 'continually', 'continu- 
 ously', 'incessantly', 'perpetually', 'again', 'once', 
 ' twice ', ' daily ', ' monthly ', ' annually ', ' periodically'. 
 
 Ever is the foremost of the class expressive of duration. Its 
 meaning is ' at all times ', or ' through all time ' ; and owing to 
 the great force or impressiveness obtained through this extensive 
 signification, we find it employed as a word of emphasis : ' if he 
 offer ever so much ', meaning an indefinitely large quantity. 
 By analogy we extend the figure still farther, and say ' ever so 
 little ', although this somewhat borders on a contradiction of; 
 the original meaning ; as also does ' ever the less ' for ' one whit 
 the less '. The same reason explains the applications of ' never '. 
 As it excludes all time, it is a term of strong denial, and is 
 employed for mere purposes of emphasis. ' He answered him 
 
ADVERBS OF TIME AND DEGREE. 71 
 
 Again means originally ' back ', * opposite ', * on the con- 
 trary ', 'on the other hand', and hence 'a second time', but 
 is not confined to this application. It serves as a conjunctive 
 adverb, or conjunction, introducing a new sentence or paragraph, 
 with the signification 'once more', or ' in. addition '. By the 
 phrase ' once and again ', frequent repetition is denoted. 
 
 12. III. Degree, or Measure; as 'much', 
 
 .'little ', ' very ', ' far ', ' exceedingly '. 
 
 These refer to the attribute of quantity, which has been seen 
 above to be estimated in two ways, namely, by numbers, and by 
 indefinite words. 
 
 For a scale of intensity beginning at the least, we have ' very 
 little ', ' little ', ' slightly ', ' scarcely ', ' inconsiderably ', 
 ' pretty ', ' moderately ', * enough ', ' sufficiently ', ' much ', 
 
 * very much ', * greatly ', ' exceedingly ', ' utterly ', ' thoroughly', 
 'generally ', * universally ', ' terribly '. ' Gay ', in the sense* of 
 
 * very ', is a Scotticism. 
 
 'Generally' has two very different meanings which are liable to occasion 
 ambiguity. In the one sense it implies ' for the most part ', or ' in the 
 majority of instances ', as ' the plan generally succeeded ', or succeeded in 
 the greater number of trials. In the other sense it means a general or 
 generalised fact or attribute, something common to a whole class, tus 
 ' Animals generallii have a nervous system ', or, it is a general property of 
 animals. The first is the most visual meaning, the second is better 
 expressed by the phrase ' in general '. 
 
 Defect. The following may be considered as expressing quan- 
 tity under the form of defect or deficiency : ' almost ', ' nearly ', 
 ' little ', * less ', ' least ', ' hardly ', ' but ', * partly ', * well-nigh '. 
 
 * Partly' is an adverb of division : * partly his, partly yours '. 
 
 Excess is implied by 'very', 'far', 'exceedingly', 'more', 
 ' most ', ' better ', * best ', ' worst '. 
 
 Equality, or sufficiency : 'enough', 'sufficiently', 'equally', 
 
 * exactly ', ' perfectly ', ' truly ', 'just '. 
 
 Abatement, or gradation : ' liardly ', ' piecemeal ', ' gradually '. 
 
 Repetition (implies number) : 'seldom', 'often', 'frequently', 
 ' once ', ' twice ', ' thrice ', ' again ', ' once more '. In the sense 
 of addition : ' also ', ' likewise ', ' besides ', ' too '. 
 
 13. There are certain important adverbs of 
 Comparison : 'so', 'as', 'than', 'the', and 'too'. With 
 these may be joined 'enough', 'sufficiently', and 'only*. 
 
 So, in its original etymology, is a demonstrative pronoun, 
 meaning ' by that '. We have seen that it is still employed in 
 this character. It thence became an adverb of comparison: 
 
72 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADVERB. 
 
 'it was so dark, that we could see nothing '. It was dark 'by 
 
 that, to that measure, namely, that we could not see '. To 
 
 make the comparison, some second clause or statement is 
 
 requisite. Sometimes it is used with a maiked emphasis : 
 
 ' Sn frowned the mighty combatants, that hell 
 
 Grew darker at their frowii.' 
 
 In colloquial language, we often leave *he comparison un- 
 supplied, and then the word is a mere expression of intensity ; 
 ' the view is so fine '. 
 
 The application to signify cause and effect is in conformity 
 with the original meaning : he ran with all his might, and so 
 was first'; which is to say, that 'running in that manner, he 
 became first ' ; the relation of cause and effect being inferred 
 from the sequence of statement. 
 
 As, etymologically, is a contraction of ' ail-so '. In substance 
 it is the same word as ' so ', and admits of the same interpreta- 
 tion. It also retains a pronominal application in the relative 
 combination 'such as', and perhaps in the constructions 'as 
 follows ', ' as regards '. The adverbial signification ' as brave 
 as a lion ' may be explained ' brave by that (or in that degree) by 
 which (or in which degree) a lion is brave '. By an admitt< d 
 ellipsis, we may say ' brave as a lion '. 'As far as we can see '; 
 'as two is to one, so is twelve to six'; two is to one by that, 
 twelve is to six by that. ' Men are more happy, as they are less 
 involved in affairs '; ' more ' (the more) completes the comparison. 
 
 'As ' passes into more remote meanings when used as a conjunc- 
 tion. Thus it means time ' he trembled as he spoke ' ; reason 
 ' as (for since) you are of that opinion '. In combination with 
 ' if ', the comparative signification is still apparent ; ' as if we 
 did not know that '. There is simply an ellipsis. 
 
 Than (formerly ' then ') follows comparatives. ' He is 
 stronger than you ' is, in full, ' he is stronger ; then (=. next, 
 in a, lower degree) strong are you '. 
 
 The (O.E. thy, abl. of demonstr. adj. )precedes comparatives. 
 'The more, the better '='by that more, by that better', 'better 
 in that degree in which more '. Compare ' as '. 
 
 Too is likewise an adverb of comparison occasionally employed 
 in the absolute sense. Its terseness is fully appreciated in trans- 
 lating into other languages, as the Latin. ' He is too old to 
 learn ' is a happy abbreviation of ' he is so old that he is unable 
 to learn '. When the phrase expressing the comparison is sup- 
 pressed, we must understand the word in the sense of ' more than 
 enough, than what is just, right, convenient, fitting, or desirable'. 
 Oh ! that this too, too solid flesh would melt, 
 Thaw, arid resolve itself into a dew.' 
 
ADVERBS OF COMPARISON AND CERTAINTY. 73' 
 
 Enough and sufficiently are also used in a similar way : 
 ' 1 am old enough to manage my own affairs ' ; ' the irritation is 
 sufficiently great to lead to war '. The longer forms would be : 
 ' 1 am so old that I am able to manage my own affairs ' ; ' the 
 irritation is so great that it may lead to war '. 
 
 The condensation may be carried even to the omission of the 
 word of comparison, the force of which, however, is felt to be 
 implied : ' He is not a man to put confidence in ' ; 'he had not 
 the prudence to conceal his anger '. The longer forms would 
 be : ' he is not so honourable (trustworthy, good, able, &c. ) a 
 man that one can put confidence in him ' ; 'he was not so 
 prudent as to conceal his anger that he concealed his anger '. 
 
 The important word only, with the synonymes 'solely', 
 ' merely ', ' alone ', might be included under the present head. 
 The general meaning of ' only ' is ' this one thing by itself ', to 
 the exclusion of other things. 
 
 14. IV. Belief and Disbelief, or Certainty 
 and Uncertainty; as ' truly ', ' surely ', ' certainly ', 
 
 ' nay ', ' not ', ' perhaps ', ' possibly '. 
 
 This being a distinction of great and leading importance, the 
 words that indicate the degrees of certainty and uncertainty are 
 a marked class, although not very numerous. 
 
 For the expression of belief or certainty, we have ' certainly ', 
 ' surely ', ' assuredly ', ' truly ', ' verily ', ' undoubtedly ', 
 ' exactly ', ' positively ', 'precisely ', ' indeed ', ' yes ', ' yea ';* 
 with a variety of phrases, as, ' of course ', ' by all means ', ' in .. 
 truth ', ' even so ', 'just so ', ' most assuredly ', ' by all manner 
 of means', ' on every ground ', 'without fail', 'without excep- 
 tion ', ' beyond all doubt ', * beyond the possibility of question ', 
 ' to be sure '. 
 
 For the expression of disbelief, we have principally the great 
 particle of negation, ' not ', or ' no ',* and phrases deriving 
 their negative force from it : ' no ', ' not ', ' nay ', ' not so ', 
 ' not at all ', ' no wise ', ' by no means ', ' by no manner of 
 means ', ' on no account ', ' in no respect ', ' not in the least ', 
 
 * The words yes, yea, ay, no, are called adverbs, and seem to have an 
 adverbial force ; but, as Mr. 0. P. Mason remarks, they are never used to 
 qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, and therefore appear scarcely 
 entitled to the appellation. He proposes to call them interjections ; but 
 this too seems objectionable, as they are not outbursts of emotion, like 
 ' alas 1 ' ' hurrah ' ! and the like. They are rather a species of relative 
 words, which express a speaker's assent or denial to a particular state- 
 ment, not by repeating the statement, but by referring to it as having 
 juat been enounced. Many of the words in the above list, may be 
 detached in the same way from the sentence that they qualify : for 
 example 'certainly', 'surely', ' indeed', &c. The adverb then stand* 
 alone by an obvious ellipsis. 
 
74 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADVERB. 
 
 ' not a whit ', ' not a bit ', * not a jot ', 'forsooth ' (an ironical 
 phrase in modern English, but used at one time seriously, for 
 ' verily '). 
 
 For probability, contingency, or uncertainty, we have ' perhaps,' 
 'probably', 'possibly', 'maybe', 'haply', 'mayhap', 'likely,' 
 ' perchance ', ' peradventure ', howbeit '. 
 
 15. V. Cause and Effect; as < therefore', 
 ' wherefore ', ' why ', ' whence ', * hence ', ' thus ', and 
 numerous phrases. 
 
 Under this head we may include instrumentality, which 
 meaning, however, although abundantly expressed by phrases 
 and clauses, is seldom given by any single word. 
 
 16. VI. Manner, or Quality; as 'well', 'ill', 
 
 ' wisely ', ' bravely ', ' softly ', ' quickly ', * remarkably ', 
 ' rightly '. 
 
 As with adjectives, this is the class that includes the great 
 body of adverbs. Of the five previous classes it is possible 
 to give an exhaustive enumeration, but adverbs of quality 
 make a large part of the vocabulary of the language. The 
 mode or manner of doing an action may be very various, as we 
 may see on a little reflection. Suppose the subject is putting 
 something in motion ; we may move quickly, steadily, violently, 
 suddenly, abruptly, hurriedly, straight, zigzag, strongly, 
 rightly, beautifully, unexpectedly, and so on. And every kind 
 of action that it is possible to mention has varieties of manner 
 peculiar to itself. Thus ' to speak ', 'to sing ', 'to eat ', ' to 
 look ', ' to work ', ' to govern ', ' to die ', have all their special 
 modes, exclusive of the attributes of time, place, and degree, 
 above enumerated ; and the word, or phrase, or clause, expres- 
 sive of that mode, is considered in grammar as an adverb. ' He 
 spoke long, clearly, to the purpose.' 'He looked hard, loitJi 
 anxiety, as if he were in earnest.' ' He governed wisely, with 
 discretion, so as to gain esteem.' ' He died easily, without 
 suffering, as one would have predicted.' A word, or combination 
 of words, answering to the interrogative ' how ' is au adverb 
 of manner, as replying to an inquiry into the special mode 
 or circumstances of an action. If we say ' the sun shines ', 
 any one may demand a more specific account of this fact, which 
 is known to take place in a variety of ways, and the words 
 employed to give such more specific information are adverbs or 
 the equivalents of adverbs : ' the sun shines brightly, or with 
 intermission, or so as to light up the landscape, or as if we were 
 
ADVERBS OF CAUSE AND MANNER. 75 
 
 in the tropics '. The name for the specifying attribute of a noun 
 corresponds to the adjective in grammar ; the specifying 
 attributes of the verb are given by the adverb. Now, from the 
 great variety of ways and circumstances of the performance of 
 actions, adverbs, and adverbial phrases and clauses, like adjec- 
 rives and their equivalents, are necessarily innumerable. 
 
 17. Adverbs of Manner are often used to 
 express Degree : ' seriously ', ' hopelessly ', ' pierc- 
 ingly ', ' provokingly 7 , ' inseparably ', ' inextricably '. 
 
 ' The patient is seriously, hopelessly ill ' ; ' the air is piercingly 
 cold ' ; ' he was provokingly cool ', ' they are inseparably, inextri- 
 cably connected '. 
 
 18.* The formation of adverbs from Parti- 
 ciples is an elegant means of brevity : 'provokingly', 
 ' knowingly ', ' avowedly ', * invitingly '. 
 
 ' He was provokingly cool ' is a short way of giving the sense 
 of ' he was so cool as to provoke one that one could not but feel 
 provoked '. ' They broke the law knmcingly ' is a condensation 
 for ' they broke the law, and they knew that they were doing so'. 
 ' lie has avowedly retracted his opinion ' ; ' the door is invitingly 
 ajar '. 
 
 Substitutes for the Simple Adverb. 
 
 19. The equivalents of the Adverb in com- 
 position are phrases and clauses. 
 
 (1.) PLACE. Phrases: 'I was never in that place, quarter, 
 toi'-n, part of the world, <6c.'(= there)'; 'at the seat of judg- 
 ment', 'in the skies', 'under the greenwood tree '. Clauses: 
 1 wherever one goes ( everywhere), one hears the same story ' ; 
 ' ichere the tree falls, there will it lie ' ; 'whither I go, ye cannot 
 come'; ' go whence you came '. The relative adverbs 'where', 
 'whither', 'whence', 'wheresoever,' &c. are the connectives 
 of these clauses with the main clause, while they also qualify, 
 by the attribute of place, the verb in the dependent clause. 
 
 (2.) TIME. Phrases-. ' Their rivalry is active even to this day 
 (==. yet) 1 ', ' every two years ' (= biennially) ; ' once on a time ' ; 
 ' the day before yesterday ', ' next year ', ' a century ago '. 
 Clauses : ' while I live (= ever, always, &c. ) I will follow truth ' ; 
 - 1 will come when I can ' ; ' the thing was done before I came '. 
 
 These clauses are introduced either by the relative adverbs of 
 time ' ere ', ' until ', 'when ', ' while ', ' whenever 'or by the 
 
76 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE ADVERB. 
 
 prepositions ' before ', ' after ', ' since ', which in this applica- 
 tion govern clauses, instead of nouns, but are usually called 
 conjunctions. 
 
 (3.) DEGREE. Phrases: 'The scene was in a singular degree 
 ( singularly) romantic ' ; ' he is so clever as to surprise one 
 (surprisingly clever) ' ; ' by ever so little ', ' to a small extent ', 
 in a very intense degree '. Clauses : ' He is not so careful as he 
 ought to be (= careful enough] ' ; ' the rain was heavier then we 
 anticipated tJmn could have been anticipated (= unexpectedly 
 heavy) ' ; ' the sea is as d( ep as the mountains are high ' ; l as 
 tlnj day is, so shall thy strength be '. ' As ' is the principal 
 word employed in these clauses. The degree being expressed 
 by comparison with some other thing as a standard, the connec- 
 tive required is a word or words of comparison or proportionality: 
 as as, as so, than, the (the more). ' He knows more -than I 
 (do) ' ; ' the longer we live, the more charitable we become '. 
 
 (4.) BELIEF and DISBELIEF. Phrases: 'Beyond doubt (= 
 undoubtedly, doubtless) ', ' with the highest certainty ', ' with 
 great hesitation ' ; to confess the truth (= truly, indeed, certainly, 
 &c.), I do not like him. ' Clauses: If my life depended on it, 
 I would maintain my opinion ' ; ' I am as certain as if I had 
 scon it (= perfectly certain) '. Clauses of Belief and Disbelief 
 are introduced by forms for Degree. 
 
 CONDITION, UNCERTAINTY. 'The King could not legislate 
 without the consent of his Parliament (phrase) unless (or 
 except) his Parliament consented, if his Parliament did not 
 t - ntsent ' (clause). Conditional conjs. introduce these clauses. 
 
 (5.) CAUSE and EFFECT. 
 
 CAUSE. Phrases : ' For what purpose (= why) are you doing 
 this ? ' ' owing to these causes (hence, therefore, &c.) the enter- 
 prise failed ' ; 'by the action of the sun,' ' by force of kindness,' 
 'by the influence of the government*. Clauses: 'The crops 
 are bad, because the spring was ungenial ' ; 'we lost the fight, 
 because our numbers were reduced '. The conjunction ' because', 
 and its equivalents (inasmuch as, by reason that, &c. ) are the 
 connecting links in this kind of clause. 
 
 EFFECT. Phrases : 'To his own hurt,' 'with the highest 
 success (= most successfully) '. Clauses : ' He stood his ground, 
 so that at last he triumphed '. 
 
 (6.) MANNER generally. The phrases and combinations for 
 this purpose are innumerable. 'In a manful way', &c. The 
 clauses are introduced by the relative or connecting adverb ' as', 
 upon the same principle of comparison as that involved in 
 degree. ' He behaved as if his all had been at stake ' ; ' he falls 
 to such perusal of my face as he would draw it '. 
 
ADVERBIAL EQUIVALENTS. 77 
 
 20. Other Parts of Speech are occasionally 
 used as Adverbs. 
 
 Nouns : ' He sent the man home' (place) ; 'he goes 
 to-morrow' (on the morrow) (time); 'he cares not a 
 groat' (degree). 'Skin deep', 'town made', ' stone dead'. 
 
 This is not an unfrequent usage. "We can explain it by the 
 abbreviation of the adverbial phrases, ' on the morrow ', ' to his 
 house, or home ', ' so much as a groat, &c. 
 
 Pronouns occasionally serve as Adverbs: 'what 
 ( = why) should he labour 1 ' * somewhat large ' (Scotch 
 ' some large ') ; ' none the worse '; ' I will not do this 
 either '. 
 
 Adjectives often appear to stand where Adverbs 
 might be expected ; as ' drink deep ', ' the green trees 
 whispered soft and low ', ' this looks strange ', l standing 
 erect '. 
 
 "We have also examples of one adjective qualifying another 
 adjective, as ' wide open ', ' red hot ', ' the pale blue sky '. 
 Sometimes the corresponding adverb is used, but with a different 
 meaning ; as ' I found the way easy easily 1 ; ' it appears clear 
 clearly'. Although there is a propriety in the employment 
 of the adjective in certain instances, yet such forms as ' indif- 
 ferent well ', ' extreme bad ', are grammatical errors. ' He was 
 interrogated relative to that circumstance ', should be relatively, 
 or in relation to. It is not unusual to say ' I would have done 
 it independent of that circumstance ', but independently is the 
 proper construction. 
 
 The employment of Adjectives for Adverbs is accounted for by 
 the following considerations : 
 
 (1.) In the classical languages the neuter adjective may be 
 used as an adverb, and the analogy would appear to have been 
 extended to English. 
 
 (2.) In the oldest English, the adverb was regularly formed 
 from the adjective by adding ' e ', as ' soft, softe ', and the drop- 
 ping of the 'e' left the adverb in the adjective form; thus 'clcene', 
 adverb, became ' clean ', and appears in the phrase ' clean 
 gone ' ; 'fceste, fast ', ' to stick fast '. By a false analogy, 
 many adjectives that never formed adverbs in -e were freely used 
 as adverbs in the age of Elizabeth : 'Thou didst it excellent', 
 ' equal (for equally) good ', ' excellent well '. This gives pre- 
 cedent for such errors as those mentioned above. 
 
78 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 (3.) There are cases where the subject is qualified rather than 
 the verb, as with verbs of incomplete predication, ' being ' 
 ' seeming ', ' arriving ', &c. In ' the matter seems clear ', 
 ' clear ' is part of the predicate of ' matter '. ' They arrived 
 safe ' ; ' sate ' does not qualify ' arrived ', but goes with it to 
 complete the predicate. So : ' he sat silent ', ' he stood firm '. 
 1 It comes beautiful ', and 'it comes beautifully', have different 
 meanings. This explanation applies especially to the use of 
 participles as adverbs, as in Southey's lines on Lodore ; the 
 participial epithets applied there, although appearing to modify 
 ' came ', are really additional predications about ' the water ', in 
 elegantly shortened form. ' The church stood gleaming through 
 the trees '; ' gleaming ' is a shortened predicate of ' church ' ; 
 and the full form would be : ' the church stood and gleamed '. 
 The participle retains its force as such, while acting the part 
 of a coordinating adjective, complement to ' stood ' : ' stood 
 .gleaming' is little more than 'gleamed'. The feeling of 
 ! adverbial force in 'gleaming ' arises from the subordinate parti- 
 cipial form joined with a verb, ' stood ', that seems capable of 
 predicating by itself. ' Passing strange ' is elliptical ; ' passing 
 (surpassing) what is strange '. 
 
 Verbs J as ' smack went the whip '; ' he let it go bang 
 at the window '; a very rare usage, 
 
 Prepositions ; as 'I told you before 1 ; 'I have not 
 met him since '; ' we never trusted them after '. 
 
 THE PREPOSITION. 
 Definition. 
 
 I. A Preposition is a word prefixed to a 
 Noun or its equivalent to make up a quali- 
 fying or adverb phrase: 'Send the parcel to 
 town, in the evening, by us/ 
 
 The action of sending the parcel is limited by three adverb 
 phrases ; and the word used in each that goes with the noun or 
 pronoun to make the phrase, is a distinct part of speech, called 
 the Preposition : ' to ', ' in ', ' by ', are prepositions. 
 
 This is the only definition that effectually separates preposi- 
 tions from conjunctions. A conjunction could not be used with 
 a noun to make a qualifying phrase. We could not say * Send 
 the parcel i/'town, though the evening, or us '. 
 
CASE-PREPOSITIONS. 79 
 
 The regular place of a preposition is between a verb and a 
 noun : ' taken by force '. Where one noun is connected with 
 another by a preposition, there is usually a contraction : ' We 
 went from house to house ', ' we went /row (one) house, and we 
 went to (another) house '. ' Your Father in heaven ' ; ' your 
 Father who dwells in heaven '. 
 
 Sometimes a preposition is joined with an adverb (see NOUN, 
 21 ) : 'until now (= the present time) ', ' for ever (= all time) ', 
 ' from abroad ', ' not above once or twice ', ' by to-morrow '. 
 
 In such expressions as ' in all ', ' in brief \ * for good ', ' at 
 last ', ' for better ', ' for worse ', prepositions are combined with 
 adjectives, instead of nouns. The ellipsis of the noun is obvious. 
 
 Case-Prepositions. 
 
 2. Certain Prepositions specially corres- 
 pond to the case-endings of nouns in the 
 classical languages; these are 'of, 'to', 'for', 
 ' from ', ' by ', ' with '. 
 
 3. Of corresponds to the possessive case in English, 
 and the genitive case in other languages. 
 
 As the possessive inflection is used only in a small number of 
 nouns, and not uniformly in those, we are dependent on this 
 preposition for conveying the meaning of the possessive case. 
 
 'Of expresses a variety of relations, which may be 
 traced up to a common source. The original import 
 of the root was 'from', 'separation', 'proceeding from', 
 which easily led to the meaning now most generally 
 signified, namely, ' belonging to ' or ' referring to '. 
 For example, the ' force of the wind ' means a property 
 proceeding from the wind, or manifested by it, and 
 therefore inhering in it, or belonging to it. 
 
 (1.) The partitive meaning. 'Of is used to 
 relate the part of anything to the whole: 'the wing of 
 the eagle ', ' the walls of the town ', ' the banks of the 
 river '. 
 
 Any complicated object may be considered as made up of its 
 parts. A house has a foundation, walls, a roof, doors, windows, 
 rooms, &c. ; these are its parts, or mechanical divisions. Any 
 
80 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 one of these being specified, we signify that it belongs to the 
 house by the preposition 'of: 'the roof of the house '. 
 
 So we may say * the army of Britain ', ' the children of the 
 family ', ' the property of the corporation '. These are all 
 separable parts of the wholes that they severally belong to. 
 
 A fraction or division of a total is expressed by ' of ' on the 
 same principle : ' a third of the proceeds ' ; ' few of the host 
 survived ' ; 'a tithe of all he possessed ' ; ' one ninth of the 
 remainder'. Hence the adjectives of fullness or want are 
 naturally followed by ' of ' ; ' full of compassion, of hope ' ; 
 ' destitute of clothes, of money, o/all things '. 
 
 (2.) The attributive meaning. 'Of is used 
 to connect an abstract property, or quality, with the 
 concrete ; as ' the strength of the lion ', ' the lightness 
 of air ', ' the temper of steel '. 
 
 There is a second mode of conceiving a complex or concrete 
 object, namely, as made up of properties, or attributes, insepar- 
 able from the object, except in thought. Thus we may speak 
 of the length of a room, but we cannot cut off the length from 
 the other dimensions and properties. We cannot separate the 
 weight, the colour, the value, of gold from the rest of the 
 qualities. These are called abstract qualities ; they are spoken 
 of in language as inhering in the total, or the concrete ; and 
 when any one of them is specified, the preposition 'of is the 
 connecting word : as ' the sweetness of honey ', ' the shape of 
 the mountain ', ' the colour of the snow ' . 
 
 These two meanings are simple and intelligible, being two 
 modes of the same general idea of ' possession ', ' property ', or 
 ' belonging '. But we find other meanings apparently very 
 remote from this leading idea. 
 
 (3.) The reference meaning. ' Of ' m.ay serve 
 to specify a subject or make a reference; as 'the Book 
 of Proverbs'. Here 'Proverbs' indicates the subject 
 that the * book ' refers to. ' The love of our neighbour '; 
 love with regard to, or directed upon, a certain party 
 specified as our neighbour. ' Of man's first disobedi- 
 ence sing, heavenly Muse '. 
 
 This meaning may have grown up thus. If we say ' a book 
 of problems ', we may be understood as implying, that of the 
 whole class of things named problems, as much is taken as will 
 make a book, literally, 'a bookful of problems '. 'A treatise 
 of geometry ', is a portion of the whole subject of geometry, 
 
MEANINGS OP t OF '. 81 
 
 taken and included in a treatise. The meaning of reference 
 would thus be a branch of the partitive meaning. It is to be 
 noticed, however, that this application of the word is not so fre- 
 quent now as formerly. We prefer ' on ' to ' of ' in specifying a 
 subject under discussion : as ' on geometry ', ' on plants ', &c. 
 ' The love of our neighbour ' is ambiguous if we allow it to 
 mean ' towards our neighbour '. Properly this should be 
 interpreted (attributively) ' the love manifested by our neigh- 
 bour to us ' ; for the other case we should use ' to ' : ' love to 
 God ', ' love to man '. In the phrase ' the fear of God ', the 
 meaning of reference is exclusively involved ; the ' fear ' is a 
 passion belonging properly to us, and is indicated by the 
 possessive of the person, ' man's fear ', -' the wicked's fear ' ; 
 but there must be an object to the passion, some one who, as it 
 were, shares the property of it ; there is an attribute belonging 
 to God that inspires the fear, and this probably leads to our 
 employing 'of in order to indicate this object. 
 
 ' Sing of man's first disobedience ' is ' let your song arise o\vt 
 of and hence take for its subject, be in reference to man's 
 first disobedience '. 'Tell me truly what thou think' st of him '; 
 that is, ' about, regarding him '. 
 
 Such a phrase as ' a common of turbary ', is a pure case of 
 reference ; the acceptation is ' a common in so far as regards the 
 right of cutting turf. ' Right of pasturage ' is a ' right having 
 reference to pasturage '. 
 
 (4.) The Adjective meaning. The Preposition, 
 with its Noun, has often the force of an Adjective ; as 
 'a crown of gold', for 'a golden crown'; 'an act of 
 grace ' (a gracious act) ; * a pearl of great price ' (a 
 precious pearl). 
 
 This too might be explained on the partitive principle. 'A 
 crown of gold ' we may interpret as meaning the quantity of 
 gold taken and employed to make up a crown. In ' a man of 
 courage ', we may imagine that of the courage contained in the 
 world a certain portion is represented as inhering in a man, a 
 man filled or supplied with courage. This construction is the 
 chief example of the adjective phrase. 
 
 (5.) The Apposition meaning. Nouns in appo- 
 sition are sometimes connected by ' of '; as * the city of 
 Amsterdam \ ' this affair of the mutiny ', ' a monster 
 of a man ', ' the crime of murder '. 
 
 ' The city of London ' is strictly partitive, inasmuch as the 
 city is a part of London ; but * the town of Berlin ' is an ex- 
 
 6 
 
82 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION, 
 
 ample of apposition, ' the town, Berlin '. It is n< 
 apply this form indiscriminately : * the river of 
 
 not allowable to 
 Jordan ' is an 
 error. 
 
 ' This affair of the mutiny ' is the same as ' this affair, namely, 
 the mutiny '. We may perhaps consider the present case as a 
 further application of the meaning of reference. ' A brute of 
 a dog ' is colloquial English, and may be interpreted as a case 
 of apposition, or predication, ' a dog that is a brute '. 
 
 ' The winter of our discontent ' is a Shakespearian figure, indi- 
 cating apposition. 
 
 Additional examples. ' To ask a favour of, ' to rid one's self 
 of, 'to cure a man of, ' delivered of a child ' (' woes ', ' danger ' 
 Shak.}, are examples of the employment of the preposition 
 in its primary sense of ' proceeding from '. ' He rejoiceth more of 
 that sheep than of the ninety and nine which went not astray ' ; 
 
 * I will not drink of the fruit of the vine ' ; ' to die of hunger '. 
 
 In the expression ' of necessity ' we have the equivalent of the 
 adverb ' necessarily '. It may be explained as ' something 
 belonging to or proceeding from necessity '. Shakespeare says 
 ' of force ', where we should say ' perforce '. So, ' of course ', 
 
 * of consequence ', ' of a truth '. 
 
 Agency or cause was often expressed by 'of about the time 
 of Elizabeth : ' received of (for ' by ') Edward ', ' the observed 
 of all observers ', ' understanded of the people ', * ye shall be 
 hated of all men ', ' seen of all the apostles '. 
 
 This application remains in the exceedingly common case 
 where the action, naturally expressed by a verb, is expressed by 
 a noun. ' The baptism of John ' gives in the form of a noun 
 (with adjunct) the fact that ' John baptized ', and the agent or 
 subject is connected with the action by ' of '. In the same way, 
 ' the war party agitated ' is turned, for being conveniently 
 spoken about, into ' the agitation of the war party ' ; and * of* 
 is used as in the preceding example. 
 
 Again, the object, as well as the subject, of an action is simi- 
 larly connected with the transmuted verb by ' of '. We may 
 say ' Caesar conquered Gaul ', and then speak of this fact as 
 
 * Csesar's conquest of Ganl ' ; the verb being transmuted into a 
 verbal noun, with which the object is kept connected by * of '. 
 ' Columbus discovered America ' ' the discovery of America ' ; 
 ' Gutenberg invented printing' 'the invention of printing'; 
 ' England lost Calais ' ' the loss of Calais ' ; ' to destroy a city' 
 ' the destruction of a city '. 
 
 In ' the Earl of Mar ' we have an exact case of partition ; for 
 although such titles are now mere names, they were not always 
 so. Mar was a great district of country containing many con- 
 stituent elements, physical and moral ; among these was its 
 
'OF' AND 'TO'. 83 
 
 chief, or Earl : so that ' the Earl of Mar ' was a correct form on 
 the partitive principle, no less than ' the district, the people, 
 the wealth, the history, &c., o/Mar '. 'The Queen of England', 
 the ' Town Clerk of Leeds ', are exactly parallel. The same 
 principle will explain ' Doctor of medicine ', ' Teacher of 
 music ', ' Dean of Guild ', ' Master of the Rolls '. Every one of 
 these supposes a collective institution, made up of many 
 elements, or parts, and of these one is specified : Medicine is a 
 whole, containing its science, its methods, and among the rest, 
 its doctors. 
 
 In comparing the expressions ' a bust of Cicero ' and ' a bust 
 of Cicero's ', we can farther illustrate the uses of the preposition. 
 In the second case it has the partitive signification ; the meaning 
 is ' a bust of Cicero's collection of busts ' ; in the other it is an 
 example of reference ' a bust whose subject is Cicero'. 
 
 ' A play of Shakespeare ' is also partitive ; a man's productions 
 are considered as a part of his collective personality. 
 
 ' The better of it is not so good as ' the better for it '. ' My 
 uncle Toby's heart was a pound lighter for it.' 
 
 4. To. The primary idea of motion in the direc- 
 tion of pervades all the applications of ' to '. 
 
 Considering the extent of its use, the meaning of ' to ' is 
 remarkably uniform. It is pointedly contrasted with ' from ', 
 as in the phrase ' to and fro '. ' He went to the house ', ' leave 
 that to me ', ' add to your faith ', ' duty to our parents ', ' to 
 arms ', ' glory to God ', are obvious instances. Among the more 
 remote applications are to be found such phrases as ' pleasant to 
 the taste ', ' to one's hand ', 'ten to one ', ' to the number of two 
 hundred ', ' to all intents and purposes ', ' to his honour be it 
 said ', ' done to a cinder ', ' ye shall pay to the last penny ', ' they 
 
 marched to the tune of ', ' to a Christian, this world is a 
 
 place of trial and preparation '. Even in the examples where 
 motion ' in the direction of ' is not directly stated, proximity, 
 which is the natural result, is indicated ; hence the meaning of 
 reference indicated in the last example. 
 
 As the sign of the infinitive, ' to ' has still the same signifi- 
 cation. 
 
 It is remarked by grammarians that certain nouns, adjectives, 
 and verbs take ' to ' after them, and lists of such words are 
 accordingly given for the guidance of the pupil ; as, for example, 
 ' accustom to ', ' adapt to ', ' belong to ', ' equal ', ' prefer ', 
 ' tend ', &c. But it should be noticed that in nearly all these 
 cases the intended meaning is answered by this preposition, and 
 would not be so well answered by any other. Thus the words 
 * attach', ' attend ', ' confirm ', ' consecrate ', ' listen, ', ' give , ' 
 
84 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 ' tell ', ' show ', ' liken ', all indicate the sense of approaching 
 nearer to something, or pointing in some one direction, which is 
 the main signification of ' to '. In a few cases there would 
 appear to be something arbitrary in the choice, and in these 
 wide departures from the fundamental meaning we must look 
 upon the connexion as a special idiom of the language, to be 
 learned from usage, and not to be inferred from the general 
 meaning of the word. Among these, we may perhaps include 
 the following, ' blind to ' (where ' to ' means reference), ' deroga- 
 tory to ', ' foreign to ', ' object to ', ' opposite to '. 
 
 Such examples as 'true to', 'unknown to', 'dislike to', 
 ' provoke to ', ' impute to ', ' adapt to ', are conformable to the 
 primary signification. 
 
 We occasionally meet with violations of these special usages, 
 such as ' different to ', for ' different from'. 
 
 ' To take to wife ' is almost a solitary remnant of this use of 
 ' to ' ; = ' as ', ' for ', ' in the capacity of '. ' With God to 
 friend ' (Spenser) ; ' he hath a pretty young man to his son ' 
 (Bunyan). ' This is nothing to what we expected '. The sense 
 of ' in comparison with ' is easily reached from the original 
 meaning. ' The Greeks are strong and skilful to (in proportion 
 to) their strength '. 
 
 ' It is altered to the better ', should be 'for the better '. 
 
 Scotticisms : ' Will you buy a knife to (for) me ' ; 'I have no 
 fault to (with) him ' j ' I entertain no prejudice to (towards) him'. 
 
 5. For is much more complicated and various in its 
 applications. Originally connected with, 'fore', meaning 
 ' in front of, it has branched off in different directions, 
 until the original signification is frequently to all 
 appearance lost sight of. 
 
 (1.) The chief meaning is 'direction, end, purpose, benefit'. 
 
 ' They set out for their home ' ; ' some toil for money, others 
 for fame ' ; ' every one for himself ' ; ' the Sabbath was made 
 for man ' ; 'for this end came I into the world ' ; ' good for 
 man ' ; 'oh, for a draught of vintage that hath been ' ; 'for 
 Jesus' sake '. 
 
 This meaning is brought out strongly by th.6 contrasting pre- 
 position ' against ' : ' he fought for his principles and against 
 his interest ' ; ' for the constitution, and against the king '. ' We 
 are for the principles of good government against Walpole, and 
 for Walpole against the opposition.' 
 
 The meaning of reference, seen in such expressions as ' so 
 much for the first question ', ' bodies depend for their visibility', 
 can be traced to the meaning of end, purpose, benefit. 
 
APPLICATIONS OF ' FOR '. 85 
 
 "The old idiom now called the gerund form of the verb, is an 
 instance of this application : ' What went ye out for to see ? ' 
 The idea of end or purpose is implied in this verbal construction, 
 although the * for ' is now dropped. 
 
 ' For a holy person to be humble, for one whom all men 
 esteem as a saint, to fear lest himself become a devil, is as hard 
 as for a prince to submit himself to be guided by tutors.' Here 
 we have a form grown out of the gerund construction, with a 
 reference still to the idea of end, purpose, or direction. This is 
 a useful equivalent of the noun clause (that a holy person be 
 humble, that a prince submit himself, &c.). 
 
 The meaning of cause, as well as of purpose, readily con- 
 nects itself with the sense ' in front of ' : ' beheaded for treason', 
 ' decorated for bravery ', ' could not act for fear ', ' eminent, 
 famous for ', * frequented for '. 
 
 In the phrases ' six for a penny ', ' line for line ', ' measure 
 for measure ', we have the meaning of exchange, or ' return for ', 
 which chimes in with the original signification. Perhaps the 
 idea of proportionality in the phrase ' he is tall for his years ', 
 is merely a following out of the same application. So also ' we 
 took him for his brother ', where the meaning shades into the 
 idea of comparison implied in 'as '. 
 
 ' For an hour ', 'for a little ', 'for once ', for ever ', represent 
 an apparently distinct signification, although we may suppose a 
 connexion between it and the primary meaning ' in front of '. 
 
 (2.) ' For ' means ' notwithstanding ', ' in spite of ', a meaning 
 not readily connected with the foregoing. ' For all this, they 
 still proceed' ; ' for all his wealth, he was not content'; f for 
 anything to the contrary'; f for all that.' "We may suppose 
 the connexion to arise from the circumstance that men often 
 fail in their enterprises, although possessing the usual means of 
 success, and that the word implies the presence of the means, 
 according to its original force, 'in front of, and yet allows us 
 to infer that the end was not gained, ' For all his wealth 
 with all his wealth in front of him the natural consequences 
 did not follow in h:3 case '. (Compare the uses of ' with '.) 
 
 Of the list of words given as properly followed by * for ', the 
 greater number have their meaning suited by this preposition, 
 while with a few it has no special appropriateness. Thus ' care 
 for', 'sail for', 'work for', ' design for', 'good for', 'prepared 
 for', ' substitute for ', ' thankful for ', 'answer for', 'occasion 
 for ', ' esteem for ', are all in accord with the principal meaning 
 above given. 
 
 ' He was accused for ', is a Scotticism for 'accused '. So, 
 ' there is much need for it ' ' need of it ' is the correct phrase ; 
 
86 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 ' burst for (with) laughing ' ; ' insists for (on) it ' j 'he called 
 for (on) me ' ; 'died for (of) thirst '. 
 
 ' To ' and ' for ' correspond to what is called the dative case of the 
 classical languages, although they have a far wider range of meaning 
 than could be expressed by that inflexion. Our so-called objective forms 
 me, thee, him, her, them are, in their origin, datives, and this signifi- 
 cation still to a certain extent adheres to them. 
 
 6. From ; * forth ', ' forwards ', ' beginning at ', 
 proceeding away.' < From door to door ', 'from Dan 
 to Beersheba', 'from home', 'from earth to heaven'. 
 
 The original reference to place is widely departed from in the 
 use of the preposition, but the more general idea of ' direction 
 from ' is in the main preserved. 
 
 The application to time is seen in 'from morn to noon, from 
 noon to dewy eve ', 'from my youth up ', 'from age to age '. 
 
 Anything that indicates a source, origin, or commencement, 
 may be preceded by ' from '. 'He rose from the ranks, from, 
 ohscuritj r ', &c. ; ' authority emanates from, the sovereign ' ; 
 ' won/rora the enemy ' ; ' snatched from the flames ' ; ' the song 
 began from Jove ' ; 'we must probe the story from first to last '. 
 Hence it is used in the sense of ' turn away ', ' quit ', ' leave ', 
 ' abandon '. ' He fled from the city of destruction ' ; ' shrinking 
 from the picture of distress '. 
 
 Also remoteness and privation ; as 'ab?^nt/rom my sight* ; 
 ' remote from cities' ; ' far from the madding crowd's ignoble 
 strife ' ; 'from thee to die were torture more than death '. 
 
 It likewise follows words implying deliverance, release, &c. : 
 ' released from his vow '. 
 
 So, separation, abstraction, destruction, are indicated by the 
 same preposition, and with a like adherence to the main and 
 primary import. 
 
 Motive or reason may be expressed by ' from ' ; * they acted 
 from no unworthy motive ', 'from gratitude ', 'from fear '. 
 
 Imitation is a sense closely connected with the original : 
 ' Kneller is said to have painted the figure and hands of ladies 
 from his housemaid. . . He copied from the life only 
 glaring and obvious peculiarities '. (Macaulay). 
 
 Errors. ' It is inferior from (should be to) what I expected '; 
 ' different to that ', should be /row. 
 
 7. By. The primary meaning seems to be ' about', 
 ' alongside of ', * proximity '. ' He sat by the river ', 
 ' by the tree ', * hard by the oracles of God ', ' inhabited 
 
FROM', 'BY', 'WITH*. 87 
 
 by the great '. The other meanings grow out of this by 
 natural transitions. 
 
 Thus, defence of, help : ' stand by me '. 
 
 Agency, instrumentality, cause : ' eaten by wolves ', ' main- 
 tained by the public ', ' watched by angels ', ' shaken by the 
 wind '. Shakespeare uses ' with ' in this sense : ' here is himself, 
 marred, as you see, with traitors' ; we should now say 'by 
 traitors '. ' We hope to gain by you ' ; ' seize him by force ' ; 
 ' by intelligence man raises his condition ' ; 'the power of 
 speaking well should be aimed at by all ' ; ' to know by heart '. 
 
 Words of measuring take ' by ' after them from the circum- 
 stance that the things measured have to be put side by side : 
 ' greater by half ' ; ' measure your desires by your fortunes, not 
 your fortunes by your desires ' ', ' by the rule 'and the square ' ; 
 4 it was sold by the ounce '. 
 
 In phrases of distribution, such as * one by one ', ' house by 
 house ', ' to do things by halves ', we have still the same idea. 
 'They came by hundreds ' is a somewhat loose a] 'plication ; ' in 
 hundreds ' is perhaps less frequent in good English. 
 
 The employment of the preposition with nouns of time illus- 
 trates the general signification : ' by this time they are far away', 
 that is ' alongside of, or at this time ' ; ' by the commencement 
 of spring ' ; ' by sunrise '. 
 
 This is the preposition of adjuration, a purpose still conform- 
 able to the primary meaning : ' by all that we hold dear ' is 
 ' standing by, and under the love or fear or influence of '. 
 
 8. With. The radical notion involved in 'with' 
 appeals to be ' towards ', 'joining or uniting'. In old 
 English we find ' with ward ', like ' to ward ' (* to 
 us ward', &c.). 
 
 The meaning of opposition or contest comes readily from the 
 main root, seeing that combatants must come into close contact. 
 ' With ', in old English, was much used in this sense ; in com- 
 pounds it has always this meaning : ' withstand. '. The meaning 
 of ' in spite of ' may be explained in the same way as the ad ver- 
 sa tive use of 'for'. ' With all his learning, he had but little 
 pi udence '. 
 
 Company or companionship is a very natural application : 'he 
 travelled with me for some days ' ; ' there is no living with 
 such neighbours ' ; 'he came with the first and remained with- 
 the last ' ; ' his servant was with- him ' ; 'he kindled with, 
 rage'. *I will buy i<:ith you, sell u-ith you, talk withyou, walk 
 
88 PARTS 0$ SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 with you, and so following ; but I will not eat with you, drink 
 with you, nor pray with you ' : * with Ate by his side '. 
 Possession is readily implied in union: 'with the hope of is 
 the same as ' having the hope of ; so ' with a view to ', ' with 
 power to ', ' with regard to '. 
 
 From union or companionship comes cause, instrumentality, 
 means : ' fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons ' ; 
 ' paved with gold ', ' enriched with knowledge ', ' elated with 
 joy ', ' filled with wine ', ' planted with firs ', ' wearied with 
 much study ', ' with meditating that he must die once '. 
 (Shakespeare. ) 
 
 It has been seen that the agent, or prime mover, in an effect, 
 more usually takes ' by ' after it ; but the instrument that the 
 agent employs is expressed by ' with ' ; ' the field was dug by 
 the labourer with his spade '. ' By ' is the preposition that 
 follows the passive voice to express personal agency : ' tried by 
 his peers '. 
 
 ' With ' is also used for immediately after, the connexion of 
 ideas being apparent : ' with this, he pointed to his face '. 
 
 Errors. 'They quarrelled among each other', should be 
 ' with each other ' ; ' agreeably with (to) their instructions ' ; 
 ' he is not yet reconciled with (to) me ' ; ' prevailed with 
 (upon) ' ; ' good-bye with (to) you ', or 'good-bye '. 
 
 * From ', ' by ', and ' with ', are prepositions corresponding to 
 the ablative case in Latin. In Greek, which has no ablative, 
 the genitive and dative are taken instead, or the corresponding 
 prepositions are used. 
 
 The employing of these detached words is more conducive to 
 variety and precision than the case inflexions. Nevertheless it 
 is proper to signalize the relations that the old languages have 
 thought fit to express by cases, as being in all probability those 
 of most frequent occurrence and of greatest importance. We 
 ; shall now enumerate the entire body of prepositions under 
 different heads, according to their meanings. 
 
 Classes of Prepositions. 
 9 I. Place. Under place, we have (1.) Rest in 
 (the' where), as ' in ', < on ', ' at ', ' near ', ' by '. (2.) 
 Motion with direction (the whence and the whither), 
 ' to ', ' into ', ' unto ', ' towards ' (up, down), * from '. 
 (3.) Place and direction, ' on ', ' over ', * under ', 
 ' through ', ' behind ', ' between ', ' among ', ' upon ', 
 'near ', ' off ', ' across ', beyond ', l abaft ', ' above '. 
 
PREPOSITIONS OP PLACE. 89 
 
 10. 1. Rest in. 
 
 In is the chief preposition of rest in, or the where; 
 it is closely connected with ' on '. 
 
 The primary force of the word is maintained throughout the 
 many applications of it. The idea of ' being contained ' is seen 
 even when place is not the subject under consideration. ' In 
 summer ', ' in a deep slumber ', ' immersed in worldly affairs ', 
 ' employed in carrying ', ' in the power of the enemy ', ' in joy 
 and in sorrow ', ' versed in languages', ' persevere in his design ', 
 ' involved in ruin '. 
 
 The phrases ' in fact ', * in truth !, ' in that ', ' inasmuch as ', 
 'in the event of, 'in vain', 'in all', indicate no essential 
 departure from the primary import. ' In the name of ', used in 
 invocation or adjurat on, may be supposed to mean 'resting 
 upon or clothed with the name or authority of '. 
 
 The old writers often used * in ' for ' into ' ; ' cast yourself in 
 wonder'. The familiar phrases 'fallw love ', 'call in question', 
 ' dash in pieces ', &c. , remain as examples of the usage. 
 
 Scot. ' He gave me a book in (as) a present '. 
 
 On. For the most part, * on ' falls under the third class 
 (place and direction) ; but it is often an equivalent of 'in-', as 
 signifying merely rest. ' Chi a rock, ... the poet stood ' ; 
 * the book is on the table '. 
 
 At. The same as ' near ' or ' close by * : ' at the 
 house ' may mean simply ' near or by the house '. 
 
 Although thus coinciding in its primary meaning with ' by ', 
 it differs from ' by ' in not being extended to signify causation 
 or agency, except in a very limited way : ' at the instigation 
 (recommendation, &c.,) of ; 'we suffered much at their hands'. 
 
 Besides closeness, ' at ' may imply in the direction of; as ' to 
 fire at a mark ' ; 'to glance at a question ' ; 'to laugh at ', 
 ' wonder at ', ' bark at ', ' work at ', ' get at ', ' come at '. 
 
 Applied, to time, it signifies a point or moment of time : ' at 
 present ', ' at the stroke of nine ', ' at noon ', ' at midnight '. 
 
 There is a distinction between ' at ' and ' in, ' as signifying 
 place ; we say ' at the market cross ', ' at the fountain ', but 
 ' in the town ', ' in France ', ' in America ' ; the one being a 
 limited object, which we may stand close by, but the other a 
 more extended surface, which we are contained in. In some 
 cases both are applicable : ' at, or in school or church ' ; but we 
 must say ' at home '. 
 
 The phrases involving * at ' are in keeping with the general 
 signification, although some of them constitute peculiar idioms': 
 
90 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 1 at peace ', ' at war ', ' at play ', ' at the price of ', ' at a loss ', 
 ' at fault ', ' at hand ', ' at issue ', ' at variance ', 'at liberty ', 
 ' at an end ', ' at best ', ' at all ', ' at large ', ' at full speed '. 
 Scot. ' Angry at (with) him ' ; ' hatred at (to or against) ' ; 
 ' ask, inquire at (of) a person '. 
 
 Near (nigh) also means proximity: ' near me', 
 ' near the door ', ' near the city '. 
 
 This idea is obvious in its metaphorical applications ; thus 
 we have ' near the heart ', ' a translation near the original ', 
 ' near the time '. It contrasts with ' at ' in not signifying 
 direction at a distance, and with ' in ' in not expressing the 
 fact of being contained in. 
 
 By. See 7. 
 
 11. 2. Motion with direction. 
 
 To ( 4) is the chief preposition for this meaning. 
 The important compound into is very uniform and 
 explicit in its application. 
 
 'Go into the house', 'look into a book', 'led into error', 
 ' instilled into his mind ', ' forced into compliance ', ' ages 
 crowded into years ', ' broken up into companies ', ' burst into 
 fragments ', ' into difficulties ', ' infuse more spirit into the com- 
 position ', ' let into the secret ', ' spring into blossom '. 
 
 Scot. ' He is soon put into (in) a passion ' ; 'sit into (near) 
 the fire '. 
 
 Unto. Now seldom used, for it signifies almost the 
 same as either ' to ' or ' into '. 
 
 Toward, towards, in the direction of : ' ad- 
 vance towards the castle ', ' look towards the east '. 
 
 The metaphorical applications are all obvious : ' contribute 
 towards the expense ', ' towards the end of the speech ', ' towards 
 evening,' &c. 
 
 From has been already explained ( 6). 
 
 12. 3. Place and direction. 
 
 On. The simple preposition of rest, repose, or 
 support, the foundation or prop being indicated by the 
 noun following : ' on the ground ', ' on the table ', ' on 
 the sea ', l on the coast ', ' leaning on his staff '* 
 
PLACE WITH DIRECTION. 91 
 
 1 London is situated on the Thames ', shows a slight departure 
 from the strict meaning, as if by a figure of speech. 
 
 Sometimes a falling or other motion is implied : * The rain 
 falls on the earth ' ; ' I sift the snow on the mountains below ' ; 
 ' we rushed on deck '. 
 
 The other uses consist more or less in following out these 
 primary significations. ' Depend on me ' is metaphorical rest 
 or support. ' Now fades the glimmering landscape on the 
 sight', is highly figurative but still in keeping. ' He plays on 
 the violin ', ' he dined on fish ', are farther extensions of signifi- 
 cation. The constructions ' to gaze on ', * to dote on ', com- 
 ment on ', ' prevail on '. ' insist on ', ' resolve on ', ' reflect on ', 
 ' trespass on ', are well recognised idioms. 
 
 In signifying time, we have such forms as ' on Monday ', 
 ' on that night ', 'on the occasion ' ; these explain themselves. 
 A somewhat different sense is observable when we say * on the 
 melting of the ice the ships depart'. Here the relation is 
 between two actions ; first the ice melts, then the ships depart. 
 The one follows the other closely. * On ' is much the same as 
 * (immediately) after '. 
 
 Cause may sometimes be implied in the use of ' on ' : ' on this 
 account ' ; ' on the failure of his plans, he threw up the project ' 
 is both ' when and because his plans failed '. 
 
 Reference can also find expression by ' on ', as we have seen 
 under 'of ( 3). 'A work on politics, on finance, on music, 
 &c. ' ; 'to speak on the terms of peace '. In Elizabethan 
 English, * on ' was often used where we must now use * of ', 
 especially to express reference : ' to be jealous on one ' ; ' fond on 
 praise ' ; ' he shall hear on't ' ; ' what shall become on me ? ' 
 
 And in other cases as well : ' at root oris heart ' ; ' the lord 
 on't (of it, the island) ' ; ' i ' the middle on's face ' ; ' we are 
 such stuff as dreams are made on '. 
 
 Opposition is given by ' on ' in such combinations as 'declare, 
 make war on ', &c. 
 
 Many phrases involve this preposition : ' on fire ', ' on the 
 wing', ' on the alert ', ' on a sudden', 'on view', 'on a great 
 scale ', ' on the part of, ' on my honour ' ' his blood be on us '. 
 
 ' Rely in ' is an error for ' rely on ' ; ' founded in truth ', for 
 ' on truth '. Scot. ' He was married on (to) such a person ' ; ' I 
 have waited long on (for) an answer ' ; ' I saw him on or upon 
 (in) the street '. 
 
 ' On ' is opposed by off, another form of ' of '. 
 By ellipsis, ' off' is more in use as an adverb than as a pre- 
 position : ' off the ground ', ' off my shoulders \ ' off work '. 
 
92 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 The adverbial meaning is the same, and is seen in composition 
 with verbs, as 'get off', 'break off', 'be off', 'draw off', 
 ' drive off ', ' keep off', ' pay off ', ' drink off '. ' Set of (on a 
 journey), should be 'set out'. The phrases 'well off ', ' badly off, 
 are somewhat peculiar ; there is probably an ellipsis of some 
 subject, as if we were to say ' he is well off that business '. 
 
 Up, down, are opposed meanings. 
 
 ' Up stairs ', ' down stairs' ; ' up hill, down hill '; ' up 
 the stream ', ' down the stream ' ; ' down the vale of 
 years '. 
 
 Adverbial form : ' the price of stock is up ' ; ' his spirits were 
 up ;' ' the county is up (in arms) '. ' Look up ', ' fill up ', 'lead 
 up ', ' hush up '. ' Come down ', ' sit down, ', ' bring down ', 
 '^pulldown', 'take do W, 'run down\ 'write down\ 'put dowri. 
 
 Upon is a modification or variety of the simple pre- 
 position * on ', which can be used for it in nearly every 
 case. 
 
 ' Upon a hill ', ' upon the right ', ' upon condition ', ' upon 
 security', ' upon a footing', 'upon the parish ' (for subsistence 
 or support), ' upon principle ', ' upon record ', ' upon trial ', 
 ' upon a time ', ' upon occasion ', ' upon this,' 'go upon the ice ', 
 ' enter upon an undertaking '. ' Kings break faith upon com- 
 modity ' (Shakespeare) = ' when and because they can gain by 
 doing so '. 
 
 In adverbial combinations ; ' dwell upon ', ' descant upon ', 
 ' gaze upon ', ' prey upon ', ' resolve upon '. 
 
 Scot. ' There is a meeting upon (on) Thursday ' ; ' he plays 
 upon (on) the flute'. 
 
 Above, below, beneath, adhere with consider- 
 able regularity to their well-known sense higher or 
 lower in place. 
 
 The metaphorical applications of ' above' to signify superiority, 
 dignity, elevation, are seen in such examples as ' above his rank ', 
 ' above his means ', ' above comprehension ', ' above board ', 
 ' above mean actions ', ' above the brightness of the sun '. 
 
 The transition is easy to the meaning, more than, ' in excess 
 of; as ' above all', 'above the price of rubies',' 'the serpent 
 is cursed above all cattle '. 
 
 Adverbially the sense is adhered to ; as in referring to a 
 former place in a book. 
 
 'Below', and 'beneath', are applied metaphorically to the 
 
1 TIP, ABOVE, OVER : DOWN, BELOW, UNDER.' 
 
 93 
 
 opposite states of inferiority and degradation : ' below the mark ', 
 'beneath the yoke', beneath contempt'. Adv. 'He shrunk 
 beneath '. Scot. ' Who lives above (over) you ? ' * Below (under) 
 water, ground, his clothes '. 
 
 Over means above in position : ' a naked sword 
 hung over his head ', * a large hole over the mantel- 
 piece '. 
 
 ' Over ' is extended from place to many other applications, 
 preserving the main idea : ' power over ', ' to watch over ', pre- 
 dominate over', 'muse over ', 'fear came over me'. ' Over the 
 season,' is ' through the season ' : ' overnight ' would he literally 
 ' through the night ', but means also ' after the commencement 
 of the night '. 
 
 In composition the meaning is still preserved : ' overshoot ', 
 
 * overhang ', ' overcome '. In some compounds the idea implied 
 is ' excess ' : ' overdo ', ' overcharge ', ' overestimate '. The tran- 
 sition is an obvious one. 
 
 The idea of ' covering ' distinguishes this preposition from the 
 allied word ' above ', and has given to it a far greater stretch of 
 applications. The number of derivatives obtained from it is 
 very great. 
 
 Scot. ' They looked over (out at) the window '. 
 
 Under, the opposite of ' over' : ' under the tree ', 
 ' under hatches ', * under water ', ' under heaven '. 
 
 * Under ' is often applied metaphorically. It is extended to 
 subjection, dependence, and. protection ; as 'under the sovereign ', 
 ' under God '. 
 
 To the sustaining of anything as a burden, covering, or 
 envelope: 'under obligation', ' under orders ', under trial ,' 
 ' under apprehension ', ' under reproaches ', ' under necessity ', 
 
 * under consideration ', ' under the guise, or pretence, or 
 character, or name of, ' under sail', ' under arms ' . 
 
 To less in quantity ; as ' under age ', * under the mark '. 
 
 ' Under the seal of ', is a more remote extension, and may he 
 interpreted as ' under the authority or guarantee signified by 
 the putting of a seal '. 
 
 The adverbial sense is in harmony with the other : 'hring 
 under \ ' put under ', ' come under ', ' go under ', ' bend under '. 
 
 Through. The simple preposition for the idea of 
 passage : ' through the gate ', ' through the wood ', 
 
94 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 ' through many hands ', ' through the ranks ', through 
 the clouds ', ' through the valley and shadow of death '. 
 
 The first step in advance of the primitive sense is to signify 
 over the whole extent of a thing, from end to end, or from one 
 side to another ; as ' through all ranks ', ' through all nations ' ; 
 the application depending on the fact that passage implies suc- 
 cessive contact, and a survey of what is gone over. 
 
 Owing to the facility for gaining our wishes implied in a free 
 passage, an open door, or a medium of conveyance, the word 
 farther takes on the meaning of instrumentality^ cause,, means : 
 ' through industry ', ' through influence ', ' through the minister ', 
 1 t/irough the swiftness of his horse'. A difference may be 
 noted between this kind of instrumentality and that expressed 
 "by ' with '; a difference arising out of the primitive sense of tht. 
 words. 
 
 Time : ' through the ages ', ' through the winter ', ' through 
 the session '. 
 
 Throughout is a strengthened form. 
 
 Scot. ' He walked through (across) the room ' ; 'he will learn 
 through (in) time ' ; ' he walks through (in) his sleep '. 
 
 Along is 'by the long or length of ' : ' along the 
 shore ', ' along the road ', * alongside \ 
 
 No metaphorical extensions of any importance are to be 
 noted. 
 
 Adv. ' Come along ', ' wander along ', ' drive along ', ' glide 
 along '. 
 
 Across, ' on the cross ' : * across the river ', 
 ' across the street ', ' across the Atlantic ', ' across his 
 shoulders '. 
 
 Adv. ' Lay across ', ' swim across \ 
 
 Before, in the front of, with or without 
 proximity : ' before the door ', ' before Sebastopol ', 
 ' before the face of ', ' before the magistrate ', ' before 
 the wind '. 
 
 By a natural transition it applies to precedence, preference, or 
 superiority : ' before hi.s betters ', ' before his regiment ', ' he was 
 placed before the knights'. 
 
 The application to priority of time is one of the chief uses of 
 the word : ' before day ', ' before long ', ' before the ago '. 
 
' THROUGH : BEFORE, AFTER : BETWEEX, AMONG.' 95 
 
 In the adverbial applications botli place and time are denoted, 
 more especially time : ' looking before and after'. 
 
 After, opposed to ' before ' in the signification of 
 precedence in rank, and in expressing time. 
 
 The full application to place is seen in the adverbial and ad- 
 jective uses of the word : ' lagging after ', 'the after-part of the 
 building '. 
 
 By an obvious figure it is used with words signifying pursuit 
 and inquiry, and also desire: 'follow after', 'search after', 
 ' hunger and thirst after ', ' longing after immortality '. 
 
 By a farther extension, also quite accountable, we find it 
 signifying imitation or following a lead : ' after Titieus ', ' after 
 the original, the model ', ' to name after \ 
 
 Behind, as opposed to 'before', means 'in the 
 rear of ', ' at the back of ' : ' behind the scenes ', ' behind 
 a cloud ', ' behind the back '. 
 
 Hence such applications as inferiority, being left out, a re- 
 mainder in arrear, at a distance, out of sight, disregarded. 
 
 The adverbial compounds with verbs are of a like tenor : ' stay 
 behind ', ' fall behind ', ' walk behind ', ' look behind '. 
 
 Between. When two objects are separated, the 
 intervening space, or anything in a middle position, is 
 expressed by this word in its primary sense : ' between 
 decks ', ' between times '. 
 
 Hence it is applied to express all that goes on in such a situ- 
 ation : ' passing between ' ; ' intercourse or communication 
 between ; ' ' coincidence, similarity, contrast, or difference be- 
 tween ' (the result of the comparison that may take place when 
 two things are near each other) ; so ' friendship, relationship, 
 understanding between', 'contest and rivalry between', 'to 
 adjudicate between ' ; also community or partnership ; as ' pos- 
 sessing property between them '. 
 
 ' Between ' expresses ' in the midst of two ' ; but the etymo- 
 logy is often disregarded in its application. ' Such differences 
 between these three great poets ' (Grote) ; ' the days when my 
 mother and / and Peggotty were all in all to one another, and 
 there was no one to come between us, rose up before me' 
 (Dickens). 
 
 'Among(st) 1 and 'amid(st)' imply a greater 
 
96 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 number of tilings surrounding ; ' among the trees ', 
 ' among friends ', ' amidst his flock '. 
 
 ' They parted my raiment among them '. Scot. ' I stuck 
 among (in) the mud '. 
 
 ' To meditate amongst decay, and stand 
 A ruin amidst ruins.' 
 
 Strictly, ' to divide between ' implies two ; ' to divide among', 
 more than two. 
 
 Beyond. The primary meaning is outside of in 
 place, * on the far side of ' : ' beyond sea ', ' beyond 
 bounds ', * beyond hearing '. 
 
 * Beyond ' is extended met a; horically to signify superiority or 
 excess in a great many other properties ; thus, ' beyond the 
 number or amount ', ' beyond his power or his means ', ' beyond 
 him ', ' beyond description ', ' beyond dispute ', ' beyond measure', 
 ' beyond the grave'. ' To go beyond ' is to deceive, or cir- 
 cumvent. 
 
 Abaft. A sea term exclusively : * no smoking abaft 
 this funnel '. 
 
 Round, Around : 'round the house', 'run round 
 the common ', ' around the fire '. 
 
 ' Round ' adheres literally to its well-known primary significa- 
 cation, except in the one phrase ' to get round a person ', for 
 *to wheedle or prevail with ', 'to circumvent '. 
 
 About has the primary meaning of ' around ', but 
 is much more vaguely applied. It passes off into 
 signifying a certain indefinite nearness or proximity, 
 the being contained in a place somewhere or other ; as 
 ' about the house ', ' about the town ', * about the 
 country ', ' about the person '. 
 
 This is also the force of the word as applied to time : ' about 
 midnight ' means not exactly midnight, but some time not far 
 off. 
 
 So with number : * about a hundred '. From expressing 
 nearness it becomes also a preposition of reference \ as ' about 
 my father's business ', ' about who was greatest ', ' about the 
 origin of evil '. 
 
 As an adverb, its force is seen in ' go about ', 
 
PLACE AND TIME. 97 
 
 Against, 'towards', ' opposite to ', 'in opposition 
 to ' : ' agaimt the wall ', ' over against the tower ', 
 ' against the enenrf', ' against the current '. 
 
 The contrariety to ' for ' has been already exemplified ( 5). 
 
 ' Against winter ', ' against my return ', &c., shew the appli- 
 cation to time (future). 
 
 Without, ' on the outside of ', ' beyond the bounds 
 of ' : * without the camp ', ' without the range of the 
 rifle '. 
 
 Hence the sense of ' being deprived of ', ' not having ' : 
 * without help ', ' without courage ', ' without doubt '. 
 
 These prepositions of place and motion include nearly all the 
 simple and primitive prepositions of the language. It will be 
 seen from the foregoing explanations that by means of meta- 
 phorical extensions, we employ relationships of place to express 
 most other relationships denoted by prepositions. 
 
 The relationships of place may be made more explicit and em- 
 phatic by a variety of compound phrases, which have the exact 
 force of prepositions ; as ' in the midst ot ', ' in the heart, centre, 
 interior of ' ; ' close by ', ' hard by ', ' in close proximity to ', 
 ' in the neighbourhood or vicinity of ' ; ' right through ', 
 ' straight at ' ; * in anticipation of. 
 
 13. II. Time. 'Since', < till', until ', 'during', 
 ' pending ', * after ', ' ere '. 
 
 ' Since '. The time after an event : * since the peace '. 
 ' Till ', ' until '. Preceding and up to an event : ' till the 
 end of the century'. 
 
 * During ', ' pending '. The continuance of the event. 
 
 Many prepositions of place may be applied to time, 
 by governing a noun of time ; as ' in ', ' on ', ' at ', 
 ' before ', ' between ', ' by ', ' within ', ' about ', ' above ', 
 ' near '. 
 
 ' In a year ' ; * on this ' ; ' at midsummer ' ; ' before noon ' ; 
 between tiiis and the end of the week ';'&?/ Christmas next ' ; 
 within the month ' ; ' about an hour ' ; ' above a generation ' ; 
 ' near six o'clock '. 
 
 The expression of time may be rendered more specific and 
 emphatic by a variety of phrases : ' at the moment ot", ' on the 
 eve of, &c. 
 
 7 
 
98 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 14. III. Agency. The agent, instrument, or means 
 of an action is indicated by the Prepositions ' by ', 
 
 * through V with ' ; and by the phrases, l by means of ', 
 
 * by virtue of ', ' through the instrumentality of ', ' by 
 help of ', * by force of ', &c. 
 
 The simple prepositions have been already explained. The 
 phrases derive their signification of agency from the noun : l by 
 means of a powerful connexion ' ' by virtue of his position as 
 judge ' ; ' through the instrumentality of a skilful agent ' ; ' by 
 help of favourable circumstances ' ; 'by force of earnest solicita- 
 tion '. 
 
 15. IV. End, purpose, motive, or reason : 
 
 * for ', * from '. Phrases : ' out of ', * on account of ', 
 ' by way of ', ' for the sake of ', * for the ends of ', 
 
 * in consideration of, 'on the score of, 'from a 
 regard to ', ' with a view to ', ' with an eye to '. 
 
 As all the actions of human beings are for some end, the 
 statement of the end is often required. The leading preposition 
 is ' for ' ; 'he works for his bread '. When the feeling to be 
 gratified is pointed out, ' from ' is employed : ' he works froni 
 hunger ' ; ' he reads from curiosity (for information) '. ' Out 
 of kindness ' ; ' on account of mere ambition ' ; ' by way of 
 strengthening his case' ; l for the sake of peace ' ; 'for the ends 
 of justice ' ; ' in consideration of his former good conduct ' ; ' on 
 the score of ill health ' ; l from a regard to character' ; 'with a 
 view to a good education '. The meaning of the noun suggests 
 the suitable application of the prepositional phrases. We s!ioiil;i 
 say, 'in consideration of his youth, he was slightly pnni.-hed ', 
 but ' on account of the serious character of the offence' ; consid- 
 eration implying a favourable sentiment. 
 
 16. V. Reference : 'on', 'of, 'about', 'touching', 
 
 * concerning ' ; ' with reference to ', ' as for ', ' as to ', 
 ' as regards ', ' on the subject of f , ' on the matter of ', 
 ' on the point of ', ' in respect of '. 
 
 ' On the beautiful ' ; ' I sing of war ' ; ' he came to speak to 
 me about his journey'; 'touching the law'; 'concerning his 
 interests' ; ' unth reference to your application ' ; ' asj'or that ' ; 
 ' as to him' ; ' as regards the progress of the suit' ; ' on the 
 subject of explosive mixtures ' ; 'on the matter oj the sale ' j ' in 
 rasped of your wishes '. 
 
END, REFERENCE, SEPARATION, INCLINATION, &C. 99 
 
 Allied to reference is SUPPOSITION for which there 
 are several prepositional phrases, although the meaning 
 is more usually expressed by conjunctions : ' in the 
 event of ', ' on the supposition of ', ' in case of '. 
 
 ' In the event ofliis not arriving ' ; * on the supposition of there 
 being an abundant supply ' ; 'in case of failure '. 
 
 17. VI. Separation and Exclusion: 'without', 
 
 ' save ', ' except ', ' besides ', ' but ', ' setting aside ', 
 ' putting on one side ', ' (apart) from ', ' (far) from '. 
 
 ' Without arms ' ; ' save one ' ; ' except England ' ; ' besides 
 his own ' ; 'setting aside the question of compensation ' ; 'put- 
 ting (leaving) on one side the fear of consequences ' ; 'none but 
 him ' ; ' apart from his companions ' ; 'far from, home '. 
 
 18. VII. Inclination and Conformity: 'for', 
 '(according) to', 'in accordance with', '(agreeably) to', 
 * in pursuance of '. 
 
 ' For (the ends of) justice ' ; ' according to use and wont ' ; 
 ' in accordance with the views of both parties ' ; ' agreeably to 
 your instructions ' ; 'in pursuance of the arrangements already 
 entered on '. 
 
 19. VIM. Aversion, Opposition: 'against', 
 ' with '. ' athwart ' ; ' in spite of ', ' in defiance of '. 
 
 * A decree against law ' ; ' to contend with one ' ; ' athwart 
 the wishes of friends ' ; * in spite of fate ' ; ' in defiance of his 
 professions ' . 
 
 20. IX. Substitution: 'for', 'instead of, 'in 
 room of ', 'in place of ', ' on the part of '(as a substi- 
 tute) for '. 
 
 ' An eye for an eye ' ; ' instead of his brother ' ; (by way of 
 evasion) 'fair words instead of deeds ' ; *in room of the deceased' ; 
 ' in place of one of the officials ' ; ' as a substitute for a bridge '. 
 Scot. ' In place of (instead of) pitying him, they laughed at him '. 
 
 21. X. Possession, Material : 'of, '(belonging) 
 to ', ' (the property) of ', ' (made) of '. 
 
 22. It has been seen that some words are both prepositions 
 and adverbs. A preposition is known by its governing a noun, 
 or a phrase corresponding to a noun. Thus an infinitive phrase 
 is frequently governed by a preposition : ' on coming home ' ; 
 1 on breaking the seal ' ; ' after considering the case ' ; ' without 
 straining hard ' ; ' the reason of his answering so soon '. 
 
100 
 
 THE CONJUNCTION. 
 Definition. 
 
 I. Conjunctions join Sentences together: 
 
 * day ends and night begins ' ; ' they were equal in 
 power, but they were not equally esteemed '. 
 
 This is the primary use of the words called Conjunctions. 
 When two sentences are joined by a word expressing the relation 
 of the one to the other, the word of relation and, but, if, or 
 is a conjunction. But the remark is also made, that besides 
 joining complete sentences, clauses, or affirmations, the con- 
 junction may join parts of sentences, and even single words : 
 
 * Abraham saw my day afar off and was glad ; ' ' Napoleon and 
 Wellington were great generals'. These, however, are obviously 
 contractions, and, when restored to the full form, give distinct 
 dictums : * Napoleon was a great general, and Wellington was 
 a great general '. ' He is neither a fool, nor a rogue ' j ' neither 
 he is a fool, nor he is a rogue '. 
 
 The following examples are not so obviously contractions : 
 ' two and two is four ' ; ' if they stand between you and me ' . 
 Again, * put it under lock and key ', seems impossible to resolve 
 into separate sentences : the reason is that it is the last stage of 
 several abbreviations. Very familiar objects that in the first 
 instance would need to be expressed at some length, are in the 
 end given by the fewest possible words that will make a 
 meaning. A lock is a complicated machine ; it consists of two 
 separable and yet related members ; the one is called the lock, 
 and the other the key ; the two together are called shortly ' lock 
 and key '. So ' man and wife ', ' parent and child ', ' master 
 and servant ', ' north and south ', are abbreviated correlatives 
 united by ' and '. When we say of two persons ' they are hus- 
 band and wife ', we cannot resolve the conjunction immediately 
 into two separate, affirmations, yet remotely the ' and ' connects 
 distinct statements or sentences, such as these : ' human beings 
 are of two classes ; the one class are males, who become hus- 
 bands, and the other class are females who become wives '. 
 We come to abridge these sentences by leaving out all the 
 words, but the two essential husband, wife and couple these 
 by ' and '. But for this we should have to say ' one of these 
 persons is a husband, and the other is (his) wife '. 
 
 Some words are Conjunctions and never anything else : such 
 are 'and', 'or', 'nor', 'if', 'because', 'leU'. Other words 
 
CO-ORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING. 101 
 
 are, now at least, principally Prepositions, arfd become con- 
 junctions by being prefixed to a clause ; those are-- ', before ', 
 'after', 'since', 'ere', 'until', 'for'. The old inglisfc cou- 
 struction was to supply the demonstrative 'that' for the pie- 
 position to govern : ' After that I was turned I repented ', 
 ' after that 1 was instructed, &c.' The dropping of the demon- 
 trative leaves the preposition in direct contact with the clause, 
 and it is then said to be a conjunction. 
 
 Certain adverbs are included among the conjunctions. These 
 are words that are purely relative, or stand in need of a second 
 clause to give a meaning. ' He is industrious, therefore he is 
 happy.' The word 'therefore' would not suffice of itself to 
 qualify ' he is happy ' ; there must be a previous clause to give 
 the meaning, or the reason why he is happy. By this circum- 
 stance, ' therefore ' serves the office of a conjunction. It is a 
 relative adverb, conjunctive adverb, or adverbial conjunction. 
 Of the same class are ' likewise ', ' also ', ' still ', ' yet ', ' never- 
 theless ', ' notwithstanding ', ' however ', * consequently ', 
 ' hence ', ' accordingly '. 
 
 Classes of Conjunctions. 
 
 2. There are two leading divisions of Conjunctions 
 Co-ordinating and Subordinating. 
 
 Co-ordinating Conjunctions join co-ordinate 
 clauses J that is, independent affirmations. 
 
 Subordinating conjunctions unite subordinate 
 or dependent clauses to the principal clause 
 of a sentence. 
 
 3. I. The Co-ordinating Conjunctions are 
 
 classed according to the relation existing between the 
 united clauses. They may indicate that the second is a 
 clause of Addition or Cumulation (' and '), of Opposi- 
 tion or Contrast (' but '), or of Effect or Consequence 
 (' therefore '). 
 
 4. (1.) Cumulative Conjunctions are such as 
 
 unite one clause with a second whose meaning adds to 
 what precedes : f AND ', ' also ', ' likewise ', ' as well 
 as', 'not only but', 'partly partly', 'first then 
 secondly,' &c,, 'further', 'moreover', 'now', 'well'. 
 
102 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 And couples or umtes two affirmations, and does no 
 
 This is the chief of fhe class ; it is a strict conjunction ; the 
 rest are adverbs having the same general etJ'ect, but with 
 additional circumstances or shades of meaning. 
 
 Both and puts special emphasis on the com- 
 bination. 
 
 Also marks some similarity in the second statement. 
 
 Very often, however, there is little implied in it beyond 
 what would be signified by ' and '. 
 
 Likewise is nearly the same as * also '. 
 
 It was considered that there was point in the remr vk made on the son 
 of a famous Scotch judge, who had succeeded to his father's office, but 
 not to his ability ; ' he was a judge also, but not likewise '. ' Likewise ' 
 often connects one sentence with a preceding, having nearly the force 
 of ' and '. 
 
 As well as gives an especial emphasis to the union ; 
 in most cases more particularly to the first member. 
 
 ' He as well as you ' is more forcible than ' he and you '. 
 .'No less than' has a similar effect. Both expressions are 
 strictly subordinating connectives. 
 
 Not only but indicates strongly the fact that the 
 first mentioned circumstance does not stand by itself, 
 and thus emphasises the second. 
 
 Instead of saying ' England and all the rest of Europe ', we 
 may say, when we mean to put stress on the circumstance of 
 England's not standing alone, * not only England, but all the 
 % rest of Europe '. 
 
 Partly partly. Half half. Now now. 
 
 'He spoke partly from conviction, partly from prudence.' 
 ' He consented, half from cupidity, half from fear. ' ' He 
 dwelt now among the Britons, now among the Mercians.' These 
 and similar forms also couple or add two predications, intro- 
 ducing at the same time a circumstance that seems suitable to 
 the special case. 
 
 First, then, secondly, &c. The numerr* 
 
CUMULATIVE AND ADVERSATIVE. 103 
 
 adverbs indicate cumulation ; the additional circum- 
 stances being definite order and a means of reference. 
 
 Further, Moreover, mean tbat the case is not yet 
 exhausted, there is more to be said upon it. 
 
 Now is transferred from present time to indicate 
 present circumstances. It introduces the middle link 
 in an argument, and it offers explanation. 
 
 The effect of ' now ' commencing a sentence is to follow up a 
 statement by something that completes it, so as to enable an 
 inference to be drawn. Thus if a condition be premised from 
 which something follows, the compliance with the condition 
 would be expressed by ' now ', and the conclusion by ' therefore'. 
 * He was promised a holiday if he executed his task ; now he 
 has done the task, therefore he is entitled to the holiday '. 
 (The minor premise of the syllogism is correctly introduced by 
 'now '.) 
 
 'Not this man, but Barabbas ; now Barabbfcs was a robber.' 
 Here ' now ' adds an explanatory circumstance. 
 
 Well implies that hitherto all is satisfactory and 
 indisputable, and that the way is clear for proceeding 
 another step. 
 
 It is in the consecutive sentences of a Paragraph that these 
 adverbial connectives come most frequently into play, and when 
 carefully employed, they add much to the clearness of the 
 connexion. 
 
 The omitting of a, conjunction has the force of cumulation ; 
 the mere fact of stating one thing after another, with no word 
 expressing opposition, or conditional ity, or other relationship, 
 leaves it to be understood that they are to the same general 
 effect, just as if we were to employ ' and ' to unite them. 
 This omission may also suggest inference : ' The wind passeth 
 over it ; it is gone '. 
 
 5. (2.) Adversative Conjunctions place the 
 second Sentence or Clause in some kind of opposition to 
 what precedes. This Class is subdivided into three 
 species. 
 
 (a.) Exclusive : * not but ', ' else ', ' otherwise ', 'or'. 
 
104 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 Not but excludes or puts aside one fact to bring 
 another into prominence. 
 
 ' A struggle, not for empire, but for existence.' * He did not 
 speak, but lie fi.ught.' ' We must think not whom we are fol- 
 lowing, but what we are doing.' 
 
 Else, otherwise, 'on any other supposition*. 
 
 These adverb conjunctions have a definite and important 
 signification ; ' it is so, had it not been so, something would 
 have happened '. ' He came to town yesterday, otherwise I 
 should not have met him' ; that is, 'if he had not come to 
 town yesterday '. 
 
 Or similarly implies the exclusion of the first cir- 
 cumstance. 
 
 * I must seem to be angry, or (= otherwise, if I do not seem 
 to be angry), she too may begin to despise my authority.' 
 
 (b.) Alternative : ' either or ', * neither nor ', 
 ' whether or '. ' Whereas ' and ' while ' may be added. 
 
 The general meaning of each of these couples is well known, 
 but there are some special meanings worth noting. 
 
 Or sometimes expresses a mere alternative name, 
 or syno?iyme, the thing being the same : * Christ, or 
 (that is) the Messiah '. 
 
 In judicial proceedings this is expressed by alias. We are 
 hence, sometimes, at a loss to know whether an alternative is 
 merely verbal, or is real. 
 
 AVe have just seen the use of 'or ' for ' otherwise ' : ' you must 
 study hard, or you cannot succeed '. 
 
 Nor is sometimes a contraction for ' and not*. 
 
 * He foresaw the consequences, nor were they long delayed ' 
 (and they were not). 
 
 These alternative conjunctions are not always con- 
 fined to two things. 
 
 * He regarded her as either an impostor, or a madwoman, or 
 a compound of both.' 'Neither wind, nor rain, nor aught else, 
 can cool our affection.' 
 
 ' For I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth, 
 Action, nor utterance, nor the power of speech, 
 To stir men's blood.' 
 
ADVERSATIVE AND ARRESTIVE. 105 
 
 Whereas and while may often be regarded as co- 
 ordinating no less than as subordinating alternatives. 
 
 ' The subtle interpretation of laws can put very few in 
 remembrance of their duty, whereas (= ' while ', ' on the other 
 hand ') the plain meaning of the laws is open to every man '. 
 ' Whereas ' is strictly a compound relative adverb, ^ meaning 
 1 in circumstances wherein, or with reference to which '. 
 
 (c.) Arrestive, represented by * but ' : 'but then ', 
 ' still ', ' yet ', ' only ', ' nevertheless ', ' however '. 
 Phrases : for all that ', * at the same time '. 
 
 But is the conjunction of exception and surprise. 
 
 The characteristic meaning of * but ' is seen when 
 something has been said that suggests, according to 
 the usual course of things, a certain other fact, or con- 
 clusion, which, however, does not follow in this case. 
 
 ' He was honest, but he was not esteemed.' An honest man 
 usually gains the esteem of his fellows, and when we hear the 
 attribute of honesty affirmed, we are naturally disposed to go 
 on and assume the accompaniment of respect ; this is prevented 
 by the use of 'but', and hence the designation ' arrestive '. ' The 
 meeting dispersed ', the conclusion is that everybody went away ; 
 to check this inference, which may be too hasty and sweeping, 
 we add, ' but the lenders remained '. ' He is rich, but not happy '; 
 'he tries hard, but he does not prosper'. 
 
 Loose employment of ''but '. This forcible word should not be 
 used where no exception is taken, or no arrest put upon a 
 natural inference. ' No man taketh it from me, but I lay it 
 down of myself; 'but' is here unnecessary. 
 
 It is also a common mistake to use ' but ' in the sense of ' now ', 
 as signifying the completing of a case in order to draw an 
 inference. * Men are mortal; but (for 'now') we are men; 
 therefore we are mortal.' 
 
 The mere stating of a contrast does not justify ' but ' ; ' when 
 pride cometh, then cometh shame ; but with the lowly is 
 wisdom '. The last assertion is in accordance with the first (the 
 denial of the opposite is another mode of affirming the same 
 fact), and therefore there is no sufficient case for * but '. 
 'While 'is a suitable word in this connexion ; so is the phrase 
 1 on the other hand '. 
 
 In the following sentence the propriety of ' but' depends on 
 the facts of the case : ' the Commons passed the bill, but the 
 
106 PARTS OP SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 Lords threw it out '. If it were usual for the Lords to agree 
 with the Commons, their opposition would be a surprise, and 
 would be expressed by ' but '. Where there is no surprise, a 
 cumulative conjunction is to be preferred. ' Parliament passed 
 the measure, but the King refused his consent ', would, under 
 the custom of the English constitution, be a proper construction. 
 
 ' But ' is the conjunction of epigram. 
 
 But then. A more emphatic form of ' but ' ; equal to ' but 
 in that case, or on that supposition '. 
 
 Still suggests a pause to hear what is to be said 
 by way of exception or opposition to the previous 
 statements. 
 
 ' Still ' is an equivalent of ' but ', and even more emphatic : 
 ' everything went against him ; still he persisted '. As it is a 
 greater break in the flow of the composition than 'but', it is 
 a preferable word for commencing a period, or the second mem- 
 ber of a period divided by a semicolon. 
 
 Yet. The peculiar force of ' yet ' is brought out by 
 its connexion with ' though ' : ' though deep, yet 
 clear '. 
 
 When ' though ' is not expressed, it is understood, and the 
 meaning of ' yet ' is almost the same. The intention is as it 
 were formally to concede a point that would seem to carry a 
 certain consequence with it, and at the same time to forbid that 
 consequence. 
 
 Nevertheless. In conveying the same general 
 meaning as the foregoing, this long word makes a con- 
 siderable break or pause. 
 
 It is therefore suitable for introducing a longer declaration, 
 as in commencing a period, or an extended member of a period. 
 
 However. A word of like purport to the fore- 
 going. It has the peculiarity of being often placed in 
 the middle of its sentence or clause. 
 
 ' That course, however, he was not inclined to take. ' The 
 advantage of such an arrangement is, that the conjunction does 
 not stand between the two connected statements, and so per- 
 mits the reference to be emphatically close. 
 
 Only. Placed at the beginning of an assertion 
 ' only ' has the effect of ' but '. 
 
ARRESTIVE AND ILLATIVE. 107 
 
 ' Do as yon please ; only let your intention be apparent * ; 
 that is, your doing so is still to permit this one thing, namely, 
 that you make your intention apparent. 
 
 For all that, in spite of all that, notwithstanding all 
 that, are phrases that produce the arrestive effect, and are 
 suitable to be made use of when a more than ordinary emphasis 
 is demanded. This emphasis they give partly from the force of 
 the words, partly from their occupying the attention by their 
 length. 
 
 At the same time. Another phrase belonging to the 
 arrestive class, without much speciality in its application. 
 
 6. (3.) Illative Conjunctions express effect, 
 or consequence : ' therefore ', ' wherefore ', * hence ', 
 ' whence ', ' consequently ', ' accordingly ', ' thus ', 'so', 
 * so that ', ' then ', ' so then '. 
 
 Therefore is the typical word of the class. 
 
 It is also the most frequently made use of. The rest do little 
 more than afford synonymes to vary the composition. Where- 
 fore is equal to ' and therefore ' ; hence, the same as ' from 
 this ' ; whence lite ' wherefore ', dispenses with ' and ' when 
 we should say ' and hence '. 
 
 Consequently is the equivalent of 'as a con- 
 sequence '. 
 
 Accordingly may mean ' consequence ' or ' effect ', 
 like the preceding. 
 
 It is also suited by its etymology to a rather different mean- 
 ing sometimes important to be signified, 'in harmony with '. 
 'The arrangements are that the cavalry and artillery shall 
 move in advance ; accordingly, you (the cavalry) are to leave 
 your position ', &c. 
 
 Thus and so, like 'accordingly', are words originally 
 implying comparison or similarity of manner, and ex- 
 tended to signify inference or consequence. 
 
 'Thus ' is employed after stating a principle to introduce an 
 example or case in point ; as much as to say ' we shall give an 
 instance of what is intended '. It also expresses a comparison 
 in the strict sense ; as in the passage from the Pleasures of 
 Hope : * At summer's eve, when heaven's ethereal bow ', &c. 
 thus (adv. of manner or comparison) with delight we linger '. 
 
108 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 The existence of these two distinct uses renders the word less 
 apt as an illative conjunction, although still admissible. 
 
 ' So ', whose primary function is to make a comparison, can 
 also express a consequence. ' There was nothing to be seen, so 
 we went our way '. 
 
 So that is more specific than ' so ' ; the addition of * that ' 
 excludes the meaning of comparison ; hence this combination is 
 one of our most precise forms of signifying inference. Its most 
 characteristic import is, ' to such a degree that '. 
 
 Then. From having as an adverb the force of 
 1 after that ', or ' in the next place ', ' then ' has been 
 included among illative conjunctions ; the fact of one 
 thing following another being given as showing causa- 
 tion or inference. 
 
 The same explanation applies to the adoption of 'con- 
 sequently', 'it follows that ', as words signifying cause and effect. 
 
 'Then' is more commonly used in a compound phrase, 'so 
 then ', * and then ', but it may, standing alone, have the full 
 force of ' therefore ', in drawing an inference, or stating an 
 effect, or a consequence. ' So then the cause was gained ', 
 signifies * by those means it came about as an effect that ', &c. 
 
 To vary the expression of this important relationship, as. well 
 as occasionally to make it more emphatic and precise, we use 
 phrases of greater length ; as ' the effect, consequence, result, 
 upshot was'; 'the inference is'; 'it follows'; 'it may be 
 concluded, inferred ', &c. 
 
 7. II. The Subordinating Conjunctions are 
 
 divided according to the various relations or modes of 
 dependence ; as Eeason (because), Condition (if), End 
 (that), Precaution (provided that), Time (when). 
 
 8. (1.) Conjunctions of Reason and Cause: 
 
 ' because ', * for ', ' since ', ' as ', ' whereas ', ' inasmuch 
 as', 'seeing (considering, &c.) that'. 
 
 When we invert an illative connexion, stating the conse- 
 quence as the main clause, the other is then assigned as the 
 reason : 'he is in earnest, therefore he will succeed ' (illative) ; 
 1 he will succeed, because he is in earnest ' {reason}. The clause 
 ' because he is in earnest ', is a subordinate or dependent clause ; 
 in other words, the fact is given not for its own sake, but as 
 bearing out something else. The conjunctions introducing 
 these clauses are, therefore, called subordinating. 
 
 - 
 
REASON OR CAUSE. 109 
 
 Because, by its derivation, is the word for assigning 
 a cause. 
 
 Moral causes, or motives acting on the mind, are expressed by 
 this conjunction : ' he reads because he has thought himself 
 hungry ; he writes because lie has read himself lull '. Physical 
 causation is stated in this example : ' the crops failed, because 
 the season was dry '. 
 
 For is used in assigning causation, in giving what 
 is called the logical reason or proof, and in explaining 
 or accounting for a thing. 
 
 ' The brook will be very high, for a great deal of rain fell 
 the night' (physical cause)-*- 4 * great deal of rain must have 
 fallen, for the brook is high' (the logical reason or proofX_LBJ9~ 
 pressed on, for his ambition was still unsatisfied ' (explanation). 
 The word is especially appropriate in this last sense. A charac- 
 teristic application is seen in such a sentence as ' do as you are 
 told, for much depends on it ' ; here there is a blank or ellipsis, 
 and when that is tilled up, the conjunction shows itself in the 
 sense of giving the reason or proof : ' do as you are told ; if you 
 fail, the consequences will be serious, for (or the proof of which 
 is) much depends on it '. 
 
 Since literally means something that is past, and 
 hence settled and fixed, so that whatever consequences 
 depend on it must now arise. 
 
 1 Since you desire it, I will look into the matter.' It declares 
 a certain circumstance to have occurred, and gives that as a 
 reason for the main affirmation. 
 
 As derives its use as a subordinating conjunction of 
 reason from the original idea of declaring similarity 
 or comparison. 
 
 * As we are at leisure, let us see what is to be seen ' ; the ' as' 
 here assigns a reason for our seeing, &c., and it does so by indi- 
 cating a sort of similarity or harmony between the positions of 
 our being at leisure and our seeing all we can : 'it is in 
 accordance with our situation to see ', &c. ' Let us act out, 
 conform to, or resemble our position', &c. Although 'as ' is thus 
 included among the subordinating conjunctions of reason, 
 there is more frequent danger of ambiguity with it than with 
 the others of the class. 
 
110 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 Whereas introduces the preamble in every Act of 
 Parliament, giving the reason or motive of the 
 enactment, or the evil to be remedied by the provisions 
 that follow. 
 
 Hence it is strictly a conjunction of reason, but its employ- 
 ment in this sense is mostly confined to legal compositions. 
 
 The meaning belonging to the word in ordinary style is 
 different. ' I offered to take the lot entire, whereas every one 
 else wished it divided.' Here it plainly indicates a contrast 
 between two tilings. See 5 (2) (&). 
 
 Inasmuch as, forasmuch as. These are compound equi- 
 valents of ' since ', ' as ', and ' whereas ' (in the sense of a pre- 
 amble). Forasmuch as many have taken in hand to set forth 
 in order, *&c. 
 
 Seeing that, considering that, have a special 
 appropriateness when the reason grows out of circum- 
 stances reflected on by the mind. 
 
 ' Seeing that you cannot get what you ask, take what you 
 can get.' 'Considering that the world is so intricate, we are 
 not to be surprised that science has progressed slowly.' The 
 only peculiarity of these phrases as conjunctions of reason is 
 derived from the meaning of the words ' seeing ', ' considering '. 
 
 9. (2.) Conjunctions of Supposition, Con- 
 dition, or Qualification : 'if', 'supposing (that) ', 
 ' if not ', ' unless ', ' except ', ' without ', otherwise ', 
 ' whether ', * as if ', ' though ', ' notwithstanding ', 
 albeit'. 
 
 If. When a thing is stated not absolutely or un- 
 conditionally, but under a certain condition, supposition, 
 or qualification, ' if ' is the principal word for expressing 
 the condition. 
 
 ' I will, if I can ; ' 'if I could, I would '. This is the main 
 use of the conjunction, to which it adheres with considerable 
 uniformity. 
 
 A peculiar and somewhat ambiguous employment of the 
 word is seen in the fable, where the ant says to the grasshopper, 
 ' If you sung in summer, dance in winter', where 'if has the 
 force of a reason, the condition being a realised fact, ' since, or 
 as you sung '. These are cases where the conjunction is always 
 followed by the indicative mood. 
 
SUPPOSITION OR CONDITION. Ill 
 
 Supposing that, on the supposition, presumption, 
 
 allegation, hypothesis that, are phrases that vary the 
 mode of introducing conditional statements ; they carry their 
 own meaning with them. In case (that) is a very convenient 
 and often-wanted phrase for anticipating contingencies or even- 
 tualities. The prepositional phrase 'in the event of is of 
 the same tenor. 
 
 Provided that. See 10, end. 
 
 If not is a conjunction of negative condition. 
 
 ' Aristotle, the most sagacious, if not the most comprehensive, 
 mind of antiquity ', conveys an insinuation of doubt, although 
 the context and the manner will often show that the speaker 
 either believes or disbelieves the statement. 
 
 Unless and except are also conjunctions of 
 negative condition. 
 
 ' Unless (=if not) I hear to the contrary, I will be there.' 
 ' Except (=. unless, if not) ye repent, ye shall all likewise 
 perish. ' 
 
 Without was formerly used to signify ' if not ' : ' without 
 you go, I will not '. The connexion of this sense with the 
 usual force of the preposition is apparent. 
 
 Whether or, whether, indicate a double case of 
 conditionality. 
 
 ' Whether he like it or not, he will have to go' : that is 
 1 whichever of the two suppositions be the fact, he will have to 
 go ' ; ' if he like it, he will have to go ' ; ' if (though) he do not 
 like it, he will have to go '. 
 
 In the expression 'I know not whether he will come,' the 
 word 'if sometimes takes the place of 'whether', as if con- 
 ditiouality were still suggested. The transition from stating 
 conditionality to implying mere doubt is an obvious one ; the 
 meanings are still distinct. 
 
 As if is a compound conjunction carrying out the 
 sense of both words. 
 
 ' He started as if he saw a spirit ', is elliptical for ' as lie 
 would have done if he,' &c. 
 
 Though, although, express concession, which is 
 condition, with the circum stance that parties are willing 
 to allow something that they might perhaps refuse. 
 
112 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 ' Though all men deny thee, yet will I not ' ; 'grant the sup- 
 position that all men, &c. ' 
 
 When something is given as true with a certain limitation, 
 we may use this word : ' they advanced steadily, though slowly '. 
 
 The use of ' yet ' to preface the principal clause increases the 
 emphasis of that clause, but does not affect the meaning of 
 ' though ' in connexion with the subordinate clause. 
 
 The omission of 'though' in the above example would make 
 the clauses co-ordinate, united by the co-ordinating arrestive 
 conjunction 'yet'. 
 
 We have a variety of phrases for the present meaning : pro- 
 vided that, allowing that, granting that, &c. Sup- 
 posing that also frequently implies that a concession is made. 
 
 Notwithstanding falls under the same head as 
 the foregoing. 
 
 It is a verbal phrase converted into a preposition in the first 
 instance, and then into a conjunction. It obviously means ' 1 
 am prepared to do a certain thing, granting what appear to be 
 strong considerations or forces on the other side '. 
 
 ' For all that, in spite of all that ', are expressive synonymes 
 for the co-ordinating meaning. ' Anyhow ', ' at all events ', 
 are other phrases of allied signification. 
 
 Albeit is an expressive combination, and ought not 
 to be considered as obsolete, or old-fashioned. 
 
 10. (3.) Conjunctions of End, or Purpose : 
 
 ' that ', ' in order that ', ' so as ', ' as as ', ' lest '. 
 
 That is the demonstrative pronoun, converted into 
 our chief conjunction of end. 
 
 ' We sow, that we may reap ' ; * men toil, that they may 
 attain to leisure '. The transference of the demonstrative to 
 this peculiar use may be explained by supposing that after a fact 
 is stated, the hearer is ready to ask ' what then ?' ' what next ?' 
 ' what of it ?' ' for what end ?' whereupon the demonstrative 
 supplies the information desired, ' that, (namely) we may 
 reap '. Without assuming the natural desire to know why 
 a thing is, or why an assertion is made, we cannot well account 
 either for this conjunction or for the still greater blank of con- 
 necting words shown in the gerund construction : ' we sow to 
 reap ' ; ' they stoop to rise ; ' ' born but to die ' ; in all which the 
 action expected to follow is simply named in its most naked 
 form, the hearer being looked upon as asking why ? or wherefore? 
 
PURPOSE AND TIME. 113 
 
 In order that is somewhat more explicit than the simple 
 'that'; still it fails to .express the fact of end hy a direct 
 meaning : the words ' in order ' mean only ' this first, that 
 next ' ; the hearer must himself suppose that the one leads to, 
 or points to, the other. The same phrase is interposed in the 
 gerund construction ' we read in order to be informed '. 
 
 So as. ' He so acted as to gain the confidence of 
 others.' 
 
 This is a kind of relative construction, the ' so ' being 
 demonstrative, the ' as ' relative. * He acts in that manner, 
 by which manner he gains.' The end is still a matter of 
 inference more than of direct information. The effect of the 
 construction is to indicate not merely end, but a certain express 
 suitability in the means employed to compass the end. 
 
 Lest is the end of avoidance : ' in order not to '. 
 ' They set a strong guard, lest any one should escape.' 
 In the use of this conjunction we should notice that if the 
 principal verb contains the meaning of avoidance, ' that ' is 
 preferable to ' lest '; 'I feared that (not lest) I should be 
 deceived '. 
 
 Precaution is indicated by the phrases, provided 
 that, with the understanding that, with this 
 proviso, &c. 
 
 Precaution may be viewed either as condition or as end. It is 
 a collateral object to be kept in view, and fulfilled along with 
 the main purpose. In doing what is chiefly aimed at, we are 
 to secure certain other things : ' provided that all is safe, you 
 may depart '. In Acts of Parliament the phrase used is ' pro- 
 vided always that '. 
 
 II. (4.) Conjunctions of Time are partly rela- 
 tive Adverbs, partly Prepositions before clauses :. 
 'when', 'while', 'as'; * until', 'ere', 'before', 
 'after'. 
 
 ' I will come when I am at leisure '; 'I will praise thee while 
 (so long as) I live '; ' as I looked, some one came near ' ; * they 
 remained until night set in '; 'it will be long ere you have suck 
 a chance ' ; ' the truth will come out before we are done ' ; 
 ' after the vote was taken, the assembly broke up '. 
 
 Immediate consequence is signified by various compound 
 connectives : 'nosooner-^than ', 'just when', 'hardly before', 
 * the moment that ', * as soon as ', &c. 
 8 
 
114 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE INTERJECTION. 
 
 The INTERJECTION is not properly a part of speech, as it 
 does ' not enter into the construction of sentences. It is a 
 sudden exclamation prompted by some strong feeling or emotion. 
 There are various utterances suited to the different emotions of 
 the mind : as, joy, l huzza !' ' hurra !' grief, ' !' ' ah !' ' alas !' 
 wonder, 'hah! ' approbation, l bravo !' aversion, 'pugh !' 'tush !' 
 For calling attention, ' lo !' ' hush !' &c. 
 
 EXCLAMATION, one of the figures of rhetoric, employs words 
 of ordinary language in the manner of interjections : ' what !' 
 ' for shame ! ' ' ah me ! ' ' how strange !' ' hark J* 
 
X 
 
 115 
 
 INFLEXION. 
 
 The second part of Etymology, called Inflexion, 
 treats of the changes made on words to express various 
 relations and meanings. 
 
 Thus the Noun and the Pronoun are changed in three 
 ways, namely, to express difference of Gender, Number, 
 and Case. These changes constitute Declension. 
 
 The Adjective and the Adverb are inflected for 
 Degree. This process is named Comparison. 
 
 The Verb is changed to signify Person, Number, 
 Time, &c. This is called Conjugation. 
 
 The uninflected Parts of Speech are the Preposition, 
 the Conjunction, and the Interjection. 
 
 INFLEXION OF NOUNS. 
 
 GENDER. 
 
 I. Natural Gender: Gender follows Sex. 
 
 In Modern English, the natural difference of sex 
 determines the gender. 
 
 Beings possessing animal life are divided into the two classes 
 or Sexes, male and female ; as man, woman ; bull, cow. 
 Plants and things destitute of life have no sex. 
 
 To this natural distinction corresponds the division of naines ; 
 according to Gender. 
 
 Names for individuals of the male sex are of the 
 Masculine gender; as 'king', 'man', 'bull'. 
 
 Names for the female sex are of the Feminine 
 gender ; as ' queen ', * woman ', ' cow '. 
 
 Strictly speaking, these two are the only genders in Modern 
 English. 
 
116 INFLEXION. GENDER OF NOUNS. 
 
 Names for things without sex are said to be of the 
 Neuter Gender, that is, are simply left as of no 
 gender ; as ' gold ', ' mountain ', ' bread ', l oak '. 
 
 ' Neuter ' is Latin for ' neither ' ; that is, here, neither 
 masculine nor feminine. 
 
 Many words are applied to both sexes alike ; as 
 ' parent ', ' child ', * cousin '. These are said to be of 
 the Common Gender. 
 
 The names applied to the greater number of the inferior 
 animals are of this sort, it being only in the more important 
 and best known species that we are at the pains to note the sex. 
 Thus, ' trout ', ' ant ', ' lizard ', are common to both sexes. If 
 we wish, on occasion, to mark the sex, we use a special designa- 
 tion, as the prefix 'he' or 'she', or the adjectives 'male', 
 * female '. ' Man ', and ' mankind ', are often used comprehen- 
 sively for both sexes. We also use other designations, such as 
 ' actor ', ' author ', ' painter ', * poet ', for both sexes, although 
 they are properly masculine, and have feminine derivatives 
 (' actress ', &c.) The effect of this is to give very different 
 meanings to the two phrases : ' the greatest of living actors ', 
 and * the greatest of living actresses ', applied to a woman. By 
 the first she is designated the first actor of either sex, by the 
 second the first of her own sex. 
 
 2. Purely Grammatical Gender. In Old 
 
 English, the gender is often determined, not by the 
 meaning, but by the form. 
 
 In modern English, gender follows sex (with a few exceptions) ; that 
 is, masculine words and forms are confined to the male sex, feminine 
 words and forms to the female sex. But in old English, as well as in 
 many other languages, as Latin, Greek, &c., a poetical or figurative 
 'process of personifying things without life was in extensive operation, 
 by which the distinction of gender was extended to nouns generally; 
 and the adjective was regularly inflected in three forms, for masculine, 
 feminine, and neuter. 
 
 Masculine endings were -a, -end, -ere, -ing (patronymic), 
 -dom, -had, -scipe, &c. ; as 'mona' (moon), 'wealderatf' (wield- 
 ing one, ruler), ' fiscere ' (fisher), ' Wo&ning ' (Woden's son); 
 ' wisdom ', * cildhad ' (childhood), * freondscipe ' (friendship). 
 
 Feminine endings were the abstract -nis (from adj.), -u, -ung 
 or -ing (from verbs), &c. ; as ' blithras ' (joy), ' cam ' (care), 
 'leomung' or 'learning' (learning). 
 
 Neuter endings were -em, -lac, -en (diminutive), &c. ; as 
 '"bern (for 'bere-aern', barley-house, barn), 'cnawZoc' (know- 
 ledge), ' maegdw, nueden ' (maiden). 
 
HOW TO DISTINGUISH GENDER. 
 
 117 
 
 In many cases the distinctive termination was dropt in course 
 of time, the original gender still remaining : ' street ' (for ' streets ', 
 fern., street), &c. 
 
 In the 13th century there was great confusion of the genders ; 
 and in the 14th century, the modern system was pretty well 
 established. 
 
 3. There are three ways of distinguishing the 
 Gender of Nouns. 
 
 I. By employing different words: as 'king, 
 queen ' ; ' husband, wife ' ; ' boy, girl ' ; * cock, hen '. 
 
 This is a question of the meaning of words, and not of 
 grammar. It is not a method of inflexion, but a substitute for 
 inflexion. The number of such words is not great. The fol- 
 lowing are the chief: 
 
 MASCULINE. FEMININE. 
 
 MASCULINE. FEMININE. 
 
 MASCULINE. FEMININE. 
 
 Bachelor Maid 
 
 Father Mother 
 
 Nephew Niece 
 
 Boar Sow 
 
 Friar Sister 
 
 Papa Mamma 
 
 Boy Girl 
 
 Gander Goose 
 
 Ram or ) -& 
 
 Bridegroom Bride 
 
 Gentleman Lady 
 
 Wether f Ewe 
 
 Brother Sister 
 
 Hart Roe 
 
 Ruff Reeve 
 
 Buck Doe 
 Bull Cow 
 
 Horse or \ M 
 Stallion j Mare 
 
 ;,--) ( Madam 
 L t I Darae <* 
 
 Bullock or) TT p jf,,, 
 
 Husband Wife 
 
 &ire j ( dam 
 
 Steer $ Helfer 
 
 King Queen 
 
 Sloven Slut 
 
 Cock Hen 
 
 Lad Lass 
 
 Son Daughter 
 
 Colt or Foal Filly 
 Dog or Hound Bitch 
 
 Lord Lady 
 Mallard Wild duck 
 
 Stag Hind 
 Tailor Seamstress 
 
 Drake Duck 
 
 Man Woman 
 
 Tiitor Governess 
 
 Drone Bee 
 
 Milter Spawner 
 
 Uncle Aunt 
 
 Earl Countess 
 
 Monk Nun 
 
 Wizard Witch 
 
 Some of these names, though distinct in appearance, are very 
 closely connected in their original forms. Thus, ' gander ' (old 
 gan-d-ra, = ganr-a = gaiis-a ; d being euphonic, r being sub- 
 stituted for an older s, and a the masc. termination) and 'goose ' 
 (old gos, for gons, gans) are radically the same word. ' Nephew ' 
 and ' niece ' come through French from Lat. nepos and neptis. 
 According to Dr. Morris, ' lord ', old English hluford, is for 
 hluf- weard (loaf- keeper), and the corresponding feminine is hluf- 
 weardige, contracted to old hl&fdige, which in course of time 
 became 'lady'. 'Colt', 'foal', and 'filly', have been traced 
 to a radical connexion. ' King ' and ' queen ' may possibly be, 
 at bottom, the masc. and fern, forms of the same word. ' Lass' 
 may be for ' lad-ess '. ' Man ', in old English, was of both 
 genders ; ' woman ' is 0. E. wif-man (wife-man). 
 
 ' Bridegroom ' is a corruption of old brydguma, (bride's 
 man) ; guma (man) being cognate with Lat. homo, as gans 
 
118 
 
 INFLEXION. GENDER OF NOUNS. 
 
 (goose) is cognate with Lat. (h)anser. ' Countess ' is the 
 derivative feminine of ' count ', the French name for ' earl '. 
 4 Ciirl ' was of either gender as late as the 14th century, signifying 
 ' a little child '. 
 
 ' Drake ' is explained, by reference to cognate forms, as a con- 
 traction of end-rake (duck -king) : cp. Germ, enterich (drake) : 
 it is wholly distinct from ' duck '. 
 
 The giving of different words to denote gender is an 
 exceptional usage, and is accounted for in most cases 
 by the great difference of function of the two sexes. 
 
 Thus men and women perform offices so different, and 
 sustain characters so distinct through the various relationships 
 of life, that we are not surprised at their being designated by 
 different words. A * daughter ' is literally ' the milker ', or 
 4 milkmaid ', because that was the office that the daughters of 
 the house fulfilled in early pastoral times. So the ' horse ' and 
 4 mare', the 4 bull or ox* and 'cow', the 'ram' and 'ewe', 
 &c., have broadly marked distinctions in their uses and employ- 
 ments, which probably suggested the difference of appellation 
 in each case. 
 
 In a few instances there is a noun of common gender 
 as well as separate designations of the sexes. 
 
 Thus 
 
 Child 
 Deer 
 Fowl 
 Horse 
 
 Son or Daughter 
 Hart or Roe 
 Cock or Hen 
 Stallion or Mare 
 
 Sovereign 
 
 Parent 
 
 Pig 
 
 King or Queen 
 Father or Mother 
 Boar or Sow 
 Earn or Ewe. 
 
 These are also various compounds : 
 
 Foster-father Foster-mother 
 Gaffer (grand- Gammer fgrand'- 
 
 pere) mere) 
 
 Gentle-man Gentle-woman 
 Grand-father Graud-mother 
 Land-lord Land-lady 
 
 Mer-man 
 
 Mer-maid 
 
 Milk-man 
 
 Moor-cock 
 
 Pea-cock 
 
 Step-father 
 
 Step-son 
 
 Turkey-cock 
 
 French-man 
 
 Milk-maid 
 
 Moor-hen 
 
 Pea-hen 
 
 Step-mother 
 
 Step-daughter 
 
 Turkey-hen 
 
 French-woman 
 
 4. II. By prefixing a word indicating the 
 sex ; 
 
 MASCULINES. 
 
 Male-servant 
 Jtfon-servant 
 A/cra-kind 
 7/e-bear 
 We-goat 
 
 FEMININE. 
 
 .Female-servant 
 .Afe'd-servant 
 Woman-kind 
 Sfo-bear 
 S/ic-goat 
 
 MASCULINE. 
 Boar-pig 
 .Bwc/t-rabbit 
 .Bit-calf 
 <?oc-sparrow 
 Dog-fox. 
 
 FEMININE. 
 
 Sow-pig 
 Doe-rabbit 
 Ctae-calf 
 7/eu-spurrow 
 Bitch-ion 
 
DISTINCTIVE ENDINGS. 119 
 
 ' "Woman ' (wif-m&n, wife-man) is originally an instance 
 under this head. ' JJ/an-child ', and * knave-girl ' for ' boy ', 
 'tom-cat' (old ' carZ-eatt '), 'ewe-lamb', 'g'wee/i-bee ', &c., are 
 similar examples. 
 
 5. III. By the use of distinctive suffixes, or 
 terminations : -ess, -trix, -ine, -a, (Romance suffixes), 
 -en, -ster, for adding to the masculine to make the 
 feminine; and -er, rake, for adding to the feminine 
 to make the masculine. 
 
 This is the only mode of real inflexion. 
 
 -ess (Fr. esse, M. Lat. issa ) is the ordinary femi- 
 nine suffix in Modern English. 
 
 Up till about the middle of the 14th century, -ess was 
 attached only to a few words, these words being, like itself, of 
 Norman-French origin. In the second half of the 14th cen- 
 tury, it became established as the usual feminine ending for 
 nouns of whate' ver origin. 
 
 Sometimes -ess is added to the masculine, without 
 further change : 
 
 MASC. FEM. 
 
 Baron Baroness 
 
 Count Countess 
 
 Dauphin Dauphinesa 
 
 Deacon Deaconess 
 
 Giant Giantess 
 
 MASC. FEM. 
 
 Heir Heiress 
 
 Host Hostess 
 
 Jew Jewess 
 
 Lion Lioness 
 
 Mayor Mayoress 
 
 MASC. FEM. 
 
 Patron Patroness 
 
 Peer Peeress 
 
 Poet Poetess 
 
 Priest Priestess 
 
 Prophet Prophete*-* 
 
 'Tutor-ess', 'viscount-ess', and many others, might be 
 added. ' God, god-d-ess '; ' prince, princ-ess ' ; * ogre, ogress '. 
 
 Sometimes the special masculine ending is omitted 
 before -ess is added : 
 
 MASC. FEM. 
 
 Abbot Abbess 
 
 Negro Negresa 
 
 Governor Governess 
 
 MASC. FEM. 
 
 Caterer Cateres* 
 
 Murderer Murderess 
 
 Sorcerer Sorceress 
 
 ' Abbot ' is 0. E. abbod, Lat. abbatem ; ' abbess ' is shortened 
 from 'abbudisse ' (Lat. abbatissam) , the oldest example of this 
 ending in English. ' Governor, -ess ', ' murderer, -ess ', &o. , 
 practically add the masc. or the fern, termination to the verb 
 root ; the addition of -ess to the masculine would make a 
 troublesome pronunciation. ' Sorcerer ' is a corruption of Fr. 
 sorrier, Lat. sortiarium (from sortcs, lots, oracles) ; ' sorceress ' 
 seems to be formed on much the same principle as the preceding. 
 
INFLEXION. GENDER OP NOUNS. 
 
 Sometimes the masculine ending is, or appears to "be, 
 modified before ess is added : 
 
 MASC. 
 
 Actor 
 
 Benefactor 
 
 Conductor 
 
 Doctor 
 
 Duke 
 
 Emperor 
 
 Enchanter 
 
 FEM. 
 Actress 
 Benefactress 
 Conductress 
 Doctress 
 Duchess 
 Empress 
 Enchantress 
 
 MASC. 
 
 Founder 
 
 Instructor 
 
 Marquis 
 
 Master 
 
 Protector 
 
 Tiger 
 
 Traitor 
 
 FEM. 
 
 Foundress 
 
 Instructress 
 
 Marchioness 
 
 Mistress 
 
 Protectress 
 
 Tigress 
 
 Traitress 
 
 ' Duchess ' is old Fr. diic-esse, duch-esse. ' Emperor ' is Fr. 
 empereur, shortened from Lat. imperatorem ; ' empress ' was 
 previously ' emperesse ' (13th century), 'emperice' (12th cen- 
 tury), a shortening of Fr. imperatrice, Lat. impertitricem. ' Mar- 
 chioness ' is Lat. marchionissa, from masc. form marchio(nem). 
 ' Mistress ' corresponds to ' mister ' rather than to ' master ' ; 
 in 0. E. the forms were maister, maist(e)resse. 
 
 -trix, the feminine form of Lat. -tor, is found in a 
 few nouns that come direct from the Latin : 
 
 MASC. 
 
 Adjutor 
 
 Administrator 
 
 Director 
 
 FEM. 
 
 Adjutria; 
 
 Administratrix 
 
 Directrix 
 
 MASC. 
 Executor 
 Heritor 
 Testator 
 
 FEM. 
 
 Executrix 
 
 Heritrix 
 
 Testatrix 
 
 Director mrectnx Testator jestatrix 
 
 ' Proprietor ' has both ' proprietrix ' and ' proprietress '. 
 
 ' Directress ' also occurs. ' Empress ' has just been explained. 
 
 * Nurse ', older nurice, norise, F. nourrice, Lat. nutrlcem. 
 
 -ine, -ina, is especially frequent in proper names of 
 women. 
 
 MASC. 
 
 Hera 
 Czar 
 
 FEM. 
 
 Heroin* 
 Czarina 
 
 MASC. 
 
 Landgrave 
 Margrave 
 
 FEM. 
 
 Landgravine 
 Margravine 
 
 Caroline, Josephine, Pauline ; Alex(andr)wia, &c. 
 -a occurs in some Eomance words : 
 
 MASC. FEM. 
 
 Don Donna 
 
 Sultan Sultana 
 
 1 Beau ' (old ' bel'), 'belfe 
 
 MASC. FEM. 
 
 Infant Infanta. 
 
 Signore Signora. 
 
 come direct from French. 
 
 -en and -ster are the native ^Teutonic endings. 
 Both are now obsolete. 
 -en remains only in ' 
 
DISTINCTIVE ENDINGS. 
 
 The form ' vixen ' is a dialectic variation of ' fyxen ', the 
 regular 0. E. fern, of ' fox '. The vowel o changes to y under 
 the influence of the coming e (in -en) : compare ' god ', ' gyden ' 
 
 , 'fuch 
 
 (goddess) ; ' wulf ', ' wylf'en ' (she-wolf) ; Germ, 
 
 'gott, gottin', 'wolf, wolfin'. The same change is also seen in 
 
 * man, men ', ' cock, chicken ' (O. E. cycen), ' gold, 0. E. 
 gylden (golden)'. 
 
 The real mark of the feminine, e, had been dropt even in the 
 earliest English ; the en, although taken practically as a mark 
 of gender, is in fact a mark of possession. Dr. Morris illustrates 
 this by quoting Sanskrit Indra (name of a God), Indrani 
 (Indra's wife), and Lithuanian gandras (stork), fern, gandrene ; 
 where -n and -en denote possession, -i and -e the fern, gender. 
 
 -en was common in old English, but had almost died out in 
 the 14th century. 
 
 Compare -in in Scotch 'carl-m' ('female carl', old woman). 
 
 Ster remains in ' spinier*. 
 
 ' Spinster ' is a feminine word, as meaning ' an unmarried; 
 female'; it originally meant 'a female spinner'. In old 
 English the male agent was denoted by -ere, the female by. 
 estre : ' bcec-ere (baker), bcec-estre ', ' sang '-ere (singer), sang-estre',. 
 f webbere (weaver), webbestre '. A good many feminines in -ster 
 were in use as late as the 16th century ; but when -ess became 
 the prevailing feminine termination in the 14th century, words 
 in ster came gradually and largely to be used as masculine, or 
 as expressing the agent in general. Hence 'songster', as mas- 
 culine, forms ' song-str-ess ', with double feminine ending ; and 
 ' seam-str-ess ', ' s^in-str-ess ', ' t&ip-str-ess ', &c., show a like 
 history. -Ster now indicates mostly the agent: 'throwster', 
 
 * whipster ', ' punster ', ' trickster ', ' gamester ', &c. The 
 sense of depreciation connected with some of the words, 
 arises from the nature of the action more than from the special 
 ending. 
 
 -er forms 'widower* (masc.) from 'widow* (fern.). 
 
 In 0. E. the forms were 'widuwa' (masc.) and 'widuwc' 
 (fern.) ; but when the distinctive terminations were lost, ' widow ' 
 was appropriated to the feminine, and the necessity arose for a 
 masculine form. 
 
 ' Drake ', and ' gander ', have already been mentioned as 
 other masculines formed from feminines, 'end' (duck), zndgans 
 (older form of ' goose '). 
 
 ' Bridegroom ? , a compound, was previously nDted as formed 
 from 'bride'. 
 
122 INFLEXION. GENDER OF NOUNS. 
 
 6. Poetical gender, or Personification. 
 
 Inanimate objects are sometimes spoken of as male or 
 female, and are then said to be personified. Ihus, it 
 is customary with us, as with the Greeks and Eomans, 
 to speak of the Sun as masculine, and of the Moon as 
 feminine. 
 
 The sun (fern, in 0. E. and modern German), time, summer, 
 winter, the morn, death, anger, fear, despair, are made mascu- 
 line ; the moon (masc. in 0. E. and modern German), the earth, 
 the 'dawn, night, Nature, the Church, Hope, Pity, are feminine. 
 The planets are some masculine and some feminine, according 
 to the sex of the deities that they owe their names to : Jupiter, 
 Saturn, Mercury, &c. ; Venus, Pallas, Vesta, &c. This is now 
 considered a poetic licence. 
 
 The modern English practice of confining distinction of 
 gender to difference of sex, renders those occasional deviations 
 very impressive, by actually suggesting to the mind the idea of 
 personal existence and attributes ; whereas in Old English, 
 Greek, Latin, French, &c., the assigning of gender to things 
 inanimate produces no effect on the mind. A German speaks 
 of his spoon as he, his fork as she, and his knife as it. 
 
 The motives for assigning the masculine gender to some things, and 
 the feminine gender to others, are supposed to be the following : Things 
 remarkable for strength, superiority, majesty, sublimity, as Death, Time, 
 Winter, War, have been looked upon as masculine. Gentleness, beauty 
 and grace, fertility or productiveness, belonging or imagined to belong, 
 to things, suggest a feminine personification ; as the Earth, Spring, Hope, 
 Virtue, Truth, Justice, Mercy, Peace. Things very much identified with 
 their owner are occasionally spoken of as she the seamaii calls his ship 
 ' she ' ; to call a watch or a clock ' she ' is a common Scotticism. 
 
 7. The knowledge of the Gender of a Noun is 
 necessary in order to the correct use of the 
 Pronouns, ' he ', ' she ', ' it ', and their inflexions and 
 derivatives. 
 
 The concord of the common gender is arranged thus. For 
 the more distinguished beings, we may use the masculine, in 
 its representative sense ; as in speaking of a member of the 
 human family, we may say ' he ', although women are also 
 included. The most correct form, although somewhat clumsy, 
 is to say ' he or she '. (See Syntax Concord of Pronouns.) 
 
NUMBER 
 
 1. Singular and Plural. When a Noun (or 
 Pronoun) names a single object, it is said to be of the 
 Singular Number ; as ' book ', * man '. 
 
 When more than one are named, the Noun usually 
 undergoes a change, and is then said to be of the 
 Plural Number ; as ' books ', ' men '. 
 
 The singular is the original form of the noun. 
 In old English a dual number existed, but only in the per- 
 sonal pronouns of the first and second persons. 
 
 2. The Plural is formed in English, with a few 
 exceptions, by adding -s (or -es) to the Singular: 
 
 ' ship, ' ship* '. 
 
 In Old English there was a class of masculine nouns forming 
 the plural by the addition of -as to the singular ; as ' smith ', 
 plur. ' smith-as '. In later English this -as became -es ; as 
 'smith ', plur. 'smith-es'. This came very near the -s or -x of 
 the Norman-French, and the consequence was that the form in 
 es was extended to English nouns generally, all the other 
 old English plural endings being dropped. The change came 
 into operation as early as the thirteenth century. In the next 
 century, -es began to cease to be pronounced as a separate 
 syllable, and the -e- was dropt : ' smithes ' became ' smiths '. 
 
 The bringing of the -s into the same syllable with preceding 
 letters (other than ' e ') led to certain phonetic modifications. 
 
 (1.) When the Noun ends in a surd or sharp con- 
 sonant (-p, -/, -#, -th [as in * smith \ ' thin '], -), the -S 
 has its own proper surd or sharp sound as in 
 'gas,' ' sea ' : as ' crops ', ' beliefs ', * cats ', ' wreaths ', 
 ' books '. 
 
 This is a necessity of pronunciation ; we are unable to pro- 
 nounce a surd and a sonant together ; we cannot say 'cropz', 
 'beliefz' 'catz', without such a pause between the letters as 
 would constitute a new syllable. The same reason determines 
 the next rule (2). 
 
 Exceptions in ' -/'. Nouns of native origin ending 
 in -/ preceded by a long vowel (except ' oo ') or by 
 
'!', change the -f into -v*; and -s is pro- 
 nounced as -z: 4 krf.kTes' (Var), 'wife, raw' 
 (): ' 
 
 ' <**), 'calf, lTW*; ' 
 
 rf /* togs 
 ^ im^ia fwl -* 
 
 
 WWAt^dU r i g ' '. pi LI in /*, tke perJ 
 
 "" 
 
 
 , the -S has 
 
BBGO-AB A5TD 
 
 L 
 
 lL-5 
 
 the corresponding sonant or flat sound -z : m 
 'cabs', (= kabz), 'graves' (pnfez}, 'god* 
 boGti', bog', 'palms', 'p', *bdL 
 
 In 'bah 
 
 
 Im,^MdBC^MK 
 
 faij, -j^e, or -d^c [=y=tiz4], *=[fa]), the earlier 
 is retained : <ot*fi, CTOSK* \'P"^ P"' * 
 
 Nouns ending in -y preceded by a 
 nant change the -5 into -ie~s to focm the 
 
 But nouns having a vowel before -y are 
 
 regular (See (2)) : 'boy, bopr', '^Bey, 
 
 ::,: s 
 
 ;: tit 
 
126 INFLEXION. NUMBER OP NOUNS. 
 
 The foregoing are the regular and modern 
 processes of forming the plural in English. 
 
 3. Obsolete modes of inflexion are still seen 
 in a small number of Nouns as ' man, men ' ; 'ox, 
 oxew ' ; ' brother, brethren ' ; * cow, kine ' ; * child, 
 children '. 
 
 Change of vowel is seen in the following words : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Man (O. E. man) 
 
 Foot (O. E. f6t) 
 Goose (O. E. g6s) 
 Tooth (0. E. toth) 
 
 Louse (O. E. Itis) 
 Mouse (0. E. mus) 
 Cow (O. E. eu) 
 
 PJLURAL. 
 
 Men (O. E. men) 
 
 Feet (O. E. fit) 
 Geese (O. E. gts) 
 Teeth (O. E. tetk) 
 
 Lice (O. E. #*) 
 Mice (O. E. m$s) 
 Ki(ne)(O.E. c$), Scot. kye. 
 
 The vowel change is not an inflexion ; it is only an incidental 
 result of the real inflexion, the ending representing which is 
 >now lost. The original plural of ' man ' was ' manni ' ; and the 
 :modifying influence of final -i softened -a- into -e- ; so 
 that on the falling away of the inflexional ending, the plural 
 .appeared as ' men '. So ' fet ' is for 'foti ', ' lys ' for ' liis-i ', 
 ' mys ' for ' miis-i ', &c. 
 
 In 0. E. a few other nouns similarly modified their root 
 vowels: as *boc (book), bee'; ' broc, bre'c' ('breeches', Scot. 
 ' breeks '), ' turf, tyrf ; ' burh (burgh, borough), byrig ' ; 'furh 
 (furrow), fyrh orfyrig ' ; ' wilit (wight, creature), wuht '. 
 
 The ending -en now remains only in *ox-ew* 
 (0. E. ' ox-an '). 
 
 In old English -an was a very common termination ; later 
 it was modified to -en. Other examples, not long obsolete or 
 still in provincial use, are 'een' (Chaucer's and Spenser's 
 ' eyen ', * eye-en ' 0. E. eag-ari), ' esen ' (eaves, 0. E. efescn, 
 esen), ' hosen ' and ' shooa ' (=:' shoe-en ', 0. E. scon), ' house-n ', 
 'peat-en', 'pesen' (peas), 'pull-en' (fowls), 'toon' (toes), 
 *tree-n', &c. 
 
 A few nouns were later assimilated to the -en 
 ending ; as ' brethren ', ' children ', ' kine '. 
 
 ' Brethren'. The plural of ' brothor ' was first ' brothr-w ' or 
 * brothr-a ' ; later * brothr-e ', ' brethr-e ', ' brether ' ; then 
 1 brotlum ', ' brethren- '. 
 
OBSOLETE AND FOREIGN FORMATIONS. 
 
 127 
 
 Afodor (mother), dohter (daughter), siveoster (sister), were 
 declined in the same way in 0. E., and had a partly similar 
 history. 
 
 ' Children '. 0. E. ' cild ' (child) had for plural ' cild-r-w ', 
 which was modified to l childr-e' and 'child-er', ' child-rcn '. 
 and ' child-er-w '. 
 
 Compare ' calvren ' (from 0. E. cealf, ' calf '), ' eyren ' (from 
 0. E. ceg, ' egg '), and ' lambren ' (from 0. E. lamb), all long 
 obsolete. 
 
 'Kine'. 0. E. 'cu' (cow) formed its plural, as we have 
 seen, ' cy ', or ' ky ' ; later, it took on ' -en ', and became 
 * kin ', * ken ', ' kine ', a double plural. * Cows ' is now the 
 regular and common usage. 
 
 4. Some Nouns have 
 numbers : as * deer'. 
 
 the same 
 
 sheep ', 
 
 form 
 
 swne 
 
 in both 
 
 * grouse ', 
 
 * teal ', ' mackerel ', ' trout ', ' salmon ', * heathen 
 ' cannon '. 
 
 This corresponds to a class of neuter nouns that had lost their 
 (nominative) plural inflexion in the oldest English : O. E. dear 
 (sing, and plur. ), * deer ' ; sceap (sing, and plur. ), ' sheep ' ; 
 swin (sing, and plur.), 'swine' ; &c. 
 
 5. Foreign Words. Many words borrowed from 
 other languages retain their original plurals : 
 
 ' foczis, foci ' ; ' genws, genera ' ; ' beau, beaux ' ; 
 
 * cherub, cherubim.' 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Analyse* 
 Axes 
 
 The following are a few of the most usual : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Formula 
 
 Formula 
 
 Analysis 
 
 Larva 
 
 Larvae 
 
 Axis 
 
 Nebula 
 
 Nebulae 
 
 Basis 
 
 Magwa 
 
 Magi 
 
 Appendia? 
 
 Radius 
 
 Radii 
 
 Radix 
 
 Tumulus 
 
 Tumuli 
 
 Vortex 
 
 Ammalculum 
 
 Animalcula 
 
 Series 
 
 Datum 
 
 Data 
 
 Species 
 
 Effluvium 
 
 Effluvia 
 
 Superficies 
 
 Medium 
 
 Media 
 
 Apparatus 
 
 Momentum 
 
 Momenta 
 
 Sir 
 
 Stratum 
 
 Strata 
 
 Madame 
 
 Criterion 
 
 . Criteria 
 
 Bandit 
 
 Phenomenon 
 
 Phenomena 
 
 Virtuoso 
 
 Miasma 
 
 Miasmata 
 
 Seraph 
 
 Appendices 
 
 Radices 
 
 Vortices 
 
 change.) 
 
 Messieurs 
 Mesdames 
 Banditti 
 Virtuosi 
 Seraph im 
 
 ' Messieurs ' is French ; ' mes sieurs ' being literally * my 
 sirs '. We have not adopted the corresponding singular 
 1 monsieur ' (mon sieur). So ' madam ' is our form of ' madame ' 
 
128 INFLEXION. NUMBER OF NOUNS. 
 
 (ma dame, 'my lady'); and 'mesdames' (mes dames} is the 
 unmodified French plural. When a foreign word passes into 
 common use, the tendency is to adopt the English plural. 
 Thus we have ' genius-es ', 'crocus-es' 'vivariums', ' memo- 
 .randums ', ' encomiums ', ' dogmas ', ' formulas ', ' cherubs ', 
 'seraphs', 'bandits'. Some foreign words have currency 
 chiefly in the plural ; as ' errata ', ' arcana ', ' dilettanti ', 
 ' antipodes '. 
 
 6. Some Nouns have two plurals, with separate 
 meanings. 
 
 SING. 
 
 Brother 
 
 Cloth 
 
 Die 
 
 Genius 
 
 Index 
 
 Pea 
 
 Pen 113' 
 
 Shot 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Brothers (by blood) ; brethren (of a community). 
 
 Cloths (kinds or pieces of cloth) ; clothes (garments). 
 
 Dies (stamps for coining) ; dice (for gaming). 
 
 Geniuses (men of original power) ; genii (spirits). 
 
 Indexes (to a book) ; indices (signs in Algebra). 
 
 Pe;is (separate seeds) ; pease (collective). 
 
 Pennies (separate coins) ; pence (collective ; as ' fourpence 0. 
 
 Shot (the number of balls) ; shots (the number of times fired). " 
 
 ' Pea ' is a modern formation from ' pease ' (0. E. pisa, pese), 
 which was singular. The old plural pesen (and pescs) dropt its 
 distinctive ending, and thus plural and singular became the 
 same in form : the -s end-sound gradually restricted the common 
 form to the plural use, and ' pea ' carne to be used as singular. 
 From ' pea ', the plural ' peas ' is a regular and modern forma- 
 tion. 
 
 1 Penny ' is 0. E. pening or penig ; pi. penigas, later penny es, 
 pens, pence. 
 
 The restriction of the separate forms to the different mean- 
 ings is quite modern. 
 
 7. The Plurals of a few Nouns seem to differ in 
 meaning from the Singulars: 'compass, com- 
 passes ' ; ' corn, corns ' ; * iron, irons ' ; salt, salts ' ; 
 ' content, contents ' ; ' domino, dominoes ; ' ' good, 
 goods ' ; ' vesper, vespers '. 
 
 Some nouns seem to have two meanings in the singular, only 
 one of which, and this the least common, corresponds to the 
 plural. 'Corn', 'iron', &c., being names of materials, do not 
 take a plural form ; * corns ', ' irons ', &c. are the plurals of new 
 singulars with different meanings (See below, 12 ; and p. 20), 
 ' a corn ', ' an iron ', &c. ' Compass ', ' content ', ' good ', and 
 other abstract nouns, similarly give rise to new singulars (or 
 might do so), and hence ' compasses ', ' contents ', &c. (See 
 below, 13; and page 22, 13). Other words, such as 
 
SPECIAL CASES. 129 
 
 'domino', have quite distinct singular meanings, and conse- 
 quently quite distinct plural meanings. 
 
 Further examples are : ' antic, antics ' ; ' beef, beeves ' (see 
 2); 'draught, draughts'; 'forfeit, forfeits'; 'grain, 
 grains'; 'ground, grounds'; 'scale, scales'; 'spectacle, 
 spectacles '. 
 
 Some nouns have two meanings in the plural, one correspond- 
 ing to the singular, the other distinct from it : 
 
 SING. 
 Custom 
 Letter 
 Number 
 Pain 
 Part 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Customs : (1) habits ; (2) revenue duties. 
 Letters : (1) of alphabet ; (2) literature. 
 Numbers : (1) in counting ; (2) in poetry. 
 Pains : (1) sufferings ; (2) trouble, care. 
 Parts : (1) bits, divisions ; (2) faculties, abilities. 
 
 ' Custom ' is often used collectively or abstractly in the second 
 sense of the plural form. The second meaning is, in all these 
 cases, a rhetorical extension of the first. 
 
 8. Some Nouns are used only in the Plural. 
 
 * Aborigines ', ' amends ', ' annals ', ' antipodes ', ' assets ', 
 ' archives ', ' banns ', ' bellows ', ' billiards ', * bowels ', 
 1 breeches ', ' calends ', ' credentials ', ' dregs ', ' entrails ', 
 ' filings ', ' gallows ', ' hustings ', ' ides ', ' lees ', ' matins ', 
 ' measles ', ' molasses ', ' news ', ' nones ', ' nuptials ', ' oats ", 
 ' obsequies ', ' odds ', ' pincers ', ' pliers ', ' premises ', ' scissors ', 
 'shambles', 'shears', 'snuffers', 'spectacles', 'thanks', 
 ' tidings ', ' tongs ', ' trappings ', ' trousers ', ' tweezers ', 
 ' vespers ', ' victuals ' , ' vitals ', ' wages '. 
 
 Some of thesQ nouns name complex objects with an 
 obvious plurality of parts : 
 
 Especially tools, instruments, &c. ; as 'bellows', * pincers', 
 ' pliers ', ' scissors ', ' tongs ', &c. 
 
 And articles of clothing ; as ' breeches ', ' drawers ', ' trousers '. 
 
 Others name collectively masses or aggregates of 
 individuals, real or imagined. 
 
 Such are ' aborigines ', ' archives ', ' ashes ', ' billiards *, 
 ' bowels ', ' dregs ', ' filings ', ' molasses ', ' moustaches ', 
 1 proceeds ' ; ' dumps ', ' measles ', ' sulks '. 
 
 9. Plural forms construed as Singular are 
 
 not uncommon : * amends ', ' barracks ', 4 bellows ', 
 * gallows ', ' innings ' (at cricket), * means', * news', 
 ' odds ', * pains', ' shambles ', * tidings ', &c, 
 
 y 
 
130 INFLEXION. NUMBER OP NOUNS. 
 
 'A gallows' (Goldsmith); ' the gallows itself (Cooper). 
 
 * Means ', according to most grammarians, is to be u.sed in 
 the singular when the signification is singular, and in the 
 plural when the signification is plural. We may soy, accord- 
 ingly, ' this means', or 'these means', as the case requires. 
 The singular form 'mean' is to be found in the present 
 century (Sir W. Hamilton, Carlyle, &c.). 
 
 * News ' in old English was commonly plural : * thc-se are 
 news indeed ' (Shak.) ; but now it is uniformly singular: 'ill 
 news runs apace '. The singular form ' new ' never existed. 
 
 ' Small-jt>oa? ', is a plural disguised by a new spelling : ' pox ' is 
 for ' pocks '. As the name of a disease, ' small-pox'' is singular. 
 
 'Tidings' is plural. It is commonly used by Shakespeare as 
 a plural noun, but in some instances he makes it singular : 
 ' that tidings came ' ; ' a tidings ' (Antony and Cleopatra). 
 
 Names of sciences, or of parts of sciences, often appear in 
 plural form, being literal translations of the classical terms : 
 'acoustics', 'economies', 'mathematics', 'optics', 'physics', 
 ' politics ', ' statics ', &c. Yet as naming collective i I es of 
 doctrine, they take a singular verb: 'optics is the science of 
 light'. Sometimes the singular form is found: 'logic '(and, 
 in the Irish universities, ' logics '), ' metaphytdc ' and ' meta- 
 physics', &c. 
 
 The singular forms ' amend ', * gallow ', * mean ', ' nuptial ', 
 ' pain ', ' tiding ', ' thank ', ' wage ', occur in old English. 
 
 10. Singular forms treated as Plural : 
 
 * alms ', ' eaves ', ' riches '. 
 
 ' Alms '. O. E. celmesse, almesse, dimes ; plur. celmc*san, 
 elmessen, almessex. ' None was heard to ask ftn alms ' 
 
 (Macaulay). 'The alms they receive are ' shows the 
 
 transition. 
 
 ' Eaves '. 0. E. yfes, efese, eves ; Jplr. e/csen (esen), crcses. 
 
 'Riches'. O. E. ruhe.<sse (from French); plur. 'richesses'. 
 'In one hour is so great riehts come to naught (R&v.). ' Michcn 
 profit not' is an example of the changed use. Riches in a 
 cultured community are the strangest of things. . - Thwj ate 
 the readiest of possibilities ' (Carlyle). 
 
 'Summons' (O. Fr. semonse, 0. E. somons), another apparent 
 plural, is really singular, and is used as such ; pi. ' summonses ', 
 regularly. 
 
 11. Proper Nouns sometimes apply to one person, 
 and are therefore Singular, and sometimes to several 
 persons, and then admit of the Plural : * The Browns 
 have gone to- the country '. 
 
SPECIAL CASES. 131 
 
 12. Names of Materials have no Plural; as 
 
 ' gold ', ' air ', ' butter '. 
 
 But when there are different qualities, or separate portions, of 
 the material, the noun becomes a class noun, and the plural is 
 . regularly used ; as ' sugars ', ' wines ', ' clays ', ' airs ', ' teas ', 
 'soups'. ' Sands ' is used because the material is made up of 
 distinct particles, which we can therefore suppose to be 
 mi inhered. (See further p. 20). 
 
 13. Abstract Nouns have no Plural: as 'wisdom', 
 
 * pride ', ' baseness ', * might ', ' whiteness', ' elasticity ', 
 'opacity'. 
 
 Occasionally these nouns seem to be in the plural. The 
 plurals, however, are then class nouns, and signify, not the 
 abstract quality, but particular actioiis or particidar varieties of 
 the qualit'j ; as ' liberties ', ' virtues ', ' vices ', ' negligeneies ', 
 ' lengths ', ' forces '. 
 
 Or they 'may really signify something in the concrete; as 
 ' transparencies '. (See further 7, above ; and p. 22, 13). 
 
 14. Nouns of multitude, although singular in 
 
 form, have a plural meaning and construction: ' vermin ', 
 ' cattle ', ' crowd ', ' people ', ' folk ', * ' infantry ', 
 1 tenantry ', * Englishry ', ' poultry ', ' fowl ', ' fish '. 
 
 15. The omission of the Indefinite Article 
 
 with Nouns that take that Article before them, is a 
 sign of the Plural. 
 
 The proper declension of a noun is : (singular) * a house, 
 (plural) houses ' ; ' a man, men ' ; 'a sheep, sheep '. 
 
 16. Plural Inflexion disused. With a numeral, 
 the sign of the Plural is often dispensed with : ' five 
 pound ', ' ten sail ', * two brace of birds ', ' four pair ', 
 
 * two dozen ', ' a three-/oo rule ', ' twenty year ', ' forty 
 head of cattle ', * a thousand horse ', ' two million 
 vtand of arms ', 'thirty change of garments'. 
 
 This omission probably originated in connexion with the one- 
 syllable flexionless plurals (nominative) already mentioned 
 (4); such as 'deer', 'head', ' hoi'oe ', 'pound', 'sheep', 
 'year', &c. It has evidently been much favoured by the 
 circumstance that the numeral indicates the fact of plurality, 
 
132 INFLEXION. NUMBER OF NOUNS. 
 
 and therefore renders the plural inflexion unnecessary. Indeed 
 the means of making known plurality are superabundant, as 
 we may see from such an instance as the following : ' Four 
 children were at their lessons, the good creatures'. Here the 
 plurality is expressed by six different marks : 1st, the numeral ; 
 2nd, the plural inflexion, ' children ' ; 3rd, the verb ' were ' ; 
 4th, ' their ' ; 5th, the plural of the word in apposition, 
 ' creatures ' ; 6th, the omission of the article. 
 
 There are certain further cases where the plural inflexion is 
 idiomatically dropt. 'He has no objections (objection) '; 'I was 
 in las favours (favour) '; ' they were dressed in blacks (black) '. 
 In the 16th and 17th centuries, however, an attribute common to 
 several persons was often put in the plural. Shakespeare has 
 ' I will requite your loves ' ; ' br^ak not your sleeps for that ' ; 
 'then bring me to their sights', &c. Bacon and Shakespeare 
 have ' blacks '. Milton has ' take our leaves ' ( = departure). 
 
 17. Strictly speaking, the Plural form declares only 
 that there are more than one of the thing named ; but 
 we are able often to infer besides something 
 as to the extent of the number. 
 
 ' We are to have friends this evening ', means some or a few. 
 ' He keeps horses ', implies the same. ' He sells bonks ', refers 
 to the nature of his occupation. ' Men say ' is men in general ; 
 all that have an opportunity of speaking on the subject. ' Sheep 
 are meek animals ' ; the whole race of sheep : ' m-cn are 
 mortal ' ; all men. Thus the context may indicate sufficiently 
 that the number spoken of is a few, a great number, or the 
 whole of the thing spoken of. 
 
 18. The Plural of Compound Nouns is 
 
 generally formed by inflecting the 'principal Notm ; as 
 ' sons-in-law ', * goings-out ', * maids-oi'-hoiiour ', * maid- 
 servants ', ' man-stealers '. 
 
 Where the words are so closely allied that the meaning is 
 incomplete till the whole is known, the ' s' is added at the end : 
 as ' pailful* ', the ' three per cents ', ' forget-me-not* '. 
 
 We may say either ' the Misses Brown ', or ' the Miss Browns', 
 or even 'the Misses Browns'. 'The Misses Brown' has a 
 collective effect ; ' the Miss Browns ' rather implies separate 
 action.. But in commercial life we say ' the Messrs Brown '. 
 
 A few titles composed of two nouns in apposition have both 
 nouns inflected after the manner of the French : ' Knights 
 Templars ', ' lords-justices ', &c. 
 
133 
 
 CASE. 
 
 1. Case is an inflexion of the Noun (or of the 
 Pronoun), showing its relation to other words ; 
 
 as ' the master's voice ', where the addition of -s to 
 1 master ' shows that ' voice ' is the property of 
 
 * master '. 
 
 In many languages those inflexions are more numerous. 
 Besides the relation expressed above, called the possessive or 
 genitive relation, there are several others in the oldest English, 
 as well as in Greek, Latin, &c., denominated dative, ablative, 
 &c. In modern English, prepositions serve the purpose served 
 in those languages by the various case-endings : ' patri ' is ' to 
 a father', ' patre 'is ' by a father '. We can also substitute for 
 the possessive inflexion in our own language the preposition 
 
 * of ' ; ' the voice of the master '. 
 
 2. There are said to be three cases in modern 
 English, Nominative, Possessive, and Objec- 
 tive ; but in nouns the Possessive is the only case 
 where inflexion occurs. Nominative, ' man'; possessive, 
 
 * man's ' ; objective, ( man '. 
 
 In the oldest English, nouns had six (or at least four) cases. 
 "With the exception of the Genitive or Possessive, hardly a trace 
 of these remains in the language as used now. The Pronouns 
 hav preserved a few more remnants of their old case-endings. 
 
 Except foi % the pronouns, the distinction of nominative and 
 objective would not be kept up, as the form of the noun can 
 never show whether it is nominative or objective. For nouns, 
 these names have a meaning only in construction with verbs ; 
 the one corresponding to the subject (the nominative), the other 
 to the object of the. sentence. 
 
 The Dative case remains, without inflexion, in some con- 
 structions : ' give the boy a penny ', * send the Captain help ', 
 ' woe worth the day ', &c. The Instrumental or Ablative case, 
 which in nouns had the same form as the Dative, no longer 
 shows any inflexion, 
 
 3. The Possessive is formed in the Singular 
 by adding to the Noun the letter ' s' preceded 
 by an apostrophe : ' John, John's '. 
 
134 INFLEXION. CASE OF NOUNS. 
 
 In the Plural no addition is made, except 
 the apostrophe: 'fathers, fathers". But if the 
 Plural does not end in s, the general rule for the Sin- 
 gular is then applied : ' the children'* bread '. 
 
 The reason for not adding ' s ' to the regular plurals is the 
 difficulty of pronunciation : ' fathers, fathers 's '. 
 
 In the oldest English, the genitive of masculine and neuter 
 nouns was most commonly formed in -es : 'smith, smithes'; 
 ' ila'g (day), dsegcs ' : 'scip (ship,, scipes '. Chaucer has 
 ' cristes gospel ', ' beddes (bed's) heed (head) ' ; much later, the 
 -es ceased to be pronounced as a separate syllable, and the ' e ' 
 dro])t out in writing, its absence being signified by the apos- 
 trophe ('). Dr. Morris thinks that " (') was at first probably 
 used to distinguish the genitive from the plural suffix," and 
 that " its use may have been established from a false theory of 
 the origin of the genitive case, which was thoroughly believed 
 in from Ben. Jonson's to Addison's time " that -s was a con- 
 traction of ' his ', whence such expressions as ' the prince his 
 (for pritwe's) house '. This substitution of his for -es dates 
 from the 13th century. The full form -es yet exists in 
 
 * Wedn-es-day ' ("Woden-es-dseg). 
 
 In the oldest English, the feminine and the plural genitives 
 were formed by other endings; but by the 13th century these 
 had begun to be dropt and -es to take their place. 
 
 The omission of the vowel, and the consequent sounding of 
 the ' s ' in the same syllable as the letter preceding, leads to 
 varieties of pronunciation, such as those described for the forma- 
 tion of plurals ; the ' s ' being sometimes sounded sharp, as 
 'life's', and sometimes flat : 'God's ', 'Jacob's'. (See Number.) 
 
 4. The ' s ' is omitted in the Singular when 
 too many hissing sounds wonld come together : 
 
 * Socrates' wife ', ' for conscience' sake', * for goodness' 
 sake ', ' for Jesus ' sake '. 
 
 "We say ' St. James's and St. Giles's ', ' Moses's ', ' Douglas's ', 
 ' Burns's '. The general rule is adhered to as much as possible. 
 When the word consists of more than two syllables, the ' s ' is 
 dropt, as ' Euripides' dramas '. In poetry it is frequently 
 omitted : Bacchus', ^Eneas', Epirus', Hellas'. 
 
 " In O. E., fifteenth century, if the noun ended in a sibilant 
 or was followed by a word beginning with a sibilant, the poss- 
 essive sign was dropt; as 'a goose egg', 'the river side '." 
 (Morris). 
 
FORMATION AND LIMITATION OF THE POSSESSIVE. 135 
 
 5. In Compound Nouns 1 he suffix is attached 
 to the last word ; as * heir-at-law'* ', ' the queen of 
 England's '. 
 
 Even when there are two sep rate names, the s is added only 
 to the last, as, ' Kobeitson and Reid's office' ; 'John, William, 
 and Mary's uncle '. 
 
 In older English, down to the 16th century, the usual con- 
 struction' is seen in sii'-h examples as t S&berhtes death east 
 seaxna cyninycs' (Bed. ii, 5, quoted by Morris), = s Scebcrht's 
 death, the East Saxons' king's ' = ' SccbcrJd, the East Saxons' 
 king's death ' or * the death of Sceberht the king of the East 
 Saxons ' ; * for the Lordts love of heaven, ' (Piers the Plowman) 
 = ' the Lord of heavens love '; * his brothers death the Duke of 
 Clarence* (Sir T. More); 'for King Henry's sake the sixth* 
 (More). BJTOII writes ' for the Queen's sake, his sister '. The 
 separation of the possessive from a modifying adjective clause is 
 very common. In this case the clause would be much too long 
 to intervene before the noun ; but the lest plan is to substitute 
 for the possessive, and allow the antecedent to come down close 
 to the relative. ' This way will direct you to a, gentleman's 
 house tfiat hath skill to take off these burdens' 1 (Bunyan) : say 
 ' to th house of a gentleman that hath skill, &c '. 
 
 6. The Possessive Inflexion is principally 
 limited to persons, animals, and personified 
 objects. We may say 'John's occupation', 'the kincfs 
 crown ', ' the lion's inane ', ' the mountain's brow '; but 
 not ' the home's roof ' (for ' the roof of tlie house '), ' the 
 street's width ', ' the book's price '. 
 
 Thus it is only a select number of nouns that admit of the 
 inflexion : for the great mass we must use the \ reposition ' of. 
 This very much diminishes the importance of the only case- 
 inflexion that the language retains, rendering it an exception 
 rather than the rule. The examples of its use may be classified 
 as follows : 
 
 1. Proper names of persons: 'Peter's pence', 'John's 
 
 farm '. For these the possessive inflexion is preferred, although 
 it is not exclusively employed; 'David's psalms '(the psalms 
 of JMvid) ; ' Plato's philosophy ' (the philosophy of Plato). 
 
 2. Class designations of persons : as ' judge ', * farmer ', 
 ' soldier '. * The hero's harp ', ' the lover's lute ', * the enemy'g 
 camp*. 
 
 * And Zion's daughters pour'd their lays 
 With priest's aud uxu-j-iw's voice between.* 
 
136 INFLEXION. CASE OF XuUNS. 
 
 3. Animals ' * the cat's mew ', 'the eagle's flight ', 'the ant*s 
 industry ', ' the elephant's tusk '. The other form is equally 
 
 4 Dignified objects that we are accustomed to hear per- 
 sonified : ' the sun's rays ', ' the moon's rising ', ' the earth's sur- 
 face ', ' the tor-rent's rage ', ' the lightning's flash ', ' tJie volcano's 
 heavings ', ' the morning's ray ', a ' man-of-icars rigging ', 
 'fortune's smile', 'melancholy's child', 'the last trumpet's 
 awful voice', ' and love's and friendship's finely pointed dart ', 
 ' the clamour of the Ch itrch's being in danger ', ' time's 
 follower', 'nature's voice', 'eternity's stillness', 'perdition's 
 dream '. 
 
 The powers Of the human mind are sometimes personi- 
 fied ; whence we have ' reason's voice ', 'passion's lure ', ' for 
 conscience' sake ', 'imagination's range', 'fancy's flight '. 
 
 The collective interests of humanity may be treated in 
 
 the same way : 'history's business', 'society's Well-being*, 'the 
 law's delay '. 
 
 Poets naturally carry the usage farther than prose writers : 
 'Seeking the bubble reputation at the cannon's mouth ' (Shak.). 
 4 He sat him down at a pillar's base ' (Byron). There are 
 
 instances in ordinary speech, where the possessive is 
 used without personification, but they are rare ; as ' for 
 appearances' sake ', ' for acquaintance's sake ' ; and even in these 
 the other form, with the preposition, is more usual. In old 
 English the inflexion was quite common. There are certain 
 phrases where a period of time is governed in the possessive 
 by the action or state that the time relates to : ' a day's leave ', 
 ' a month's holiday ', * a few hours' intercourse ', ' the Thirty- 
 years' war'. 
 
 But we are not now permitted to make indiscriminate use 
 of this inflexion ; such expressions as ' what is the cheese's 
 weight?' 'who was gunpowder's inventor?' ' copper's value ', 
 * heat's laws ', would be a violation of all usage. 
 
 7 . It would be correct to call the Possessive in ' s ' 
 the inflexion of personal possession, or 
 attribute. 
 
 Sentient beings may have their possessions, properties, or 
 attributes expressed by being inflected in this manner : ' the 
 merchant's wealth ', 'the ambassador's credentials ', 'the tiger's 
 ferocity '. When an inanimate Object so far impresses the 
 mind that we think of it as haying sense and Will, we may 
 bestow upon it the personal ending ' s ', just as we may ascribe 
 
CASE-INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 137 
 
 to it human passions and features : ' the tempest's fury ', ' Time's 
 hoary locks ', * Death's fatal arrow '. 
 
 For the meanings of the genitive in English as regularly 
 expressed by the preposition ' of ', see Prepositions. 
 
 8. Further remnants of Case-Inflexion are 
 
 seen in certain pronouns and adverbs. 
 
 a.r-3' 2 
 
 INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. Pronouns are inflected almost solely for 
 Case. A Pronoun differs from a Noun in having a 
 distinct form, called the Objective Case, used when it 
 stands as the object after a verb or a Preposition ; as 
 * I saw him ' ; ' he saw me, and spoke to me '. Ex- 
 amples of the true Dative inflexion also remain. 
 
 There is no inflexion for gender in the pronouns. Those 
 that express difference of sex have different words for the 
 purpose : ' he, she, it ' ; ' who, which, what '. The -t in ' it ', 
 ' that ', ' what ', does indeed mark neuter gender ( 3), but 
 only to the eye of the philologist. 
 
 The same remark applies to number | the plural is not 
 expressed by an addition to the singular, but by a distinct word 
 in each number : ' I, we ' ; ' thou, you ' ; ' he, she, it, they ' ; 
 while the relative and interrogative pronouns are the same for 
 both singular and plural. 
 
 2. The Personal Pronouns are thus declined : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nominative. Possessive. Dative. Objective. 
 
 1st person, I Mine, My Me Me, 
 
 2nd person, Thou Thine, Thy Thee Thee. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 1st person, We Our, Ours Us TJs 
 
 2nd person, Ye or You Your, Yours You You 
 
 In old English, down to the latter part of the 13th century, 
 there existed a dual declension of the personal pronouns (first 
 and second). Norn, icit (we two), gen. uncer, dat. unc, ace. 
 unc (uncit, archaic and poetical). Nom. git (you two), gen, 
 incer, dat. inc t ace. inc (incit, archaic and poetical). 
 
138 INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 I, in the oldest English, ic, has now lost the final guttural: 
 A middle form ich, seen in icham (Ich am, I am), ichabbe (Ich 
 habbe, I have), ichille (Ich icille, I will), &c., still exists in 
 dialects in the south of England. Compare Germ, ich, Dan. 
 jeg, Gr. and Lat. ego. 
 
 Ye, you. Down till the 16th century, ' ye ' (0. E. ge) was 
 nominative, and ' you ' (0. E. eow) dative and accusative. 
 
 Mine, thine, (0. E. min, thin, : the final e simply shows 
 that the i is long) are the oldest forms. My, thy, drop the 
 inflexional ending -n ; a process dating from the 12th century. 
 
 Our, your (0. E. user, ure ; eower) retain the genitive 
 ending -r. Ours, yours, are double forms, adding to * our ', 
 ' your ', a second genitive ending -s ; they ' ' made their first 
 appearance in the Northern dialects of the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries, and are due to Scandinavian influence ". 
 (Morris). 
 
 Me, thee, US, you, as datives, correspond to the 0. E. 
 datives, me, the, us, eow. They still appear as datives in 
 certain constructions. ' Jfeseems ', * w<ethinks ' = ' (it) seems, 
 thinks (= appears) to me '. ' Woe worth him ' = ' woe worth 
 (= be) to him'. * Show me that.' ' You had better go' was 
 freely used in the 16th century for ' you were bett&r go ' : 
 that is, ' (it) were (= would be, subj.) better for you (to) go V 
 In ' he steps me to a trencher ', ' the skilful shepherd peeled 
 me certain wands ', and such like, ' me ' seems to appropriate 
 the narrative of the action to the speaker, and to be equivalent 
 to ' mark me ', ' / tell you ' (Abbott). 
 
 As objectives, the same forms correspond to the 0. E. accusa- 
 tives me (mec, archaic : compare Germ, mick), the (thee}, us 
 (usic), eow (eowic). 
 
 3. The Demonstratives, or Pronouns of the 
 third person, are declined as follows : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nominative. Possessive. Dative. Objective. 
 
 He His Him Him. 
 
 She Her, Hers Her Her. 
 
 It Its It It. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 They Their, Theirs Them Them 
 
 He, his. 'His' is the regular genitive of an original 
 (supposed) form hi. 
 
 Him, now both dative and objective, was only dative in 0. E. 
 The 0. E. accusative was hine, which was gradually supplanted 
 
PERSONAL AND DEMONSTRATIVE. 139 
 
 by the dative form him in the 13th and 14th centuries. Hi-m 
 shews dative ending -m, attached to the root hi-. 
 
 She. The 0. E. heo died out in the 14th century, having 
 been slowly superseded during two centuries by 'she', a new 
 application of the feminine definite article (0. E. seo, sio ; sccc, 
 sco ; sche). 
 
 Her, hers. ' Her ' (0. E. hire, here] preserves the genitive 
 ending -re. 'Hers 'is a double genitive, like 'ours', 'yours' 
 ( 2). The dative ' her ' also preserves the dative ending of the 
 0. E. forms hire, here. The objective ' her ' is the dative form 
 re-applied, an early substitution for the 0. E. ace. hi, heo. 
 
 It, nom. and obj., has dropt the h of the 0. E. form hit. 
 'Hit 'is the regular neuter of 'he (hi)', by addition of the 
 neuter ending -t : compare 'thai!', 'wha', Lat. ' id\ 'quod', 
 &c. ' It', dative, has taken the place of 0. E. him, the regular 
 inflexion. 
 
 Its stands for 0. E. his. The form was unknown before the 
 sixteenth century, occurring but rarely in Shakespeare, arid not 
 at all in the translation of the Bible ; the meaning being given 
 by 'his' (the regular 0. E. form) and 'thereof'. The old 
 possessive, his, stood for both masculine and neuter, creating 
 aii obstacle to the personifying power of the word. Milton 
 seems to have felt this, and never uses the form ' his ' in the 
 neuter sense, while he evades the occasions of resorting to ' its '. 
 Dryden adopted the new form fully. 
 
 From the 14th to the 17th century hit or it was sometimes 
 used in place of his (neut.) or its ; especially in reference to 
 children, or depreciatingly. ' That which groweth of it own 
 accord ' (Levit. xxv. 5). ' The innocent milk in it most innocent 
 mouth ' ( Winter's Tale, iii. 2). 
 
 From the 14th to the 16th century, ' the own' was sometimes 
 used in place of 'his (its) own '. ' Gold, which of the own nature 
 is a thing so unprofitable, &c. ' (Sir T. More's Utopia, ii. : 
 Robinson's transl., 1556). 
 
 There is a curious contrast between the possessive inflexion of 
 nouns and this possessive. The nouns so inflected are almost 
 exclusively names of persons, while 'it' is the pronoun of 
 things. We cannot say ' the room's height ', but we can say 
 ' its height '. 
 
 The form 'of it' is sometimes to be preferred. When the 
 noun is emphatic, the preposition is preferable : thus, ' the 
 weight of it ', ' the value of it ', better enables us to throw the 
 emphasis on the noun, than if we were to say ' its weight ', 'its 
 Value '. 
 
 They, the modern form of 0. E. thd, the common nom. plur. 
 
140 INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 of the 0. E. definite article, began to drive out the regular 0. 
 E. plural, hi (later Mg, lieo) in the 13th century. 
 
 Their, theirs. ' Their ', the modern form of the 0. E. 
 thdra, the common genitive plural of the 0. E. def. art., 
 similarly usurped the place of the regular 0. E. hira, heora ; 
 hire, heore. The gen. ending is preserved. ' Theirs ' is a double 
 genitive, like ' ours ', ' yours ', ' hers ' ( 2). 
 
 Them is the dat. pi. of the def. art. thcem, thdm, replacing 
 the regular 0. E. him (later heom, hem). The obj. them ' is a 
 new application of the dat. form, in place of the 0. E. ace. hi 
 (hig, heo). But for this transference of the dat. form, we should 
 have expected * they ' for obj. as well as noni., 0. E. thd serving 
 both purposes. 
 
 This and that have no case inflexion ; they have a 
 plural inflexion, these, those. 
 
 This was varied for gender in 0. E. : thes (m.), thes (fern.), 
 this (n.). The neuter form has been extended to all genders. 
 The common 0. E. plur. was thds ; later thes, these, thise, 
 
 this. 
 
 That was originally the neuter of the def. art. : se, the (m.), 
 seo (f.), thcet (n.). By the 13th century it was extended to all 
 genders ; and next century, it had full demonstrative force. 
 The plur. those is O. E. 'thds, borrowed in the 14th century 
 from ' this '. ' That ' had previously kept its regular plur. tha, 
 tho, the plur. of the definite article. 
 
 The Indefinite pronoun one, in the sense of ' one cannot 
 be sure of that', is declined in the singular, but has no plural : 
 
 * one's legitimate expectations should be respected '. 
 
 ' One ' as in ' the young ones ', is declined like a noun : * one, 
 ' one's ; plural, ' ones, ones' '. 
 
 Other has poss. sing. ' other's ' ; plur. nom. ' others ', poss. 
 ' others' ' ; like a noun. The 0. E. plur. was ' othere ' ; hence 
 ' other ' was often used as plur. between the dropping of the old 
 inflexion and the adding of the regular modern inflexion -s. 
 
 * Another ' is simply ' an other '. 
 
 * None ', ' any ', ' each ', * either ', ' neither ', &c. , take the 
 possessive inflexion : ' none's ', &c. 
 
 4. The Reflexive Pronouns are marked by the 
 word self. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 1st person : Myself, (ourself) 
 2nd person : Thyself, yourself 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Ourselves 
 
 Yourselves 
 
 Themselves 
 
REFLEXIVE, INTERROGATIVE, RELATIVE. 141 
 
 ' Self adds emphasis. It was originally an adjective (=same), 
 joined to nouns and pronouns, and inflected regularly. Nom. 
 ic seJf(a), gen. min selfes, dat. me sclfum, ace. me selfne. 
 Then the dative of the pronoun was sometimes inserted between 
 the two : ' ic me self (or silf) ', ' thu Hie silf ', ' he him silf ' ; 
 ' we us silfe ', 'ge eow silfe ', ' hi him silfe '. 
 
 The dative of the Personal Reflexives was turned into genitive 
 in the 13th century, 'self having come to be regarded as a 
 noun. Thus 'I me self became .'I mi (my) self ; 'thu the 
 self became 'thu thi (thy) self; and so "owrself, yourself \ 
 These last were plurals, the -e and -en inflexions being dropt ; 
 but they necessarily conformed to the usage of nouns in '-elf, 
 and became 'ourselves', ' yourselves ' as plurals, and 'ourself, 
 * yourself ' as singulars. 
 
 The dative of the demonstratives remains, except in two cases. 
 'Oneself is frequently written 'one's self. And ' his own 
 self, 'their precious selves', &c., show that with a qualifying 
 word before ' self ' (which is then regarded as a noun), the poss. 
 forms, 'his', 'their', &c., may be used. ' Herself', ' 
 
 contain the dative forms ' her ', \it ', not the possessive forms 
 'her ', 'its '. 
 
 5. The Interrogative Pronouns that undergo 
 declension are who and what. 
 
 Who (O.E. hwd, masc. and fern.) ; poss. whose (0. E. 
 hwctis) ; dative and objective, whom (O.E. dat. hivcem, hwdm), 
 The -e of ' whose ' is not inflexional ; it merely indicates that 
 the o is long : the -s is a true genitive ending. The O. E, ace. 
 hwone gave way to the dat. form in the 13th century : the -m 
 of ' whom ' preserves the old dative ending. 
 
 'Who' may also be regarded as a modern objective form, 
 side by side with ' whom '. For many gooi writers and 
 speakers say ' who are you talking of "I ' who does the garden 
 belong to ? ' ' who is this for ? ' ' who from ? ' &c. 
 
 What (0. E. hwcet, neut. : compare 3, 'it'); poss. whose 
 (0. E. hwces) ; dat. and obj. what (0. E. ace. hwcet ; the 0. E. 
 dat-was kiccem, hwdm). 
 
 Which is often the nominative corresponding in meaning to 
 ' whose ' ; but ' whose ' never was a genitive from ' which ', 
 historically. 
 
 6. The Relative Pronouns have only two 
 inflected forms: whose and whom. 
 
 Who (masc. and fern. ; sometimes neut.) can hardly be regarded 
 as a relative till the 16th century. The poss. whose and tto 
 obj. whom had been relatives in the 12th century. 
 
142 INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 What is etymologically the neuter of 'who ', but practically 
 it is now equivalent to ' that which '. Its function as neuter 
 relative, as well as its poss. ' whose ', long ago went over to 
 'which' and 'that'. 
 
 Which, is now the neuter practically corresponding to * who', 
 but till recently it was often used as masc. or fern. also. It bor- 
 rowed from ' who ' and ' what ' the poss. ' whose '. 
 
 That is used for all genders and both numbers. It is inde- 
 clinable ; but it supplies the want of a poss. by borrowing 
 'whose' from 'who' and 'what'. 'That' became clearly 
 relative in the 12th century. Chaucer indicates distinctions 
 of gender and case by associating a demonstrative with it : 
 ' that he' = * who ', or ' that ' (nom.) ; ' that his ' = ' whose ' ; 
 ' that him ' - ' whom ' or ' that ' (obj.). 
 
 Certain Compound Relatives take the possessive inflexion. 
 ' I would not hurt a hair of her head, whose ever daughter she 
 may be ' (Goldsmith, Good-Natured Man, v. ) ' Whose tongue 
 soe'er speaks false not truly speaks' (Shak., King John, iv. 3). 
 
 Substitutes for Relative Inflexions. 
 
 "When we come to discriminate the two relatives the co-ordi- 
 nating and the restrictive we find the modes of expressing the 
 case-meanings of them in practice to be somewhat complicated. 
 
 To begin with who. When we have occasion to express the 
 idea of strict personal possession, we may say whose, and also 
 of whom : ' God, whose offspring we are ', ' of whom we are 
 the offspring'. Of course when the meaning is not personal 
 possession, but reference, 'of whom' is used, or 'whom of ; 
 ' he encountered the keeper, of whom he knew nothing ', ' whom 
 he knew nothing of. 
 
 Which. When we have to use a possessive form of the 
 neuter relative of co-ordination, we have a choice between of 
 which, whereof, and whose. The preferable form is 'of 
 which', or 'which of; the other forms are better suited to 
 the restrictive relative : ' the alkaline bases, of which the 
 peculiarity is ' ; ' the doctrines in question, of which this is the 
 sum ', ' which this is the sum of. The forms ' whose ', ' where- 
 of ', are also admitted ; but perspicuity is gained fly reserving 
 them for the other relative. 'They agreed in regarding the 
 national voice, whose (co-ordinating) independence they main- 
 tained, as expressed by the representatives of the people in. 
 parliament.' 
 
 That. No inflexion is provided for the relative of restriction. 
 TJO express the meaning corresponding to the possessive in- 
 flexion, these are the forms : that of, whereof, and whose. 
 
RELATIVES AND THEIR SUBSTITUTES. 143 
 
 The first is unmistakable, and to be preferred. The others 
 serve for the co-ordinating relatives ; but they have, to the 
 ear familiar with idiomatic English, still more the restrictive 
 effect : 'the person that I gave you the name of 'the person 
 whose name 1 gave you ' ; ' the tribunal of public opinion is one 
 whose decisions it is not easy to despise' 'one that it is not 
 easy to despise the decisions of ; '1 could a tale unfold whose 
 lightest word', &c., could not be conveniently changed into 
 'that -of. 
 
 The form 'whereof is only one of a class of compounds 
 'wherein', 'whereto', &c. that possess great convenience in 
 expressing the prepositional constructions of the relative. They 
 correspond by preference, hut not exclusively, to the restrictive 
 relative 'that'. ' The point wherein I erred', 'the point that 
 1 erred in (restrictive). ' And be not drunk with wine, wherein 
 is excess ' (co-ordinating, 'in which'}. 
 
 Some grammarians would confine the use of ' whose ' to persons, 
 but the restriction has never been in force ; there is nothing to 
 justify it. 
 
 7. Nouns after Plural Possessives. As re- 
 gards the possessive inflexion generally, it is to be 
 noted that an abstract noun following a plural possessive 
 should not be made plural ; as ' we have changed our 
 mind ', ' we would lay down our life ' ; ' men's reason 
 should bid them regard their health '. The plural is 
 not required in such an expression as ' let not your 
 heart* be troubled '. (See Case of Nouns, end.) 
 
 Scotticism in the possessive case : ' To-morrow's morning ', for 
 * to-morrow morning ' ; ' Sunday's morning '. 
 
 INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 I. Adjectives are inflected to signify dif- 
 ferences of degree: 'great, greater, greatest '. 
 This is called their Comparison. 
 
 In many languages adjectives are inflected to mark the gender 
 of the nouns they are joined to ; in modern English no difference 
 is made on this account. Nor does the case or number of the 
 noun affect the adjective in modern English. Our language has 
 gained in simplicity and ease by discarding these adjective 
 
144 INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 inflexions, and has lost only a certain power of varying the 
 order of words. But in the oldest English, the Adjective was 
 fully inflected for gender, number, and case ; indeed, it had also 
 a special declension when preceded by a demonstrative, 
 
 In the 14th century, the inflexional endings of the Adjective 
 had dwindled down to -e, which often appears as a separate 
 syllable, after a demonstrative, or before a plural noun. Dr. 
 Morris quotes an excellent illustration from the opening lines of 
 Chaucer's Prologue to the Canterlury Tales : 
 
 " Whan Zepbirus eek with his twfte breathe 
 Enspired hath in every holte and heethe 
 The tendre croppcs, and the yonge somie 
 Hath in the Kara his halfe cours ironne, 
 And sviale fowle's maken melodic." 
 
 In 0. E., adjectives borrowed from Norman-French sometimes 
 took -es (or -s) in the plural : ' parties mcridionales ' (Maunde- 
 ville), ' the best of all vertues, that cardinales ben called ' 
 (Langley), ' places dclitables ', ' capitalhs lettres ' (Chaucer) 
 
 In cases like ' motives ', ' worthies ', ' incapables ', ' extremes', 
 
 'brilliants', 'contemporaries', ' greens', &c., the omission of 
 
 the nouns throws the force of thes * upon the adjectives, which 
 
 take the noun inflexion also, and thus become to all intents and 
 
 . purposes nouns. 
 
 2. There are said to be three degrees of Com- 
 parison ; the Positive, the Comparative, and 
 the Superlative. 
 
 The Positive is the Adjective in its simple or un- 
 inflected form : 'great', 'broad', 'high'. 
 
 The Comparative is formed by adding -er to 
 the Positive: 'greater', 'broader', 'higher'. 
 
 The Superlative is formed by adding -est to the 
 Positive : ' greatest ', broadest ', ' highet/'. 
 
 The comparative ending -er shows an -r replacing an earlier 
 -s : compare Sanskrit -jans, -jas. The Superlative -est is formed 
 by adding -t to the comparative suffix : compare Sansk. -jans- 
 ta, -istha. 
 
 An old comparative ending -ter, -ther (Sansk. -tar-, Greek and 
 Latin -ter- : from the root of Lat. trans, through, ' going 
 beyond or farther '), remains in a few examples : ' after,' ' other ', 
 * \\he-thcr ', ' either ', ' neither ', ' under '. 
 
 An old superlative ending -ma is seen in ' former ' (0. E. 
 for-ma, superlative of 'fore' : which we have made a compara- 
 tive by adding -er) ; and also in many words ending in -most : 
 
USUAL FORMS OF COMPARISON. 145 
 
 'foremost', ' inmost ', ' utmost ', &c. This -most is the 0. E. 
 mest : ~m- + -est, a double superlative ending ; not the ' most ' 
 prefixed to adjectives, as ' most careful '. 
 
 3. Modifications in spelling take place in cer- 
 tain cases. 
 
 (1.) Adjectives ending in -e silent drop the -e before 
 -er and -est : 'white', comparative 'whit-er', superla- 
 tive ' whit-e.<tf ' ; ' remote, remoter, remote^ ' ' able, 
 abler, ablest '. 
 
 (2.) When the adjective ends in -y preceded by a 
 consonant, the -y is changed into -i : l hol-y, hol-i-er, 
 hol-i-est ' ' happ-?/, happ-i-er, h&pp-i-est ' ; * balm-y, 
 balm-i-er, balm-i-es '. 
 
 When a vowel precedes -y, -er and -est are added without 
 any change : ' coy, coy-er, coy-est ' ; ' gay, gay-er, gay -est '. 
 
 (3.) A final consonant preceded by a short accented 
 vowel is doubled before -er and -est : ' red, red-^-er, 
 ied-d-est ' ; ' sad, sadder, sadt?e^ ' ; ' big, bigger, "biggest '. 
 
 Final -I preceded by an awaccented vowel is often doubled : 
 'cruel, cruel-Z-er, cruel-Z-otf'; 'frightful, frightful^r, fright- 
 ful/orf '. 
 
 4. When a word has more than two syl- 
 lables, or is a compound, the comparison usually 
 takes place by means of the adverbs more and most; 
 ' more singular, most singular ' ; ' more fruitful, most 
 fruitful'. 
 
 This substitute for the regular inflexion dates from the 13th 
 century. It has made its way very largely by being a useful 
 help towards euphony. When a word has already three syl- 
 lables, the addition of the inflexion for degree makes it too 
 hard to pronounce, and painful to hear ; even though the accent 
 were below the first syllable. So when a word is already a 
 compound, as ' faith-/wZ ', there is a similar objection to com- 
 pounding it still further. 
 
 Even with dissyllables generally, the effect of adding -er and 
 est may occasionally sound harsh ; and therefore the second 
 method is followed, as ' more earnest ', ' more prudent '. 
 10 
 
146 INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Another reason for preferring more, and most is that -er and 
 -cst are native suffixes, and best suited to native words. Most 
 words of three syllables and upwards are of classic origin, and 
 their inflexion would produce hybrids. The old writers, 
 however, were not bound by these considerations. "We find, in 
 Sidney, ' repiningest ' ; in Bacon, ' ancienter ' and ' honour- 
 ablest ' ; in Hooker, not only ' learnedest ' (a Saxon word), but 
 ' famousest ', ' solenmest ', ' virtuousest'; in Fuller, ' eloquenter ', 
 ' eminentest '. In our own day, Carlyle has many such examples. 
 
 Any adjective may be compared by ' more ' and ' most ', if the 
 ear is better satisfied with the combination of sounds pro- 
 duced. ' It is most true ' ; 'a more worthy course '. ' Thus 
 doing, you shall be most fair, most rich, most wise, most all ; 
 you shall dwell upon superlatives '. (Sidney). 
 
 5. Certain comparatives in -ior, derived 
 from the Latin, as 'interior', ' exterior', 'superior', 
 ' inferior ', ' anterior ', ' posterior ', ' prior ', ' ulterior ', 
 ' senior ', 'junior ', ' major ', ' minor ', are not proper 
 and full English Comparatives. The ending -ior 
 is cognate with the English ending ; but they are not 
 followed ~by ' than ' in composition. We say ' senior to 
 ', not ' senior than his brother '. 
 
 6. Irregular and Defective Comparison ia 
 
 exemplified in a few instances. 
 
 Better Best 
 
 Bad ) 
 
 Evil }. Worse Worst 
 
 111 ) 
 
 Good, 0. E. god, has neither comparative nor superlative. 
 Well here is the predicate adjective (as in 'Are you wellT}; 
 also uninflected. Better, Best (O. E. betera, bet(e)st), had lost 
 their positive (bet or bat), even in the oldest English extant. 
 
 Bad came in about the 13th century. Chaucer sometimes 
 uses ' badder '. Evil (0. E. yfel) and 111 (a cognate Scandi- 
 navian form) are not inflected. Worse (0. E. wyrsa] and 
 worst (0. E. wyrrest, wyrst) are formed from a lost positive 
 wear. The -s- in ' worse ' is a relic of the oldest form of the -er 
 ending : contrast the Danish * veer-re ', which has long appeared 
 in Northern English (including Scotch) as t warre' t 'war' 
 (worse), 
 
IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 147 
 
 Little Less Least. 
 
 I More Most. 
 
 Many J 
 
 Little (0. E. lytel) supplies from a different root (las, ' infirm ') 
 comp. less [0. E. fccs-sa another relic of the -s ending), and 
 superl. least (0. E. /ces-t, % e. Ices-est}. Lesser, a double corn- 
 par., is an admitted form: 'the greater light to rule the day, 
 and the lesser light to rule the night' (Gen, i. 16) ; 'the lesser 
 Asia ', 'the lesser grey centres of the brain '. Littlest occurs 
 once in Shak. (Ham. iii. 2.): 'the littlest doubts'. This, 
 however, is in a special contrast where it is desirable to show 
 the form ' little '. 
 
 Much (0. E. mic-el, later micJiel, miichel, moche) is from the 
 root ma(g)h ('grow, become great'). More (O. E. mara = 
 mah-ra) is used as the comp. of both ' much ' and ' many '. Mo, 
 m-oe, a. shortened form, is common in the Elizabethan age, 
 and is found in Scotch as mce (the comp. of ' many '). 
 Most is 0. E. mcest (= mah-st}. Many (0. E. man eg) 
 " contains the root mang, a nasalized form of mag (mah) ". 
 (Morris). 
 
 Old 
 
 Elder ) Eldest. 
 
 Older j Oldest. 
 
 Old, 0. E. cold; elder, 0. E. yldra, eldra; eldest, 0. E. 
 
 yldest, eldest. The modification of the vowel in ' yld- ' ' eld- ' 
 is due to the influence of a lost -i- preceding the endings. 
 (Compare ' man, men', &c. : p. 126, 3). So 'lang', comp. 
 ' lengra ', superl ' lengest ' ; ' strang, strengra, strongest ' ; 
 'geong' (yoking) 'g?/ngra', 'gyngest', &c. 
 
 Older oldest, formed directly from 'old', are now the 
 common inflexions. The general use of these has gradually 
 confined ' elder ', ' eldest ', to living beings. ' Elder ' has lost 
 part of the comparative use ; we say ' which is the elder ? ' but 
 we have ceased to say ' he is elder than his brother '. 
 
 Nigh Nigher Nighest, Next. 
 
 Near Nearer Nearest. 
 
 Far Farther Farthest. 
 
 [Forth] Further 
 
 The first couple 'nigh', 'near', look regular. ^But the 
 really regular form would be an apparent mixture : ' nigh, near, 
 next '. 
 
148 INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES, 
 
 Nigh, 0. E. nedh, neh, later neih, ncgh. Near, 0. E. 
 nym, nedrra was the regular compar. of neah ; it began to be 
 used as positive about the j 2th century, though it was not quite 
 disused as compar. till the 17th century. Next is 0. E. nehst 
 (m neah-st,-nek-st), Thus nearer is etymologically a double 
 compar. , and nearest has really the modern superl. added to 
 the old compar. form. 
 
 Far, O. E. feor, had 0. E compar. fyrra, and superl. 
 fyrrest. The later form of fyrra, ferre, took on the common 
 ending flike nerre, nerrer, nearer) and became a double compar., 
 ferrcr. Farrer, farrcst, remain in Scotch ; but farther, 
 farthest, the English forms, have admitted -th- from 'further', 
 ' furthest ', on a mistaken analogy. 
 
 The adv. ' forth ' had no adjective cognate in 0. E. Further 
 (0. E. furthra), furthest, are regularly formed. The O. E. 
 superl. was furth-m.-c.st ; whence ' furthermost '. ' Further- 
 more ' is an adv, (used with the force of a conjunction). 
 
 (Rathe Rather Rathest.] 
 
 [A,cer Ere Erst] 
 
 T , Latter ) Last. 
 
 Later / Latest. 
 
 Rathe (0. K hrad), 'quick', 'early'; rather (0. E. 
 hrcethra) ; and rathest (O. E. hrathost) died out as adjectives 
 in the 17th century The adv. 'rather' (0. E. hrathor} 
 remains, but in the metaphorical sense of ' by preference ', 
 ' preferably ', which appeared as early as the 12th century. 
 
 The 0. E. adv. cut ('formerly', 'before') is radically con- 
 nected with the adv. i ('ever', 'always'). It appears in 
 ' ear-ly ', for which cer, ere, is still used in Scotch : as, ' an 
 cer crap ' (an early crop), and, adverbially, ' to work late and 
 asr'. Ere is O. E. cerra ('former'), and erst is 0. E. cerest, ; 
 but the adjective use of the words is now obsolete. 
 
 Late (0. E. loet, ' sl'-w ', late ') ; latter (0. E. latra, later 
 lattre) ; last (0. E- latest, latst : softened, like ' betst ' into 
 'best', in the 12th century). Later, latest, are regular and 
 unmodified. 
 
 [Fore] lor, ei Foremost (O.E. fyrmest ) 1 
 
 1 Fust (O.E. fyr(re)st). [ 
 
 [(Be)hind] Hinder Hindmost I , Q j 
 
 LV ' J Hindermost ) x 
 
 [Af, off] After Aftermost (O.E. ce/te(r}mcst). 
 
 In] Inner Inmost, innermost (O.E. innemest). 
 
IRREGULAi AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON 149 
 
 [Out, Outer ) Outmost, outermost ) (O.E. 
 
 O.E. ut] Utter f Utmost, uttermost / utemest). 
 Mid Midmost (O, E. medemest). 
 
 [Up, Upper ) Upmost, uppermost] (O.E. yfemest, 
 
 O.E. /-] Over )"0vermost \ymest). 
 
 High Higher Highest, Highermost 
 
 Low Lower Lowest, Lowermost 
 
 Under Undermost 
 
 [(Be)neath] Nether mtheimost (O.E. nithemest.) 
 
 ' Fore ' (adv. ' before ') made in 0. E. a superl. adj. for-ma, 
 to which there was added later the compar. suffix, making 
 former. The addition of the superl. suffix -est made a double 
 superl., 0. E.fyrmest, our foremost. First (0. ^.fyr(re)st} 
 is the regular superl. form. 
 
 Many other forms now obsolete are found in our old writers : 
 ' hinderest ', ' upperest ', ' overest ', &c. We have also some 
 others in -most : ' eastinost ', ' westmost ', ' eudmost ', ' topmost ', 
 ' sternmost ', &c. 
 
 7. Double comparatives and superlatives 
 
 are to be avoided ; as ' more surer punishments', ' woiser 
 far ', ' the most boldest ', ' the most unkindest cut of all '. 
 
 We have just seen not a few cases of double inflexion, chiefly 
 however in circumstances where the common ending has been 
 added to an older ending no longer familiar in the required 
 sense : ' lesser ', 4 utm-osi ', &c. 
 
 So when a word has of itself the force of a comparative or 
 superlative it should not be compared ; as ' the chiefest among 
 ten thousand ', ' the extremest verge ', ' a more perfect way '. 
 'Such cases arise chiefly from the desire of exceptional emphasis. 
 
 8. Adjectives not compared. Adjectives ex- 
 pressing meanings that do not admit of change of degree 
 are not compared. 
 
 Such are the pronominal adjectives (this, that, his, their, 
 &c.), the definite numeral adjectives (two, fourth, both, &c.), 
 and many adjectives of quality. 
 
 The following are examples : ' Almighty ', ' certain ', ' chief ', ' circular', 
 ' continual ', dead ', ' empty ', ' extreme ', ' eternal ', ' false ', ' filial ', 
 'fluid' 'full', 'golden', 'inexpiable', 'infallible', 'intolerable', 'infinite', 
 ' living', ' paternal ', ' perfect ', ' perpetual ', ' royal ', ' supreme ', ' univer- 
 sal ', ' void '. Some are already words expressing the highest possible 
 degree of the quality (Almighty). Others have no shades of meaning : a 
 
150 INFLEXION OP ADJECTIVES. 
 
 thing must be either perpendicular or not, dead or not dead ; there are 
 no degrees. Figuratively, however, we ascribe degrees to some of these 
 attributes. "When we speak of an assertion as ' more or less certain', we 
 do not mean that oue assertion is ' certain ' absolutely, and that another 
 is more so ; we mean that the other approaches ' nearer to being certain ', 
 neither of the two being absolutely and completely certain. So ' more or 
 less full', 'fluid', <fcc. Milton's description of Satan's despair is hyper 
 bolical : ' And in the lowest deep, a lower deep '. 
 
 9. Another mode of expressing the super- 
 lative degree is exemplified in 'King of kings', 
 1 Lord of lords ', ' bravest of the brave '. 
 
 To express comparison there is also the peculiar 
 idiom seen in the examples, 'too evident to require 
 proof ' j 'too much a man of the world to be imposed 
 upon '. 
 
 10. The Comparative is used when two things 
 are compared; the Superlative, when more 
 than two are compared. 
 
 ' Of two such lessons, why forget 
 The nobler and the manlier one ? ' 
 
 But the rule is not strictly adhered to. Writers and speakers 
 continually use the superlative in comparing two things : ' the 
 best of two ', ' the least of two '. ' This court had been the most 
 magnificent of the two' (Thackeray). Less frequently the 
 comparative is used for the superlative : ' I read the whole 
 of Tacitus, Juvenal, and Quintilian. The latter ... is 
 seldom sufficiently appreciated' (J. S. .Mill). 'The former 
 seemed the stranger sensation of the three ' (Cooper). Like 
 many other dual forms the comparative degree is superfluous ; 
 and perspicuity would be equally served by using the same form 
 of comparison for two, as for more than two. 
 
 11. The Comparative and Superlative are sometimes 
 used by way of eminence ; as 'the most High ', ' the 
 ruder and more barren parts of the island '. 
 
 In expressing mere intensity, the adverbs ' more ' and 'most' 
 are made use of instead of 'very', 'greatly', &c. 'His 
 argument was most (very) convincing.' There is in such cases 
 no express comparison, and hence the name, the superlative of 
 eminence. 
 
151 
 
 INFLEXION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 1. The only inflexion of Adverbs is Com- 
 parison. Some, from the nature of their meaning, 
 cannot be compared, as ' now ', ' then ', ' there ', ' never', 
 ' secondly ', * infinitely '. When the signification 
 admits of degree, they are compared in the Same 
 manner as Adjectives: 'soon, sooner, soonest'; 
 ' often ', * of tener ', ' oHenest ' ; ' pleasantly, more plea- 
 santly, most pleasantly '. 
 
 Adverbs are usually longer than the corresponding adjectives, 
 and therefore more rarely admit of comparison by -er and 
 -est. Such cases as latelier ', ' gentlier ' (Tennyson), 
 'proudlier' (Carlyle), are exceptions, allowed by euphony. In 
 the old writers, such terms were more common : * wiselier ', 
 'easilier', ' rightlier ', 'hardliest', 'earliest', are instances, 
 but not for imitation. Coleridge uses ' safeliest '. 
 
 2. A few Adverbs coincide with irregular 
 Adjectives: 'well, better, best'; 'badly or ill, 
 worse, worst ' ; * much, more, most ', &c. 
 
 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 1. Relations to be expressed. The Verb is 
 the Part of Speech that makes an affirmation ; and in 
 making an affirmation we may Jiave reference to such 
 circumstances as time, conditionally or uncondi- 
 tionally, person, and number. 
 
 Methods exist in every language for expressing these numerous 
 relations. In some languages, as the Greek, the verb itswlf is 
 changed or inflected for nearly every variety of time, person, 
 number, &c. In English the actual inflexions are few ; but by 
 : means of auxiliary words we can express all the various 
 circumstances of affirmation. 
 
 2. The commonly enumerated inflexions 
 of the Verb are Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number. 
 
152 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 3. "With reference to Voice, Verbs are Active OP 
 
 Passive. Every Transitive Verb has an active form, 
 or voice, and a passive form, or voice. 'Csesar 
 defeated Pompey ' (active) ; * Pompey was defeated 
 by Csesar' (passive). 
 
 Since the object of the transitive verb becomes the subject of 
 the affirmation in the passive voice, where there is no object (as 
 in intransitive verbs) there can be no change of voice. 'His 
 ardour cooled ' is intransitive, and admits no such variation as 
 occurs in the sentence, ' he struck the ball ', ' the ball was 
 struck '. 
 
 The passive voice expresses the same fact as the 
 active, but in a form that calls attention to the object 
 of the action, rather than to the agent. 
 
 Indeed, the agent may be unknown, and therefore there 
 would be a blank in the affirmation if we had not the passive 
 form. ' The glass was broken ', is a complete assertion, although 
 we may not be able to name the agent, or consider it unimpor- 
 tant to do so. 
 
 The English has no real inflexion for the Passive Yoice. The 
 single word ' hight' (' is or was called '), 0. E. hatte, heht> is a 
 very doubtful example. We require to take in the help of 
 another verb ( 14 ). Where a passive inflexion exists in 
 languages nearly allied to the English, it seems to have arisen 
 from a mode of applying a reflexive pronoun. Old Norse at 
 kalla, ' to call ', at kallast (for at kallask, = at kalla-sik, ' to 
 call-(one)self '), 'to be called'. Danish at kalde shows a still 
 further worn passive, at kaldes, ' to be called '. So the Greek 
 passive forms were at first adopted from the middle voice 
 (reflexive). The Latin passive is most probably a reflexive 
 formation : 'amor' ('I am loved') = amos ~=z amo -f- se ('I 
 love self) ; ' amaris ' (' thou art loved ') = amas-i-s = amas -f- 
 se ('thou lovest self); 'amatur' ('he is loved ') = amat-u-se 
 = amat -\- se ('he loves self), &c. Compare French se ineler, 
 * to be mingled ', s'appd&r , ' to be called ', &c. 
 
 4. The Moods are the Indicative, Subjunctive, 
 Imperative, and Infinitive. Under the same head we 
 may include the Participle and the Gerund. 
 
 Mood means the manner of the action. 
 
VOICE AND MOOD. 153 
 
 Indicative and Subjunctive. One important 
 distinction of manner is the distinction of uncondi- 
 tional and conditional. 
 
 ' I see the signal ', is unconditional ; ' if I see the signal ', is 
 the same fact expressed in the form of a condition. The one 
 form is said to be in the Indicative mood, the inood that simply 
 states or indicates the action ; the other form is in the Subjunc- 
 tive, conditional, or conjunctive mood. There is sometimes a 
 slight variation made in English, to show that an affirmation is 
 made as a condition. The mood is called ' subjunctive ', 
 because the affirmation is subjoined to another affirmation : ' if 
 I see the signal, I will call out'. 
 
 Such forms as ' I may see ', ' I can see ', have sometimes been considered 
 as a variety of mood, to which the name ' Potential ' is given. But this 
 cannot properly be maintained. There is no trace of any inflexion, 
 corresponding to this meaning, as we find with the subjunctive. More- 
 over, such a mood would have itself to be subdivided into indicative and 
 subjunctive forms : ' I may go ', ' if I may go '. And farther, we might 
 proceed to constitute other moods on the same analogy, as. for example, 
 an obligatory mood ' I must go ', or ' I ought to go ' ; a inoo-1 of resolu- 
 tion ' I will go, you shall go ' ; a mood of gratification ' I am delighted 
 to go ' ; of deprecation' I am grieved to go*. The only difference in tho 
 two last instances is the use of the sign of the infinitive ' to ', which does 
 not occur after ' may ', ' can ' ' must ', ' ought ', <fcc. ; but that is not an 
 essential difference. Some grammarians consider the form ' I do go ', a 
 separate mood, and term it the emphatic mood. But all the above 
 objections apply to it likewise, as well as many others. 
 
 The Imperative mood is the expression of com- 
 mand, desire, entreaty. 
 
 From the nature of the meaning, it can be used only in the 
 second person. In modern English, there is no inflexion for 
 'it ; the simple form of the verb is employed : 'bind', 'go '. 
 In 0. E. the Imperative singular was expressed simply by the 
 root form of the verb : ' bind ', ' ga ' ; there was no mood . 
 suffix. For the plural, the usual ending for the second person 
 ~th was added : ' bind-a-^ ', ' ga-th '. Yet when the pronoun 
 followed, ' bind-e ge ' came to take the place of ' bind-a^A ge ', 
 probably through a confused substitution of the subjunctive. 
 Thus the sing, and plur. forms easily became identical. As 
 late, however, as the end of the 14th century, Chaucer retained 
 the plur. personal ending : 
 
 " HerkneM these blisful briddes (birds) how they sing, 
 And set/t (see) the freshe flowei-es how they spring. 
 
 In making a proposal or expressing a desire in reference to first 
 or third persons, there is no inflexional form available ; we 
 substitute the subjunctive or an auxiliary (commonly ' let') : as 
 " Well, sit toe down. 
 And let us hear Bernardo speak of this ". (Ham. i. 1.) 
 
154 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 The term imperative is somewhat misleading, as the mood is 
 employed in supplication as well as in command ; and for the 
 strongest forms of command it is insufficient. The legislature 
 uses ' shall ' to signify its commands ; another form used in 
 common life is ' must '. 
 
 5. The Infinitive, as * to go ', is not a mood in the 
 same sense as the others. It is the form of the verb 
 that contains neither affirmation nor command, but 
 merely names the action in the manner of a noun : ' to 
 reign is worth ambition ', for ' the act of reigning '. 
 
 There is no time signified by the infinitive as there is by the 
 other moods. The name ' infinitive ' expresses the fact that it 
 is not limited in those circumstances of time that limit the other 
 parts, which parts are called collectively the Finite verb. 
 
 The preposition ' to ' is not essential to the infinitive, and is 
 dropped after certain verbs. The 0. E. infinitive was formed 
 by a suffix -an ; as * bin dam ' (' to bind '), ' writer ' (' to write '). 
 It was partially inflected like a noun, taking a dative in -e after 
 ' to ' for the expression of purpose : * to bindanne ', or * -enne ' 
 'to writaime' or ' -enne ' our gerund. By the 13th century 
 the infin. -an had become weakened to -en and -e, and sometimes 
 the -e was silent ; the dat. -anne, -enne had also fallen away to 
 -ene, -en, -e ; and ' to ' not only remained with the dat. or 
 gerund meaning, but was also transferred to the simple infinitive. 
 The two forms thus became identical, and ' to ' now appeal's in 
 the infin., whether it be nom. or obj. or dat. 
 
 The form ' "binding / ' jzping ', is also an infinitive of 
 the verb. 
 
 This form in -ing fulfils the function of a noun in ths same 
 manner as the other : 'going (subj.) is sad', 'he dreads going' 
 (obj.) ; ' binding ( = to bind) themselves by these terms was 
 
 force as a verb by saying that * themselves ' is object to it. 
 
 Historically, the connexion between the old infin. in -en and 
 the modern form in -ing is not quite satisfactorily established. 
 In the 1 3th century, indeed, the participial termination -ende 
 or -inde was occasionally used in place of the dat. infin. or 
 gerund form ; and in the 14th century both forms were some- 
 times turned into -ing. But presently this -ing infin. died out. 
 Again, an infin. -ing appears for -en about the beginning of the 
 16th century ; but it is in a different coristiuction from the 
 
INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 155 
 
 modern use of -ing. In the same century even the -en of past 
 participles was interchanged with -ing. Some stress might 
 justly be laid on the strong tendency to convert all similar 
 endings into -ing ; but most probably the -ing should be traced 
 to the verbal noun in -ung (later -ing), the preposition 'of 
 having dropt away, leaving the verbal noun and the following 
 noun or pronoun in close proximity. According to this view, 
 the real explanation of the above example is : binding (verbal 
 noun) ; [of prep, omitted] ; themselves (governed, not by 
 ' binding ', but by ' of '). But, admitting this to be the historical 
 origin of the -ing form in such constructions, the practical 
 usage has broken quite away from it. 
 
 6. The Participle affords a peculiar and con- 
 venient means of joining a subordinate fact to a prin- 
 cipal affirmation. 
 
 The name ' Participle ' was given because of the supposed 
 participation, or sharing, in the functions of the verb, the 
 adjective, and the noun. 
 
 Speaking correctly, the participle is neither an adjective nor 
 a noun. Adjectives are derived from participles, and verbal 
 nouns occur with the form of the participle in ' ing', but derived 
 in reality from other sources. The participle coincides with 
 the verb in having a subject and (if transitive) an object, and 
 in expressing some varieties of the action ; but it has no power 
 of independent affirmation. In construction it is subsidiary to 
 a verb in some of the finite moods (indicative, &c.), and derives 
 its affirmative force from the verb thus coupled. ' Ascending 
 the mountain, we had a wide prospect.' This is a convenient 
 and elegant abbreviation for ' we ascended the mountain, and had 
 &c.' ' J? eaten at one point, we made for another '= 'ice were 
 beaten, and made '. 'I saw him crossing the street' : 'I 
 saw him, and when I saw him, he was crossing the street ', 
 
 The Participle has two principal meanings, and 
 three forms. 
 
 The present, imperfect, incomplete participle 
 expresses an action as doing, and not yet finished ; and 
 the form is in -ing (O.E. -end, -ende, -inde) : ' \&&ting ', 
 ' going ', ' calk'nt/ '. 
 
 The past or complete participle expresses an 
 action as done and finished ; and the forms are -n and 
 -d : ' beateft ', * gone ', ' called '. 
 
156 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 In transitive verbs the participle in -ing has also an active 
 signification, as ' beating ', ' calling ' ; and those in -n and -d 
 have a passive signification, as ' beaten ', ' called ', and form the 
 basis of our passive voice. In intransitive verbs, the only 
 difference of meaning is that of incomplete and complete : 
 ' going ', ' gone ' ; ' coming ', ' come ' (0. E. * cumcn, comen '). 
 
 Both the present and the past participles may often be 
 regarded as indefinite, the time of the action varying according 
 to the tense of the verb of the principal clause. 
 
 The new form -ing came in during the 12th century. The 
 older forms gave way gradually ; the Northern -and being used 
 down till about the beginning of the 17th century. 
 
 The ending -n (or en, -e- being merely a connecting or 'binding' 
 letter) belongs to the verbs called strong or old. It has fallen 
 off from many of them ( 57, &c.). It is the same as the -en 
 formative of adjectives ('golden', ' wooderc '), denoting posses- 
 sion of the properties implied in the root ; that is, it expresses 
 the action of the verb as communicated to the subject that the 
 participle is joined to. 
 
 The ending -d (or -ed, -e- being merely connective) belongs to 
 the verbs called weak or new. It is sometimes modified to -t ( 62, 
 &c.). It is cognate with Goth, -das, Lat. tus ( tos} t Gr. -tos ; 
 and has the same meaning as -n. It also appears similarly in a 
 vast number of adjectives. 
 
 In the absence of any other prefix, ge- was generally prefixed 
 to the past participle (and often to other parts of the verb) in 
 O.E. This ge- was later modified to y-, i- : ' 2/broken ', ' ?/gone ', 
 ' imade ', ' ironne ' (run). 
 
 In many languages (including Old English), the participle is 
 inflected to agree with the subject in gender, number, and case, 
 which gives it the appearance of an adjective. But it is still 
 essentially a verb with the limitations above stated. 
 
 The phrase, ' making an unopposed landing ' contains participle 
 ('making'), adjective ('unopposed'), and noun (' landing '), all with parti- 
 cipial form. So, ' a person passing ' (part. ) , ' a passing thought ' (adjective), 
 * the passing of the Douro ' (noun). ' After satisfying the church ' (part, or 
 infin.) ' a satisfying portion ' (adj.), ' a tempest dropping fire ' (part.) ; ' now 
 is the witching time of night ' (adj). 
 
 The participle is known by its governing a noun like a verb, which 
 neither an adjective nor a noun can do. But a participial phrase (that is 
 a participle with its government) may be itself governed by a preposi- 
 tion : ' on hearing the news ', ' by folloicing the straight course ', ' after 
 warming himself ', &c. These are brief and elegant substitutes for a con- 
 junction and a clause : ' when they heard the news ', ' if you follow ', 
 ' after he had warmed '. The passive participle (the equivalent of a clause 
 with a passive verb) is known by its reference to a subject : ' after being 
 well warmed, we went our way '. These forms in -ing may also be regarded 
 as infinitives. 
 
 A participial phrase seems to have the farther peculiarity of being 
 joined to a possessive : ' John's leaving the course ', ' our mooting >e 
 
PARTICIPLE AND GERUND. TENSE. 157 
 
 party', ' my admitting the fact', 'the Icing's dissolving parliament ', are 
 short expressions for 'the fact that John left', 'we met', "the king 
 dissolved ', <fec. Likewise a demonstrative adjective may be joined in the 
 same way : ' the sending them the light of thy Holy Spirit'; ' that burning 
 the capitol was a wanton outrage'. 
 
 These phrases may perhaps be best considered as infinitives governing 
 nouns. 
 
 7. The Gerund is not a separate form in modern 
 English, but a peculiar application of the two infinitive 
 forms, * to write ', and * writing '. 
 
 In 0. E. (see 5), the dative form of the Infinitive, 'to 
 writanne ' (or '-enne ') was used to express purpose or intention. 
 Now that the special inflexion is dropt, ' to write ' and ' for 
 writing ', the infinite forms with appropriate prepositions, give 
 the meaning intended, and are called gerunds : ' I come to 
 write ', ' I have work to do ', 'the course to steer by ', ' ready for 
 sailing ', ' sharpened for cutting '. It is useful to point out this 
 signification of these forms, partly to facilitate translation into 
 the classical languages, and partly to explain some idioms of 
 our own language. ' A house to let ', ' I have work to do ', 
 ' there is no more to say ', are phrases where the verb is not in 
 the common infinitive, but in the form of the gerund. * He is 
 the man to do it, or for doing it' When the ' to ' ceased in the 
 12th century to be a distinctive mark of the dat. in fin. or 
 gerund, ' for ' was introduced to make the writer's intention 
 clear. Hence the familiar form in ' what went ye out for to 
 see ? ' ' they came for to show him the temple '. 
 
 8. Tense is the variation of the verb to express 
 the time of an action, modified by the other circum- 
 stances of completeness and incompleteness above 
 mentioned in connexion with the participle. * I come ' 
 (present), 1 1 came ' (past) ; ' I call ' (pres.), f I called ' 
 (past). 
 
 These are the only tenses made by inflexion ; but by com- 
 bination with other words, future time is also expressed, ' I 
 shall come ', ' he will come '. In 0. E. the want of a future 
 form was usually supplied by the present tense. (Compare 
 49). These compound forms, and a great variety of modes of 
 past, present, and future, are represented in the full scheme of 
 the verb ( 40). 
 
 Strong Verbs are such as form the past tense, by 
 change of the root vowel : ' hold, held ' ; ' fall, 
 fell ' ; drink, drank '; * come, came '. 
 
158 INFLEXION OP VERBS. 
 
 As in all the other Indo-European languages, so in English, 
 even the present tense is a form considerably modified from the 
 original root. The chief means of change in English have been 
 vowel augmentation and the insertion of various formative suf- 
 fixes before the personal endings : the Northern English 'gang' 
 (Goth, gagga) is a case of reduplication (from ga, ' to go '), a 
 common mode in the classical languages. 
 
 To form the past tense, English, like the other Indo-European 
 languages, and particularly like the other Teutonic languages, 
 had recourse to Reduplication. 'Did', O. E. dide, is a 
 doubling of ' do '. The curious verb * hight ' (=' was called ': 
 in 0. E. also ='w called) appears in Goth, haitan ('to call'), 
 O.E. hatan ; past, Goth, hai-hait, 0. E. heht, het (as well as 
 hatte). Goth, haldan ('to hold'), 0. E. healdan ; past, Goth. 
 haihald, O.H. Germ, hialt {heihalt}, mod. Germ, hielt, 0. E. 
 heold, mod. E. 'held'. Compare Gr. TVTTTW, pf. Tt-Tv^a, 
 iravu), pf. irk-iravKo. ; Lat. pello, pf. pepuli ; tetido (n 
 euphonic), pf. te-tendi ; tundo (n euphonic), tu-tudi fugio, pf. 
 fugi (fu-fugi} ; tollo, pf. tuli (for te-tuli). 
 
 The strong verbs cannot all be traced clearly to their original 
 reduplication ; but judging from those that we can trace, we 
 believe that the rest followed the same rule. They have also 
 been called 'old' verbs, because they are the oldest in the 
 language. 
 
 Weak Verbs are such as form the past tense by 
 adding -d to the present or simple verb : 
 'love, loved'; 'hear, heard'; 'plant, planted'; 
 ' whip, whipped or whiptf ' ; ' carry, carried ' ; ' lead, 
 led ' ; ' build, builded or builtf ' ; ' buy, bought '. 
 
 The addition of -d is accompanied with various modifications 
 in spelling, like those in the plural of nouns and the compari- 
 son of adjectives. ' Heard ' shortens the vowel of ' hear ' ; 
 ' planted ' inserts a binding or connective -e-, otherwise it could 
 not be pronounced; 'whipped' (final -p doubled after short 
 accented vowel), and ' whiptf ' are both written, but in either 
 case we must pronounce ' whipt ' ; ' carried ' changes -y (final 
 y after a consonant) into -i, before the connecting -e- and the 
 inflexional -d. ' Led ' looks like a strong past ; but this is a 
 form stripped' of its earlier ending : ' \ed-de ', ' Ised-de ' : the 
 vowel is also shortened. ' Build ', and some others ending in -d 
 preceded by a liquid, modify the final -d into -t ; a shorter 
 mode than the regular formation. The change of vowel in such 
 as ' bought ' from ' buy ' is due, not to reduplication (like the 
 strong verbs), but to the influence of certain vowels in ancient 
 forms of the words. 
 
STRONG AND WEAK VERBS. PERSON, NUMBER. 159 
 
 The -d of the past tense is a modification of the verb ' did ' : 
 ' I loved ' being a short form for ' I love-did ' * I laid 'for 'I 
 lay-did '. This appears best in the Gothia forms, especially 
 the plural ones, which are least corrupted or worn down. The 
 root lag (' lay ') formed its past tense in Gothic thus : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 1. lag-i-c?-a(= older lagi-e?ec?-am). 
 
 2. lag-i-des (= older lagi-cfcd-ta ?) 
 
 3. lag-i-d-a. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 lag-i-ded-um. 
 
 lag-i-ded-mi. 
 
 We have already noted that the -e- (Goth, and O.H.G. -i-), is 
 simply a connecting link, in O.E. (as well as in Goth, and 
 O.H.G.) some verbs took -o- as the binding letter. Goth, -ai-, 
 O.H.G. -e'-, have no extant cognate form in English. 
 
 The weak verbs take their name from their inability to form 
 a past tense without the aid of another verb, * did ' : the strong 
 verbs double themselves, and need no foreign help. They are 
 called also new verbs, the formation being more recent than the 
 other. They greatly outnumber the very small. force of strong 
 verbs ; and hence the latter have been called irregular, being 
 apparent exceptions to the modern rule of forming in -d. The 
 overpowering inlluence of the commoner weak form has been 
 gradually breaking down the older strong form. 
 
 9. Person and Number. There are certain dis- 
 tinctions of form according as the subject of the verb 
 is the speaker, the person or persons spoken to, or the 
 persons or things spoken about ; that is, for the 1st, 2nd, 
 and 3rd persons, singular and plural ; as * I write ', 
 * thou writes^ ', * he writes/ &c. 
 
 The personal suffixes were originally pronominal elements 
 joined on to the verb (after the tense formative). They have 
 almost disappeared from modern English. 
 
 The suffix of the lirst person singular, -m, remains in the. 
 word ' aw ' alone (O.E. eo-m). It was previously -mi (weakened 
 from an earlier -ma) = * I '. Compare Sanskrit as-mi, Gr. i'/u 
 (for l.<j-n'i), Lat. sum (for es-u-m), O.H.G. pirn (mod. Germ. 
 bin], O.E. (Northern) beom (' 1 be'). In O.E. ' binde", &c., 
 the -e- is merely the connecting letter, which has usurped the 
 place of the real personal ending. 
 
 The suffix of the second person singular, -si, appears in the 
 present and past indicative. The root twa, tva, in, (= 'thou') 
 seems to have changed into -ti, and then into -.%, which gives 
 the ending -s, common in O.E., regular in Northern English 
 (' thou bears ', ' thou binds '). The -t form remains in ' ar- ', 
 
160 INFLEXION OP VERBS. 
 
 ' was-t ', * wer- ', ' shal- ', ' wil- '. The past tense of strong 
 verbs dropt ~t of the 2nd person singular, and showed no ending 
 ID at -e : 'thit bunde' ('thou boundest '), ' thu feolle ' ('thou 
 fellest') ; but in the 14th century the weak ending -st was 
 shared with them. The peculiarities of spelling when -st is 
 added are the same as when -d of the past tense is added. 
 
 The suffix of the third person singular, -th, -S, is descended 
 from the demonstrative root, ta ('he'), seen in 'the', 'that'. 
 The modified form -ti became in the oldest English -th, -d, and 
 -t, and even in the 10th century -s, which is now the ordinary 
 form. It appears only in the present indie. The same peculi- 
 arities of spelling attend the addition of -s as of -st and -d. 
 
 The suffixes of the plural have all been dropt in modern 
 English. The forms in O.E. and cognate languages have been 
 traced back to these : (1) masi = ma + si (=ti, ta; twi, two) 
 = ' I + thou ', or ma +sa = ' I +he ', that is, ' we ' ; (2) tasi 
 = ta + si = ' thou -f thou ', or ta + sa ' thou + he ', that is, 
 'you'; and (3) (a)nti = an+ti= 'he + he', that is, 'they'. 
 (But this explanation of (a)nti is not universally accepted). 
 There is no trace of the suffix of the first person plural in 
 English. Goth, has ' siyu-m ' ('we are') : compare Gr. iff-pev 
 (Doric il-n'ts la-fjLtQ), Lat. ' su-?raws ' (es-u-mus). The suffix of the 
 second person plural, -th., was extended in O.E. to all the plural 
 persons of the present indicative : ' bind-a-^ ' (' we, you, they 
 bind'), 'Iser-a-^A' ('we, you, they teach '). We have already 
 mentioned the -th of the Imperative plural ( 4). The suffix of 
 the third person plural, -n, was extended in O.E. to all the 
 plural persons of the past indicative ('bund-on', 'herd-on.') 
 and of the present and past subjunctive (' binder, -on ', ' leer-en, 
 -on ' ; ' bund-e'/t, -on ', ' Iserd-c??., -on '). In the 12th century, Mid- 
 land English used -n for the plural endings of the present 
 indicative, while Southern English retained -th ; Northern 
 English had taken -s, several centuries earlier, in the plural 
 persons of the present indicative and in the plural imperative. 
 The forms in -en died out of general use in the 16th century. 
 The loss of this short syllable has been regretted by poets. 
 
 The suffix of the O.E. singular subjunctive, present and past, 
 was -e, a mere remnant of fuller forms. Even this is now lost. 
 In loose writing, the forms of the second and third persons 
 singular of the present indicative are often used where we 
 should expect the flexionless subjunctive ; and Mr. H. Sweet 
 has pointed out instances of a similar usage in the second person 
 singular past subjunctive of weak verbs in late West Saxon. 
 For ' wert ', see 15, below. 
 
 For general purposes, all the inflexions of number and person 
 might have been dispensed with together. 
 
CONJUGATION, STRONG AND WEAK. 161 
 
 10. The English Verb retains but a very small 
 number of inflexions compared with other lan- 
 guages. 
 
 ' Write ', ' wrote ', ' writing ', ' written ', ' writes ', * writest ', 
 ' wrotest ' being seven forms, are all the changes of a strong 
 verb. The weak verbs, such is ' love ', have oiily six forms. 
 
 11. Conjugation. To bring together all the forms 
 of the verb is to conjugate it. There are in English 
 two conjugations : the Old or Strong, and the 
 New or Weak. 
 
 The Old or Strong Conjugation applies to or includes solely 
 the old, strong, or so-called Irregular verbs. They are very few 
 in number, and they are all of native origin. The new or 
 Weak Conjugation applies to or includes all other verb?, an 
 indefinitely more numerous class. In 0. E. there were various 
 conjugations both of strong and of weak verbs ; according to 
 the change of vowel in the strong, and according to the 
 connecting vowel in the weak. We do not enter into this 
 subdivision and classification here. 
 
 Ordinarily, to conjugate a verb means simply to give the pre- 
 sent and past indicative (first person singular) and the past 
 participle. From these three forms all the others are easily 
 derived. Thus : 
 
 (1) Fall (pres.) (2) Fell (past) (3) Fallen (p. part.) 
 
 , (4) 
 
 ' (5) Fall-* 
 (6) Fall-wg'. 
 
 12. The Conjugation of the Strong or Old 
 Verbs is seen in the following example : 
 
 To Write. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. 
 
 Write. Wrote. Written. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing 1st Person, (I) write 
 
 (Thou) writest 
 
 (He) writes. 
 
 11 
 
 Plur. 1st Person, (We) write 
 2nd ,, (You) write 
 Srd (They) write. 
 
162 INFLEXION OP VERBS. 
 
 fast Tense. 
 
 Sing. 1. (I) wrote 
 
 2. (Thou) Avrotest 
 
 3. (He) wrote. 
 
 Plur. 1. (We) wrote 
 
 2. (You) wrote 
 
 3. (They) wrote. 
 
 IMPERATIVE : Write. INFINITIVE : (To) write ; writing. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present, Writing. Past, Written. 
 
 13. The Conjugation of the Weak or New 
 Verbs is seen in the following example ; 
 
 To Love. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. 
 
 Love. Loved. Loved. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. 1st Person, (I) love 
 
 2nd ,, (Thou) lovest 
 
 3rd (He) loves. 
 
 Plur. 1st Person, (We) love 
 2nd (You) love 
 3rd (They) love. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Sing. 1. (I) loved 
 
 2. (Thou) lovedst 
 
 3. (He) loved. 
 
 Plur. 1. (We) loved 
 
 2. (You) loved 
 
 3. (They) loved. 
 
 IMPERATIVE : Love. INFINITIVE : (To) love ; loving.. 
 
 PAKTICIPLES. 
 
 Present, Loving. Past, Loved. 
 
 The Auxiliary Verbs. 
 
 14. The Auxiliary Verbs are joined to the other 
 verbs to assist in expressing the tenses not 
 expressed by Inflexions. They are: 'be', 'have', 
 * shall ', and will '. 
 
 * May ' and ' can ' would be ranked as auxiliaries if we were 
 to admit the potential mood into the conjugation of the verb. 
 ' Do ' is excluded as the help in making the emphatic form of 
 the verb : it has a very much better claim to be regarded as an 
 auxiliary in expressing negation, and in the inverted forms. 
 These are all verbs of importance in the language. 
 
THE AUXILIARIES. 'BE*. 163 
 
 15. To Be. A complete conjugation is pieced out 
 by gathering forms from three distinct roots : as, 
 was, and bhu (bu). 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. 
 
 Am. Was. Been. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 . 1. Am 
 
 2. Art 
 
 3. Is. 
 
 Sing. 1. Was 
 
 Plur. 1. Are 
 
 2. Are 
 
 3. Are. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 2. Wast, (wert) 
 
 3. Was. 
 
 Plur. 1. Were 
 
 2. Were 
 
 3. Were, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 . 1. Be 
 
 2. Be 
 
 3. Be. 
 
 Sing. 1. Were 
 
 Plur. 1. Be 
 
 2. Be 
 
 3. Be. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 2. Were, wert 
 
 3. Were. 
 
 Plur. 1. Were 
 
 2. Were 
 
 3. Were. 
 
 IMPERATIVE : Be. INFINITIVE : (To) be ; being. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present, Being. Past, Been. 
 
 Remains of root as. 'Am ' is forar-w, for as-m ( 9). ' Art' 
 is for as-t ( 9). ' Is ' was all that remained in the oldest 
 English for as-th (compare Goth, and Germ, is-t, Gr. la-ri, 
 Lat. es-t, &c. ). ' Are ', 0. E. (Northern) ar-on = as-on, from 
 the full original form as -anti. Sanskrit has cut off the first 
 part, making santi ; Lat. &unt'. Southern English, sind, sindon. 
 The present subjunctive and imperative forms from the same 
 root have long been superseded in English. 
 
 Remains of root was. The w;as-forms ran through the whole 
 verb (except present indie.) in O.E., but they are now confined 
 to the past indicative and subjunctive. 'Was', O.E. wees, 
 is the regular past of the old verb, wesan ('to be ', 'happen '). 
 ' Wast ' ( 9) is a 14th century form, replacing O.E. wcere (for 
 
164' INFLEXION OP VERBS. 
 
 wcese), which might have been expected to remain 'were', 
 and which has become ' wert ' ( 9) : curiously enough, the 
 Gothic had ' wast '. ' Were ' (indicative) is O.E. wceron, weren, 
 for an older wcesen : compare Gothic wes-um, ices-nth, wcs-un. 
 The subjunctive ' were ' has similarly lost all its ^ endings. 
 ' Wert ' very strongly shares the general tendency of indicative 
 second persons singular to be transferred also to the subjunctive. 
 
 Remains of root bhu (bll). From this came our ' be ' (as 
 well as Lat. fit- in fui, &c.). The present, beo(m), bist, &c., 
 was used in all the persons in O.E. ; even in the 17th century 
 * be ' and ' beest ' fill all the persons ; many examples are 
 familiar in the Bible. ' Be ', now flexionless, has superseded 
 the other two roots in the present subjunctive and the impera- 
 tive ; and wesan, &c., gave way to it in the infinitive and par- 
 ticiples, about the 12th century. 
 
 How ' Be ' helps. By joining the past participle of a 
 
 transitive verb to the verb ' be ' throughout, we make the 
 
 indefinite form of the passive voice ; as ' he is loved ', 
 
 ' we were loved ', ' to be loved ', ' being loved '. 
 
 The participles make the sole exception : ' loved ' gives the 
 meaning sufficiently without ' been ', and it is also used con- 
 vertibly with ' being loved '. In 0. E. the meanings of tbese 
 forms were rather vague : ' is ofslaegen '= ' or has been slain '; 
 ' was ofslaegen ' was simple past tense;, or present perfect, or past 
 perfect ; and much of this vagueness yet remains. 
 
 With the past participle of an intransitive verb, ' be ' forms 
 perfect tenses : ' I am come ', ' the train was just gone '. German 
 retains this construction in great activity ; we employ ' have ' 
 also with intransitive as well as with transitive verbs. In O.E. 
 the participle was inflected to agree with the. subject : ' hi wceron 
 cumene ', ' they ivere (had) come '. 
 
 By similarly joining the imperfect participle, there arises 
 
 another form of the active voice, peculiar to the English 
 language, called the progressive, incomplete, or imperfect 
 
 form; as 'I am writing ', 'I was writing', &c. In O. E., this 
 form was very little, if anything, more than alternative with 
 the regular inflexion : 'ge siudon leogende' ('you are lying') 
 = ' ge leogath ' (' you lie '). 
 
 For the progressive forms with ' have ', see 16. 
 
 In all these applications of 'be.', the old verb 'weorthan* 
 (' to be ', ' to become '), was also used in O.E : ' his hors wearth 
 gesiclod ' ('his horse became sickened ', 'was taken ill '). Com- 
 pare Germ, werden. 
 
 1 Be ' with the gerund expresses purpose or intention. ' I am 
 to write '= 'I intend or purpose to write', 'I am going to 
 write ', ' I shall write '. ' I was to write ' = * I intended to 
 
THE AUXILIARY * HAVE '. 
 
 165 
 
 write '. Compare the formation of Lat. amabo = ' (to) love 
 + be I ', 'I was to love ', ' 1 shall love ' ; bo being a modification 
 of the root bhu (' be '). Lat. amabam = ' (to) love + be I ', 'I 
 was to love ', ' I loved. ', passes from the intention to the fact. 
 So aniavi ama-fui. 
 
 16, To Have. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Have. 
 
 Sing. 1. Have 
 
 2. Hast 
 
 3. Has. 
 
 Sing. 1. Had 
 
 2. Hadst 
 
 3. Had. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Had. 
 
 Participle. 
 Had. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Plur. 1. Have 
 
 2. Have 
 
 3. Have. 
 Tense. 
 
 Plur. 1. Had 
 
 2. Had 
 
 3. Had. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Sing. 1. Have 
 
 2. Have 
 
 3. Have. 
 
 Sing. 1. Had 
 
 2. Had 
 
 3. Had. 
 
 IMPERATIVE : Have. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Plur. 1. Have 
 
 2. Have 
 
 3. Have. 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plur. 1. Had 
 
 2. Had 
 
 3. Had. 
 
 INFINITIVE : (To) have, having. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present, Having. Past, Had. 
 
 'Have' is a weak verb. O.E. habban ('to have') declined 
 its present indie. : hcebbe, hcefst (hafast), hccfth (hafath), &c. ; 
 past, hcef-de (later hadde) ; past part., gchcefd. hcefed, later yhad. 
 
 ' Hadst ' appears as subjunctive : writers hesitate to commit 
 themselves to the bare form. ' If thou hadst said him nay, it 
 had been sin.' 
 
 Ifadst thou been killed when first thou didst presume, 
 Thou hadst not lived to kill a son of mine.' 
 
 3rd Hm. VI. v. tj. 
 
 HOW ' Have ' helps. ' Have ' is used to make the, Perfect 
 forms. Followed by the past participle of another verb, ' have ' 
 
166 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 forms two tenses : ' hove, loved ' (present perfect), ' had 
 loved ' (past perfect)- Now, as the participle ' loved' merely 
 expresses completed action, witl ou reference to time, and as 
 ' I have ' means ' I possess ' (at this moment), the union of the 
 two comes to express perfect action likewise. ' 1 have written 
 a letter ' means ' 1 now possess a written letter ' ; whence it 
 follows that the 'writing of the letter is an action finished, 
 perfect, or complete. In O.E. the participle was inflected to 
 agree with the object, this construction being primarily applied 
 with transitive verbs, though afterwards extended to iiitransi- 
 tives ( 15), when the original formation was neglected. * Hi 
 hfefdon hint ofslsegenue ', ' they had him (a) slain (man) ', 
 ' they had slain him '. But the inflexion began to drop very 
 early. In 0. E., ' have ', ' had ', were sometimes used to ex- 
 .press the simple past tense.- 
 
 The infinitive followed by a past participle forms a perfect 
 infinitive active ' to have loved ', ' having loved '. 
 
 The present or imperfect participle ' having ', joined to the 
 past participle of a verb, yields a perfect participle active : 
 'having loved ', ' having written '. 
 
 Have + Been. The perfect forms of 'be', made up by the 
 help of ' have ', are also joined to both present and past parti- 
 ciples. Followed by a present or imperfect participle, ' have, 
 had, having, &c., been 'form what have been called continuous 
 tenses, or tenses of continued action : ' 1 have been writing ', 
 ' to have been writing '. These are simply progressive perfect 
 tenses ; they stand to the perfect in much the same relation as 
 the so-called ' progressive ' stand in to the 'indefinite ' tenses. 
 ( 40). 
 
 The same combinations with the past participle make the 
 
 perfect forms of the passive : ' I have been loved ', ' I had 
 
 been loved ', ' having been loved '. 
 
 ' Have ' followed by the gerund expresses obligation : ' J have 
 to write' = 'I am obliged to write', '1 must write'. 'I had 
 to write ' expresses past compulsion or pressure. With this 
 combination compare the formation of the French future : 
 aimer -ai = ' to love + have I '. 
 
 17. Shall and Will. 
 
 Shall. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. 1. Shall 
 
 2. Shalt 
 
 3. Shall. 
 
 Plur. 1. Shall 
 2. Shall 
 8. Shall. 
 
'SHALL' AND 'WILL'. 
 
 167 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Sing. 1. Should Plur. 1. Should 
 
 2. Shouldst 2. Should 
 
 3. Should. 3. Should. 
 
 Will. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Sing. 1. Will Plur. 1. Will 
 
 2. Wilt 2. Will 
 
 3. Will. 3. Will 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. Would PZw/-. 1. Would 
 
 2. Wouldst 2. Would 
 
 3. Would. 3. Would. 
 
 The negative won't is for * wol not ', an old form. ' Nil! 7 
 (* will you, nill you '), 0. E. nyllan=.ne will (0. E. ne willan) 
 =' will not '. 
 
 18. Shall and Will are employed to form the 
 future tenses in English: * I shall go ', ' be will go'. 
 
 In 0. E. there was no special inflexion for the future, and the 
 present was usually employed instead. ' Ga ge on mini e win- 
 geard, and ic sylle eow thaet riht bith ', ' go into ray vineyard, 
 and I give {= shall give) you what is right ': (quoted by Sweet). 
 4 Shall ' and * will ' are occasionally used, but seldom as pure 
 future auxiliaries. 
 
 19. Shall originally means debt, obligation. 
 
 Chaucer says ' that faith I shall (1 owe) to God '. He 
 shall suffer ', is ' he owes to suffer ', * he is about to 
 suffer '. 
 
 Grimm traces * shall ' (O. E. sccal, Goth, skat) to the past 
 tense of a present meaning ' I kill '. Thus ' I shall ' is ' I 
 killed ', or ' I have killed ', and therefore ' I have to pay the 
 legal fine * ; hence, ' I am in debt, or under obligation \ ' I 
 must *. 
 
 20. Will, on the other hand, means intention or 
 resolution, on the part of the agent, he 
 
 being free to do as he pleases in the matter. ' I will 
 go ', means that it is in my option to go or not to go, 
 and that I decide for going. 
 
168 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 Thus there is a radical contrast of situation implied in the 
 two words, namely, the difference between Icing w wafer out ward 
 control, coercion, compulsion, -influence, or pressure and being 
 free to follow one b yvfiL/Mlinfls and ifixhis. 'I shall not be 
 at home ' is as much as to say that circumstances compel me to 
 be absent ; ' I will not be at home ' implies that neither any 
 other person's will" nor any external compulsion whatsoever pre- 
 vents me, but that it is my own free will and pleas-ure to be 
 absent. 
 
 This great opposition of meaning determines the appropriate 
 employment of the two words. The following phrases are 
 wrong, although in common use by Scotchmen and Irishmen : 
 'I will be obliged to you ', ' I will be under the necessity', 
 'we will be at a loss', ' we. will be compelled', 'I ioH be 
 much gratified '. As the very nature of these expressions 
 supposes obligation, or some influence from without, the use of 
 ' will ', which expresses the absence of all external pressure, is 
 a contradiction ; we ought to say, ' I shall be obliged ', ' I silmll 
 be under the necessity', '1 shall be much gratified,' &c. 
 4 Shall ' is not necessarily limited to compulsion in the painful 
 sense : if outward events (and not inward determinations) con- 
 cur to impart benefits to an individual, the expression is ' shall ': 
 ' I sJiall be a great gainer ', 4 1 shall be delightfully placed '. 
 
 21. Shall is the future auxiliary of the first per- 
 son ; will, of the second and third persons. 
 
 Through the use of ' shall ', the bare fact of futurity is sig- 
 nified by the word expressing the compulsion of events. But 
 it was natural that this application of 4 shall ' should come to be 
 restricted to the lirst person ; * will ', the sign of self-determining 
 choice, appearing to be more proper for persons other than' the 
 speaker. Hence we say * I shall come ', to make known the 
 future coining , of the speaker, but not, ' you shall come ', 4 he 
 shall come ' ; the auxiliary for these persons is considerately 
 changed to 'you will come', 'he will come', when simple 
 futurity is meant. The conjugation of the future tense of the 
 verb is, therefore, as foliows : 
 
 Sing. 1. SJiall come Plur. 1. Shall come 
 
 2. Wilt come 2. Will come 
 
 3. Will come. 3. Will come. 
 
 22. The explanation of this distribution of the 
 auxiliaries is found in considerations of courtesy OP 
 politeness. 
 
 When a person says ' I shall come ', he uses a phrase which 
 
USES OP ' SHALL' AND 'WILL*. 169 
 
 originally means that he is to be under external influence or com- 
 pulsion, and he so far speaks humbly of himself, a thing quite 
 becoming. But the case is altered when, addressing a second 
 person, we say ' you shall come '; this is equrl to saying, * the 
 po\yer of external events will, leave- you no choice but to 
 come'. To use this form of language to another person has 
 seemed want of due courtesy and consideration for the feelings 
 of others ; and accordingly we have departed from it, and 
 adopted ' will ', which is the same as to say. ' your, or their, free 
 will and pleasure will indues you, or them, to come'. This 
 has been considered polite and deferential, and has become the 
 form of futurity when persons other thar. ' I ' or ' we ' are 
 concerned. Hence the correct usage id, ' / sluill be at the 
 gardens, and so iiili yc* 1 . and James '.* 
 
 23. "Whan the aim is to express, not futurity, but 
 self-determination on the part of the speaker, 
 
 he says * I will ' for the first person, and ' you shall ', 
 1 he shall ', for the second and third. 
 
 Here the speaker's deteimimtion is the controlling power 
 throughout ; it is ! will ' for himself, because he is the agent, 
 but it is ' shall ' for the others, because they are acted on by 
 him, that is, by an influence external to them. To say 'will' 
 in their case, would be not to exercise compulsion* but to 
 record their own independent or free determination. Hence 
 ' shall' -is the highest form of command and authority : ' thou 
 slialt not kill. '. It is the form for imposing legal obligations 
 and penalties in our English Acts of Parliament f. But, ;\n 
 remarked above, not the hand of power and painful constraint 
 simply, but also influence for good, has to be expressed in the 
 same way. ' He shall be blessed in all that belongs to him ', is 
 a correct expiession if it be implied that the instrumentality is 
 not his own wishing and acting, but a controlling influence 
 beyond. Hence the common rule that 'shall' in the second 
 and third persons commands, threatens, and promises. 
 
 24. In what is called indirect speech, * shall ' 
 expresses futur ity in all the persons. 
 
 * In addressing the Deity, the very nature of the subject excludes the 
 idea of constraint ; ' thou giudt endure, and thy years nhall not change '. 
 
 t When a superior i8 giving directions to a subordinate, he sometime* 
 uses, as a courtesy form, ' you will ' : ' you will sec that due precautions 
 are taken'. It is assumed that the subordinate is perfectly disi/oaeil to 
 do his duty, and the language of authority is softened do^sn ti the form 
 of prediction, or futurity. This is another example of the influence oft 
 considerations of courtesy in these constructions. 
 
170 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 This apparent exception illustrates the rule ; for in thah case 
 the reason for changing from ' shall ' to * will ' no longer exists. 
 ' You say you shall write ', ' he says he shall write ', are no 
 breach of courtesy, because the saying is put into the mouth 
 of the person that performs the action. These are the exact 
 parallels of ' I shall write ' ; the speaker speaks only for himself. 
 The following expressions are correct : ' he promises that his 
 part shall be Fulfilled ' ; 'we pledge ourselves that our future 
 actions shall (not ' will ') be in accordance with our vows '. 
 
 If, on the other hand, determination on the part of the 
 subject is expressed, ' will ' is used in all the persons : 
 
 'I -will write', 'you say you will write', ' he says he will write'. 
 
 25, Whenever the action of external events 
 
 comes into play, the speaker, using the first person, 
 must pass from ' will ' to 'shall '. 
 
 ' If 1 draw a catgut, or any other cord, to a great length 
 .between my fingers, T. will make it smaller than before ' 
 (Goldsmith). The proper word here is ' shall ', because the 
 making it smaller does not depend immediately upon the 
 speaker's will, but grows out of the previous action. A similar 
 consideration dictates the use of ' shall ' when the speaker has 
 once pledged himself to a certain course, and is merely following 
 out that pledge. An author states at the outset the plan of his 
 work, and as he proceeds with the execution, of that plan, he says, 
 ' I shall next consider'. The following may be explained on 
 this principle : 'we shall now proceed to mention some of the 
 most famous ' ; 'I -will begin with a passage of considerable 
 beauty '. The first expression is justifiable, as being a continu- 
 ;ution or following up of the author's plan, to which he had 
 committed himself ; the other indicates a new start, and he 
 therefore reverts to the auxiliary of free will. ' I will ' may be 
 softened into ' I shall ', even in cases of determination, to give 
 less of the appearance of egotism : the speaker pretending, as it 
 were, that he is the humble instrument of events in what he is 
 about to do; but the substitution of ' I will ' for 'I shall' is 
 always an error. 
 
 26. In Interrogative Sentences, the second 
 person takes the place of the first ; but it is only for 
 determination on the part of the person in- 
 terrogated that the three persons can be all made 
 use of : ' will you go?' ' si tall /go?' ' shall lie go?' 
 The corresponding expressions in the case of mere 
 
USES OF 'SHALL' AND 'WILL'. 171 
 
 futurity exist only for two persons : ' shall you go ? ' 
 1 will lie go 1 ' ' will it appear soon 1 ' 
 
 The meanings of the first form are : 'is it your will to go ' 
 (will you) ? ' is it your will that / go ' (shall 1) ? ' is it your 
 will that he go ' (shall he) ? The second person is appealed to as 
 the source of will and authority, and corresponds to the first 
 person in affirmatory speech. 
 
 But we cannot, for simple inquiry as to the future, reverse 
 the forms throughout thus : ; shall you go ? ' ' will I go ? ' ' will 
 he go ? ' By attending to the original meaning of the auxiliaries 
 we shall be able to comprehend tho force of these several inter- 
 rogatories. 
 
 The first, ' shall you go ? ' on a strict interpretation, may be 
 supposed to mean, ' will events permit or require you to go ? ' 
 whence it seems the appropriate interrogative for mere futurity. 
 When we are in total ignorance of the determining circum- 
 stances, or are unable to say whether events or the person's own 
 will are to decide the point, we may be expected to say ' shall 
 you ? ' This form is not objected to on the ground of repre- 
 senting the person addressed as at the mercy of outward 
 circumstances ; it is a well established English usage. The 
 form ' will you ? ' is less seldom employed, although admissible ; 
 it seems to suppose that the person's mind is not yet made up. 
 "We must regard it as suitable to the case where we appeal to 
 another person, to state what his determination is in a case 
 depending on him. But ' shall you ? ' is more generally 
 applicable. 
 
 The form : will I ? ' is an absurdity, as the speaker asks the 
 other party what he himself alone can know, namely, his own 
 will and determination. There is no situation where this 
 expression is admissible ; unless we except the peculiar case 
 where the speaker repeats with the first personal pronoun a 
 question as to his own intentions, or answers it by another 
 question similarly formed. ' Will you be there ? ' * Will /be 
 there ? Will I be alive ? Certainly. ' ' Will I ? ' for ' Shall I ? ' 
 is a common Scotticism. 
 
 ' Will he ? ' would naturally mean ' is it his will to do so and 
 so ? ' and this is probably in accordance with usage. When we 
 are in doubt as to how a person will act in matters within his 
 own power, we say ' but will he ? ' When we are inquiring into 
 mere futurity, however, we must still use the same form, in 
 preference to ' shall he ? ' which puts the case as depending 
 upon the person addressed. We must say, ' will he be there ?' 
 ' will it be fine ? ' ' will there be a large assembly ?' all intending 
 to mean futurity. We often prefer forms different from either 
 
172 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 for the simple future : 'is he to be there ? ' ' do you expect him 
 there ? ' ' is tho meeting to take place ? ' 
 
 There is a Scotticism committed in responding to the inter- 
 rogative ' will you ? ' It consists in saying ' I shall ', for ' I 
 will '. ' I shall ' is objectionable, as indicating, not hearty 
 goodwill and concurrence to do the thing required, but a mere 
 acquiesence in the compulsion of circumstances. It is a still 
 more vulgar error to say ' will that be all you want ?' for ' is 
 that all you want ? ' 
 
 Further Examples of ' Shall ' and ' Will '.The distinction 
 of the two words is illustrated by the supposed exclamation of 
 an Irishman on falling into the water ; ' I will be drowned, and 
 nobody shall help me '. While intending to express his appre- 
 hensions and to invoke help, he in reality declares with 
 emphasis that it is his determination to drown himself, and to 
 resist any one that would rescue him. The following passages 
 discriminate the two auxiliaries with precision : * The spirit of 
 my father grows strong in me, and I will no longer endure it '. 
 . . . ' He that escapes me without some broken limb shall 
 acquit him well (ironical promise) ' . . . ' Charles, I thank 
 thee for thy love to me, which thou shalt find I will most 
 kindly requite.' . . . 'Truly, when he dies, thou shalt 
 be his heir, for what he hath taken away from thy father per- 
 force, I will render thee again in affection ; by mine ho.uour, I 
 will ' (Shaks., As you like it, i.). 
 
 When Tennyson makes (Enone say * I will not die alone ', he 
 intimates that she is determined that others shall die with her. 
 ' I shall not die alone ' means that ' the course of fate will 
 overwhelm other persons along with me '. 
 
 In the Litany, 'Glory be to the Father as it was in the 
 beginning, is now, and ever shall be', the 'shall' means 
 emphatically that a power has ordained this to be. 
 
 Lindley Murray considers the translation of the concluding 
 verse of the 23rd Psalm to be incorrectly rendered. ' Surely 
 goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life, and 
 I will dwell in the house of the Lord for evev ' ; he would 
 make it ' will follow ' and ' shall dwell '. But this is a question 
 of meaning. As now rendered, the first clause is a promise, 
 'goodness and mercy are ordained, to follow me ', which is, not 
 improbably the true meaning. The second clause would imply, 
 ' it is my determination and preference to dwell in the house of 
 the Lord ' ; but if the meaning be, ' I am destined to have 
 bestowed upon me a dwelling in the house of the Lord ', the 
 suitable auxiliary is ' shall '. 
 
 In dependent clauses the construction is somewhat compli- 
 cated. In a sentence with two co-ordinate parts, like the 
 
USES OF 'SHALL' AND 'WILL'. 173 
 
 following, the usage is plain : ' I will be there at six o'clock, 
 when it will be light ' ; this means, ' I resolve to be there at 
 six, and at that time it will be light '. But if the second clause 
 Ls a condition of the first, the case is altered : ' I will be there 
 when it shall be light ' ; ' when ' here stands for ' whenever ', 
 and the fact of its being light is no longer an assertion of 
 futurity, but of eventuality ; in the event of its being light, 
 or when the course of things brings about that circumstance. 
 In the sentence, ' how heavy their punishment will be who will 
 at iiny time resist', there is a meaning distinct from what 
 would have been given by ' who shall at any time resist '. The 
 first supposes a definite, case of resistance ; there are actual per- 
 sons resolved upon resisting, and their punishment will be 
 heavy. The second is a mere supposition or contingency ; ' if it 
 should arise that any persons are found to resist '. (Sir F. 
 Head, on Shall and mil). 
 
 The following examples are given in Connon's Grammar as 
 incorrect, but they may all be defended : * An extract from Mr. 
 Hallam shall close the present section and introduce the next. ' 
 ' Here, then, the present introductory course of lectures shall 
 close. ' ' Theocritus, in an epigram, which shall be cited in the 
 next note, dedicates myrtles to Apollo.' These may all be 
 interpreted as promises or pledges on the part of the authors to 
 do a certain thing, and for this the expression in the third 
 person is ' shall '. ' I hereby give assurance that the present 
 course shall close ', is perfectly consistent with the meaning of 
 'shall'. 'Will' might have been used in those cases, and 
 then we should have interpreted the speaker as expressing only 
 the mere fact of futurity. The following is more questionable": 
 ' Now, in an inquiry into the credibility of history, the first 
 question which we will consider is '. Here ' will ' is not 
 absolutely wrong, but ' shall ' would have been preferable, 
 because the writer is supposed to be committed by his subject 
 to a certain course. This is one of the doubtful situations 
 where either usage can be justified. 
 
 ' I will (my resolution) give them an everln sting name, that 
 shall (my controlling power) not to be cut off'.' 
 
 4 Every place whereon the soles of your feet shall (eventuality) 
 tread shall (promise of the speaker, who controls the event) be 
 yours. ' 
 
 ' Nay, but we will (our resolution) have a king over us.' 
 
 ' Accidents will happen ' : a personification of accidents, as if 
 they were determined to happen, and consequently do happen. 
 This form has largely the force of the present indefinite tense. 
 
 (Additional illustrations may be found in the Companion to 
 the. Higher Grammar, pp. 179-184.) 
 
174 
 
 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 27. Would and should follow the rules of < shall' 
 and ' will ' when employed in parallel circumstances : 
 ' I should ', ' you would ', * he would ', express con- 
 tingent futurity; 'I would', 'you would', 'he 
 would', signify the past or recorded determina- 
 tion of the subject ; ' I should ', ' you should ', 'he 
 should', express that the subject is controlled 
 by some other power. 
 
 As a past future is a contradiction, the form 'I should' is 
 taken to express a future that is doubtful, conditional, or merely 
 supposed. If we were discussing an arrangement that is as yet 
 undetermined one way or other, it would be admissible to say 
 ' F should take part ', ' you would ', ' they would '. When 
 actually fixed and settled, the language becomes ' I shall ', ' you 
 will ', ' they will '. This mode of converting future verbs into 
 forms for contingency is not uncommon. The French modify 
 ' irai ' (I shall go) by a slight addition into ' irais' (I should go), 
 called the conditional mood. 
 
 The same errors are committed with ' would ' and ' should ' 
 as with ' shall ' and ' will '. When one is under influence from 
 without, ' I would ' is improper ; it is wrong to say ' 1 would 
 be surprised ', ' I would be obliged ', ' I would be under the 
 necessity ', ' I would be delighted ' ; in none of these cases is the 
 effect dependent on the speaker's will. The correct expression 
 is, ' I should be surprised ', &c. 
 
 As regards determination, ' would ' exactly tallies with * will '. 
 It expresses past, or recorded determination. ' I would go ' is a 
 record of my resolution on some past occasion. So ' you would 
 go ', ' they would go ', in like manner record that ' you ' or ' they ' 
 had in a certain past instance the resolution to go. 
 
 But when the determination proceeds from a power external 
 to the subject, ' should' comes in as a matter of course : ' I said 
 you. and they should go ' = 'it was my will that you were to go '. 
 
 28. When past time is not involved, ' I would ' is 
 contingent determination; 'I should' means 
 duty, obligation, or being under the influence 
 of events. * I would do it if I were you ' ; 'I 
 should do it ' (it is my duty to do it). So with ' you 
 should ', ' they should ', obligation is implied. 
 
 29. The Future Subjunctive is 'I should', 
 
USES OF 'SHOULD' AND * WOULD*. 175 
 
 ' them should ', ' he should,' &c. : ' if I, you, he, should 
 find what you wish '. 
 
 In dependent statements there are necessarily two clauses. 
 The one states what is conditional, the other states the con- 
 dition, and is introduced by one of the conjunctions of condi- 
 tion, 'if, 'though', 'unless,' &c. The condition is in the 
 subjunctive mood ; the conditioned statement is variously 
 expressed. ' If he should fail, I should have to make it good,' 
 or, ' I shall have to make it good ; ' or 'I will ', or ' would, 
 make it good '. 
 
 The following is an error (if a mere assumption with regard 
 to the future be intended, without any sense of wish or desire) : 
 'if I would declare them, and speak of them, they are more 
 than can be numbered '. In the sentence, ' if I should declare 
 them, and speak of them, they should be more than I am able 
 to express ', the first is right, the second is wrong, as being a 
 case of mere contingent futurity, without obligation. The sense 
 of 'should' is, 'they ought to be more than I am able to express'. 
 
 Further examples of ' Would ' and ' Should '. ' "Were he more 
 diligent, he would be more successful ', not ' should '. ' Were 
 he to do such, a thing in England, he would be hanged ', ex- 
 presses a contingent future consequence ; but ' should be hanged ' 
 means that he would deserve to be hanged, owing to some aggra- 
 vation connected with the performance of the act in England. 
 ' This man was taken of the Jews, and should have been killed 
 of them ' ; this conveys to our ears the meaning that he ought 
 to have been killed. (Harrison). 
 
 It is to be remarked that ' should ' and 'would ' are, in many 
 instances, softened forms of ' shall ' and ' will '. ' I should 
 be very much surprised ' may refer to an actual future, and is 
 an indirect and elliptical way of saying ' I shall be very much 
 surprised '. Both ' it should seem ' and 'it would seem ' are 
 modestly used for ' it seems '. In such a sentence as the fol- 
 lowing also, ' should ' is used as an expression of diffidence : 
 ' I have so much confidence in the sagacity of the Eomans 
 within the somewhat narrow sphere of their thoughts, that I 
 should be cautious in criticising their military and diplomatic 
 administration ' ; that is, I am disposed to be cautious, I prefer 
 to be cautious. If the writer had been more confident and 
 dogmatic, he would have used an indicative form, ' 1 am ' or 
 ' shall be cautious '. In Shakspeare we have ' What should be 
 in that Csesar ? ' for ' what is there ? ' In other words, ' I should 
 be glad to know, I wonder what there is in that Ciesar ? ' 
 
 (For additional illustrations, see the Companion to the Higher 
 Gh-ammar, pp. 185-197.) 
 
176 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 30. In Interrogation, { would you ? ' 
 
 'should he?' inquire what is the determination of 
 of the person addressed. l Should you?' is con- 
 tingent future (except when for ' ought you?'); ' would 
 I \ ' is wholly inadmissible. ' Would he ? ' asks infor- 
 mation as to the probable intentions of the 
 person spoken of: ' do you think he would go I 1 
 
 These are in exact accordance with the usage of ' will ' and 
 ' shall ' in interrogation. 
 
 31. To Do. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. 
 
 Do. Did. Done. 
 
 Present Tense. I do; thou doest, or dost; he does, doeth, 
 or doth ; we, you, they do. 
 
 Past Tense, I did, thou didst, he, &c., did. 
 Imperfect Participle. Doing. 
 
 ' Do ' is a tense auxiliary in such cases as ' thou dost 
 
 prefer (=preferrest) above all temples the upright heart and 
 pure ', ' as if they did rejoice (=rejoiced) o'er a young earth- 
 quake's birth ' ; and especially in inversions : ' not for those 
 . . . do I repent or change ' ; ' never did any man labour 
 more zealously '. 
 
 Thus, it is the form of interrogation (an inversion of order) : 
 * do you write ? ' ' Did ye not hear it ? ' 
 
 It is also the negative form : 'you do not write'; 'I did 
 not hear it'. This must be considered the usual and proper 
 form of negation. ' You write not ', 'I heard it not ', were 
 common formerly, but now occur only in poetry, and in some 
 rare instances where they are thought to be emphatic. ' I know 
 not' should be ' I do not know'. 'Some believed, and some 
 believed not', in modern rendering is 'Some believed, and 
 some did not (believe) '. 
 
 Besides these uses as an auxiliary of tense, ' do ' makes the 
 emphatic form of the verb ; as ' I do love ', ' he did write '. 
 ' Perdition catch my soul, but I do love thee. ' 
 
 ' Do ' has a form peculiar to itself; it can be put as a sub- 
 stitute for other verbs (except ' be ') : ' he speaks as well as 
 you do ' (for ' speak ') : ' he spoke better than you could have 
 done (spoken) ' ; 'he loves not plays, as thou dost'. This cor- 
 responds with the power of the pronoun to act as a substitute 
 for the noun, and we might therefore call ' do ' the pro-verb. 
 
<DO', 'MAY', 'CAN'. 177 
 
 32. May and Can 
 
 May. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Sing. 1. May I Plur. I. May 
 
 2. May(e)st 2. May 
 
 3. May. | 3. May. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Sing. 1. Might I Plur. 1. Might 
 
 2. Might(e)st 2. Might 
 
 3. Might. I 3. Might. 
 
 'May', O.E. mceg, later mcei. 'Might', O.E. meahte, mihte. 
 The infin. was magan or mugan, and the meaning in O.E. wai 
 ' can ', ' be able '. 
 
 Can. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. 1. Can I Plur. 1. Can 
 
 2. Canst 2. Can 
 
 3. Can. 3. Can. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Sing. 1. Could I P/w. 1. Could 
 
 2. Couldst 2. Could 
 
 3. Could. I 3. Could. 
 
 ' Can ' originally = ' know ' ; hence ' am able '. The infin. 
 was ' cunnan '. 
 
 'Could', O.E. cuthe (Goth. Tcuntha}, couthe, coude, has been 
 assimilated in spelling to ' should ' and ' would ', by the intru- 
 sion of I. 
 
 The imperfect participle remains in * cunning ' ; literally 
 ' knowing '. The past participle cuth, lit. * known ', remains in 
 'uncouth' (O.E. uncuth), originally =' unknown ', hence 
 ' strange ', * unshapely ', ' awkward '. 
 
 1 May ' and ' Can ' are the verbs .employed to make the so- 
 called potential mood. Their discrimination is important, as 
 errors" are sometimes committed in using them. 
 
 33. May now expresses permission ; Can, 
 power. 'I may go ' is ' I am permitted to go ' ; 'I 
 can walk ', ' I am physically able to walk ' ; ' I can 
 solve that question ', ' I have the ability or skill requi- 
 site to solve that question '. 
 
 12 
 
178 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 This difference somewhat resembles the distinction of ' shall ' 
 and ' will '. It is the contrast between the operation of a 
 power without or above, and a power inhering in the individual. 
 In giving or asking permission we must use ' may ' : ' you m^y 
 go ', ' may I come ? ' The Scotch erroneously use ' can ' for this 
 meaning. In giving permission they often say ' you can go ' ; 
 and in asking permission, ' can I see it ? ' A porter at a gate, on 
 being applied to for liberty to enter, will say ' I cannot ', when 
 he means that he is forbidden by his instructions, and is not 
 free to admit any one : the real meaning of * I cannot ' would 
 be, that he is physically unable to open the gate. * Can I cross 
 the field ? ' means ' is there a way ? ' ' may I cross the field ? ' 
 is ' am I allowed to cross ? is there a right of way ? ' 'I cannot 
 lift that weight ', ' I cannot play the flute ', * I cannot see the 
 hills ', all imply incapability on the part of the individual. 
 ' lie may not ' would mean that, though he may have the capa- 
 bility to do these things, he is forbidden by some authority. 
 
 In Lord Chatham's celebrated utterance ' The Englishman's 
 house is his castle ; every wind may enter it, but the king cannot, 
 the king dare not enter ' ' cannot ' is used for * may not ' by a 
 .figure of speech ; so secure is the Englishman in this inviola- 
 bility of his house, that the king is as it were physically unable 
 to pass his threshold. 
 
 34. May also means possibility or conces- 
 sion ; as ' he may come yet ' ; ' that may be so, but I 
 doubt it ' ; * you may recover your loss '. 
 
 This is merely a peculiar case of the principal meaning : it is, 
 as it were, permission in the midst of difficulties. 
 
 In the phrase 'Jie hastens that he may be in time ', we have 
 an example of another application of the word, still under the 
 original idea ; ' that it be in his power that he be able to be in 
 time '. 
 
 35. Placed before its subject, may expresses a 
 wish : ' may you be happy '. 
 
 There is here a shortening, or ellipsis, of a roundabout ex- 
 pression : ' it is my wish that you may be happy, or that you 
 le able to be happy *. 
 
 36. Could, besides being the past of ' can ' (' he 
 eould not go yesterday'), expresses present power 
 conditionally ; ' he could go to-day if he would '. 
 
 Might expresses past permission as reported 
 
* COULD', 'MIGHT', 'MUST', 'OUGHT', 'GO'. 179 
 
 in the present; 'he told me that I might go'. 
 More rarely it expresses past permission simply : 
 ' I might not go ', for ' I was not alloioed to go '. 
 
 37. Must is invariable for tense, number, person. 
 The O.E. present was mot ; past, moste. ' Must ' now stands 
 
 for present as well as for past. The inflexions are all gone. 
 
 * Mot ' meant 'may ', 'can ', * be allowed ', 'have opportunity'. 
 'Not so happy as mote happy be' (Spenser, Faery Queene, I. ix.): 
 ' mote ' =' might ', or ' could '. ' Must ' now means necessity, 
 in various forms. (1) Compulsion from without: 'he must 
 work '. (2) Uncontrollable desire, amounting almost to physical 
 necessity : ' he must have society '. (3) Certainty, or necessary 
 inference, something that we can count on : 'it must be so ; 
 Plato, thou reasonest well '. 
 
 38. Ought signifies moral obligation, duty : 
 
 ' you ought to go ' is ' it is your duty to go '. 
 
 When past time is to be expressed ' ought ' is joined to a 
 perfect infinitive : ' you ought, to have gone ', is ' it was your 
 duty to go '. 
 
 * Ought ', though now used as a present, is really the past 
 tense of the verb ' owe ', in its old sense of ' have ', ' possess '. 
 Compare 'that sweet sleep which thou oivedst (=hadst) yester- 
 day ' (Shak., Oth. iii. 3) ; 'the disposition that I owe (= have, 
 possess') (Shak., Macb. iii. 4.). Spenser uses ' ought ' = 
 ' owned ', ' possessed '. Thus, ' you ought to go ' may be com- 
 pared with ' you have to go '. 
 
 ' Owe ' ='to be in debt ', is a regular weak verb, with past 
 tense and past part. , 'owed '. 
 
 39. Go. 
 
 Pres. Tense. I go, thou goest, he goes ; we, &c., go. 
 Past Tense. I went, thou wentest, he, &c., went. 
 Past Participle. Gone. 
 
 By employing the imperfect participle of this verb as an 
 auxiliary, we obtain a series of forms for expressing an intention 
 about to be executed ; as ' I am going to write ', * I have been 
 going to wrijte ', ' I was going to write ', ' I had been going to . 
 write ', ' I shall be going to write ', ' I shall have been going to 
 write,' &c. Almost the very same meaning is stated by 
 1 about ' : ' I am about to write '. 
 
180 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 40. The following is a Complete Scheme of the 
 
 Verb as made up by means of the various auxiliaries : 
 
 Conjugation of an Active Verb. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Indefinite. -I write, thou writest, he writesj we, you, they 
 write. 
 
 Progressive. I am, thou art, he is, we, you, they are 
 writing. 
 
 Perfect. I have, thou hast, &c. written. 
 
 Continuous. I have, thou hast, &c. been writing. 
 Past. 
 
 Indefinite. I wrote, thou wrotest, he, we, you, they wrote. 
 
 Progressive. I was, thou wast, he was, we, you, they were 
 writing. 
 
 Perfect. I had, thou hadst, &c. written. 
 
 Continuous. I had, thou hadst, &c. been writing. 
 Future. 
 
 Indefinite. I shall, thou wilt, he will, we shall, you will, 
 they will write. 
 
 Progressive. I shall, thou wilt, he will, we shall, you will, 
 they will be writing. 
 
 Perfect. I shall, thou wilt, he will, &c. have written. 
 
 Continuous. I shall, thou wilt, he will, &c. have been 
 writing. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Indefinite. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they write. 
 Progressive. I, thou, he, we, you, they be writing. 
 Perfect. I, thou, he, we, you, they have written. 
 Continuous. I, thou, he, we, you, they have been writing. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Indefinite. I, thou, he, we, you, they wrote. 
 Progressive. I, thou, he, we, you, they were writing. 
 Perfect. I, thou, he, we, you, they had written. 
 Continuous. I, thou, he, we, you, they had been writing. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Indefinite. I, thou, he, we, you, they should write. 
 Progressive. I, thou, he, we, you, they should be writing. 
 Perfect. I, thou, he, we, you, they should have written. 
 Continuous. I, thou, he, we, you, they should have been 
 writing. 
 
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE CONJUGATION. 181 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 
 Write. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD AND GERUND. 
 
 Indefinite. (To) write ; writing. 
 Progressive. (To) be writing. 
 Perfect. (Yd) have written. 
 Continuous. (To) have been writing. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Indefinite. "Writing. Perfect. Having written. 
 
 Continuous. Having been writing. 
 
 Conjugation of a Passive Verb. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Indefinite. I am, thou art, he is, &c. loved. 
 Progressive. I am, thou art, he is, &c. being loved. 
 Perfect. I have, thou hast, he has, &c. been loved. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Indefinite. I was, thou wast, he was, &c. loved. 
 Progressive. I was, thou wast, he was, &c. being loved. 
 Perfect. I had, thou hadst, he had, &c. been loved. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Indefinite. I shall, thou wilt, he will, we shall, &c. be loved. 
 Perfect. I shall, thou wilt, he will, &c. have been loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Indefinite. I, thou, he, &c. be loved. 
 Perfect. I, thou, he, &c. have been loved. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Indefinite. I, thou, he, &c. were loved. 
 Progressive. I, thou, &c. were being loved. 
 Perfect. I had, &c. been loved. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Indefinite. 1, thou, &c. should be loved. 
 Perfect. I, &c. should have been loved. 
 
182 INFLEXION OP VERBS. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 Present. 
 Be loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD AND GERUND. 
 
 Indefinite. -(To) be loved. Perfect. (To) have been loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Indefinite. Loved, or Being loved. Perfect. Having been loved. 
 
 Meanings of the Moods. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 41. In Subordinate Clauses. In a Clause 
 expressing a condition, and introduced by a Con- 
 junction of condition, the Verb is sometimes, but 
 not always, in the Subjunctive Mood : 'if I be 
 
 able ', ' if I were strong enough ', ' if thou should come '. 
 
 The subjunctive inflexions have been wholly lost. The sense 
 that something is wanting appears to have led many writers to 
 use indicative forms where the subjunctive might be expected. 
 The tendency appears strongest in the case of ' wert ', which is 
 now used as indicative (for ' wast ') only in poetical or elevated 
 language. 
 
 The following is the rule given for the use of the subjunctive 
 mood : 
 
 42. When in a Conditional Clause it is 
 intended to express Doubt or Denial, use the 
 Subjunctive Mood.* * If I were sure of what you 
 tell me, I would go.' 
 
 When the conditional clause is affirmative and certain, the 
 verb is indicative : ' if that is the case ' (as you now tell me, 
 and I believe) ' I can understand you '. This is equivalent to a 
 clause of assumption, or supposition : ' that being the case ', 
 ' inasmuch as that is the case ', &c. 
 
 As futurity is by its nature uncertain, the subjunctive is 
 extensively used for future conditionally : ' if it rain, we 
 shall not be able to go ' ; ' if I be well ' ; ' if he come shortly ' ; 
 * if thou return at all in peace ' ; ' though he slay me, yet will 
 I trust in him '. These events are all in the uncertain future, 
 and are put in the subjunctive, t 
 
 * Dr. Angus on the English Tongue, art. 527. 
 
 t In the following passages, the indicative mood would be more suit- 
 able than the Bubjunctive: 'If thou be the Son of God, command that 
 
MEANINGS OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 183 
 
 A future result or consequence is expressed by thel 
 
 subjunctive in such instances as these : ' I will wait till he 
 return '; ' no fear lest dinner cool ' ; ( thou shalt stone him with 
 stones, that he die '; ( take heed lest at any time your hearts be 
 oyercharged with surfeiting '. 
 
 Uncertainty as to a past event may arise from our 
 
 own ignorance, in which case the subjunctive is properly 
 employed, and serves the useful purpose of distinguishing our 
 ignorance from our knowledge. ' If any of my readers has 
 looked with so little attention upon the world around him ' ; 
 this would mean * as I know that they have '. The meaning 
 intended is probably ' as I do not know whether they have 
 or not ', and therefore the subjunctive ' have ' is pre- 
 ferable. ' If ignorance is bliss ', which I (ironically) admit. 
 Had Pope been speaking seriously, he would have said ' if 
 ignorance be bliss ', he himself dissenting from the proposition. 
 
 A wish contrary to the fact takes the subjunctive : I 
 wish he were here ' (which he is not). 
 An intention not yet carried out is also subjunctive : 
 
 * the sentence is that you be imprisoned '. 
 
 The only correct form of the future subjunctive is ' if I 
 should '. We may say ' I do not know whether or not I shall 
 come ' ; but ' if I shall come ', expressing a condition, is not an 
 English construction * If he will ' has a real meaning, as being 
 the present subjunctive of the verb * will ' : * if he be willing ', 
 
 * if he have the will '. It is in accordance with good usage to 
 express a future subjunctive meaning by a present tense ; but 
 in that case the form must be strictly subjunctive, and not 
 indicative. ' If any member absents himself, he shall forfeit a 
 penn3 T for the use of the club ' ; this ought to be either * absent', 
 or ' should absent '. ' If thou neglectest, or doest unwillingly, 
 what I command thee, I will rack thee with old cramps ' ; better, 
 
 * if thou neglect, or do unwillingly ', or 'if thou should neglect'. 
 The indicative would be justified by the speaker's belief that 
 the supposition is sure to turn out to be the fact. 
 
 these stones be made bread* ; c if thou be the Son of God, come down 
 from the cross '. For although the address was not sincere on the part 
 of the speakers, they really meant to make the supposition or to grant 
 that he was the Son of God ; 'seeing that thou art the Son of God'. 
 Likewise in the following : ' Now if Christ be preached, that He rose from 
 the dead, how say some among you that there is no resurrection from the 
 dead?' The meaning is 'seeing now that Christ is preached '. In the con- 
 tinuation, the conditional clauses are of a different character, and ' be ' is 
 appropriate : ' But if there be no resurrection from the dead, then is 
 Christ not risen. And if Christ be not risen, then is our preaching 
 vain, and your faith is also vain". Again, ' if thou bring thy gift to the 
 altar, and there remembered, &c." Consistency and correctness r^equirq. 
 'remember '.~Hairibon on the English Language, p. 267. 
 
184 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 43. The Past Subjunctive may imply denial ; aa 
 'if the book were in the library (as it is not), it 
 should be at your service '. 
 
 1 If the book be in the library ', means, * I do not know 
 whether it be or not '. We have thus the power of discrimi- 
 nating three different suppositions. 'If the book is in the 
 library ' (as I know it is) ; 'if it be ' (I am uncertain) ; ' if it 
 were ' (as I know it is not). So, ' if it rains ', ' if it rain ', ' if 
 it rained '. ' Nay, and the villains march wide between the 
 legs, as if they had gyves on ', implying that they had not. 
 
 The same power of the past tense is exemplified in 'if I 
 could, I would ', which means, ' I cannot ' j whereas, ' if I can, 
 I will ', means ' I do not know '. 
 
 44. The Past Subjunctive may be expressed by 
 an inversion : * had I the power ', * were I as I have 
 been '. 
 
 45. In Principal Clauses. The principal 
 clause in a conditional statement also takes 
 the Subjunctive form when it refers to what is 
 future and contingent, and when it refers to wbat 
 is past and uncertain, or denied. 'If he should 
 try, he would succeed j ' ' if I had seen him, I should 
 have asked him '. 
 
 The usual forms of the subjunctive in the principal clause, 
 are ' would ', ' should ', ' would have ', ' should have ' ; and it 
 is to be noted that in this application the second persons take 
 the inflexional ending of the indicative : ' shouldst ', ' \vouldst '. 
 
 ' If 'twere done, when 'tis done, then 'twere (would be) well 
 It were (should be) done quickly.' 
 
 The English idiom appears sometimes to permit the use of an 
 indicative where \ve should expect a subjunctive form. ' Many 
 acts, that had been othenvi.se blameable, were employed ' ; 
 ' I had fainted, unless I had believed ', &c. 
 
 ' Which else lie furled and shrouded in the soul' 
 
 In ' else ' there is implied a conditional clause that would 
 suit 'lie' ; or the prose/it maybe regarded as a more vivid 
 form of expression. ' Had ' may be indicative ; just as we some- 
 times find pluperfect indicative for pluperfect subjunctive in the 
 same circumstances in Latin. \Ve may refer it to the general 
 tendency, as already seen in the uses of ' could ', ' would ', 
 'should', &c. t to express conditionally by a past tense; or 
 
THE PRESENT INDEFINITE SENSE. 185 
 
 the indicative may be used as a more direct and vivid mode. 
 ' Had ' may be subjunctive ; ' I had fainted ' is, in construction, 
 analogous to ' I should have fainted ' ; the word for futurity, 
 ' shall ', not being necessary to the sense, is withdrawn, and its 
 past inflexion transferred to ' have '. Compare Germ, wiirde 
 haben and hdtte. 
 
 THE INFINITIVE. 
 
 4-6. The perfect form of the infinitive, 'to have 
 written', is often erroneously used for the simple 
 or indefinite form, * to write '. 
 
 ' I intended to have written ' should be ' I intended to write '. 
 The perfect infinitive is properly used only when the action is 
 completed previous to the date of the governing verb ; as ' I am 
 glad to have met you '. 
 
 'It is ' should be followed by the infinitive with ' to ', and 
 not by the infinitive in * ing '. ' It is easy distinguishing ' ought 
 to be ' it is easy to distinguish '. 
 
 Meanings of the Tenses. 
 
 THE PRESENT INDEFINITE. 
 
 4-7. The principal use of the Present Indefinite is 
 to express what is true at ali times: 'the sun 
 gives light ' \ ' twice two is four ' ; * man is mortal ' ; 
 ' conscience makes cowards of us all '. 
 
 Hence a more suitable name would be the Universal tense. 
 It expresses present time only as representing all time. The 
 permanent arrangements and laws of nature, the peculiarities, 
 habits, and propensities of living beings, and whatever is con- 
 stant, regular, and uniform, have to be represented by the 
 present indefinite. 
 
 ' The mountains look on Marathon, 
 And Marathon looks on the sea.' ^ 4,0^, C,c4l<.$ 
 
 So in expressing men's characters and habitual occupations ; 
 as ' he works hard '; 'he superintends the harbour '; ' he sings a 
 good song '; 'he has a good name '. 
 
 48. It is only by a special Adverb, or by the 
 context, that we can confine this tense to mean 
 a present act solely: 'I now charge this jar'; 
 1 at present I do duty for another person '; ' now tread 
 we a measure, said young Lochinvar '. 
 
186 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 Frequently we know from the context that the affirmation is 
 for the present only. When any one says ' the door is open ', 
 we understand that it is not always open, but is so at present. 
 ' The wind blows hard ', ' we are late ', ' the stranger spzaks to 
 you ', : Mr. Speaker is in the chair ', are declarations known from 
 the circumstances to be strictly present, as opposed to past and 
 future. 
 
 49. This Tense has sometimes a future mean- 
 ing; as 'Duncan comes here to-niyht ;'; 'I go to my 
 
 father '. 
 
 It has already been remarked that the present was the usual 
 expression of future time in 0. E., there being no future in- 
 flexion. 
 
 In the first example above, the futurity is definitely expressed 
 by the adverb ' to-night '. In the second example, the meaning 
 of the verb points to the future ; the action 'I go ' is a con- 
 tinuing action. 
 
 Also in such a phrase as ' how is the government to be carried 
 on ? ' futurity is involved in the gerund form ' to be carried on '. 
 
 We have seen that a future subjunctive is expressed by a 
 present tense. 
 
 There is a rhetorical employment of the tense known as the 
 historic present. This consists in describing past events as if 
 the narrator saw them passing before his eyes : 
 
 ' Fierce as he moves, his silver shafts resound.' 
 
 THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE, IMPERFECT, OR INCOMPLETE. 
 
 50. The Progressive form, 'I am writing', 
 expresses the continuance of the action over 
 some time. It is, moreover, a true or strict present 
 teiise. 
 
 This pecxiliarly English form enables us both to confine an 
 action or a fact to the present, instead of extending it over all 
 time, and to intimate that the agent is now engrossed, and is 
 barred from other occupation. Even when the indefinite tense 
 is limited by the context to a present operation, it does not 
 mean the same as the progressive. * He writes ' merely states the 
 action that he is engaged in. and implies that he does not read, 
 or walk, or talk, or sit idle. ' He is writing ' indicates that he 
 is now fully occupied, and is not available for any other work. 
 Hence, in describing immediate occupation, this tense is used : 
 ' he is balancing his books'; 'he is revising his mathematics'; 
 ' he is pursuing his investigations '; ' the boys arc playing '. 
 
THE PROGRESSIVE TENSES. 187 
 
 THE PAST TENSES. 
 
 51. The Past Indefinite states something that 
 was formerly true, but is no longer so: 'at 
 
 Athens the poets sang, and the sages taught ' ; * there 
 my young footsteps in infancy wandered ' ; ' he died, 
 no one knew how '. 
 
 The very nature of this tense implies limitation as compared 
 with the present. It may indicate various degrees of extent of 
 time. ' In the geological ages, the air had more carbon ', may 
 apply to a period of millions of years ; it is a law of nature 
 applicable to a period of great duration, but now passed. Or it 
 may denote a single act of the least possible extent of time : 
 ' the lightning flashed ', ' the tree was shivered '. The tense 
 does not indicate how far back in the past^the event took place. 
 
 52. The Past Progressive, like the Present, 
 affirms continuance: 'I was musing 1 ; 'he was 
 speaking '; ' the sun was shining '. 
 
 The progressive tenses, both present and past, are often 
 erroneously used for the indefinite. When the object is 
 
 merely to specify an action, and not to point out the fact of its 
 continuing for some time, the indefinite forms are to be used : 
 ' I walk ' ; ' he rides ' ; ' you go in the boat ' ; ' I read ' ; ' he 
 sketched ' ; ' they stood by '. In all these expressions nothing 
 further is intended than to assign to each party concerned their 
 several actions : it is not meant to say whether the actions are 
 of longer or shorter continuance. But, ' I am walking ', ' I 
 was riding ', * they were gazing at the scene ', signify that the 
 action lasted for some time, and constituted the occupation of 
 the persons concerned. When, therefore, without wishing to 
 signify continuance or occupation, we employ a progressive 
 tense, we violate the best English usage. The expressions, 
 1 the master is calling you ', ' he is speaking to you ', ' were you 
 ringing ? ' 'I was supposing ', ' he is not intending ', are 
 Scotticisms for ' the master calls ', ' he speaks to you ', ' did you 
 ring ? ' ' I supposed ', ' he does not intend '. ' I talked yesterday 
 with a foreigner ', ' I saw in the papers ', ' I heard in the morn- 
 ing ', are more in accordance with idiom than would be the 
 progressive form in those instances, if we suppose no stress laid 
 OH the continuance of the action. ' He leaves town to-morrow ', 
 is better than ' he is leaving town to-morrow '. ' He is leaving 
 for India ', may be justified on the ground that he is to be 
 occupied for some time with the preparations implied in so 
 distant a migration. 
 
188 INFLEXION OP VERBS. 
 
 THE PERFECT TENSES. 
 
 53. The Present Perfect expresses (I) an 
 action just finished, (2) an action done in 
 a space of time not yet exhausted, (3) some- 
 thing whose consequences still remain. (1.) 
 
 ' I have sent the letter ' ; ' the messenger has come '. 
 (2.) ' It has rained all the week (up to this time) ' ; 
 ' we have seen great events this year '. (3.) * I have been 
 a great sinner ' ; meaning I was so in my youth, and 
 now bear the consequences. 
 
 The perfect, by expressing that an action is finished or 
 complete, indicates that it is past ; but this tense should not be 
 used to express past time without some of the accompaniments 
 above described. ' This mode of expression has been formerly 
 very much admired ', should be ' was '. 
 
 From expressing the finishing of an action, the perfect has 
 been used to signify the state of vacuity that follows : ' he has 
 been ' = ' he is no more ' ; * he is dead ' (Lat. vizit, ' he lias 
 lived '). ' 1 have been young ', is '1 am now old '. 
 
 The perfect of continued action, the Perfect Progressive 
 or Continuous. ' I have been working ', is correctly understood 
 by combining the meaning of a progressive and of a perfect 
 tense. It is an action expressed as going on up to the present 
 time. 
 
 The so-called present intentional, ' I am going (or about) to 
 write ', is the exact opposite of the perfect. The one is an 
 action just finished, the other an action just commencing. 
 
 THE PROGRESSIVE TENSES OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 54. In the Passive Voice, the Progressive 
 Tenses are, ' I am being loved ', ' I was being loved ', 
 ' (if) I were being loved '. These forms are of recent 
 introduction. 
 
 The English verb has no strictly imperfect participle passive. 
 ' Loved ' is past and indefinite, depending for its precise shade of 
 time meaning upon the principal verb it is joined in construction 
 with. Hence, although we can constitute a progressive tense 
 in the active voice, by the active participle and the verb ' be ', 
 'he is living ', we have no corresponding passive form : ' am 
 loved ' makes the indefinite form. To try to give ' loved ' the 
 desired meaning of continuance, the imperfect or incomplete 
 ' being ' has been prefixed : ' being loved ', = ' existing in the 
 
ACTIVE FORMS APPARENTLY IN PASSIVE SENSE. 189 
 
 loved state or condition ', is thus an indefinite participle that 
 may easily be interpreted in the sense of a continuing action. 
 The form, indeed, is objectionable, partly as being cumbrous, 
 and partly because it is very often used in a purely past mean- 
 ing without reference to continuance. ' Napoleon, being 
 defeated at Waterloo, surrendered to the English ' is the same 
 as ' Napoleon was defeated and surrendered '. 
 
 Formerly the meaning was very often given by an apparent 
 use of the active form in the passive sense : ' the house is 
 building ' for ' the house is being built '. But the transferred 
 application of the active form is not real. ' The house is 
 building ' is a degenerate form of ' the house is a-buUdina ' ; 
 the original expression of which is seen fully in examples like 
 ' forty and six years was this temple in building '. ' Building ', 
 then, is originally a verbal noun ; but it has come to have the 
 force of an active participle used in the passive or intransitive 
 sense. 
 
 It is very seldom that the old usage causes any ambiguity or 
 hesitation, as numberless examples would show. Johnson says 
 'my Lives are reprinting '. We constantly say 'the house is 
 finishing ', ' the declaration was reading ', ' the debt is owing ', 
 * the paper is missing ', ' five pounds is wanting ', ' the cows are 
 milking', 'the drums are beating', 'the cannon are firing', 
 ' the troops are arming '. 
 
 Similar instances of the employment of the active form for 
 the general expression of the action of the verb instances where 
 the verb is intransitive, and might in one view have been 
 expected to become passive are very common. We have them 
 in such gerund phrases as ' a house to let ',* ' hard to understand ' 
 (= hard fer one to understand ; hard, if you want to understand 
 (it), i.e. = hard to be understood), 'good to eat', 'books to 
 sell',* 'he is to blame', ' drinking- water (fit for drinking, or to 
 be drank) ', ' a riding-horse '. Milton says, * that cannot but 
 by annihilating die '. 
 
 55. Intransitive verbs have no passive 
 voice. 
 
 There is the appearance of a passive form in examples like 
 ' is come ', ' was arrived '. But this construction is merely the 
 remains of the regular formation of the perfect tense of intran- 
 sitives by help of the auxiliary 'be'. Compare the German 
 usage. 'Have' originally belongs to the transitive verbs, but 
 has improperly been transferred to the intransitives also. We 
 say ' has come ' as well as ' is come '. It would seem advan- 
 
 * These, and not ' a house to b let ', ' to be told ', are the genuine 
 English forms. 
 
190 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 tageous to utilise the two forms for different meanings. ' Has 
 come ' appears more suitable to the case of an active or personal 
 subject : ' John has come' ; the other to a passive or inanimate 
 subject: ' the box is come'. Hence, for 'the noble Brutus is 
 ascended ', we should now prefer * has ascended '. ' He way (had) 
 entered into the connexion ' is a Scotticism. 
 
 The Strong Conjugation. 
 
 56. The Old or Strong Verbs form their 
 past tense by modifying the vowel of the 
 present and their past participle ends (or 
 ended) in -n (-en). 
 
 We have already seen ( 8) that the modification of the root 
 vowel arose in the first instance as a result of reduplication. 
 The -n ending of the participle is often dropt. 
 
 The following classification proceeds according to the living 
 forms of the Past Tense and of the Past Participle, not according 
 to the original inflexions. 
 
 57. 1. Some strong verbs change the vowel of 
 the Present for the Past Tense and leave it 
 unchanged in the Past Participle. 
 
 (1) Past Vowel, a : 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle, 
 
 e: e: 
 
 eat ate eaten 
 
 I: i: 
 
 give gave given 
 
 u: th 
 
 come came come 
 The compounds ' forgive ', ' become ', ' overcome ' are con- 
 jugated similarly. 
 
 (2) Past Vowel, a : 
 
 i: & *: 
 
 bid "bade bidden, bid 
 
 u : w : 
 
 run ran run 
 
 Forbid ' is conjugated like ' bid '. ' Bade ' (O.E. bced) has a 
 companion form ' bid ' ( 60), adopted from p. part. ' Run ' 
 (O.E. yrne, rinne) originally belongs to the class in 59, 3, 
 (1), begin ',&c. 
 
OLD OR STRONG CONJUGATION. 
 
 191 
 
 ^3) Past Vowel, & : 
 
 o : e o : 
 
 fall fell fallen 
 
 * Befall ' takes the same forms. 
 
 (4) Past Vowel, 6 : 
 
 </: 6 (aw) t: 
 
 see saw seen 
 
 (5) Past Vowel, Ci or yii (-ew) : 
 
 d : d or yd (ew) d : 
 
 slay slew slain 
 
 6: 6: 
 
 blow blew blown 
 
 crow crew crown* 
 
 grow grew grown 
 
 know knew known 
 
 throw threw thrown 
 
 o: o: 
 
 draw drew drawn 
 * There is also the weak form ' crowed '. 
 
 (6) Past Vowel, Q : 
 
 d : ft (oo) d : 
 
 forsake forsook forsaken 
 
 shake shook shaken 
 
 take took taken 
 
 In the 16th and 17th centuries the past forms ' forsook ', 
 ' shook ', ' took ', ' mistook ', were often used for the past parti- 
 ciple. For ' shaken ', the weak form ' shaked ' is also found. 
 
 58. 2. Some strong verbs change the vowel of 
 the Present in the same manner for both 
 Past Tense and Past Participle. 
 
 (1) Vowel & : 
 
 a 
 
 i : lie lay lain 
 
 The past part. ' lien ' was not uncommon in the 16th and 17th 
 centuries. 
 
 (2) Vowel a: 
 
 el Hi 
 
 t : sit sat sat 
 
 spit spat spat 
 
 'Sat', p. part, has been transferred from the past tense to 
 take the place of < sitten ', O.E. seten. ' Sate ', past and p. p., 
 used to be common a short time ago. 
 
192 INFLEXION OP VERBS. 
 
 ' Spat ' is historically weak in the past, and in the past 
 part, has replaced ' spitten '. 
 
 (3) Vowel fc : 
 
 fe fe 
 
 6 : behold beheld beheld 
 
 hold held held 
 
 ' Beholden ' and ' holden ', past part., have given way, except 
 occasionally in special expressions, to the past forms ' beheld ', 
 ' held '. So ' uphold ', ' withhold '. 
 
 (4) Vowel} : 
 
 i i 
 
 i : bite bit bitten, bit 
 
 chide chid chidden, chid 
 
 hide hid hidden, hid 
 
 slide slid slidden, slid 
 
 ' Bite ', ' chide ', and r slide ' were formerly conjugated like 
 'arise ', ' drive ', &c., ( 59, 3 (3)), the past forms being ' bot ', 
 
 chode ' (in Bible), ' slode ' (O.E., bat, cad, slad). ' Bit ' and 
 
 * slid ' have been assimilated to the past participles. ' Chid ' 
 .(O.E. cidde, f chidde) is weak. 'Hid', past, (O.E. hidde), is also 
 weak. 'Rid', 'smit', 'writ', &c., also influenced by the 
 participle, were common past forms in the 16th and 17th 
 centuries. ' Betide ' would seem to belong here, but it is weak 
 throughout. 
 
 (5) Vowel 6 1 
 
 6 6 
 
 d: awake awoke* awoke* 
 
 bear (carry) bore borne 
 
 bear (to bring forth) bore born 
 
 break broke broken 
 
 swear swore sworn 
 
 tear tore torn 
 
 wear wore worn 
 
 </ : cleave (split) clove* cloven* 
 
 freeze froze frozen 
 
 shear shore* shorn* 
 
 speak spoke spoken 
 
 steal stole stolen 
 
 weave wove woven 
 
 i: abide abode abode 
 
 u (oo) : choose chose chosen 
 * There are also the companion weakformg: 'awaked, cleaved, 
 beared'. 
 
THE STRONG CONJUGATION. 193 
 
 - ' Bear ! (to carry) and * bear ' (to bring forth)' are not different, 
 Words, but the same word in different meanings. ' Borne ' and 
 
 * born * are mere varieties of spelling for the difference in 
 application. * Forbear ' and ' overbear ' take, the form ' -borne '. 
 *Bare', 'brake*, 'share', 'spake', 'tare' (0. E. beer, bar; 
 brcec, brae ; sccer, schar ; sprcec, spac ; leer, tar), are older forms 
 of the pa,si. So ' sware ' occurs frequently in the Bible, but 
 the oldest form is swor. * Wear ' had an obsolete form ' ware ' 
 for ' wore ' ; it is a weak verb assimilated to this class of strong 
 verbs. ' Cleave ' (to split) had ' clave ' (0. K deaf] f steal * 
 had O.E r steel, stal, and in Scotch it, still has stal or sta'; ' choose' 
 had also '* chase ' (0. K ceas)~ * Cleave ' (to split) has the weak 
 forms * cleft ' and ' cleaved ' in past and p.p. The weak * cleave* 
 (to clin<* or stick to), O. E. -clifiqn, seems sometimes to be 
 confounded with 'cleave* (it split), taking 'clave' as past in 
 the Bible. 'Freeze* has p.: past 'frozen* (0. E. froren in 
 Spenser, ' frore ' in Milton). Compare ' chosen ' (0. K coren), 
 and 0. E. losen,forlor(c)n, lorn (== lost). ' Awoke 'and ' abode* 
 (for 'awaken* and *abiden') are p.p. derived from past ; and 
 most of the others appear to -have the same usage in the 16th 
 and 17th centuries, though we may also account for it by the 
 dropping of the -n of the p.p. : ' broke ', ' spoke ', &G. 
 
 (6) 
 
 Vowel 
 
 6: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 4'. 
 
 seethe 
 
 
 sod* 
 
 sodden, ! 
 
 sod.* 
 
 e: 
 
 get 
 tread 
 
 
 got 
 trod 
 
 gotten, got. 
 trodden, trod. 
 
 I: 
 
 shine 
 
 
 shone 
 
 shone. 
 
 
 4(oo): 
 
 shoot 
 
 
 shot 
 
 shot 
 
 
 
 * There is also the weak form 
 
 'seethed'. 
 
 
 * Beget ' and ' forget ', like * get '. An older past tense was 
 -gat' (0. E. -geaL). * Shone*, p.p., is the past, superseding 
 O.E. sdnen, sliinen. 
 
 (7) Vowel 6 (ou). 
 
 6 5 
 
 : fight fought fought 
 
 Fought', p.p., has lost the ending. Shak has 'this well- 
 jfoughten field . 
 
 (8) Vowel Q(oo): 
 
 ft ft 
 
 a: stand stood stood 
 
 /Stood', p.p., is a new application of the past. In 0. E. 
 the past part, was standeu. ' Understand ' (wliich had formerly 
 13 
 
194 INFLEXION OP VERBS. 
 
 [p.p. ' understands ', ' understand ', and ' understand^ *) and 
 'withstand' follow the simple verb. The * n ' in 'stand* as 
 ,in ' gang ' (go), ' bring ', &c. ; Lat. findo, fundo, &c. streng. 
 thens the present form ; it is no part of the root. 
 
 (9) Vowel fc : 
 
 ft fc 
 
 d: hang hung* hung* 
 
 i: strike struck struck 
 
 i: dig dug* dug* 
 
 cling clung clung 
 
 fling flung flung 
 
 sling slung slung 
 
 slink slunk slunk 
 
 spin spun spun 
 
 stick ' stuck stuck 
 
 sting ' stung stung 
 
 swing swung swung 
 
 win won won 
 
 wring wrung wrung 
 
 * The parts marked thus (*) have also the weak form. 
 'Hung', past, (0. E. heng), has been transferred to p.p. 
 the weak forms are more common for the sense of ' strangle '. 
 'Struck', 0. E. and Scotch strac ; 0. E. p.p. stricen appears 
 later as strucken, strooken, ' stricken ', now ' struck '. We still 
 usually say * stricken in years ', or ' stricken ' with any disease 
 or infirmity. ' Dig ' and ' stick ' were originally weak. 
 
 ' Cling ', ' fling ', ' sling ', &c., had a previous a in the past 
 tense ' clang', 'flang', &c. ; like the class in 59, 3, (1), 
 ' begin ', &c. But the pasts are now for the most part 
 assimilated to the participles. These have all lost the -en ending. 
 
 (10) Diphthong ou : 
 
 OU OU 
 
 t: bind bound bound 
 
 find found found 
 
 grind ground ground 
 
 wind wound wound 
 
 Like most of the above class, these four had originally a in 
 the past (' band ', ' fand ', &c.) and u in the participle ('bunden', 
 &c.), as in mod. Germ. ' Boundew.' remains as an adj. : 'one's 
 bounden duty '. Sir "W. Scott, in * his horn he wound ' (Lady 
 of the Lake) for ' winded ', assimilates two different verbs. 
 
 59*. 3. Some old verbs change in different waysj 
 both Past Tense and Past Participle. 
 
THE STRONG CONJUGATION. 195 
 
 (1) Vowels k, u : 
 
 a it 
 
 i : begin began begun 
 
 drink drank drunk 
 
 ring rang rung 
 
 shrink shrank shrunk 
 
 sing sang sung 
 
 sink sank sunk 
 
 spring sprang sprung 
 
 stink stank stunk 
 
 swim swam swum 
 
 While the verbs in 58, 2, (9) have mostly discarded a and 
 taken up u in the past, the present verbs keep the original a 
 and now prefer not to use the u, as they often did in the 16th 
 and 17th centuries. (Compare the same verbs in German.) The 
 participial -en has been lost, remaining only in a few cases, now 
 adjectival : ' drunkew ', ' shrunken, ', ' sunken '. 
 
 (2) Vowels i, u : 
 
 1 fr 
 
 w(o) : do did done 
 
 'Did' (O.E. dide), as we have seen ( 8), shows the original 
 reduplication to form the past tense. 
 
 (3) Vowels 6, i : 
 
 6 i 
 
 i : arise arose arisen 
 
 drive drove driven 
 
 ride rode ridden 
 
 rise rose risen 
 
 shrive shrove * shriven * 
 
 smite smote smitten 
 
 stride strode stridden 
 
 strive strove striven * 
 
 thrive throve* thriven* 
 
 write wrote written 
 * The parts marked thus (*) have also the weak form. 
 
 Most of these verbs have got their o from an original a (O.E. 
 aras, draf, &c.), which appeared in drave, strave, &c., in the 
 16th and 17th centuries. Within the same period, shortened 
 forms of the participle were often used smit, writ, &c. ; and 
 were even transferred to the past tense (compare 58, 2, (4) ). 
 
 (4) Vowels 6,6: 
 
 ft 6 
 
 f:fly flew flown 
 
196 
 
 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 ' Flow ' has given up this conjugation for the weak formation : 
 ' flowed '. ' Flee ', in like manner, has ' fled '. 
 
 60. 4. Some strong verbs have the same vowel 
 throughout. 
 
 e : beat beat beaten 
 
 e : let let let 
 
 i : bid bid bidden, bid 
 
 u : burst burst burst 
 
 The past ' beat ' now takes the vowel of the present, and may 
 be considered weak, but in 0. E. it was beot, later bet. ' Let ' 
 had a weak past in the 12th century. For ' bid ' see 57, 1, (2). 
 ' Burst ' has been influenced throughout from the participle : 
 O.E. berste (pres.) had past bearst, barst, or brast, and p. p. 
 borsten, bursten. 
 
 61. 5. The following strong forms are incomplete. 
 The verbs are nearly ail also conjugated in 
 weak forms. 
 
 heave 
 wake 
 
 go 
 
 en -grave 
 
 hew 
 
 lade. 
 
 lose 
 
 melt 
 
 mow 
 
 rive 
 
 shape 
 
 shave 
 
 sow 
 
 swell 
 
 rot 
 saw 
 show 
 strew 
 
 hove* 
 woke* 
 
 (O.E. eode, mod. E. went) 
 
 (grof, grove)* 
 (heow, hew)* 
 (Mod, lod)* 
 (-leas)* 
 
 (mealt, malt)* 
 (meow, mew)* 
 (rove)* 
 
 (scop, shope)* 
 (scof, shove)* 
 (seow, sew)* 
 (sweal, swal, swot) 
 
 (hafen, hove(n)) 
 (wacen)* 
 
 gone 
 
 en-graven * 
 hewn * 
 laden * 
 lorn *, forlorn 
 molten * 
 mown* 
 riven * 
 shapen * 
 shaven* 
 sown * 
 swollen, swoln* 
 
 rotten* 
 sawn* 
 shown* 
 strewn* 
 
 (be) 
 
 (hate) 
 
 (cwethe) 
 
 hight 
 
 quoth (cwceth) 
 was (wees) 
 The parts marked thus (*) have also the weak form.. 
 
 been 
 
 hight 
 
 (cwethen) 
 
THE WEAK CONJUGATION. 197 
 
 1 Hove ' (0. E. hof) is now almost exclusively nautical : *hove 
 to ', '-hove in sight '. ' Go ' (0. E. inf. gangan, contracted gan; 
 indie, ga) had an 0. E. past geong, geng, long since disused, its 
 place being now supplied by ' went ', the past of the weak verb 
 'wend' (O. E. wcndan, 'to turn', 'go'). An earlier substi- 
 tute was eode, yode, the past of a lost weak verb from the root 
 ' i' ('to go '). ' Lor(e)n ', ' forlor(e)n ', have turned s into r, a 
 common change in language : they are for losen, forlosen ( 58, 
 2, (5)). 'Molten', 'shaven', 'sown', 'rotten', &c., are only 
 or chiefly used as adjectives : ' molten gold ', ' shaven crown ', 
 &c. ' Hot ', ' saw ', ' show ', ' strew ', are weak verbs with the 
 single strong formation of the participle. ' Been ' supplies 
 pres. indie, by ' am ', and past by ' was '. ' Quoth ' may be 
 supplied from ' say ', ' said '. ' Might ' originally is only past, 
 but also took the place of haten, hoten (called) : now archaic. 
 
 The Weak Conjugation. 
 
 62. The New or Weak Verbs form their 
 past tense and past participle in -d (or -ed, 
 or -t). 
 
 "We have already seen ( 8) that the ending of the past tense, 
 -d (0. E. -de], is a modification of ' did ', the reduplicated past 
 of ' do ' ; and that the ending of the participle, though now of 
 the same form, has a different origin. 
 
 Most usually the form -ed is written, though the ~e is merely 
 a connecting vowel seldom pronounced now. The pronuncia- 
 tion is influenced by the sounds immediately preceding, and, to 
 agree with this, -t is sometimes written in place of -d or ~cd. 
 
 63. 1. The most common ending is -ed. 
 
 The insertion of the binding vowel is necessary in pronuncia- 
 tion when the simple verb ends in a dental -t or -d : ' plant, 
 plant-ed ' ; ' proceed, proceed-ed '. In cases like ' cite. cit(e)-ed', 
 ' rate, rate(e)-ed ', ' precede, preced(e)-ed ', the final -e of the 
 simple verb is a mere device of spelling, which gives way before 
 the inflexional ending or is utilized as connecting vowel. The 
 binding vowel also appears in cases where it is not wanted for 
 the usual pronunciation, and the addition of the ending is 
 accompanied with some peculiarities of spelling, as in the plural 
 of nouns, the comparison of adjectives and verbs, and the 
 inflexion of second and third persons singular of verbs : ' love, 
 loved', 'save, saved', 'turn, turned', 'fell, feHrd ', 'oppose, 
 opposed', 'veto, veto-ed', 'sip, sip-^-ed ', 'dig, dig-</-ed ', 
 ' carry, carr-s'-ed '. 
 
198 INFLEXION OP VEBB8. 
 
 64. 2. In some cases, -d alone is added and 
 the vowel of the simple verb is modified. 
 
 (1) With shortened vowel : 
 
 flee fled fled 
 
 hear heard heard 
 
 shoe shod shod 
 
 (2) With lengthened vowel (e into 6) : 
 
 sell sold sold 
 
 tell told told 
 
 'Sell', &c. : 0. E. sellan, sealde, (ge)seald or said. 'Tell', 
 &c.: 0. E. tellan, tealdc, teald or tald. The e of the present 
 and the o of the past are modifications of an original a. 
 
 (3) With change of spelling : 
 
 lay laid laid 
 
 pay paid paid 
 
 say said said 
 
 stay staid* staid* 
 
 'Lay', &c. : 0. E. letgan, 1st sing. pres. indie, lecge, later 
 
 leye ; past Iccgde, leyde, leyde ; p. part, leycd, leyd. ' Say ', &c. : 
 
 0. E. secgan, indie . secgc, seyc ; past sceydc, soede, seide ; p. part. 
 
 scegd, seed. ' Staid ' is usually an adjective, or intransitive. 
 
 ' Afraid ' is originally the p. part, of * affray ', and was 
 
 previously spelt ' affrayed '. 
 
 (4) With other change : ( clad ', * had ', ' made ', 
 
 clothe clad* clad* 
 
 have had had 
 
 make made made 
 
 Cloiliedc or clethede, dethdc, clcdde, dcd, ' clad '; on analogy 
 of ledde, ladde, lad, 'led'. For 'had', see 16. 'Make', 
 &c. : 0. E. macian, inacode, tnacod c falls out by the 13th 
 century ; Chaucer has p. p. both maked and mood. 
 
 65. 3. Often -t is added for -d. 
 
 After a surd (sharp) consonant (p, f (v), k. s (z) t 
 'and /, m, n), preceded by a short o?* shortened vowel : 
 
 p: creep crept crept 
 
 keep kept kept 
 
 leap leapt* leapt* 
 
 sleep slept slept 
 
 sweep swept swept 
 
 weep wept wept 
 * The prxrts marked thus (*; have also the form in -ed. 
 
THE WEAK CONJUGATION. 199 
 
 dip dipt* dipt* 
 
 ship shipt* slipt* 
 
 stiip stript* stript* 
 
 whip whipt* whipt* 
 
 chop chopt* chopt* 
 
 drop dropt* dropt* 
 
 lop lopt* lopt* 
 
 stop stopt* stopt* 
 
 &c. fee. 
 
 f(v): bereave bereft* bereft* 
 
 cleave cleft* cleft* 
 
 leave left left 
 
 * Puffed ', 'stuffed', &c., are written, though we speak 'puff, 
 stuft ', &c. 
 
 k : 'cracki. 1 , 'lickr, *lock^', &c., may be written, but the 
 forms in -ed are the common ones. 
 
 *: pass past* past* 
 
 bless blest* blest* 
 
 press prest* prest* 
 
 *(z): lose lost lost 
 
 The verbs in -ss drop one s before -t ; but this formation is 
 not common. It is more frequent in poetry than in prose, as 
 it represents the pronunciation to the eye, 
 
 I : deal desalt dealt 
 
 feel felt felt 
 
 kneel knelt knelt 
 
 dwell dwelt* dwelt* 
 
 smell smelt * smelt* 
 
 spell spelt * spelt * 
 
 spill spilt* spilt* 
 
 One of the Zs is dropt before -t. 
 
 wi : dream dreamt * drSamt * 
 
 n: lean leant* leant* 
 
 mean mant me'ant 
 
 pen (shut) pent* pent 
 
 learn iCarnt * learnt * 
 
 burn burnt * burnt * 
 
 In O. E. such verbs as 'blanch', 'clench', 'drench', 
 1 quench ', ' singe ', &c. , left out the ch or g in the past tense and 1 
 p. part: 'blent, blent', ' cleynte, cleynt ', &c., 'seynde, 
 seynd ', &c. 
 
 ' Wont ', as in ' he was wont ', is the p. part, of the obsolete 
 verb ' wone ' (0. E. ivunian), ' to dwell ' : hence ' wont ' (part.) 
 * The parts marked thus (*) have also the form in -ed. 
 
(200 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 r= ' in the habit (of)', and 'wont' (noun), habit', custom'. 
 (Sometimes 'wont' was used as a past tense, for 'was wont'. 
 .Also ' wonts ' ( 'is accustomed '), and ' wonted ' (' accustomed', 
 1 ' usual '), p. part, as adjective. 
 
 (2) After vowel changed to o (au or ou) : 
 
 au : catch caught* caught* 
 
 teach taught taught 
 
 Catch ' has assimilated its forms to teach '. 0. E. tascan 
 i(indie. tcece), tcehte, tceht. 
 
 We have also 'fraught' (for 'freighted') ; and 'distraught* 
 (for ' distracted ') O. E. streccan (indie, strecce : ' stretch ') form- 
 ing streahte, streaht. ' Reach ' at one time had ' raught ' (for 
 'reached '). 
 
 u : beseech besought * besought * 
 
 bring brought brought 
 
 buy bought bought 
 
 seek sought sought 
 
 think thought thought 
 
 (me) thinks (me)thought 
 
 work wrought* wrought* 
 
 ' Beseech ' is from ' seek ', 0. E. secan (indie, sect), sdhlc, 
 foht. ' Bring ' and "think ' have inserted a non-radical n : like 
 * stand ', &c. ( 58, 2, (8)). Besides brohte, brokt, bringan\\&<\ in 
 O. E. also brang, brungen : like 'sing', &c. (59, 3, (1)). 
 TAcncanliad thohte, tho/it. ' Methinks ' (lit. ' (to) me (it) stems') 
 is cognate: 0. E. ihyncth, thuhte, thuht. 'Buy', &c. : 0. E. 
 lycgan (indie, bycge), bohte, boht. 'Work', &c. : O.E. wyrcan, 
 worhtc, worht. 
 
 66. 4. Final -d of the simple verb is some- 
 times changed to -t, when preceded by a 
 liquid n, I, or r. The liquid is also pieceded by a 
 short vowel. 
 
 end ; bend bent* bent * 
 
 blend blent* blent* 
 
 lend . lent* lent* 
 
 rend rent rent , 
 
 send sent sent 
 
 spend spent spent 
 
 wend went * 
 
 Md: build built* built* 
 
 gild gilt* gilt* 
 
 ird : gird girt * girt * 
 
THE WEAK CONJUGATION. 201 
 
 The past ending -de readily coalesced with the d of the simple 
 verb ; and the influence of the preceding short vowel and liquid 
 easily turned -d into -t. ' "Went ' supplies a past form to ' <*o ' 
 (61,5). 
 
 67. 5. Some weak verbs merely shorten the 
 long vowel of the simple form. 
 
 bleed bled bled 
 
 breed bred bred 
 
 feed fed fed 
 
 lead led led 
 
 read rSad read 
 
 speed sped sped 
 
 betide ^^ betid betid 
 
 chide S chid chid 
 
 hide ~ <N hid hid 
 
 meet met met 
 
 light lit * lit * 
 Most of these end in -d. In O.E. the pasts show the in- 
 
 flexional ending : ' fedde ', ' ledde ', &c. ' Alight ' takes the full 
 
 form, ' alighted '. 
 
 68. 6. Some weak verbs often show no differ- 
 ence of form in the past tense and past participle. 
 
 beat ( 60, 4) beat beat 
 
 bet bet * bet * 
 
 bid ( 60, 4) bid bid 
 
 And similarly : burst ( 60, 4), cast, cut, durst, hit, hurt, 
 knit, let, put, rid, set, shed, shred, shut, slit, split, spread, 
 thrust. 
 
 In the Elizabethan age the -ed of weak verbs was often dis- 
 pensed with, especially in poetry. 
 
 69. In addition to those already mentioned, the 
 following verbs, originally strong, have become 
 weak : 
 
 ache chew drop glide 
 
 bellow climb dye gnaw 
 
 be-reave creep fare gripe 
 
 bow cringe flee hang ( 58, 2, (9)) 
 
 braid crowd float help 
 
 brew delve flow kn^ad 
 
 burn dive fold laugh 
 
 carve dread fret leap 
 
202 
 
 INFLEXION OP VERBS. 
 
 let 
 
 row 
 
 starve 
 
 wax 
 
 lie (tell lies) 
 
 rue 
 
 step 
 
 weep 
 
 lock 
 
 scathe 
 
 stint 
 
 weigh 
 
 lot (cast lots) 
 
 shed (divide) 
 
 suck 
 
 well 
 
 lout (bow) 
 
 shove 
 
 sup 
 
 whoop 
 
 low 
 
 sigh 
 
 swallow 
 
 wield 
 
 mete 
 
 sleep 
 
 sweep 
 
 worth (be) 
 
 milk 
 
 slip 
 
 thrash 
 
 wreak 
 
 mourn 
 
 slit 
 
 throng 
 
 ( wreathe > 
 
 quell 
 
 smoke 
 
 tug (draw) 
 
 \ writhe j" 
 
 quench 
 
 sneak 
 
 wade (go) 
 
 yell 
 
 reap 
 reek 
 
 spew 
 spurn 
 
 walk 
 wash 
 
 yield 
 
 70. A few of the most common errors in the 
 
 conjugation of the mote irregular verbs, whether old 
 or new, may be noted. 
 
 The chief misleading circumstance is that in the new verbs 
 we are habituated to the identity of form of the past tense and 
 the past participle, whence we are apt to apply the same rule 
 to the old verbs. ' The letter was wrote (for written] ' ; ' the 
 wine was drank (for drunk)'; 'he has broke (broken) the win- 
 dow'; 'I have much mistook your passion'; 'I have already 
 chose (chosen) my officer '. ' I have struck ' is now in use foi the 
 ancient form, * I have stricken '. ' I had neither ate nor drank ' 
 should be ' eaten nor drunk '; ' and now the years a numerous 
 train have ran ' (for run). 
 
 There is a confusion between the verbs ' lay ' and ' lie '. "We 
 often see such errors as ' the book lays (for lies) on the table ' ; 
 'let it to/' (for lie). 
 
 In poetry especially there is a strong tendency to confound 
 the past tense and the past participle : ' I begun ' (for began), 
 ' the latest minstrel sung '. 
 
 Technical language retains older forms: 'the charge was 
 found proven ' (the ordinary p. part, being ' proved '). 
 
DERIVATION. 
 
 SOURCES OF ENGLISH WORDS. 
 
 I. The English Vocabulary has drawn 
 words from many languages ; especially from 
 Latin, directly or indirectly. 
 
 The Grammar of our language is exclusively 
 native. 
 
 In the early centuries of the Christian era, Britain was in- 
 vaded from the country that now forms Denmark and the 
 North-west of Germany by certain tribes under the names of 
 Jutes, Angles, and Saxons. The year 449 is assigned as the 
 date of the landing of the Jutes in the Isle of Thanet, in Kent, 
 under Hengist and Horsa. Other invasions followed ; and in 
 the course of a hundred years the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles 
 were established over the greater part of England. There were 
 different dialects spoken among these several tribes, although 
 they were closely allied to each other. The early compositions 
 that have come down to us nearly all exemplify one dialect 
 the dialect of the western counties. A few fragments illustrate 
 the dialectical peculiarities of the counties of the North. In 
 the midland counties there was yet a third dialect ; and from 
 this the modern English of literature has more directly de- 
 scended. 
 
 As the Angles or English established the political superiority 
 of their name, so the common term for the language of the 
 Teutonic conquerors was English. Taking together the contri- 
 butions of all the united tribes, we assume these as the basis of 
 the present English tongue. 
 
 The other great element is the Roman, by which is meant the 
 aggregate of English words drawn from the Latin language, but 
 derived by tie for the most part through the French. The early 
 English and Latin together constitute the mass of our vocabulary. 
 
 The remaining constituents are : words from languages be- 
 longing to the common stock called Teutonic, of which English 
 is a member Dutch, German, and Scandinavian ; words from 
 the Keltic languages spoken in Britain before the English con- 
 quest Welsh and Gaelic ; words from the Greek ; and words 
 from the languages of distant countries connected with us by 
 colonisation, trade, &c. 
 
204 
 
 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. 
 
 2. The Classical element of our language, by 
 which is meant the Latin, together with the Greek, 
 was introduced at different periods. 
 
 3. I. During the Roman occupation of the 
 island, between A.D. 43 and A.D. 410. 
 
 The words that remain from this period are chiefly 
 local names connected with military stations. 
 
 Castra (a camp) gi ves 'Lancaster', 'Gloucester', 'Winchester', 
 'Exeter', &c. 
 
 Colonia (a Roman settlement) : ' Lincoln '. 
 
 Fossa (a trench) : ' Fossway ', ' Fosbrook ', ' Fossbury '. 
 
 Portus (a harbour) : ' port ', ' Portsmouth ', ' Porchester '. 
 
 Strata (paved road) : ' Stratford ', ' Streatham ', ' street ', &c. 
 
 Vallum (a palisaded rampart) : ' bailiff ', ' Old Bailey ', 
 'Wallbury'. 
 
 4. II. During the four centuries following 
 the introduction of Christianity, A.D. 596. 
 
 The contributions during this interval include many 
 words of a religious character, and the names of 
 institutions and natural productions introduced by the 
 missionaries. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL. Latin. 
 
 altar cowl disciple mass 
 
 pall saint 
 
 chalice creed feast offer 
 
 porch shrine 
 
 ; cloister cross font pagan 
 
 preach sacrament 
 
 Greek. 
 
 
 alms bishop clerk hymn 
 
 monk psalter 
 
 .angel canon deacon martyr 
 
 priest stole 
 
 .apostle church heretic minister 
 
 psalm synod 
 
 NATURAL OBJECTS. Latin. 
 
 
 ;beet fig millet 
 
 pine 
 
 'box laurel mule 
 
 pumice 
 
 cedar lettuce oyster 
 
 rue 
 
 chalk lily palm 
 
 tiger 
 
 cherry lion pard 
 
 trout 
 
 cucumber mallow pea-cocfc 
 
 turtle 
 
 elm marble pearl 
 
 vulture 
 
 Greek. 
 
 
 agate crystal 
 
 phoenix 
 
 anise hellebore 
 
 sponge 
 
 camel myrrh 
 
 sycamore 
 
INTRODUCTION OP CLASSICAL WORDS. 
 
 205 
 
 acid chancellor 
 
 ell nurse rule 
 
 anchor chest 
 
 empire ounce sack 
 
 ark circle 
 
 fever palace senate 
 
 axle city 
 
 fork plant spnde 
 
 belt cook 
 
 gem plume table 
 
 bench, coulter 
 
 grade pound temple 
 
 bile crisp 
 
 mile prone title 
 
 'candle crest 
 
 mortar provost tunic 
 
 capital crown 
 
 muscle purple verse 
 
 Greek. 
 
 
 cymbal 
 
 metre rheum 
 
 epistle 
 
 philosopher school 
 
 giant 
 
 plaster theatre 
 
 The words * baptize ', 
 
 ' synagogue ', ' disciple ', ' resurrection', 
 
 ' parable ', ' repentance 
 
 ', and many others superseded names of 
 
 native origin for the same things. 
 
 5. III. The great accession of Latin words 
 took place subsequent to the Norman Con- 
 quest, forming what is called the Norman-French 
 element of our Language.* 
 
 The Normans gave the names pertaining to feudal- 
 
 * ' Tbe Normans were originally Scandinavians, who settled in France 
 as their brethren had done in England. In 912, Charles III. ceded to 
 them the province called Normandy after them. Here they came into 
 , contact with a people speaking a language derived from the Latin, and. 
 like the Franks and the other barbarian invaders of Gaul, Italy, and 
 .Spain, they gradually ceased to use their own Scandinavian tongue, and 
 adopted the language spoken by the inhabitants of their new home. 
 This language has obtained the name of French, from the Franks, who 
 conquered Gaul in the fifth century, and, like the Italian, Spanish, and 
 other languages derived from the Latin, is frequently called a Romance 
 language, to commemorate its Roman origin. The first introduction of 
 French into England dates from the time of the lat^r Saxon kings. 
 Ethelred II. married Emma, daughter of Richard, Duke of Normandy ; 
 and his son, Edward the Confessor, who was brought up at the Norman 
 court, and spoke the French language, gave great offence to his English 
 subjects by his partiality for this tongue, and by his introducing French 
 ecclesiastics into the kingdom. But the important event, which firmly 
 planted the French language in England, was the conquest of the 
 country by William, Duke of Normandy, in the year 10(56. For two 
 centuries French was the language of the English court ; Norman 
 settlers, speaking French, were spread over the country, and filled all 
 the ecclesiastical and civil posts ; and French was spoken in the courts 
 of law and taught in the schools. In this way a large mass of the 
 population must have become acquainted with French ; and a very great 
 number of French words was gradually introduced into the English 
 language '. {.Marsh's Lectures, II.) 
 
206 
 
 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. 
 
 ism, war, law, and the chase, as well as additions 
 to the general vocabulary. 
 
 Feudalism and ivar. 
 
 aid 
 
 buckler 
 
 guardian 
 
 mail 
 
 trumpet 
 
 armour 
 
 castle 
 
 hauberk 
 
 peer 
 
 truncheon 
 
 array 
 
 champion 
 
 harness 
 
 relief 
 
 vassal 
 
 assault 
 
 chivalry 
 
 herald 
 
 scutage 
 
 vizor 
 
 banner 
 
 dower 
 
 homage 
 
 scutcheon 
 
 war 
 
 baron 
 
 esquire 
 
 joust 
 
 tallage 
 
 ward 
 
 battle' 
 
 fealty 
 
 lance 
 
 tenant 
 
 warden 
 
 Law. 
 
 
 
 
 
 advocate 
 
 case 
 
 felony 
 
 paramount 
 
 statute 
 
 approver 
 
 contract 
 
 judge 
 
 plaint 
 
 sue 
 
 arrest 
 
 estate 
 
 justice 
 
 plea 
 
 suit 
 
 assize 
 
 fee 
 
 larceny 
 
 sentence 
 
 surety 
 
 The Chase. 
 
 
 
 
 
 bay 
 
 couple (v), 
 
 forest 
 
 quarry 
 
 tiercel 
 
 brace 
 
 covert 
 
 leash 
 
 reclaim 
 
 venison 
 
 chase 
 
 falconer 
 
 mew 
 
 sport 
 
 verderer 
 
 But in addition to the names on these special subjects, many 
 hundreds, if not thousands, of words of French origin were in- 
 corporated with the general vocabulary in the course of three or 
 four centuries. In Lay am on, in Chaucer, in Wyclifie, the 
 acquisition of French words is seen going on. 
 
 Few words seem to have been derived at this period from the 
 i Latin directly. It cannot, however, in all cases be known 
 whether words from the Latin have passed through the French ; 
 but nouns in ' our ' (ardowr), ' ier ' (cavalier), ' chre ' (sepulchre), 
 * eer ' (auctioneer), adjectives in ' que ' (unique), and words 
 beginning with ' counter ', ' pur ', and ' sur ' (counteract, 
 purpose, surprise), are of this class. And, generally speaking, 
 when words of classical origin are greatly altered in the English 
 spelling, they have not come directly from the Latin ; as 
 'reason' (Fr. raison, Lat. rationem), 'journal' (Fr. journal, 
 Lat. diurnalis), ' ally ' (Fr. allier, Lat. allegare), ' accomplice ' 
 (Fr. complice, Lat. complex), 'beauty' (Fr. beaute, Lat. bellus), 
 'obey' (Fr. obe'ir, Lat. obedire, from audire).* 
 
 6. IV. After the Revival of Learning, many 
 words were taken directly from the Latin, and a smaller 
 number from the Greek. 
 
 The greater number of words bearing evidence of being obtained 
 directly from the Latin, have been introduced since the revival 
 of letters in the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 
 * Angus on the English Language, p, 10. 
 
EFFECTS OP THE REVIVAL OP LEARNING. 
 
 207 
 
 A few are selected by way of specimen : 
 
 abdicate 
 
 adhere 
 
 beatify 
 
 cardinal 
 
 cogitate 
 
 abhor 
 
 admire 
 
 benevolence case 
 
 command 
 
 abject 
 
 adopt 
 
 biennal 
 
 cause 
 
 council 
 
 abjure 
 
 affirm 
 
 biped 
 
 celebrate 
 
 commit 
 
 abnegate 
 
 agent 
 
 calamity 
 
 celestial 
 
 common 
 
 abominate 
 
 aggravate 
 
 callous 
 
 chain 
 
 compassion 
 
 absent 
 
 alacrity 
 
 camp 
 
 chance 
 
 complacent 
 
 accelerate 
 
 allocate 
 
 cant 
 
 charity 
 
 compose * 
 
 accede 
 
 alternate 
 
 capillary 
 
 circumference 
 
 concord 
 
 address 
 
 announce 
 
 carbon 
 
 circle 
 
 confess, &c. 
 
 Our abstract nouns ending in y and ion a pretty numerous 
 class are very slightly altered from the Latin original : 
 'calamity' (calamita-tem) ; 'compassion' (compassio-nem). They 
 follow the forms of the earlier derivation of these through 
 French. 
 
 The diffusion of Latin words in English is most comprehen- 
 sively seen by examining a list of Latin roots, and noting their 
 respective prevalence in the language. The following are a few 
 of the best known : 
 
 Verbs : 
 
 ago facio pendeo scribo 
 
 cado fero plico sentid 
 
 cerno gen- pono sequor 
 
 claudo habeo porto servo 
 
 credo jaceo premo solvo 
 
 curro J un go probo specio 
 
 dico lego pungo spiro 
 
 do levo puto statuo 
 
 duco mitto qusero sto 
 
 eo moneo rego struo 
 
 esse nascor salio sumo 
 
 Nouns: 
 
 anima cura jus munus 
 
 caput forma lex nomen 
 
 cor gratia mantis pars 
 
 Adjectives : 
 
 sequus firmus 
 
 alter fortis 
 
 bonus gravis 
 
 The number of Greek roots is smaller, but some of them are 
 fruitful of compounds. Conspicuous examples are : 
 ago (to lead) demos (the people) logos (speech) 
 archo (to begin) grapho (to write) ode (a song) 
 cycles (a circle) nudor (water) pan (all) 
 
 magnus 
 
 malus 
 
 medius 
 
 tango 
 
 tendo 
 
 teneo 
 
 traho 
 
 venio 
 
 verto 
 
 video 
 
 voco 
 
 volvo 
 
 signum 
 tempus 
 testis 
 
 primus 
 similis 
 unus 
 
208 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. 
 
 pathos (feeling) polls (a city) tithemi (to place) 
 
 phaiuo (to show, ap- poieo (to make) topos (a place) 
 
 pear) scoped (to see) zoon (an animal) 
 
 phileo (to love) techne (art) &c. 
 
 Of the words derived from these roots, the following are a few 
 examples : demagogue, archaeology, hydrography, cyclopaedia, 
 melody, pantheon, sympathy, phenomenon, telescope, technical, 
 hypothesis, topography, zoology. 
 
 4 The importance of these roots may be seen from the fact that from 
 pono and positum we have in English two hundred and fifty words ; from 
 plico, two hundred ; from fero and latum, one hundred and ninety-eight ; 
 from specio, one hundred and seventy-seven ; from nitto and rnissum, one 
 hundred and seventy-four ; from tenec and tentum, one hundred and 
 sixty-eight ; from capio and captum, one hundred and ninety -seven ; from 
 tendo and tensum, one hundred and sixty-two ; from duco and ductum, one 
 hundred and fifty-six. Lo'jos gives us one hundred and fifty-six ; 
 graphein, one hundred and fifty -two. These twelve words, therefore, 
 enter into the composition of nearly two thousand five hundred English 
 words. One hundred and Jifty-four Greek aud Latin primitives yield 
 nearly thirteen thousand words.'- (Angus, English Language, p. 46.) 
 
 A great many Latin and Greek words are still imperfectly in- 
 corporated in the language. All the nouns that make the plural 
 according to classical forms, and not according to the English 
 form, are of this kind. 
 
 The demands of science, and even of industry and the common 
 arts, lead to the unceasing introduction of new classical 
 
 words : telegraph, microphone, telephone, bicycle, photography, 
 locomotive, terminus, caloric, basic, colloid, aeronaut, diagnosis, 
 amalgam, cataclysm, onomatopoeia, &c. 
 
 It would form a useful exercise to note and compare words 
 that have come directly, and words that have come indirectly 
 through French, from Latin or Greek. For example : ' aggra- 
 vate, aggrieve'; 'benediction, benison'; 'blaspheme, blame'; 
 'captive, caitiff'; 'diurnal, journal'; 'fact, feat'; 'faction, 
 fashion'; 'fragile, frail'; 'gaud, jewel, joy'; 'juncture, jointure'; 
 'loyal, royal, legal, regal '; 'major, mayor'; 'nutriment, - 
 nourishment'; 'phantasy, fancy'; 'pedestrian, pioneer'; 'pro- 
 vidence, purveyance, prudence'; 'sequel, suit'; 'species, spice'; 
 'superficies, surface'; 'supreme, sovereign'; 'tradition, trea- 
 son'; &c. 
 
 7. Keltic dialects existed at an early period, and 
 still partly exist in Britain. 
 
 The Keltic dialects now remaining are the Welsh, 
 Gaelic, Manx, and Irish. 
 
 One large class of names derived from them are 
 names of places. 
 
KELTIC INFLUENCE. 209' 
 
 Rivers: Clyde, Don (Doon, Devon, Tyne, Teign, Tone), Dee, 
 Thames, Avon, Stour, Severn, Trent, Esk (Usk, Exe, Wash, 
 Ouse), Leven, Wye, the Tors (Derby and Devon). 
 
 Hills : Malvern, Meudip, Cheviot, Chiltern, Grampian, &c. 
 Islands : Wight, Man, -A mm, Bute, Mull. 
 
 Counties: Kent, Devon, Glamorgan, Dor-set, Dnr-ham, 
 Wilt-s. 
 
 Towns: Liver-pool, Carlisle, Penzance, Peel; Pen-rith, Car- 
 diff, Llandaff.* 
 
 Among Keltic names of places we are to include those con- 
 taining the following elements : 
 
 Aber (mouth of river) : Aberdeen, Aberbrothwick (Arbroath), 
 Aberwick (Berwick), Aberystwith. 
 
 Al (white) : Albyn, Allan, Lune. 
 
 Aid, Aird (high) : Ardrossan, Arran ; Dysart, Lizard. 
 
 Ath (ford) : Athlone. . 
 
 Audi, auchin (field) : Auchmull, Auchinleck ; Aughrim. 
 
 All chter (height): Auchterarder, Auchtergaven, Auchterless. 
 
 Bal, Lally (village) : Balgownie, Ballymahon. 
 
 Bala (issue of river from lake) : Bala, Balloch. 
 
 Ban (white) : Bandon, Banna. 
 
 Beg (little) : Ballybeg, Killybegs. 
 
 Ben, or Pen (head, mountain) : Benlomond, Pendleton, 
 Penmaenmawr, Peutland. 
 
 Blair (field, clear of wood) : Blairgowrie, Blair Athole. 
 
 Bottom (valley) : common in Sussex, and in personal names. 
 
 Brae (billy rough piece of land) : Braemar. 
 
 Caer, Car (fort, town) : Caerleon, Cardiff, Cardow 
 
 Cain (white) : Ken, Kenuet. 
 
 Cairn (heap of stones, rocky hill) : Cairnbanno, Cairngorm. 
 
 Cam (crooked) : Cambeck, Cambuskenneth. 
 
 Cefn (back, chine] : Chevin, Cheviot, Keynton. 
 
 Coed (wood) : Cotswold, Chatmoss 
 
 Combe, comp (hollow or bent side of a hill) : Compton, 
 Ilfracombe, Melcombe, Wycombe. 
 
 Craig, Carrick, crick (rock, crag) : Craigdam, Carrick- 
 fergu.s, (Jricklade. 
 
 Cul (back or hind part) : Culdaff, Culross. 
 
 Dal, dol (plain) : Dalkeith, Dairy, Dolgelly. 
 
 Dim (black) : Douglas, Diggles, Dublin, Cardow, Tomdow. 
 
 Don (water) : Bandon. (See also above : Rivers.) 
 
 Dour (water) : Darent, Dart, Darwin, Derwent. 
 
 Drum (ridge) : Dromore, Dundrum, Tyndrum. 
 
 Dun (hill) : Dunblane, Dunkeld, Dumbarton, the Downs, 
 Suowdoa. 
 
 * Adams on the English Language. 
 
210 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS, 
 
 Esk (water, current) : Esker, Esthwaite, Ashbourne, Ease- 
 burn, I sis. (See also above : Rivers.} 
 
 Fell (hill) : Carterfell, Scafell, SnafelL 
 
 Garw (rough) : Garry, Yarrow. 
 
 Glen, glyn (narrow valley) : Glencoe, Glenshee, Glynneath. 
 
 Gonn (blue) : Cairngorm. 
 
 Gwent (plain) : Nantglyn, Winchester. 
 
 Inch, Ennis (island) : Inchcolm, Inehkeith, Enniskillen. 
 
 Inver (mouth of river, laud fit for tillage) : Inverness. 
 
 Ken, Kin (head) : Kenmare, Kenmore, Kent, Kinnaird, 
 Kinross, Cantire. 
 
 Kill (cell, chapel, burying-ground) : Kilmarnock, Kilsyth, 
 Icolmkill. 
 
 Lin (deep pool) : Linlithgow, Dublin, Roslin. 
 
 Lis (mound) : Lismore. 
 
 Llann (church) : Llandaff. 
 
 Magh (plain) : Maynooth, Armagh, 
 
 Mor (great) : Benmore. 
 
 Mor (sea) : Moray, Glamorgan 
 
 Rath (mound) : Rathlin. 
 
 Kin (point) : Penrhyn, Rins (of Galloway). 
 
 Bos (promontory) : Ross, Kinross, Melro'se, RoseneatK 
 
 Strath (broad valley) : Strathmore, Strathspey. 
 
 ^am (spreading, broad) : Tamar, Thames. 
 
 * (town) : Coventry, Oswestry. 
 , y (water) : Conway, Medway, Solway.* 
 
 The words in the general vocabulary derived from the Keltic 
 dialects are given in the Appendix I. 
 
 8. Our intercourse with the Danes and other nor- 
 thern nations has brought us a considerable number of 
 Scandinavian words. 
 
 These are chiefly names of places and of 
 persons. 
 
 The Scandinavian nations are the Icelanders, Danes, ^ISTor-- 
 wegians, and Swedes. The oldest Scandinavian language is the 
 Old Norse of Norway, now spoken with little alteration in 
 Iceland. The Danish invasions of Great Britain have left us 
 a number of Scandinavian words. In the counties north of tl.e 
 Wash and the Mersey many of the names of places are from 
 this source. 
 
 * Angus on the English Language, p. 18. Se also Chambors's Exercises 
 IB Etymology. 
 
SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCE. 211 
 
 A. ay, ea, ey, oe (island) : Staffa, Cumbray, Chelsea, 
 Anglesey, Orkney, Faroe. 
 
 A, ea, ey (water, river) : Greta, "Waveney. 
 
 Ark (temple) : Arkholm. 
 
 Beck, batch (brook) : Caldbeck, Wansbeck, Snailbatch. 
 
 Brek (steep) : Norbrek. 
 
 By (Norse byr, farm, village) : Derby, Grimsby, Netherbyres, 
 Netherby. 
 
 Dale (valley) : Borrowdale, Tweeddale, Arundel, 
 
 Dan (Dane) : Danby. 
 
 Den, Dean (hollow valley): Hawthornden, Tenterden, 
 Southdean. 
 
 Ding, thing (meeting-place) : Dingwall. 
 
 Fiord (inlet) : Milford, Seaford, Waterford. 
 
 Fleet (flood) : Ebbsfleet, Northfleet, Purfleet 
 
 Force (fors, a waterfall) : Mickleforce. 
 
 Garth (yard, enclosure) : Applegarth, Dalegarth, Dnrmgarth, 
 
 Gate (passage, way) : Gallowgate, Margate, Reigate. 
 
 Gil (narrow cleft in side of valley) : Ormesgill. Frequent 
 in Iceland. 
 
 Holm (island in lake or river ; plain near river) : Arkholm, 
 Flatholm, Langholm. 
 
 Kell (spring) : Kelby. 
 
 Kirk (church) : Laurencekirk, Ladykirk. 
 
 Lax (salmon) : Laxay, Laxford, Laxweir. 
 
 NeSS (headland) : Bowness, Caithness. 
 
 Scale (shealing) : Portinscale, Shields, Galashiela. 
 
 Scar (cliff) : Scarborough, the Skerries. 
 
 Scaw (wood) : ScawfelL 
 
 Skip (ship) : Skipwith, Skipton. 
 
 Ster (place) : Lybster, Ulbster, Ulster. 
 
 Slither (south) : Sutherland. 
 
 Tarn (mountain lake) : Tarnsyke. 
 
 Thorpe, Throp (village) : Raveusthorpe, Woolthorpe, Hey- 
 throp. 
 
 Thwaite (piece of land) : Crosthwaite. 
 
 Toft (small field) : Lowcstoft. 
 
 Wick, wig, wich (Norse vik t creek, bay) : Ipswich, 
 Sandwich. 
 
 With (wood) : Langwith. 
 
 The termination ' son ' appended to names is Norse : ' Swain- 
 son ', 'Ericson'. ' Ulf ' or 'Ulph', found in proper names, is 
 Norse for 'wolf', 
 
 The Scandinavian words in the general vocabulary are given 
 in the Appendix II. * 
 
212 
 
 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. 
 
 9. Various other members of the Teutonic 
 Stock of languages (to which English belongs) have 
 contributed words to the English vocabulary. 
 
 It happens that a certain number of English words are not 
 found in early English writings, but occur in Dutch, German, 
 Flemish, &c. We thence infer that such words have been 
 derived from those languages, although it is also possible that 
 they may have existed in ancient English dialects, as spoken, 
 if not as written, or that they may belong in origin to a period 
 when English and these other languages had not yet branched 
 off from the common stock. We do not know the history of 
 the actual introduction of all our foreign words. 
 
 The words derived from the other Teutonic languages are 
 given in the Appendix III. 
 
 10. Words introduced from the French, and more 
 or less perfectly assimilated, have reference to various 
 subjects : 
 
 Wax: 
 
 aide-de-camp 
 
 emeute 
 
 materiel 
 
 retreat 
 
 bayonet 
 
 epaulet 
 
 melee 
 
 reveille 
 
 bivouac 
 
 fusee 
 
 mitrailleuse 
 
 ruse 
 
 casern 
 
 glacis 
 
 mobilise 
 
 scarp 
 
 chevalier 
 
 hors-de-combat parley 
 
 sortie 
 
 cordon 
 
 intern 
 
 parole 
 
 squad 
 
 corps 
 
 manoeuvre 
 
 picquet 
 
 tirade 
 
 elan 
 
 marque (lettre 
 
 de) redan 
 
 tirailleur 
 
 Literature, art, and affairs : 
 
 aper9u 
 attache 
 
 critique 
 cue 
 
 laissez faire 
 mise-en-scene 
 
 programme 
 redaction 
 
 ballet 
 
 debut 
 
 naivete" 
 
 regime 
 
 belles lettres 
 
 denouement 
 
 nom de plume 
 
 renaissance 
 
 brochure 
 
 doctrinaire 
 
 parliament 
 
 resume 
 
 bureau 
 
 encore 
 
 parvenu 
 
 role 
 
 clef 
 
 esprit 
 
 persiflage 
 
 rondeau 
 
 clique 
 
 facade 
 
 personnel 
 
 routine 
 
 connoisseur 
 
 feuilleton 
 
 portfolio 
 
 savant 
 
 coup d'etat 
 
 finesse 
 
 portrait 
 
 tapis 
 
 coupon 
 crayon 
 
 hautboy 
 jeu d'esprit 
 
 pourparler 
 precis 
 
 troubadour 
 vers de societe" 
 
 Fashion, manners, and pleasure: 
 
 ilr.mode badinage billet-doux blase 
 
 tmende honorable beau belle bizarre bonbon 
 
TEUTONIC FRENCH ITALIAN. ' 
 
 213 
 
 croquet 
 distingue 
 eau de Cologne 
 e-clat 
 e"lite . 
 ennui 
 entree 
 etiquette 
 
 fete rechauffe 
 foible recherche" 
 mesalliance roue* 
 millionaire rouleau 
 le beau monde sangfroid 
 nonchalance soiree 
 outre ton 
 pas valet 
 
 modiste 
 moire 
 paletot 
 pelisse 
 
 queue (cue) 
 rouge 
 surtout 
 trousseau 
 
 bonhomie 
 
 bonne 
 
 boudoir 
 
 bouquet 
 
 brusque 
 
 carte 
 
 chaise 
 
 conge 1 
 
 Dress : 
 
 blonde chignon crochet 
 
 blouse coif deshabille 
 
 bonnet coiffure fichu 
 
 busk crinoline golosh 
 
 Cookery : biscuit, dejeuner, entries, entremets, fricasse*e, 
 gout, menu, omelet, ragout. 
 
 Miscellaneous : 
 
 accouchement 
 
 apropos 
 
 cafe 
 
 canard 
 
 chagrin 
 
 chateau 
 
 chef 
 
 cortege 
 
 11. Italian has contributed words relating to music, 
 
 sculpture, and painting, with some miscellaneous words. 
 
 creche 
 cul de sac 
 debris 
 d6p6t 
 dernier ressort 
 devoir 
 douceur 
 douche 
 
 e"clat 
 entourage 
 fracas 
 immortelles 
 lieu 
 penchant 
 prestige 
 protege 
 
 rapport 
 reverie 
 soi-disant 
 souvenir 
 tete-a-tete 
 tic-douloureux 
 vis-a-vis 
 vogue 
 
 akimbo 
 
 alert 
 
 allegro 
 
 alto 
 
 arquebusa 
 
 askance 
 
 askant 
 
 attitude 
 
 avast 
 
 ballad 
 
 bandit 
 
 banquet 
 
 bass 
 
 bassoon 
 
 bigot 
 
 boa 
 
 bravo 
 
 breve 
 
 brigand 
 
 brigantine 
 
 brocade 
 
 broccoli 
 
 bronze 
 
 brush, 
 
 bubble 
 
 burlesque 
 
 buzz 
 
 cameo 
 
 cannon 
 
 canteen 
 
 cape 
 
 caper 
 
 captain 
 
 caravel (a kind of 
 
 ship) 
 Caricature 
 
 carmine 
 
 carnival 
 
 cartel 
 
 cartoon 
 
 casino 
 
 cassock 
 
 castle 
 
 charlatan 
 
 cicerone 
 
 citadel 
 
 company 
 
 companion 
 
 conceit 
 
 concert 
 
 cosset 
 
 cozen 
 
 crate 
 
 crypt 
 
214 
 
 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. 
 
 cuff (blow) 
 
 grate (noun) 
 
 pigeon 
 
 cupola 
 curry (dress leather) 
 
 grime 
 grotto 
 
 pilgrim 
 pistol 
 
 cutlass 
 
 grotesque 
 
 policy (insurance) 
 
 cnrtal (axe) 
 despatch 
 
 group 
 harlequin 
 
 porcupine 
 portico 
 
 dilettante 
 
 hazard 
 
 profile 
 
 dimity 
 ditto 
 domino 
 
 indigo 
 inveigle 
 invojce 
 
 punch (stage puppet) 
 purl (edging for lace) 
 puttock 
 
 dram 
 embrocation 
 
 list (catalogue) 
 lupines 
 
 regatta 
 scaramouch 
 
 ferret 
 
 lurch 
 
 sketch 
 
 fib 
 
 luscious 
 
 soprano 
 
 fit (an attack of pain) 
 
 macaroni 
 
 stanza 
 
 folio 
 
 madrigal 
 
 stiletto 
 
 freak (whiin) 
 
 mere (adj.) 
 
 stucco 
 
 gabion 
 
 mongrel 
 
 studio 
 
 gallant 
 
 motto 
 
 tenor 
 
 gambado 
 
 nun 
 
 terra-cotta 
 
 garnet 
 
 opera 
 
 torso 
 
 gazette 
 
 paladin 
 
 umbrella 
 
 gondola 
 
 palette 
 
 virtuoso 
 
 gorge 
 
 parapet 
 
 vista 
 
 granite 
 
 parasol 
 
 volcano 
 
 grapple 
 
 pedestal 
 
 zany 
 
 12. Spanish : 
 
 
 
 alcove 
 
 castanets 
 
 fumadoes 
 
 alligator 
 
 cigar 
 
 gabardine 
 
 almond 
 
 clarion 
 
 gala 
 
 armada 
 
 cochineal 
 
 galleon 
 
 armadillo 
 
 cockatrice 
 
 garbage 
 
 barilla 
 
 cork 
 
 garble 
 
 battledore 
 bezel (basil) 
 
 corridor 
 corsair 
 
 grandee 
 hidalgo 
 
 booby 
 
 crab (a windlass) 
 
 jade 
 
 borachio 
 
 desperado 
 
 javelin 
 
 bustard 
 
 discard 
 
 .jennet 
 
 calabash 
 calenture 
 
 dismay 
 don 
 
 jmita junto 
 lawn (cloth) 
 
 caparison 
 
 embargo 
 
 levant (v.) 
 
 capon 
 
 embarrass 
 
 maroon 
 
 caracal 
 
 filigree 
 
 molasses 
 
 cargo 
 
 filibuster 
 
 mosquito 
 
 cask (casket, casque) 
 
 flotilla 
 
 mulatto 
 
SPANISH ARABIC HEBREW &0. 
 
 215 
 
 negro pickaroou pounce (the talon of 
 
 ninny pillion a bird of prey) 
 
 pail pint punctilio 
 
 pamphlet plate (vessels of gold savannah 
 
 pawn (chess man) and silver) sherry 
 
 peccadillo potato tornado 
 
 13. Portuguese: 
 
 caste fetish porcelain 
 
 cocoa mandarin palaver 
 
 commodore marmalade verandah 
 
 14. The following words are traced to the Walloon, a dialect 
 poken in some districts in the north-east of France and in 
 Belgium : fester, funk, harridan, 
 
 15. Swiss: 
 
 daw dismal fetlock glimpse 
 
 16. Turkish:- 
 
 bey candy 
 
 bosh carviare 
 
 caftan chouse 
 
 caique divan 
 
 17. Arabic :- 
 
 horde 
 janizary 
 khan 
 odalisque 
 
 mart 
 
 seraglio 
 
 shagreen (leather) 
 simmer 
 
 admiral 
 
 attar (otto) 
 
 fakir 
 
 minaret 
 
 shrub 
 
 alchemy 
 
 azimuth 
 
 felucca 
 
 moonshee 
 
 simoom 
 
 alcohol 
 
 borax 
 
 firman 
 
 moslem 
 
 sirocco 
 
 alcove 
 
 cadi 
 
 gazelle 
 
 mosque 
 
 sofa 
 
 alembic 
 
 caliph 
 
 giraffe 
 
 mufti 
 
 sultan 
 
 algebra 
 
 camphor 
 
 harem 
 
 mummy 
 
 syrup 
 
 alkali 
 
 carat 
 
 hegira 
 
 nadir 
 
 tabor 
 
 almanac 
 
 chemistry 
 
 jar (bottle) 
 
 naphtha 
 
 talisman 
 
 amber 
 
 cipher 
 
 julep 
 
 nard , 
 
 tamarind 
 
 amulet 
 
 civet 
 
 koran 
 
 rice .^,. 
 
 tambourine 
 
 arrack 
 
 coffee 
 
 lemon 
 
 saffron 
 
 tare 
 
 arsenal 
 
 cotton 
 
 lute 
 
 salaam 
 
 tariff 
 
 artichoke 
 asa(fcetida) 
 
 dragoman 
 elixir 
 
 magazine 
 mameluke 
 
 sandal (wood) 
 sheik 
 
 vizier 
 zenith 
 
 assassin 
 
 emir 
 
 mattress 
 
 sherbet (drink) 
 
 zero 
 
 18. Hebrew: 
 
 abbey cherub hosanna 
 
 abbot cinnamon jubilee 
 
 amen ephod leviathan 
 
 behemoth gehenna manna 
 
 cabal hallelujah pharisee 
 
 sabbath 
 sapphire 
 ' seraph 
 shekel 
 
216 
 
 DERIVATION. SOURCES OP WORD8, 
 
 19. Persian: 
 
 chess 
 
 azure 
 
 backsheesh 
 
 balcony 
 
 barbican 
 
 bashaw 
 
 bazaar 
 
 caravan 
 
 check-mate 
 
 curry 
 
 dervise 
 
 emerald 
 
 hookah 
 
 howdah 
 
 jackal 
 
 jasmin 
 
 kaffir 
 
 lac (resinous 
 substance) 
 lilac 
 musk 
 orange 
 pasha 
 saraband 
 
 20. Hindu : 
 
 coolie 
 
 muslin 
 
 cowrie nabob 
 
 jungle pagoda 
 
 lac (100, 000 rupees) palanquin 
 
 lascar pariah 
 
 loot punch 
 
 mullagatawny pundit 
 
 banian 
 betel 
 
 "buggy 
 
 bungalow 
 calico 
 'cassowary 
 chintz 
 
 21. Malay :- 
 
 a-muck cajeput 
 
 bamboo gamboge (Cambodia) 
 
 bantam (Java) gingham (Java) 
 
 22. Chinese : 
 
 bohea congou hyson 
 
 caddy gong nankeen 
 
 ash 
 
 satrap 
 
 scimitar 
 
 shawl 
 
 taffeta 
 
 tiffin 
 
 tulip 
 
 turban 
 
 rajah 
 rupee 
 sepoy 
 shampoo 
 
 sugar 
 suttee 
 toddy 
 
 mango 
 
 mangrove 
 orang-outang 
 
 pekoe 
 atin 
 
 sago 
 
 dugoag 
 
 taol 
 
 tea 
 
 23. Polynesian 
 
 tattoo 
 
 taboo 
 
 kangaroo 
 
 alpaca 
 cannibal 
 
 24. American: 
 
 hurricane 
 
 jerked (beef) (Chili) 
 
 jaguar (Braz.) 
 
 jalap (M.ex.) 
 
 lama 
 
 mahogany 
 
 maize 
 
 canoe 
 
 cayman 
 
 caoutchouc 
 
 condor 
 
 hammock 
 
 25. Names of Persons : 
 
 braggadocio hermetic 
 
 cinchona lazaretto 
 
 davy (safety lamp) macadamize 
 galvanism macintosh 
 
 herculean maudlin 
 
 mocassin 
 
 pampas 
 
 skunk 
 
 squaw 
 
 tapioca 
 
 tapir 
 
 tobacco 
 
 tomahawk 
 
 tomato 
 
 wampum 
 
 wigwaui 
 
 yam 
 
 orrery 
 
 ottoman 
 
 pander 
 
 philippic 
 
 quixotic 
 
 simony 
 spencer 
 stentorian 
 tantalize 
 &c. 
 
NATIVE WORDS DISCRIMINATED. 217 
 
 26. Names of Places : 
 
 academy 
 arras 
 artesian 
 bayonet 
 currants (Corinth) 
 copper (Cyprus) 
 cambric (Cambray) 
 
 damask 
 ermine (Armenia.) 
 guinea 
 japan 
 magnet 
 milliner 
 muslin (Mussoul) 
 
 parchment (Perga- 
 mos) 
 peach (Persia) 
 spaniel (Hispaniola) 
 toledo 
 worsted ("Worstead) 
 &c. 
 
 27. For practical purposes it is useful to be able to 
 discriminate the words of classical origin 
 from those belonging originally to English. 
 
 This may be done to a considerable extent by the help of a 
 few general rules. 
 
 28. I. Certain divisions of the parts of 
 speech are native English : 
 
 The pronouns. Adjectives : pronominal, numeral, irregularly 
 compared, and the Articles. Verbs : auxiliary and defective. 
 Adverbs : the simple adverbs of place, time, and cause and 
 effect. The prepositions. The conjunctions. The exceptions 
 are extremely few : ' second ', ' except ', ' save ', &c. 
 
 29. II. All words undergoing vowel changes 
 are old English. 
 
 Nouns forming verbs: ' bliss, bless '; * blood, bleed '. Nouns 
 changing vowel in the plural : ' man, men ' ; ' tooth, teeth '. 
 ;Adjectives forming nouns : ' long, length ', ' strong, strength '. 
 Verbs : the old or strong verbs ; the new verbs making vowel 
 'changes: 'bereave, bereft'; the causative verbs formed by 
 vowel changes : ' lie, lay '. Vrords modifying the final con- 
 sonant : * grass, graze ' ; "' stick, stitch '. 
 
 30. III. Most words with distinctive English 
 endings are of home make. 
 
 If we had a complete list of the Hybrids, formed by joining 
 English roots to classical endings, or the converse, such a list 
 would give all the exceptions to this rule. These words are 
 very numerous. The following are examples : 
 
 Classical roots with English endings : principal??/, politely, 
 roundfy, beast/i/; aptness, correctness, passivewess, righteousness, 
 nutaMM ; art/it?, direful, graceful, grate/uZ, peaceful ; armless, 
 &rtlcss, cheerless, motionless, resistless, useless, viewless ; 
 
218 DERIVATION. SOURCES OP WORDS. 
 
 humoursowie, juicy, falsehood, subscriber, martyro'owt, suretisfrip, 
 monkish. 
 
 English words with Classical endings : shepherdess, songstress, 
 wondrows, wittimm, furtherance, behaviour, withdrawal, 
 bearaWe. 
 
 31. IV. Most words with distinctive English 
 prefixes are of home make. 
 
 Some of the prefixes, however, are ambiguous. Thus ' a ' 
 and ' in ' are English, Latin, and Greek ; ' mis ' is English and 
 Latin. But where there is no ambiguity, we may presume that 
 an English prefix betokens an English word, and a classical 
 prefix a classical word. 
 
 The unmistakable English prefixes are : ' al ', ' after ', ' be ', 
 ' for ', ' ful ', ' on ', ' over ', ' out ', ' under ', ' up ', ' with '. 
 
 When we find words commencing with the prefixes ' circum ', 
 'contra', 'extra', 'inter', 'ob', ' omni ', 'prse', 'pro', 're', 
 ' retro ', * super ', we may almost always take for granted that 
 they are of Latin origin : when we find ' cata ', ' epi ', ' hyper ', 
 'hypo', 'pan', 'peri', ' sym ', we may infer a Greek origin. 
 Some of these are in hardly any case joined with English roots. 
 
 There are a good many exceptions, or hybrids. The following 
 are a few : because, belabour, besiege, out-face, prewarn, 
 sublet, superfine, thorough-bass, thorough-paced, unchain, 
 unjust. 
 
 When we meet with such compounds as ' graceful ', ' peace- 
 ful', we ought also to take notice that these roots 'grace', 
 ' peace ', are far more frequently allied with classical prefixes' 
 and endings ; as ' gracious ', ' ingratitude ', ' ingratiate ', 
 4 gratify ', ' pacify ', ' appease '. If it is the habit of any word 
 to contract classical alliances, we may presume that it is classical, 
 unless it is recognised as a hybrid. 
 
 32. V. Most words of one syllable are 
 native English or Teutonic. 
 
 The list of exceptions, that is to say, of words of one syllable 
 derived from the Latin, French, or Greek, is given in the 
 Appendix IV. 
 
 33. VI. Most words of more than one 
 syllable are of classical origin. 
 
 The words of more than one syllable of native origin almost 
 all occur in the following illustrations of the things denoted by 
 native names. ($ 35 and following.) A tew not otherwise 
 
NATIVE WORDS DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 219 
 
 mentioned are here subjoined : behalf, behest, biestings, 
 brustle, caltrop, chafer, commark (a frontier), dimple, dwindle, 
 harbinger, hobnob, holster, nether, slobber, snattock, staddle, 
 utter. 
 
 34. VII. Provincial terms are to be assumed as 
 not of classical origin. 
 
 If not English, they are either Keltic or Teutonic. 
 
 35. The things denoted by native terms 
 are to a great extent distinct from those 
 denoted by names of classical origin. 
 
 36. I. From native sources we obtain the 
 names connected with kindred, home, domestic 
 life, and the strong natural feelings and their 
 expression : 
 
 father 
 
 mother 
 
 husband 
 
 wife 
 
 friend 
 
 kindred 
 
 gaffer 
 
 gammer 
 
 home 
 
 hearth 
 
 roof 
 
 fireside 
 
 leman (sweet- shelter 
 
 heart) ashes 
 
 widow embers 
 
 neighbour smoulder 
 henchman bed 
 
 carle 
 
 cradle 
 
 swaddle 
 
 pillow 
 
 midwife 
 
 kettle 
 
 bolster 
 
 mingle 
 
 bellows 
 
 bundle 
 
 naked 
 
 kitchen 
 
 slumber 
 
 early 
 
 oven 
 
 taper 
 
 morrow 
 
 hovel 
 
 marrow 
 
 errand 
 
 threshold 
 
 tidbit 
 
 sunder 
 
 tongs 
 
 wallet 
 
 bottom 
 
 ladle 
 
 wassail 
 
 lumber 
 
 flagon 
 
 fiddle 
 
 besom 
 
 ewer 
 
 welcome 
 
 gossip 
 
 bucket 
 
 token 
 
 riddle 
 
 tippet 
 breeches 
 
 attire : 
 hat 
 shirt 
 
 feelings : 
 
 harm (lit. grief) wonder 
 hunger weary 
 
 sorrow bitter 
 
 anger tear 
 
 drawers 
 stockings 
 
 Bmile 
 blain 
 blush 
 laugh 
 
 weeds 
 shoes 
 
 groan 
 weep 
 yearn 
 burden 
 
 37. 1 1 . From the same source are derived the names 
 of the familiar objects of sense, and the familiar 
 movements of moving things : 
 
DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. 
 
 Natural Objects, <kc. t Plants and Animals: 
 
 sun 
 
 morass hollyhock 
 
 godwit 
 
 moon 
 star 
 
 stream ivy 
 land kernel 
 
 goose 
 hen 
 
 welkin 
 
 sea linden 
 
 herring 
 
 world 
 
 billow medlar 
 
 hornet 
 
 fire 
 
 eddy misletoe 
 
 laverock 
 
 water 
 
 earth mugwort 
 
 linnet 
 
 day 
 
 dingle nettle 
 
 lobster 
 
 night 
 morn 
 
 mildew Pppy 
 brimstone sallow 
 
 louse 
 maggot 
 
 even 
 
 iron sorrel 
 
 marten 
 
 twilight 
 
 silver teasel 
 
 mouldwarp (a mole) 
 
 light 
 
 pearl thistle 
 
 mouse 
 
 heat 
 cold 
 
 pebble turnip 
 acorn walnut 
 
 otter 
 ousel (a blackbird) 
 
 rain 
 
 aspen willow 
 
 owlet 
 
 snow 
 
 apple yarrow 
 
 oyster 
 
 storm 
 wind 
 
 barley adder 
 berry barnacle 
 
 peacock 
 periwinkle (whelk) 
 
 thaw 
 
 bramble beaver 
 
 raven 
 
 frost 
 
 blade beetle 
 
 reindeer 
 
 cloud 
 
 blossom chafer 
 
 ruddock (a redbreast) 
 
 shower 
 
 briar chicken 
 
 sparrow 
 
 thunder 
 
 bristle cockle 
 
 starling 
 
 lightning 
 
 cluster culver (a dove) 
 
 swallow 
 
 weather 
 
 daisy duck 
 
 tadpole 
 
 summer 
 
 elder emmet 
 
 throstle (the thrush) 
 
 winter 
 
 elm eyry 
 
 turtle 
 
 harvest 
 
 fennel feather 
 
 weasel 
 
 hill 
 
 hemlock fish 
 
 weevil (an insect) 
 
 dale 
 
 honey fowl 
 
 whelk 
 
 wood 
 
 holly fox 
 
 worm 
 
 Names 
 
 of parts of the body : 
 
 
 body 
 
 whiskers elbow 
 
 sinew 
 
 head 
 
 throat finger 
 
 shank 
 
 ear 
 
 lungs knuckle 
 
 pimple 
 
 eye 
 
 weasand (the midriff 
 
 wrinkle 
 
 tongue 
 neck 
 
 windpipe) liver 
 bosom navel 
 
 tetter (a scab) 
 sight 
 
 lip 
 
 nipple belly 
 
 touch 
 
 chin 
 
 heel bladder 
 
 taste 
 
 limb 
 
 ham thumb 
 
 heart 
 
 hair 
 
 hand ankle 
 
 smell 
 
 nail 
 
 ihoulder bone 
 
 flesh 
 
THINGS DENOTED BY NATIVE WORDS. 
 
 221 
 
 Familiar actions : 
 
 hearken 
 
 hinder 
 
 leap 
 
 learn 
 
 linger 
 
 listen 
 
 rimple 
 
 rinse 
 
 rumple 
 
 sit 
 
 stand 
 
 lie 
 
 walk 
 
 run 
 
 leap 
 
 stagger 
 
 stride 
 
 yawn 
 
 gape 
 
 wink 
 
 answer 
 
 behave 
 
 bluster 
 
 burrow 
 
 clip 
 
 defile 
 
 elope 
 
 fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fold 
 
 gather 
 
 gibber 
 
 giggle 
 
 glisten 
 
 glitter 
 
 gripe 
 
 grope 
 
 handle 
 
 hang 
 
 harry 
 
 fly. 
 
 swim 
 
 creep 
 
 crawl 
 
 hobble 
 
 follow 
 
 bellow 
 
 hollo 
 
 jabber 
 
 snivel 
 
 stammer 
 
 whisper 
 
 whig 
 
 whoop 
 
 scatter 
 
 scufflle 
 
 shuffle 
 
 smother 
 
 spatter 
 
 sprinkle 
 
 straddle 
 
 straggle 
 
 swallow 
 
 trundle 
 
 tumble 
 
 twinkle (with 
 
 the eyes) 
 wander 
 welter 
 wheeze 
 whiff 
 whimper 
 whip 
 whir 
 whirl 
 whisk 
 whittle 
 worry 
 wrangle 
 wrestle 
 
 gnarled 
 grisly 
 grim 
 
 handsome 
 hard 
 heavy 
 lean 
 A few of the mental habits and characteristics 
 
 barren 
 black 
 blue 
 brinded (streaked) 
 brittle 
 broad 
 buxom 
 
 callow 
 comely 
 dingy 
 dwindle 
 even 
 garish 
 ghastly 
 
 bold 
 
 busy 
 
 chary 
 
 cunning 
 
 dizzy 
 
 doughty 
 
 earnest 
 
 fickle 
 
 frolic 
 
 froward 
 
 fulsome 
 
 giddy 
 
 dy 
 ag 
 idle 
 leasing (lies) 
 merry 
 nimble 
 
 lukewarm 
 
 narrow 
 
 pretty 
 
 rough 
 
 sallow 
 
 uncouth 
 
 white 
 
 silly 
 
 sulky 
 
 surly 
 
 stalwart 
 
 wheedle 
 
 wicked 
 
 But for states of the mind that have not a strong outward 
 expression, the native vocabulary is very scantily supplied ; 
 such as the various modes of thought and intelligence. ' Think', 
 ' mind ', ' believe ', ' trust ', and a few others are to be found, 
 but the great mass of words for the mental operations are of 
 classical origin. 
 
 This rule may be otherwise expressed by saying that the 
 names of the objective world are, by preference, native ; of 
 the subjective world, by preference, classical. 
 
222 
 
 DERIVATION. SOURCES OF WORDS. 
 
 38. III. The kinds of Industry practised by 
 our ancestors are shown by the names that have 
 come down to us. 
 
 Thus in agriculture and its allied operations : 
 
 acre farm 
 
 hedge sickle 
 
 bacon farrow (litter 
 
 heifer sow (n. and v.) 
 
 barm of pigs) 
 
 hen steer 
 
 barn fen 
 
 horse stirrup 
 
 barrow fern 
 
 hurdle tallow 
 
 boar field 
 
 loaf tame 
 
 braird fodder 
 
 mare thrash 
 
 bread furrow 
 
 mattock twibill 
 
 bridle gander 
 
 meadow udder 
 
 bull garlic 
 
 nettle waggon 
 
 calf goose 
 
 orchard wattle 
 
 clover grass 
 
 ox weed 
 
 cock grow 
 cow halter 
 
 pig wethei 
 plough wheat 
 
 corn harrow 
 
 rat whelp 
 
 cud haulm 
 
 reap whey 
 
 ear (v and n) haw 
 
 runner winnow 
 
 fallow hay 
 
 saddle wither 
 
 In the other industrial arts : 
 
 addice (adze) ferry 
 
 needle staple 
 
 angle (to fish) furlong 
 
 oakum swivel 
 
 anvil habergeon 
 arrow hammer 
 
 peat target 
 pier timber 
 
 board 1 harbour 
 
 raddle (to twist) tower 
 
 boat haven 
 
 riddle (sieve) ' turf 
 
 coal hauberk 
 
 scavenger wear 
 
 cobble (a boat) ladder 
 distaff leather 
 
 sempster weave 
 shackle web 
 
 earn level 
 
 shuttle wharf 
 
 fathom madder 
 
 slaughter wheel 
 
 *elly nail 
 
 shambles whittle 
 
 Bearing more particularly upon trade and commerce ; borrow, 
 buy, chapman, cheap, dear, firkin, handsel, narket, monger, 
 farthing, pedlar, penny, shilling, reckon, sell. 
 
 39. IV. The civil and religious Institutions 
 of our ancestors are indicated in their language : 
 alderman bury fetter hustings 
 
 beadle corsnead (in trial fiend lady 
 
 bode by ordeal) gallows lord 
 
 borough earl hamlet murder 
 
THINGS DENOTED BY NATIVE WORDS. 223 
 
 ordeal Friday heathen whitsuntide 
 
 sheriff Saturday heaven witch 
 
 Sunday caster king witness 
 
 Monday gospel lammaa worship 
 
 Tuesday hallow steeple yeoman 
 
 Wednesday holy steward wapentake 
 
 Thursday holiday thrall queen 
 
 40. V. National Proverbs are naturally ex- 
 pressed in words derived from our primitive speech. 
 
 41. VI. The language of invective, contempt, 
 pleasantry, humour, satire, and colloquial wit 
 
 is home made. 
 
 The strong terms, 'curse', 'darling', 'dastard', 'fangle', 
 'lazy', 'nidget' (a coward), 'rascal', 'shabby', 'slut', 'sly', 
 ' ugly ', are of native growth. 
 
 42. VII. The particular or individual objects 
 of nature, as opposed to the general or abstract, are 
 named by native words. 
 
 This is merely the second rule in another aspect. Thus the 
 specific movements, 'creep', 'fly', 'run', 'walk', &c., are 
 English ; but the general idea is expressed by a Latin word 
 'motion'. 'Black', 'blue', 'green', 'red', 'yellow', &c., 
 are English: 'colour' is Latin. 'Buzz', 'growl', 'grunt', 'hiss', 
 * hum ', 'roar', ' rustle *, ' sing ', ' speak ', 'squeak ', ' whistle ', 
 &c. , are English : ' sound is Latin. So while specific modes of 
 wrongdoing are English ' kill ', ' lie ', ' murder ', ' rob ', ' theft ', 
 the general terms ' crime ', ' injury ', ' offence ', are Latin. 
 The special numbers are English : the general word ' number ' 
 is Latin. 
 
 43. These rules must be taken with some 
 latitude, and are not to be employed as absolutely 
 decisive of the origin of any given word. 
 
 For although the more familiar objects of sense and of the 
 outer world are described by English names, we have appropri- 
 ated classical names to add to our means of expressing the same 
 'things ; as ' animal ', ' beast ', ' chapel ', ' commerce '. ' country', 
 ' district ', ' face ', ' family ', ' firmament ', ' forest ', ' furniture', 
 ' garment ', ' lake ', ' minute ', ' mountain ', ' mutton ', ' palace ', 
 ' people ', ' plain ', ' river ', ' season ', ' serpent ', ' stomach ', 
 and innumerable others. 
 
224 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 44. Foreign names came in with foreign 
 objects or facts. 
 
 It has been seen that when articles or occupations were im- 
 ported from other nations, the names, as was to be expected, 
 came too. 
 
 45. Native words are seldom general. 
 
 A few of our own Saxon words have been employed as terms 
 of the highest generality ; as ' being ', ' well-being ', ' truth ', 
 'falsehood', 'will', 'feeling', 'good , 'evil', 'right', 'wrong'. 
 
 This, however, is rare. We might, like the Germans, have 
 constrained our native vocabulary to serve for general and ab- 
 stract terms, but we have preferred to derive these from the 
 classical sources. We also in many instances use a native word 
 and also the corresponding words in Greek and Latin : ' good ', 
 'moral', 'ethical'; 'one', 'unit', 'monad'; 'truth', 'prin- 
 ciple ', ' axiom ' ; ' happiness ', ' felicity ; ' ' glue ', ' viscid', 
 ' colloid '. 
 
 In all such cases the Latin and Greek words serve to indicate 
 new meanings or shades of meaning, thereby extending our voca- 
 bulary. The use of a different word is always accompanied with 
 the tendency to restrict its application to Some particular phase 
 of the general idea. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 I . Most of the words of the language are compounds, 
 The process of composition takes place in two 
 ways : first, by adding to the simple words syllables-^ 
 or words, called prefixes, and suffixes or endings, which 
 may or may not have an independent existence; as| 
 * out-run ', ' one-fy ' (only) - y and secondly, by putting ' 
 together words that have each an independent meaning ; , 
 as ' break-water ', ' lion-hunter '. 
 
 As regards the first process, there are a number of 
 recognised prefixes and suffixes habitually employed in 
 forming compound words, nearly all of them imparting 
 a definite signification to the compounds. 
 
NATIVE PREFIXES. 225 
 
 Prefixes. 
 
 2. English Prefixes. The prefixes of native 
 origin used for all purposes may be enumerated as 
 follows : 
 
 a. (!) A shortened form of the preposition ' on ', * an ' : 
 ' aback, abed, afield, afoot, alive, aside, ashore, away '. 
 The full form remains in ' ajient ', ' anon ', * anvil'* 
 The other cases are much less important. 
 
 (2) a (Gothic MS), 'out of ', 'from', 'away', 'up': 'aghast, 
 ago, alight, arise, arouse, awake '. The force of this prefix 
 naturally becomes merely intensive. 
 
 (3) a, 0. E. a ( ' ever ', ' always ', * aye ') : ' aught' ( a-iviht}. 
 This a- is now disguised in ' each ', ' either ', ' ever \ ' one '- 
 
 * Ought ' (not the verb) is the same word as ' aught '. 
 
 (4) a = 0. E. ge, y, i : ' afford, alike, along (of), among, 
 anough (enough), aware '. * Alike ' and ' among ' were also in- 
 fluenced by ' on ' (' an ', ' a ' : a (!)) The ge of the past part. 
 \vas often modified to a- ; still a not uncommon provincialism. 
 
 (5) a (ohler and), 'back': 'abide, acknowledge, again, 
 against, along '. The older form remains less abridged in 
 
 * awiswer ' and ' ambassador ' . 
 
 (6) a, shortened for cet, ' at ' : ' agaze '. ' Afore ' may l^e 
 either O.E. ' tetforan ' or ' orcforan '. 
 
 *Af before the infinitive appears in 'ado'. (Compare 
 
 * affair ', 4, under ad). 
 
 (7) a, shortened from of, af, ' off ', ' from ' : ' odown (0. E, 
 of dune, ' from the down or hill '), afar (=qffcor), akin, anew '. 
 
 In a few words, it is intensive, = ' very ', ' exceedingly ' : 
 
 * acold, ahungered, ashamed, athirst, aweary '. 
 
 after : ' afternoon ', ' afterthought '. 
 
 all (all) : ' almighty *, ' alone ', ' although ', ' always '. It is 
 obscured in ' as ' (al-so). 
 
 at, the preposition : ' atone '. 
 
 The -< falls away in a few cases ; see a (6), above. The a- 
 is dropt in 'wit', (O.E. aztwitan, 'to reproach'; lit. to know 
 (witan) something against (cet) ). 
 
 be, by, the prep, ' by ', taken as such, or used adverbially. 
 
 1. In Nouns. 'jBelialf, behest, behoof '; oftenest, however, 
 in the form ' by ', ' Z>?/-name, bystander, byword '. 
 
 'j5?/-law', or ' bye-law ', is connected by some with the Scan- 
 dinavian by ('hamlet ') : a law made by a hamlet or township 
 for the regulation of its own affairs. 
 
 2. In Verbs, ' be ' retains much of its original force : 'around, 
 about, over, upon, t ^ ' i and generally expresses the fact of 
 
 15 
 
226 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 communicating to an object the prominent qualities indicated 
 by the other part of the compound. 
 
 (1) Be + noun : 'fteeloud, bedew, befriend, betroth', &c., 
 all transitive. 
 
 In one, ' ftehead ', be has privative force. 
 
 (2) Be + adjective : ' becalm, bedim '. 
 
 (3) Be + verb. With transitive verbs, the sense of be = 
 ' about ', *over ', * upon ', is sometimes very distinct, and always 
 to some degree intensive : ' bedaub, begird, beset, besmear, be- 
 sprinkle ; behold, beseech, bestir, bestow, dedeck, dedazzle '. 
 The meaning of the new verb is also transitive. With intransi- 
 tive verbs, ' be ' still maintains the same sense, and sometimes 
 renders the new verb transitive : ' bemoan, bespeak, bestride, 
 bethink '. At other times, it signifies more pointedly direction 
 towards an end, and the new verb then often remains intransi- 
 tive : ' become, befall, behove, belong, betake, betide '. 
 
 3. In Adverbs (sometimes becoming prepositions or conjunc- 
 tions) : ' because, before, behind, betimes, between '. 
 
 Bul (large) : ' bulrush '. 
 
 For (O.K. for- : cp. German ver, Lat. per and pro), 'through, 
 thoroughly ', intensive ; then the contrary, ' wroiigness, per- 
 version, privation, prohibition'. 
 
 Prefixed to verbs: 'forbear, forbid, for(e)fend, forget, for- 
 give, for(e)go, forlorn, forsake, forswear '. 
 
 This prefix is at bottom the same word as the following, 'fore '. 
 
 Fore (0. E. fore : cp. Germ, vor, Lat. pro and pros) : before, 
 in front, previous. 
 
 Nouns : '/oreground, forehead ; forenoon \ 
 
 Verbs : '/orebode, foreordain, foresee, forewarn '. 
 
 Forth: '/oncoming'. 
 
 Ful (full) : 'fulfill ; full-blown, fullgrown '. 
 
 Gain (back, against) : ' gainsay '. 
 
 In, im (in, into, within) : ' inborn, inbred, income, inland, 
 inlay, inside, insight ' ; ' imbed, imbitter, imbody, imbrown, 
 imbrue '. 
 
 ' In, im ' has sometimes given place to the Romance en, em : 
 ' endear, enkindle, enliven, enshroud, entangle, entrust, en- 
 twine ' ; * embed, embitter, embody, embolden, embosom, em- 
 bower '. 
 
 The force of the prefix is frequently intensive, sometimes 
 perhaps (though not necessarily) causative. 
 
 Mis (wrong, ill, failure) : ' ?m'sbehave, misgive, mislay, mis- 
 lead, misname, mistrust ; misdeed'. 
 
 ' Mis ' is joined at will to words of classical origin : ' misapply, 
 miscall, miscount, misinterpret, misplace '. 
 
 But in certain apparent cases of this nature, the ' mis ' is 
 really of classical origin. (See 4, under mis). 
 
NATIVE PREFIXES. 227 
 
 Ne (not) : ' naught, nought, not, nay, neither, never, none, 
 nor '. 
 
 Off : 'offal (=o^-fall), offset, offshoot, offspring '. See modi- 
 fied forms under a (7), above. 
 
 On : ' onlooker, onset, onslaught '. 
 
 For modified forms see a (1), above ; and un (3), "below. 
 
 Out (O.E. ut), opposite to ' in ' ; ' beyond, excelling '. ' Out- 
 break, outcast, outfit, outpour, outside, outhouse ; outdoor, 
 outlaw ; outspread, outstretch ; outbid, outdo, outlast, outlive, 
 outrun, outvote '. 
 
 Over (0. E. qfer), ' above, beyond, excess, down '. ' Over- 
 arch, overflow, overhang, overlap ; otwhear, oversight ; orer- 
 board ; orercoat ; overdue, overwise ; overdraw, over-estimate, 
 overload, overwork ; overbear, overthrow, overturn '. 
 
 Thorough, ' from side to side ; completely '. ' Thorough- 
 fare ; thoroughbred, thoroughpaced '. 
 
 To (the, this); 'to-day, to-morrow, to-night'. 
 
 To (the prep. ) : ' together '. 
 
 To (Germ, zer, Lat. dis), 'asunder, in pieces', was veiy 
 common in O.E. 'A certain woman cast a piece of millstone 
 upon Abimelech's head, and all to brake his skull ' (Judges 
 ix. 53) : 'all (^altogether, quite) to (in pieces) brake', &c. 
 
 Twi (two) : ' ftiilight '. 
 
 Un. (1) (O.E. on-, Gothic and-, Germ. ent-) t ' back; reversal 
 of an action '. 
 
 ' Z7?ibind, undo, unfold, unhand, unhorse, unlearn, unsay '. 
 With verbs of classical origin, freely : ' unfix, unnerve, un- 
 people, untune, unyoke'. 
 
 In ' wdoose ', the prefix is intensive ('back', 'away'), 'loose* 
 itself implying reversal. (Cp. the cases where and-, on, has be- 
 come a; above, a (5).). 
 
 Un. (2) (O.E. un), not. Nouns : ' unbelief, unreason, unrest, 
 untruth, un wisdom '. 
 
 Adjectives : ' unfair, unwise, unknown, unseen '. 
 
 Un. (3) (on) : 'unless, until, unto '. 
 
 Under, below ; too little or deficiency ; support. ' Under- 
 current, undergrowth ; underground ; imderestimate, undersell ; 
 underhand; undergo, understand, undertake '. 
 
 Up : ' wpheave, uphold, uplift, uproot ; uproar, upshot, up- 
 start ; jt?hill ; upland '. ' Upbraid '. 
 
 Wan (root of ' wan, wane, want ', &c.), wanting. Cp. un. 
 
 Our only remaining example is ' wanton ' =. wan-towcn or 
 -togen, l untrained, undisciplined, wild ', from teon (draw, lead). 
 There were many in O.E. : 'wanhal ' (unhealthy) ; ' 
 (wnhope, despair). 
 
 Wei, well : welfare, well-being, well-bred '. 
 
228 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 With (against, back ; opposition) : withdraw, withhold, 
 withstand '. 
 
 Sometimes a letter has been prefixed for greater ease or ful- 
 ness of pronunciation, especially s : 'scratch, scream, skip, smelt, 
 sneeze, snip, splash, squabble, squash, squeamish, squeeze, 
 swear, sword '. 
 
 On the other hand, a letter is sometimes dropt. Gif is now 
 'if ' ; genoh has become ' enough ', gelic, ' alike ' (see a (4)), and 
 ge- has disappeared from past participles. Similarly, initial g and 
 k, though written, are not pronounced before n : 'grnarl, knee '. 
 Compare also ' knit ' and ' net ', ' knot ' and ' node '. Initial h, 
 while often silent before a vowel, has fallen away before I, n, r : 
 ' laugh (O.E. 'Alilihan'), lord (O.E. '/da ford'), loud (Mud); 
 neck (/mecca) ; raven (Araefn), rough (/z-reoli), ring (Tiring), ridge 
 (Arycg) '. So, 'it' was formerly 'hit', and 'ostler' was 'Hostler '. 
 Initial iv is not used now before I : ' (w)lisp ' ; and it is not 
 pronounced before r : ' wreck, write '. 
 
 ' Orange ' dropt initial n from a mistaken association with 
 Lat. aurum (gold). In other cases there has been a transference 
 of n to or from the article : ' an ?iadder ' is now ' an adder ' ; ' a 
 nap(e)ron 'is ' an apron ' ; while ' an ewt' has become ' a newt', 
 and ' an ouch ', ' a ?iouch '. ' A ?iag ' may be for ' an ag ' (cp. 
 Lat. cquus}. 
 
 3. Classical Prefixes. There are a number of 
 prefixes derived from the classical languages. Such of 
 them as are still employed to form new compounds 
 may be considered English prefixes ; as ' ante ' in 
 ' antedate '. 
 
 Some, of the Latin and Greek prefixes and suffixes are known 
 only as parts of the words that they are found in, and we never 
 think of their separate meaning, nor employ them to make new 
 combinations. Such are the Greek ' a ' in ' atrophy ', ' anarchy ' ; 
 ' cata ' in ' catastrophe ', and many others. A good many of 
 the Latin prefixes and suffixes, and a small number of the 
 Greek, may be regarded as of living application, being adopted 
 in their separate character into the English language. 
 
 4. The following Prefixes are from the Latin. 
 Many of the secondary forms are due to French 
 influence. 
 
 ab, a, abs (from, away from): *J>ject, abhor, abolish, 
 abound, absolve, absorb, abuse ; amanuensis, avert, avocation, 
 avoid - t abscess, abscond, absent, abstract '. 
 
ROMANCE PREFIXES. 229 
 
 , The prefix is disguised in ' advance, advantage, avaunt, van ' 
 all through Fr. avant (Lat. ab + ante). 
 
 Compare 'abridge' and ' abbreviate ', the first through Fr. 
 abrdycr, the other direct, from Lat. abbreviare. " ^ssoilzie ', in 
 Scots law, comes through Fr. from Lat ab-solvere. 
 
 ad, a, Fr. a (to), with numerous assimilations ac, af, ag, 
 al, an, ap, ar, as, at : ' address, adhere, admit, adore, 
 adulation, adverse (ad, here, = ' to ' in hostile sense, ' against '), 
 advert ; abandon, adroit, agree, a-l-loy (Fr. a la loi), amass, 
 ascend, apart, avalanche, avenue ; accede, acclaim, account, 
 acquit; a-f-fair (Fr. dfaire), aj feet, affirm, affront; aggravate, 
 aggrieve : aZlege, allow, ally ; annihilate, annul ; appal, 
 apparel, approve ; arbiter, arrange, arrear ; ascertain, assent, 
 assist ; attempt, attract '. 
 
 ' ^-1-arm ', 'a-l-ert' are from Ital., through Fr. 'Aid' is 
 Lat. adjutare. New formations : ' admeasurement, attune '. 
 The prefix has been dropt in ' raiment, size, cess (assess) '. 
 
 ambi, amb, am, an (both, on both or all sides) : ' amMent, 
 ambiguous, ambition, ambulance, amputate, ancipital '. 
 
 ante (before) : ' a?iccedent, antedate, anteroom '. 
 
 ' v4?/i!icipate ' must not be referred to the Greek prefix ' anti ' : 
 it brought the i from the Lat. ' Ante ' is at the root of 
 * anterior, antique, antic ; ancient '. 
 
 bene (well) : ' benefit, ocrtevolent, benign '. 
 
 bi, bis, bini (twice, two by two) : ' fo'ennial, bifurcate, bisect, 
 bivalve ; biscuit, bissextile ; binocular '. New compounds. 
 
 ' Pimpernel ' is a curious corruption : Fr. pimprcncl/e, Ital. 
 pimpinella, low Lat. bipinnella, from bipennis, ' two-winged ', 
 ' double-leaved '. 
 
 circum, circu (about, round) : ' circumcise, circumlocution, 
 circumscribe; circuit'. New compounds. 
 
 com (Lat. cum, orig. com, 'with, together'; often little 
 more than intensive) ; also as col, COn, COI, and CO : ' co?nbat, 
 combine, commit, compound ; collapse, colleague, collide ; 
 conceal, concede, concentrate, concur, condemn, consanguineous, 
 contract, correct, corrupt ; cognate, cognition, co-operate, co- 
 ordinate, co-partner, covenant'. New formations abundant, 
 especially with co : ' commingle, compatriot ; correspond, 
 correlate ; co-pastor, co-tenant, co-worker ', &c. 
 
 The prefix is further modified, or even obscured, in a f&w 
 words : cogent (Lat. co-tujent-), cost (0. Fr. covster, ItaL 
 coatare, Lat. constarc), costive (Ital. costipativo, Lat. constipare), 
 costume (through Fr. and Ital., from Lat. con.nu'tudinem), couch 
 (Fr. coucher, O. Fr. colcher, Lat. collocare), council, counsel, 
 count (verb : 0. Fr. conter, Lat. compittare), count (noun, title: 
 Fr. comte, Lat. comitem, from com-itum, ' go with '), countenance, 
 
230 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OP WORDS 
 
 couple and copula (co- root ap, to join), cousin (Fr., from 
 Lat. consobrinus), cover (Fr. couvrir, Lat. co-operire), cull 
 (Fr. cueillir, Lat. collijere), curry (Fr. corroyer, Ital. corred- 
 are ; root red = prepare, make ' ready',) custom (Fr. coulume, 
 Ital. and Lat. costuma, from Lat. cottsuctudinem), quail (Ital. 
 quagliare, Fr. cailler, 0. Fr. coailler, Lat. coagiilare), quaint 
 (Fr. coitt, Lat. comptus). 
 
 contra, COntro, N. Fr. counter (Lat. contra, from con ; 
 Fr. contre, ' against ') : ' co?z/radict, contrast ; controversy ; 
 counterfeit, countermand '. 
 
 New formations : ' contraband, contradistinguish, contra- 
 vene ; controvert; counteract, counterbalance, counterpoise, -scarp, 
 -sign, -vail', &c. 
 
 Hence ' contrary '. ' Counter ' is used as an independent 
 adv. and adj. 'Country ' is ' the land opposite you,' Fr. contrte, 
 Lat. contrata. Compare Germ, gegend from geycn. ' Country- 
 dance ' is a corruption of Fr. ' eowfo-e-danse ' (the partners being 
 ranged in lines facing each other). ' Control ', Fr. controle, = 
 contre-role, ' counter roll '. 
 
 de (down, away, from) : decay, declare, deduct, deject, 
 delegate, deny, descend '. While often merely intensive, it 
 sometimes indicates deficiency or reverses the root meaning : 
 
 * depletion, depopulate, demented'. 
 
 A large number of words derive initial de- from ' dis ' (French 
 dfs, de, de), which is merely another form ' de '. ' Ztebonair ' 
 and ' demure ' contain ' de ' as preposition. 
 
 New compounds are common : ' debase, decipher, decom- 
 pound, default, denationalise ', &c. ; and in technical words like 
 
 * ctecarbonise, deodorize ', &c. 
 
 demi (Fr. ; Lat. dimidium, half) : ' demigod '. 
 
 di, dis, Fr. des, de (asunder, in two), with assimilation to 
 dif- : ' rfzgress, diligent, dilute, diverge ; disbelieve, disfavour, 
 dislike, dismember, disloyal, disturb ; differ, difficult. 
 
 Descant, descry, deshabille, despatch. 
 
 Defer, defy, delay (Lat. dilatum), deluge (Lat. diluvium), &c. 
 
 ' Dirge ' is a contraction of Lat. dirige. New compounds are 
 abundant, with native as well as with classical roots: ' dilacerate, 
 dipetalous ; disable, disabuse, disadvantage, dishonour, dis- 
 respect, distrust ', &c. 
 
 CC, 6, ex, 0. Fr. es, (e)s (from, out of ; exceeding ; reversal 
 of action), with assimilation to ef- : ' eccentric ; edit, educate, 
 egregious, elect, eminent, enormous (out of, beyond rule or 
 measure), emerge (opp. of ' merge ', lit. plunge out ') ; exact, 
 exasperate, exceed, exculpate, express ; efficient, effete, effigy '. 
 
 Less obvious cases : escape, escheat, essay, issue ; sample, 
 ecarce, scorch, (Fr. escordier (ecorcher), Lat. excorticare, fiv.m 
 
ROMANCE PREFIXES. 231 
 
 corticem, 'bark'), scourge (Fr. escourgde, Lat. excorrigiata), 
 soar (Fr. essorer, Lat. ex-aurare, from aura) ; abash (Fr. 
 esbakir), afraid (Fr. cffrayer, 'terrify', Lat. cxfrigidare), 
 amend ('emend '), award (eswarder, 'look at'), astonish (0. Fr. 
 estonner, Lat. extonare), assay (= 'essay', Fr. essai, Lat. 
 exagium). 
 
 New compounds are especially frequent to express past office : 
 * e#-emperor, ex -may or ', &c. 
 
 equi, equ (equal) : ' equiangular, equilibrium, equinox, 
 equipoise, equivalent ;' equanimity '. 
 
 extra (from ex : without, beyond) : ' mrajudicial, extra- 
 mural, extraordinary ; extra-charge '. 
 
 ' Extra ' forms ' extraneous ', and ' strange '. 
 
 for (Lat. foris, for-, out of doors, out) : '/creeps, forfeit '. 
 
 in (1), (not : comp. un (2), with which it is frequently inter- 
 changed), with modifications to i, il, im, ir : ' inaction, 
 indiscipline, infant, injustice, mactive, infirm, inhuman ; 
 ignoble, ignominy, ignore ; iZlegal, illiberal ; immaculate, 
 impiety, impure ; irrational, irregular, irresponsible '. 
 
 ' .fifaemy ' is Fr. ennemi, Lat. inimicus (in, amicuff). '" 
 
 Compare ' inability ' and ' unable ', ' infidelity ' and ' un~ 
 faithful ', ' injustice ' and ' unjust ', ' incertitude ' and uncer- 
 tainty ', &c. New formations are abundant. 
 
 in (2), Fr. en, em (in, into, upon), with assimilations to il, 
 im, ir ' 'income, increase, incur, induce, infer, innate; 
 illusion, illumine ; imbecile, immerse, impair, import, imprison ; 
 irradiate, irrigate ; enamel, encage, enclose, engrave ; embark, 
 embower, embroil, employ '. 
 
 A good many words have in- or en- ; as ' inquire ' or ' wiquire .'. 
 ' Censer ' and ' print ' want the prefix : comp. ' incense ' and 
 ' MM print '. Disguised forms are : ambush (Fr. embuche, Ital. 
 imboseare, from im, ' in ', bosco, ' bush, wood ')> annoy (Ital. 
 annmare^ Fr. ennuyer, Lat. in-odio), anoint (Fr. en-oindre, Lat. 
 in-unct-). New formations are abundant. 
 
 inter, 0. Fr. enter, (from in : between, among), with 
 assimilation to intel : ' i?i^rcede, interdict, intermarry, 
 interval ; intellect, intelligent ; efiferprise, entertain '. 
 
 intro (from in : within, into the inside) : ' Produce,, 
 intromit, introspection. 
 
 juxta (near to, close by) : 'juxtaposition '. 
 
 magni, magn- (great) : ' magniloquent ; maa?ianimous '. 
 
 male, mal (badly, ill) : 'malefactor, maZtreat' ; and new 
 compounds. 
 
 ' Alaugre ' (in spite of) is Fr. malgre = Lat. male-gratum, 
 ' disagreeable ' ; ' malady ' is from Fr. malade, ' ill ', from Lat. 
 male-aptus. 
 
232 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION" OF WORDS. 
 
 manu, mani, man, Fr, main, man (Lat. manus, hand): 
 
 * wrtvtwfacture, manumit, manuscript ; manifest, manipulate ; 
 mandate ; maintain ; manoeuvre, another form of which, with 
 another sense, is * manure '. 
 
 medi (mid, middle) : 'mediseval, mediterranean '. 
 
 ' Meridian ' is commonly accepted as from mcdius-dies (mid- 
 day). 
 
 mis, 0. F. mes (Lat. minus: less, not, wrongness) : ' mis- 
 adventure, mischance, mischief, miscreant '. It has practi'.rally 
 the same effect as the English ' mis '. 
 
 ne, nec (not), only in l^atin compounds : ' wefarious, 
 ^science, neutral ; negation, negligent, negotiate '. 
 
 non (not ; = ne + conum, irnum, 'not one thing') is very 
 useful in new formations : * nonage ; nonentity, nonsense ; 
 non -political, non-resistance '. 
 
 ob, 0, o(b)S, with assimilations OC, of, op (to, towards, 
 upon ; in the way of ; against, down, away) comes to ns in 
 Latin compounds : ' obdurate, obey, object ; omit ; ostensible ; 
 occasion, occur ; o/fend, offer ; opportune, oppress '. 
 
 ' Office ' (Lat. qffici-um, opi-ficiuin, ' help-making *) is some- 
 times wrongly given as from ' ob '. 
 
 pen (Fr. ; Lat. poem, almost) : 'peninsula penultimate, 
 penumbra'. 
 
 per, Fr. par (through ; thoroughly) : *jtwrceive, perdition, 
 perennial, perplex, pervert ; paramour, pardon '. New 
 formations are common : 'perad venture, perchance, perdurable, 
 peroxide ', &c. 
 
 ' Pellucid ' is an assimilation. ' Pilgrim ' is for Pro- 
 ven^-al 'pelegrin, ltd. pellegrino, Lat. ptrtgrinvs. Compare 
 ' appertain ' and ' joz1;enance ', ' a]^7wrtenance ' (Fr. ' apjwrr- 
 tenance '). ' Pierce ' is a great contraction ; Fr. percer, Ital. 
 pertuyiarej Lat. per-tusum (-tundere). 
 
 post ( ' after ' ; in place, and chiefly in time) : 'postdate, 
 postfix, post-obit, post-pnindial '. 
 
 ''Puny' (' Puisne' (judges) preserves the older and fuller 
 form) = Fr. p-uhie = jneis-ne, Lat. post-natus. 
 
 pre, Lat. pr<fi, Fr. prd : before ; superiority, &c.) : 'pre- 
 caution, precede, precipice, precise, pre-existence, prefer, 
 preordain, presence, prevail '. New compounds are numerous. 
 
 0. Fr. pr-ccher (L,'dt. prcedicare] gives 'preach'. 'Provost' 
 is Fr. precot, Lat. prceposit'tts. ' Provender ' is Fr. pravende, 
 Lat. prti-benda. 
 
 preter (Fr. pre'ter, Lat. prcefer, from prae : past, beyond) : 
 *_p*e/mte, pretermit, pretematural'. 
 
 pro, pol, pot, pur (Lat. pro, Fr. pour, par, same root as 
 proe; before, forwards, forth; in place of, for: comp. English 
 
ROMANCE PREFIXES. 233 
 
 'fore', 'for') : 'proceed, profess, project, propound; wroconsul, 
 pronoun ; ^o/iute ; portend, portrait ; purchase, pursue,- 
 purvey '. 
 
 Contractions are : prompt, proctor (= procurator), proxy, 
 (=. procuracy), prose (Lat. prosa, = pro-vcrsa), prudent 
 (Lat. prudens, = pro-videiis, prune (Fr. provigner, Lat. 
 pro-pagare). 
 
 quasi (as if ; of similar or analogous character) : ' quasi' 
 contract, quasi-intuition '. 
 
 re, re-d (back ; again ; against ; reversal or negation of root 
 meaning) : ' receive, recommend, reconsider ; reclaim, reluc- 
 tant, resist ; reprove, reveal ; ?'e-deem, redound, redundant '. 
 New compounds are formed at will. 
 
 Less obvious cases are : ' rally ' (Lat. re-alligare), ( ?-ampart ' 
 (Fr. rempart, from se r-emparer, 'intrench ourself), 'ransom' 
 (Fr. ran$on ' Lat. redemptionem), ' remnant ' (comp. ' remain '), 
 ' rencounter ', ' render ' (Fr. rendrc, Lat. reddere), ' rent ', 
 ' rest ', ' ruse ' (Fr. ' ruser, reuscr, retiser, Lat. recusare). 
 
 retro (from re : backwards) : ' retrocession, retrograde, 
 retrospect '. 
 . The JFr. form riere gives * rear ' : ' rearguard ', &c. 
 
 S6, Se-d (apart, away) :_ 'seclude, secure, select, separate, 
 sever (Fr. sevrer, Lat. separare), several ; se-d-ition. '. 
 
 According to one conjecture, ' sober ' (Lat. sobrius) is from 
 se-ebriiis, ' not drunk '. ' Sure ' is a Fr. contraction (seiir, seur, 
 sur) of Lat. securus (secure). 
 
 semi (half): 'semicircle, semitone'. 'Sinciput' is from 
 semi-caput. 
 
 sine (later form for se, scd : without) : ' Secure '. Most 
 probably ' sincere ' is not connected with ' sine '. 
 
 Sllb, Fr. SOU, SO (se) (under ; from below ; inferiority), with 
 numerous assimilations, sue, SUf, SUg, sum, sup, sur, SUS : 
 subaltern, sublime, submerge, subsoil, subveit ; sz^cceed, 
 succumb ; suffix, suffuse ; suggest summon ; supplant, supple, 
 support ; surrogate ; susceptible, suspend, sustain ; scwvenir, 
 sojourn (Fr. Sejourner, Ital. s^ygiornare, Lat. sub-diurnare). 
 New formations are abundant. 
 
 'Subtile' (shortened 'sw&tle'), Lat. subtilis sub-texilis, 'finely 
 woven'. 'Sombre', Fr., from Lat. sub-umbra, ' under shade '. 
 
 * Sudden', Fr. soudain, Lat. subitan(e)us, sttbitus, sub-itum (eo), 
 ' to go under, or stealthily '. ' Sumptuous ', from Lat. sumptus 
 (expense), from sumptum (sumo), = sub-emtum \erno , 'take up'). 
 ' Supine', Lat. supinus, from sub. 
 
 ' Surge ', from Lat. surgere = sur-rigere (-regere) ; whence 
 also ' source ', through French. 
 
 SUbter (from sub : under) : ' subterfuge '. 
 
234 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 Super, Fr. sur (above, beyond, superiority, excess) : ' supcr- 
 abundant, superadd, superintend, supernatural, supernumerary; 
 swrcharge, surface (cp. * supermini '), surfeit, surmount, 
 surtout '. New compounds are not uncommon. 
 
 Hence ' superb ' (Lat. superbus), ' superior ', ' supernal '. 
 ' /Sirloin ', Fr. surlonge, from sur-longe, ' over the loin '. 
 
 SUpra (from super : above) : ' su^ramundane, supranatural- 
 ist, suprarenal '. 
 
 Hence 'sovereign' (Fr. souverain, Ital. sovrano), 'somer- 
 sault, somerset, summerset' (corruptions of Fr. soubresaut, 
 Span, sobresalto, Lat. supra-saltus) ; and 'supreme' (Lat. 
 supremus). 
 
 trans, tran, tra, Fr. tres, tra (across, over, through, 
 
 beyond) : ' transact, transatlantic, transfer, transit, transship ; 
 tranquil, transcend, transcribe, transom ; tradition, traduce, 
 tramontane (as well as ' ^nwismontane ' : conip. 'w&ramontane') ; 
 trespass, traverse, travesty'. 
 
 'Traitor' (Fr. traitre, Lat. traditor), * treachery' (0. E. 
 trcchour, Prov. trachar, Lat. tradere), 'treason' (O. Fr. traison, 
 Fr. trahison, Lat. traditionem), may be compared with ' tradi- 
 tion '. 
 
 ' Trance ', or ' transe ', Fr. transe, Lat. transitiis. * Travel ' 
 and ' travail ', from Fr. travail (orig. a break for vicious horses), . 
 from Lat. trabaculum, from trabs (a beam). 
 
 tri, tre ; ter- (Lat. treis, tris, tres; ter: three, thrice); 
 ' triangle, tribe, tricolour, trident, triple, tripod, trivial ; treble, 
 trefoil, trellis (Fr. treillis, Lat. trilicem, tres-licium, ' three- 
 twilled ') ; tercentenary '. ' Trammel 'is Fr trenail, formerly 
 tre mail, from Lat. tremaculum, from tres- macula, ' three -mesh . 
 
 From term, trim (three by three) come ' ternary ', ' trinity '., 
 
 Ultra (beyond) : ' w&raliberal, ultramarine '. 
 
 ' Outrage ' is Fr. ; 0. Fr. oultrage, low Lat. ultragium. 
 
 Un, uni (one) : ' wwanimous ; wm'corn, unison, universe '. 
 
 Hence ' union, unique, unit, unite, unity, Unitarian '. 
 
 veh, V6 (negatives or reverses the root meaning) : 'veh-e> 
 ment ' (lit. ' not reasonable '). 
 
 ' Widow ', Lat. vidua, is generally given as from ve (without), 
 dhava (husband) ; better, from root -vid (separate) in ' divide ', 
 &c. 
 
 vice, Fr. vis (in place of) : ' wee-admiral, vice-chairman,. 
 viceroy ; Discount '. New compounds are frequent. 
 
 Hence ' vicar '. 
 
 6. The following are the Greek Prefixes : 
 
 am phi (both, on both sides: Lat. amb, 0. E. ymb, umbe,- 
 Germ. urn): ' amphibious, amphitheatre'. 
 
GREEK PREFIXES. 235 
 
 an, a (negative : Lat. in, Engl. un) : ' awarchy, anecdote, 
 anodyne, anonymous ; abyss, adamant, amnesty, apathy, 
 asylum '. 
 
 ana (up, back, again) : ' anabaptist, anachronism, anaglyph, 
 analysis, anatomy '. 
 
 anti (against) : 'antidote, antipathy ; a?iagonist'. 'Anthem', 
 0. E. antcfn, antcm, is the same word as ' antiphon '. 
 
 New formations : antipope, anti-slavery, &c. 
 
 apo (from, away : Lat. ab, Engl. off} : ' apocalypse, apogee, 
 apology, apoplexy, apostasy, apostle ; aphelion, aphorism '. 
 
 arch (chief) : ' archangel, arc7ibishop, architect '. New 
 formations : arch-conspirator, arch-heretic, &c. 
 
 auto (self) : ' allograph, autonomy ; authentic '. 
 
 cata (down) : ' catalogue, catarrh, catastrophe ; cafar&ct, 
 catechise ; mtfhedral, catholic. ' Chair ' is Fr. chaire, Lat. and 
 Gr. cathedra. 
 
 dia, di (through : connected with Lat. dis, de] : ' diadem, 
 diagnosis, diameter ; diocese, o'torama '. Compare ' oYaconate ', 
 and ' deacon ' (Greek diakouos) ; ' diabolical ' and ' devil ' (Gr. 
 diabolos, O.E. deofol). 
 
 ' Diamond ' is an accidental similarity : Fr. diamant, Gr. 
 a*damant- (see an, a). 
 
 di (two, twice) : ' digraph, dilemma, dipthong, diploma, 
 distich '. ' Di-s-syllable should have only one s. 
 
 dys (hard, ill) : ' dysentery, dispepsia '. 
 
 6C, ex (from, out of) : 'ecclesiastic, eclectic, eclipse, ecstasy ; 
 regesis, exodus '. 
 
 en, em, el (Gr. en, in) : 'encyclopaedia, endemic, energy, 
 enthusiasm ; emblem, embryo, emphasis, emporium ; eZlipse '.. 
 
 epi, ep (upon) : ' epidemic, epigram, episcopal, epistle, 
 epitaph ; ephemeral '. 
 
 CU (well) : ' ewcharist, eulogy, euthanasia '. 
 
 The v in * evangel-ic, -ical, -ist', &c., is due to Latin. 
 
 hemi (Lat. semi : half) : ' ^?nz'sphere, hemistich '. 
 
 hyper (Lat. super, Germ, iiber, Engl. over(comp. up, upper) : 
 over, beyond, excess) : ' A^^borean, hypercritical'. 
 
 hypo, hyp (Lat. sub: under) : ' hypocrite, hypothec, 
 hypothesis ; Ay^hen '. 
 
 meta, met (among, with ; after ; change) : ' wctomorphose, 
 metaphor, metaphysics ; metsil, mettle, meteor, method '. 
 
 micro (small) : ' microcosm (opposed to * macrocosm '), 
 microphone, microscope. 
 
 mono, mon (alone) : ' monogamy, monograph, monomania, 
 monotone ; monarch, monody '. 
 
 pan, panto (all) : '^?aworama, pantheism, pantomime '. 
 
 para, par (beside, against) : parable, paradox, paragraph ; 
 ^/enthesis, parhelion, parish, parody'. 
 
236 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OP WORDS. 
 
 ' Parabola, parable, parlance, parley, parliament, parlour, 
 parole ' all from Gr. parabole, some of them through low Lat. 
 parabolare, Ital. parlare, FT. parlcr. 
 
 peri (round) : 'pericardium, period, peripatetic '. 
 
 'Pm'winkle' (plant) is 0. E. pineunncle, penance, Fr. per- 
 vert che, Lat. perrinca, or vincapervinca, from per and vincio 
 (bind). _ 'Periwig' is a corruption of 'peruke'. Neither has any 
 connexion with Gr. peri. 
 
 philo (friendly to) : 'philo- Athenian, philo-Spartan ' (Grote). 
 
 poly (man}') : 'polygamy, polygon, polytheism '. 
 
 pro (-before) : 'problem, proem, programme, prologue'. 
 
 pros (towards) : 'proselyte, prosody '. 
 
 pseudo (false) : 'pseudonym, pseudo-martyr'. 
 
 Syn (comp. Lat. cum : with), modified to syl, Sym, sy : 
 ' synagogue, synod, synopsis (comp. Lat. conspectus), syntax ; 
 syllable sympathy; system. '. 
 
 Derivation of the Parts of Speech. 
 
 THE NOUN. 
 
 6. Root Nouns. Some Nouns are simple, 
 primitive, or underived words. These are sometimes 
 called roots ; as eye ', * ear ', ' hand ', foot ', cow ', 
 'sheep', 'heart/ 'hope*. 
 
 These are root words as far as concerns English grammar 
 In the comparison of languages they may sometimes be traced 
 to forms still more radical or fundamental. To do so is the 
 province of comparative grammar, or philology. 
 
 7. Derived Nouns are formed from simple Nouns, 
 from Adjectives and from Verbs 
 
 The means of formation are : (1) Internal modification 
 change in the vowel, or in the consonants, or in both ; (2) 
 Prefixes ; and (3) Suffixes or Endings. 
 
 Adjectives are very commonly used as Nouns by simple 
 omission of the nouns they should limit ; but these must always 
 be readily understood. Verbs are also sometimes used as 
 nouns without any change. 
 
 8. I. Nouns are derived from other Nouns. 
 
 JL) By internal modification. By change of vowel, or of vowel 
 consonant, we have such derivatives as 'chick' (0. E. 
 cycen, from ' cock '), ' kit ' (cat), ' tip ' (top). In such cases as 
 
NOUNS FORMED FROM NOUNS. 237 
 
 .' tip ', from ' top ', we must infer from the nature of the case, 
 or from analogy, which is the primitive and which the derivative. 
 ' Kit ' and ' chick ' are abbreviations of ' kitten ', ' chicken ' ; 
 and the vowel change is owing to the influence of the final 
 syllable now dropt. These are all diminutives. 
 
 (2.) By Prefixes. Already exemplified ( 2-5). 
 
 (3). By Suffixes, Native and Classical. 
 
 (a). The following group have reached, from various original 
 meanings, the same general signification of state, Quality, or 
 condition. In accordance with the usual tendency, the 
 abstract name has in many cases been taken to express col- 
 lectiveness, the body of individuals possessing the abstract 
 quality. Some examples have passed to the more remote 
 application of general or class, or even material, names. 
 
 ' Native Suffixes, craft (strength, skill, condition) : ' book- 
 craft, priestcraft, witchcraft, woodcraft '. 
 
 dom (jurisdiction, authority, condition): 'Christendom, 
 heathendom, kingdom (in 0. E., however, it was cynedom : see 
 9, 2), martyrdom, rascaldom, serfdom '. 
 
 hood, head (0. E. Jmd : rank, condition) : ' boyhood 
 brotherhood, childhood, manhood ; godhead, maidenhead 
 (-hood) '. 
 
 lock (0. E. lac : gift, play) : ' wedlock '. In 0. E. : brydlac 
 ('bride-lock', marriage), gulhlac ('war-play', battle), &c. 
 
 ness (state, condition) : ' wilderness (from wil(d)deor, ' wild 
 beast'); nothingness, somethingness (Goldsmith)'. Also, 
 perhaps, ' witness '. 
 
 red (0. E. rcedcn : reckoning, law, condition) : ' kindred ' 
 (O. E. cynred, cynren, for cynrceden) ; ' hatred ' is a late 
 example (12th cent. ). ' Hundred ' is doubtful. 
 
 lie (rule, jurisdiction) : ' bishopric '. 
 
 Ship (0. E. stipe, : shape, manner, condition) : ' fellowship, 
 friendship, guardianship, lordship, worship (= 'worthship') '. 
 
 The chief of these suffixes dom, hood, ship, seem to be 
 employed somewhat indiscriminately in new compounds, the 
 preference being governed probably by suitability of sound. 
 When the same word is combined with more than one suffix, a 
 distinctive meaning is connected with each compound : compare 
 ' kingdom ' and ' kingship '. 
 
 Classical Suffixes. acy (Lat. atus : condition, office) : 
 'celibacy, magistracy'. So: 'curacy, papacy, &c. '. 
 
 ade (on analogy of same suffix to verb roots) : ' balustrade, 
 jolonnade, fusilade, lemonade '. 
 , age (Fr. ; Lat. -aticus, orig. forming adjectives) ; ' homage, 
 
238 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OP WORDS. 
 
 pee 
 foli 
 
 rage, vassalage, voyage ; brokerage, mileage ; cellar^ ; 
 oliage, herbage ; cottage, personage '. 
 
 archy (Gr. ; rule) : ' squirearchy '. 
 
 ate (Lat. atus, 4th decl. ; office) : ' consulate, iLarshalate, 
 protectorate '. Compare acy. ' Celibate, magistrate, potent- 
 ate ', are concrete applications. 
 
 cide (Lat -cidium, -murder): 'matricide, regicide, suicide'. 
 Shelley has * libertieide '. 
 
 cracy (Gr. -kratvi ; rule) : * democracy, ochlocracy, pluto- 
 cracy ; bureaucracy, mobocracy '. 
 
 cy (see acy) : ' advocacy, bankruptcy, colonelcy, ensigncy '. 
 
 ine (Lat. ina) : ' discipline, doctrine, medicine ; famine '. 
 
 ism (as from Greek verbs in izo ; see ma . S-m, 10, 
 3, (3)) : ' absentee/sw, despotism, journalism, materialism, 
 pietism '. 
 
 mony (Lat. -mon-ia, -ium) : 'ceremony, matrimony, patri- 
 mony, testimony '. 
 
 ry, ery (Lat. aria, eria, Fr. (e)rie) : ( carpentry, chivalry, 
 devilry, knavery, poetry '. So : ' buffoonery, coquetry, popery, 
 rivalry '. 
 
 ty (Lat. tat-em< Fr. te} : 'authority, city*. So, 'laity'. 
 
 y (Lat. atus, 4th decl.) : ' county, duchy'. 
 
 y (Gr. and Lat. eia, ia, Fr. ie) : ' barony, energy, euphony, 
 Italy, monarchy, phantasy (fancy)'. 
 
 y (Lat. -ium) : 'mastery, ministry, mystery'. So, 'burglary, 
 fishery, robbery'. 
 
 Other cases in -y are seen in -ac-y, -arch-y, -crac-y, -mon-y. 
 
 (b.) The next group contains examples of endings whose 
 prevailing force is diminutive. There must have been some 
 powerful motives at work to lead to so many forms of expressing 
 diminution. In this case we must look to the feelings even 
 more than to the intellect. The two strong sentiments 
 endearment and contempt are gratified by these modes of 
 designating things. They are also applied to the young of all 
 living beings, and to the instances of things occurring below 
 the average size. Many of the terms have now lost their 
 diminutive force, and are applied to discriminate things 
 specifically or generically different, so that the emotional 
 impulses have here, as in other instances, contributed to extend 
 the number of words available for the objects of nature and art. 
 
 Native Suffixes. k, ock (dimin.): 'bullock, hillock; hawk 
 (0. E. hq/oc) \ Patronymics : ' Pollock (Paul), Willock, 
 "Willox '. In Scotch, -ick : ' lass?'c& ' as well as ' lassock '. 
 
 ikin, kin (ock -f- -n) : ' bootz'&'W, maunikin ; firkin (four), 
 lambkin, uapkiii '. Patronymics : ' Diwkin(*) (David) ; Haw- 
 
NOUNS FORMED FROM NOUNS. 239 
 
 kin(s) (Hal. Henry); Perkin(s), Peterkin; Tomkin, Tomkyns ; 
 Wilkiu(s) ; Watkin(s) (Wat, Walter)'. 
 
 ing (nasalized -k, dimin.) : ' farthfo<- (fourth), tithing (tithe, 
 tenth), riding (Yorkshire; for ' Striding' : 'thrid' = 'third')- 
 Patronymics: * JEthelwu.lfm#, Wecting', and regularly in 
 oldest English. So ' setheling ' ; ' king ' (0. E. cyniii'j, cine/) is 
 not certain. 
 
 ling (= l-ing) : ' duckling, gosling, squireling, yearling '. 
 
 y, ie : * babjr, Willy ; lassie, la&s-ick-ie '. This ending may 
 be regarded as a weaker mode of -k (ock, &c.). 
 
 en : ' chickc?i (cock), kitten (cat), maiden '. 
 
 fill (full; the opposite of diminution) : 'cap/wZ, handful, 
 pocketi'ul '. 
 
 Classical Suffixes. aster: 'oleaster (wild olive), pinaster; 
 pilaster (pillar only partly shown), poetaster (inferior poet) '. 
 
 cule, cle, ule, le, el, il (Lat. culum, ulus, ellus, illus, &c.) : 
 'aniirialcwfe, reticule; particle (parcel), tubercule, uncle, ven- 
 tricle, versicle ; globule, nodule, pilule ; castle, chapel, libel, 
 morsel, vessel (vasez<Z-ar), codicil, pugi'Zist '. ' Grill ', Fr. 
 grille, is Lat. craticula. 
 
 r-el, er-el : ' cockerel, mackerel, pickerel (pike) '. 
 
 isk (Gr. iskos) : ' asterisk, basilisk, obelisk '. 
 
 t, et, Ot (Fr. et, ette, ot, ottc} : ' billet, casket, circlet, 
 coronet, lancet, pocket, ticket, turret ; ballot, chariot '. 
 
 1-et : ' looklet, ringlet, leaflet, speechlet '. 
 
 (c). A third group contains some endings that express an 
 agent or person, or an instrument or thing, connected with the 
 object that the root word names. 
 
 Native Suffixes. le : ' thimbfc ' (thumb). 
 
 lick, lock, ley (O. E. leac, ' leek ', ' plant ') : ' gartfcfe ; 
 charZoct, hemlock ; barley '. * Cowslip ' is perhaps a corruption 
 of 'cow's-leek'. 
 
 man, woman : ' churchwaw, -woman, countryman, prize- 
 man'. 
 
 en (See INFLEXION, Gender, 5) : ' vixen' (fox). 
 
 er: 'bencher, executioner, glover, hatter, islander; 74- 
 pounder, three-decker, porringer '. ' Fruit-er-er ' has double 
 ending. Through French influence come 'clotlrier, lawyer', &c. 
 
 Ster : ' songsfcr, tonguester ; roadster '. 
 
 Classical Suffixes. ad, id (Gr. and Lat. -ad-, -id-; of, or 
 belonging to ; names of descendants and of poems) : ' Iliad 
 (llion), Sestiad (Sestos^ ; JEneid (^Jneas) '. ' Heraclt'rf, Nereid '. 
 
 a-go (Lat. ; cp. igo 13) : ' farrago, plumlw(/o, virago, 
 virgin ; laii-w/ira-ous, ole-a^i?z--ous '. ' Cartilage ' (Lat. car- 
 tilayo). 
 
240 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS, 
 
 al, el, (See 13) : 'canaZ (channel), funeral, general, hospits 
 (hotel), jewel, material, &c.' ; all originally adjectives. 
 
 an, ain, &c. (See Adjectives from Nouns, 13) : ' gram- 
 marian, librarian ; chaplam, villain ; campaign '. Funda- 
 mentally an adjective formation. 
 
 ar, er, or, eer, ier, ary (Lat. -arius, Fr- -aire, -ier) : 
 
 ' scholar, vicar ; butler, carpenter, cellarer, draper, messenger 
 plover, prisoner, sorcerer, squire (older ' squyer '), treasurer, 
 usher; chancellor, proprietor; brigadier, chandelier; engineer, 
 mountaineer; dignitary, functionary, missionary'. 
 
 ar, er, ry, ary (Lat. arium ; place or thing) : ' cellar, 
 charter, exemplar (sampler) ; clower, larder, saucer ; dowry, 
 vestry ; aviary, granary, library, seminary, vocabulary '. 
 
 * Armory '. 
 
 ard (N. Fr. ard, Germ, hart, 0. E. heard : intensive) : 
 
 * coward! (Lat. cauda, 'tail'; cp. Ital. codardo : has no 
 connexion with 'cow'), staggard, tankard; Savoyard; 
 Leonard'. 'Gizzard' is assimilated from Fr. gesier, Lat. gigerium. 
 ' Lizard ' is French lezard, Lat. lacerta. 
 
 ate (substances) : ' cerate, carbonate, hydrate '. 
 
 brum (Lat. ; place) : 'candelaorww, cerebrum*. 
 
 ch ge (Lat. -tcus, -tea) : ' -perch, porch ; forge, serge*. 
 
 cide (Lat. -ctda, -killer) : ' matricide, regicide'. 
 
 crat (Gr., ruler): ' democrat, plutocrat'. 
 
 em : ' casern, cistern, tavern '. 
 
 CSS (Lat. issa, Fr. esse : see INFLEXION, Gender, 5): 
 
 * baroness, duchess, manageress, poetess '. 
 
 CSS, is, CSC, (Lat. ensis, of, belonging to) : ' burgess, 
 marqm's (marquess) ; Milanese, Siamese'. Originally adjectives : 
 see 11. m 
 
 -1C, -tic (originally adjective ending) : 'clera'c (clerk), mystic; 
 logz'c(s), mathematics, metaphysic(s) ', &c. 
 
 ina, ine (Gr. ine, Lat. ina : see INFLEXION, Gender, 5) : 
 ''heroine, Josephine ; czar ina '. 
 
 ine, in (substances : fundamentally adjective ending) : 
 ' casei'ne, fluorine, pepsine, tannin '. 
 
 ist (on the analogy of nouns from Greek verbs in izo) : 
 1 artist, calvinist, excursionist, florist, monarchist, pianist, 
 tobacconist, toleration ist '. 
 
 ist-er : ' bar-r-ts^-er, chor-t^-er, sophister '. 
 
 ite, it (Gr. ites, Lat. ita) : 'cosmopoh'te, hoplite, Israelite, 
 Neapolitan ; Jesuit '. And in scientific names of substances : 
 ' ammonite, dolomite, websterite '. 
 
 IX. See trix, below. 
 
 OH, eon, ion, OOn, one (Lat. -7m-, -ion- : persons, animals, 
 or things, like to or connected with the object deoioted by the 
 
NOUNS FROM ADJECTIVES. 241 
 
 root word; sometimes diminutive, sometimes augmentative) : 
 ' centimVw, champion, matron, patron ; falcon, stallion ; 
 (e)scutclieow, gallon, pennon (pennant), talon, balloort, bassoon, 
 musketooii, saloon, troinbo?te '. ' Pawn ' (chessman) is Fr. pion, 
 Ital. pedone. 
 
 ry, ery (Lat. an'a, eria, Fr. (e)rie : collective) : ' buttery, 
 cavalry, pantry ; drapery, Englishry, gentry, machinery, 
 masonry, musketry, peasantry, poultry '. 
 
 tor (See verb roots) : ' gladiator, janitor '. 
 
 trix (= tor-ix, fern, of -tor : see verb roots) : ' jani-to'-we, 
 proprietrix '. 
 
 y (Lat. -iuni: place) : * auditory, dormitory, registrary*. 
 
 9. II. Nouns are derived from Adjectives, by 
 
 means of suffixes. 
 
 (a) The chief formation yields abstract nouns. 
 
 Native Suffixes. The following two are the principal : 
 
 ness. This is by far the chief suffix for converting the 
 adjective into the corresponding abstract noun : ' boldness, 
 goodness, kindness, sharpness, whiteness '. There are many 
 hundreds of these compounds in English. 
 
 th, t (same as the participial ending -d) : * breads (broad), 
 dearth, depth, drought (dry), health (hale), height (formerly 
 also ' highth '), length (long), strength, sloth, width '. The 
 vowel is shortened or otherwise changed, and sometimes 
 the final consonant of the adjective is also modified. 
 
 The other abstract suffixes are less used : 
 
 dom ' l freedom, halidom, wisdom '. ' Kingdom ' is a new 
 formation on the basis of 0. E. cynedom, ' royal (cyne) juris- 
 diction or authority (dom, doom) '. 
 
 hood : ' falsehood, hardihood, likelihood '. * Livelihood ' 
 once meant 'liveliness', but it has taken the place of 'liflode' 
 (lif-ladu, ' life-leading '), ' means of living '. 
 
 S l ' bliss ' is for bliths, from ' blithe '. 
 
 Ship : ' hardship '. 
 
 Classical Suffixes. acy (see y). 
 
 Ciacy (Gr., rule): ' aristocracy, autocracy, oligocracy '. 
 
 ice, ISC, ess (Lat. it-ia ; Fr. ice, ise, esse) : ' justice, malice ; 
 franchise, merchandise ; prowess, riches (for ' richess ') '. 
 
 ism ( 10, HI., (3)): 'absolutism, conventionalism, optimism, 
 pessimism, romanticism, truism (concrete) '. 
 
 lence, lenc-y (from -lent) : ' corpuZewce, opulence, turbulence, 
 turbu-/c?tc-y, virulence '. 
 
 lHOn-y (Lat. mon-ia, -ium) : f acrimowy, sanctimony '. 
 
 nee, nc-y (Lat. nt-ia, Fr. nc-e : IVom iriipf. part, -nt) : 
 16 
 
242 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 e, brilliance, -anc-y, delinquency, eminence, -enc-y, 
 evidence, precedence, -ency '. 
 
 ry, ery : braver//, finery, pleasantry '. 
 
 tilde (Lat. tiui-(in)-em) : ' aptitude, certitude, lassitude, 
 magnitude, multitude, quietude (for quiet-tude), plenitude '. 
 ' Custom ' is contuetudinein, Fr. coutume. 
 
 ty (Lat. tat-em, Fr. tt] : ' beau/y, bounty, certainty, charity, 
 cruelty, faculty, fidelity (fealty), honesty (for honest-ty), liberty, 
 purity, security (surety), variety '. 
 
 y (Gr. and Lat. ia, Fr. ie) : 'misery, perfidy, philosophy; 
 efficacy, delicacy, privacy, &c. 
 
 For other cases of -y, see le)ic-y, mon-y, nc-y, above. 
 
 (6) A few suffixes expresses agent or person, or instrument or 
 related object. 
 
 Native Suffixes. er, Ster : 'Britisher, foreigner, philoso- 
 pher; youngster '. 
 
 in&lin-g (often dimin.) : ' sweetmgr, whiting ; d&rling (dear), 
 firstling, youngling, weakling'. 'Scantling' is an assimilation 
 of Fr. ec1ut.ntillon, which is a dimin. from a noun, and has 
 nothing to do with ' scant '. 
 
 Classical Suffixes. arch (Gr., ruler): ' hievarch, monarch '. 
 ary (Lat. ari-us.-um) : 'adversary, secretary; mortuary'. 
 ate (like participles in -atus) : ' candidate '. 
 Ciat (Gr., ruler) : 'aristocrat, autocrat'. 
 1st (on analogy of nouns from Gr. verbs in -izo) : ' economist, 
 optimist, purist, royalist, specialist '. 
 
 n, an, ain, en, in, on (om) (Lat. -an-, -en-, &* ) : ' dean, 
 
 fountaw, mountain ; alien, dozen, sovereign ; chain, vermin ; 
 damso/i (damascene), venom ; clarion, onion, simple- t-on. ' Most 
 of these are originally adjectives. 
 
 S-ter (Lat.) : ' master (mogister), minister '. 
 
 t, it(e), Ot(e) (Gr. -tes, Lat. -to) : ' henm'l (eremite), idiot, 
 patriot ; Cypriote '. 
 
 10. III. Nouns are derived from Verbs. 
 (1) By internal modification. 
 
 (a) By change of vowel : ' band, bond (from ' bmd '), food 
 (feed), stroke (strike) '. 
 
 (b) By modifying the final consonant : ' belie/ (believe), 
 
 ' 
 
 (dig), speee/i 
 
 (c) By modifying both voivcl and consonant : ' choice (choose), 
 breach (break), life (live), watch (wake), breath (breathe), loss 
 (lose), hilt (hold)'. 
 
NOUNS FROM VERBS. 243 
 
 (2) By Prefixes ( 2-5). This process is indirect : ' mcome, 
 ow^come, outturn, overturn, &c '. 
 
 (3) By Suffixes. 
 
 (a) Expressing agent or person, or instrument or related 
 object. 
 
 Native Suffices. 1, el, le : 'beadZe, beetle (the animal), fo\W '. 
 ' Beetle (mallet), bridle, bundle, girdle, nee-d-le, riddle, saddle, 
 sai?, settle (seat), shovel, sickle, skittles, spin-d-le, stile (O.E. 
 stigel), whittle '. 
 
 1-ing (diminutive ; sometimes passive) : ' changeling, foster- 
 ling, hireling, suckling '. 
 
 m, om : 'barm (bear), bloom (blow), gleam (glow), qualm 
 (quell), seam (sow), team (tow) ; blossowi (blow), bosom, bottom, 
 fathom'. 
 
 man : ' hangraa?& '. ' Ploughman, watchman, workman ', 
 &c., may come from nouns. 
 
 n, en, on (past partic. ending): 'baira (bear), beacon, (beck), 
 burden (bear), heaven (heave), main (may, O.E. mag-, ' be 
 great '), son (= bairn), thane (O. E. thcg(e)n, then, from verb = 
 ' serve '), token (from verb = ' show '), waggon, wain (from 
 0. E. weyan, ' to carry ')'. 
 
 nd (0. K. impf. part, ending) : ' fiend (from fian, ' to hate '), 
 friend (0. E. frcond, from/reow, ' to love ')'. ' Errand (from verb 
 = 4 ))e quick '), wind (from verb = ' blow ')'. 
 
 r, ar, er, or : ' baker, boor, builder, delver, digger, idler, 
 planter, printer, singer, speaker ; beggar (formerly ' begger '), 
 liar ; sailor (0. E. ' sailer ')'. ' Bower, chopper, cooler, dis- 
 claimer, finger, lair, rejoinder, reminder, roller, stair, streamer, 
 timber. ' 
 
 Ster (see INFLEXION, Gender, 5) : 'baxter (O.E. Icecestre, 
 from ' bake '), brewster, deemster or dempster (judge, in Isle of 
 Man and in Channel Islands : O.E. deman, to deem or judge), 
 punster, rhymester, spinster, throwster '. 
 
 th, t, d (past partic. ending) : ' wrea^A ; cleft, gift ; blarfe, 
 brand, deed (do), flood, seed (sow)'. Cp. abstracts in these 
 endings. 
 
 ther, ter, der : ' father, mother, daughter '. ' Bladder, 
 blister (blow), fearer (from verb = ' fly '), fodder, ladder (from 
 verb = 'climb'), rudder (row).' 
 
 Classical Suffixes. ade, ado (see below (2)) : ' renegade, 
 desperado '. 
 
 ard, art (see 8 ; mixed up with sense of agency) : ' blink- 
 ard, brag-g-ar< (formerly ' bragga?'d '), laggard ; poniard '. 
 
 bulum (Lat. ), bule, ble : ' }>&bulum ; vestibule ; fable, stable, 
 vocable '. -bra, as in ' verte&Va ', is a slight modification for 
 euphony. 
 
244 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 culum (Lat), cule, cle ; slightly modified to cmm (Lat), 
 
 chre : ' curriculum ; ridicule ; miracte, article, vehicle ; ful- 
 erum, simulacrum ; sepulture '. 
 
 pie (Lat pulum] : ' example, temple '. 
 
 Compare also -trum. 
 
 66 (Lat p. part -atus, -ata ; Fr. e,-ee] : 'legatee'. So, 
 ' absentee, committee, consignee, devotee, payee, refugee '. 
 
 ma, m, me, -S-m (Gr. and Lat, -ma, -mos(mus), -s-m-} : 
 diploma, poem, problem, scheme, theme ; chasm, spasm, 
 baptism, chrism, prism, isth?/t?w, cosmos, microcosm '. The -s- 
 belongs originally to derivatives from Greek verbs in -izo. 
 Many of these words are, in the first instance, abstract ; as 
 ' baptism, spasm '. 
 
 mus, m, me (Lat. -mus, &c. , instrumental agency) : ' animus, 
 arm, fame, flame, fume '. 
 
 men, me, m (Lat men, passive subject) : 'specimen-, crime, 
 volume, charm, germ (germen)'. ' Noun ' is from ' nomen ', 
 through French. 
 
 mnus, mn (Lat. mnus, &c., passive subject) : 'alumnus, 
 autumn, column '. 
 
 n, ne (Lat. -n-us,-a,-um ; Gr. nos, &c. , ; ' possessing '; cognate 
 with -n, en of p. part.) : 'fane, pen, plain, plane, reign, sign, 
 throne '. 
 
 ndum (Lat. ), nd (gerund. ) : ' mem.oTandi.tm ; deodand, 
 multiplicand, reprimand, viand ; dcvidend, legend, prebend '. 
 
 nt (Lat. impf. part): 'defendant, merchant, servant; 
 accide?i, agent, current, student'. Cp. Adjectives in -nt, many of 
 which become nouns, sometimes with change of ' -ent ' to ' -ant '. 
 
 ion, On, eon, OOn (Lat. -on-, &c.) : 'legion, region; dra- 
 gon, glutton, lesson (lection), mason ; pigeon ; buffoon, spittoon '. 
 Cp. abstracts. 
 
 CSS (see INFLEXION, Gender, 5) : ' cateress, murderess, pro- 
 curess '. The fern, ending replaces, instead of being added to, 
 the masc. ending. ' Empress ' is an assimilation ; contracted, 
 through French, from imperatricem (-trix). 
 
 t, ate, it(Q\ S(e), ce, te, Ute (Lat. parts, of verbs) : ' advo- 
 cate, curate, legate, mandate (Cp. -ade) ; debt, convent, desert, 
 fact, fruit, insect, jet, joint, post, rent, tract, verdict ; spouse, 
 assize, expense, fosse, response, verse ; sauce, source ; note, 
 vote ; statute, tribute '. 
 
 t, te (Gr. tea, Lat. to) : ' apostate, corned, planet '. 
 
 S-t, ast, ist (the -s- belongs originally to the Greek verb) 
 'dikast, enthusiasm ; bapt?'s, catechist, Christ '. Similar forma- 
 tions from nouns and adjectives by -ist are abundant. 
 
 t-OI, S-OI, 01, er (Lat. t-orcm, s-orem, Fr. -teur, seur, &c.) : 
 ' creditor, debtor, doctor, factor, monitor, victor ; censor, 
 
NOUNS FROM VERBS. 245 
 
 sponsor, successor '. ' Author ' is a misspelling of Lat. and 0. E. 
 auctor. 'Emperor, governor, juror, &c. ' have been curtailed. 
 ' Er ' has often usurped the place of -or : ' interpreter (Lat. in- 
 terprctcitorem), lever, preacher, &c.' 
 
 t-OI-y, S-OP-y, or, our, er (Lat. t-or-ium, s-or-ium; Fr. 
 -oir(e)) : * auditory, dormitory, oratory, refectory ; mirror, razor, 
 scissors ; parloztr ; censer, counter , laver. ' 
 
 trum, tre, ter, S-t-r (Lat. trum) : ' rostrum, spectre, cloister, 
 monster '. 
 
 y, ey (Lat. p. part, ata, Fr. 4e) : 'arm?/, assembly, destiny, 
 entry, jelly, jetty, jury, levy, quarry ; chimney, covey, medley '. 
 
 y (Fr. -ie) : ' battery '. 
 
 (2) Expressing action ; with frequent new applications to con- 
 crete meanings. 
 
 Native Suffixes. ing (O.E. ung : verbal nouns) : 'beginnmo, 
 blessing (0. E. Uetsung), cleansing, drawing, ending, meeting, 
 reasoning, suffering, writing'. 
 
 ledge (O.E, lac; see lock, 8) : ' knowledge (O.E. cnaudac, 
 cnowlech)'. 
 
 ter : ' laughter, slaughter '. 
 
 th, t (past partic. ending) : ' birth (bear), broth (brew), earth 
 (ear, ' to plough '), filth (file), growth, ruth (rue), tilth ; draught, 
 drift, flight, frost, thought '. 
 
 Classical Suffixes. ad, ade, ada, ado (Lat. atus,-a: 'ad' 
 for Fr. ade; 'ade' Ital. through Fr. ; 'ada', 'ado', Span.) : 
 ' ballad, salad ; barricade, blockade, escapade, promenade, 
 tirade ; armada ; bravado '. 
 
 age (Lat. -aticum, Fr. age : orig. adjective ending, then 
 collective, finally abstract) : * breakage, carriage, cleavage, mess- 
 age, marriage, passage, tillage '. 
 
 al (Lat. dlis ; cp. age) : ' arrival, committal, denial, re- 
 moval, reversal, revival, upheaval, withdrawal '. 
 
 el, le (Lat. -ela) : ' candte, cauteZ, quarrel, tutelage '. 
 
 Igp (Lat. cp. ago, 8) : ' impetz^o, vertigo ; origin (Lat. 
 orlginem). 
 
 in, ine-(Lat. ma) : 'nmt; rapine '. 
 
 ment (Lat. mentum) : ' attainment, argument, bewilderment, 
 confinement, fulfilment, impalement, torment '. New forma- 
 tions, like some of the foregoing, are very abundant. They all 
 tend strongly to be used in the concrete application ; as 
 ' argument, document, instrument, ornament '. 
 
 mon-y (Gr. and Lat. mon-ia, -ium) : ' alimony, harmony, 
 parsimony ' (for ' parcimony ', from verb parco, or from adj. 
 parcus). 
 
 nee (See nouas from Adjectives). New formations from verb 
 
24:6 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 roots are plentiful: ' alliance, insistance (-ence), remembrance, 
 tarriance, variance ; existence, occurrence '. 
 
 01, OUr (Lat. orem, Fr. eur) : 'clarnor, error, favour, 
 honour, labour'. 
 
 sis, sy, S6 (Gv- arid Lat. sis, Fr. sie, se) : ' analysis, basis, 
 metamorphosis, periphrasis, thesis ; epilepsy, hypocrisy, palsy 
 (paralysis), poesy ; base, dose, ellipse, phrase '. 
 
 t, it(e), S(e)/&c. (see above): 'appetife, aud#, credit, habit, 
 merit ; desert, quest ; applause, course, lapse, use ; access, pro- 
 cess '. See also forms in -acy and -y. 
 
 t-ion, s-ion, ion, son, som, ation (Lat. -onem, Fr. -on} : 
 
 'action, conviction, detrition, fiction, lotion, restitution, 
 station ; cession, convulsion, fusion, oppression ; contagion, 
 oblivion, opinion, suspicion ; fashion (faction), poiso?t (potion), 
 'reason (ration), season, treason (tradition), venison '. ' Ransom' 
 is through Fr. from Lat. rcdemptionem. The ending -ation 
 gives the appearance of derivation from verbs of the -are con- 
 jugation : * bothera#o?i, insultation ' ; and especially with -fic- 
 before it : ' glorification, mystification ', corresponding to verbs 
 in -fy, ' glori/y, mystify ', which modify the Lat, form -fac- or 
 -fie- under French influence. 
 
 t-ure, S-Uie, (Lat. -ura ; often becoming concrete) : ' cap- 
 ture, censure, composure, fissure, gesture, posture, pressure ; 
 adventure, aperture, creature, discomfiture, embrasure, failure, 
 forfeiture, lecture, picture, seizure, soilure '. ' Armour ' (Lat. 
 amatura). Several words take this ending by assimilation : 
 ' leisure, pleasure, treasure '. 
 
 y, him, (Lat. ium) : ' colloquy, study ; odium '. New 
 formations : ' delivery, discovery, inquiry ', and many others. 
 
 Compare similar abstracts from nouns. 
 
 For other cases of -y, see -mon-y, above. 
 
 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 II. Derived Adjectives are formed from Nouns, 
 from other Adjectives, and from Verbs. 
 
 Nouns are very largely used as adjectives without any change 
 of form. Verbs are very sparingly employed in the same way. 
 
 I. Adjectives are derived from Nouns, by means 
 of Suffixes. 
 
 Native Suffioccs. d, ed (past partic. ending: 'endowed, 
 furnished with ') : ' certificated, feathered, experienced, gifted, 
 moneyed, ragged, sainted, skilled ', Especially common when 
 an adjective accompanies the noun : ' close-fisted, left-handed,, 
 middle-aged, right-minded, wrong-headed, &c. '. 
 
ADJECTIVES FROM NOUNS. 247 
 
 I), en ('of of 'belonging to* ; material) : 'brazew, flaxen, 
 golden, leathern, oaken, waxen, wheaten, wooden, woollen '. 
 
 er-n : ' east-er-w, northern, southern, western '. 
 
 er-ly (compare -ly, below) : ' caster/?/, &c. '. 
 
 fast (0. E. fcest, firm) : * rootfast, shamcfast (usually spelled 
 ' fkvrtitfaeed '), stedfast '. 
 
 ful : ' awful, careful, gainful, hopeful, truthful '. 
 
 ish (possessing some leading quality of the noun ; attached 
 to ; belonging to) : ' bookish, boyish, foolish, selfish, slavish ; 
 Englw/t, WeM, 'Dutch '. 
 
 less (0. E. leas, ' loose ' ; privation or negation) : ' artless, 
 cheerless, fearless, friendless, lawless, senseless, sleepless '. 
 
 like, ly (resemblance, likeness) : ' childlike, courtly, godlike, 
 lordly, lovely, manlike, manly, yearly, warlike '. 
 
 some (0. E. -mm, Germ, -mm ; another form of ' same ' ; 
 possessing the quality of the noun) : ' adventuresome, burden- 
 some, delightsome, handsome'. 
 
 ward (becoming, turned in the direction of) : ' homeward, 
 landward, southward'. These words are probably to be con- 
 sidered as adverbs. 
 
 y, ey (the quality of the noun) : ' airy, balmy, cloudy, 
 flowery, foggy, grassy, lofty, oily, seedy, silvery, watery, &c. ' 
 
 Classical Suffixes. able (See 13): ' fashiona&Ze, marketable, 
 objectionable, serviceable '. 
 
 -C, ac, ic, -tic, -ge -(Or. and Lat. -ic-, -tic-): 'demoniac, 
 maniac ; Britannic, civic, cleric, dogmatic, generic, magic, 
 mystic, public, schismatic, strategic ; aquafo'c, Asiatic, domestic, 
 fanatic, lunatic'. With -ist-i characterise, fetichistic, medium- 
 istic, ritualistic'. 
 
 With additional ending : ' cleric- al, magical, mystical, 
 pvagmatic-al ; belh'e-ose ' 
 
 ' Savage ' is Lat. silva-tic.us, through Fr. sauv-age. 
 
 -d, id (Gr. eides ; like) : ' alkaloid, ovoid, typhoid '. 
 
 form (Lat. -form-is) : ' dendri/o^i, penniform, poriform '. 
 
 -1, al, el, il(e), le, (Lat. -alis, -elis, -llis) : ' annua/, capital, 
 literal, nominal, regal ; additional, professional, regimental, 
 &f . ; crueZ ; civiV, gentzVe (gent/e, genteel), hostile, jaunty, 
 puerile ; hum-b-Ze '. \ r ery many adjectives in -al are converted 
 into nouns. (See 8.) 
 
 Occasionally al is added to or takes the place of other endings. 
 Especially it is added to -ic (See above) : ' bibl/c-a?, cubical, 
 logic-al ('logic ' having become a noun). Cp. ' celest-i-al (Lat. 
 ccel-est-is), kst-iv-al(Lsit.fest-iv-us), 'pa.ter-n-al (Lat. pater-nus).' 
 
 lent (Lat. lentus) : ' corpuZen*, fraudulent, opulent, somno 
 lent, turbulent '. 
 
 n, an, ane, ian (Lat. anus, Fr. an, ain, aine t ten) : ' human, 
 
248 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 pagan ; American, Elizabethan, Roman ; \\mnane, mundane, 
 urbane ; Christian, Ciceronian, prietorian ; Neapolitan, cosmo- 
 politan '. 
 
 There are numerous new formations without reference to the 
 original Latin ending : ' barbarian (Lat. -its), Corintlii;ui, 
 Etruscan, plebeian, Unitarian ; civilian (Lat. -is), equestrian 
 (-estris), pedestrian ; Spenserian. Walpolian '. 
 
 -n, an-eous, an-ean, aign, eign, en, (Lat. an-eus, Fr. ain): 
 
 ' contemporaneous, spontaneous, subterranean, ehampair/tt, 
 foreign (older * foren '), sudden '. 
 
 -H, ene, ine (Lat. -en-, -f?i-) : * terrene ; Nazarene ; adaman- 
 tine, asinine, bovine, divine, equine, feline, marine, saline ; 
 Jugurthine '. 
 
 -r, ar, ary (Lat. arts) ; ' particular, perpendicular, popular, 
 regular, secular ; military, palmary '. 
 
 -r, ary, ari-OUS, aii-an (Lat. arius) : 'arbitral?/, custom- 
 ary, hereditary, honorary, imaginary, legionary, parliamentary, 
 revolutionary, tributary ; gregarious, nefarious ; valetudin-arz- 
 an, latitudinarian, utilitarian '. 
 
 686 (Lat. ensis, Ital. ese) : ' Chinese, Maltese ; Johnsonese '. 
 ' Courteous ' (0. Fr. curteis) has assimilated itself to -ows. 
 ' Peasant ' is Fr. paysan, 'L&t.pagensis. 
 
 esque, -ice, -is (Lat. iscus, Fr. esque: cp. Engl. ish} : 
 ' arabesque, grotesque. Moresque ('momce* or ' morris ' dance, 
 = ' Mooris/i '), picturesque, statuesque '. 
 
 086, OUS (Lat. OSMS, Fr. eux, oux) : ' operose, schistose, 
 verbose ; calamity*., envious, glorious, perilous, pernicious, 
 studious, victorious '. New formations are abundant : ' avari- 
 cious, burglarious, felonious, murderous, rapturous, slanderous, 
 uproarious, wondrous ; contentious, contradictious, disputa- 
 ious, ostentatious*. 
 
 For Lat. -us : ' consanguineous (Cp. ' sanguine '), decorous, 
 igneous, noxious, uxorious*. 
 
 For Lat. -is : * illustrious, scurrilous '. 
 
 Added to -ac-: ' f&rin-ac-e-ous (Lat. -ac-e-us\ gallinaceous, 
 herbaceous ' ; so ' carbonaceous, crustaceous, pearlaceous *. To 
 -ari.-: ' greg-ar-i-ous (Lat. ar-i-us), nefarious, precarious '. To 
 -IC-: ' bell-zc-ose '. To -fer-: 'auri^r-ows (Lat. -fer], car- 
 boniferous '. To -ger- : ' armi-g'er-oMS (Lat. -ger), plumigei ous *. 
 
 ' Boisterous ' (0. E. bostois), ' oourteoi^s * (see ese), and ' right- 
 eous' (for 'right-wise', O.E. rihtuns], are assimilations. 
 
 t (Lat. tus) : ' honest, modest, robust '. 
 
 t, ate, ute (on analogy of participles) : 'delicate, dentate, 
 laureate ; astute, cornute '. So, ' affectionate, (com-)passiouate '. 
 
 time (Lat. timus) : ' mari^me ; legi^??i-ate '. 
 
 ive (Lat. n?ws) : * festive, furtive, instinctive '. 
 
ADJECTIVES FROM ADJECTIVES. ' 249 
 
 y (Lat. ivus, Fr. if] : 'jolly, massy (massive), testy'. 
 y (Lat. -ius, as if added to nouns in -tor, -sor) : ' accessory, 
 amatory, hortatory, mandatory, persuasory '. 
 
 12. II. Adjectives are formed from other Ad- 
 jectives, partly by Prefixes, and partly by Suffixes. 
 
 Prefixes. Both Native and Classical Prefixes have already 
 ( 2-5) been exemplified : ' a-weary, rc-one, over-confident, un- 
 able, -dogmatic, -wieldy, &c.' ' Coterminous, demi-p&gan, 
 dis- courteous, -creditable, -interested, -passionate, ?7-liberal, 
 m-mutable, Mi-attentive, inter-colonial, -national, wow-sequa- 
 cious, postdiluvian, ^re-scientific, ^reter-natural, sw&-acid, super- 
 fine, supra-renal, w^ra-Catholic, ^Ai7o-Turkish.' 
 
 Native Suffixes. fold : 'tenfold, sixtyfold, manifold'. 
 ish (diminutive : 'slightly') : ' blackisA, dullish'. 
 ly : ' cleaner/, deadly, elderly, goodly, likely, lonely, only 
 (one), sickly, weakly '. 
 
 Some : 'darksome, irksome, lissome (lithe), lonesome', 
 teen ( = ten) : ' thirteen, nineteen '. 
 
 th, d (ordinal numbers) : ' fourth, fifth, hundred^ ; third '. 
 ty (ten) : ' twenty, thirty, ninety '. 
 
 Classical Suffixes. sad, heart (8) : 'dullard, sweetheart, 
 wizard '. 
 
 -C, ic(ll). Added to -ens-: ' for-ens-ic (Lat. forensis : cp. 
 ese). To -est-: ( &.gr-est-ic (Lat. agrcstis : cp. 'majestic'). 
 
 ique (Lat. -icus, Fr. ique) : '"unique '. 
 
 1, al ( 11). Added to -ic : ' &ngel-ic-al, canonical, comical, 
 historical, whimsical '. Often the form in -ic does not now 
 exist. To -id (Gr. -eid-, 11) : ' amygdalo-id-a/, ovoidal '. To 
 -r-H- : 'eternal (Lat. ceternus), infernal, nocturnal'. To -CS-t-: 
 ' cvl-est-ial ' (Lat. ccel-est-is). To -str-: ' terr-es^?*-i-aZ ' (Lat. 
 (-estris). 
 
 -1, el (Lat. ellus, &c.) : * novel '. 
 
 -n, an, ain, &c., en (Lat. an-, en-: 11) : 'mean, tertian, 
 veteran ; certain ; alien, dozen '. 
 
 Added to -ari-; ' antiqu-ari-on, septuagenarian '. To -ic- : 
 publ-ic-a?i ; patr-i'c-i an, tribun-iciau '. To -estr-: 'eqn-estr- 
 ian, pedestrian '. 
 
 Sle, ble (l-^at. -plex, ' fold ') : ' simple, double (Lat. duplex), 
 le, triple, quadruple, quintuple, &c.' 
 
 -r, ar (Lat, aris) : ' singular '. ' Similar ' is for Lat. simil-is. 
 r, ary (Lat. arius) : ' primary, secondary, solitary ', 
 OUS ( 11) : ' precipitows, wrongous '. 
 
 Added to -ac-, -ic-, -an-, -fer-, -ger- : see 11. 
 
250 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OP WORDS. 
 
 et, ette (Fr.) : 'brunette, dulcet, russet'. 
 -t, ate (11) : ' aureate, candidate (orig. an adj.), roseate; 
 intim-ate, legitim-ate '. 
 
 13. III. Many Adjectives are formed from Verbs. 
 
 (1) The Participles, imperfect and perfect, of the Verb are 
 often converted into Adjectives : ' a paying occupation ', ' a 
 roaring lion', 'outlying districts', 'a seeming discrepancy'; 
 
 * conquered provinces ', ' departed spirits ', ' the doomed ship '. 
 ' escaped criminals ', ' pent-up energy ', * runaway horses ', ' his 
 bounden duty ', ' molten gold ' ; ' w?itaught, wncomforted, unfed '. 
 
 * Uncouth ' is literally ' unknown '. 
 
 (2) Adjectives are formed from Verbs by Suffixes. 
 
 Native Suffixes. ful : 'forgetful, wakeful '. Compare 0. E. 
 
 gitol, wacol. The -ful is an assimilation. 
 
 le : 'brittle, fickle (0. E.^coZ,) nimble (0. E. numol) '. 
 
 less ' exhaustZess, quenchless, shunless '. 
 
 I, er ' ' bitter (bite), slipper-?/ '. 
 
 Some ' buxom (= bugh-some, from bugan, ' to bow '), 
 meddlesome, noisome (Fr. noisir), tiresome '. 
 
 t (past partic. ) : ' bright, right, swift '. 
 
 y : ' blowy, doughty (from dugan, ' to be able, to prevail '), 
 shaky, sticky, sultry (swelter-y).' 
 
 Classical Suffixes. id (Lat. -idus) ; * said, candid, frigid, 
 humid, rapid, splendid, timid, turbid '. 
 ' Keat ', Fr. net, is Lat. nitidus. 
 
 -1, b-1, bile, able, ible, (i)le (Lat. (-6)^7^), able ; mostly 
 
 passive, sometimes active) : * mobile ; commendable, laudable, 
 probable ; credible, defensible, horrible, plausible, terrible ; 
 feeble (Lat. fle-bilis), noble, stable, voluble ; fertile, fissile, 
 fragile (frail), versatile ; able (formerly '^.able', Lat. hab-ilis)'. 
 Numerous new formations : ' attainable, believable, credible, 
 changeable (mutable), eatable (edible), killable, maintainable, 
 renovable, thinkable, warrantable '. 
 
 -nd, und, bund, cund, ond (Lat ; gerund form ; parti- 
 cipial sense) : 'fcound, jocund, moribund, rotund (round), 
 rubicund, second, vagabond. 
 
 nt (Lat. impf. part.) : 'abundant, distant, constant, dormant; 
 eminent, latent, provident (prudent), urgent '. 
 
 -I, re (Lat. -r-} : ' clear, dire, meagre, pure '. 
 
 OUS : ' conscious (Lat. -us), omnivorous, superfluous, 
 viviparous '. 
 
 Added to -ac- : ' cap-ac-ious (Lat. ~ac-s), fallacious, tenacious '. 
 U-OUS (Lat. u-us = mis ; particip. sense, active or passive) : 
 ' eongrwows, conspicuous, deciduous, ingenuous '.. ul-OUS (Lat, 
 
ADJECTIVES FROM VERBS. VERBS FROM NOUNS. 251 
 
 ul-us, prone to ; participial sense) : ' bibulous, credulous, garru- 
 lous, querulous, sedulous '. it-ious (Lat. ic-ius, &c. ; added to 
 supine): ' advent^ ions, nutritious supposititious, surreptitious'. 
 
 -t, ate, ete, ite, Ute, Se (Lat. p. part.) : ' cognate, con- 
 siderate, desolate, private ; complete, concrete, discreet, secret ; 
 composite, finite, erec, strict ; acwte, minute, mute, resolute ; 
 chaste ; close, immense, sparse, tense, terse '. 
 
 S-or-y, t-or-y (Lat. -s-or-ius, 't-or-ii(s): ' amatory, expository, 
 hortatory ; promissory, sensory '. Compare 10, and 11, y, 
 end. 
 
 ive, iff, y (Lat. ivus, -us, Fr. -if ; joined to supines with 
 sense of impf. participle, rarely of p. p.) : 'active, attentive, 
 executive, fugitive, pensive, subversive ; captive, native (naive), 
 caitiff (captive).' Many of these are used as nouns. 'Bailyf, 
 plaintiff ' are, perhaps always nouns now. ' Hasty, pursy (Fr. 
 pourcif, poussif}. New formations are not uncommon : ' com- 
 bative, forgetive, talk-at-ive '. The passive application, as in 
 Shakespeare's ' insuppresswe mettle ', is not to be encouraged. 
 
 DERIVATION OF VERBS. 
 
 14. Derived Verbs are formed from Nouns, from 
 Adjectives, and from other Verbs. 
 
 Nouns and Adjectives are very frequently used as Verbs 
 without any change. 
 
 L Verbs are derived from Nouns. 
 
 (1.) By Prefixes, ( 2-5). 
 
 (2.) By Suffixes. 
 
 Native Suffixes. 1, el: 'kneeZ, muffte, quibble (quip), 
 sparkle, throttle '. 
 
 -n, en (causative) : ' heighten, lengthen, strengthen '. 
 
 Classical Suffixes. ate (Lat. supine, atum) . 'animate, 
 culminate, exaggerate, germinate, militate, modulate, populate, 
 stagnate '. 
 
 eer, er (Lat. are, ari ; Fr. -er) : ' domineer (cp. ' dominate ') ; 
 cuter '. 
 
 fy ( 15) : ' de-i-/y, edify, modify '. 
 
 ize, ise, (Gr. izo, Fr. iser : causative) : * appet*X epitomize, 
 pulverize, sermonize, subsidize, tantalize, tyrannize '. 
 
 iBhandite. See 16. 
 
 (3,) By change, (a) of Vowel, (b) of Consonant, or 
 (c) of both. 
 
252 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 (a.) 'Bleed' (blood), 'gild' (gold). 
 
 (b.) ' Bulge (bulk), calve, clothe, halve, house, prize (price), 
 shelve, thieve, wreathe'. 
 
 (3.) ' Bathe (bath), breathe, glaze, graze (grass), hitch (hook)'. 
 
 Many words are nouns or verbs according to tlie place of tfo 
 accent: 'abstract, abstract'; 'Accent, accent'; 'Augment, 
 augment ' ; ' compound, compound ' ; ' conflict, conflict ' ; 
 'contrast, contrast'; 'digest, digest' ; 'import, import'; 
 ' subject, subject ' ; ' survey, survey ; ' torment, torment '. 
 These are all of Latin origin. 
 
 It has also been seen that our language permits the free con- 
 version of a noun into a verb, and the opposite, without any 
 change. 
 
 The general effect of these derivations is to enable the meaning 
 of the noun to become active, or to express the fact of its being 
 imparted to something. The chief exception is seen in the 
 negative prefixes. 
 
 15. II. Verbs are derived from Adjectives. 
 
 (1.) By Prefixes ( 2-5). 
 
 (2.) By Suffixes. 
 
 Native Suffixes. n, en (causative) :' 'blacker, fatten, ripen, 
 shorten, sweeten '. 
 
 -I, er (causative) : ' hinder, lower '. 
 
 S6 (causative) : ' cleanse, rinse (cp. Germ, rein, 'pure').' 
 
 Classical Suffixes. ate (Lat. supine, atum) : 'alienate, 
 celebrate, integrate, participate '. 
 
 With formative syllable -it- : ' debil-it-ate, facilitate, gravi- 
 tate '. 
 
 fy (Lat. ficare, Fr. fier : causative) : ' clar-i-/t/, fortify, purify, 
 sanctify . ' 
 
 ize. is (14) : 'civilize, fertilize, humanize, realize'. 
 
 ish. See 16. . 
 
 (3.) By Change of Vowel : ' fill ' (Ml). 
 
 The effect of this conversion is almost uniformly to signify the 
 imparting of the quality connoted by the adjective. 
 
 16- III. Verbs are extensively derived from Verbs. 
 
 (1.) By Prefixes ( 2-5). 
 
 (2.) By Suffixes. 
 
 Native Suffixes. k (frequentative) : ' hark (hear), talk (Ml) '. 
 
 le (the same) : 'crumple (crimp), dazzle (daze), dribble (drip), 
 grapple (grip), straddle (stride), waddle (wade)'. 
 
 er (diminutive and frequentative) : ' batter (beat), flutter, 
 glimmer (gleam), patter (pat), sputter 
 
FORMATION OF VERBS AND ADVERBS. 253 
 
 Classical Suffixes. ate (Lat. supine, atum) . 'create, dictate, 
 instigate, migrate, navigate '. 
 
 With formative syllable -it- (frequentative) : ' ag-it-ate, 
 cogitate, hesitate, palpitate'. 
 
 esce, ish (Lat. -escere; Fr. -iss- (Lat. ~iso, -esc-) in verbs in 
 .ir, Lat. -ire : growing or tending to) : ' coalesce, effervesce ; 
 abolish, languish, perish, ravish, relinquish '. 
 
 A step further back would sometimes bring us to nouns : 
 'famish, finish, punish'; or to adjectives: 'flourish, cherish, 
 diminish, embellish, establish, replenish '. 
 
 ge (Lat. -ware, Fr. ger): 'chargre, judge, -venge'. 
 
 it, ite (Lat. supine ztum) : ' edit ; expedite, ignite '. The 
 Latin forms of the two last are from noun roots. 
 
 (3.) By modifying tJie Vowels, or Consonants, or both : 'drip 
 (drop), fell (fall), roost (rest), raise (rise), reel (roll), set (sit) 
 snuff (sniff), dodge (dog), blench (blink), dredge (drag), drench 
 (drink), twitch (tweak), watch (wake), wrench (wring)'. Most 
 of these derivatives are causative verbs. 
 
 (4.) By postfixing Adverbs and Prepositions: as 'findow^', 
 * pluck out ', ' bear with ', ' bring in ', ' fall in ', ' climb up ', 
 ' heave to ', ' despair of. These postfixed words are to be con- 
 gidered in many cases as part of the verb, although not only not 
 fused with it, like the ordinary suffixes, but susceptible of being 
 removed to a distance by the object coming between : ' find hiin 
 out ', ' pluck it out '. ' bring the messenger in ', ' send the things 
 away '. They often acquire a meaning not explained by the 
 separate meanings of the parts : ' find out ' is no more to be 
 parsed as two words than ' invent '. Moreover, we find verbal 
 nouns formed from them : ' the looker on ', ' entrance in r , 
 'goings out ', ' the climber upward ' (Shakespeare). We may 
 have two different meanings from the same constituents differ- 
 ently placed : as ' overcome ', ' come over '. 
 
 To sum up ; in deriving verbs from verbs, we have sometimes 
 little more than a synonyme ('arise ') ; in other cases, a diminutive, 
 or frequentative force ; and in some instances an intensive effect. 
 The causative verbs are a distinct class. Among the most import- 
 ant derivatives are those that negative in some way or other the 
 meaning of the simple verb. 
 
 DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 17. Adverbs are formed principally from 
 Adjectives and Nouns. 
 
 (1.) By Prefixes, These have already been exemplified ( 2-5) : 
 *-bed, -ground, -head; awry; a-dowii ; alone, -so ; fc.fore, . 
 
254 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 -hind, -sides, -times ; w-ever ; -or ; to-day, -night; underground '. 
 ' apart, across ; per-ad venture -chance, -haps '. 
 
 (2.) By Native Suffixes. 
 
 ly is now by far the principal ending whereby adverbs are 
 derived from adjectives: ' careful^/, gently (for 'gentle-ly '), 
 honestly, hopelessly, probably (for ' probable-ly '), smoothly, 
 swiftly '. 
 
 Also from participles : ' beseechingly, confidingly, disappoint- 
 ingly, falteringly, perplexingly ; unflinchingly ; decidedly, 
 disconnectedly, pointedly ; unweariedly '. 
 
 From nouns : * hapfo/, purposely ; month??/, weekly '. 
 
 ling, long : * darkZm#, flatting ; headlong '. 
 
 meal (division) : ' limbmeal, piecemeal '. 
 
 Ward, Wards : ' downward^), forward (s) (= fortA-w 
 outward (s)'. ' Froward' and 'wayward' are adjectives. 
 
 way, way-S : ' straightway, noways '. 
 
 wise ' likewise, otherwise '. 
 
 Various inflexional endings may also be noted : 
 
 Genitives end in s, CS, S6, C6 : ' always, besides, betimes, 
 needs, nowadays, unawares, upwards ; else (0. E. ettes) ; onc0, 
 twice, thrice (older ones, twies, thries} '. 
 
 The -t in some words of this class is an accretion : ' amidst, 
 amongst, betwixt, whilst ', for ' amiddes ', &c. 
 
 Datives : * seldom, whilom (0. E. -um) '. In Oldest English, 
 the adv. was formed from the corresponding adjective by adding 
 -e a dative suffix : fast (' fast ' : adj.), fasst-e (' fast ' : adv.). 
 
 Accusatives : ' alway, noway, otherwise, sometime, back- 
 ward ; then, than '. 
 
 Instrumental : ' the (with comparatives), thus (this), how, 
 why'. 
 
 ' Here, there, where, hither, thither, whither ', are locatives 
 from pronominal roots. ' Hertcc, thence, whence ', seem to 
 combine a locative and a genitive suffix : -n- -j- -ce (= es~). 
 
 Setting aside the regular formation in ' ly ', and the instances 
 of inflexional endings, the remaining adverbs are really phrases. 
 One leading class shows a union of preposition (chiefly ' a ') and 
 noun : ' a-sleep, fo-sides, ^er-chance '. Others show an 
 adjective and a noun coalescing, the preposition being absent : 
 ' noway, otherwise '. 
 
 DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 18. The chief Prepositions are primitive words of the 
 English language, and have corresponding forms in the 
 other languages of the Indo-European family : ' at, by, 
 fo:-, in, of, on, to, \vith '. 
 
PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 255 
 
 In ' from ', the -m is a superlative ending. 
 
 Comparative endings appear in a few prepositions : ' sifter (a/ 
 of, ' from ') ; over (0. E. of-er, from root of of) ; under 
 (compare Lat. inter : from in). Also in 'ere' (0. E. ce-r 
 1 earlier, before '). 
 
 ' To-ward(s) 'is 'in the direction of ', in the direction indi- 
 cated by ' to '. 
 
 A large number of prepositions are really shortened phrases : 
 ' amid(st), beside, behind, &c. ' ; in the midst (= middes-t, 
 mid being adj. and t an accretion) of, 'by the side of, &c. 
 1 Like, near, next, &c. ' are adjectives practically used as 
 prepositions, through the omission of ' to ' : ' like to ', ' near to ', 
 &c. 
 
 Participles : ' notwithstanding, owing to '. 
 
 Classical Prepositions. Simple : ' per, pro, sans '. ' Across ' 
 is a shortened phrase. ' Maugre, minus, round ', adjectives. 
 The chief instances are originally participles : ' concerning, 
 during, excepting, regarding, touching ; except(ed), past, save'. 
 
 DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 19. A very few are simple words of the language : 
 * and, if, that '. 
 
 Nearly all the words that serve as Conjunctions are 
 appropriated from other parts of speech, chiefly and 
 more immediately from the Adverb and the Pre- 
 position. 
 
 Adverbial conjunctions : ' also, likewise, then, further, still, 
 only, therefore, accordingly, else, because, since, as, when'. 
 
 ' Or, nor ', are condensations of ' other or either ', ' nother or 
 neither '. 
 
 Prepositional conjunctions : ' but, for, except, after, before, 
 until '. And some of these are fundamentally adverbial. 
 
 20. Of all the purposes of forming derivatives, none 
 is of more consequence than the signifying of nega- 
 tion, contrariety, or opposition. 
 
 After expressing a thing, quality, or action, we need to have 
 the means of expressing the absence or negation of the thing. 
 This has been largely provided for in our system of Prefixes and 
 Suffixes, but still not adequately ; and it is useful to know the 
 circumlocutions that are in reserve when these fail us. 
 
 The chief prefixes are, ' dis, in, mis, n, non, re, un ', and the 
 suffix is ' less '. The employment of these has been capriciously 
 
256 DEEIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 limited ; but the use of negative prefixes to nouns is slowly 
 reviving. Tennyson uses ' rf&fame, wmfaith, unMfh, u*- 
 charity', &c. 
 
 In some cases we have separate words for the opposite of a 
 meaning : * Light, dark ' ; ' hot, cold ' ; ' light, heavy ' ; 'hard, 
 soft ' ; ' rich, poor ' ; ' industrious, idle ' ; ' north, south ' ; 
 ' pleasure, pain ; ' action, passion ' ; ' clever, stupid ' ; ' seeing, 
 blind '. 
 
 In technical and scientific language we can prefix ' not '. To 
 signify all colours except white, we may say ' not- white ' ; 
 ' me. not-me ', ' round, not-round '. 
 
 The chief circumlocutions are seen in such examples as the 
 following : ' That was the very opposite (or reverse) of candour' : 
 4 that would be anything but reasonable ' ; ' very far from 
 reasonable ' ; ' his conduct showed a great want (absence) of 
 selfishness '. These forms are often used to avoid the harshness 
 of the other more direct negative forms : ' to relate disagreeable 
 truths of a neighbour is far from innocent ' ; so, * far from 
 pretty ' is softer than ' ugly ' ; ' a great want of consideration ' 
 is hardly so strong as ' inconsiderate '. 
 
 21. Modified Forms. 
 
 The following are examples of shortened forms : ' aim ' (0. Fr< 
 esmer, Lat. cestimare, ' to estimate '), ' alms ' (Gr. HlfeinZsyrte, 
 0. E. celmesse), 'ant' (0. E. cemet, 'emmet'), 'binnacle' (formerly 
 'bittacle'; Fr. habitacle, Lat. habitaculum) ; 'brig' (brigantine), 
 'bus* (omnibus), 'cab' (cabriolet), 'cad' (cadger), 'change' (ex- 
 change), 'censer' (incense), 'cess', (asses), 'cit' (citizen), 'con' 
 (for 'contra', in 'pro and con'), 'consols' (consolidated 
 moneys), 'coz' (cousin), 'drawing-room' (%'^/idrawing), 'dropsy' 
 (formerly ' hydropisy ' ; from Gr. hy drops, from hydor 'water ') ; 
 'furl' ('fardel', bundle up); 'jury-mast, -rudder' (injury); 
 ' larceny ' (Lat. latrocinium) ; ' limn ' (illuminate), ' lone ' 
 (alone), ' miss ' (mistress), ' mite ' (minute), mob (0. E. mobile, 
 Lat. mobile (vulgus), ' easily moved, fickle '), ' parrot ' (Fr. 
 perroquefy ' phiz ' (physiognomy), ' prentice ' (apprentice), 
 ' print ' (imprint ; Fr. empreinte, ' impression ', imprimer, 
 'print'; ~Lat.im primere) ; 'purl' (purfle, Fr. pourfilcr, 'to 
 overcast with gold thread '), ' sir ' (Fr. sire, sieur, Lat. senior), 
 1 size ' (assize), 'spite ' (despite), ' sport' (desport), ' store ' (Fr. 
 cstorer, Lat. instnurare) ; ' tire-woman ' (attire) ; ' story ' 
 (history), 'vail' (avail), 'van' (caravan), 'ware' (aware), 
 ' wig ' (for ' periwig ', itself a corruption of ' peruke ', Fr. 
 perruque). 
 
 Frequently a word is assimilated to a more familiar form, or 
 otherwise changed : ' acorn (0. E. ceccrn, ' of the oak ' ; as if 
 
COMPOUND WORDS. 257 
 
 ' oak-corn') ; * beaver* (Lat. fiber ; transposition of consonants) ; 
 ' cartridge ' (corruption of Fr. cartouche ; as ' porridge ' of 
 
 * pottage', 'estridge* of 'ostrich') ; 'corporal' (Fr. caporal, 
 Lat. caput ; not connected with corpus) ; * coy ' (Fr. eoi, Lat. 
 quietus) ; * curse ' (in ' not care a curse ', is for kers, an older 
 form of ' cress ') ; * cutlet ' (Fr. cotelette, dim. from cote, Lat. 
 costa, ' r^^^Xl ' daffodil ' (asphodel) ; * ewer ' (O. E. hwer, Fr. 
 aiguiere, from aigue, Lat. aqua, l water ') ; ' lias ' (layers) 
 'nonce' ('n* belongs to the inflexion of the demonstr. adj. : 
 ' for thaw anes'); 'oakum' (0. E. acumba, cemba; 'what is 
 combed ', * tow ') ; ' pox ' (pocks) ; ' saveloy ' (Fr. cervelas, from 
 cervelle, Lat. cerebellum, 'brains'); 'tansy' (Fr. tanaisie, Gr. 
 athanasia, 'immortality'); 'whack' (thwack); 'wherry' (ferry). 
 
 Further examples of shortening, assimilation, and other 
 varieties of change may be seen under the Prefixes, or may be 
 gathered by careful observation in the course of using the 
 etymological dictionary. 
 
 Compound Words. 
 
 22. Compound words are those that are made 
 up of simple words of independent significance ; as 
 ' day -star ', ' sun-beam ', ' free-man ', ' rose-tinted ', 
 
 * stout-hearted ', * Commander-in-chief '. 
 
 As a general rule the first word qualifies the second. * Finger- 
 ring ' is a ring for the finger; ' rwgr- finger' is the finger that 
 wears the ring. A ' rose-tree' is a tree of the kind that grows 
 roses ; a * tree-rose ' is a rose of the kind that grows on trees. 
 A ' ground-n\Lt ' is a nut growing in the ground ; a ' niU-groand.' 
 is a ground for producing nuts, 
 
 A change of accent is usually required to make two words into 
 a compound word. The crow is a ' black bird ', not a 'black- 
 bird ' ; a ' rd house ' is a house that is red. A ' mad house ' 
 would be a family all gone deranged ; but a ' mad-house ' is a 
 house for receiving mad persons. 
 
 4 Lay thy bow of pearl apart 
 And. thy silver sJiininy quiver.' 
 
 This is either ' thy shining quiver made of silver ' (silver 
 shining), or ' thy quiver shining like silver ' (silver-shining). 
 Euphony may sometimes interfere with this rule ; as ' monks- 
 hood ', ' well-head ', ' hop-pole ', which can hardly avoid accent 
 on both members. 
 
 Those compound words are often connected with the hyphen. 
 The compound with the hyphen enables us to express a 
 distinction, seeu in comparing ' horse-hair ' with ' a torse's 
 17 
 
258 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 hair ' ; the one is the material, without regard to quantity : 
 the other the hair of one horse. 
 
 23. Composition of Nouns. Nouns are combined 
 with near! a all the other Parts of Speech ; and in a few 
 cases compound nouns are formed by union of two 
 words belonging to other parts of speech. 
 
 Nouns with Nouns. ' Birthday, churchyard, coffeehouse, 
 coppersmith, cornfield, handbook, moonlight, rosebud '. To 
 these we should add ' drawing-room, resting-place, riding- whip, 
 turning-lathe, walking-stick ', as the words 'drawing', 'riding', 
 &c., are verbal equivalents to nouns. In 'self-love', 'self'i. 
 substantially a noun. 
 
 Sometimes a genitive case-ending is retained : ' craft-s-man, 
 herdsman, kinsman, landsman (compare 'sea-man') ; catspaw ; 
 deathshead ; Thursday '. ' Cynosure ' (= dog's tail). 
 
 In * Jack-o'-lantern ', ' Will-o'-the- Wisp ', 'of is retained. 
 'Catamount is a corruption of 'cat o' mountain'. Compare 
 ' aide-de-camp, corduroy (Fr. corde du roi, ' king's cord ') ', &c. 
 
 Nouns with Adjectives : ' fortnight, goodwill, greensward, 
 highland, highway, hotbed, midday, redbreast, stronghold'. 
 
 Nouns with Verbs: 'cutwater, daredevil, makeshift, pick- 
 pocket, singsong, spendthrift, spitfire, stopgap, turncoat '. In 
 these words the verb governs the noun, and the meaning is some 
 person or thing that performs the action indicated. The same 
 meaning is expressed in another class of words by adding ' er ' 
 to the compound : ' landowner, peacemaker, shipbuilder, 
 stockbroker, talebearer '. By suffixing ' ing ' the act is ex- 
 pressed : ' shipbuilding ', &c. A verb preceded by a noun is 
 rare ; as ' godsend '. ' Bloodshed ' is participle joined to noun ; 
 .so are ' ormolu ', ' treasure-trove '. ' Bakehouse ' exemplifies 
 yet another combination : so ' washhouse, drawbridge, draw- 
 well, grindstone, &c, '. Cp. ' scape-goat '. 
 
 Noun* with Adverbs: 'by- play, by-word, forethought, in- 
 gathering, instep, lockup, onset, out-going, outlaw, out-rider, 
 sundown, up-rising '. These adverbs are to be distinguished 
 from the same words used as prepositions, as will be seen in the 
 following class. 
 
 Nouns with Prepositions : ' forenoon, afternoon '. In these 
 the noun is under government by the preposition. In ' after- 
 thought', the meaning of 'after' is adverbial, something 
 ' thought after '. 
 
 Pronoun and Adjective : ' nonesuch '. 
 
COMPOUND NOUNS AI D ADJECTIVES. 259 
 
 Adverb and Verb: 'outlay, thoroughfare'. Verb preceding: 
 1 breakdown, cast-away, drawback, pinafore, run-away '. 
 Verb and Verb : ' hear-say, hobnob, make-believe '. 
 Verb and Preposition : ' go-between '. 
 
 24. Composition of Adjectives. The chief ele- 
 ments are Adjectives and Participles, with Nouns and 
 (occasionally) with Adverbs. 
 
 Noun and Adjective* 'Bloodred, child-like, fancy-free, heart- 
 whole, pitch-dark, sea-green, snow-white '. The noun in most 
 of these instances adds its meaning to or defines the adjective : 
 ' as red as blood', 'green like the sea ', &c. In 'headstrong, 
 heart-whole, sinful', the noun is the subject of reference : 
 ' whole as regards the heart '. Numeral and the noun ' fold ' : 
 ' twofold '. 
 
 Adjective and Adjective -. ' pale-blue (blue of a pale shade), 
 red-hot (so hot as to be red) '. 
 
 Noun and Imperfect Participle: 'all -seeing, fruit-bearing, 
 heart-breaking, spirit-stirring, truth-telling '. The noun is the 
 object of the transitive participle. It is an adverbial adjunct to the 
 intransitive participle : ' night-walking ' is ' walking by night '. 
 
 Noun and Past Participle : ' awe-struck, coal-laden, heart- 
 felt, home-grown, moss-grown, moth-eaten, sea-born(e), 
 tempest-tossed, thunder-riven, terror-stricken, vine-clad, 
 weather-beaten, woe-begone '. 
 
 In all such cases the noun is really adverbial, being the sole 
 representative of an adverbial phrase : ' awe-struck ' is ' struck 
 with awe ' ; ' home-grown ' is ' growu at home ', ' ice-built 
 mountains ' are ' mountains built of ice'. In ' chapfallen ', the 
 participle may agree with the noun, or the noun may be regularly 
 adverbial. 
 
 Adjective (complement) and Imperfect Participle : ' clear- 
 sounding, simple-seeming, stern-looking '. 
 
 Adjective or Participle and Adverb. 'All-powerful, far- 
 fetched, high-born, highly-wrought, inbred, overcharged, over- 
 done, well-bred, well-meant '. 
 
 Verb and Noun. ' Break-neck (speed), do-nothing (days) '. 
 Compounds with ' ed ', simulating participles : 
 Noun and Noun : ' hook-nosed, lion-hearted, ox-eyed, '. 
 ^ Adjective and Noun : ' able-bodied, bandy-legged, four- 
 sided, long-headed, Roman-nosed, sober-minded, warm- 
 hearted, weak-kneed'. 
 
260 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 25. Composition of Verbs. 
 
 Noun and Verb . ' back-bite, brow-beat, way -lay '. 
 
 Adjective (complement) and Verb : ' ful-fil, rough-hew, 
 safeguard, vouchsafe, white-wash '. 
 
 Adverb and Verb : ' cross-question, doff (do off), don, fore- 
 tell, gain -say '. 
 
 26. Composition of Adverbs. 
 Noun and Noun : ' length-ways ', ' sideways '. 
 
 Adjective and Noun: 'always, likewise, otherwise, some- 
 times, straigh tway '. 
 
 Adverb and Adverb : *as(=al-so), whereas, thenceforward'. 
 
 Adverb and Preposition : ' hereupon, whereby, whereof '. 
 
 Adjective and Adverb : ' nowhere, somehow '. 
 
 Complex compounds: nevertheless, notwithstanding, more- 
 over. 
 
 27. Prepositions are compounded of one another : 
 1 into ', ' within ', ' without ', ' upon ', * throughout '. 
 
 'But' (as adverb, preposition, or conjunction) is compounded 
 of ' by ' (be) and ' out ' (like the Scotch phrase ' out by '). 
 Originally it signified closeness with separation, and its various 
 meanings are in accordance with this. 
 
 28. Compounds, disguised and assimila- 
 ted. 
 
 Many words that are really compound have lost the appear- 
 ance of compounds, and look like simple words ; and in other 
 cases, a simple word has been corrupted into a compound form ; 
 and it often happens that one or both parts of a real or 
 simulated compound have been assimilated to some other 
 (probably better known) words, with which, however, they 
 have no radical connexion. 
 
 * Apricot ' (older ' apricock ', Fr. abricot, Lat. (malum) prce- 
 cox, ' early ripe (apple) ') ; * as ' (0. E. als, alse, eall-swa, 
 ' al-so ') ; ' ballast ' (0. E. bat-last, ' boat-load ') ; ' barley ' ( 8, 
 1> (3), (c)) ; 'barn '((). E. berern, ( bere-cern', 'bere-place or 
 barley -house ') ; ' bice ' or ' bise ' (for 0. E. asure-bice, Fr. 
 bes-azur, 'an inferior blue'); 'biscuit' (Fr., from Lat. bis 
 coctus, 'twice cooked'); 'bridal' (O. E. bryd-ealu, 'bride-ale 01 
 -feast'); 'burglar' (Fr. burglaire, Lat.burgi-latro, ' burg- 01 
 house-robber ') ; ' bustard ' (Sp. dbutarda, Fr. ou(s}tarde, Lat. 
 avis-tarda, ' slow bird ') ; ' chaffer ' (chap-fare, ' way or course 
 
 _(fare) of bargaining (chap, 0. E. ceap)'); 'constable' (Fr. 
 
 "conne'table, Ital. coneetabile, Lat. comes stabuli, 'count of the 
 
COMPOUNDS IN DISGUISE. 261 
 
 stable ', ' master of the horse ') ; ' cormorant ' (Fr. ; Ital. corvo 
 marmo, 'sea-crow'); 'coverlet' (Fr. couvre-lit, 'cover-bed': 
 not a dim. from 'cover'); 'curfew' (Fr. couvre-feu, 'cover- 
 fire'); ' daisy ' (' day's-eye ') ; 'every' (0. E. cefer-celc, 'ever- 
 each'); ' futtocks ' ('foot-hooks', or 'foot-locks'); 'gospel 
 (0. E. god-spell, 'good news') ; 'gossamer' (' God's-summer ') ; 
 'gossip' (0. E. god-sib, ' God- related ', orig. 'sponsor'); 
 'gozzard* (= goose-herd); 'greatling fishery' (great line) ; 
 'groundsel (0. E. grund-swelige, 'ground-dwelling or -covering' 
 plant); ' groundsil ', 'grunsel'(0. E. grund-syl, ' ground -sill ' 
 or -base, threshold) ; ' halliards ' (or ' halyards ', that is ' haul- 
 ' yards'); 'handsel' (0. E. hand-selan or -syllan, 'hand -to 
 give'); ' heifer ' (0. E. hca-fore, 'stall-cow'); 'huzzy' (0. E. 
 hus-wif, ' house-wife ') ; ' icicle ' {0. E. is-gicel, ' ice-congealed 
 lump, -cone': cp. Germ, kegel) ; 'janizary' (Turkish yeni- 
 ischeri, 'new-troops'); 'jeopardy' (Fr. jeu parti, Lat. jocus 
 partitus, ' a divided game, an even chance ') ; 'julep ' or ' julap ' 
 (Arab, julab, Pers. (tul-ab, 'rose-water'); 'kerchief (Fr., 
 couvrc-ch(i)efy ' cover-head ') ; ' lady ' and ' lord ' (See INFLEXION, 
 Gender, 3) ; ' lammas ' (0. E. hlaf-mcesse, ' loaf-mass, or 
 -feast'); 'lamprey' (Fr. lamproie, Lat. lampetra, 'lambo- 
 petra ', ' lick-rock ') ; ' liquorice ' (Gr. ghjlcijrrhiza, glykys- 
 rhiza, ' sweet- root '); 'lute' (Arab, al-' ud, 'the wood'); 
 ' manure ' (= ' manoeuvre ', Fr. ; from mainceuvre, Lat. manus- 
 opcra, ' hand- work ') ; ' marshal ' (0. H. Germ, marcih-scalh, 
 'horse-servant', 0. Yr.mareschal: compare 'seneschal', senc-sccdh, 
 'old servant'); ' midriff ' (0. E. mid-lirif, 'mid-body') ; 'mole' 
 (0. E. mold-weorp, 'mould-thrower') ; 'neighbour' (0. E. nca/i- 
 bur, 'near-dweller'); 'nostril' (O.E. nasihyrla, nosc-thyrel or 
 -thril, 'nose -doorlet (cp. Germ, thur-le, nose- hole) '); ' oleander' 
 (corruption of ' rhodo-dendron '); 'orchard' (O.E. ort-yard, ort- 
 geard, wyrt (wort)-geard, 'root- or herb- -arden') ; 'osprey' (Fr. 
 orfraie; a corruption of ossifrage, Lat. ossifraga, 'bone-breaker') ; 
 'pastime' ('pass-time'); 'porcupine' (Ital. porco-spinoso, 
 Lat. porcus spinosus, 'thorny, prickly hog'); 'porpoise', 
 ' porpess ' (Ital. porco pesce, Lat. porcus-piscis, 'hog(like)-fish ') ; 
 ' prince ' (Fr. ; Lat. princeps, from primus- capio} ; ' prithee ' 
 ('I-pray-thee ') ; 'quandary' (Fr. qu' en dirai-jef ' what shall I 
 say of it ? ') ; ' samphire ' (corruption of Fr. Saint Pierre, the 
 herb of St. Peter) ; ' scabbard ' (0. E. scaubcrk : Icel. skafa- 
 biarga (Germ, bergen}, ' scraper (sharp instrument) -to hide'); 
 ' scaffold ' (0. Fr. eschafaud, escadnfaut, orig.' a platform, whence 
 to see a tourney, Lat. scadnfaltiim, from ex and cndfifaUiun, 
 Ital. catafalco, from Romance catar, ' to view, look ', and 
 Teutonic falco, 'a planking') ; 'sheriff' (0. E. scirfej-g.'.r.fa, 
 ' shire-reeve, district- or county -governor ') ; ' steward (0. E. 
 
262 DERIVATION. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 sti (Icel. stia)-weard, ' sty-ward ', ' domestic affairs-manager ') ; 
 ' stirrup ' (0. E. stifgej-rap, ' mounting -rope ') ; ' such ' (p. 
 50, 4) ; ' tawdry ' (said to be for /. Awdrey, St. Etheldreda] ; 
 'threshold' (0. E. threscivald, threswold, ' threshwood ') ; 
 ' vamp ' (Fr. avant-pied) ' vinegar ' (Fr. vin-aigre, ' sour- 
 wine '); 'viper' (Lat. vipera, for iiivi-pera, from vivus-pario 
 ' bring forth -alive ') ; ' walrus ' (Germ, wallross from wal, as 
 in ' whale ', Germ, icallfcsch, and hross, ' a horse ') ; ' warlock ' 
 (O.E. wcer-locja, 'treaty-breaker or -liar') ; 'wassail' (0. E. icces 
 heel, ' be of (good) health ', ' your good health ! ') ; ' which ' (p. 33, 
 13) ; ' whisky ' (Kelt, uisye-beatha, ' water of life ') ; ' window ' 
 (Icel. windauga, 'wind-eye'); 'woman' (O.E. wifmari). 
 
 'Beef-eater' (corruption of Fr. buffetier, one that attends at 
 the buffet or sideboard) ; ' causeway ' (or ' causey ' : Fr. chausdc, 
 Lat. calceata)', 'Charter-house' (Fr. Chartreuse, 'Carthusian 
 monastery'); 'crayfish' or 'crawfish' (Fr. e.crevisse, Germ. 
 krebiz, krcbs) ; ' lanthorn ' (former spelling of ' lantern ') ; 
 ' lanyard ' (or ' laniard ' ; Fr. laniere, ' thong ') ; ' pent-house ' 
 (0. E. pentice, Fr. appcntis, 'sloping shed' ; as if from 'pente- 
 house', 'slope-house'); ' pickaxe ' (0. E. pikois\ the ending 
 assimilated to 'axe'); 'rakehell' (0. E. rakel, rakle, 'rover, 
 rioter ') ; ' runagate ' (for ' renegate, renegade ') ; ' sparrow- 
 grass ' (for 'asparagus'). In Scotch, 'misdemeanours' 
 sometimes become ' rnisty manners ', and ' colocynth pills ', in 
 one district at least, are called ' Collieston pills '. 
 
 'Bandog' (= 'band-dog', chained dog); 'Bedlam' 
 ('Bethlehem'); 'belfry' (Fr. bcfroi; 0. Fr. berfroi, Lat. 
 bcrfrcdus, belfrcdus ; Germ, bervrit, bercvrit, ' watch-tower, 
 tower for defence ' ; berg- or burg- friede, from bcrgen-fricden 
 ' to protect- to watch or defend ') ; ' Billy Ruffian ' (Bellerophon) ; 
 'blunderbuss' (Dutch donderbus, 3erm. donncrbiichse, 'thunder- 
 gun ') ; ' brimstone ' (= 0. E. bren-ston, ' burn-stone ') ; 
 'buckwheat' ( ' foecA-wheat ' ; cp. Germ, buch-weitzen ') ; 
 'carnival' (given as carne-m vale, 'farewell to flesV '.. and also 
 as carnis levamen, ' solace of the flesh ') ; ' catamount ' ( 23) ; 
 ' chance-medley ' (for Fr. chaudc-melee, ' a hot fight or affray ') ; 
 ' checkmate ' (Fr. e'chcc et mat, Germ, schactmatt, Pers. shah 
 mat, 'the king is dead'. Assimilated to verb 'check'); 
 ' claymore ' (Gael. = ' sword-great ') ; ' cockchafer ' (= ' clock 
 (Scorch; = 'beetle') -chafer'); 'cockloft' (= ' cob or cop 
 (= top)-loft') ; 'cockswain' (or ' coxen', = ' 50<^-swain ') ; 
 'counterpane' (corruption of 'counterpoint', Fr. contre-pointe, 
 for ' courte-poinie, 0. Fr. coultc-pointc, from Lat. culcita pi/wcta, 
 ' st'itched-cushion ') ; 'cowslip' (for ' covtslcck ' : see 8, 1, (3), 
 (c)); 'coxcomb' (' cock's-comb ') ; ' cupboard' (for 'cup-^?w or 
 bower'); ' curtail' (Fr. court-tailler, ' cut short '); 'domesday- 
 
VARIOUSLY MODIFIED FORMS. 2C3 
 
 book* (for domus Dei, 'house of God'. Also dei'ived simply 
 from dom, 'judgment'); 'dormouse' (Fr. donnctisc, 'the 
 sleeping animal'; merely, perhaps, assimilated to 'mouse'); 
 ' everywhere ' (for cver-gehwcer, tvcr-ihwar : not from ' every ') : 
 1 fieldfare ' (0. E. fc.ala'-for, f collar, from its pale yellow or dun 
 (fealu) colour) ; ' furlong ' (0. E. furh- or J'ur-lang, ' furrow- 
 long'); 'gooseberry' (corrupted from Germ. krous(d}-bcerc, 
 
 * the rough berry ') ; ' handy work ' (0. E. ha/nd-yciceorc : not 
 from ' handy ') ; ' hangnail ' (for ' agnail ' : 0. E. angnayl, from 
 angc-ncegcl, 'sore nail*. The Scotch often use 'ragnail', the 
 broken bits of flesh appearing like rags) : 'harbour' (0. E. 
 hereberga, from here-beorgan, ' army -to protect' : orig. ' lodging 
 or station for an army'); 'hauberk' (0. Fr. Jiauberc, O. E. 
 h(e)alsbeorg ; from h(c)a?s-beorgan, 'neck- to protect'); 
 'hautboy ' (or ' oboe ' : Fr. hautbois, ' high -wood ', Ital. oboe) ; 
 ' humble-pie ' (for ' umble-\ne ', pie made of (/fumbles or 
 numbles (Fr. nomblcs), entrails of deer ; assimilated to 
 ' humble ') ; ' husband ' (0. E. husbonda, * house-cultivator, 
 -possessor, -master'; cultivator of soil attached to a house) ; 
 'jerked-beef (Chilian charqui) ; 'Jew's harp' (perh. from Fr. 
 
 Jeu, ' toy ') ; ' Jerusalem-artichoke ' (for Ital. girasole, ' sun- 
 ' flower') ; 'John Dory or Doree ' (Fr. jaune d&re'e, 'golden- 
 yellow'; if not a corruption of il janitore, 'the gate keeper', the 
 fiah being so called in the Adriatic, in reference to St. Peter) ; 
 ' jollyboat ' (for ' yawl-boa,t ') ; ' keelson ' (Dan. kol-svin, or 
 'Svill, -syll, 'keel-sill'); 'kickshaw' (Fr. qudque, chose, 
 'something') ; 'landgrave* (Germ, land-grqf ; graf, 'earl'); 
 ' linsey-woolscy ' (linen and wool) ; ' loadstar ' or ' lodestar ', 
 
 * loadstone ' or ' lodestone ' (from ' lead ', 0. E. Icedan, lad. 
 Perh. in the last case there is also a confusion with ' Lydian 
 stone ' : cp. ' magnet ' = ' magnesian stone ') ; ' loggerhead ' 
 (' log-head ') ; ' maulstick, mahlstick, mostick ' (Germ. 
 malerstock ' painter's-stk-k ') ; ' nightingale ' (0. E. nihte- 
 g<de, Germ, nacldigall, ' night-singer ') ; ' peacook ' (0. E. 
 pawa, Fr. paon, Lat. pavbnem) ; 'pea-jacket' (Dutch pije, 
 ' coarse thick cloth ') ; ' purview' (Fr. pourvu, ' provided (that)') ; 
 'quinsy' (O. E. ' squinancy ', Fr. esquinancic, Gr. kyn-angke, 
 '<log-throttling') : 'rosemary' (Lat. ros marinus, 'dew of the 
 sea'); 'summerset' or 'somersault', &c. (p. 234, 'supra');' tit- 
 mouse (O. E. tit (little)-7wa^e (little), 'small-sparrow ') : 'walnut' 
 (0. E. wcalh hnut, ' foreign-nut ') ; ' Welsh rabbit' ('rare-bit ') ; 
 ' whitlow ' (prov. Engl. wkickftaw, = quiGk-fiaw, ' living sore ') ; 
 'wiseacre' (Germ, weissager, ' wise-sayer ') ; 'woodbine' 
 ('-bind'); 'wormwood' ('-wort', -wyrt, 'herb, plant') ; 
 
 Phrases. ' Cat-o'-nine-tails ', ' fail-me-never ', ' forget-me- 
 not ', ' good-for-nothing ', ' hole-and-corner ', ' knock-me-down ', 
 
 * ne'er-do-well ', * out-of-the-way '. 
 
264 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Syntax explains the mode of arranging 
 words in sentences. 
 
 The Syntax of English is comparatively simple, from the 
 absence of Inflexions.* 
 
 There are three leading processes or principles that 
 
 regulate the joining together of words into sentences : these are 
 Concord, Government, and Order. The syntax of our language 
 depends principally upon the last ; the two first, concord and 
 government, presuppose inflexions, and are wanting in a 
 language according as these are wanting. 
 
 Syntax is rendered more simple and intelligible by the 
 analysis Of sentences, which ascertains what is common to 
 all sentences, and shows how the different parts are related to 
 each other. 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 1. Every sentence consists of two parts, 
 the Subject and the Predicate : ' gold is precious'; 
 * gold ' (ifubj.) t * is precious ' (pi-ed.). 
 
 For the purpose of explaining the Parts of Speech, it was 
 necessary at the outset to describe the two principal divisions of 
 the sentence, and the manner of enlarging or extending each of 
 them by the use of qualifying words. 
 
 2. Sentences are Simple, Complex, and 
 Compound. 
 
 A Simple Sentence contains one Subject and 
 one finite Verb : ' the patience of Job is proverbial'. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson, in his grammar, dismisses the subject of syntax in a 
 few lines, remarking that ' our language has so little inflexion or variety 
 of terminations, that its construction neither requires iior admits many 
 rules '. 
 
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE ENLARGED. 265 
 
 A Complex Sentence, while containing but one. 
 principal Subject and one principal Predicate, 
 has two or more finite Verbs: 'the event 
 happened, as it was foretold '. 
 
 A Compound Sentence contains two or more 
 principal Sentences: 'the individual dies, but 
 the race endures '. 
 
 The Simple Sentence. 
 
 3. The Simple Sentence contains one 
 Subject and one finite Verb. 
 
 These may, however, assume enlarged and complicated forms. 
 The most elementary form is seen in such examples as ' the sun 
 warms', 'water drowns'. The more extended forms may be 
 considered as growing out of this. 
 
 4. (I.) The primary elements (Subject and 
 Predicate) may have one or more secondary 
 elements or adjuncts tacked on to them; as 'the 
 (tropical) sun (thoroughly) warms (the ground) '. 
 
 Here the subject, is enlarged by the qualifying word ' tropical' ; 
 the predicate is enlarged by adding an object ' the ground ', 
 and by the adverb ' thoroughly '. This exemplifies the 
 enlarged simple sentence, containing both the primary elements 
 (noun and verb) and the secondary elements (adjective and 
 adverb). 
 
 5. (2.) Both the primary and the secondary 
 elements, as represented by the Noun, Verb, 
 Adjective, and Adverb, may undergo transforma- 
 tions and expansions. 
 
 6. The Subject, whose type is the Noun, may 
 be also a Pronoun, or an Infinitive (PARTS OP 
 SPEECH Noun) : l he lives ' ; * to work is the lot of 
 .men ' ; ' working is often fatiguing '. 
 
 The infinite forms may take an object and qualifying words, 
 whence it is very common to have an expanded infinitive phrase 
 as the subject of a sentence : ' to hear a good orator is rare ' ; 
 ' to work hard is the fate of many ' ; ' to speak the truth at all 
 times is reckoned a duty ' ; ' reading much is not the oidy way 
 to knowledge '. 
 
266 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 The infinitive may have a subject, as well as an object and 
 qualifying words ; this is effected by prefixing ' for ' : 'for a 
 prince to be reduced by villany to my circumstances is calamity 
 enough '. Strictly, however, this is merely an inversion for 
 ' to be reduced is calamity enough for a prince '. 
 
 The Object, or completion of the transitive 
 Predicate, having also a Noun for its type, under- 
 goes the same transformations as the 
 Subject: 'the dog follows him'; 'John likes 
 working (or to nork) ' ; * leave off shrieking, and begin 
 considering ' ; ' every one likes to hear good news '. 
 
 The rule that one verb governs another in the infinitive is 
 merely a way of saying that an infinitive can be the object of a 
 sentence in place of a noun, or that one verb can govern another 
 only when that other is in a noun position : ' I begin to move ', 
 means ' I begin the act of moving ' ; ' to move ' is the same as 
 4 the act of moving '. 
 
 A verbal Noun may take an object in the form of an infinitive 
 expression : ' his proposal to raise the siege was approved of by 
 the government '. The noun ' proposal ' contains the active 
 force of the verb ' propose ' : ' he proposed to raise the siege, and 
 this was approved of". 
 
 4 To ' is not necessary to the infinitive : it is not inserted after 
 the verbs ' have ', ' may ', 4 can ', ' shall ', ' will ', * do ', ' dare ', 
 4 bid ', ' let ', ' make ', 4 must ', ' durst ', ' need not ', ' feel ', 
 4 hear', 'see'. The list might be extended, especially with 
 words of similar meaning : ' wish ', 'intend ', 'help ', 4 deign ', 
 &c., and by reference to older writers and poets. There are 
 also frequent exceptions. ' To ' is dropped after the preposition 
 4 but ' : 4 he did nothing but read '. 
 
 7. The regular Subject or Object may be 
 Enlarged by all the various means of qualifying or 
 modifying the Noun. 
 
 I. The Adjective : * much anxiety shortens life ' ; 
 ' we met an old soldier '. 
 
 This is the regular and usual mode of expressing the attribute 
 of a noun, whether the subject or the object of a sentence. We 
 may include under it the many cases where a noun is used as 
 an adjective : 'stump orator', 'iron duke', r faun-tray ', &c. ; 
 
ENLARGEMENTS OF SUBJECT OR OBJECT. 267 
 
 and the few cases where an adverb is so used (elliptically) : 
 'the church here ', &c.* 
 
 (2.) A Possessive Case : 'the king's preroga- 
 tive ' ; ' his death '. 
 
 Here the possessive acts the part of the adjective by specifying 
 some individual instance of the thing named by the other 
 noun : ' of all prerogatives, the one here spoken of is the one 
 belonging to the king '. 
 
 (3.) A Noun in apposition: 'Havelock, the 
 hero, is dead ' : ' and David, the king, answered Joab, 
 the captain of the host ', &c. 
 
 An infinitive phrase may be in apposition as well as a noun. 
 ' The rule, to love thy neighbour as thyself, comprehends our 
 duty to man.' 
 
 It is a general principle of language, that words placed 
 together are to be understood as mutually connected, if there be 
 nothing indicated to the contrary. 
 
 (4.) A Phrase made up of a Preposition and 
 a Noun : 'a man of letters' (a literary man) ; ' the 
 right of pasture ' ; ' a word in season ' / * the house by 
 the wood ' ; ' men with wives '. 
 
 We may specify a thing by any circumstance of position or 
 relation to other things, which relationship is usually expressed 
 by a preposition : ' the door on your right hand ' ; ' the property 
 for sale ' ; 'the church on the hill ' ; ' the road to ruin ' ; * the 
 battle of Hastings ' ; 'the captain with his men ' ; ' five of tJie 
 
 * A phrase formed by the infinitive in ' ing ' may sometimes take an 
 adjective ; ' that burning the capitol was a wanton outrage '. The 
 similar construction, ' the sending them the light', was objected to by 
 Lowth, who considered that there are two equivalent constructions, and 
 these alone admissible, ' (by) sending them ', and ' the sending of them ' : 
 in this last case, sending ' being a verbal noun. But these are not in all 
 cases equivalent : ' he expressed the pleasure he bad in hearing the 
 philosopher' and 'in the hearing of the philosopher', have different 
 meanings. 
 
 With a verbal noun we do not now omit the article : ' by (the) observing of 
 this rule you will gain your point ' ; ' at a or the meeting of council ' ; ' by 
 (the) comparing of authorities '. The omitting of ' of ' after the verbal 
 noun often makes a total change of the meaning : ' the meeting of the 
 council', and 'the meeting the council', are both allowable, but for 
 different significations. ' When the Lord saw it, he abhorred them, 
 because of the provoking of his sons and daughters ' ; ' because of 
 provoking his sons', and 'because of the provoking his sons': the first 
 ' provoking' is a verbal noun, the second and the third, infinitives. 
 
268 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 seven ' ; ' the chief among ten thousand '. The infinitive being 
 the same as a noun, we may include such cases as ' a desire to 
 rise '. The same remark applies to the gerund : ' a house to 
 let '. Most of such examples are elliptical or contracted 
 expressions : ' the church standing on the hill ', ' the road that 
 lends to ruin ', &c. ' A man of the v:orld ' is ' a man taken out 
 of the world ', and therefore experienced in the affairs of the 
 world. The full form shows that the real character of the 
 prepositional phrase is adverbial. 
 
 (5.) A Participial Phrase ; that is, a Participle, 
 either alone, or having an object, or qualified by an 
 Adverb: 'a man carrying a burden passed a cow quietly 
 grazing '. 
 
 The participle qualifies or restricts the noun as an adjective 
 would do. ' The minister, having obtained information of the 
 conspiracy, -ordered all those concerned in it to be arrested ' : 
 the second participle 'concerned in it', restricts or defines 
 'those', arid is therefore a restrictive adjunct ; the first 'having 
 obtained', &c., does not define the 'minister', but supposes 
 him to be defined or ascertained already, and imparts additional 
 information respecting him : it is a contracted form of a 
 compound sentence 'the minister obtained information, and 
 ordered ', &c. It is a co-ordinating adjunct. 
 
 This mode of contracting a compound sentence exhibits one 
 of the characteristic functions of the participle. The participial 
 phrase depends for its subject and for its power of affirmation 
 on the finite clause. ' Having gained our purpose, we departed ', 
 is the same as ' we gained our purpose, and we departed ' ; but 
 in the contraction, the subject of the first clause is omitted, and 
 , the form of affirmation dropped. There is a very common 
 /^ error with reference to this construction : thus ' having failed 
 in this attempt, no farther trial was made'. Here the participle 
 ' having ' is without a subject, the finite clause supplying a 
 different subject. The mistake probably arises from confound- 
 ing the co-ordinating participial adjunct with the participle in 
 the absolute construction : it would be correct to say, ' the 
 attempt having failed, no farther trial was made. The participial 
 phrase is then complete in itself. 
 
 8. The Subject or the Object may be 
 enlarged by a combination of two or more 
 of these modes ; and the adjuncts may them- 
 selves be modified by other adjuncts. 
 
ENLARGEMENTS OF SUBJECT OB OBJECT. 269 
 
 (1.) Instead of the simple adjective, we may have an adjective 
 followed by a phrase of reference or of ivgimen ; as ' a man 
 sufficient in himself, 'anxious for nothing', 'desirous to 
 please ', ' blameless in his life ', ' careless of appearances '. 
 
 The most usual case of this construction is when the more 
 remote adjunct implies a reference to something, or indicates in 
 r what point or direction the meaning of t'ie adjective is to be 
 'taken ; thus ' careless ' is qualified or limited by stating the 
 'exact matter that the carelessness applies to : ' careless in his 
 person ', ' of his money ', ' of his life ' 
 
 When an adjective seems to govern an infinitive like a verb, 
 this is because of its close alliance to some verb ; thus, ' desirous 
 to please' scarcely differs from 'desiring to please', which is 
 the infinitive or participle (as the case may be) of 'desire'. 
 For the very same reason a noun may seem to have a regimen, 
 as ' the desire to please'. The 3 are examples of the great 
 freedom that our language allows in substituting one part of 
 spe ch for another. 
 
 (2. ) It is very common to have two or more adjectives qualifying 
 the same subject ; as ' the deep Stygian recesses ', ' the old man 
 eloquent ', ' a good and faithful servant ', ' the Victoria Hotel 
 Company, limited '. Also the possessive and an adjective may 
 "be frequently found conjoined : ' Wellington's Peninsular &vmy'. 
 (3.) The noun of the prepositional phrase may be qualified 
 t>y an adjective or the equivalent of an adjective : ' a man of 
 any sense ' ; ' a pearl of great price '. With or without this 
 qualification, the prepositional phrase may be conjoined with an 
 adjective : 'a grown man of sense' ; 'a goodly pearl of great 
 price ' ; 'a wary statesman in difficult times '. 
 
 (4.) The participial phrase may be combined with other quali- 
 fications : 'a powerful mind engaged on great problems'. Here 
 'mind 'is restricted both by the adjective and by the participle. 
 As every noun occurring in a phrase may be the subject of 
 new qualifications, .the main subject may be enlarged without 
 any other limit than that of becoming too complicated to be 
 easily understood. 
 
 All the attributes that constitute the enlargement of the subject may 
 also be predicated of it, as will be seen presently. Things in the attribu- 
 tive relation to a subject are assumed to belong to it, instead of being 
 predicated of it: 'a valiant man', 'a man of bravery', 'a man having a 
 stout heart', &c., suppose or assume the characteristic of bravery as 
 belonging to a man, and distinguishing him from the rest of men. If 
 this cannot be assumed, and needs to be asserted, we must predicate it ; 
 as ' he is valiant, is a man of bravery, is a man of stout heart ', <fec. 
 
 9. The Predicate may be a single Verb, in 
 
 which case it is called simple; as ' the dog rum', 
 1 the sky brightens '. 
 
270 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 The Predicate is called complex when it is made 
 up of a Verb of incomplete Predication and 
 its complement : * the dog is sagacious ' ; * the sky 
 grows clear ' ; 'he seemed honest '. 
 
 The verb ' be ' called the copula, is by pre-eminence the 
 verb of incomplete predication. Except in the case wh:re 
 
 it has its proper meaning of existence, this verb always requires 
 some subject or attribute joined to it to make a complete 
 predicate : ' Pitt was a statesman ' (noun) ; ' the sky is blue ' 
 (adjective) ; ' he is here ' (adverb) ; ' that was of no consequence ' 
 (phrase). 
 
 The other verbs of incomplete predication are the intransitive 
 verbs ' become ', ' get ', 'grow ', ' fall ', ' live ', ' die ', ' seem ', 
 &c., and the transitive verbs 'can', 'do', 'shall', 'will', 
 ' make', 'call ', 'deem ', ' think ', ' consider ', ' choose ', ' elect ', 
 ' constitute ', ' appoint ', &c. : ' Napoleon became first consul ' ; 
 ' he got better ' ; ' I fell asleep ' ; 'he grows a. man ' j 'he grows 
 tall ' ; ' he seemed clever ' ; 'I can write ' ; ' they were elected 
 members '. 
 
 The transitive verbs of incomplete predication have two 
 constructions, active and passive. In the passive voice they 
 closely resemble the intransitive; as 'he ivas made, chosen, 
 elected, appointed, constituted, declared, first consul ' ; ' he is 
 Mi-ought, deemed, considered, a man of ability '. 
 
 With intransitive verbs, and also with transitive verbs used 
 passively, the completion of the predicate is something affirmed 
 of the subject of the sentence : ' he seemed a god ', ' the wine 
 tastes sour ' ; ' the rope is made fast '. Hence the predicate, if 
 a noun or adjective, agrees in case with the subject ; in other 
 words, is considered to be in the nominative. 
 
 This remark, however, is of very little importance in the English 
 language, since, in the absence of noun inflexions, it can apply only to : 
 the pronouns ; as 'I am he'. Even as regards the pronouns, such; 
 expressions with the nominative have been culled in question by some 
 grammarians, as not in accordance with the genius of our language. 
 
 When the verb is transitive, and in the active voice, the 
 complement of the predicate is an attribute of the object of the 
 verb ; as ' they elected him captain ', ' he left me destitute ', 
 ' they made the house secure '. When the complement is a 
 verb in the infinitive ('he can write',), the object is attached to 
 this infinitive : ' he can write French '. 
 
 10. The form of Negation is not to be looked 
 upon as enlarging the Predicate : 'the sun does 
 not shine ', * he laughs not ', * the course is now inex- 
 pedient '. 
 
PREDICATE : OBJECT I ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT. 271 
 
 Every declaratory sentence either affirms or denies, and the 
 denial is not more complicated than the affirmation. In other 
 words, the negative ' not ' is considered a part of the predicate 
 rather than an adverbial enlargement of it : ' he laughs merrily' 
 shows an enlargement of the predicate ; not so ' he does not 
 laugh '. 
 
 11. The Predicate, if a Transitive Verb, is 
 completed by means of an Object: 'Caesar 
 conquered Gaul ' ; 'he defies opposition ' ; ' they con- 
 stituted me umpire '. 
 
 It has already been seen that the object is of the same nature 
 as the subject. It may be noun, pronoun, or infinitive ; it may 
 be enlarged by an adjective, a possessive case, a noun in apposi- 
 tion, a phrase made up of preposition and noun, a participial 
 phrase. 
 
 12. The Predicate is enlarged by an Adverb, 
 or an Adverbial phrase: 'he rose early' ; 'she 
 sings well ' ; ' they returned in good order '. These 
 are called Adverbial Adjuncts of the Predicate. 
 
 An adverb or adverbial phrase, as has been seen, expresses any 
 circumstance of place, time, degree, certainty or uncertainty, 
 cause, instrument, manner, connected with the action : ' we 
 met in the town ' ; '' it happened long ago ' ; 'it concerns us 
 little' ; 'assuredly you will find it so' ; 'he died of fever ' ; 
 ' the city was taken by stratagem ' : 'he cried with a loud voice' ; 
 1 the brook murmured pleasantly ' ; 'he was naturally (by 
 nature} kind'. 
 
 13. The Adverbial Phrase appears in 
 various forms : 
 
 (I.) A Noun: 'we walked a mile'; 'it weighs a 
 pound ' ; ' they ran a race '. 
 
 (2.) A Preposition and Noun: 'he went of 
 necessity ' / ' they watched by day and ~by night '. 
 
 The adverbial adjunct of Preposition and Noun is sometimes 
 spoken of as the indirect object : ' he gave money to the poor ' ; 
 ' they accused him of conspiracy, and condemned him to a fine '. 
 
 In these examples the verb has a direct object which it 
 governs, ' gave money ', ' accused him ', ' condemned him ', 
 and what seems a second object required to specify the action 
 completely. But these indirect objects are better viewed as 
 
272 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 
 
 adverbial adjuncts, qualifying the action of the verb. "When 
 we say ' they condemned him to a fine ', we indicate by the 
 words ' to a fine ' something regarding the manner of his con- 
 demnation. 
 
 In such constructions as ' they saluted him Emperor ', some 
 grammarians consider ' emperor ' (the completion of the 
 predicate) as a second or indirect object. 
 
 (3.) A Noun qualified by some adjunct : 'he 
 
 rose his height ' ; 'we arrived last night ' ; ' let me die 
 the death of the righteous '. 
 
 The noun in these constructions is in the objective case. In 
 some instances there is an ellipsis of a preposition : ' we arrived 
 on or during last night '. Also in the case of the simple noun 
 used adverbially, ' they ran a race ', the noun is now regarded 
 as in the objective, there being an ellipsis of a preposition. In 
 the expression ' let nie die the death of the righteous ', the 
 meaning is ' after the manner that the righteous die ', which is 
 obviously an adverbial signification. 
 
 (4.) A Participle or a Participial Phrase : 
 
 ' they went along singing ' ; 'he stood gazing on the 
 wene below '. 
 
 In most instances this adjunct may be considered as a separate 
 clause contracted into a participial phrase : 'they went along, 
 and sang (as they went) ' ; ' he stood, and gazed '. For it will 
 be seen that the participle is in apposition with the subject to 
 the verb : ' they singing ', * he -gazing '. 
 
 When the Participle agrees with a Subject 
 different from the Subject of the Verb, the 
 Phrase is said to be in the Absolute Construction : 
 ' the sun having risen, we commenced our journey ' ; 
 * this said, he sat down '. 
 
 ' Then, as a gallant bark from Albion's coast 
 (The stortns all weat/ier'd and the ocean cross'd) 
 Shoots into port, &c'. (Cowper.) 
 
 The absolute Case, or the case of a detached participial 
 phrase with a subject of its own, differs in different languages, 
 but grammarians have for the most part agreed that in English 
 it is the nominative ; accordingly, the following are deemed 
 orrect constructions : 
 
 ' Then I shall be no more ; 
 And Adam, wedded to another Eve, 
 Shall live with her enjoying : / extinct '.(Milton.) 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 273 
 
 ' I shall not lag behind, nor err 
 The way, thou leading. - (Milton.) 
 
 On these and kindred thoughts intent I lay 
 In silence musing by my comrade's side, 
 He also silmC (Wordsworth.) 
 
 The objective, corresponding to the oldest English dative, 
 was till recently not uncommon. Tillotson has : ' he made as 
 wise and true proverbs as anybody else has done since, him 
 only excepted, who ', &c.* 
 
 'Notwithstanding', 'pending', 'during', which seem to 
 govern a noun in the manner of a preposition, are in reality 
 absolute participles : 'notwithstanding our losses we shall 
 persevere'; 'during the day'; 'pending the trial'. The 
 natural order would be ' our losses notwithstanding r , ' the day 
 during, or continuing ', ' the trial pending ' ; and in the instance 
 of ' notwithstanding ', this order is not uncommon. 
 
 ' Except ' is a remnant of the Latin ablative absolute : ' except 
 this ', or ' this executed ', ' Save ' and ' past ' are also trans- 
 formed past participles. 
 
 The Subject in the Participial construction 
 is sometimes omitted, and then the Participle is 
 used impersonally : ' granting this to be true, what 
 is to be inferred from it 1 ' 
 
 There might seem to be here an omission of ' I ', or ' we ', 
 ' T granting ', &c. ; the subject, being either quite indefinite 
 and immaterial, or perfectly well understood, is left unex- 
 pressed. As regards the common expression ' considering 
 all these things ', &c., a different view is sometimes taken.- 
 In old English the words ' being ' and ' considered ' often 
 introduced absolute phrases. ' Natheless, considered his dis- 
 tresse ' (Chaucer) ; that is, ' his distress (being) considered ' ; 
 * all things considered '. In modern English the active parti- 
 ciple has been substituted for the passive, either from over- 
 looking the true construction, or from the disposition to use 
 the active participle with a passive meaning. On this view, 
 
 * M r. Ernest Adams maintains that the dative ought to be the absolute 
 case in modern English, us it was in the earliest English. He properly 
 remarks that the ' meaniny conveyed by these absolute words cannot be 
 o-\ pressed by a true nominative '. In the classical languages the absolute 
 ftisc is not the nominative. Dr. Latham is of the same opinion. In all 
 probability, the nominative was fixed upon from some random instances, 
 without any deliberate consideration. As it is only in the pronouns that 
 the case is seen, and as examples of both constructions are to be found in 
 food writers, there is some ground for contending that usage leiw.es tJte 
 
 18 
 
274 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 we may suppose that the expression 'granting this to be true ', 
 is an equivalent of ' this granted '. 
 
 The phrase ' generally speaking ' may be best explained by 
 supposing an omission of the subject (' I ', ' we ', or ' one '). 
 
 (5.) An Infinitive or a Gerund: 'he is a fool 
 to throw away such a change' (infinitive with prep.) ; 
 * the courtier stoops to rise ' (gerund). 
 
 The infinitive is so closely allied to the noun as to act the 
 part of a noun-phrase when preceded, as it usually is, by the 
 preposition ' to . ' He is a fool ', and the manner or circum- 
 stance or explanation of his being so is ' for the throwing away 
 of the chance '. 
 
 The gerund is known from its expressing end, or purpose : 
 ' What went ye to see ? ' Hence it is an adverbial adjunct of 
 purpose or intention when following another verb : ' he went 
 abroad to make his fortune '. 
 
 The Complex Sentence. 
 
 14. A Complex Sentence, while consisting 
 of one principal Subject and Predicate, con- 
 tains two or more finite Verbs: 'I saw that 
 something was wrong ' ; 'no one can say how the 
 thing happened '. 
 
 The part containing the principal Subject and 
 Predicate is called the principal clause J the other 
 part, the Subordinate Clause, or Clauses: ' I saw' 
 (principal) ' that something was wrong ' (subordinate). 
 \ We may have a plurality of subordinate clauses in the same 
 relation to the principal ; as ' we were told that the messenger 
 had just arrived, and had seen the general '. This makes a 
 Compound sentence, each member of which is- complex. At 
 other times the subordination is carried to the second or even a 
 higher degree ; as ' I know not by what fate it comes (1) that he 
 is always against me (2), when I try to rise above the position (3) 
 that I now occuppy (4) '. 
 
 15. Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds, 
 
 according as they are representative of the Noun, of the 
 Adjective, or of the Adverb. 
 
 They are thus divided into Noun Clauses, Adjec- 
 tive Clauses, and Adverbial Clauses. 
 
THE NOUN CLAUSE. 275 
 
 It has been seen that among the substitutes for the Noun is 
 included a Clause, and so for the Adjective and for the Adverb. 
 
 THE NOUN CLAUSE. 
 
 16. The Noun Clause occupies the place of 
 the Noun. 
 
 It may be the subject or object of the Principal 
 Clause : as 'that he had been rash was apparent to all'; 
 1 1 saw that the waters had risen '. 
 
 The noun clause is, as it were, the expansion or equivalent of 
 a noun or noun phrase : ' his rashness was apparent' ; 'I saw^ 
 the rise of the waters '. ' I wish the happiness of all men ' (that 
 all men should be happy). 
 
 The Noun Clause may be in apposition to some 
 Noun ; as ' the idea that any one should challenge his 
 right had never crossed his mind '. 
 
 It may be the completion of the Predicate : 
 
 * the consequence was that we achieved a victory '. 
 
 "When a noun clause is the subject of a sentence it is very 
 common to use the word ' it ' as the grammatical subject of the 
 principal verb, and to place the noun clause at the end : ' it is 
 certain that the river may be crossed '. The noun clause is then, 
 in apposition to ' it '. 
 
 Tne objective relation, which belongs properly to verbs, may 
 be sustained also by nouns and adjectives J hence these are 
 sometimes followed By noun clauses : thus, ' there is no 
 
 proof that he did this 1 ; 'I am sure that this is so' ; ' I do this in 
 the hope that he will deserve it '. But, as already remarked ( 8), 
 these nouns and adjectives have the full force and meaning of 
 verbs : they are the same as, ' there is no evidence capable of 
 proving that he did this ' ; ' I believe that this is so ' ; * I do this 
 because / hope that he will deserve it '. 
 
 17. Noun Clauses are introduced by That', 
 or by some interrogative word: as 'what', 
 
 ' when ', ' whence ', ' how ', ' why ', &c. 
 
 1 That ' is the most usual connective. Properly speaking, it is 
 the demonstrative * that ', followed by a clause instead of a 
 noun : ' I know that ' viz ., a certain fact or circumstance 
 affirmed in the noun clause 'we shall soon arrive '. 
 
 The conjunction is frequently omitted before an objective clause: 
 
 * I fear we shall be late ' ; 'he said he would do it forthwith' . 
 
276 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 The verb ' doubt ', preceded by ' not ', is sometimes followed 
 by 'but that' : 'I do not doubt but that we shall know the 
 whole'. The 'but* in this case is, however, unnecessary and 
 inelegant. 
 
 The interrogative connectives are seen in the following 
 examples : 'hotc it happened is a mystery ' ; ' you know wh \ 
 am, and where I came from' ; 'we cannot say how America 
 was first inhabited ' ; ' tell me where 1 shall find the master ' ; 
 ' it is uncertain whether he will come ' ; ' science teaches us wlu/ 
 the fall of the mercury portends rain ' ; ' he asked me how old 'I 
 was ' ; ' whoever gives information will be rewarded '. 
 
 In such cases the subordinate clause is really a question which 
 the principal clause embodies in some form or other. This 
 construction is sometimes called the indirect question. 
 
 It is interesting to note the contraction of these clauses into 
 infinitive phrases : ' they knew not where to go what to do 
 who to look tohoiv to act- when to begin ' : ' how not to do it ' ; 
 ' I believe the man (to be) guilty ' ; ' he denied having used that 
 expression '. 
 
 Instead of the interrogative * whether ', we find the conjunc- 
 tion ' if ' sometimes employed : ' he asked if that was my 
 opinion '. Being against analogy, and also uncalled for, this 
 practice should not be followed. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 
 
 18. When a clause limits or qualifies a 
 Noun or Pronoun, it is of the nature of an 
 Adjective : * men that are seljish (selfish men) never 
 win our esteem ' ; 'I remember the place that he 
 occupied (the by-him-occupied place ; his place) '. 
 Hence these are called Adjective Clauses. 
 
 An Adjective Clause may be found in any place of 
 the sentence where a Noun may occur for an Adjective 
 to qualify. 
 
 1. With the Subject : ' the rains that have just fallen will do 
 much good' ; 'joy that is noisy and intemperate is of short 
 duration ' ; ' he that sows will reap '. 
 
 2. With the Object : ' we met the man that we had seen in the 
 morning ' ; ' I love them that love me '. 
 
 3. In Adverbial Adjuncts : ' in the day that thou eatest 
 thereof, thou shalt die. 
 
 19. The Adjective Clause, in its fundamen- 
 
THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 277 
 
 tal restrictive application, should be intro- 
 duced by the restricting relative 'that', or 
 its equivalents. ' The man that is wise ' (' the wise 
 man ') ; * uneasy lies the head that wears a crown '. 
 
 ' The house that Jack built ', ' any one that chooses to inquire', 
 ' I want a man that will share my burdens ', are constructions 
 with the restrictive adjective clause, and are best introduced by 
 'that'. The equivalents of 'that' are '(such) as', 'but', 
 ' when ', and ' where ', with its compounds ' whereof, &c. (pp. 
 38-46)'. * A horse such as you want is not easily to be found ' ; 
 ' he came at the time when I expected him ' ; 'the son of man 
 h;id not a place where he might lay his head' ; 'the point 
 wherein you are mistaken is this ' ; 'I know a bank whereon 
 the wild thyme grows '. 
 
 When the restrictive relative is in the objective case, it is often 
 omitted : ' I have found the book (that) you want '. We may 
 also say (colloquially) ' this is all ( ) I have '. The omission 
 in the nominative case leads to an ungrammatical construction 
 ( 78). 
 
 Some attention is necessary to distinguish adjective clauses 
 preceded by ' who ', ' what ', ' when ', ' where ', ' wherein ', 
 from noun clauses expressing the indirect question : ' tell me 
 where he lives ' (noun clause) ; ' this is the place where he lives ' 
 (adjective clause). The adjective clause must always have a 
 subject which it qualifies. 
 
 The adjective clause may in certain cases be contracted into an 
 infinitive phrase, thereby becoming more terse : ' the son of 
 man had no plnr>e where to lay his head ' (no place that he might 
 lay his head ?'/<,> ; 'you have no cause to hold my friendship 
 doubtful ' (gerund : = no cause why ~on account of which you 
 should hold, *fcc.). 
 
 The Co-ordinating Adjective Clause, which 
 joins on an additional statement in a convenient way, 
 is best introduced by ' who ' and * which ', or 
 their equivalents. 
 
 ' The prince, who is an excellent horseman, kept his seat ' ; 
 ' the king, who was more prudent than his advisers, accepted 
 the armistice' ; 'let pride, which she calls plainness, marry 
 her ' ; ' Goethe's heart, which few knew, was as great as his 
 intellect, which all knew ' ; ' some of the dragoons came up to 
 the hall, where they took possession ' ; ' the Interrex held office 
 for five days only, when a successor was chosen ' ; ' he is in the 
 
278 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 garden of Naboth, whither he is gone down to possess it '. (See 
 THE PRONOUN, 17, &c.). 
 
 When the subject is of itself vague and undetermined, we are 
 prepared for regarding the accompanying clause as restrictive. 
 When, on the other hand, the subject is sufficiently denned, we 
 then look upon the clause accompaniment as adding new facts ; 
 in other words, as a co-ordinating clause. This consideration 
 and the context generally, are all that we have to guide us in 
 interpreting the moaning of the relatives ' who ' and ' which ' 
 in modern English style, where they are used in both the senses 
 now mentioned. 
 
 THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 
 
 20. An Adverbial Clause is the equivalent 
 of an Adverb, and modifies a Verb : 'he went 
 away after the sun had risen ' (after sunrise). 
 
 Adverbial clauses form the greater number of subordinate 
 clauses, and may be divided into as many classes as adverbs, 
 and, like them, may qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. 
 
 (I.) Place: 'we remain where we are' ; l wherever 
 you go I will go '. 
 Such clauses are introduced by the relative adverbs of 
 
 place : ' where ', ' whither ', ' whence ', ' wherever ', ' whereso- 
 ever ', &c. These adverbs both connect the dependent clause to 
 the principal, and also qualify the verb of the dependent clause. 
 Thus, in the expression ' it stands where I placed it ', ' where ' 
 connects ' I placed it' with 'it stands', and also qualifies '/ 
 placed it ' by an adverb of place (' there ') : * I placed it there, and 
 it stands there still '. 
 
 , (2.) Time : 'he wrote as soon as the news arrived' ; 
 1 we left wliile lie was speaking ' ; ' you may go there as 
 often as you please '. 
 Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the relative 
 
 adverbs Of time ' when ', ' while ', ' whenever ', and by 
 
 the prepositions or the conjunctions of time 'before , 
 
 ' after ', ' since ', ' ere ', ' until ', ' as soon as ', ' no sooner than', 
 'just when ', ' the moment that ', &c. 
 
 (3.) Degree : ' the sea is as deep as the mountains 
 are high ' ; 'the result was greater than I anticipated* ; 
 *the more you have, the more you want '. 
 
THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 279 
 
 There is always some expression denoting comparison in 
 clauses of degree. They are introduced by ' than ', ' as ', 
 ' the '. They are attached to adjectives and adverbs rather than 
 t> verbs ; the reason being that degree applies more properly to 
 qualities than to actions : 'he is stronger than I am ' ; 'he 
 behaves as well as was anticipated '. 
 
 These adverbial clauses of degree undergo the peculiar ellipsis 
 seen in such examples as 'he is as rich as Croesus (is rich) ' ; 
 1 he works harder than ever (he worked hard) '. 
 
 (4.) Certainty or Uncertainty: 'assure as I 
 speak, you will repent of this '. Here we have merely 
 the phraseology of degree applied to assurance, doubt, 
 or denial. 
 
 We may also include under the present head the relation of 
 Condition, introduced by 'if, 'unless', 'except', 'though', 
 ' however ', &c. : ' we shall reap if we faint not ' ; ' though he 
 slay me, yet will I trust in him ' ; ' however you may try, you 
 will not gain your end '. In sentences containing a condition, 
 the clause expressing the consequence is the principal clause, 
 and the clause expressing the condition, supposition, or conces- 
 sion, is the subordinate clause : ' I will go (principal) if it should 
 rain Duke Georges for nine days ' (subordinate). 
 
 (5.) Cause or Reason : the garrison surrendered, 
 \beeaitse their provisions failed '. 
 
 These clauses are introduced by the conjunctions ' because ', 
 ' as ', ' since ', &c. 
 
 Consequence is expressed by ' so that ' : ' a storm arose, so 
 that we could not leave the harbour '. For signifying end or 
 purpose, ' that ', ' in order that ', are employed. 
 
 (6.) Manner in general. Among the relations 
 not included in the foregoing heads are likeness, 
 unlikeness, and various unclassifiable modes of action : 
 ' lie did as he was told '. 
 
 ' Manner ' is often expressed by an adverbial adjunct containing an 
 adjective clause ; as ' train up a child in the way that it should go '. Here 
 the clause ' that it should go ' qualifies the noun ' way ', and is not an 
 adverbial clause, though occurring in an adverbial adjunct. The words 
 ' mode ', ' manner ', &c., occur in the same construction. In the sentence 
 'we should have arrived sooner, but that we met with an accident', the 
 subordinate clause is considered to be a noun clause, governed by ' but ' 
 as a preposition ; the entire expression (' but ' and clause) being simply 
 an adverbial prepositional phrase. 
 
280 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 21. The Adverbial Clause is contracted by 
 omitting the Verb, or by changing it into a 
 Participle : ' while (I am) on this part of the subject 
 I may remark ' ; ' riding (as we rode) through the 
 wood, we met an old man '. 
 
 The Compound Sentence. 
 
 22. A Compound Sentence contains two 
 or more (Simple or Complex) Sentences 
 united : 'the sun rose, and the mists disappeared'; 
 'he came, but we did not see him'; 'he was there, 
 else I should not have seen him '. 
 
 In these examples the separate clauses are noways dependent 
 on each other. Either assertion might have been made alone ; 
 we might have said ' the sun rose ', or ' the mists disappeared ', 
 separately, without incompleteness of sense ; whereas we could 
 not break up a complex sentence into clauses with independent 
 meaning : ' I will, if I can '. It is true, that when assertions 
 are coupled together in the same period, there is an intention 
 that they should be thought of together, but still they are not 
 such that the one is dependent on the other for a complete 
 meaning. 
 
 The co-ordinating conjunctions (PABTS OF SPEECH Con- 
 juncticm) are so called because they unite co-ordinate clauses. 
 
 CONTRACTED SE. TENCES. 
 
 23. When the Co-ordinate Clauses of a 
 Compound Sentence have the same Subject, 
 the same Predicate, or any other part in 
 common, we may avoid repeating the com- 
 mon part and thereby shorten or contract 
 the expression of the sentence; as 'the sun 
 gives light and (the sun gives) heat'; 'either you 
 (must go) or I must go '. 
 
 One subject may have two or more Predicates, as in the first 
 example now given. One predicate may have a plurality of 
 Subjects ; as ' Hannibal and Ccesar were great generals '. 
 
 There may be a plurality of Objects ; as ' whosoever shall 
 leave houses and lands for my sake '. 
 
 ' The Adverbial adjunct of the predicate may be the common 
 part : ' he advances and retires sl&wly '. 
 
EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. 281 
 
 ' Often the common part is a Subordinate Clause : ' the evil 
 that men do lives after them ; the good (that men do) is oft 
 interred with their bones '. 
 
 The cumulative conjunction 'and' does not always 
 indicate a compound sentence, as there are cases where it 
 joins words or phrases without joining assertions (PARTS OF 
 SPEECH Conjunction). But the alternative conjunction ' or ' 
 can couple only clauses. When we say ' he drove a carriage, 
 and pair ', ' carriage and pair ' makes but one object ; but the 
 use of ' or ' excludes a combination of this kind : ' bring either 
 a carriage or a saddle horse ' is a contracted sentence. 
 
 In co-ordinate contracted sentences the parts joined by 
 
 the conjunction must stand in the same relation to 
 
 the common part. ' I add no more and believe me yours 
 truly' is an irregular construction, for the conjunction couples' 
 a verb in the indicative 'add ', with another in the imperative. 
 ' believe ' : ' I ' is not the subject of both verbs. 
 
 The following are irregular contractions : 
 
 'This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, 
 or shall be published ' : this must be ' has been, is, or shall be, 
 published '. ' There are principles in man which ever have, 
 and ever will incline him to this offence'; for 'ever have 
 inclined, and ever will incline '. 
 
 When clauses are placed side by side without a 
 
 Conjunction expressed, or other grammatical link (as a relative 
 pronoun, or a relative adverb), they are sometimes termed. 
 collateral ; as ' I came, I saw, I conquered ' ; ' this is the 
 way ; that road goes nowhere '. In such constructions a certain 
 rhetorical effect is produced by the ellipsis of the conjunctions. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. 
 
 Simple Sentences. 
 
 24. Form of Analysis. In analyzing Simple 
 Sentences the manner of proceeding is as follows : 
 
 I. Set down the Subject of the sentence. 
 
 II. Set down the enlargement, or attributive 
 Adjuncts of the Subject. These may be assumed 
 to be restrictive, unless mentioned as co-ordinating. 
 
282 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 III. Give the Predicate Verb. If this be a 
 verb of incomplete predication, state the Comple- 
 ment also. 
 
 IV. When the predicate is a transitive verb, state 
 the Object. 
 
 V. Set down the enlargement, or attributive 
 Adjuncts of the Object. 
 
 VI. Adverbial Adjuncts of the Predicate. 
 
 When the various parts may assume different forms, the 
 particular form present should be mentioned. 
 
 25. Example : 
 
 Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne. 
 In rayless majesty, now stretches forth 
 Her leaden sceptre, o'er a slumbering world,* 
 
 I. Subject, 'night'. 
 
 II. Attributive adjunct of subject, ' sable goddess ', noun in 
 
 apposition (with adj. adjunct). 
 
 III. Predicate, * stretches ' (or ' stretches-forth *). 
 
 IV. Object, 'sceptre'. 
 
 V. Attributive adjuncts ( 1. ' her ' ; possessive adjective. 
 
 of object t ( 2. ' leaden ' ; adjective. 
 
 ' 1. ' from her ebon throne ' ; phrase of 
 
 place, prep, and noun. 
 2. 'in ray less majesty' ; phrase of 
 
 VI. Adverbial adjuncts^ 
 of predicate, 
 
 manner, prep, and noun. 
 
 3. ' now ' ; adv. of time. 
 
 4. ' forth ' ; adv. of place. 
 
 5. ' o'er a slumbering world ' ; phr. 
 
 of place, prep, and noun. 
 
 26. ' The neglect to lay down in distinct terms the 
 opposition between the true and the false, has been the 
 occasion of the generally unintelligible character of 
 metaphysics.' 
 
 I. Subject, 'neglect*. 
 
SIMPLE SENTENCES ANALYSED. 
 
 283 
 
 II. 
 
 Attributive adjun :ts 
 of subject, 
 
 1. 'the'; adj., or article. 
 
 2. ' to lay down in distinct terms the 
 
 opposition between the true 
 and the false ' ; infin. phrase 
 object to the verbal noun 
 'neglect'. 'Indistinctterms', 
 adverbial adjunct of manner, 
 prcL h r., u the verb 'to lay 
 down ' ; * the (attribute to} 0] - 
 position', obj. of 'to lay 
 down ' ; ' between the true and 
 the false', prep, phr., adjunct 
 to ' opposition '. 
 (I. Verb of incomplete pred., 'has 
 
 been '. 
 
 2. Complement of pred., 'the occa- 
 sion ' ; noun, modified by ' of 
 the generally unintelligible 
 character of metaphysics ', 
 
 III. Predicate. { prep, phr., the noun ' charac- 
 
 ter' being modified by (1) 
 ' the ', adj. ; (2) ' unintelligi- 
 ble ' (adj.), qualified in turn 
 by adv. of extent ' generally ' ; 
 ' of metaphysics ', prepl. phr. 
 
 27. ' Having first procured guides, we began our 
 ascent of the mountain.' 
 
 I. Subject, ' we ' ; pron. 
 
 II. Attributive adjunct ( ' having first procured guides ' ; eo- 
 
 of subject, \ ordinating participial phrase. 
 
 III. Predicate, 'began'. 
 
 IV. Object, 'ascent'. 
 
 V. Attributive adjuncts ( 1. ' our ; ' poss. adj. 
 
 of object, | 2. 'of the mountain ' ; prep, phrase. 
 
 The attributive adjunct of the subject, ' having first procured- 
 
 guides ', might be further analysed into verb, object, and adverb. 
 
 28. ' There are twenty men here.' 
 
 I. Subject, ' men '. 
 
 II. Adjunct of subject, 'twenty', adj. 
 
 TTT T) j- t S 1- Incompl. vb.. 'are*. 
 
 [II. Predicate, \ 2 Complem., 'here', adv. of place. 
 
 ' There ', originally an adv. of place, has entirely lost its force 
 hi this application, and is merely a formal means of allowing the 
 inversion of the sentence. 
 
284 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 29. ' He gave me a letter to read. 1 
 
 I. Subject, ' he '. 
 
 III. Predicate, 'gave'. 
 
 IV. Object of verb, 'letter'. 
 
 V. Adjunct of object, 'a', adj. or article. 
 
 VI. Adverbial Adjuncts i 1. ' me ' (i.e., ' to me '), dative pron. 
 of predicate, 12. 'to read', plir. of purpose (gerund}. 
 
 30. ' It is vain to pretend ignorance of the fact.' 
 
 I. Subject, 'it,' anticipative pronoun. 
 
 II. Adjunct of subject, 'to pretend ignorance of the fact'; 
 infill, phr. in apposition. 
 
 TTT T> i- t ( Verb of incomplete, predication, 'is'. 
 
 \ Complement of predicate, 'vain', adj. 
 
 3I< * Who are you?' 
 I. Subject, ' you ', pron. 
 
 Verb of incomplete predication, ' are '. 
 
 III. Predicate. Complement of predicate, ' who ' 
 
 pronoun. 
 
 32. 'In France there was less material for the 
 Reformers to work upon.' 
 
 I. Subject, ' material '. 
 
 II. Adjunct of Subject, ' less ' ; adj. 
 
 III. Predicate, ' was' (= existed). 
 VI. Adverbial Adjuncts of Pred. : 
 
 1. * in France ' ; phr. of place, prep. and. noun. 
 
 2. ' for the Reformers ' ; prepl. phr. of purpose or "benefit. 
 
 3. ' to work upon ' ; phr. of end or purpose, gerund. 
 
 4. ' there '. May be set down as formally adverbial, but has 
 become a mere help to inversion. ( 28) . 
 
 The expression ' for the Reformers to work upon ' may also be 
 regarded as a contracted equivalent to an adj. clause limiting 
 ' material ' ; as if ' less material that the Reformers might work 
 upon '. 
 
 33- * Two may keep counsel, putting one away.' 
 
 I. Subject, 'two' (see explanation below). 
 
 TTT ,. , 11. Incompl. verb, 
 
 III. Predicate, 
 
 IV. Object (of Compl. Infin.), 'counsel'. 
 VI. Advl. Adjunct of Pred., ' putting one away ' ; phr. of con- 
 dition, impersonal participle (13, (4).). 
 
SIMPLE SENTENCES ANALYSED. 285 
 
 Strictly, the Subject is ' persons ' understood ; and ' two ', a 
 numeral adj , is limiting Adjunct to the Subject. So 'one' in 
 strictness limits 'person', which is left unexpressed, because 
 easily supplied by every hearer. The omission of the noun 
 throws the force of it upon ' two', which may therefore be allowed 
 to stand as subject. 
 
 34. ' Respecting ourselves, we shall be respected by 
 the world.' 
 
 I. Subject, < we ', pron. 
 
 II. Adjunct of Subject, 'respecting ourselves', co-ordinating 
 participial phrase, with the force of an advl. expression of con- 
 dition modifying the principal clause ; = ' if or since we respect 
 ourselves, &c.' 
 
 III. Predicate, ' shall be respected '. 
 
 VI. Advl. Adjunct of Pred., ' by the world ' ; prepl. phr. of 
 agency. 
 
 35. ' Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to 
 figure to myself the miseries of confinement.' 
 
 I . Subject, ' I ' ; pron. 
 
 II. Adjunct of Subject, 'leaning my head upon my hand' ; 
 co-ordin. parti, phr. The participle ' leaning ' has obj. ' head ' ' 
 (limited by the poss. adj. ' my '), and advl. phr. of place or posi- 
 tion f upon my head' (prepl.). 
 
 III. Predicate, 'began'. 
 
 IV. Object, ' to figure ', in/in. 
 
 1. 'the miseries of confinement' ; 
 
 V. Adjuncts of Object, 
 
 obj. to ' to figure '. 
 'to myself; advl. phrase of end, 
 prepl. 
 
 36. * Partakers in every peril, in the glory shall they 
 not partake ? ' 
 
 I. Subject, ' they ' ; pron. 
 
 II. Adjunct of Subject, 'partakers in every peril' ; noun in- 
 apposition, with the force of an advl. expression of cause or reason, 
 modifying the principal clause : = ' seeing that they have been 1 
 partakers have partaken in every peril '. 
 
 The noun ' partakers ' is limited by ' in every peril ', a prepl. 
 phrase that is formally adjective but really advl., the noun 
 ' partakers ' having the force of the verb ' partake ', as is seen in 
 the equivalent lengthened expression just given. 
 
286 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 TTT JW7 /.// fl- Incompl. verb, 'shall not', (negative). 
 
 111. Predicate, -j 2 Complem. '(to) partake', infin. 
 
 VI. ^c?uZ. Adjunct of Pred., 'in the glory ', ^repZ. phr. of 
 reference. 
 
 37. ' To impose fresh taxes on England in defiance 
 of law would, at this conjuncture, have been madness.' 
 
 I. Subject, ' to impose ' ; infin. 
 
 II. Adjunct of Subject : 
 
 1. ' fresh taxes ' : obj. to ' to impose '. 
 
 2. ' upon England ' ; advl. prepl. phr. of end. 
 
 8. ' in defiance of law ' ; advl. prepl. phr. of opposition. 
 
 TTT PreMwtP J ll Incom P L vb -> ' would have been'. 
 
 III. fred ^ 2 Complem) < ma( i n e S s' ; noun. 
 
 VI. Advl. Adjunct of Pred., 'at this conjuncture'; prepl. 
 jphrase of time. 
 
 The Adjuncts of the Subject in this example are in the usual 
 ; forms of the Object and the Adverbial Adjunct of the Predicate. 
 .The reason is that the subject is, not a noun, but the Infinitive 
 of a transitive verb. Compare the Adjunct of the Object in 
 35. 
 
 Complex Sentences. 
 
 38. Form of Analysis. These are to be ana- 
 lyzed in the first instance as if each subordinate clause 
 were a single word or phrase. The subordinate clauses 
 are then to be analyzed separately. 
 
 EXAMPLES CONTAINING NOUN CLAUSES. 
 
 39. ' That he committed the fault, could be judged 
 from his looks.' 
 
 I. Subject, ' that lie committed the fault ', noun clause (a). 
 TTT T> j- f ( Verb of incompl. pred. 'could'. 
 
 t Complement of predicate, 'be judged'. 
 
 VI. Adverbial adjunct of predicate, * from his looks ', prepl. 
 phrase of means or cause. 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 I. Subject, 'he'. 
 
 III. Predicate, ' committed '. 
 
 IV. Object, 'fault'. 
 
 V. Adjunct of object, ' the '. 
 
 The conjunction ' that ' does not enter into the construction 
 of the dependent clause. 
 
COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH NOUN CLAUSES. 287 
 
 40. ' I told him that we should be there '. 
 
 I. Subject, T. 
 
 III. Predicate, 'told'. 
 
 IV. Object, ' that we should be there ', ' noun clause, (a). 
 VI. Adverbial adjunct of Predicate, ' him ', = ' to him ', 
 
 phrase of direction. 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 I. Subject, 'we'. 
 
 TTT Pndjj-ats I Vb ' of incowpl. pred., 'should be'. 
 
 ate > \ Complement, ' there ', adv. of place. 
 
 In these constructions the practice has been to term ' him ' 
 the indirect object of the verb, but we may also regard it as an 
 adverbial word indicating a circumstance connected with the 
 act of telling. It is important to compare this example with 
 the following. 
 
 41. 'I strongly warned him that disaster would 
 follow such perversity '. 
 
 I. Subject, ' I . 
 
 III. Predicate, 'warned*. 
 
 IV. Object, 'him'. 
 
 VI. Adverbial Adjunct? of Predicate : 1. ' strongly ', adv. of', 
 degree. 2. 'that disaster would follow such perversity, noun 
 clause (a), used as advl. expression of reference. 
 
 Analysis of (a), 
 
 I. Subject, ' disaster '. 
 
 III. Predicate, ' would follow '. 
 
 IV. Object, ' perversity '. 
 
 V. Adjunct of object, 'such', adj. 
 
 ' That ' introduces the noun clause and connects it with the 
 principal. 
 
 Here ' him ' is the direct object of ' warned '. We might say 
 ' I told or mentioned the fact that we should be there ' ; but not 
 ' I warned the fact that disaster would follow '. Hence in the 
 one case the noun clause is the real object of the verb ; in the 
 other case it is not the object, and must be considered as 
 modifying the predicate. 
 
 ' I dreamt that I dwelt in marble halls '. ' Dreamt' may bo 
 regarded as transitive, = ' thought in a dream ' ; in which case 
 the noun clause, ' that I dwelt in marble halls ', is the object. . 
 If ' dreamt' be regarded as intransitive, the noun clause is used 
 as an adverbial expression of reference. 
 
288 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 42. ' It is singular that you should make that 
 mistake.' 
 
 I. Subject, 'it'. 
 
 II. Adjunct of Subject, ' that you should make that mistake', 
 'noun clause in apposition, (a). 
 
 III. Predicate, \ % erb f incomplete predication is '. 
 
 ( Complement of Pred. , singular , adj. 
 Analysis of (a). 
 I. Subject, 'you'. 
 
 III. Predicate, ' should make '. 
 
 IV. Object, 'mistake'. 
 
 V. Adjunct of Object, ' that ', demonstr. adj. 
 
 The first ' that ' is merely the formal word introducing the 
 noun clause. 
 
 The aj^osition is more impressively brought out hy the 
 stronger pronoun ' this '. ' We know this, that in three 
 campaigns we have done nothing '. Compare also the following 
 'example. 
 
 43. ' Morality is deeply interested in this, that 
 what is immoral shall not be made attractive.' 
 
 I. Subject, ' morality '. 
 
 ITT Predicate Jl. Incompl. verb, < is'. 
 
 ate > 12. Complem., 'interested',^/. 
 
 VI. Adv I. Adjuncts of Predicate : 
 
 1. ' deeply ', adv. of degree. 
 
 2. ' in this ', prepl. phr. of reference, the reference being 
 given in ' that what is immoral shall not be made attractive ', 
 noun clause (a) in apposition to ' this '. 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 I. Subject, ' what is immoral ', noun clause (a?). 
 
 (\. Incompl. Verb, 'shall not', 
 
 negative. 
 
 III. Predicate, \ 2. Complem. , ' be made attractive ', 
 
 itself an incomplete infinitive 
 I with adjective complement. 
 
 ' That * introduces the noun clause. 
 
 Analysis of (a 2 ). 
 I. Subject, 'what'. 
 
 TTT -n j' j 11. Incompl. verb, 'is*. 
 
 III. Predicate, \ 2 Comp f em , , immoral , f ^ 
 
 44. ' Tell me how you are.' 
 I. Subject, * you ' (understood). 
 
NOUN CLAUSES ANALYSED. 289 
 
 III. Predicate, 'tell'. 
 
 IV. Object, l how are you ', noun clause (a). 
 
 VI. Adverbial Adjunct of Predicate, 'me', = 'to me', phrase 
 of direction or benefit. 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 I. Subject, 'you'. 
 
 TTT zwftv/y/* J 1 - Verb of incomplete predication, 'are'. 
 aie > \ 2. Complement of predicate, 'how', adv. 
 
 45. ' I wish to know where you live.' 
 I. Subject, 'I'. 
 
 III. Predicate, 'wish'. 
 
 IV. Object, l to know ', infinitive. 
 
 V. Adjunct of Object t ' where you live ', noun clause (a), object 
 to ' to know '. 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 I. Subject, 'you'. 
 III. Predicate, 'li\e*. 
 
 VI. Adverbial adjunct of Predicate, 'where', adv. of place. 
 
 46. * What seems most extraordinary in the battle 
 of Sedgemoor is that the event should have been for a 
 moment doubtful.' 
 
 I. Subject, ' what seems most extraordinary in the battle of 
 Sedgemoor '. noun clause {a, 1). 
 III. Predicate-. 
 
 1. Incornpl. verb, ' is *. 
 
 2. Complem., 'that the event should have been for a, 
 moment doubtful ', noun clause, (a 2). 
 
 Analysis of (a 1). 
 I. Subject, ' wh it '. 
 
 TTT T> j- t J 1- Incompl. verb, 'seems*. 
 
 III. Predicate, \ ^ Com / em ^ < e itraordinaiy ', adj. 
 
 VI. (1). Adverbial Adjunct of Predicate, 'in the battle of 
 Sedgemoor ', prepl. phrase of place. 
 
 (2.) AdvL Adjunct of CompUm. of Pred. t 'most', adverb of 
 degree. 
 
 Analysis of (a 2). 
 
 I. Subject, 'event*. 
 
 II. Adjunct of Subject, ' the ', adj. 
 
 m D ,. , ( 1. Incompl. verb, 'should have been*. 
 
 . Predicate, j 2 Comp { cm ^ ^ d ' oubtfll r 5 adj . 
 
 VI. AdvL Adjunct of Prod., 'loramoment\prepl.2)hr.oftime. 
 ' That ' introduces the noun clause. 
 19 
 
290 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 47. ' They brought home numerous evidences that 
 the expedition had been successful.' 
 
 I. Subject, ' they ', pron. 
 Til. Predicate, ' brought '. 
 
 I V. Object, ' evidences '. 
 
 V. Adjuncts of Object : 
 
 1. ' numerous ', adj. 
 
 2. ' that the expedition had been successful ', noun clause, 
 (a), object to 'evidences' (in consequence of the verb force 
 contained in it; for 'evidences' = 'objects, &c., evidencing or 
 proving'. See 16.). 
 
 VI. Advl. Adjunct of Predicate, ' home ', = ' to home ', phr. 
 of place. 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 
 I. Subject, ' expedition '. 
 
 II. Adjunct of Subject, ' the ', adj. 
 
 Ill Predicate J 1 ' I/)lc omp?. verb, 'had been*. 
 
 ate > 1 2. Complem., ' successful ', adj. 
 
 1 That ' introduces the noun clause. 
 
 48. 'I felt certain that the expedition would be 
 
 successful.' 
 I. Subject, 'I'. 
 TTT r> j- t f ! Incompl. verb, 'felt'. 
 
 III. Predicate, \ 2 CompLn., < certain >, adj. 
 
 IV. Object, ' that the expedition would be successful ', noun 
 clause (a) ; the pred. ' felt certain ' being the same in force as 
 ' firmly believed ', or some such regular transitive verb form. 
 (See 16). 
 
 Or, the noun clause may be regarded as an Advl. adjunct of 
 Predicate, explaining what it was in reference to that ' I felt 
 certain '. (Compare 41, end.). 
 
 EXAMPLES CONTAINING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 
 
 4-9. * The hill that you see in the distance commands 
 a fine prospect.' 
 
 I. Subject, 'hill'. 
 
 !1. 'the', adj., or article. 
 2. ' that you see in the distance ', 
 adjective clause, (a). 
 
 III. Predicate, ' commands '. 
 
 IV. Object, 'prospect'. 
 
 -r r .,. /. ^ 7 . , ( 1. ' a ', adj. or article. 
 
 V. Adjuncts of Object, t* 
 
I. Subject, 'you'. 
 III. Predicate, 'see'. 
 
 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES ANALYSED. 291 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 
 IV. Object, ' that ', relative pronoun. 
 
 the dis 
 
 a verb implied, as ' standing, rising, 
 stretching away in the distance ' ; and the adjunct is co-ordina- 
 
 V. Adjunct of Object, 'in the distance ', prepl. phrase ; really 
 adverbial, modifying 
 
 ting. 
 
 50. ' Who was it that told you.' 
 
 I. Subject, 'it'. 
 
 II. Adjunct of subject, ' that told you ', adjective clause (a). 
 ITT Predicate 4 Verb f incom P l - predication, ' was '. 
 
 I Complement of predicate, ' who '. 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 I. Subject, ' that ', relative pronoun. 
 
 III. Predicate, 'told'. 
 
 VI. Adrl. Adjunct of Predicate, 'you', = ' to you', prepl. 
 phrase of direction or benefit. 
 
 51. ' The labour we delight in physics pain.' 
 
 I. Subject, ' labour '. 
 
 1. ' the ', adj. 
 
 II. Adjuncts of Subject : 
 
 2. '(that) we delight in', adj. 
 
 clause (a), 
 
 III. Predicate, 'physics'. 
 
 IV. Object, ' pain '. 
 
 Analysis of (a), 
 I. Subject, ' we ', pron. 
 III. Predicate, 'delight'. 
 
 VI. Advl. adjunct of Predicate, ' (that) in' (= 'in which'), 
 prepl. phrase of reference or cause. 
 
 52. * Such kings as regard not the solemn promises 
 they make are dangerous.' 
 
 I. Subject, 'kings'. 
 
 " 1. ' such ', adj. 
 2. ' as regard not the solemn pro- 
 
 II. Adjuncts of Subject : 
 
 mises they make', adj. 
 
 clause (a). 
 
 TTT B^.JXM*. \ ! Incmnpl. verb, ' are '. 
 
 [II. Predicate: j 2 Comp f em ^ < danger ous', adj. 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 
 I. Subject, 'as', relative pronoun (adverbial equivalent to 
 that ' or ' who ') 
 
292 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 III. Predicate, ' regard not ', negative. 
 
 IV. Object, ' promises '. 
 
 V. Adjuncts of Object : 
 
 1. ' the ', adj. 
 
 2. ' solemn ', adj . 
 
 3. ' (that) they make ', adj. clause (a 2 ). 
 
 Analysis of (a 2 ). 
 I. Subject, ' they ', pron. 
 III. Predicate, 'make'. 
 [IV. Object, 'that', rel. pron., understood.] 
 
 53. ' We saw the place where the Jacobite standard 
 was raised.' 
 
 Here the object, ' place ', is qualified by the adjective clause 
 ' where the Jacobite standard was raised ', which is analyzed 
 thus : 
 
 I. Subject, l standard '. 
 
 III. Predicate, ' was raised '. 
 VI. Adverbial Adjunct of Predicate, 'where' ; relative adv. 
 of place ( = ' in which ', or ' that- in '). 
 
 54. * The judges of the common law, who held their 
 situations during the pleasure of the King, were 
 scandalously obsequious.' 
 
 I. Subject, ' judges '. 
 
 II. Adjuncts of Subject : 
 
 1. ' the ', adj. 
 
 2. ' of the common law ', prepl. phr. 
 
 3. ' who held their situations during the pleasure of the 
 King', adj. clause, co-ordinating, (a). 
 
 This co-ordinating adj. cl. has the force of an adverbial adjunct 
 of cause or reason : ' The judges were obsequious, for (because, 
 feeing that, &c.,) they held their situations during the pleasure of 
 the King'. (Cf. p. 34, bottom, 18.) 
 
 TTT T> j- t ' 1- Incom.pl. verb l were '. 
 
 : )2. Complem., 'obsequious', adj. 
 
 VI. Advl. Adjunct of (Compl. of) Pred., 'scandalously', adv. 
 of manner and degree and effect or consequence. 
 Analysis of (a). 
 
 I. Subject* ' who ', rel. pron. 
 
 III. Pred., 'held'. 
 
 IV. Object, ' situations '. 
 
ADJECTIVE AND ADVERBIAL CLAUSES ANALYSED. 293 
 
 V. Adjunct of Object, ' their ', poss. adj. 
 
 VI. Advl. Adjunct of Predicate, ' during the pleasure of the 
 King', prep. phr. of time and condition. 
 
 EXAMPLES CONTAINING ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 
 
 55. ' When I look upon the tombs of the great, 
 every emotion of envy dies in me.' 
 
 I. Subject, ( emotion '. 
 
 ( 1. * every ', adj. 
 
 II. Adjuncts of Subject, J 2. 'of envy', adv. phr., prep, and 
 
 [ noun. 
 
 III. Predicate, 'dies'. 
 
 VI. Adverbial Adjuncts\ \ 
 
 of Predicate, J thegreat', adverbial clause (a). 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 I. Subject, !'. 
 
 III. Predicate, 'look upon'. 
 
 IV. Object, 'tombs'. 
 
 v. w**<ron, {I 
 
 VI. Adverbial Adjunct of Predicate, 'when', ady. of time. 
 
 The predicate might also be given as simply 'look ' (intrans. 
 verb). 'Upon' is then a prep., and 'upon the tombs of the 
 great ' is a prepl. phr. of place and direction modifying ' look '. 
 
 56. * He is proud that he is noble.' 
 
 Principal clause, ' he is proud '. 
 
 Subordinate adverbial clause, ' (that) he is noble '. 
 
 The expression ' that he is noble ' signifies the reason, the 
 'why ', of his being proud (' because ' might have been used in- 
 stead of ' that '), and is therefore an adverbial clause. 
 
 57. * He ran so fast that I could not overtake him.' 
 
 Principal clause, ' he ran so fast '. 
 
 Subordinate adverbial clause (attached to the adverb ' so ', 
 which it modifies or defines), ' that I could not overtake him '. 
 
 I. Subject, 'he*. 
 
 III. Predicate, 'ran*. 
 
 VI. Adverbial Adjunct of Predicate, 'fast' (adv. of manner), 
 modified by ' so ' (adv. of degree], which is modified by ' that I 
 could not overtake him* , advl. clause. 
 
294 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 L Subject, I f . 
 
 Ill Predicate \ Incom P l - verb <could not ' negative. 
 
 ace ' 1 Compl. ofpred. , ' (to) overtake ', infinitive. 
 
 IV. 0#rf, 'him'. 
 
 VI. Adverbial Adjunct of Predicate, ' that '. 
 
 'That' here is not primarily a conjunction, but the equivalent 
 of an adverb ; * he ran so fast, and so, or, by that, I could not 
 overtake him '. 
 
 58. This example may be compared with the 
 following : ' He spoke loud, that I might hear him,' 
 
 Principal clause, ' he spoke loud '. 
 
 Subordinate adverbial clause, ' that I might hear him '. 
 
 In this case, ' that ' is still adverbial, qualifying the verb of 
 the subordinate clause ; it is equal to ' so as ', and states the 
 circumstance, manner, or means of my hearing him. 
 
 If we employ ' in order that ' as the connective, the case is 
 different ; the clause ' that I might hear him ' is then a noun 
 clause qualifying 'order'. (Mason, art. 354.) But 'in order 
 that ' may be taken as a phrasal conjunction. 
 
 69. ' The sea is as deep as the mountains are high.' 
 
 Principal clause, ' the sea is as deep '. 
 
 Subordinate adverbial clause, ' as the mountains are high '. 
 
 I. Subject (with adjunct], 'the sea'. 
 
 TIT A~/7>// S Verb of incomplete predication, ' \s\ 
 
 \ Complement of predicate, 'deep '. 
 
 VI. Adverbial adjunct of complement of predicate, ' as ' (adv. 
 of degree), modified by ' as the mountains are high ', advl. clause 
 qf degree (a). 
 
 Analysis of (a). 
 
 I. Subject, ' the mountains '. 
 
 TIT D j- t $ Verb of incomplete predication, 'are'. 
 
 111. frea ate, { Complement of predicate, ' high '. 
 
 VL Advl. adjunct of compl., 'as', relative adv. of degree. 
 
 60. It is only through their adverbial force that some 
 conjunctions enter into the construction of the dependent 
 clause. 
 
 In adverbial clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunc- 
 tions 'if, 'though', * because', 'that', &c., the conjunction 
 does not enter into the construction of the clause. It is the 
 adverbial conjunctions, ' when ', ' where ', ' whenever ', ' wher- 
 
COMPOUND AND CONTRACTED SENTENCES ANALYSED. 295 
 
 ever ', ' as ', &c., that are considered as qualifying the subordinate 
 clause introduced by them. 
 
 61. * ^e must not think the life of a man begins 
 when he can feed himself.' 
 
 Principal clause, ' We must not think ' (A). 
 
 Subordinate noun clause, " (that) the life of a man begins * (a). 
 
 Adverbial clause subordinate to la), ' when he can feed him- 
 self '(a*). 
 
 Here we have subordination of the second degree, and the 
 whole may be symbolically expressed 
 
 Compound Sentences. 
 
 62. The Co-ordinate Sentences are to be analyzed 
 separately, and the link of connexion indicated. These 
 separate sentences, when complex, are to be analyzed as 
 such. 
 
 "The house fell, and great was the fell thereof. [A] 'The 
 house fell ; [B] great was the fall thereof. ' And ' connects [A] 
 and[B]. 
 
 'He goes [A! (but) it is intended that I should remain 
 till 1 grow stronger' [B +b+ V s ]. 
 
 Contracted Sentences. 
 
 63. In these the omitted parts must be expressed 
 at full length, after which the analysis proceeds as 
 above. 
 
 ' Frogs and seals live on land and in water '. Here there are 
 four sentences. 'Frogs live on land'; 'frogs live in water'; 
 ' seals live on land ' ; * seals live in water '. 
 
 * I am the first and (I am) the last' 
 
 In the following example the contraction takes place in the 
 subordinate part of a complex sentence : * when a man is from 
 necessity his own tailor, tent-maker, carpenter, cook, huntsman, 
 aud fisherman, it is not probable that he will be expert at any of 
 his callings '. So in this : ' say first, for Heaven hides nothing 
 from thy view, nor the deep tract of Hell '. 
 
 Again : tin all times and in all places, man has sought to 
 understand the language of nature '. 
 
 64. Let .us present an analysis of the following 
 compound sentence : 
 
296 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 'The theory of the Mahometan government rests npon the 
 maintenance of a clear .separation from the unbelievers ; and to 
 propose to a Mussulman of an}' piety, that the Commander of the 
 Faithful should obliterate the distinction between Mahometans 
 and Christians would be proposing to obliterate the distinction 
 between virtue and vice : the notion would seem to be not merely 
 wrong and wicked, but a contradiction in terms. ' 
 
 Analysis of sentence : A. ' The theory unbelievers '. 
 I. Subject (with adjuncts), 'the theory of government '. 
 
 III. Predicate, ' rests upon '. (Compare ' look upon ': 55. ) 
 
 IV. Object (with adjuncts), 'the maintenance unbelievers'. 
 B. ' To propose virtue and vice '. 
 
 I. Subject, ' to propose '. infinitive. 
 
 II. Adjuncts of Subject : 
 
 1. 'that the Commander Christians', noun dause (5). 
 
 2. 'to a Mussulman of any piety 1 , advl. phrase (prep, and 
 noun) of end or direction. 
 
 Ill Predicate J Vrr ^ f incom P l - P> ed - * would to'. 
 
 1 Com.pl. oj'pred., 'proposing', infin. 
 
 IV. Object of verb, ' to obliterate ', infinitive. 
 
 V. Adjunct of Object : ' the distinction between virtue and 
 vice ', object (with adjuncts) to infin. ' to obliterate '. 
 
 Analysis of (b). 
 
 I. Subject (with adjuncts), ' the Commander of the Faithful '. 
 
 III. Predicate, ' should obliterate '. 
 
 IV. Object (with adjuncts), ' the distinction between Mahome- 
 tans and Christians'. 
 
 The third division of the sentence is greatly contracted. The 
 full expression is : ' the notion would seem to be not merely 
 wrong [c] and (the notion would seem to be not merely) wicked 
 [D], but (the motion wonld seem to be) a contradiction in terms ' 
 [E]. Sometimes such an expression as * wrong and wicked ' may 
 be viewed as a compound predicate, the two words being 
 intended to convey but one notion to the mind. ' And ' con- 
 nects A and B, C and D ; 'but' connects E with C and with D, 
 being anticipated by ' not merely ' ; there is no connecting link 
 expressed between B and C. ' That ' connects b aaid B. 
 
 Elliptical Sentences. 
 
 65. Ellipsis is the omission of some part essential to 
 a complete construction for the sake of brevity and 
 strength. What is left is regarded assuincient to 
 convey the intended meaning. 
 
ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES ANALYSED. 297 
 
 The Contracted Sentences aBove spoken of are one 
 class of Elliptical Sentences ; the part common to two 
 or more Co-ordinate Sentences being expressed only 
 once. Another class, somewhat more difficult, are 
 those involving the Comparative Adverbs, ' as ', ' than ', 
 and ' the '. 
 
 66. 'He is as tall as I am.' 
 
 In full, ' he is as tall as I am tall '. Principal clause, ' he is 
 as tall ' ; adverbial adjunct of the complement of the predicate, 
 
 * as ' (modified by the adverbial clause) ' as I am tall '. 
 
 The predicate of the elliptical or dependent clause is ' tall ', 
 and this is compared, by means of the relative adverb ' as ', with 
 the degree of tallriess expressed in the principal clause. It is 
 analogous to the sentence already given, 'the sea is as deep as 
 the mountains are high '. 
 
 67. ' He is taller than I am.' 
 
 In full, ' he is taller than I am tall '. Principal clause, ' he 
 is taller ' ; adverbial clause, ' I am tall than ', where ' than ' 
 (which is originally ' then ') is an adverb of degree, qualifying 
 
 * tall '. ' He is taller, then (next, in an inferior degree) I am 
 tall.' 
 
 68. ' He is more industrious than clever.' 
 
 In full : * he is more industrious than he is clever '. Analyzed 
 thus : 
 
 I. Subject, 'he*. 
 
 TTT n // / Verb of incomplete predication, 'is '. 
 
 1 CompL of predicate, ' industrious '. 
 
 VI. Adverbial adjunct of the complement, ' more ' (adv. of de- 
 gree], modified by ' than he is clever ' (advl. clause of degree) (a) 
 (analyzed, 'he is clever than'). Literally, this construction 
 means, ' he is industrious more then he is clever '. There, would 
 seem to be a tautology in the English idiom, for either word, 
 
 * more ' or ' than ', would have expressed the comparison. 
 
 69. ' He has not written so much as I have.' 
 
 In full, ' so much as I have written much '. The adverb 'as ' 
 is an adverb of degree qualifying ' much ' understood. ' I have 
 written much, he has not written much (to the same degree)', is 
 the mode of rendering the construction. Or. ' 1 have written 
 much so (compared by a certain quantity), he has not written 
 much so (compared by the same quantity)'. 
 
298 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 70. * He has written' more letters than you.' 
 
 In full, ' he has written more letters than you have written 
 many letters ' ; ' he has written many letters more (' many more ', 
 or 'more many', = more, or many-er) then you have written 
 many letters '. 
 
 71. 'He does not write so well as you.' 
 
 ' He does not write so well as you ivritc well. 1 * As ' modifies 
 the second ' well ', iu correspondence with ' so ' modifying the 
 first ' well '. ' He does not well so (in that degree) a* (in which 
 degree) well you write.' 
 
 72. ' I would as soon die as suffer that.' 
 
 * I would as soon die, as I 'would soon suffer that.' In other 
 words, ' I would die as soon as soon I would suffer that '. The 
 ' as as r here is precisely similar to the ' so as ' in the preceding 
 example (71). 
 
 73- ' As ', after ' such ' and ' same ', employed as 
 equivalent to the restrictive relative, is a case of ellipsis. 
 
 ' The house is not such as I want.' ' The house is not such 
 a house as I want a house. ' ' A house I want is so, the house 
 is not such ' (or so-like, or 'like to that'). The full correspon- 
 dpin-e was well given by the ancient 'such such '. 
 
 74. ' I am not such a fool as to believe that.' 
 
 hi lull, ' I am not such a fool as I should be a fool to believe 
 
 dial '. ' 1 should be a fool to believe that (if I were to believe 
 
 th:it). ' ' I am not a fool such (or so, or ' like that ', or ' to that 
 
 d'-.grei; ') a-s (in which degree) a fool I should be to believe that.' 
 
 75- ' Our habits are costlier than Lucullus wore.' 
 4 Than Lucullus wore costly habits ', or ' than the habits wer$ 
 
 costly that Lucullus wore '. ' Our habits are costly more then 
 
 costly habits Lucullus wore.' 
 
 76. ' Moderation in the use of food is a better 
 ruinody than medicine for an oppressed state of the 
 cii-nulation.' 
 
 ' Than medicine is a good remedy.' 
 
 77. To resolve a compound sentence into the 
 simple or complex sentences composing it, often enables 
 us to detect a fault in its construction. 
 
CONCORD. 299 
 
 ' Because he had committed a crime, he was shut up in prison 
 and let out again only yesterday.' As it stands, the sentence is 
 resolvable into these two : ' because he had committed a crime, 
 he was shut up in prison ', and ' because he had committed a 
 crime, he was let out only yesterday '. It should be, ' because 
 he had committed a crime, he was shut up in prison ; and he 
 was let out again only yesterday ' ; or, ' and it was only yesterday 
 that he was let out again '. 
 
 78. A Relative Pronoun, as subject, is frequently 
 omitted in poetry, not often in prose. 
 
 In the sentence, ' there was a man showed me the way ', the 
 analysis will determine exactly what is wrong. There is but 
 one subject, ' man ', to two finite verbs, making up two distinct 
 assertions. Now this is admissible only in a compound 
 contracted sentence ; but the form of such a sentence would be 
 * a man was there and showed me the way '. Every assertion, 
 and consequently every finite verb, must have a subject, and 
 every subject must have a predicate or finite verb. The 
 insertion of the relative would supply a subject to the second 
 verb in the above sentence. Further instances : ' there is a 
 garden goes along with the house ' ; ' who was it took the news 
 to Hall Farm ? ' ' haply I see a man will save my life ' ; ' now 
 who be ye would cross Lochgyle ? ' 
 
 CONCORD. 
 
 I. The general principles or processes regulating 
 the grammatical union of words in sentences are three 
 in number Concord, Government, and Order 
 
 or arrangement of words. 
 
 When two connected words are of the same 
 Gender, Number, Person, or Tense, they are 
 said to agree with one another, or to be in Concord. 
 Speaking of a man we have to say he, of a woman she, 
 of a plurality of persons, they ; these are agreements or 
 concords. 
 
 In point of fact, these concords are already taught under 
 Etymology. We have seen that 'he' means a man, 'she' a 
 woman, &c. ; that when a noun is in the plural, there is a 
 
300 SYNTAX. CONCORD. 
 
 peculiar inflexion of the verb to correspond with it ('they call', 
 not calls), and also a certain inflexion of the demonstrative 
 adjectives (' these, not this, houses '}. Hence the expressions, 
 ' the trees grows ', ' those sort of things ', are errors of Etymology 
 as well as of Syntax. What is left to Syntax is merely to explain 
 sonic difficult and doubtful cases, where we are not quite sure what 
 flhu person, n umber, gender, or tense of a word really is. 
 
 Concord of Subject and Verb. 
 
 2. A Verb must agree with its Subject in 
 Number and in Person ; and the Subject of 
 the Verb is always in the Nominative Case. 
 
 The verb and the subject, being both spoken of the same 
 thing, must agree with each other ; if they did not, there would 
 be a contradiction in terms. If 'John' is the name for one 
 individual, and 'write' is the form that predicates the action, 
 ' writing ', for a plurality of individuals, then ' John write ' is a 
 discord, or wrong combination. 
 
 This rule is seldom transgressed in short sentences except by 
 ] mi-sous altogether untaught. Such expressions as ' says I ', 
 1 ho do ', ' we sees ', ' the shops is not open ', are mistakes of the 
 grossest kind. But in longer sentences, where several names 
 oc-'ur, the verb is sometimes inadvertently referred to what is not 
 tlw real subject. The following are examples of the kind of 
 sti licture retered to : ' the origin of the city and. state of Eome 
 is involved in great uncertainty ' ; ' the momentary junction of 
 several tribes produces an army '. These are correct ; but many 
 instances of errors arising in similar constructions could be 
 produced. For example : ' his reputation was great, and some- 
 what more durable than that of similar poets have generally 
 Iwen '. ' Railroads seem now, however, to be likely to supersede 
 most other methods of conveyance, in so far, at least, as the 
 transit of goods and passengers are concerned. ' ' The patronage 
 vhich the British Colonies affords to the home government is 
 immense. ' ' The lighting and cleaning of the streets is not nearly 
 so good as in the large towns of England.' 'The opinion of 
 .si-veral eminent lawyers ivere in his favour.' 
 
 3. Collective Nouns, though Singular in form, 
 take a Plural Verb if the Predicate applies to 
 the objects taken individually ; as ' the peasantry 
 yo barefooted, and the middle sort make use of wooden 
 shoes ' ; ' one half of men do not know how the other 
 half live '. 
 
VERB WITH ORDINARY AND COLLECTIVE SUBJECTS. 301 
 
 "When what is affirmed of the noun is an action that can be 
 true of the whole mass in its collective unity, the verb is then 
 singular ; as ' the fleet is under orders to set sail '. When wi* 
 say ' the British nation has not sprung up in a generation ', v\>- 
 speak of the nation as a collective organized whole. So ' the 
 House (of Lords, or of Commons) resolves ' ; ' the Assembly ha.s 
 decreed ' ; ' the Senate is of opinion ' ; ' the army was dis- 
 organized ' ; 'the mob was dispersed ' ; 'the invading force 
 (army and fleet) was in progress towards Attica ' ; ' one fourth 
 of the men at the diggings is composed of convicts '. 
 
 Contrast these with the cases where the predicate applies to 
 the individuals of the collection acting separately. ' The people 
 of the rude tribes of America are remarkable for their artifice 
 and duplicity.' Here what is affirmed applies to the individual 
 Americans acting singly and apart. ' The generality of his 
 hearers were favourable to his doctrines ' ; ' the public are often 
 deceived by false appearances and extravagant pretensions ' 
 meaning the members of the community taken individually ; 
 ' a considerable number were induced to quit the body '. The 
 following sentence sounds awkward, but it is strictly correct : 
 ' The Megarean sect was founded by Euclid, not the mathema- 
 tician, and were the happy inventors of logical syllogism, or the 
 art of quibbling ' (Tytler). In the first part, the sect is spoken 
 of in its collective capacity ; and, in the second, as individuals. 
 ' There is a certain class of men who never look', &c., may be 
 justified on the same ground. So ' the people is one, and they 
 have all one language '. The pronoun before the second verb is 
 a great improvement. ' Their cattle was their chief property ; 
 and these were nightly exposed to the southern Borderers' 
 (Scott). 
 
 There are a few cases where usage is not invariable. In 
 speaking of small bodies, such as those indicated by a Board, a 
 Commission, a Council, a Court, the plural verb is frequently 
 used : ' the Board are of opinion ' ; ' the Committee consider ' ; 
 ' the Court are disposed '. This may be explained on the 
 ground that the members in a body of, say two, three, or six, 
 stand forward more prominently in their individual capacity, 
 whereas in an assembly of three hundred, the individual is 
 entirely merged in the collective vote. 
 
 The following examples are incorrect : ' The meeting were 
 large ' (would mean that it was composed of large men) ; 
 'Stephen's party were entirely broken up ' ;- ' mankind was not 
 united by the bonds of civil society ' ; ' the Church have no 
 power to inflict corporal punishments' ; 'in this business the 
 House of Commons have no w?ight ' ; ' a detachment of two 
 hundred men were immediately sent ' ; ' one man of genius 
 
302 SYNTAX. CONCORD. 
 
 accomplishes what a crowd of predecessors has essayed in vain ' ; 
 ' not one fourth of provincial tradesmen or farmers ever take 
 stock ; nor, in fact, does one half of them ever keep account- 
 books deserving of the name '. The following is at least 
 inconsistent : ' when a nation forms a government, it is not 
 wisdom, but power, which they place (it places) in the hands of 
 the Government ', &c. A judge charging a jury, vacillated in 
 the construction of the word * Court ', thus : ' It was satisfactory 
 to the Court to find that it would be incumbent on them, &c. 
 . . . The Court, therefore, in the discharge of their duty. 
 . . . The Court believe. . . . The Court is not entirely 
 satisfied with the finding of the jury. . . . The Court, in 
 the sentence which it is about to pronounce by my mouth ', &c. 
 
 Pleasures of Memory was published in 1792, and became at 
 once popular.' The pro-ioun in the following should be 
 singular : ' His (Thomson's) Seasons will be published in about 
 a week's time, and a most noble work they will be '. Johnson 
 says ' my Lives are reprinting ', which it might be harsh to 
 alter, owing to the great prominence of the nption of plurality. 
 In the next example the singular idea of distance is prominent : 
 ' By my valour, then, Sir Lucius, forty yards is a good distance. 
 Odds levels and aims ! I say it is a good distance. ' (Rivals). 
 | Nine-tenths of the miseries and vices of mankind proceed from 
 idleness ' (Carlyle) ; the verb is plural, because predicating 
 about a number. But ' nine-tenths of the misery and vice of 
 mankind proceeds from idleness ' ; the verb being singular, 
 because the subject expresses, not plurality of number, but an 
 amount or quantity. 
 
 But those nouns that have plural forms on account of a 
 plurality of the subject, such as ' bellows ', ' scissors ', ' snuffers ', 
 ' lungs ', ' ashes ', &c., are more usually found with plural verbs. 
 
 Although we should say, ' there are two, there are three ', 
 yet usage permits in familiar language the singular contracted 
 form, ' there's two or three '. (Craik, English of Shakespeare). 
 
 4. If the subject consists of two or more 
 nouns (or equivalents of nouns) united by the 
 conjunction 'and f , the Verb must be put in 
 the plural: 'John and James are in the field'; 
 ' Mars and Jupiter are visible '. 
 
 * Dr. Angus would prefer the plural, as least likely to call attention to 
 the mere grammar of the sentence : ' the means used were not commend- 
 able ' ; ' great pains were taken '. 
 
VERB WITH MORE THAN ONE SUBJECT. 303 
 
 Exceptions and Peculiarities. 
 
 (1). If the nouns are names for the same subject, the 
 plurality is apparent only, and not real. The verb 
 is then singular. 
 
 ' A laggard in love and a dastard in war 
 Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar.' 
 'This murderous chief, this ruthless man, 
 This head of a rebellious clan, 
 Hath led theesafe.' 
 
 ' The spectator and historian of his exploits has ohserved. ' 
 ' When the Duke died, his son and namesake and successor was 
 an infant. ' With inversion : ' so says the wisest poet, and 
 perhaps the wisest statesman and politician of antiquity '. 
 (Chatham). 
 
 (2). In cases where the two names are almost synony- 
 mous, or denote objects closely connected together, or 
 express different views of the same fact, or are used 
 chiefly for the sake of emphasis, there is still a kind 
 of unity in the subject, and the verb is often made 
 singular. 
 
 'Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings'; 'the head 
 and front of my offending hath this extent'; 'the hardship and 
 exposure of a savage life speedily destroys those who are not 
 of a robust constitution'; 'why is dust and ashes proud'? 
 ' What is the use and object of' building pinnacles ' ? (Helps). 
 ' The peace and good order of society was not promoted by the 
 feudal system ' (Hallam). ' The very scheme and plan of his 
 life differed from that of other men.' (Ecce Homo). ' The 
 condition and growth of Attic comedy before this period seems 
 to have been unknown even to Aristotle ' (Grote). ' The 
 general defence of the country and the maintenance of order 
 among the inhabitants was entrusted to Saganos, who was 
 invested with the revenue necessary for the purpose ' (Finlay). 
 ' The language and history of the Lithuanians is closely 
 connected with that of the Greeks ' (Freeman). ' To recover 
 Silesia, to humble the dynasty of Hohenzollern to the dust, 
 was the great object of Maria Theresa's life ' (Macaulay). The 
 first object involved the second ; hence ' was ', not ' were ', 
 With this compare the following : ' to exalt the Lancastrian 
 party, to depress the adherents of the house of York, were still 
 the objects of his pursuit ' (Hume). Looked at broadly, the 
 two objects were, substantially the same, and ' was ' might have 
 been used ; at the same time ' were ' directs attention forcibly 
 
304 SYNTAX. CONCOED. 
 
 to each of the two sides of the same fact. In the next example, 
 the subject is given twice ; first, more generally, and then with 
 some detail and explanation : ' that the fair prospects which 
 had begun to open before the king were suddenly overcast, that 
 his life was darkened by adversity, and at length shortened by 
 violence, is to be attributed to his own faithlessness and con- 
 tempt of law ' (Macaulay). 
 
 In many such cases it is not easy to draw the line and decide 
 when the subject is singular and when plural. But it is always 
 undesirable to vacillate between the two. Thus : ' neither on 
 the one side nor on the other was there the strength and unity of 
 action which remit from single and undivided aims ' (Trench) ; 
 ' with a deep insight into life, and a keen and comprehensive 
 sympathy with its sorrows and enjoyments, there is combined 
 [in the lyrics] that impetuosity of feeling, that pomp of thought 
 and imagery which belong peculiarly to Schiller ' (Carlyle), 
 
 ' Fair and softly goes far' ; 'poor and content is rich enough '. 
 
 (3). A singular verb may sometimes be justified on 
 the ground of an ellipsis. 
 
 * The whole book, and every component part of it, is on a 
 large scale' (Macaulay). With the most common cases of 
 ellipsis, there is also inversion of subject and verb. ' There was 
 a hen and (there were) chickens in the court ' ; ' there was 
 racing and (there was) chasing on Cannobie Lea ' ; upon this 
 there was a fearful cry from heaven, and great claps of thunder' 
 (W. Irving) ; * such was the intelligence, the gravity, and the 
 self-command of Cromwell's warriors ' (Macaulay) ; * where is 
 Lysander and sweet Hermia ' ? (Shak.). 
 
 When the same noun is coupled with two adjectives, so as to 
 mean different things, there is a plurality of sense, and the 
 plural is required : ' in the latter also religious and grammatical 
 learning go hand in hand ' ; 'the logical and the historical 
 analysis of a language generally in some degree coincide '. 
 
 When a verb separates its subjects it agrees with the first, 
 and is understood of the rest : ' the earth is the Lord's, and the 
 fullness thereof '. See also the cases of ' as well as ', and 
 ' every ', at end of 4. 
 
 The last examples under (2) are very elliptical. 
 
 (4). Sometimes a compound subject is named by a 
 union of the names of its chief parts ; and then the 
 'verb is singular. 
 
 Another exception to the general rule is exemplified in the 
 following constructions : ' the wheel and axle was out of repair' j 
 
SEVERAL SUBJECTS WITH SINGULAR VERR 305 
 
 ' a block and tackle was made use of ' ; ' bread and butter is 
 my usual breakfast '. In these instances, the two things named 
 make but one subject by their combination, called a compound 
 subject. We may say, ' a needle and a thread were given to her, 
 but she could not thread the needle ' ; and ' a needle and thread 
 was given to her, but she could not sew the button on ' : the 
 reason of the difference being apparent. 'Hanging and 
 beheading is the punishment of treason ', means that the 
 criminal is both hanged and beheaded ; ' hanging and 
 beheading are ', would mean that there are two separate 
 punishments, and that sometimes one is made use of and 
 sometimes the other. Sand and salt and a mass of iron is 
 easier to bear than a man without understanding ', is allowable 
 on the supposition that we mean a combination of those several 
 ingredients. So : ' all the furniture, the stock of shops, the 
 machinery which could be found in the realm, was of less value 
 than the property which some single parishes now contain '. 
 (Macaulay). 'To injure, to insult, and to save himself from 
 the consequences of injury and insult by lying and equivocating, 
 was the habit of his life ' (Macaulay) : ' was ' predicates regard- 
 ing a course of action indicated by the enumeration of three 
 several steps. Often in similar cases, there is introduced a 
 pronoun, or some other subject, gathering up a number of points 
 into one whole, which is then predicated of by a singular verb : 
 ' to be the leader of the human race in the career of improve- 
 ment, to found on the ruins of ancient intellectual dynasties a 
 more prosperous and a more enduring empire, to be revered by 
 the latest generations as the most illustrious among the 
 benefactors of mankind, all this was within Bacon's reach* 
 (Macaulay).* 
 
 The ' and ' is sometimes omitted, but the rule remains the 
 same if there be a plurality of idea in the subject : ' honour, 
 justice, religion itself were involved '. 
 
 ' With' for 'and'. Instead of 'and*, the preposi- 
 tion ' with ' is sometimes used to connect the parts of an 
 aggregate subject. 
 
 It is then a disputed point whether the verb should be 
 singular or plural. Thus : ' the captain with his men were 
 
 * We hear sometimes ' two and two are four' ; 'three times four are 
 twelve ' ; but the ' are ' is scarcely defensible in either case. It would be 
 correct to say ' two pounds and five pounds are (or make) seven pounds ' ; 
 but with numbers in the abstract, what we mean is that the numerical 
 combination of 'two and two" is the same as four. So ' twice one are 
 two ' must be wrong, because there is no plurality in the strict sense ; 
 and ' three times four ' should be i-egarded aS a combination or unity 
 made up iu a particular way. 
 
 20 
 
306 SYNTAX. CONCORD. 
 
 taken prisoners '. The sense requires the plural, but grammati- 
 cally the subject is singular. ' The king, with the lords and 
 commons, constitute (or constitutes) our government'; 'the 
 p-.ir.sti, with its contents, was found on the person of the thief. 
 The true solution of the difficulty is to employ ' and ' if the 
 sense is plural. The phrase ' with his men is an adjunct of 
 ' captain ', being as much as to say ' accompanied with his men', 
 and should be used only when the attention is concentrated upon 
 him ; in which case the verb is regularly singular. If the men 
 are also to be formally predicated about, we should say ' the 
 captain and his men were'. So : ' the king, the lords, and the 
 commons constitute our government '. 
 
 ' As well as ' for l and '. Nouns coupled by ' as 
 well as ' take the singular or the plural according to the 
 context. 
 
 If the predicate is meant to be affirmed of both, the plural is 
 employed, the phrase being then a synonyme for 'and': 
 ' Pompey as well osCnesar were great men '. 
 
 But if the ' as well as ' merely quotes an illustrative comparison, 
 the predication must then be understood as confined to the first 
 noun : ' Africa as well as Gaul was gradually fashioned by 
 imitation of the capital ' ; that is, by ellipsis, ' as well as Gaul 
 had been fashioned by imitation of the capital ', ' after the manner 
 of Gaul'. ' His curiosity, as well as his anxiety, was highly 
 excited ' : we are supposed to know that his anxiety was more 
 or less excited,' and now, when his curiosity alone is spoken of, 
 his anxiety is referred to for illustration. 4 The opulence of the 
 monks, as well as the number of them, in the time of Henry 
 II., was enormous.' 
 
 The last case is the original and strictly proper application 
 of ' as well as '. 
 
 * Every' with connected subjects. The strong indi- 
 vidualizing force of ' every ' affects the number of the 
 predicate verb. 
 
 It has been doubted whether we could say ' every officer and 
 soldier claim a superiority in regard to other individuals' ; or 
 even ' every officer and every soldier claim '. Plurality is 
 certainly implied, but there is a disagreeable effect produced by 
 joining 'every' with a plural verb, and we might take shelter 
 under the elliptical usage, and say * every officer (claims) and 
 every soldier claims', the singular verb is powerfully favoured 
 by the decisively singular meaning of ' every '. On the same 
 gro,und x vye must uphold the expression, ' every clergyman and 
 
VERB AFTER ALTERNATED SUBJECTS. 307 
 
 every physician is a gentleman'. So we may defend the 
 following : ' it has been observed by writers on physiognomy, 
 that every emotion and every operation of the mind has a corres- 
 ponding expression of the countenance ' ; ' every limb and 
 feature appears with its appropriate grace '. 
 
 5. Two or more Singular Nouns, connected 
 by 'or' or 'nor', implying that they are 
 separately taken, must have a Singular Verb: 
 
 ' John, James, or Andrew intends to accompany you ' ; 
 
 * neither this nor that is the thing wanted '. 
 
 Such sentences are always contracted co-ordinate sentences, 
 and their construction is singular. So in the example, ' my 
 poverty, and not my will, consents ', there is a contraction : 
 ' my poverty consents, but my will does not consent '. The 
 omission of the connective makes no difference if the meaning is 
 the same : ' a word, an epithet, paints a whole scene '. 
 
 Sometimes ' or ' is used when the real meaning would require 
 ' and '. ' To win or to lose (at cards) is unpleasant. ' Here there 
 is a partial alternation of meaning from the circumstance that 
 we cannot both win and lose at the same time ; still the sense is 
 that both the one and the other are unpleasant, if we were 
 speaking of one game, where we must either win or lose, the ' or ' 
 is suitable ; but speaking generally it would be better to say 
 ' winning and losing are both unpleasant '. So : ' life or death, 
 felicity or lasting sorrow, are in the power of marriage ' (Jer. 
 Taylor) ; 'disobedience, desertion, mutiny, or theft were visited 
 with death ' ; ' death, emigration, or personal slaver} 7 , were, the 
 only alternatives' (Freeman). In an instance above quoted 
 (hanging and beheading, &c.) we might have a third form : 
 
 * hanging or beheading is the punishment of treason ', to 
 show still more decisively that the judge must sentence a man to 
 one, and not to both. 
 
 ' Nor heaven nor earth have been at peace to-night ' (Shak. ). 
 Dr. Craik remarks on this passage, that where, as here, the two 
 singular substantives are looked at together by the mind, it is 
 more natural to regard them as a plurality, and to use the plural 
 verb, notwithstanding the disjunctive conjunction. Compare : 
 
 * neither the king nor either of his two oldest sons are permitted 
 to leave the island' (Swift) ; * neither peace nor war, nor summer 
 nor winter, were a season of repose' (Gibbon) ; 'neither Kent 
 nor Sussex were among the greatest of the kingdoms which our 
 forefathers founded in Britain' (Freeman); 'neither Mr. 
 Adderley nor Mr. Roebuck are by nature inaccessible to 
 considerations of this sort ' (M. Arnold). Notwithstanding such 
 
308 SYNTAX. CONCORD. 
 
 examples, the singular verb has most reason on its side ; the 
 occasional use of the plural seems to testify tc a considerable 
 tendency to use this form after two or more subjects, even though 
 the conjunction connecting these may indicate that they are to 
 be predicated about in separation. 
 
 When one of two subjects separated by ' or ' or ' nor ' is in the 
 plural, the verb should be plural : ' he or his servants were to 
 blame '. It is proper in such cases to place the plural nominative 
 next the verb. 
 
 6. When the Subject is a Relative Pro- 
 noun, the Antecedent determines the number 
 of the verb : * all ye that pass by '. 
 
 The following is a common error : ' That is one of the most 
 valuable books that has appeared in any language '. The 
 antecedent to ' that ' is ' books ', not ' one '. So : ' this is the 
 epoch of one of the most singular discoveries that has been made 
 among men ' (Hume) ; ' I resemble one of those animals that 
 has been forced from its forest to gratify human curiosity' 
 (Goldsmith). 
 
 ' O Thou my voice inspire 
 Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.' 
 
 But for the exigencies of the verse, Pope would have written 
 ' touched* '. The dropping of the inconvenient inflexional 
 ending is not uncommon in poetry. Pope has several more 
 examples. 
 
 The phrase 'as follows', applied to a plural antecedent, is 
 now a settled usage. If ' as ' were a true relative pronoun, there 
 would be a breach of concord ; but we must consider the 
 expression as now substantially adverbial, like ' as regards ', or 
 ' so far as concerns '. Perhaps the construction suitable to the 
 most common case, the third person singular, has been extended 
 to all cases. Or ' as ' may be regarded as equivalent to ' in the 
 manner that '. It is not uncomnx n for speakers and writers to 
 seek the appearance of grammatical correctness by using 'as 
 follow '. 
 
 7. When two or more Pronouns of dif- 
 ferent persons, are connected by Alternative 
 Conjunctions, there is much difficulty in deciding 
 the form of the predicate verb. 
 
 Dr. Latham lays down that, 
 
 (1) where the Pronouns are singular and are preceded by 
 ' either ' or ' neither ', the verb is in the third person : ' either 
 he or I i* in the wrong ' ; ' neither he nor I w in the wrong '. 
 
CONCORD OF PRONOUN AXD OF ADJECTIVE. 309 
 
 And (2) when the Pronouns are not preceded by 'either* or 
 1 neither ', the verb agrees with the first : ' I or he am in the 
 wrong ' ; ' he or I is in the wrong ' ; 'he or you is in the 
 wrong '. 
 
 It is open to grave doubt whether the verb depends so entirely 
 upon the ' either ' and the ' neither '. Among other suggestions, 
 the most important is that the verb should agree with the 
 nearest of the subjects. All difficulty is obviated when the 
 predicate verb is uniuflected : ' can, will, sent, grew, planted, 
 must', &c. 
 
 Further examples; 'neither you nor any one else can save 
 her ' ; ' either the Prior or thou has made some singular altera- 
 tions ' (Scott) ; ' those are far more able to give your son help 
 than either you or I are ' (Scott) ; ' nothing which Mr. 
 Pattison or I have said disprove, &c. ' (M. Arnold) ; ' I hope 
 neither my fellow nor I am thieves ' (Massinger). 
 
 8. When the completion of the Predicate is a 
 Noun, it may not be always apparent what is the real 
 subject, seeing that the order is not decisive. 
 
 Hence the expression ' his pavilion were dark waters and thick 
 clouds of the sky ', may be justified on the ground that the 
 sentence is inverted, ' pavilion ' being the completion of the 
 predicate, and not the subject. 
 
 Concord of Adjective and of Pronoun 
 with Noun. 
 
 9. Pronominal Adjectives in English being alone 
 inflected, questions of concord are confined to them. 
 
 The rules for the Concord of the Demonstratives 
 ' this ' and ' that ' are the same as for the Concord of 
 the Subject and the Verb : * these means are this 
 means is not enough '. 
 
 When we decide that a noun should have a plural verb, we 
 must apply the same rule to the demonstrative adjectives (and 
 pronouns) agreeing with it. The word ' means ' furnishes the 
 chief doubtful instance ; and we may either adopt the suggestion 
 of making it uniformly plural, on account of the form, or look 
 to the sense, and consider it plural when we have a plurality of 
 agencies involved. 
 
 Such expressions as ' this forty years '. ' this many summers ', 
 are defended on the ground that a period of time may be treated 
 as a unity Or ' this ' may be really plural, a surviving instance 
 of one of the old forms of ' these '. 
 
310 SYNTAX. CONCORD. 
 
 10. The Distributive Adjectives, 'each', 
 'every', &c., are joined to a Singular Noun, and 
 consequently the Verb is singular: * every tree is 
 known by its fruits '. 
 
 The following are examples of a not uncommon error : 
 ' neither of the sisters were very much deceived ' (Thackeray's 
 Vanity Fair). ' Neither of my brothers do anything to make 
 this place amusing ' ( Virginians). 
 
 They also take a Singular Pronoun when applied 
 to one Gender : ' England expects every man to do Ids 
 duty ' ; 'it seems natural that every mother should 
 suckle her own child '. 
 
 But when both Genders are implied, it is allowable 
 to use the Plural : ' let each esteem other better than 
 themselves '. 
 
 Grammarians frequently call this construction an error : not 
 reflecting that it is equally an error to apply ' his ' to feminine 
 subjects. The best writers furnish examples of the use of the 
 plural as a mode of getting out of the difficulty. ' Every 
 person's happiness depends in part upon the respect they meet in 
 the world ' (Paley). ' Every one must judge of their own 
 feelings ' (Byron). ' If the part deserve any comment, every 
 considering Christian will make it to themselves as they go ' 
 (Defoe). 'Everybody began to have their vexation.' 'Every- 
 body around her was gay, was busy, prosperous, and important : 
 each had their objects of interest, their part, their dress, their 
 favourite scene, their friends and confederates.' * Had the 
 doctor been co i tented to take my dining tables, as anybody in 
 their senses would have done ' (Miss Austen). 
 
 Sometimes strict grammar is preserved thus : * Everybody 
 called for his or her favourite remedy, which nobody brought '. 
 But this construction is felt to be too cumbrous to be kept up, 
 as we see in the following example: 'The institution of 
 property, reduced to its essential elements, consists in the re- 
 cognition, in each person, of a light to the exclusive disposal of 
 what he or she has produced by their own exertions ', &c. (J. S. 
 Mill). ' The heart is a secret, even to him (or her) who has it in 
 his own breast ' (Thackeray). A very ingenious device is seen in 
 the following example : ' either a horse or a mare has lost its 
 shoe '. 
 
 No doubt there are more instances of the employment of * his ', 
 but it must by no means be maintained that this form is 
 exclusively right. 
 
HARMONY OF TENSE. 311 
 
 The following examples further illustrate the preference of the 
 plural when both genders are involved : * if an ox gore a, man or 
 a woman so that they die '. ' Not on outward charms should 
 man or woman build their pretensions to please' (Opie). ' If I 
 value my friend's wife or son, on account of their connexion 
 with him* (Angus). 'When either party fix tJieir attachment 
 upon the substantial comforts of a rental, or a jointure, they 
 cannot be disappointed in the acquisition ' (Scott). ' My lord 
 says that nobody wears their own hair ' (Thackeray). ' If the 
 fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they only 
 know their own side of the question ' (J. S. Mill). 
 
 Concord of Tenses. 
 
 II. There is also a certain congruity of Tenses to be 
 observed. 
 
 Contemporaneous actions should be expressed 
 in the same tense. 
 
 In the narration of past events, the writer for the most part 
 uses the past tense ; but, in order to recount vividly a rapid 
 series of exciting incidents, he may for the occasion pass to the 
 present tense, called, in this application, the historic present. 
 He is not permitted, however, to flit between the two. The 
 following is a harsh incongruity : ' Fierce as he moved, his silver 
 shafts resound '. 
 
 The Subordinate Tenses and the Principal 
 Tense must not conflict. 
 
 ' He affirmed that he will (for ' would ') go to-morrow ' ; ' hQ 
 hid himself lest he shall (for ' should ') be impressed '. ' It were 
 well for the insurgents, and fortunate for the king, if the blood 
 that was now shed had been thought a sufficient expiation for 
 the offence ' ; ' it had been well ' is the tense suiting ' had been 
 thought '. ' If you please to employ your thoughts on that 
 subject, you would conceive the miserable condition many of us 
 are in ' ; this should be either ' if you please, you will ', or, ' if 
 you pleased (it pleased you), you would '. 
 
 The use of the present indefinitive tense to express a proposi- 
 tion true for all time, is an apparent exception. We say 
 ' Galileo maintained that the earth moves ' (not ' moved ') ; the 
 fact of the motion of the earth being true at all times and not 
 being restricted to the time implied in 'maintained'. 'He denied 
 that gold was (for 'is') the most precious metal.' 
 ' All night long the northern streamer* 
 
 Shot across the trembling sky : 
 
 Fearful lights, that never beacon, 
 
 Save when kings or heroes die.' 
 
312 
 
 f\f\\ IT- 
 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 1. Government means the power that a word 
 has to regulate the Case of a Noun or a 
 Pronoun ; as when a Pronoun coming after a Pre- 
 position takes the objective form : * after me ' (not 
 ' after / '), ' to Mm ' (not * to he '). 
 
 There being only one case inflexion in English nouns, and 
 that occurring only in a limited number, the rules of govern- 
 ment apply principally to pronouns. 
 
 2. The Possessive of Nouns (and of Pro- 
 nouns) signifies personal possession or 
 agency. 
 
 Preceding a Noun y a possessive noun (or pronoun, 
 or pronominal adjective) expresses that the object be- 
 longs to or is somehow connected with the person 
 whose name or designation is given in the possessive 
 word. 
 
 * John's house * is ' the house possessed by John ; owned, 
 occupied, built, &c., by John '. ' Johns gospel ' is ' the gospel 
 proclaimed or written by John, or named after him '. ' Poor's 
 rates ' are ' rates levied for the support of the poor '. The 
 meaning of possession or belonging is often stretched to include 
 very remote connexions. 
 
 Preceding an Infinitive Phrase, a possessive word 
 indicates the subject of the action of the verb. 
 
 ' I am surprised at John's (or his, your, &c.) refusing to go/ 
 Very frequently the participle is found in place of the infini- 
 tive, in which case the objective is used in place of the possessive : 
 * I am surprised at John (or him,, you, &e. ) refusing to go '. 
 The latter construction is not so common with pronouns as with 
 nouns, especially with such nouns as do not readily take the 
 possessive form. ' They prevented him going forward ' : better 
 ' they prevented his going forward ', or ' they prevented him 
 from going forward '. ' He was dismissed without any reason 
 being assigned ' : this shows the influence of Latin construction. 
 ' The boy died through his clothes being burned '. ' We hear 
 little of any connexion being kept ' up between the two 
 nations'. "The men rowed vigorously for fear of the tide 
 turning against us before we reached our destination': 
 
POSSESSIVE AND OBJECTIVE CASES. 313 
 
 'for fear of the tide's turning* would be felt awkward and 
 unusual ; say ' for fear the tide should turn ', ' lest tlu tide should 
 turn ', &c. ' Tacitus asserting the fact and remaining a heathen 
 is not so strong an argument as Tacitus asserting the fact and 
 becoming a Christian in consequence of it ' (Dr. Chalmers) : 
 substitute noun clauses thus ' That Tacitus should assert the 
 fact and remain a heathen, is not so strong an argument as that 
 Tacitus should assert the fact and become a Christian in con- 
 sequence of it'; or say 'If Tacitus asserted the fact and 
 remained a heathen, this is not so strong an argument as if 
 Tacitus had asserted the fact and become a Christian. &c. '. The 
 possessive seems to be entirely excluded when there is inversion : 
 ' Suppose the very common case of there being no ivill ' (J. S. 
 Mill) : apart from the question of construction this is perhaps 
 more elegant than any regular substitute that could be proposed : 
 * the very common case where there is no will ' ; ' suppose a very 
 common case ; suppose there is no will ' ; ' the very common 
 case of the absence of a will ' ; &c. But most examples of the 
 construction without the possessive form are obviously due to 
 mere slovenliness. With a very little trouble, there could nearly 
 always be found some satisfactory variety of correct expression. 
 
 3. Transitive Verbs (with their Participles and 
 Gerunds) and Prepositions govern the Objec- 
 tive Case. 
 
 This rule is not often violated when the objective immediately 
 follows the verb or preposition. It is when the object is at a 
 distance from the governing word that a nominative is liable to 
 be used. ' He that promises too much, do not trust ', for ' him 
 that ', &c. ; many cases of this nature seem to result from an 
 unexpected change in the construction before the verb is 
 reached. There is a mixture of two forms : ' he that promises 
 too much is not to be trusted ', and ' do not trust him that 
 promises too much '. ' My father allowed my brother and / to 
 accompany him ' ; ' between you and I ' ; 'let you and / 
 advance '. 
 
 On the supposition that the interrogative ' who ' has ' whom ' 
 for its objective, the following are errors : ' who do you take 
 me to be ? ' ' who should I meet the other day ? ' ' who is it by ?' 
 * who did you give it to ? ' ' who to ? ' * who for ? ' But 
 considering that these expressions occur with tlie best writers 
 and speakers, that they arc more energetic than the other form, 
 and that they lead to no ambiguity, it may be doubted whether 
 grammarians have not exceeded their province in condemning 
 them. The following are a few examples to show the usage of 
 some of our greatest writers ; ' Who servest thou under 1 * 
 
314 SYNTAX. GOVERNMENT. 
 
 (Shak.) ' Who should I meet the other day but my old friend ?' 
 (Steele). * My son is going to be married to I don't know who', 
 (Goldsmith). ' Who have we here ? ' (Goldsmith, &c.). 
 
 Even the relative ' whom ' is sometimes shortened to ' who '. 
 ' The shepherd . . . who you saw sitting by me on the 
 turf ' (Shak. ). * The remaining place was engaged by a gentle- 
 man ivho they were to take up on the road ' (Thackeray). 
 Macaulay (Essay on Croker's Boswell's Life of Johnson) 
 denounces the following as a solecism : ' Markland, who, with 
 Jortin and Thirlby, Johnson calls three contemporaries of great 
 eminence '. 
 
 4. The Verb ' be ' has the same case after 
 it as before it : ' it is I'; ' ye are they '. 
 
 This follows from the principle adopted from the classical 
 languages that when the complement of the predicate is a noun, 
 it is of the same case as the subject. 
 
 Most grammarians have laid down this rule. Macaulay (as 
 just cited, 3) censures the following as a solecism : ' It was 
 him that Horace Walpole called a man who never made a bad 
 figure but as an author '. Thackeray (Philip, I. 16) similarly 
 adverts to the same deviation from the rule : ' " Is that him ? " 
 said the lady in questionable grammar '. But notwithstanding 
 this, we certainly hear in the actual speech of all classes of 
 society such expressions as ' it was me ', ' it was him ' , ' it was 
 her ', more frequently than the prescribed form. ' This shy 
 weature, my brother says is we' ; 'were it me, I'd show him 
 the difference ' (Clarissa Harlowe). * It is not me* you are in 
 love with ' (Addison). ' If there is one character more base 
 than another, it is him who ' &c. (Sydney Smith}. ' If I were 
 him ' ; ' if it had been her ' ; &c. The authority of good writers 
 is strong on the side of the objective forms. There is also the 
 analogy of the French language ; for while ' / am here ' is *j& 
 suis ici ', the answer to ' who is there ? ' is * moi ' (me) ; and 
 ' c'est moi ' (it is me), is the legitimate phrase, never ' c'estje' 
 (it i /.)t 
 
 * It may be confidently affirmed that with good speakers, in the case 
 j>f negation, ' not me ' is the usual practice. 
 
 f ' It is remarked by Dean Alford that ' it is /' is suitable to an occasion 
 of dignity ; as ' He said unto them, ' It is /; be not afraid '. ' ' Who does 
 not, feel that here there is a majesty and prominence given by the 
 nominative person ; which makes the assurance what it was to the 
 disciples ? JJut from this very prominence it is that we shrink in ordinary 
 talk. We shelter ourselves in the accusative case " me," which, though 
 ungraminaticHl, yet is acquiesced in, as better suiting 1 the feeling of the 
 mind. We all remember the story of George III. reading Paley's fable 
 about a pigeon, and exclaiming " Wky, that't ine !" The king was just 
 
ORDER. 315 
 
 5. In certain other cases the Objective 
 often occurs where the Nominative is ex- 
 pected. 
 
 Similar to the foregoing is the case with regard to the use of 
 me, him, &c., after the conjunctions 'than', 'as', &c., iu 
 whose favour there is the authority of an extensive if not pre- 
 dominating usage. ' He is taller than me. ' 'No mightier 
 than thyself or me', (Shaks.).* 'She was neither better bred 
 nor wiser than you or me' (Thackeray). 
 
 ' Satan, than whom 
 None higher sat.' 
 
 Perhaps ' whom ' is the uniform usage ; ' than who ' seldom or 
 never occurring. Of course, in all these cases, when the ellipsis 
 is filled in, the nominative necessarily replaces the objective 
 form : ' no mightier than thyself or I am mighty '. 
 
 The construction ' nobody said so but him ', is defended by 
 some grammarians on the ground that ' but ' is a preposition as 
 well as a conjunction. Still ' but he ' is of frequent occurrence : 
 1 no man hath ascended up to heaven but he that came down 
 from heaven ' ; ' there is none justified but he that is in measure 
 sanctified '. ' Every one can master a grief but he that hath it ' 
 (Shak.) ; ' within that circle none durst walk but he ' (Drydeii). 
 
 Compare : 
 
 ' I do entreat you, not a man depart, 
 Save I alone, till Antony hath spoke ' (Shak., /t*Z. Cat.). 
 
 ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 I. The most general principles of the arrange- 
 ment of words are, that what is to be thought of 
 first should be metioned first, and that things 
 to be thought of together should be placed 
 in close connexion. 
 
 as right in the expression of the interpretation, as he was in the inter- 
 pretation itself. He could not have said, " Why, that's I".' Good Words, 
 March, 1863. 
 
 * On this Dr. Craik remarks ; ' Of course, in strict grammar, it should 
 be than I. But the personal pronouns must be held to be, in some 
 measure, emancipated from the dominion or tyranny of syntax. Who 
 would rectify even Shelley's bold 
 
 " lest there be 
 
 No solace left for thou and me " ? 
 
 The grammatical law has so slight a hold that a mere point of euphony 
 is deemed sufficient to justify the neglect of it'.- English of Shakespeare. 
 The effect of euphony appears to be well illustrated also in Shak., Macb., 
 III. iv. : ' 'Tis better thee without than lie within '. 
 
316 SYNTAX. ORDER. 
 
 In inflected languages, the connexion of one word with 
 another is indicated by means of inflexions. The English, on 
 this point, trusts chiefly to position ; and hence the order of 
 words in a sentence is more fixed in English than in the 
 classical languages. 
 
 Subject and Verb. 
 
 2. The Subject precedes the Verb: 'the 
 earth moves ', ' the stars twinkle '. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. When a question is asked, without an interrogative 
 pronoun in the nominative case : ' arc ye alone ? ' ' when did he 
 come ? ' ' may we go in V ' ' what will he do ? ' But ' who said, 
 so ? ' ' what is to be done ? ' 
 
 2. With the imperative mood : ' come ye ' ; ' laud ye the 
 gods ' ; ' look thou to that '. 
 
 3. In the conditional mood, when the conjunction is 
 suppressed : ' had 1 known that' ; ' were /in his place '. 
 
 4. When a wish or exclamation is expressed : ' may she be 
 happy ' ; ' how would we wish that Heaven had left us still ' ; 
 ' ah ! mayest thou ever be what now thou art ! ' 
 
 5. When 'neither' or 'nor', signifying 'and not', precedes 
 the verb : 'this was his fear, nor was the apprehension ground- 
 less'. 'Dr. Lancaster was desirous to serve a boy of such 
 promise ; nor was an opportunity long wanting. ' ' He will not 
 go ; neither will I.' 
 
 6. In introducing the parts of a dialogue : ' said he ' ; ' thought 
 I ' ; ' replied James '. 
 
 7. For the sake of emphasis ; as when a sentence is intro- 
 duced by ' there ', ' here ', or other adverbial expressions : ' up 
 started he' ; ' now abideth faith, hope, charity '. ' On the 
 distant mainland is seen the town or village of Stromness' 
 (Scott). c Above, below and behind the city, as far as the eye 
 can reach, extends the unbroken forest ' (A. B. Wallace). 'Over 
 the crushing vines, over the desolate streets, over the amphi- 
 theatre itself, far and wide, with many a mighty splash in the 
 agitated sea, fell that awful shoicer ' (Ly tton). 
 
 The Complement of the predicate follows the predicate 
 verb. 
 
 ' The day is clear ', ' kings are but men ', ' thig question is of 
 the utmost importance '. 
 
 When the complement is a noun, we distinguish it from the 
 subject by its position : ' angels are spirits '. 
 
SUBJECT VERB OBJECT. 317 
 
 Inversion for emphasis. The usual order is not unfrequently 
 inverted, especially in poetry, for the sake of effective statement : 
 ' Fair laughs the morn ' ; ' all bloodless lay th' untrodden snow ' ; 
 'great is Diana'; 'bitter but unavailing were my regrets'. 
 1 Childe Harold was he hight.' 
 
 Verb and Object. 
 
 3. The Transitive Verb precedes its Object: 
 
 * we gained a victory '; ' you did not see me '. 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. When the objective is a relative or interrogative pronoun, 
 or a noun limited by a relative or interrogative adjective : 'this 
 is the letter that he wrote, ' ; ' the dead which he slew at his 
 death were more than they which he slew in his life' ; 'ichat 
 does the man want ? ' ' which house do you prefer ? ' 
 
 2. For emphasis: 'treason and murder he had been taught 
 early in life to expect from everybody ' ; ' talent I will marry, for 
 talent I adore ' ; ' what I did I did in honour '. 
 
 3. For the sake of closer connexion with a previous sentence. 
 This inversion always put emphasis on the object. ' His 
 passions and prejudices had led him into a great error. That 
 error he determined to recant.' ' He insisted upon my asking 
 pardon for affronting his king and him. This proposal I would 
 by no means comply with.' 
 
 This inversion cannot often be practised in English, on account 
 of causing ambiguity. Apart from the context, our only means 
 of knowing which is subject and which is object is the order ; 
 hence the following expressions are of themselves uncertain : 
 ' when thus the son the fervent sire addressed ' ; ' when Thebes 
 Epaminondas rears again ' ; ' and all the air a solemn stillness 
 holds '. Inversion is admissible when either the subject or the 
 object is an inflected pronoun : 'two men I know ', 'me their 
 swords encompassed '. Also when subject and object differ in 
 number, and the Verb shows its agreement with the subject : 
 the sentence ' death lays all men low ' may have its parts 
 arranged in any order without loss of clearness. ' Wars into 
 peace he turns ' combines both conditions. 
 
 is a Scotticism. 
 
 Noun and Adjective. 
 
 4. The Adjective immediately precedes the 
 Noun : ' bright prospects '. 
 
318 SYNTAX. ORDER. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. When the adjective is accompanied by another adjective : 
 as ' a man just and wise ' ; * across the meadows bare and brown ' ; 
 ' gods partial, changeful, passionate, unjust '. 
 
 2. When the adjective is enlarged by qualifying phrases : as 
 ' a question too important to be neglected ' ; ' a patriot disinterested 
 in a high degree ' ; ' in other words, the country was to be 
 absolutely governed by a hereditary aristocracy, the most needy, 
 the most haughty, the most quarrelsome in Europe '. Hence the 
 adjectives * adverse ', ' afraid ', ' conformable ', which require an 
 enlargement to make complete sense, always follow the noun 
 they qualify. 
 
 In poetry the adjective is often placed last : as ' the garden 
 fair ', ' my own mother dear ', ' the primrose pale '. 
 
 A few expressions, including certain titles of French origin, 
 . almostly uniformly show the inverted arrangement : ' Prince 
 Regent ', ' Heir Apparent ', ' Poet Laureate ', ' Governor- 
 General', 'States General ', ' court martial', ' time immemorial', 
 ' knight errant '. 
 
 The most general direction is to keep the noun and 
 its qualifying adjuncts as close together as possible. 
 
 Accordingly such sentences as the following are ill arranged : 
 1 the death is announced of Mr. Henry Archer, inventor ', &c. ; 
 1 the country beyond which the arts cannot be traced of civil 
 society or domestic life ' ; ' the ignorance of the age in mechanical 
 arts rendered the progress very slow o/ this new invention ' ; ' the 
 legitimacy is conceded of repressing violence or treachery ' ; ' / 
 cannot blame thee, who am myself attacked with weariness ' 
 (Shak.) ; ' this way will direct you to a gentleman's house that 
 hath skill to take off these burdens ' (Bunyan). 
 
 "When the enlargements are of great length we are to 
 avoid entangling them with other parts of the sentence. 
 
 In the following passage some of the adjuncts precede, and the 
 others follow, the noun : ' Born to inherit the -most illustrious 
 monarchy in the world, and early united to the object of her 
 choice, the amiable PRINCESS, happy in Jierself, and joyful in her 
 future prospects, little anticipated the fate that was so soon to 
 overtake her '. 
 
 Sometimes the enlargement is resumed after the verb. 
 
 ' The spirit of Francis Bacon was abroad ; a spirit admirably 
 compounded- of audacity and sobriety.' 'Ye shall die, all of 
 you. ' ' The emperor, nominally invested with the loftiest of 
 
THE NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. 319 
 
 titles, was, in fact, no more than the head of a confederacy of 
 secular and ecclesiastical princes ; the head of a body whose 
 members were seldom in harmony.' ' The only course left was 
 to imitate the fatal policy by which the empire had invited its 
 own doom while striving to avert it ; the policy of matching 
 barbarian against barbarian. ' 
 
 We are always disposed to take the word preceding 
 a substantive as a word modifying it ; and hence our 
 facility in using nouns and phrases adjectively. 
 
 * A gold ring' ; 'a carriage gentleman' ; 'the home-to -house 
 visitation '. Strictly regarded, these are highly condensed or 
 elliptical expressions, interpreted by their juxtaposition : ' a 
 ring made of gold ' ; ' a gentleman that rides in a carriage ' ; 
 4 visitation from house to house '. 
 
 The three first, or the first three ? Great doubt exists as to which of these 
 expressions is correct. Difficulties seem to attach to both. When we 
 say the three firtt, it is asked, how can three be first ? and when we say 
 the first three, we seem to imply that this should be followed by a second 
 three, a third three, and so on. The form most commonly used is the 
 first three ' ; ' the first six books of Euclid ' ; ' the first ten men you meet ', 
 ' the first forty years of the century ', But there are occasions when good 
 writers think the other form preferable ; thus, ' the three first gospels ' ; 
 ' the two eldest of the family ' ; ' the six nearest your hand ' ; ' the fathers 
 of the five first centuries '. ' I have not numbered the lines except of the 
 four first books ' (Cowper). We may conceive the ground for the distinc- 
 tion on some such principle as this. Suppose a number of persons 
 waiting for admission to a public spectacle. The manager wishes to give 
 directions as to the order of admission. Now if we suppose it settled 
 beforehand that three shall be admitted at a time, the only question 
 remaining is which three, to which the answer is the three first. But if 
 it be understood that they are to be admitted in the order that they stand 
 in, the question is how many at a time, and the answer is the first three. 
 The place of special emphasis is the second word, the first three, the three 
 first. This is indicated in the phrase, ' the first six books of Euclid ' ; for 
 it is taken for granted that in geometry the order of proceeding is fixed, 
 and the only inquiry that remains is, hoio many books are prescribed : the 
 first two, the first four, the first six. In speaking of the ' three first 
 gospels ', it is supposed that a division is made of the gospels into two 
 groui>s (there might be more if the number were greater) ; and that the 
 first group contains three, and the second group one. The question then 
 is supposed to be put - where are the three situated, and where the one ? 
 and the reply is, the three first, the one last ; or it might have been the 
 two first, thetwo/as. If, as in Euclid, it had been necessary to study 
 the gospels in a fixed consecutive order, the question would then have 
 arisen, how many go to make the first division ? and we might have said 
 the first two, the first three, as many actually do say. 
 
 6. The placing of the Article. 
 
 The rule of most practical importance as to the articles is to 
 this effect : When two or more substantives following each other 
 denote the same object, the article is placed only with the first : 
 
320 SYNTAX. ORDER, 
 
 as * a (or the) secretary and treasurer ', the two offices being held 
 by the same person. On the other hand, when the substantives 
 denote different objects, the article is repeated before each : as 
 ' the secretary and the treasurer '. Violations of this rule are 
 frequent. ' The old and new method ' is wrong ; but we may 
 say correctly ' the old and new methods ', ' the Old and New 
 Testaments . 
 
 The following are examples of the rule : ' He shall come 
 again with glory to judge both the quick and the dead ' ; ' by 
 their tumultuous election, a Syrian, a Goth, or an Arab was 
 exalted to the throne of Rome, and was invested with despotic 
 power over the conquests, and over the country of the Scipios ' ^ 
 ' he had compassion on the poor and needy ' ; ' a cool head, an 
 unfeeling heart, and a cowardly disposition, prompted him, at 
 the age of nineteen, to assume the mask of hypocrisy, which he 
 never after laid aside '. 
 
 The incorrect construction is seen in these examples: 'When 
 therefore the chief priests and (the) officers saw him '; 'some of 
 the most sacred festivals in the Roman ritual were destined to 
 indulge the pious remembrance of the dead and (the) living '. 
 
 ' He made a better soldier than a poet ', means a better soldier 
 than a poet would make. 
 
 The same principle applies to the repetition of other words, as 
 prepositions, conjunctions, &c. : ' eternity invests every state, 
 whether of bliss, or of suffering, with an importance entirely its 
 own ' ; ' I speak as a father and as a friend '. 
 
 Pronoun and Antecedent. 
 
 6. Every Pronoun should have a distinct 
 Antecedent. 
 
 When there are two words in a Clause, each capable 
 of being an antecedent, the determining circumstances 
 are Proximity and Importance. 
 
 1. As regards proximity : ' Solomon, the son of David, who 
 slew Goliath '. Here the relative ' who ' refers to the word 
 immediately preceding, ' David '. ' John gave James the book : 
 he was very much in want of it ', i.e. , James, the last mentioned. 
 
 2. As regards importance : 'Solomon, the son of David, who 
 built the temple ', might be justified on the ground that 
 ' Solomon ' is the principal subject, and ' the son of David ' is 
 merely an apposition or explanatory clause, which should not 
 interfere with the reference of the relative to Solomon. In fact 
 ' Solomon-the-sou-of-David is, as it were, a many-worded name. 
 
PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 321 
 
 'He hath made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin', is to be 
 interpreted on the rule of prominence ; otherwise . ' who' might 
 apply to ' he ' or to ' us '. 
 
 The rule of proximity should be observed as the 
 preferable plan. 
 
 ' ' The time drew near at which the Houses must re-assemble.' 
 Re-aiTange thus : ' Now drew near the time at which (or when) 
 the Houses must re-assemble '. One of the examples given in 
 4 would be better arranged thus : ' this way will direct you to. 
 the house of a gentleman that hatli skill to take off these burdens '. 
 It is always desirable that the relative should stand as close to 
 the antecedent as possible. 
 
 The following are examples of a Confusion of 
 Pronouns : 
 
 ' They were summoned occasionally by their kings, when 
 compelled by tJieir wants and by their fears to have recourse to 
 their aid.' Reduce the reference to the subject alone thus : ' by 
 want and by fear '. 
 
 ' Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others ; 
 and think that their reputation obscures them, and that tJieir 
 commendable qualities do stand in their light ; and, therefore, they 
 do what they can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright 
 shining of their virtues may not obscure tJiem' (Tillotson). 
 Here there are two subjects, and we cannot tell from the con- 
 struction which of the two the pronouns severally refer to. 
 
 Again : ' All which, with the king's and queen's so ample 
 promises to him (the treasurer) so few hours before the conferring 
 the place on another, and the Duke of York's manner of receiving 
 hi>n (the treasurer) after he (the chancellor) had been shut up 
 with him (the duke), as lie (the treasurer) was informed, might 
 very well excuse him (the treasurer) from thinking he (the 
 chancellor) had some share in the affront he (the treasurer) had 
 undergone ' (Clarendon). 
 
 Thackeray is responsible for this : ' She had met the most 
 .distinguished governors, generals, and their ladies, several of; 
 whom wt- re noblemen '. 
 
 The neuter pronoun ' it ' gives rise to the greatest ambiguity, 
 s has previously been shown. (See p. 29.) 
 
 Placing of the Adverb. 
 
 7. The Adverb is placed before an Adjective, 
 or another Adverb. 
 
 21 
 
322 SYNTAX. ORDER. 
 
 ' A very good man ' ; ' extremely hard work *. * He behaves 
 very well ' ; * he works extremely hard '. 
 
 The Adverb is placed after an Intransitive Verb. 
 
 ' She dances well ' ; ' they work hard ', 
 
 When the verb is transitive, the Adverb usually 
 follows the Object. 
 
 ' He treated them handsomely ' ; 'I met him very unex- 
 Ipectedly ' ; ' bring the letter instantly '. 
 
 When the object is either emphatic or long (by means 
 of adjuncts), then a short adverbial expression is best 
 placed between the Transitive Verb and the 
 Object 
 
 ' He imparts without reserve secrets of the highest moment.' 
 1 He explains with perfect simplicity vast designs affecting all 
 the governments of Europe.' 'The Captain whispered some- 
 thing- in Sir Roger's ear, that lasted till the opening of the fifth 
 act ' : here the object ' something ' precedes the adverbial 
 phrase, but is separated by it from the limiting adjective clause 
 that ends the sentence. The arrangement suggested renders 
 the sentence compact : ' the Captain whispered in Sir Roger s 
 car something that lasted till the opening of the fifth act '. In 
 cases like the following the adverbial expression is liable to be 
 attached wrongly to the subordinate predicate : ' He might be 
 seized by any one that met him as a robber' (Hallam). Ke- 
 arrange : ' he might be seized as a robber by any one that met 
 him '. 
 
 The Adverb is placed between Auxiliary and 
 Participle. 
 
 1 1 have gently hinted my intentions ' ; ' I shall never forget 
 your kindness '; 'he has carefully studied the case '. 
 
 The most general rule is to place Adverbs, and 
 Adverbial Adjuncts, or qualifying circumstances, so as 
 to affect what they are intended to affect. 
 
 8. The word requiring most attention is only. 
 
 According to the position of ' only ', the very same words may 
 be made to express very different meanings. 
 
 (1.) 'He only lived for their sakes.' Here 'only* must be 
 held as qualifying ' lived for their sakes ', the emphasis being on 
 
PLACING OF ADVERBS. 'ONLY*. 323 
 
 'lived', the word immediately adjoining. The meaning then 
 is ' he lived ', hut did not work, did not die, did not do any 
 other thing for their sakes. 
 
 (2.) 'He lived only for their sakes/ Only 'now qualifies 
 ' for their sakes ', and the sentence means he lived for this one 
 reason, namely, for their sakes, and not for any other reason. 
 
 (3.) 'He lived for their sakes only.' The force of the word 
 when placed at the end is peculiar. Then it often has a diminu- 
 tive or disparaging signification. ' He lived for their sakes ', 
 and not for any more worthy reason. ' He gave sixpence only ', 
 is an insinuation that more was expected. 
 
 (4.) By the use of ' alone ', instead of ' only ', other meanings 
 are expressed. ' He alone lived for their sakes ' : that is, he, 
 and nobody else, did so. ' He lived for their sakes alone ', or 
 ' for the sake of them alone ' ; that is, not for the sake of any, 
 other persons. ' It was alone by the help of the Confederates 
 that any such design could be carried out. Better ' only '. 
 
 It has already been seen (page 106) that ' only ' preceding a 
 sentence or clause has the force of an adversative conjunction : 
 ' I should be ashamed to offer at saying any of those civil things 
 in return to your obliging compliments in regard to my trans- 
 lation of Homer, only (but, yet, still) I have too great a value 
 for you not to be pleased with them ' (Pope). 
 
 Further examples of the construction of 'only*. 'When men grow 
 virtuous in their old rge, they only make a sacrifice to God of the Devil's 
 leavings ' (Pope). Here ' only ' is rightly placed. ' Think only of the 
 past as its remembrance gives you pleasure ', should be ' think of the 
 past, only as its remembrance ', &c. ' As he did not leave his name, it was 
 only known that a gentleman had called on business ' : ' it was known 
 only '. ' I can only refute the accusation by laying before you the whole' ; 
 this would mean ' the only thing I am able to do is to refute ; I may not 
 retaliate, or let it drop, I must refute it '. ' The negroes are to appear at 
 church only in boots ' ; that is, when the negroes go to church they are to, 
 have no clothing but boots. ' The negroes are to appear only at church. 
 in boots', might mean that they are not to appear anywhere but at 
 church, whether in boots or out of them. The proper arrangement would 
 be to connect the adverbial adjunct 'in boots' with its verb 'appear', 
 and to make ' only ' qualify ' at church ' and no more ; ' the negroes are 
 ' 
 
 to appear in boots only at church '. ' Others killed partridges he only 
 killed time ' ; this might imply that he did nothing else but kill time. 
 This is a proper case for the diminutive p'^ntion of the word. ' Others 
 
 killed time ' ; this might imply that he did nothing else but kill time. 
 This is a proper case for the diminutive p'^ntion of the word. ' Others 
 killed partridges, he killed time only ', i.e. (sarcastically) nothing of more 
 consequence than time. 
 
 9. Not but only. 
 
 Errors frequently arise in the use of 'not but only', to under-, 
 stand which we must attend to the force of the whole expression. 
 'He did not pretend to extirpate French music, but only to 
 cultivate and civilize it.' Here the 'not' is obviously mis- 
 placed. 4 He pretended, or professed, not to extirpate.' 
 
SYNTAX. ORDER. 
 
 10. Not only- but also. 
 
 There is still greater complication with these. We may 
 illustrate the construction as follows : Suppose it v said, (1) 
 ' He gave them food and clothing '. This means simply that 
 he gave those two things. (2) 'He gave them both food and 
 clothing ' ; that is, it would have been liberal to give either, 
 but he gave both. (3) ' He gave not only food, but also 
 clothing ' : food he might have. b( en expected to give, but 
 besides that, he gave, what was hardly to be expected, clothing. 
 The ' but ' has its usual power of causing a surpiise : the ' not 
 only ' gives the ordinary course of things ; the ' but ' marks an 
 addition, or something not included in our natural expectations. 
 In the following sentence ' not only but ' does not give the; 
 author's meaning: 'We are monished here of charity, and^ 
 taught that God is not only a private Father, but a common 
 Father to the v hole world '. Here the meaning is that God is 
 not a private Father ; the expression supposes that he is a 
 private Father. The ' only ' should be omitted. In the passage, 
 from Addison ' By greatness I do not only mean the bulk of 
 any single object, but the largeness of a whole view considered 
 as one entire piece ' the same error is committed, and there is 
 also a misplacement of the ' not '. ' By greatness I mean not 
 the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view'. 
 Shorter : ' By greatness I njean largeness, not in any single 
 object, but in a whole view '. 
 
 Another point is raised by the following : ' not only Lydia, 
 but all were concerned ' ; i. e. , it was understood that Lydia was 
 concerned, but not that all. (including Lydia) were concerned, i 
 It would be necessary to say ' not only Lydia, but all the rest of 
 the family were concerned ' : or, ' not Lydia alone, but all were 
 concerned '. ' Not only England, but also France and Austria, 
 protested ' is correct ; ' not only England, but all Europe was, 
 alarmed ' would involve the same error as above : ' not England. 
 alone, but all Europe ', or ' not only England, but also the rest 
 of Europe '.* 
 
 ' It is not only hard to distinguish between too little and tooi 
 
 * The translation of Paul's appeal to Agrippa is not in strict accordance, 
 with the English idiom. ' I would to God that not only thou, but also 
 all that hear me this day, were both almost and altogether such as I am, 
 except these bonds '. He here wishes both Agrippa and all that heard 
 him to be as himself. But Agrippa was one that heard him, and should 
 be excluded. Then again, they could not be both ' almost ' and ' alto-, 
 gether '. The following rendering -would avoid these objections ; ' I. 
 would to God that not thou alone, but all that hear me this day, were not 
 almost merely, but altogether such as I am, except these bonds '. 
 
 ' I say not unto thee, until seven times, but until seventy times seven*. 
 Here the ' not ' is manifestly out of its place. ' I say unto thee, not until ( 
 seven times only, but until seventy times seven '. 
 
PLACING OF ADVERBS. SPECIAL CASES. 325: 
 
 much reform, but between the good and evil intentions of 
 different reformers.' We here expect 'not only hard, but 
 impossible '. ' It is hard to distinguish not only between too 
 little and too much reform, but between the good and (the) 
 evil intentions of different reformers. ' 
 
 11. The wrong placing of 'not* often gives rise to 
 an imperfect form of negation. 
 
 'John and James were not there', means that John and 
 James were not there in company. It does not exclude the 
 presence of one of them. The negative should precede in this 
 case : ' neither John nor James was there '. ' Our company was 
 not present ' (as a company, but some of us might have been) ; 
 ' no member of our company was present '. 
 
 12. At least. 
 
 'The Romans understood liberty at least as well as we.' 
 This must be interpreted to mean ' the Romans understood 
 liberty as well as we understand liberty '. The intended mean- 
 ing is ' that whatever things the Romans failed to understand 
 they understood liberty '. To express this meaning we might 
 put it thus : ' the Romans understood at least liberty, as well 
 as we do ' ; ' liberty, at least, the Romans understood as well as 
 we do '. 'A tear, at least, is due to the unhappy ' ; ' at least a 
 tear is a due to the unhappy'; 'a tear is due at least to the 
 unhappy ' ; ' a tear is due to the unhappy at least ' ; all express 
 different meanings. 'This cannot, often at least, be done'; 
 ' this cannot be done often, at least '. (1. 'It often happens 
 that this cannot be done.' 2. ' It does not often happen that 
 this can be done.') So, ' man is always capable of laughing ' ; 
 ' man is capable of laughing always '. 
 
 13. Misplaced circumstances, or adverbial adjuncts, 
 generally. 
 
 To bring every clause into juxtaposition with the part thut it 
 is meant to qualify is as requisite as to place single words 
 properly. Examples have been given incidentally. The 
 following are a few more instances of misplaced clauses and 
 adjuncts : 
 
 'All these circumstances brought close to us a state of things 
 which we never thought to have witnessed (to witness) in 
 peaceful England. In the sister island, indeed, we had read of 
 such horrors, but now they were brought home to our very 
 household hearths' (Swift). 'We had read, indeed, of such 
 horrors occurring in the sister island ', &c. 
 
326 SYNTAX. ORDER. 
 
 'The savage people in many places of America, except the 
 government of small families, have no government at all, and 
 live at this day in that savage manner as I said before ' (Hobbes). 
 Perhaps the second and third clauses had better to be trans- 
 posed. 
 
 ' Some dozen years afterwards, I had an editorial successor (in 
 the Exi.miner), Mr. Fonblanque, who had all the wit for which 
 I toiled, without making any pretensions to it ' (Leigh Hunt). 
 Here the concluding clause, if we were to judge by its position, 
 would qualify /; but it is meant to qualify ' who ' (Mr. 
 Fonblanque). More explicit thus : ' without his making any 
 pretensions to it '. 
 
 ' I shall have a comedy for you, in a season or two at 
 farthest, tJiat I believe will be worth your acceptance' 
 (Goldsmith). Place the second clause first, in order to connect 
 the relative with its antecedent' comedy '. 
 
 Placing of Prepositions. 
 
 14. Prepositions should be placed as near 
 as possible to the words they govern. 
 
 The following sentence is faulty in this respect: 'appears 
 Lausanne with at its foot tJie little village of Ouchy '. 
 
 But it is to be remarked that there is a certain inversion 
 allowable in English, whereby a preposition is far removed from 
 its regimen. The principal case is wJien it governs a relative or 
 interrogative word. ' The gipsies are a people whom we know 
 next to nothing about. ' ' What we are going to, is abundantly 
 obscure ; but what all men are going from, is very plain ' (John 
 Sterling). ' Whit are you looking/or ? ' 
 
 There are also not unfrequent cases of emphasis, where the 
 word governed by the preposition is required to go prominently 
 'forward : ' Now Sir Francis, though he was for a long time our 
 hero, we never exchanged a word with. ' 
 
 Further examples : ' Me, whom their foundation binds them 
 to pray for, they suffer to die like a houseless dog ' (Scott). 
 'The oddity of character which great men are sometimes 
 remarkable for, Mapertuis was not entirely free from ' (Gold- 
 smith). ' That which ordinary men are fit for t I am qualified 
 t ' (Sliak.). 
 
 Placing of Conjunctions. 
 
 15. The members of double-membered conjunctions 
 should be placed in right correspondence. 
 
 The single- word conjunctions cause very litlie trouble. 
 
ELLIPSIS AND PLEONASM. 827 
 
 Perhaps the chief blemish to style arising from mismapagomont 
 of these is seen when ' however ' or ' therefore ' is postponed too 
 far. 
 
 4 Not but ', and ' not only but (also) ' have already received 
 attention ( 9, 10). It remains to exemplify 'neither nor'. 
 
 * lie would neither give wine, nor oil, nor money ' (Thackeray) : 
 the conjunctions should be placed each before one of the 
 excluded objects ; ' neither gire ' implies ' neither (some other 
 verb) ', a meaning not intended. Re-arrange thue, taking all 
 the common parts of the contracted sentences together : ' He 
 would give neither wine, nor oil, nor money '. So : ' she can 
 neither help her beauty, nor her courage, nor her cruelty ' 
 (Thackeray). ' He had neither time to intercept nor to stop 
 her ' (Scott). ' Some neither can for wits nor critics pass ' 
 (Pope.) 
 
 16. Ellipsis : the leaving out of some part of the 
 full expression. 
 
 In addition to the three great processes, named Concord, 
 Government, and Order of words, grammarians consider that 
 certain cases of the syntax of sentences are explained by 
 ELLIPSIS, which would therefore be ranked as a fourth binding 
 process of composition. Many examples of ellipsis have already 
 occurred. The following are further examples : ' I sent to the 
 bookseller's (shop) ' ; * whose (is) this image and superscription ?' 
 'that (point) is the point' ; 'the greatest man (of the men) on 
 (the) earth ' ; ' they love each (one loves the) other ' ; ' come 
 (you) ' ; ' how shall 1 curse (him) whom God hath not cursed ? ' 
 
 who's that (that) knocks ? ' 
 
 An honest man, close buttoned to the chin, 
 Broad cloth without, and a, warm heart within. 
 
 Here there is an ellipsis of the participle. ' Can you sing ? ' 
 'I will try to (sing) '; ' (1) thank you'; 'nothing (is) so good, 
 but it may be abused '; ' they applied to the Duke of all men '. 
 
 The virtuous ( ) alone are happy ( ).' ' ( ) Better ( ) be 
 '( ) Please, don't ( ).' 'When did 
 you ( ) reach ( ) home ? ' ' ( ) An hour later than we 
 
 with the dead ( ).' 
 
 expected ( ).' 'His future ( ) is as dark ( ) as ever ( ).' 
 ' Though ( ) defeated, he still pushes ( ) onwards.' 'You 
 and I, if not he ( ), will certainly ( ) go soon. ' 
 
 17. Pleonasm : the expression or indication of some 
 
 part of the meaning more than once ; excess of words. 
 
 This is the opposite of Ellipsis. It is a device sometimes 
 
 resorted to for rhetorical force. The following are further 
 
328 PURITY. 
 
 examples in addition to those that have already occurred: : 
 
 * for ttie deck, it was their field of fame ' ; ' my banks, they arc 
 furnished with bees ' ; ' the night it was gloomy, the wind it 
 was high '. * We all of ?AS complain of the shortness of time '. 
 ' The friends of my youth, where are they ? ' ' The interests of 
 his family, the security of his dynasty, these were his end and 
 aim.' 'Truth, like a torch, the more it's shook, it shines.' 
 
 * He that witholdeth corn, the people shall curse him. ' * Make 
 speed from hence.' 'Because I believed, therefore have 1 
 spoken.' 
 
 Double Negation. Here may be mentioned the nse of more 
 than a single negative to express denial. This was usual in Old 
 English. In the Elizabethan age, the double negative appears 
 often to strengthen the 'denial. ' I never was -nor never will l>; 
 false ' ; ' 1 would not have believed no tongue but Hubert's '. 
 
 Now, however, it is the rule in E-igli-sh that two negatives 
 make a positive ; the one neutralizes the other ; aa ' 1 entertain 
 a nc wttfavourable opinion of him '. Hence, when denial is 
 intended, it is an inconsistency to use move than one negative. 
 
 * They cannot utter the one, nor will they not utter the other ' ; 
 
 * this is not always the case neither'. 'They will not be dis- 
 appointed at the result no more than you are yourself.' 
 
 18. If we were to dwell on incidental and exceptional 
 constructions, we might note the following as a ease of 
 Parenthesis, or the insertion of an unconnected expression h> 
 the middle of a sentence : ' our ideas are movements of tlie 
 nerves of sense, as of the optic nerve, in recollecting visible 
 ideas, suppose of a triangular piece of ivory '. 
 
 OF PUlilTY. 
 
 Besides observing the rules of grammar, we must 
 employ only such words as really belong to 
 the language, ami \ve must use them in their 
 correct sense. To attend to these conditions is 
 to have regard to Purity. 
 
 The errors against purity are classed under three 
 heads : Barbarism, Solecism, and Impropriety. 
 
 Barbarism. 
 
 This consists in using words that are not 
 English. ISuch are 1. Obsolete words. 
 
BARBARISM. SOLECISM. 329 
 
 In old writers there occur many words that hare now ceased 
 to be current ; some of them being no longer intelligible.. 
 Such are 'bight', 'clept', 'erst', 'umwhile', 'behest', 
 ' addulce ', ' surcease ', ' uneath ', ' whilom ', &c. 
 
 2. New Beards not fully adopted into the language. 
 
 New words are in part borrowed from foreign languages, 
 Some are introduced for good reasons, as new scientific terms, 
 and the names of new materials (' gutta-percha', for example), 
 But many are used without much necessity. Such are most of 
 the following words from the French : ' sortie ', ' dernier 
 resort', 'beaux arts', 'Kiles lettres' (polite literature V 
 ' pplitesse ', ' delicatesse ', ' liauSiur ', ' connoisseur ', ' recon- 
 noitre', ' agrements ', 'opine', 'ignore', 'fraicheur', 'esprit 
 de corps', 'cortege', 'soubriquet', 'habitue', 'boudoir', 
 ' espionage ', ' souvenir ', ' parole ', ' en rapport *, ' arriere 
 pensee', 'en passant', 'en revanejle '. Some indicate shades 
 of meaning that we cannot express by English words, and hence 
 the pretext for using them ; for example : ' ennui ', ' prestige \ 
 * naivete ', ' dolce far niente ' (ItaL), ' verbiage ', ' solidarity '. ' 
 
 It is a special objection to the employment of these words, 
 that the pronunciation of them is totally different from the 
 pronunciation of our language. In books they are generally 
 printed in Italics, to mark that they are not English. 
 
 A number f Latin words and phrases have obtained currency 
 in their original form ; as 'onus probandi\ ' obiter dictum , 
 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 
 
 re gcAac ', ' a priori ', a, posteriori ', ' a fortiori' t 
 ' turn ttquUu r ', 'ad hominem', ' verbatim et literatim', 'in 
 the interim, 'a sine qua turn', 'in exUiuo', tc. It is well to 
 employ such phrases as little as possible. 
 
 Newly-coined words are barbarous until their adoption has 
 become general There is a constant tendency to coin new 
 words, a great number of which never obtain currency. Thus, 
 martyrised', for 'martyred', ' incmnhcrment' for 'encum- 
 brance', 'proclivity', 'productivity', 'aeqwusts', are words 
 suggested, but not adopted. 
 
 Many new words and phrases that have come from America 
 have been more or less freely adopted ; as ' outsiders ', ' coin- 
 cidences ', 'immigrants', 'progress* (as a verb), fce. The 
 ground of their adoption is necessity or convenience. 
 
 Solecism. 
 
 The words employed may be English, bat they 
 may be combined in a form that is not English, 
 This is Solecism. 
 
330 PURITY. 
 
 Bad Syntax is included in the definition, but there 
 may be Solecisms that do not violate grammar ; they 
 are then said to be violations of idiom. 
 
 If we say ' I have hunger ', we do not commit had grammar ; 
 still the combination is not English : it is French. ' 1 feel a 
 smell ' is grammatical, but not according to idiom. ' I will 
 speak my mind', 'get thee gone' (we cannot say 'make thee 
 gone'), 'many a man', 'you had best', 'do honour to' 
 (Shakespeare says 'do grace to Caesar's corpse'), 'once and 
 again ', are English idioms, which have come into use from very 
 different causes and must now be observed. 
 
 Impropriety. 
 
 This means employing words in a wrong 
 sense. 
 
 1. Impropriety in single words. 
 
 Scott and Thackeray use the expression, 'There was a quantity 
 of people present ', for 'there were a number '. 
 
 It often happens that two words have similar, bnt not 
 identical meanings, so that the one cannot be used for the other 
 on every occasion. Such terms are called synonymous, or 
 synonymes. The following are examples: 'all, every, each ' ; 
 ' allow, permit ' ; ' assist, help 1 ; ' astonish, surprise ' , ' belief, 
 faith ' ; ' pleasure, delight, joy ; ' repentance, remorse ' ; 
 'principle, truth' ; 'observe, remark' ; 'on the contrary, on 
 the other hand '. 
 
 Another class of improprieties originate in not adverting to 
 the composition of a word, or to the precise force of the prefix or 
 the suffix combined with the root. Thus : ' Ramus published a 
 Greek grammar, with many important variances from his 
 precursors', for 'variations' ; 'the observation of the Sabbath'; 
 ' the observance ' ; ' the Greek is a language superior in riches ' 
 (' richness ') ; 'he felt himself compelled to acknowledge the 
 justice (jmtncss) of my remark ' ; ' the negligence (neglect) of 
 this leaves us exposed '. 
 
 Sometimes we are misled by similarity of sound, as in using 
 the word ' demean ' (signifying ' to behave ', ' to conduct one's 
 self, as in ' demeanour ') in the sense of ' lowering ', ' debasing', 
 ' making me-an '. Thackeray, indeed, seems to use ' demean ' 
 as equivalent to 'degrade', ' debase', three times out of four; 
 alternating with this the sense of ' behave '. (See Philij)). 
 ' They form a procession to proceed (precede) the palanquin of 
 ambassador ' ; ' he rose (raised) the price of bread last week ' ; 
 * it lays (lies) on the table ' ; ' they wrecked (wreaked) their 
 vengeance '. 
 
IMPROPRIETY. 
 
 331 
 
 2. Impropriety in phrases. 
 
 This refers to expressions that contain, when analyzed, some 
 inconsistency or absurdity. A common inst.uice of the clas> i^ 
 seen hi the following example : 'it celebrates the Chuich of 
 England as the most perfect of all others', meaning ' the most 
 periect of all '. So : ' Northumberland was the most extensive 
 of any Anglo-Saxon state' (Hallam) : for either 'the most 
 extensive of all the Anglo- Sn&on states ', or ' more extensive th-m 
 any other Anglo-Saxon state'. 'He has made the hi^he t 
 number of marks ever made in any former year. ' 'Shakespeare 
 was the man who of all modern, and perhaps ancient poets, had 
 the largest and most comprehensive soul ' (Dry den) : there is at 
 least some ambiguity here. 
 
 ' The c.>n;eliest man of men since horn 
 His sons. The fairest of her daughters Eve '. 
 
 This makes Adam one of his sens and Eve one of her daughters ! 
 ' I had like to have gotten one or two broke n heads lor my 
 impertinence ' ; 'I was once or twice likely to get my head 
 broken for my impertinence '. 
 
 ' Like kings we lose tbe conquests gained before, 
 By vain ambition still to make them more'. 
 
 * Conquests gained before ', cannot 1 e made ' more '. 
 
 Pleonastic expressions are sometimes to be ranked as im- 
 proprieties. For example, the case of double negatives (page 
 328). So : ' These two men are both equal in strength ', is an 
 inconsistent expression, if it be mei.nt that one is equal to the 
 other. 
 
 Many improprieties are provincialisms, or district pecu- 
 liarities. Thus, we have Scotticisms, Irishisms, Americanisms, 
 Cockneyisms. 
 
 The Scotticism consists, not in the employment of purely 
 Scotch words, but in the employment of English words in a 
 Scotch meaning or construction. A list of Scotticisms is here 
 appended, in addition to those already noticed. 
 
 SCOTTICISMS. 
 1. Un-Eiiylish use of Words. 
 
 He was amissing. Missing. 
 
 I have nothing ado, or nothing else 
 
 ado. To do. 
 
 He has been ailing for some weeks. 
 -Unwell. 
 
 I would rather go CM stay. Than. 
 He is away. -He is absent, not 
 
 present. 
 How nre you to-day ? Very bad, 
 
 III Badly. -VL 
 
 His watch is before. Fast. 
 
 Your watch is behind. Slow. I 
 fear I shall be behind. Late. 
 
 When I shall be beside you. With. 
 
 By-gone, by-past. Past. Shakes- 
 peare has gone-by. 
 
 A sugur-fcontf. Musin. 
 
 He walked at the burial. Funeral. 
 
 They never cast-out. Disagree, or 
 quarrel. 
 
332 
 
 SCOTTICISMS, 
 
 Cattle in Scotch includes cows, 
 
 oxen, &c. , but not so particularly 
 
 horses as in England. 
 I was his caution. Security. 
 Close the door. Shut. 
 For common. Commonly. 
 Compliment. A present. 
 Corn the horses. Feed. 
 A couple of hens. Two hens. 
 A coarse day ; coarse weather. 
 
 Bad. But we may say, a fine 
 
 day, and fine weather. 
 Are your children at the counting ? 
 
 Studying arithmetic. 
 A cloth-brush. A clothes-brush. 
 To crave a man for a debt, To dun 
 
 him or demand payment of him. 
 
 To crave a debt, or to crave pay- 
 ment, might be proper. 
 Were you crying on me ? -Calling. 
 To disabuse is sometimes used for 
 
 ' to abuse '. 
 He is dull. Deaf. The day is 
 
 dull. Overcast. 
 An oaken deal. Plank. Deals, or 
 
 deal-boards are made of fir or 
 
 pine. 
 He is much distressed with an 
 
 inward trouble. With an inter- 
 nal disease. 
 Give me a drink. Give me drink, 
 
 some drink, or something to 
 
 drink. 
 
 A faint. A fainting-fit ; a swoon. 
 I feel afraid. I nm afraid. 
 I feel a sweet smell. I smell a 
 
 sweet smell, I smell something 
 
 agreeable. To feel a smell is as 
 
 repugnant to the English idiom 
 
 as to see a sound. 
 He fevered; he took a fever. He 
 
 had fever ; or he was taken, or 
 
 seized, with fever. 
 I find no pain. FeeL 
 Flesher.- Butcher. 
 A flower (bunch of flowers). A 
 
 nosegay. 
 
 Fog is a Scotch name for moss. 
 For ordinary. Ordinarily, usually, 
 
 commonly. 
 A four-square table. A square 
 
 table. 
 Fresh weather. Soft, open, not, 
 
 frosty. 
 Friend. Used for a relation (in 
 
 blood). 
 
 Frighted. Afraid, frightened. 
 The frost is slippery. The ice. 
 Gear. Wealth or riches. 
 I was unable to get. Get away. 
 
 My glasges. Spectacles. 
 
 Goblet. Saucepan. 
 
 ' Greedy ' and ' greediness ' are 
 English, but greed is Scotch. 
 
 The boy was itt-guided. Ill-used, 
 iJl-treated. 
 
 He fell in the gutter. In the dirt, 
 
 What's o'clock? Half six.- Half 
 an hour past five, or half past , 
 five. Five minutes fi-om twelve. 
 
 Five minutes to twelve, or before 
 twelve ; or, it wants five minutes 
 of twelve. (By floe minutes from 
 twelve an Englishman would 
 un terstand five minutes past 
 twelve.) 
 
 Hard fish. -Dried fish, or salt fish. 
 
 I was in London last harvest. 
 Autumn. 
 
 He id of a street. Upper end. 
 
 HOT head.- Headache. 
 
 A hirer in Scotland is one who 
 lends a horse for hire. In Eng- 
 land it is one who borrows a 
 thing, and pays money for the 
 use of it; or who employs 
 another and pays him wages. 
 
 Irikholder. Inkhorn. 
 
 To km. To know. In modern 
 poetical English to ken is to 
 descry, to see at a distance. 
 
 Kindle a fire {Not improper, but 
 the more usual English word is 
 'Light'.) 
 
 To labour the ground. To till the 
 ground. 
 
 Fodder is large. Plentiful, in 
 plenty. 
 
 Every lawful day. Every week- 
 day. 
 
 In old English and in Scotch, to 
 leam means both to give and to 
 receive instruction : but in Eng- 
 lish it is now confined to the 
 latter meaning. 
 
 He is still in life. Alive. 
 
 I lifted a pin from the carpet. 
 Picked up. 
 
 Lime for mortar is Scotch. Mortar 
 is the cement when prepared ; 
 and lime, sand, and water are 
 the materials. 
 
 He was lost in the river. Drown- 
 ed. If the body be carried away, 
 or not found, the person may be 
 said to be lost. 
 
 In old English and in Scotch, 
 meat means food in general. In 
 modern English it denotes flesh- 
 meat. 
 
SCOTTICISMS. 
 
 333 
 
 I do not mind that I ever saw you 
 before. Remember. To mind 
 is in English to attend to, as 
 ' mind your business '. 
 
 The project misgave. Failed, or 
 miscarried. ' My mind misgave 
 me ', is correct. 
 
 The boy misguides his clothes. 
 Abuses or sullies. To misguide 
 is to mislead. 
 
 On the morn , Morrow. 
 
 Napkin . Pocket-handkerchief. 
 
 The omission of a point sometimes 
 
 . makes great odds in the sense. 
 A great difference. 
 
 Jf I had it in my offer, I would 
 not accept of it. In my choice. 
 The offer is here supposed to be 
 not mine, but made by another. 
 
 This bread is old. Stale. 
 
 Cut out your hair. Off. 
 
 Take out your glass. Take your 
 glass. 
 
 In an overly manner. Cursory, or 
 
 . superficial. 
 
 A pair of ducks ; a pair of par- 
 tridges. Two ducks ; a brace of 
 partridges. 
 
 The park is well ploughed. Field. 
 
 Plainstones. -Pavement. 
 
 He was pointed in his answers. 
 Exact and concise Pointed, in 
 the figurative sense, applied to 
 language ; conveys the idea of 
 wit or conceit. 
 
 A gentleman's policies. Pleasure- 
 grounds. 
 
 Pouch is used in Scotland, and was 
 used in England, for pocket. 
 But a pocket is inserted in the 
 clothes, a pouch is not. 
 
 He lives presently in London. At 
 present. 
 
 To pull up by the roots. To pluck 
 up by the roots. To pull a 
 flower. To pluck a flower. One 
 might pull a flower without 
 pucking it. Separation .seems 
 to be implied in the latter word. 
 
 Queer, in English, is odd, strange. 
 particular. In Scotland it is 
 \wed in the sense of comical, 
 humorous. 
 
 He will not readily do that. He is 
 not likely to do that. One 
 would readily imagine. Natu- 
 rally. Readily, in English, de- 
 notes with little delay or hind- 
 rance. 
 
 Considerable arrears being now 
 resting to the soldiers. Remain- 
 ing. 
 
 The babe roars. Cries. 
 
 Roasted cheese. Toasted cheese. 
 
 Roof of a room. Ceiling. 
 
 He roves in a fever. Raves. To 
 rove is to roam or wander. 
 
 I am scarce of fodder. Short of 
 fodder, have not a sufficiency. 
 
 A Scots idiom. A Scotch idiom. 
 
 He scoured the knives. Cleaned. 
 
 That dress sets her well. Becomes. 
 
 For my share I can only say, &c. 
 For my part. 
 
 Shearers. Reapers. A shearer, in 
 England, is one that cuts with 
 shears. ' A sheep before her 
 shearers is dumb.' 
 
 The ship is at the shore. Quay, 
 wharf. The shore is the coast 
 of the sea. 
 
 Have you any silver?- Change. 
 
 I will answer the letter so soon as 
 I receive it. As. It is correct 
 to say, ' I did not receive the 
 letter so soon as I expected it '. 
 
 A soft day. --Wet. 
 
 The" candlestick is sitting in the 
 press. Stands in the cupboard. 
 
 Some better. A little, something. 
 You will some day know it. 
 One. 
 
 Do you snuff? Take snuff. 
 
 The servan t was sorting the room 
 at the time. Putting in order. 
 
 Is your watch out of sorts?- Out 
 of order. 
 
 Speak to me. Listen to me. 
 
 In Scotland spice is used for pepper, 
 and corn for oats. But pepper, 
 cloves, cinnamon, mace, are 
 different sorts of spice ; and oats, 
 barley, rye, wheat, are different 
 kinds of corn. 
 
 A winding stair goes from top to 
 bottom. Winding stairs. 
 
 The horse stammers. Stumbles. 
 
 He stopped three months with 
 them. Remained, resided, stay- 
 ed. 
 
 In Scotland the word storm is used 
 to signify a storm of snow, or 
 snowy weather. Even the ex- 
 pression lying storm is made use 
 of. 
 
 A man's subjects. Effects. 
 
 Send me a swatch of the cloth. 
 Sample. 
 
 Sweet butter. Fresh butter. 
 
334 
 
 SCOTTICISMS. 
 
 Sweet milk. New milk. 
 
 Tell the man to come here. Bid 
 the man come here or hither. 
 Or tell the man that 1 wish to 
 speak to him. 
 
 The two boys strove. Quarrelled. 
 
 Pope was a tender man. Weakly. 
 
 This donation was the more ac- 
 ceptable, that it was given with- 
 out solicitation. Because. 
 
 He is twenty years old, or thereby. 
 
 Thereabout, or thereabouts. 
 
 The church was very throng. 
 Full, crowded. 
 
 A timber candlestick. Wooden. 
 
 Tradesman, in Scotland, is one that 
 works with his hands at a trade. 
 In England it is a shopkeeper, 
 who either does or does not 
 work with his hands. 
 
 Sore trouble. Painful disease. 
 
 James is turned a. great student. 
 Has become. 
 
 Wtrinxeot, for ' oak ', ia a Scot- 
 ticism. Wainscot.in the English 
 sense, is the inner lining of a 
 wall with any sort of wood. 
 
 Lend me your knife. I cannot 
 want it. Do without it. 
 
 The water of Don. The River Don. 
 
 I weary when I sit alone. Become 
 weary. Weary, in England, is a 
 transitive verb; as ' walking 
 wearies me '. 
 
 The weaving or working of stockings 
 
 is a great manufacture in Aber- 
 deenshire. Knitting, 
 
 I rose whenever I heard you call. 
 When, as soon as. Whenever is 
 at what ever time. 
 
 Wh itsu n day. - Whitsu u tid e. 
 
 Some say that our whole actions 
 are selfish. All our actions. 
 His whole fiiends forsook him. 
 All his friends. 
 
 An old wife. An old woman. A 
 wife is a woman who has a 
 husband. 
 
 What's your will? What do you 
 want ? 
 
 I never witnessed anything so 
 ridiculous. Beheld, or saw. 
 Last night I witnessed a very 
 agreeable conversation. Was 
 present at. 
 
 Mr. is come ; I hear his word. 
 
 Voice. Have you any word to 
 your brother. Have you any 
 message ? 
 
 Carpenters, joiners, cabinet- 
 makers, fec., are, in Scotland, 
 called wrights, and sometimes 
 square-wrights. Wright is work- 
 man or artificer ; but in England 
 is used in composition only ; as 
 ' ship- wright ', ' wheel-wright '. 
 
 A writer.- An attorney. In Eng 
 land a writer is an author. 
 
 A yard. A garden. 
 
 Yesternight. Last night. 
 
 2. Un-English Phrases. 
 
 Butter and bread. 'Bread and 
 butter. In all similar phrases 
 bread has the precedency ; as 
 ' bread and milk ', ' bread and 
 cheese', &c. 
 
 / behoved to go. It behoved me to 
 go. I was obliged to go. 
 
 I would die before I would break 
 my word. Rather than break. 
 
 A bit bread, a bit paper. A bit of 
 bread, a bit of paper. 
 
 To cause him to do it, is better than 
 to cause him do it. But to make 
 him do it is better than to make 
 hiir* to do it ; which last phrase, 
 however, though uncommon, is 
 not without authority. Again, 
 / made him do it is right ; but he 
 was made do it is wrong. It 
 must be, he was made to do it. 
 
 I would have you to know. I I 
 would have you kuow. 
 
 To play cards. To play at cards. 
 To cast up a fault to one. To 
 
 upbraid one with a fault. 
 A letter conceived in the following 
 
 words. Containing. 
 To hinder to do. To hinder from 
 
 What like is it ?- What is it like ? 
 Well, there is no matter. No 
 
 matter, or it is no matter. 
 The child took the pox. Was 
 
 seized with, or taken ill of, 
 
 small-pox. 
 Give me a clean plate. Change 
 
 my plate. 
 
 A piece bread. A piece of bread. 
 To think shame. To be ashamed. 
 He thinks long for summer.- He 
 
 longs for summer. (' Think long ' 
 
 occurs in Roister Doister, the 
 
 earliest English Comedy, 1553.) 
 Everything succeeds to a wish.' 
 
PUNCTUATION. 
 
 335 
 
 As one would wish, according to 
 
 our wishes. 
 He wat in use to walk every day. 
 
 He used to walk, or was wont to 
 
 walk. 
 He has a good hand of write. He 
 
 writes well. 
 
 I am going to play myself. To play. 
 Who do you sit under? Whose 
 
 Church do you go to ? 
 You may lay your account with 
 
 opposition. You may expect, or 
 
 reckon upon, opposition. 
 The clock is standing. Has stop- 
 ped. 
 He wants out. Be wishes to go 
 
 out. 
 I slipped a foot and fell down. 
 
 My foot slipped and I fell. 
 James and John are perpetually 
 
 quarrelling with one another. 
 
 Are perpetually quarrelling. 
 
 It is ten years ago since he died. 
 
 It is ten years since he died. 
 / can sing none. I cannot sing at 
 
 all. 
 When dots the church go in? When 
 
 does service begin ? 
 Take it (to) yourself. 
 Are you for any pudding ? Will 
 
 you take ? 
 Getting his breakfast. Taking 
 
 breakfast. I take an egg to (for) 
 
 breakfast. 
 I can't get into my box. I can't 
 
 open. 
 
 I will let you see it. Show it you. 
 I am going to (my) bed (my) 
 
 dinner. 
 
 Almost never. Seldom or never. 
 How far does he go with you? 
 
 No more than to Edinburgh. 
 
 Farther. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Punctuation divides paragraphs and sentences by 
 points or stops, with a view to assist us in discovering 
 readily the connexions of the words, and to indicate the 
 pauses required in reading. 
 
 It has been seen that the reference of qualifying adjuncts is 
 to he determined principally by their proximity to the words 
 they qualify. Punctuation is an additional help. 
 
 The chief Stops are these : the comma ( , ), the 
 semicolon (;), and the full stop, or period (.). 
 The colon ( : ) is something intermediate between the 
 semicolon and full stop, but is not often required. 
 
 The other stops are the interrogation (?), put at the end of a 
 question ; the parentheses ( ), and the brackets [ ], to indicate a 
 remark thrown in without connexion with the rest of the sen- 
 tence ; the dash ( ) ; and the exclamation ( 1). 
 
 The Comma. 
 
 SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
 
 I. A very long Subject is separated from 
 the Predicate by a comma. 
 
336 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 The comma is used before the verb if the subject is rendered 
 very long by means of adjuncts : ' The circumstance of his 
 being unprepared to adopt immediate and decisive measures, was 
 represented to the Government'. 
 
 But in ordinary cases a stop should not be placed between the 
 subject and the verb : ' To be totally indifferent to pnaise or 
 censure is a real defect of character '. 
 
 2. Co-ordinating adjuncts of the subject 
 are isolated by commas. 
 
 The comma is used before and after a participle or participial 
 ; phrase when co-ordinathig, and not restrictive: 'The jury, 
 ^having retired for half an hour, brought in a verdict for the 
 'defendant' ; ' encouraged by his first successes ; he redoubled his 
 efforts '. But when the participial phrase is restrictive, the 
 comma is not used, it being improper to separate a limiting 
 adjunct from the word limited by it : ' A king ^depending on the 
 support of his subjects cannot rashly go to war '.' 
 
 The same rule extends to adjectives and nouns in apposition, 
 i when they are qualified by other words, and are in their effect 
 j co-ordinating rather than restrictive : ' The stranger, unwilling 
 ito obtrude himself on our notice, left in the morning' ; 'Borne, 
 ' the city of the Emperors, became the city of the Popes '. Even 
 without adjuncts, a word in apposition, especially when adding 
 new information, is often enclosed in commas : ' Paul, the 
 Apostle ', &c. But it is advisable so to punctuate as to main- 
 tain the distinction between restrictive and co-ordinating 
 adjuncts. 
 
 3. An Adverbial Phrase preceding the 
 verb, or its subject, is usually followed by a 
 comma. 
 
 ' In truth, I could not tell ' ; ' to sum up, the matter is this ' ; 
 ' everything being ready, they departed ' ; ' by looking a little 
 deeper, the reason will be found '. 
 
 When complex adverbial phrases come between the subject 
 and the verb, they are placed between commas. 
 
 4. The name of a person addressed is 
 isolated by commas. 
 
 ' John, come here ' ; ' tell me, boy, what is your name ? ' 
 
 5. A Phrase or quotation that is either the 
 subject or the object of the verb, is usually 
 followed or preceded by a comma. 
 
THE COMMA. 337 
 
 The most frequent cases perhaps do not occur in simple 
 sentences, and often, especially if the phrase or quotation be 
 long, a colon is used. ' He said, " Let us go hence V 
 
 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 1. A Noun Clause that is the subject of a 
 verb, if long, should be followed by a comma. 
 
 ' That the work of forming and perfecting the character is 
 difficult, is generally allowed.' 
 
 If the clause follows the verb, a comma does not usually 
 precede : ' It is known that a full examination took place '. 
 
 So an object noun clause is not usually preceded by a comma, 
 unless it is of very great length. 
 
 2. A restrictive Adjective Clause is not 
 separated by a comma from the noun. 
 
 This is on the principle already laid down concerning restric- 
 tive adjuncts. 
 
 On the other hand, a co-ordinating clause, introduced by the 
 relative, is preceded and, if need be, followed by a comma : ' I 
 went to view the river, which I found greatly swollen '. 
 
 An adjective clause has a comma placed after it when it has 
 the effect of very much lengthening the subject of the principal 
 verb : ' Any one that refuses to earn an honest livelihood, is not 
 a subject for charity '. This is on the same principle as Rule I. 
 for the simple sentence. 
 
 A comma is also necessary at the end of such clauses if fol- 
 lowed by an adverbial adjunct of the principal verb, which 
 otherwise might be referred to the subordinate clause ; ' I refused 
 to employ the man that he recommended, because of his unfit- 
 ness for the post'. 
 
 3. Adverbial clauses are separated by 
 commas unless they are short and closely 
 connected with the main sentence. 
 
 * If the premises were admitted, I should deny the conclusion ' ; 
 
 * where your treasure is, there will your heart be also ' ; ' send 
 me word before you come '. 
 
 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 
 Co-ordinate sentences, expressed at full 
 length, are generally separated by commas. 
 
 ' But his pride is greater than his ignorance, and what he 
 wants in knowledge he supplies by sufficiency.' 
 
 2.2 
 
338 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 A slight amount of contraction does not dispense with the 
 rule : ' A man of polite imagination can converse with a picture, 
 and find an agreeable companion in a statue '. 
 
 But when the sentences are very closely related to each other, 
 and connected by the conjunctions ' find ', ' or ', ' nor ', the 
 comma is omitted : ' I made haste and overtook him ' ; ' neither 
 mon e y nor men were wanting '. A clause introduced by an 
 anestive conjunction, 'but', &c., must be separated by a 
 comma from what precedes, owing to the break in the sense : 
 ' He went to market, but did not find what he wanted '. 
 
 When the conjunction is omitted between two co-ordinate 
 sentences, they must be separated by a comma if short, and by 
 a semicolon if long and complicated. ' He came, he saw, lie 
 conquered.' When such sentences (sometimes called collateral) 
 are contracted, the remaining portions are still divided by 
 commas : ' Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, 
 wealthy, and wise ' ; or ' healthy, wealthy, wise '. ' Peter, 
 James, Thomas, and Mary formed the party.' 
 
 These rules are all pervaded by one general principle, namely, 
 that when words are closely connected in grammar or in sense 
 they must not be separated in the pointing ;* but if an inter- 
 ruption takes place, or a transition is made, a point is necessary. 
 An expression enclosed between commas is in some sort paren- 
 thetical ; there*would be no break in the grammatical connexion, 
 or in the sense, if it were passed over. 
 
 The Semicolon and the Colon. 
 
 The Semicolon is introduced when a greater 
 pause is required than what is usually indicated 
 by the comma. 
 
 In the construction of sentences, or periods, we may have 
 some clauses more closely connected than others, and the degree 
 of connection may be suggested by the absence of a stop, by a 
 comma, or by the semicolon : ' Children without any design 
 imitate the language, the tone, the pronunciation, the looks, 
 the gestures, the gait of those with whom they live ; and if the 
 imitation be continued sufficiently long, no efforts in after life 
 can overcome the effects of it, the flexibility or docility, so to 
 speak, of the tissues or organs concerned seeming to diminish 
 rapidly with the approach to maturity, or the cessation of 
 growth'. Here it is felt that the break or pause is much 
 greater after ' they live ', than at the end of the various words 
 
 * The only exception to this is Rule 1 (simple sentence) ; but that is 
 justified on the ground that the inordinate length of the subject renders 
 a pause desirable. 
 
SEMICOLON AND FULL STOP. 339 
 
 where commas are used. There is also a considerable break in 
 the sense after ' can overcome the effects of it ', where also there 
 would have been no impropriety in placing another semicolon. 
 
 When a pause is not sufficiently marked by the semicolon, 
 the colon may be used at the writer's discretion. But no fixed 
 rules can be laid down respecting the use of this stop. One 
 application of it is to introduce a quotation, a narrative, an 
 argument, or an enumeration of particulars : ' He spoke as fol- 
 lows ' :- 
 
 The Period or Full Stop. 
 
 This stop is used at the close of a complete 
 sentence. 
 
 The rules for the use of it are the rules for the composition of 
 peiiods and paragraphs. The most usual error is to include in . 
 one period the matter that should be divided into two, or ' 
 perhaps more. 
 
 The full stop is used after abbreviations : 'MS. ', 'LL.D. ', 
 1 Lond. ', ' Mr. ', ' Esq. ', ' Bart.'. 
 
 The note of interrogation must not be used after indirect 
 questions ; as ' he asked me who called '. 
 
 The parentheses enclose some remark that does not enter 
 into the construction of the sentence : 
 
 ' The bliss of man (could prido that blessing find) 
 Is not to act or think beyond mankind.' 
 
 The dash marks an unexpected or emphatic pause, or a 
 sudden break or transition : ' Why, perhaps it is but what 
 was his intention ? ' 
 
 Sometimes it is used to mark words in apposition, or in 
 explanation : 
 
 They plucked the seated hills, with all their toad- 
 Rocks, waters, woods and by the shaggy tops 
 Uplifting, bore them in their hands,' 
 
 Two dashes may be used to enclose an explanatory paren- 
 thetic clause ; ' In truth, the character of the great chief was 
 depicted two thousand five hundred years before his birth, and 
 depicted such is the power of genius in colours which will 
 be fresh as many years after his death '. 
 
 Inverted commas are used to mark quotations. 
 
 The note of exclamation or admiration is used after 
 interjections and passionate exclamations, or after any passages 
 that are intended to be especially emphatic : ' A dread eternity I 
 how surely mine ! ' 
 
340 
 
 PARSING. 
 
 The various parts of every sentence may be examined 
 in five different modes. 
 
 In giving a complete account of a sentence, we might parse it 
 five times, for as many different purposes. We might state 
 first the part of speech of each word ; secondly, the inflexion of 
 every inflected word ; thirdly, the derivation of each word ; 
 fourthly, the analysis of the sentence ; and fifthly, the applica- 
 tion of the syntactical rules of concord, government, and order 
 to the sentence. But there being very little to do under the 
 second head inflexion, we may conveniently join that with the 
 first. Also, the analysis and the other parts of syntax are so 
 closely allied, that we may take the whole under one parsing. 
 (The analysis might also be easily included in the first mode 
 of parsing.) There will thus be three distinct parsings appli- 
 cable to any one passage. 
 
 I. Parsing for Parts of Speech (including 
 Inflexion.) 
 
 Under this we state the Part of Speech of each 
 word (whether Noun, Pronoun, &c.), showing how it 
 comes under the Definition ; also the class or sub- 
 division that the word belongvS to ; and the inflexional 
 changes it exhibits. 
 
 It is necessary even for this limited purpose to understand 
 .the syntax of the sentence, for we must often treat a phrase of 
 ;two or more words as grammatically one. Moreover, we must 
 , determine the part of speech according to the actual function of 
 : the word in each case ; seeing that the same word falls under 
 ' different parts of speech at different times. We shall take as an 
 example the following passage from Milton : 
 
 Far less abhorred than these 
 Vex'd Scylla, bathing in the sea that parts 
 Calabria from the hoarse Trinacrian shore.' 
 
 1 Far ' ; an adv. of degree, modifying ' leAs '. 
 
 ' Less ' ; adv. of degree, comparative, modifying ' abhorred '. 
 Not in usual compar. form, the -r ending being assimilated to 
 the final consonant of the positive (Joes). 
 
 ' Abhorred ' : adj. of quality (derived from past participle of 
 verb ' abhor ') ; limits ' hell-fcounds ', understood. 
 
 ' Than ' : adv. of degree, comparative, modifying a verb 
 understood ' were abhorred ', the completion of the clause 
 commencing with ' these '. (The whole lause i than these 
 
PARSING FOR PARTS OF SPEECH. 341 
 
 (Ml-hounds) were abhorred ' is equivalent to an adv. of degree, 
 modifying ' less '.) 
 
 'These': adj., pronominal, demonstrative; plural; limits 
 'hell-hounds', understood. Or, pronoun, demonstr. ; plur. ; 
 having for its antecedent (or pointing to) ' hell-hounds '. 
 
 ' Vex'd ' : verb transitive ; active voice, indicative mood, past 
 indefinite tense, third person, plural number ; subject, ' hell- 
 hounds ', understood after ' abhorred '. 
 
 ' Scylla ' : noun, proper, singular, meaningless ; or simply 
 proper)* ; feminine ; the object of the verb ' vexed '. 
 
 ' Bathing ' : verb, intransitive ; (imperfect or incomplete) 
 participle ; subject, ' Scylla ' ; co-ordinating use. 
 
 ' In ' : preposition, place, rest in ; placed before ' sea ' to 
 mark the relation between ' sea ' and ' Scylla bathing ' (or 
 joined with ' sea ' to make up an advl. phrase modifying 
 'bathing'.) 
 
 'The ' : adj., pronoml., demonstr., (usually called the definite 
 article) ; limits 'sea'. (The complete limitation is given by 
 the expression 'that parts . . . shore' adj. clause re- 
 strictive. ) 
 
 ' Sea ' : noun, general and significant (or simply general, or 
 common),* connected with ' bathing ' by ' in ' (or taken with 
 'in ' to make up a phr. as above.) 
 
 ' That ' : pron. relative, restrictive ; arltecedent ' sea ' ; 
 subject to the verb ' parts '. 
 
 ' Parts ' : verb, transitive, predicate to ' that ' ; act. voice, 
 indie, mood, pres. indef. tense, sing, number, 3rd person. 
 
 ' Calabria ' : noun, proper ;* object to ' parts ' . 
 
 ' From ' : preposition (one of the case prepositions), place, 
 motion with direction ; placed before ' shore ' to mark the re- 
 lation between 'shore 'and 'parts' (or joined with 'shore' to 
 to make up an advl. phr. of place, motion with direction, modi- 
 fying 'parts'). 
 
 ' The ' (as above) ; limits ' shore '. 
 
 ' Hoarse ' : adj. of quality ; qualifies ' shore '. Co-ordinating. 
 
 ' Trinacrian ' : adj. derived from a proper name ; limits 
 ' shore '. 
 
 * It would be too much trouble to keep up the full distinctions on all 
 occasions, and I should therefore propose that when a noun is a proper 
 (or meaningless) name, and also the name of one object, it should simply 
 be called ' proper ' ; as the names that are proper and not singular are the 
 exception, and may be noted when they occur. The significant nouns 
 are nearly all ' general ', and might be parsed as ' general ', (or if preferred 
 ' common '), and therefore ' general ' or ' common ' might be held to mean 
 ' general and significant ', unless the contrary be stated. The parsing of. 
 nouns would thus continue as at present, except that when such a word 
 as the ' Browns ' or the ' Jameses ' occurred, it would be stated as ' proper 
 and common ' ; and when ' Providence ' or ' the emperor ' occurred, it 
 would be stated as ' singular and significant '. 
 
342 PARSING. 
 
 'Shore': noun, general (or common) ;* taken with 'from*. 
 (The combination ' the Trinacrian shore ' constitutes a singular 
 name, partly significant and partly proper.) 
 
 II. Parsing for Derivation. This consists of two parts ; 
 
 first, assigning the source of each word, as ' Native ', 'French', 
 &c. ; and secondly, giving account of its composition when it is 
 a compound word. 
 
 The rules and lists given under DERIVATION Sources of 
 Words, together with the lists given in the Appendix, are 
 intended to afford the means of determining the etymological 
 origin of all our words. The rules to be absolutely relied on 
 are those in sections 28, 29, 32, 33. It is to be seen first 
 whether a word belongs to the parts of speech, &c., that are of 
 home origin (28, 29). If this is not decisive, the rules relating 
 to the number of syllables (32, 33) are to be referred to, together 
 with the lists of exceptions. 
 
 The pupil should gradually master all the smaller lists of the 
 languages given in the text Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, 
 Arabic, &c. He should also master the native words of more 
 than one syllable, of which a tolerably complete enumeration is 
 given in the account of the things named from native sources ; 
 in which account the examples are purposely drawn from dis- 
 syllable words. When a word of more than one syllable occurs, 
 
 'form that we are to deal with according to the rules (32, 33.) 
 The question will then be decided by a reference to the lists in 
 the Appendix. The first of these lists the Celtic, might be 
 readily mastered ; the Scandinavian list is somewhat longer, 
 but if the pupil were familiar with it likewise, the actual refer- 
 ence would be confined to two lists the other Teutonic words 
 and the list of classical monosyllables. A key is thereby 
 ifurnished to the sources of the language, upon a plan preferable 
 to the use of the dictionary, as it deals with classes and not 
 with individuals, and renders it possible ultimately to master 
 the entire language. 
 
 The rules drawn from the endings and prefixes (30, 31) are 
 very useful for giving the probable origin of words at the first 
 glance ; but in consequence of the great number of hybrids, of 
 which no complete list has been made, they are not the rules 
 that are depended on. In distinguishing between a Latinized 
 and an English style generally, they are a tolerably safe guide. 
 
 If pupils have been disciplined in Latin, Greek, and Saxon 
 roots, or if they have made some progress in Latin and Greek, 
 .or in French, they will have an additional means of discrimiua- 
 
FOR DERIVATION AND FOR SYNTAX. 343 
 
 ting the sources of our vocabulary ; and the teacher will then 
 appeal to this part of their knowledge in parsing for derivation. 
 
 The other exercise under Derivation consists in reducing 
 words that are not simple to their simple elements. Thus 
 ' greatness ' is made up of the adjective ' great ' and the suffix 
 ' ness ' ; ' embitter ' is the adjective ' bitter ' combined with the 
 prefix ' em ', which is employed to convert adjectives into verbs, 
 with the meaning of 'to make'; 'powder-horn' is a compound 
 word made up of two nouns. 
 
 III. Parsing for Syntax. The analysis of sentences has 
 been sufficiently exemplified. There remains only the illustra- 
 tion of the rules of Concord, Government, and Order, as given 
 under those several heads. Numerous examples of detailed 
 parsing for Syntax are given in the Key to First English Gram- 
 mar, pp. 157-186. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF ERRORS, 
 
 AND OF INFERIOR, AMBIGUOUS, OR PECULIAR FORMS. 
 
 (The arrangement is designedly made ynwniscuous. ) 
 
 The separation did not take place till after the language had attained 
 the ripeness of maturity. 
 
 The Church has, through its Committee on Education, in their last 
 report, recommended a more liberal endowment, so that we have now 
 reason to count upon their cordial co-operation. 
 
 What is the reason that our language is less refined than those of Italy, 
 Spain, or France ? 
 
 Prompted by the most extreme vanity, he persisted in the writing bad 
 verses. 
 
 By letters, dated the third of May, we learn that the West India fleet 
 arrived safely. 
 
 If I want skill or force to restrain the beast that I ride upon, though I 
 bought it and call it my own ; yet, in the truth of the matter, I am at 
 that time rather his man than he my horse. 
 
 This great philosopher, with whom I am always unwilling to differ, 
 refers, <fec. 
 
 It is not so unwieldy as to make it necessary to have recourse to the 
 complex mechanism of double elections. 
 
 A history now by a Mr. Hume, or a poem by a Mr. Pope, would be 
 examined with different eyes than had they borne any other name. 
 
 One species of bread, of coarse quality, was only allowed to be baked. 
 
 The party whom he invited was very numerous. 
 
 The Duke of Manchester died at Rome on the 18th of March, 1843. 
 His grace in 1793 married the daughter of the late Duke of Gordon, and 
 was 71 years of age. 
 
 There is not a girl in town, but lecher have her will, in going to a 
 mask, and she shall dress like a shepherdess. 
 
 It is now about four hundred years since the art of multiplying books 
 has been discovered. 
 
 An officer on European and on Indian service are in very different 
 situations. 
 
 For I remember that among your ancient authors, not only all kings, 
 but even Jupiter himself is so termed. 
 
344 EXAMPLES OF ERRORS, 
 
 My old friend, after having seated himself, and trimmed the boat with 
 his coachman, who, being a very sober man, always serves for ballast on 
 these occasions, we made the best of our way to Fox-hall. 
 
 Man never is, but always to be blest. 
 
 Indeed, were we to judge of German reading habits from these volumes 
 of ours, we should draw quite a different conclusion to Paul's. 
 
 1 know no duty in religion more generally agreed on, nor more justly 
 required by God. 
 
 The doctor; in his lecture, said that fever always produced thirst. 
 
 Alarmed by so unusual an occurrence, it was resolved to postpone then- 
 departure. 
 
 The Annals of Florence are a most imposing work. 
 
 Without having attended to this, we will be at loss in understanding 
 several passages in the classics. 
 
 They have no other standard on which to form themselves, except what 
 chances to be fashionable. 
 
 The Earl of Huntly, conformable to the crafty policy which dis- 
 tinguishes his character, amused the leaders of the congregation. 
 
 Luxuriance of ornament and the fondness for point are certain indica- 
 tions of the decline of good taste. 
 
 Such expressions sound harshly. 
 
 To engage a private tutor for a single pupil, is , perhaps of all others, 
 the least eligible mode of giving literary instruction. 
 
 lu every ward one of the king's council took every man's book, and 
 sealed them, and brought them to Guildhall to confront them with the 
 original. 
 
 This diffused a secret joy through the whole assembly, which showed 
 itself in every look and feature. 
 
 They introduced the taste of science and religion which distinguished 
 Medina as the city of the book. 
 
 What can be the cause of the parliament neglecting so important a 
 business ? 
 
 Hobbes ia probably the first of whom we can say he is a good English 
 writer. 
 
 The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall neither attempt to 
 palliate nor deny. 
 
 The Royal Family takes rank before the Peers of the realm. 
 
 Politics are too strong for the schools and give them their bias. 
 
 Either you or I are in the wrong. 
 
 You seem neither to care for yourself nor for any one else after what 
 you have lost. 
 
 On either side of the river was there the tree of life. 
 
 If a stranger should hear these furious outcries of ingratitude against 
 our general, he would be apt to inquire. 
 
 I have lost the game, thoiigh I thought I should have won it. 
 
 Let the elders that rule well be counted worthy of double honour, 
 especially they who labour in the word and doctrine. 
 
 He would not be persuaded but what I was greatly in fault. 
 
 I do not think that leisure of life and tranquillity of mind, which 
 fortune and your own wisdom has given you, could be better employed. 
 
 It is a long* time since I have been devoted to your interest. 
 
 Give me it. 
 
 This haughty and imperious style sounded harshly to Scottish nobles, 
 impatient of the slightest apppearance of injury. 
 
 The family with whom I have long lived in intimacy is gone to the 
 country. 
 
 That is seldom or ever the case. 
 
 The fact of ine being a stranger to him does not justify his conduct. 
 
 It is one of the mcst satisfactory and valuable emendations which has 
 ever been made. 
 
AND OF INFERIOR OR PECULIAR FORMS. 345 
 
 Accordingly on their approaching they were refused admittance within, 
 and were violently and unceremoniously driven from the gates. 
 
 Much depends on this rule being observed. 
 
 The salt-merchants, the grocers, the confectioners conspired together to 
 adulterate the articles in which they dealt in a thousand ways. 
 
 Let you and I go together. 
 
 The seeming importance given to every part of female dress, each of 
 which is committed to the care of a different sylph, &c. 
 
 It is more good to fall among crows than flatterers, for these only 
 devour the dead, those the living. 
 
 Let me awake the king of Morven, he that smiles in danger, he that is 
 like the sun of Heaven rising in a storm. 
 
 But I will doubtless find some English person at whom to make 
 inquiries. 
 
 The Romans had no other subsistence but the scanty pillage of a few 
 farms. 
 
 There are few words in the English language which are employed in a 
 more loose and uncircumscribed sense than those of the fancy and the 
 imagination. 
 
 The light must not be suffered to conceal from us the real standard, by 
 which only his greatness can be determined. 
 
 We were no sooner come to the Temple stairs but we were surrounded 
 with a crowd of watermen. 
 
 The inattention to altered circumstances is a fault of most universal 
 application in all political questions. 
 
 This is a question which we ought to have expected to have found 
 answered in the ' Seventh Report of the Commissioners of Her Majesty's 
 Inland Revenue '. 
 
 Not only England, but all Europe was in a blaze. 
 
 At present the trade is thought to be in a depressed state if less than a 
 million of tons are produced in a year. 
 
 We are now poor, and wisdom bids us to conform to our humble situa- 
 tion. 
 
 "Tis resolved; for nature pleads that he should only rule who most 
 resembles me. 
 
 I could heartily wish there was the same application and endeavours 
 to cultivate and improve church music, as have been lately bestowed ou 
 that of the stage. 
 
 Men were no sooner settled in their rights to their possessions, but 
 there was a third order proclaimed. 
 
 If we look within the rough and awkward outside, we will be richly 
 rewarded by its perusal. 
 
 In constructing and depicting of characters, Werner indeed is little 
 better than a mannerist. 
 
 He has eaten no bread nor drunk no water these two days. 
 
 But they kept off other evils which would have been worse. 
 Just to thy word, in every thought sincere ; 
 Who knew no wish but what the world might hear. 
 
 The last year or two have been a time of great political pressure in 
 Prussia. 
 
 Opinions are apt to be identified with set forms of language, which to 
 disturb seems to destroy the opinions. 
 
 He frankly confessed that the state of the reserves were not satisfac- 
 tory. 
 
 Before Hell's gates there sat on either sidya formidable shape. 
 
 They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, 
 cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. 
 
 Either the young man or his guardians has acted improperly. 
 
 None, I am sure, can be of more honour to God, iior of more ease to 
 ourselves. 
 
346 EXAMPLES OF ERRORS, 
 
 In the Latin language, there are no two words we would more readily 
 take to be synonymous than a.mare and diigere. 
 
 I have frequently been assured by great ministers that politics were 
 nothing but common sense. 
 
 I had several men died in my ship of yellow fever. 
 
 He is an author of more credit than , or any other, that write lives 
 
 D hastily. 
 
 He or you are in the wrong. 
 
 During the last century no prime minister, however powerful, has 
 become rich in office. 
 
 The following treatise, together with those that accompany it, were 
 written many years ago. for my own private satisfaction. 
 
 The person who immediately walked before him, was remarkable for an 
 embroidered garment, who not being well acquainted with the place, was 
 conducting him to an apartment appointed for the reception of fabulous 
 heroes. 
 
 He addressed several exhortations to them suitably to their circum- 
 stances. 
 
 When the Emperor Alexander elevated the standard of the cross, he 
 invoked the only power that ever has, or ever will, arrest the march of 
 temporal revolution. 
 
 I do not question but they have done what is usually called the king's 
 business. 
 
 Can parliament be so dead to its dignity and duty as to give then* 
 support to measures thus intruded and forced upon them ? 
 
 The duke had not behaved with that loyalty, as he ought to have done. 
 
 II tf that can doubt whether he be anything or no, I speak not to. 
 
 A talent of this kind would, perhaps, prove the likeliest of any other to 
 succeed. 
 
 The ends of a divine and human legislator are vastly different. 
 
 Be not too tame neither. 
 
 The ancestors of the human race knew poverty in a partial degree. 
 
 He was scarce gon<\ when you arrived. 
 
 I would feel myself blighted in the eyes of all my acquaintances, I 
 would be overpowered, by the feelings of my own disgrace. 
 
 They entreated to read to me, and bade me not to cry, for I was now 
 too old to weep. 
 
 He need not proceed in such haste. 
 
 On your conduct at this moment depends the colour and complexion 
 of their destiny. 
 
 One day, being brought before the king, and being asked whom he was, 
 Diogenes replied, ' A spy on your cupidity '. 
 
 I, that did never weep, now melt in woe, 
 
 I must confess, after having surveyed the antiquities about Naples and 
 Rome, I cannot but think that our admiration of them does not so much 
 arise out of their greatness as uncommonness. 
 
 Reconciliation was offered on conditions as moderate as was consistent 
 with a permanent union. 
 
 I have never seen Major Cartwright, much less enjoy the honour of his 
 acquaintance. 
 
 Sailing up the river, the whole town may be seen. 
 
 The masterly boldness and precision of his outline, which astonish 
 those who have trodden parts of the same field, is apt to escape an un- 
 informed reader. 
 
 It makes us to walk warily. 
 
 Neither the houses nor the garden were sold. 
 
 I should be obliged to him, if he will gratify me in that particular. 
 
 The next New Year's day, I shall be at school three years. 
 
 But there is a general correctness of delineation which must strike the 
 eye at once of any person slightly experienced in geography. 
 
AND OP INFERIOR OR PECULIAR FORMS. 347 
 
 Both of the scholars, or one of them at least, were present at the 
 transaction. 
 
 That is either a man or a woman's voice. 
 
 Scarce had the Spirit of Law* made its appearance than it was attacked. 
 
 He comes ; nor want nor cold his course delay. 
 
 He lived to see almost all the great principles which he had advocated 
 not merely recognised, but a commencement made in carrying them into 
 practice. 
 
 The rogue and fool by fits is fair and wise. 
 
 In these rigid opinions the whole sectaries, amidst all their other 
 differences, unanimously concurred. 
 
 There are certain things that not only can not be done by force, but 
 the employment of force is the surest way to prevent them. 
 
 Every one thought to have his special views attended to. 
 
 I think the longest times of our worst princes scarce saw many more 
 executions than the short one of our best reformer. 
 
 It was great in him promoting one to whom he had done some wrong. 
 
 If you were here, you would find three or four in the parlour, after 
 dinner, whom you would say, passed their afternoons very agreeably. 
 
 Whatever would prove prejudicial to our future prosperity, however 
 enticing it may seem at present, we must resolutely reject it. 
 
 Great numbers were killed on either side. 
 
 They here began to breathe a delicious kind of ether, and saw all the 
 fields about them covered with a kind of purple light, that made them 
 reflect with satisfaction on their past toils. 
 
 Hence he considered marriage with a modern political economist, as 
 very dangerous. 
 
 Olympus with its multitude of stately, celestial natures, dwindle 
 before the solitary, immutable throne of Jehovah. 
 
 Mr. Broadhurst is a very good sort of man, who has not written a very 
 bad book on a very important subject. 
 
 That opinion is too universal to be easily corrected. 
 
 The temper, as well as knowledge, of a modern historian, require a 
 more sober and accurate language 
 
 Wherever the giant came, all fell before him ; but the dwarf had like to 
 have been killed more than once. 
 
 Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, yet they are all withiu 
 . his own breast. 
 
 Not only he found her busy, but pleased and happy even. 
 
 This is wonderful ridiculous from so solid an orator. 
 
 In reality more than one principle has been contended for at one time. 
 
 The first thiug impressed on us from our earliest infancy is that events 
 do not succeed one another at random, but with a certain degree of order 
 regularity, and connexion. 
 
 He thinks that He will soon return. 
 
 The ebb and flow of the tides were explained by Newton. 
 
 This does not so much seem to be owing to the want of physical powers, 
 but rather to the absence of vehemence. 
 
 Animal spirits such as belong to some men are a fortune in themselves. 
 
 The wealth of the great Audley may be considered as the cloudy 
 medium through which a bright genius shone, and which, had it been 
 thrown into a nobler sphere of action, the greatness would have been less 
 ambiguous. 
 
 We cannot all be masters, nor all masters cannot be truly followed. 
 
 The accuracy and clearness of the sentence depend very much upon the 
 proper and determinate use of the relative, so that it may readily present 
 its antecedent to the mind, without any obscurity or ambiguity. 
 
 Hoping that I will soon hear from you, believe me yours truly. 
 
 You may infuse the sentiment by a ray of light, no thicker, nor one 
 thousandth part BO thick, as the finest needle. 
 
348 EXAMPLES TO BE AMENDED. 
 
 Some persons can only distinguish black, white, and grey. 
 
 Domestic society is the seminary of social affections, where the first 
 elements arc acquired of that tenderness and humanity which cement 
 mankind together ; and which, were they entirely extinguished, the 
 whole fabric of social institutions would be dissolved. 
 
 We would be greatly mistaken if we suppose wealth and rank exempt 
 from care and toil. 
 
 If I am not mistaken, a government can only be called democratic 
 where a majority of adults are sovereign. 
 
 Some persons go the length of saying that nobody ought to be made to 
 do what he dislikes. 
 
 How far I shall be found to possess the most essential attribute of 
 Poetry, I know not. 
 
 He always preferred having his own views sustained by the failure of 
 his opponent's arguments than by the success of his own. 
 
 The articles may be in prose or verse. 
 
 There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, 
 but by means of something already known. 
 
 Persons have been known to take a fever after feeling the smell of an 
 open drain. 
 
 Suppose that, as a punishment, a man is condemned to pjjt his finger 
 after two days into the flame of a candle. 
 
 Two substantives, when they come together, and do not signify tha 
 same thing, the former must be in the genitive case. 
 
349 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. CELTIC WORDS. 
 
 (W. Welsh, G. Gaelic, I. Irish.) 
 
 [The asterisk signifies that the word is not confined to the dialect 
 specified.] 
 
 Alpine. G. 
 
 Card. G. 
 
 Harlot. W. 
 
 Plight. W. 
 
 Bachelor. W. 
 
 Clan. G. 
 
 Havock. W. 
 
 Pour. W. 
 
 Bag. G. 
 Bald. G. 
 
 Clog. G. 
 Cloy. G. 
 
 Hilding. W. 
 Hog. W. 
 
 Pumpkin. W. 
 Put. W. 
 
 Balderdash. W. 
 
 Club. W. 
 
 Hover. W. 
 
 Quip. W. 
 
 Bard. W. 
 
 Cockle. G. 
 
 Ingle. G. 
 
 Rasher. Cel. 
 
 Barrack. G. 
 
 Coil. G. 
 
 Jerk. W. 
 
 Sham. W. 
 
 Basket. W. 
 
 Coke. G. 
 
 Jolt. W. 
 
 Size. W. (?)(glue)' 
 
 Bastard. W. 
 
 Combe. W. 
 
 Kecks. -Kecksy. 
 
 Slab. W. 
 
 Batten. G. 
 
 Coot, W. 
 
 W. 
 
 Soggy. W. 
 
 Bauble. G. 
 
 Crag. G. 
 
 Kid. W. (a brush 
 
 Solder. W. 
 
 Bay-tree. W. 
 
 Crockery. W.* 
 
 faggot). 
 
 Spree. 
 
 Beast. G. 
 
 Crone. G. (an old 
 
 Kilu. W. 
 
 Suet. W. 
 
 Beg. G. 
 
 woman.) 
 
 Lick. W. (to beat.) 
 
 Tabard. W. 
 
 Bog. G. 
 
 Crowder. W. 
 
 Loop. G. 
 
 Tackle. W. 
 
 Boisterous. W. 
 
 Crown. W. 
 Cuddle. W. 
 
 Marigold. W.* ' 
 Mine. G. 
 
 Tall. W. 
 Tanist. G. 
 
 Bole. W. 
 
 Curd. W. 
 
 Minnow. G. 
 
 Tankard. G. 
 
 Bonfire. W. 
 
 Cut. W. 
 
 Murle. W. 
 
 Tarrv. W. 
 
 Booth. G. 
 
 Dad. W. 
 
 Noggin. G. 
 
 Tether. W. 
 
 Bother. I. 
 Bott. G. 
 
 Dainty. W. 
 Dale. Dell. W.* 
 
 Pall, (v.) W. 
 Pall, (n.) W. 
 
 Tingle. W. 
 Toil. W. 
 
 Bourn. G. 
 
 Dandruff. W. 
 
 Pallet. G. 
 
 Toss. W. 
 
 Bragget. W. 
 
 Darnock. Dan- 
 
 Paw. W. 
 
 Tuck. W. 
 
 Brake. G. (a bit 
 
 nock. G. 
 
 Peel. W. (a small 
 
 Wabble. W. 
 
 for horses.) 
 
 Decant. G. 
 
 fortress.) 
 
 Waist. W. 
 
 Bran. W.* 
 
 Flannel. W. 
 
 Pellet. W. 
 
 Wanton. W. 
 
 Brand. G. 
 
 Flummery. W. 
 
 Perk. Pert. W. 
 
 Welf. W. 
 
 Buck. G. 
 
 Frith. G. (muir- 
 
 Piggin. G. 
 
 Whiff. W 
 
 Bug. W.faffhottJ 
 
 landj 
 
 Pike. Bret. (fish). 
 
 Whim. W. 
 
 Burn, (n.) G. 
 
 Geek. G. (to toss 
 
 Pikelet, W. 
 
 Whisky. I. 
 
 Buss. G. (a kiss.) 
 
 up the head.) 
 
 Pin. W. 
 
 Wimble. W. 
 
 Button. G.* 
 
 Gown. W. 
 
 Plait. Pleat W. 
 
 Whip. W. 
 
 Cabin. W. 
 
 Grid-iron. W. 
 
 Plaid. G. 
 
 Wicket. W. 
 
 Calf (of the leg.) G. 
 
 Gruel. W. 
 
 Plea, W. 
 
 Wire. 
 
 Cant. G. 
 
 Gyves, W.- 
 
 
 
350 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 II. SCANDINAVIAN WORDS. 
 (I. Icelandic, D. Danish, N. Norwegian, S. Swedish.) 
 
 Arch. I. sly. 
 
 Cucking-Stool. I. 
 
 Gizen. N. 
 
 Kindle. I. to set 
 
 A wk. Awk- 
 
 Culm. I. 
 
 Glare. N. 
 
 fire to. 
 
 ward. I. 
 
 Dairy.- Doy. S. 
 
 Glamour. I. 
 
 Kitten. Kitling 
 
 Backgammon. D. 
 
 Dale. -Dell. L* 
 
 Glede. I. (a live 
 
 Kittle. N. 
 
 Ballast. D. 
 
 Dangle. S.* 
 
 coal.) 
 
 Lam. I. (v.) to 
 
 Bark. I. 
 
 Dewlap. D. 
 
 Glidder. D. (slip- 
 
 beat. 
 
 Bark. I. (of a tree.) 
 Bask. I. 
 
 Dilling.-Dill. I. 
 Dog. I. 
 
 Glop. Gloppen. 
 
 Lawn. N. 
 Learn. I. (gleam). 
 
 Beck. I. a brook. 
 
 Doggrel. I. 
 
 I 
 
 Leg. I. 
 
 Beer. D. (a pil- 
 
 Dor. I. (v.)* (to 
 
 Glout. Gloat. 8. 
 
 Levin. X. (light- 
 
 low.) 
 
 befool.) 
 
 Gnash. D. 
 
 ning.) 
 
 Bifberry. D. 
 
 Dowdy. I. 
 Draggle. S. 
 
 Grains. D. 
 The Grains. D. (a 
 
 Ling. 1. (a kind 
 of heath.) 
 
 Bloat. Bloated. 
 
 Drake. S. 
 
 harpoon.) 
 
 Link. I. (1) a 
 
 Bloater. S. 
 
 DrazeL Drossel. 
 
 Groin. D. 
 
 sausage; (2) a 
 
 Blond. I.* 
 
 D. 
 
 Grow.--D (to be 
 
 joint of a chain. 
 
 Blunderbuss. 8. 
 
 Dredge. Drizzle 
 
 troubled.) 
 
 Linstock. S. 
 
 Bound. Bo wn. 
 
 D. 
 
 Grovel. I. 
 
 Loover. I. * (a 
 
 I. 
 
 Drivel. D. and I. 
 
 Gull. D. a dupe. 
 
 chimney.) 
 
 Box. D. (v.) 
 
 Drub. I. 
 
 Gust. I. 
 
 Lout. I. (v.) 
 
 Bulk. D. (cu in 
 
 Dug. 8. 
 
 Haberdasher. I. 
 
 Low. I. ('lame.) 
 
 bulkheads.) 
 
 Dunch. D. (to 
 
 Haggle. I. 
 
 Lurch. Lurk. N 
 
 Bunch. Bunk. 
 
 thump.) 
 
 Halse. I. to salute. 
 
 Mane. I. 
 
 Bung. I. 
 Bush. Busk. I. 
 
 Dusky. S. 
 Ferly. I. (wonder.) 
 
 Hamble. Hatn- 
 mel. I. (to lame) 
 
 Mare. I. (CM night- 
 mare.) 
 
 Busk. I. (v.) 
 
 Fettle. I. 
 
 Harrow. D. 
 
 Marram I. 
 
 Bustle. I. 
 
 Filly. N. 
 
 Haze.--Hazle.-N. 
 
 Marrow. I. 
 
 Cackle. Gaggle. 
 S.* 
 
 Flit. D. 
 Flizz. S. 
 
 Hit. I. 
 Hoggins. I. 
 
 Maul. I. (v.) 
 Mermaid. (I.) 
 
 Cade. I. (as a cade 
 lamb.) 
 
 Flounce. S. (v.) 
 Flounder. 8. 
 
 Hoity-toity. 8. 
 Housel. I. 
 
 Midden. I. 
 Mire. I. 
 
 Cake. 8. 
 
 Flume. N. 
 
 Hugger-mugger. 
 
 Mitten. N. 
 
 Call I. 
 
 Fluster. I 
 
 8 
 
 Morkin. I. car- 
 
 Cast. I. (.) 
 
 Fog. D. mist. 
 
 Hull. N. (v.) to 
 
 rion. 
 
 Chamm. 
 
 Fond. I. 
 
 coax. 
 
 Mort. I. a great 
 
 Champ. L 
 
 Forse. I. (a water- 
 
 Inkling. L 
 
 quantity. 
 
 Champion. L 
 
 fall.) 
 
 Jeer. I. 
 
 Moskered. L de- 
 
 Chuckle. I. 
 
 Freak. I. a man. 
 
 Jolly-boat. D. 
 
 cayed. 
 
 Clear. I. 
 
 Freckle. I. 
 
 Kedge. I. (1) an 
 
 Muck. N. (dung.) 
 
 Clump. I. 
 
 Frith.- Firth. L 
 
 anchor ; (2) 
 
 Mulled ale. I. 
 
 Clumsy. I. 
 Cod. I. (a husk.) 
 Cock. D. (a boat.) 
 
 Froth. I. 
 Gaby. D. (a titn- 
 pleton. 
 
 brisk. 
 Kedge-belly. I. 
 Keelson. Kel- 
 
 Nagging. Nag- 
 NarwhaL I. (the 
 
 Callow. Colly. I. 
 
 G&g-tooth. 1. 
 
 son. D. 
 
 sea-unicorn.) 
 
 soot. 
 
 Gain. Gainly. I. 
 
 Keg. N. 
 
 Neive. I. 
 
 Cope. I. (v.) 
 Cow. D. (v.) 
 
 Gale. I. (v.) 
 Gale. N. (n.) 
 
 Kelter. S. (ready). 
 Kenspeckle. N. 
 
 Niggard. N. 
 Nightingale. I. 
 
 Crank. S. (a.) 
 
 Galley. I. 
 
 Kickle. -Kittle. 
 
 Nithing. I. (a vile 
 
 (nautical.) 
 
 Gammon. D. (an 
 
 N. 
 
 fellow.) 
 
 Crinkde. D. 
 
 exclamation.) 
 
 Kid. I. a young 
 
 Oaf. I. a simple- 
 
 Cripple. I. 
 
 Gar. I. 
 
 goat. 
 
 ton. 
 
 Cross. I.* 
 
 Gauntlet. S. 
 
 Kid. I. at in kid- 
 
 Odd. N. 
 
 Crouch. L 
 
 Gat-toothed. 8. 
 
 nap. 
 
 Pawn. L* 
 
 Cub. L 
 
 Gill. S. (of a fish.) 
 
 Kilt. 8. 
 
 PeaL L 
 
TEUTONIC WORDS. 
 
 351 
 
 Pedigree. I. 
 Peevish. D. 
 
 Screak. S. 
 Scrip. S. 
 
 Slot. I. (the track 
 of a deer.) 
 
 Stump. D. 
 Swig. I. 
 
 Pet. S. a fit of dis- 
 
 Scull. I. (a email 
 
 Slug. D. 
 
 Switch. S. 
 
 pleasure. 
 
 boat.) 
 
 Smatter. D, 
 
 Tag. 
 
 Pippin. Pip. D. 
 
 Scat I. (o short 
 
 Smicker. 8. 
 
 Tang. Tangle, 
 
 Pod. D. 
 
 tail.) 
 
 Smile. S. 
 
 S. 
 
 Prog. N. (n. and 
 
 Shirt D. i Smug. D. (neat.) 
 
 Tarn. I. 
 
 4 
 
 Shriek. S. Suare. D. 
 
 Thrive. D. 
 
 Tug-mill. D. 
 
 Shrill. S. Sneap. Snub. D. 
 
 Thrum. I. 
 
 Pulse. D. a tau- 
 
 Silt S. mud.slime. Snudge. D. 
 
 Thurs-t/ay. D. 
 
 sage. 
 
 Skew. D. iSnujf. D. 
 
 Tramp. S. 
 
 Rake. D. a vicious 
 
 Skip. I. 
 
 lirt S. 
 
 Trap. S. 
 
 man. 
 
 Skit I. 
 
 Spoon. I. 
 
 Trigger. D. 
 
 Ransack. S. 
 
 Skirt. D. 
 
 Sprain. S. 
 
 Wail I. 
 
 Rate. S. to chide. 
 
 Skull. I. 
 
 Sprawl. D. 
 
 Warlock. I. 
 
 Root. S. 
 
 Skv. S. 
 
 Spud. D. 
 
 Weld. S. 
 
 Rove. D. 
 
 Slag. D. 
 
 Squall S. 
 
 Whim. I. 
 
 Scald. Scalder 
 
 Slake. L 
 
 Squeak. S. 
 
 Whirl. I. 
 
 D. 
 
 Slant S. 
 
 Squeal S. 
 
 Wicker. D. 
 
 Scant I. 
 
 Slash. I. 
 
 Stack. D. 
 
 Window. D. 
 
 Scare. L 
 
 Sleave. I. 
 
 Staff. I. a stanza. 
 
 Wing. S. 
 
 Score. L 
 
 
 Stumble. I. 
 
 Wisp. 8. 
 
 III. OTHEB TEUTONIC WORDS. 
 
 (D. Dutch, G. German, F. Flemish.) 
 
 Average. G. 
 
 Bull. G. animal. 
 
 Clamber. G. 
 
 Cricket. D. an in- 
 
 Awning. O. 
 
 Bully. Bully- 
 
 Clamp. Clump. 
 
 sect. 
 
 Bad. G. 
 
 rook. D. 
 
 D. 
 
 Crone. D. an old 
 
 Bamboozle. D. 
 
 Bulwark. D. Clang. -Clank. G. 
 Bum. Boom. Clash. G. 
 
 sheep. 
 Cruise. D. 
 
 Bast. Bass. D. 
 
 Bump. D. Clatter. D. 
 
 Cudgel. D. 
 
 Begone. Woe-be- 
 
 Bum-bailiff. D. 
 
 Click. Clicket. 
 
 C-ir. D. 
 
 gont. D. 
 
 Bumpkin. G.* 
 
 D. 
 
 Curl. D. 
 
 Belong. D. 
 
 Buoy. D. 
 
 Clench. Clinch. 
 
 Cumber. D. 
 
 Bent. G. rutket. 
 Bill. D. 
 
 Buskin. D. 
 Bush.-BuaheI, 
 
 D. 
 
 Clink. D. 
 
 Damp. G. (n. &v.) 
 Dan ale. G. 
 
 Blear. G. 
 
 D. 
 
 Closhe. D. 
 
 Dank. G. 
 
 Blight. G. 
 
 Buss. D. a vessel. 
 
 Cloud. D. 
 
 Dapper. D. 
 
 Block. D. 
 
 Butter. Butter- 
 
 Cobalt. G. 
 
 Dare. G. to be ter- 
 
 Bluff. D. 
 
 fly. G. 
 
 Cockle. D. (v.) 
 
 rified. 
 
 Blunder. D. 
 
 Buttock. D. 
 
 Cocker. D. 
 
 Daunt. 
 
 Boast. G. 
 
 Carouse. G. 
 
 Codger. G. 
 
 Decoy. D. 
 
 Boom. D. (n ft v.) 
 
 Catkin. D. 
 
 Comber. D. . 
 
 Deuce Dickens. 
 
 Boor. D. 
 
 Caterpillar. D. 
 
 Coomb. D. ' 
 
 G. 
 
 Botch. D. (n. <fe v.) 
 
 Chaff. D. (v.) 
 
 Copes - man, or 
 
 De-w-berry. G. 
 
 Boult Bolt. G. 
 
 Chaffer. G. (v.) 
 
 -mate. D. 
 
 Didapper. D. a 
 
 (v.) 
 
 Cbaldern.-Chaw- 
 
 Cotquean. Q uot- 
 
 water bird. 
 
 Bounce. D. 
 
 dron. G. 
 
 quean. D. 
 
 Dock. G. (1) a 
 
 Boy. G. 
 
 Chap. Chip. 
 
 Cough. D. 
 
 bundle; (2) a 
 
 Brabble. D. 
 
 Chop. D. Cower. G. 
 
 sluice. 
 
 Brack. Braekish 
 G. 
 
 Charcoal. D. 
 Chimb. D. rim qf 
 
 Cramp. D. 
 Crank. D. 
 
 Dolley. D. 
 Doit. D. 
 
 Brandy. G. 
 
 a rase. 
 
 Craunch. D., 
 
 Dole. G. a slip of 
 
 Brattice. Bar- 
 
 Chink-Cough. 
 
 Craw. G. Ihe+eck, 
 
 pasture. 
 
 tisan. G. 
 
 Chin-cough. D. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Doll. G. 
 
 Buckwheat. G. 
 
 Chitter. D. 
 
 Crawl. D. 
 
 Dollar. D. 
 
 Buff. G. dull of Chitterling. D. 
 tolours, &c. Chub. G. 
 
 Creek. D. a brook. 
 Crewel. G. . 
 
 Dot D. 
 Dote. D. 
 
352 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Dotterel D. 1 Glance. D. 
 
 Huckle-fcone. 
 
 Loiter. D. 
 
 Down. G. a 
 
 Glaver. D. (v.) 
 
 Huckster. G. 
 
 Lombard-A<m. 
 
 thistle-down. 
 
 Glib. D. 
 
 Hurst. D. 
 
 D. 
 
 Drabble. D. 
 
 Glimmer. G. 
 
 Husk. D. 
 
 Loof. D. 
 
 Dragoon. D. 
 
 Goit. Gote. 
 
 Hustle. D. 
 
 Lop. G. 
 
 Drake. Drawk 
 
 Gowt. D. a 
 
 Hut. D. 
 
 Loon. Lown. D. 
 
 D. 
 
 sluice, &c. 
 
 Ingot. G. 
 
 Loop-hole. D. 
 
 Drape-sheep. D. 
 
 Gooseberry. G. 
 
 Interloper. D. 
 
 Loover. D. 
 
 Drawl. D. 
 
 Graves. --Graving 
 
 Isinglass. G. 
 
 Lour. G. 
 
 Dream. G. or D. 
 
 dock. G. 
 
 Jerkin. D. 
 
 Lout. D. 
 
 Dredge. D. an an 
 
 Groat. G. 
 
 Jib. D. (v.) 
 
 Lukewarm. G. 
 
 chor. 
 
 Groom. D. 
 
 Raw. Keck. G. 
 
 Lusk. G. a slug, 
 
 Dretch. G 
 
 Grout. D. 
 
 Kebbers. D. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Drill. G. a kind of 
 
 Grub. D. (v.) 
 
 Keel. Kayle. G. 
 
 Mangle. G. (n. & 
 
 doth. 
 
 Guess. D. 
 
 Kemlin. Kem- 
 
 v.) 
 
 Drowsy. D. 
 
 Guile. D. 
 
 nel. D. 
 
 Marl. D. 
 
 Duck. D. (v. &n. 
 
 Haberdine. D. 
 
 Kerb. G. 
 
 Mask. D. 
 
 Dumps. D. 
 
 Hackbut. D. 
 
 Kilderkin. D. 
 
 Maulstick. G. 
 
 Ember-day*. G. 
 
 Hale. -HauL G, 
 
 Kink. D. a twist. 
 
 Mauther. D. 
 
 Etch. G. 
 
 Halibut. D. 
 
 Kit. D. (I) a pail; 
 
 Mazer. G. 
 
 Fade. D. 
 
 Halloo. G. 
 
 (2) a brood. 
 
 Mazzard. G. 
 
 Felspar. G. 
 
 Halm. Ha win. 
 
 Knap. G. or D. 
 
 Measles. D. 
 
 Fetlock. D. 
 
 G. 
 
 Knapsack. G. or 
 
 Mellow. G. 
 
 Fey. G. 
 
 Halse. D. to em 
 
 D 
 
 Menild.- Meanel- 
 
 Filberd. G. 
 
 brace. 
 
 Lack. D. want. 
 
 led. G. speckled. 
 
 Fimble. G. 
 
 Halse. Hawse. 
 
 Lane. D. 
 
 Mew. G. 
 
 Fine. G. 
 
 G. the neck. 
 
 Landgrave. G. 
 
 Miff. G. ill-hum- 
 
 Finical. Fini- 
 
 Hamper. D. 
 
 Larboard. D. 
 
 our. 
 
 kin. D. 
 
 Hank. G. 
 
 Larrup. D. 
 
 Mizzle. D. to rain 
 
 Fir. G. 
 
 Hantle. G. 
 
 Lash. D. to bind. 
 
 fine. 
 
 Flaik. D. 
 
 Elap. Happy. 
 
 Lass. G. 
 
 Mob-cap. D. 
 
 Flail. G. 
 
 Happen. D. 
 
 Lath. G. orD.* 
 
 Mole. Mould- 
 
 Fleech. G. 
 
 Harsh. G. 
 
 ^ary. D. 
 
 warp. G. 
 
 Flew. G. (1) ten- 
 
 Hatch. G. (said of 
 
 ^eaguer. D. a ly- 
 
 Hoor. D. (v.) 
 
 der; (2) shallow. 
 
 birds). 
 
 ing, &c. 
 
 More. G. root of a 
 
 Flew-net. D. 
 
 Hatch. D. to fas- 
 
 jeaguer. G. a 
 
 tree, &c. 
 
 Flews. G. 
 
 ten. 
 
 small cask. 
 
 Moult. D. 
 
 Flook. G. 
 
 Hackle. -Heckle. 
 
 Leak. D. 
 
 Mud. G. 
 
 Flunkey. G. 
 
 D. 
 
 Leak (of a mill.') Muff. D. a fool. 
 
 Flush. G. immedi- 
 
 launch. G. 
 
 G. 
 
 Mug. G. an earth- 
 
 ' ate. 
 
 3eyday. G. 
 
 ^edger. D. 
 
 en pot. 
 
 Flutter. G. 
 
 ligler.- Higgle. 
 
 jeet. D. a pea- 
 
 Mulberry. G. 
 
 Fob. G. (v.) 
 
 D. 
 
 sant tenant. 
 
 Mullock. D. rub- 
 
 Fog. G. (v.) 
 
 imd-berry. G. 
 
 Left. D. 
 
 bish. 
 
 Fou. G. 
 
 Hob. D. 
 
 jess. G. termina- 
 
 Mum. G. beer. 
 
 Fc.rd. G. 
 
 lobbedehoy. D. 
 
 tion. 
 
 Mumps. G. 
 
 Forge on. D. 
 
 locus - pocus. 
 
 vessel. G. a por- 
 
 Musty. G. 
 
 Fraught. G. 
 
 Hoax. D. 
 
 tico. 
 
 Nick. G. Old Nick. 
 
 Furlough. D. 
 
 loddipeak. D. 
 
 Bights. G. 
 
 Nick. G. as in 
 
 Gain. G. (in com- 
 
 lodge-podge. D. 
 
 Lime. G. a lime- 
 
 nick-name. 
 
 position) 
 
 Hoe. D. 
 
 tree. 
 
 Nickel. G. 
 
 Gallipot. D. 
 
 Jog. Hoggel. 
 
 jinen. G. 
 
 Nozzle. G. 
 
 Garden G. 
 
 Hoggrel. D. 
 
 Line. G. (v.) 
 
 Nudge. G. 
 
 Gas. D. 
 
 logshead. D. 
 
 Ling. D. a cod- Oast, D. a kiln. 
 
 Gash. G. to cut. 
 
 Hoyden. D. 
 
 fish. 
 
 Offal. G. 
 
 Geek. D. to sport, 
 
 Hoop. D. 
 
 jink. D. a torch. 
 
 Ogle. G. D. ? 
 
 deride, &c. 
 
 Hop. G. 
 
 jitmus. D. 
 
 Pack. G. 
 
 Gherkin. G. 
 
 Howlet. D. 
 
 oafer. G. 
 
 Palin. G. tree. 
 
 Gibbet. D. 
 
 Hoy. D. 
 
 obby. G. 
 
 Pay. D. to daub 
 
 Girl. G. 
 
 Huckle-&a<:ied. D. 
 
 og. D. 
 
 with pitch. 
 
TEUTONIC WORDS. 
 
 353 
 
 Pea-jacket. D. 
 
 Roe. G. Sleek. G. 
 
 Strive. D. 
 
 Peer. G. (v.) 
 
 Rouse. G. a bum- Sleight. G. 
 
 Strut. G. 
 
 Pet. D. 
 
 per. \ Slender. D. 
 
 Stubble. G. 
 
 Pew. D. 
 
 Rout. G. 
 
 Slice. G. 
 
 Stuff. G. 
 
 Pickle. D. 
 
 Rub. G. 
 
 Slight. G. 
 
 Sturdy. G. 
 
 Piddle. G. 
 
 Rudder. G. 
 
 Slim. G. 
 
 Stutter. G. 
 
 Pig. D. (1) animal 
 
 ttuifle. D. 
 
 Sloop. D. 
 
 Sutler. D. 
 
 (2) iron. 
 
 Rumble. G. 
 
 Slottery. G. 
 
 Swash. D. 
 
 Pinfold. Piiidar. 
 
 Rummer. D. a 
 
 squalid. 
 
 Sway. D. 
 
 D. 
 
 large (/lass. 
 
 Sloven. D. 
 
 Swerve. D. 
 
 Pip. G. 
 
 Rump. G. 
 
 Slubber. G. 
 
 Swindle. D. 
 
 Pismire. D. the 
 
 Runt. D. 
 
 Sluice. D. 
 
 Tafferel. D. 
 
 ant. 
 
 Rutter. D. o 
 
 Slur. D, 
 
 Talc.- Talk. G. a 
 
 Platform. D. 
 
 trooper. 
 
 Slut. D. 
 
 mineral. 
 
 Plash. G. 
 
 Sable. G. 
 
 Smalt. D. 
 
 Tallow. G. 
 
 Plight. O. 
 Plough. G. 
 
 Sasse. D. a sluice. 
 Scallop. D. 
 
 Smelt. D. (v.) 
 Smuggle. G. 
 
 Tattle. D. 
 Teal. D. 
 
 Plug. D. 
 
 Sculp. D. 
 
 Snack. D. 
 
 Thrack. G. to load. 
 
 Ply. G. 
 Poll. -Pollard. D. 
 
 Scamble. D. 
 Scamper D. 
 
 Snaffle. D. 
 Snap. D. 
 
 Tick. D. (n. & v.) 
 Tight. G. 
 
 Porthole. G. 
 
 Schooner. D. 
 
 Snarl. G. 
 
 Tip. D. 
 
 Frank. Prance. 
 
 Scold. D. 
 
 Snast. G, 
 
 Touse. G. to pull. 
 
 G. 
 
 Sconce. G. 
 
 Snatch. D. 
 
 Toy. D. 
 
 Prime. D. (v.) 
 
 Scoop. D. 
 
 Sniff. D. 
 
 Trail. D. 
 
 Prim. D. (t>.) 
 
 Scowl. G. 
 
 Snip. D. 
 
 Trifle. D. 
 
 Prop D. 
 Pudgv. G. 
 
 Scrabble. D. 
 Scramble. D. 
 
 Snipe. D. 
 Snort. D. 
 
 Trip. D. 
 Troll. G. to roll. 
 
 Puke." G. 
 
 Scratch. G. 
 
 Snout. G. 
 
 Trollop. G. 
 
 Punt. D. 
 
 Screw. D. 
 
 Snub. D. 
 
 Trull. G. 
 
 Purblind. D. 
 
 Scrub. G. 
 
 Snuff. D. 
 
 Tub. D. 
 
 Purl. D. (v.) 
 
 Sculk. D. 
 
 Sod. D. 
 
 Twinge. D. 
 
 Quack. G, 
 
 Scum. G. 
 
 Sop. D. 
 
 Twirl. D. 
 
 Quarto, G. 
 
 Seem. G. 
 
 Souse. G. 
 
 Twist. D. 
 
 Queer. G. 
 
 Shalm. Shawm. 
 
 Spang. G. 
 
 Twitter. D. 
 
 Quoit D. 
 
 G. a musical 
 
 Spite. D. 
 
 Uproar. D. 
 
 Rabbit. D. 
 
 pipe. 
 
 Splice. D. 
 
 Vampire. G. 
 
 Race. D. 
 
 Shatter. D. 
 
 Splinter. D. 
 
 Vane. D. 
 
 Raff. G. 
 
 Shingle. G. 
 
 Split. 1). 
 
 Veneer. G. 
 
 Rail. G. an iron 
 
 Shive. D. a slice. 
 
 Sport. G. (?) 
 
 Wad. G. 
 
 bar. 
 
 Shore. D. 
 
 Spot. D. 
 
 Wafer. D. 
 
 Rail. D. to mock: 
 
 Shrimp. G. 
 
 Spout. D. 
 
 Wage. G. 
 
 Ramble. D. 
 
 Shudder. G. 
 
 Sprat. D. 
 
 Wainscot. D. 
 
 Rant. D. 
 
 Shy. G. 
 
 Squander. G. 
 
 Waltz. G. 
 
 Rash. D. 
 
 Simnel. G. a, cake. 
 
 Squint. D. 
 
 Wamble. D. 
 
 Rattle. D. 
 
 Skate. D. ice shoe. 
 
 Stadholder. D. 
 
 Wand. D. 
 
 Rave. D. 
 
 Skellum. G. 
 
 Stagger. D. 
 
 Warble. G. 
 
 Havel. U. 
 
 Skiff. G. 
 
 Stamp. D. 
 
 Wee. G. 
 
 Reef. D. (nautical 
 
 Skim. G. 
 
 Start. D. 
 
 Whelp. D. 
 
 term). 
 
 Skipper. D. 
 
 Steep. G. 
 
 Whimper. G. 
 
 Reef. G. a chain 
 
 Slabber. G. 
 
 Stilt. D. 
 
 Whisk. G. 
 
 of wci*. 
 
 Slap. G. 
 
 Stiver. D. 
 
 Wreck. D. 
 
 Revel. D. 
 
 Slatter. G. 
 
 Stop. D. 
 
 Wriggle. D. 
 
 Riff-raff. G. 
 
 Slave. G. 
 
 Stout. D. 
 
 Yacht. D. 
 
 Rifle. G. 
 
 Slaver. G. 
 
 Strip. D. 
 
 Zinc. Q. 
 
 Rob. G. 
 
 Sled. Sledge. D. 
 
 
 
354 
 
 APPEXDIX. 
 
 IV. MONOSYLLABLES OF CLASSICAL ORIGIN. 
 
 (F. FrencJi, G. Greek, I. Italian, L. Latin, S. Spanish). 
 
 Ace. F. 
 
 Brach. F. 
 
 Cede. L. 
 
 Coil. F. L. 
 
 Act. L. 
 
 Bract. L. 
 
 Cell L. 
 
 Coin. F. 
 
 Add. L. 
 
 Branch. F. 
 
 Cent. F. 
 
 Cone. F. L. G. 
 
 Age. L. 
 
 Brave. F. 
 
 Cere. L. 
 
 Cook. L. 
 
 Aim. F. 
 
 Beam. F. 
 
 Cess(pool). L. 
 
 Coop. L. 
 
 Air. L. 
 
 Bre*>ze, F. 
 
 Chafe. F. 
 
 Copse. F. G. 
 
 Aisle. F. 
 
 Breve. I. 
 
 Chain. L. 
 
 Cord. G. 
 
 Alb. L. 
 
 Bribe. F. 
 
 Chair. F. 
 
 Core. L. 
 
 Apse. L. G. 
 
 Brick. F. 
 
 Chaise. F. 
 
 Cork. S. 
 
 Apt. L. 
 
 Brief. F. 
 
 Chance. F. 
 
 Corps. F. 
 
 Arc. L. 
 
 Brisk. F. 
 
 Change. F. 
 
 Corpse. F. L. 
 
 Arch. L. 
 
 Broach. F. 
 
 Chant. F. 
 
 Cost. F. L. 
 
 Arch(c/ne/>. G. 
 
 Broil. F. 
 
 Chape. S. 
 
 Couch. F. 
 
 Art. L. 
 
 Bronze. F. I. 
 
 Char (burn). F. 
 
 Count. F. 
 
 Asp. L. 
 
 Brooch. F. 
 
 Charge. F. 
 
 Course. L. 
 
 Aunt. L. 
 
 Browse. F. 
 
 Charm. F. 
 
 Coy. F. L. 
 
 Bail. F. 
 
 Bruit, F. 
 
 Chart. L. 
 
 Crab (windlass). S. 
 
 Bale (bundle). F. 
 
 Brush. F. I. 
 
 Chase. F. 
 
 Crack. F. 
 
 Bale (?'.). F. 
 
 Brusque. F. 
 
 Chasm. G. 
 
 Crape. F. 
 
 Ball (round boily ; 
 
 Brute. F. 
 
 Chaste. L. 
 
 Crass. L. 
 
 dance). F. 
 
 Budge. F. 
 
 Cheat. F. 
 
 ( ratch. L. 
 
 Balm. F. 
 
 Bulb. L. 
 
 Check. F. 
 
 Crate. I. L. 
 
 Bar. F. 
 
 Bull. L. (Pipe's 
 
 Cheer. F. 
 
 Craze. F. 
 
 Barb. F. 
 
 edict). 
 
 Chief. F. 
 
 Cream. F. 
 
 Jiarge. F. 
 
 Bun. F. 
 
 Chine. F. 
 
 Creed. L. 
 
 Barque. F. 
 
 Bur. F. 
 
 Choir. F. 
 
 Crest. L. 
 
 Base. F. 
 
 Burr. F. 
 
 Chord. G. 
 
 Crime. L. 
 
 Band. F. 
 
 Bust. F. 
 
 Chrism. G. 
 
 Crisp. L. 
 
 Bass. I. 
 
 Butt. F. I. 
 
 Christ. G. 
 
 Croak. L. 
 
 Bay. F. 
 
 Buzz. I. 
 
 Chrome. G. 
 
 Cross. I. F. L. 
 
 Beak. F. 
 
 Cade. L. a cask. 
 
 Churn. F. (?). 
 
 Crown. F. L. 
 
 Beau. F. 
 
 Cage. F. 
 
 Chyle. G. 
 
 Crude. L. 
 
 Beef. F. 
 
 Calk. L. 
 
 Chyme. G. 
 
 Cruise. L. 
 
 Belle. F. 
 
 Call. L. 
 
 Cist. L. 
 
 Crase. F. 
 
 Em (paper). F. 
 
 Calm. F. 
 
 Cives. F. 
 
 Crush. F. 
 
 Bice, Bise. F. 
 
 Camp. L. 
 
 Clack. F. 
 
 Crust. L. 
 
 Bile, L. 
 
 Can. (n.)L. 
 
 Claim. L. 
 
 Crutch. L. 
 
 Blame. F. 
 
 Cane. L. 
 
 Clang. G. 
 
 Cry. F. L. 
 
 Blanch. F. 
 
 ant (talk affec- 
 
 Class. F. L. 
 
 Crvpt. I. G. 
 
 Bland. L. 
 
 tedly). L. 
 
 Clause. F. L. 
 
 Cue. F. 
 
 Blank. F. 
 
 Cant(^)- F. 
 
 Clef. F. 
 
 Cube. F. L. G. 
 
 Block. F. 
 
 Cape. L. I. 
 
 Clime. L. G. 
 
 Cuff. I. L. G. 
 
 Blonde. F. 
 
 Car. L. 
 
 Clique. F. 
 
 Cull. F. L. 
 
 Blouse. F. 
 
 Card. F. 
 
 Cloak. F. 
 
 Culm. L. 
 
 Boil(>.). L. 
 
 Carp. F. 
 
 Close. F. L. 
 
 Cup. F. L. 
 
 Bomb. F. 
 
 arte. F. 
 
 Clove. S. F. L. 
 
 Curb. F. 
 
 Boon (adj.). L. 
 
 Case. F. 
 
 Clown. L. 
 
 Cure. L. 
 
 Boot (for feet). F. 
 
 Cash. F. 
 
 Coach. F. 
 
 Curt. L. 
 
 Boss. F. 
 
 Cask. F. 8 
 
 Joarse. L. 
 
 Cusp. L. 
 
 Bound. F. (to 
 
 Catch. F. I. 
 
 Coast. L. 
 
 Cyst. G. 
 
 spring). 
 
 Jaul, cowl. I. L. 
 
 Coat. F. 
 
 Dab. F. 
 
 Bowl. F. 
 
 Cause. F. 
 
 Cod(fish). L. 
 
 Dace (/?.<$) F. 
 
 Box. F. (a shrub). 
 
 Cave. F. 
 
 ode. L. 
 
 Dam. F. 
 
 Brace. F. 
 
 Cease. L. 
 
 Coif. F. 
 
 Dame. F. 
 
CLASSICAL MONOSYLLABLES. 
 
 355 
 
 Damn. F. L. 
 
 Fence. F. 
 
 Fringe. F. 
 
 Grate. I. L. (noun) 
 
 Dance. F. 
 
 Fend. L. 
 
 Frizz. F. 
 
 Grate. F. (verb.) 
 
 Dart. F. 
 
 Feud (flef)-L. 
 
 Frock. F. 
 
 Grave. F. 
 
 Date. F. L. 
 
 Fib. I.'L, 
 
 i rond. L. 
 
 Grease. F. 
 
 Daunt. F. L. 
 
 Fief. F. 
 
 Front. L. 
 
 Graves. F. 
 
 Dean. F. L. 
 
 Fierce. F. 
 
 Frounce. F. 
 
 Grebe. F. 
 
 Debt. L. 
 
 Fife. F. 
 
 H row 11. F. 
 
 Grief. F. 
 
 Deign. F. L. 
 
 Fig. L. 
 
 Fruit. L. 
 
 Grill. F. 
 
 Dense. L. 
 
 File. L. 
 
 Fry. F. (cooking.) 
 
 Grime. I. 
 
 Derm. G. 
 
 Fine. F. showy. 
 
 Fry. F. spaum. 
 
 Gross. L. 
 
 Deuce. F. 
 
 Fine. L. a penalty. 
 
 Fugue. V. 
 
 Grot. F. 
 
 Die. (noun) F. L. 
 
 Firm. L. 
 
 Fume. L. 
 
 Group. F. I. 
 
 Dine. F. 
 
 Fisc. L. 
 
 Fund. L 
 
 Grudge. F. 
 
 Lire. L. 
 
 Fit (attack of 
 
 Fur. F. 
 
 Grume. F. 
 
 Dirge. L. 
 
 pain) I. 
 
 Furl. F. 
 
 Guard. F. 
 
 Diso, dish. L. G. 
 
 Fit. F. 
 
 Fuse. L. 
 
 Guide. F. 
 
 Doge. 1. L. 
 
 Fitch. L. 
 
 Fust. F. 
 
 Guise. F. 
 
 Doit. F. L. 
 
 Fix. L. 
 
 Gage. F. 
 
 Gules. F. 
 
 Dole. L. 
 
 Flail. F. L. 
 
 Gain, F. 
 
 Gulf. G. 
 
 Dome. L. G. 
 
 Flame. L. 
 
 Gall.* 1 , (gall nut.) 
 
 Gum. F. L. G. 
 
 Don. S. L. 
 
 Flank. F. 
 
 Gall. F. to fret. 
 
 Gurge. L. 
 
 Dose. F. G. 
 
 Flask. F. 
 
 Gaol. F. ' 
 
 Gust. I. L. taste. 
 
 Doubt. F. L. 
 
 Fleam. F. G. 
 
 Garb. F. 
 
 Gyre. G. 
 
 Douche. F. L. 
 
 Flotch. F. 
 
 Gaud. L. 
 
 Hack. F. hackney. 
 
 Drab (doth) F. 
 
 Flock. L. a lock 
 
 Gauge. F. 
 
 Hash. F. 
 
 Drachm. G. 
 
 of wool. 
 
 Gauze. F. 
 
 Hatch. F. 
 
 Dram. I. G. 
 
 Flog. I,. 
 
 Gay. F. 
 
 Haught. F. 
 
 Drape. F. 
 
 Floss. I. L. 
 
 Gem. F. L. 
 
 Haunch. F. 
 
 Dredge. F. 
 
 Flounce. F. L. 
 
 Germ. L. 
 
 Hauut. P. 
 
 Dress. F. L. 
 
 Flour. F. 
 
 Gest. L. 
 
 Hawse. F. 
 
 Droll. F. 
 
 Flue. F. L. 
 
 Gig. F. 
 
 Hearse. F. 
 
 Drug. F. 
 
 Flute. F. I. L. 
 
 Gill. L. a measure. 
 
 Heir. F. 
 
 Drupe. L. G. 
 
 Flux. L. 
 
 Gimp. F. 
 
 Herb. L. 
 
 Duct. L. 
 
 Foil. F. 
 
 Gist. F. 
 
 Host. L. landlord. 
 
 Due. F. 
 
 Foil. F. leaf. 
 
 Gland. L. 
 
 Host. L. (Rom. 
 
 Duke. F. L. 
 
 Foist. F. 
 
 Glave. L. 
 
 Cath.) 
 
 Dupe. F. 
 
 Font. L. 
 
 Glean. F. 
 
 Host. L. (army.) 
 
 Dure. L. 
 
 Fool. F. 
 
 Glebe. L. 
 
 Hour. G. 
 
 Ease. F. 
 
 Fop. I. L. 
 
 Globe. L. 
 
 Hue. F. (Hue and 
 
 Err. L. 
 
 Force. L. 
 
 Gloss. L. G. com- 
 
 Cry.) 
 
 Eyre. F. L. 
 
 Forge. F. 
 
 ment. 
 
 Hulk. G. 
 
 Face. F. L. 
 
 Form. F. 
 
 Glue. L. 
 
 Hymn. L. G. 
 
 Fact. L. 
 
 Fort. F. 
 
 Glume. L. 
 
 Ides. L. 
 
 Fail. F. L. 
 
 Fosse. L. 
 
 Glut. L. 
 
 Ire. L. 
 
 Faint. F. 
 
 Found. L. in 
 
 Glmph. G. 
 
 Isle. F. 
 
 Fair (market) 
 
 building. 
 
 Gnome. G. 
 
 Jack. F. 
 
 F. L. 
 
 Found. L. to cait. 
 
 Goal. F. 
 
 Jade. S. 
 
 Faith. F. L. 
 
 Fount. L. 
 
 Gob. F. 
 
 Jail. F. 
 
 False. L. 
 
 Fract. L. 
 
 Gorge. F. I. L. 
 
 Jamb. F. 
 
 Fame. L. 
 
 Frail. F. 
 
 Gouge. F. 
 
 Jaw. F. 
 
 Fane. L. 
 
 Frank. F. 
 
 Gourd. F. 
 
 Jay. F. 
 
 Farce. F. 
 
 Fraud. L. 
 
 Gout. F. 
 
 Jest. L. 
 
 Fate. L. 
 
 Fray. F. 
 
 Grace. F. L. 
 
 Jet. G. 
 
 Fault. F. 
 
 Freak. I. 
 
 Grade. L. 
 
 Jet. F. 
 
 Faun. L. 
 
 Fret. F. interlac- 
 
 Grail. F. 
 
 Jig. F. 
 
 Fawn (deer) F. 
 
 ing bars, &c. 
 
 Grain. L. 
 
 Join. L. 
 
 Fay. F. 
 
 Fret. F. wire on 
 
 Grand. L. 
 
 Joke. L. 
 
 Feast. F. L. 
 
 musical instr. 
 
 Grange. F. L. 
 
 Jot. G. 
 
 Feat. F. L. 
 
 Frieze. F. 
 
 Grant. F. 
 
 Joust. P. 
 
 Feign. F. L. 
 
 Frill. F. 
 
 Grape. F. 
 
 Joy. F. 
 
356 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Judge. L. 
 
 Mask. F. 
 
 Noun. L. 
 
 Pile. L. an arrow- 
 
 Juice. P. 
 
 Mass. L. a heap 
 
 Nude. L. 
 
 head. 
 
 June. L. 
 
 Mass. L. religious 
 
 Null. L. 
 
 Pill. L. (n.) 
 
 Just. L. 
 
 ceremony. 
 
 Nun. I. 
 
 Pinch. F. 
 
 Ketch. P. 
 
 Match. F. 
 
 Nurse. F. 
 
 Pine. L. a tree. 
 
 Lace. F. 
 
 Mate. F. 
 
 Nymph. G, 
 
 Pint. S. 
 
 Lache. F. 
 
 Maund. F. 
 
 Ode. G. 
 
 Pip. L.* 
 
 Lamp. G. 
 
 May. L. the month 
 
 Orb. L. 
 
 Pique. P. 
 
 Lance. L. 
 
 Meal. F. 
 
 Ore. L. 
 
 Pix. L. 
 
 Lapse. L. 
 
 Mean. L. middle 
 
 Ounce. L. 
 
 Place. P. 
 
 Lar. L. 
 
 Mere. I. L. 
 
 Oust. F. 
 
 Plague. O. 
 
 Larch. L. 
 
 Merge. L. 
 
 Pace. F. 
 
 Plain. L. 
 
 Lard. L. 
 
 Merle. L. 
 
 Pact. L. 
 
 Plait. L. 
 
 Large. L. 
 
 Mess. P. 
 
 Page. L. 
 
 Plan. F. 
 
 Laud, L. 
 
 Mew. F. 
 
 Page. F. 
 
 Planch. P. 
 
 Lave. L. 
 
 Mien. F. 
 
 Pail. G. S. 
 
 Plane. L. 
 
 Lawn(cloM). 8. 
 
 Mime. G. 
 
 Paint. P. 
 
 Plunk. F. 
 
 Lax. L. 
 
 Mine. F. 
 
 Pair. L. 
 
 Plant. L. 
 
 Lay. G. the laity. 
 
 Mix. L.* 
 
 Pale. L. (n.) 
 
 Plasm. G. 
 
 Lay. F. a song. 
 
 Moat. F. 
 
 Pale. L. (a.) 
 
 Plat. G. 
 
 League. F. 
 
 Mob. L. 
 
 Pall. I,.* a cloth. 
 
 Plate. S. G. 
 
 Lease. F. 
 
 Mock. F. G. 
 
 Palm. L. 
 
 Plea. F. 
 
 Leash. P. 
 
 Mode. F. 
 
 Pane. F. 
 
 Plead. F. L. 
 
 Lees. F. 
 
 Moil. F. 
 
 Pant. F. 
 
 Please. F. 
 
 Lens. L. 
 
 Moist. F. 
 
 Pap. L.* a teat. 
 
 Pledge. F. 
 
 Liege. P. 
 
 Mole. L. a mound 
 
 Pap. L. * soft, food 
 
 Plinth. G. 
 
 Lieu. F. 
 
 Mome. F. 
 
 Par. L. equality. 
 
 Pluuib. F. 
 
 Lime. F. 
 
 Mood. L. in gram- 
 
 Pard. L. 
 
 Plume. L. 
 
 Limn. F. 
 
 mar. 
 
 Pare. F. 
 
 Plunge. P. 
 
 Line. L. (noun.) 
 
 Moor. L. an Afri- 
 
 Parse. L. 
 
 Poach. F. 
 
 Link. G. 
 
 can. 
 
 Part. L. 
 
 Point. L. 
 
 Lint. L. 
 
 Mop. L. 
 
 Pasch. G. 
 
 Poise. F. 
 
 List. F. I. 
 
 Mosque. P. 
 
 Pass. L.* 
 
 Pole. G. 
 
 Loach. P. 
 
 Mount. F. 
 
 Paste. L. 
 
 Pomp. G. 
 
 Lobe. G. 
 
 Move. L. 
 
 Paunch. L. 
 
 Poop. L. 
 
 Long. L. (adj.) 
 
 Mulct. L. 
 
 Pause. G. 
 
 Poor. F. 
 
 Lote. G. 
 
 Mule. L. 
 
 Pave. L. 
 
 Pope. L. 
 
 Lounge. F. 
 
 Mull. L. wine. 
 
 Pawn (chess) S. 
 
 Porch. F. 
 
 Luce. L. 
 
 Mumm. G- 
 
 Pay. F. 
 
 Pore. G. 
 
 Luff. F. 
 
 Munch. F. 
 
 Peace. L. 
 
 Pork. L. 
 
 Lurch. I. 
 
 Mure. L. to wall. 
 
 Peach. F. 
 
 Port. L. mien. 
 
 Lure. F. 
 
 Muse. L. 
 
 Peel. F. 
 
 Port. L. a gate. 
 
 Lute. F. 
 
 Musk. L. 
 
 Peep. Ls 
 
 Port. L. a harbour 
 
 Lymph. L. 
 
 Must. L. 
 
 Peer. F. 
 
 Post. L. 
 
 Lynx. L. 
 
 Must. F. 
 
 Peg. G. 
 
 Pot. F. 
 
 Lyre. L. 
 
 Mute. L. 
 
 Pelt. L. (n.) 
 
 Potch. P. 
 
 Mace. L. a club. 
 
 Mute. P. 
 
 Pelt. L. (v.) 
 
 Poule. F. 
 
 Mace. L. a kind 
 
 Nave. L. 
 
 Pen. L. 
 
 Poult. L. 
 
 of spice. 
 
 Nard. G. 
 
 Perch. F. a mea- 
 
 Pounce. P. L, 
 
 Mail. F. armour. 
 
 Neat. F. 
 
 sure. 
 
 powder. 
 
 Mail. F. a bag. 
 
 Nep. L. a plant. 
 
 Perch. L. a fish. 
 
 Pounce. S. talon 
 
 Male. F. 
 
 Nerve. L. 
 
 Phlegm. G. 
 
 Pout. F. 
 
 Kail. L. 
 
 Net. F. 
 
 Phrase. G. 
 
 Praise. F. 
 
 Mange. F. 
 
 Niche. F. 
 
 Pie. F. 
 
 Pray. F. 
 
 Map. L. 
 
 Niece. F. 
 
 Piece. F. 
 
 Preach. P. 
 
 March. L. the 
 
 Node. L. 
 
 Pierce. F. 
 
 Press. L. 
 
 month. 
 
 Noise. F. 
 
 Pike. F. 
 
 Prest, F. 
 
 March. F. 
 
 Nome. G, 
 
 Pile. L. hair. 
 
 Prey. F. 
 
 Marque. P. 
 
 Noose. F. 
 
 Pile. L. a heap. 
 
 Price. F.* 
 
 Mars. L. 
 
 Note. L. 
 
 
 Prime. L. 
 
CLASSICAL MONOSYLLABLES. 
 
 357 
 
 Prince. P. 
 
 Print. F. 
 
 Reins. L. kidneys. 
 Rest. L. as ' the 
 
 Seal. L. a stamp. 
 Search. F. 
 
 Stage. F. 
 Stanch. F. 
 
 Prize. P. 
 
 rest of,' t&c. 
 
 Seat. L. 
 
 State. L. 
 
 Prompt. L. 
 
 Rheum, G. 
 
 Sect. L. 
 
 Stay. F. 
 
 Prone. L. 
 
 Rhomb. G. 
 
 See. L. (noun.) 
 
 Stew. F. 
 
 Prose L 
 
 Rice, G. 
 
 Seel. F. 
 
 Still. L. distil- 
 
 Prow. F. (nauti- 
 
 Bill. L. 
 
 Seize. F. 
 
 lation. 
 
 cal.) 
 
 Risk. F. 
 
 Sell. L. 
 
 Stole. L. 
 
 Prow. F. valiant 
 
 Rite. F. 
 
 Sense. L. 
 
 Strain. L. 
 
 Prude. F. 
 
 Roan. F. 
 
 Serf. F. 
 
 Strait. L. 
 
 Prune. L. 
 
 Roast. F. 
 
 Serge. F. 
 
 Strange. F. 
 
 Psalm. G. 
 
 Robe. F. 
 
 Serve. F. 
 
 Strict, L. 
 
 Pule. F. 
 
 Rock. F. 
 
 Sex. F. 
 
 Style. L. 
 
 Pulp. L. 
 
 Roist. F. 
 
 Sheet. F. (nauti- 
 
 Sue. F. 
 
 Pulse. L. 
 
 Roll. F. 
 
 cal.) 
 
 Suit. F. 
 
 Pump. F. 
 
 Rook. F. 
 
 Shock. F. 
 
 Sum. L. 
 
 Punch. I. 
 
 Rose. F. 
 
 Shot. F. 
 
 Surd. L. 
 
 Pure. L. 
 
 Rouge. F. 
 
 Sice. L. (at dice.) 
 
 Sure. F. 
 
 Purge. L. 
 
 Round. F. 
 
 Siege. F. 
 
 Sr.rge. L. 
 
 Purl. I. 
 
 Rout. F. 
 
 Sign. F. 
 
 Sylph. G. 
 
 Purse. F. 
 
 Route. F. 
 
 Sine. L. 
 
 Syrt. L. 
 
 Pus. L. 
 
 Rude. F. 
 
 Sir. F. 
 
 Tack. F. 
 
 Push. F. 
 
 Rule. F. 
 
 Sire. F. 
 
 Tact. L. 
 
 Pyre. G. 
 
 Ruse. F. 
 
 Site. L. 
 
 Taint. L. 
 
 Quaff. F. 
 
 Rut. F. the track 
 
 Skain. Skein. F. 
 
 Tan. F. 
 
 Quail. F. a bird. 
 
 of a wheel. 
 
 Sketch. I. 
 
 Tang. G. 
 
 Quaint. L. 
 
 Sack. F. sweet 
 
 Slate. F. 
 
 Tant. F. 
 
 Quart. F. 
 
 wine. 
 
 Sneer. L. 
 
 Tap. F. 
 
 Quay. F. 
 
 Safe. F. 
 
 Soar. F. 
 
 Tare. F. 
 
 Quest. F. 
 
 Sage. F. 
 
 Sock. L. 
 
 Tart, F. 
 
 Quill. F. 
 
 Sage. F. a plant. 
 
 Soil. L. earth. 
 
 Task. F. 
 
 Quilt. L. 
 
 Saint. F. 
 
 Sole. F. (noun.) 
 
 Taste. F. 
 
 Quince. F. 
 
 Salt. L. a leap. 
 
 Sole. F. (adj.) 
 
 Taunt. F. 
 
 Quint. F. 
 
 Sane. F. 
 
 Solve. L. 
 
 Tax. F. 
 
 Quire. G. 
 
 Sans. F. 
 
 Sore. F. 
 
 Tell. L. 
 
 Quire. F. sheets of 
 
 Sap. F. (verb.) 
 
 Sort. L. 
 
 Tempt. L. 
 
 paper. 
 
 Sash. F. 
 
 Sound. L. 
 
 Tench. L. 
 
 Quit. F. 
 
 Sate. L. 
 
 Source. L. 
 
 Tend. L. 
 
 Quite. F. 
 
 Save. F. 
 
 Souse. L. 
 
 Tense. L. in gram- 
 
 Quote. F. 
 
 Say, F. 
 
 Space. L. 
 
 mar. 
 
 Race. F. lineage. 
 
 Scald. F. 
 
 Sparse. L. 
 
 Tense. L. tight. 
 
 Raft. L. 
 
 Scale. L. 
 
 Sphere. G. 
 
 Tent. L. 
 
 Rag. G. 
 
 Scan. L. 
 
 Sphinx. G. 
 
 Terse. L. 
 
 Rage. F. 
 
 Scar. G. 
 
 Spice. F. L. 
 
 Test. L. 
 
 Ramp. F. 
 
 Scarce. F. L. 
 
 Spike. L. 
 
 Text. L. 
 
 Range. F. 
 
 Scarf. F. 
 
 Spine. L. 
 
 Theme. G. 
 
 Rap. L. 
 
 Scene. G. 
 
 Spire. G. 
 
 Threne. G. 
 
 Rape. L. 
 
 Scent. L. 
 
 Spiss. L. 
 
 Throb. G. 
 
 Rape. L. a plant. 
 
 Scheme. G. 
 
 Spleen. G. 
 
 Throne. L. 
 
 Rare. F. 
 
 School. L. 
 
 Spoil. L. 
 
 Thrust. L. 
 
 Rase. L. 
 
 Scoff. G. 
 
 Sponge. L. 
 
 Thyme. G. 
 
 Rate. L. 
 
 Scope. G. 
 
 Spouse. L. 
 
 Tick. F. 
 
 Ray. F. light. 
 
 Scot. F. tax. 
 
 Spume. L. 
 
 Tierce. F. 
 
 Ray. L. a fish. 
 
 share. 
 
 Spurge. L. 
 
 Tiff. F. 
 
 Raze. L. a root of 
 
 Scout. F. 
 
 Spy. F. 
 
 Tinge. L. 
 
 ginger. 
 
 Scourge. F. 
 
 Squad. F. 
 
 Toast. L. 
 
 Raze. L. 
 
 Screen. F. 
 
 Square. L. 
 
 Toil. L. 
 
 Rear. L. 
 
 Scribe. F. 
 
 Squill. L. 
 
 Tomb. G. 
 
 Reign. F. 
 
 Srrc.ll. F. 
 
 Staff. F. (mili- Tome. G. 
 
 Reiu. F. 
 
 Scroyle. F. 
 
 tary.) Tone. L. 
 
358 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Tope. F. 
 
 Trine. L. 
 
 Vail. F. 
 
 Verse. L. 
 
 Torch. F. 
 
 Tripe. F. 
 
 Vain. L. 
 
 Vert. L. 
 
 Tort, F. 
 
 Triat, L. 
 
 Vale. L. 
 
 Vest, F. 
 
 Touch. F. 
 
 Trite. L. 
 
 Valve. L. 
 
 Vetch. L. 
 
 Tour. F. 
 
 Troop. F. 
 
 Van. F. 
 
 Vex. L. 
 
 Trace. L. 
 
 Trope. G. 
 
 Vase. L. 
 
 Vice. L. 
 
 Track. L. 
 
 Trot. F. 
 
 Vast. ]j. 
 
 Vice. F. apreti 
 
 Tract. L. 
 
 Trounce. F. 
 
 Vault. L. (n.) 
 
 View. F. 
 
 Trade. L. 
 
 Truce. F. 
 
 Vault. L. (v.) 
 
 Vile. L. 
 
 Train. F. 
 
 Truck. F. 
 
 Vaunt. F. to 
 
 Vine. L. 
 
 Trait. F. 
 
 Truck. G. 
 
 boast. 
 
 Vogue. F. 
 
 Trance. L. 
 
 Trump. F. 
 
 Vaunt. F. the first 
 
 Voice. F. 
 
 Trap. F. 
 
 Trunk. L. 
 
 dart. 
 
 Void. L. 
 
 Trave, F. 
 
 Truss. F. 
 
 Veal. P. 
 
 Vote. F. 
 
 Tray. L. 
 
 Try. F. 
 
 Veer. F. 
 
 Vouch. L. 
 
 Treat. F. 
 
 Tube. L. 
 
 Veil. L. 
 
 Vow. F. 
 
 Trench. F. 
 
 Tuft. F. 
 
 Vein. L. 
 
 Wage. L. 
 
 Tress. F. 
 
 Tune. L. 
 
 Vend. L. 
 
 Wait. L. 
 
 Tret. L. (?) 
 
 Type. G. 
 
 Venge. L. 
 
 Wall. L. 
 
 Trey. F. 
 
 Urge. L. 
 
 Vent. L. (?) 
 
 Wince. L. 
 
 Tribe. L. 
 
 Urn. L. 
 
 Verb. L. 
 
 Zeal. G. 
 
 m - : ck. L. 
 
 Use.L. 
 
 Verge. L. (n.) 
 
 Zone. G.* 
 
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