SO fts,
TING
GAS-FITTING.
THIRD EDITION,
WM. PAUL GERHABD, C ; ;
Consulting Eny iiutr f'tr H(i2i < Sanii .' \r) ,
M ' ' - ." I,
.D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY,
PUBLISHERS.
1904.
THE
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BY THE SAME AUTHOR:
HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SANITARY
PLUMBING.
(Science Series No. 63.)
Tenth Edition, revised and enlarged.
With Illustrations. 1903.
RECENT PRACTICE IN THE
SANITARY DRAINAGE
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(Science Series No. 93.)
Second Edition, revised and enlarged.
THE DISPOSAL OF HOUSEHOLD
WASTES.
(Science Series No. 97.)
Second Edition. 1904.
Price, post-paid, 5O cents each.
GAS-LIGHTING AND GAS-FITTING,
A POCKET BOOK FOE GAS COMPANIES, GAS
ENGINEERS AND GAS FITTERS, FOR MANU-
FACTURERS OF GAS FIXTURES AND
DEALERS IN GAS APPLIANCES, FOR
GAS CONSUMERS, ARCHITECTS AND
BUILDERS, HEALTH OFFICERS AND
SANITARY INSPECTORS.
THIRD EDITION.
BY
WM. PAUL GERHARD, C.E.,
Consulting Engineer for Hydraulic and Sanitary Works,
New York City.
NEW YORK:
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY,
23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS.
1904.
COPYRIGHT, 1894.
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY.
PREFACE.
The following " Notes on Gas Lighting
and Gas Fitting " were first published by
the author in 1887. In 1892 he prepared
a special pamphlet containing " Hints to
Gas Consumers," of which over 5,000
copies were bought and distributed by gas
companies.
It has been the author's intention to
re- write the entire matter and to publish
I I. * v
a larger manual on the subject of the
domestic uses of ^ coal gas, but the press-
ing demands upon his time of a large and
constantly increasing practice in the field
of domestic engineering and of house
sanitation in (particular, have prevented
the autnor^so far from carrying out his
plan " 26849.1
The larger book is, however, in actual
preparation, and pending the publication
of the same, it was deemed desirable to
supply the demand for a small guide on
the subject, written from an American
standpoint, by issuing this little volume,
which in addition to the two articles
mentioned above, contains an introduc-
tory article on "Artificial Illumination,
Historical Notes on Gas Lighting, and
on the Advantages of Gas" first published
in the American Architect, an article on
" Gas for Cooking and Heating Par-
poses" published first in Domestic Engin-
eering, and the admirable "Rules and
Regulations on Gas" issued by the Munic-
ipal Department of the City of Munich,
translated by the writer.
WM. PAUL *GERHAKD.
NEW YORK, December, 1893,
36 Union Square.
GAS-LIGHTING m GAS-FITTING.
AKTIFICIAX ILLUMINATION.
Numerous and varied are the methods
employed at the present day for obtain-
ing artificial illumination. Leaving out
of consideration the electric light which
occupies a position by itself, we may,
broadly speaking, distinguish between
solid, liquid and gaseous illuminants, of
which the candle, the oil-lamp and the
gas-flame are representative forms.
It would be interesting and instructive
to trace the history of the different kinds
of artificial light employed both in domes-
tic and in street lighting at various periods
of history, and to follow the successive im-
provements in lighting introduced by men
of talent and inventive genius. It seems
indeed a gigantic step forward from the
crude methods of lighting employed by
8
the ancients to the gas-light and the elec-
tric-light of the nineteenth century. But
the glow of the camp-fire, the light from
blazing logs, or from torches made of splin-
ters of resinous wood, as exclusively em-
ployed by our forefathers, may even now-
adays be found in use by the Indians and
other uncivilized tribes. It may, therefore,
be said that the means for artificial illumi-
nation employed at the present time are an
indication of the more or less advanced
state of civilization of a nation.
The burning log and the blazing resinous
pine torch are the oldest and crudest
methods of lighting.
Oil was burnt by the Phoenicians, the
Greeks and the Romans in primitive forms
of open-vase lamps, into which a cotton or
flax wick dipped.
The Romans used the first candles in the
form of rushes covered with wax or tallow,
or of rope saturated with pitch or resin.
These candles were gradually improved
and formed, during the Middle Ages, the
principal means of church illumination, and
were likewise used in castles at court festi-
9
vals. Later on, the smoky and ill-smell-
ing tallow candle was replaced by the
better forms of drawn or cast candles,
made from sperm, paraffine, wax and
stearine. The modern improved candle
differs from the candles employed in the
last century principally in the method of
manufacturing the wick, which as the
candle grows shorter in burning, is con-
sumed and reduced to ashes, thus render-
ing the use of the " snuffers " of our
grandfathers, which many of us still may
remember, unnecessary.
The rude forms of lamps employed by
the Romans and Etruscans have been
gradually displaced by lamps of improved
construction, with closed oil-reservoirs,
improved wicks and variously shaped
burners. Argand invented and developed
the round form of burner and wick, the
oil ascending from the reservoir into the
wick and to the tip of the burner by capil-
lary attraction. Carcel made further im-
provements by placing the oil-reservoir at
the bottom of the lamp, where it would
not throw a disagreeable shadow. In this
10
form of lamp the oil has to be forced up to
the wick by means of a pump, or in the
later " moderator " lamp, by a spring act-
ing upon a leather plunger. The liquid
illuminant employed in these lamps was
either colza oil, olive oil or some other
vegetable oil.
Still later, and belonging to the present
century, came the use of kerosene or min-
eral oil in lamps, this illuminant being a
liquid improved by distillation and refin-
ing, which operations remove the more
volatile, highly inflammable and, there-
fore, dangerous ingredients of the oil.
Equally as varied as the means employed
for domestic illumination have been those
in use at different periods of history for
the lighting of streets, highways and
public squares. In the larger cities the
darkness of the evening hours was at first
dispelled in a measure by the use of flaming
torch-lights, of fire-baskets and of candles
burnt in glass-lanterns, which were either
carried by hand or hung out from windows.
Later on, the candle-lanterns were replaced
by oil-lamps, with wick and reflector, and
11
these in turn were superseded by the intro-
duction, at the beginning of this century,
of coal-gas burnt in street-lanterns, while
to the gas-light now so universally em-
ployed, both for domestic and street light-
ing, a formidable rival has during the past
ten years arisen in the electric arc-light and
the incandescent electric glow-lamp.
HISTOEICAL NOTES ON GAS LIGHTING.
Wonderful as have been the many and
rapid improvements made in this last form
of illumination, viz., the electric-light, it
must be admitted that the progress of gas-
lighting has been no less astounding.
The present generation who have wit-
nessed the advent of the electric-light have
become so accustomed to the use of the
ever- ready gas-flame, that few are probably
aware of the difficulties which beset the
path of the talented men of science who
created and introduced lighting by gas.
It is a matter of historical record that
when Murdock, one of the pioneers of gas-
lighting, appeared in 1809 before the
12
House of Commons Committee, he was
asked by one of the members of the Com-
mittee, " Do you mean to tell us that it
will be possible to have a light without a
wick?" and upon his replying, " Yes, I do
indeed," the same person replied, " Ah,
my friend, you are trying to prove too
much."
We are also informed that Samuel
Clegg, an engineer to whom the world is
indebted for many important improve-
ments in gas-manufacture and gas-distribu-
tion, was sarcastically asked by Sir Hum-
phrey Davy, who considered the idea of
public gas-lighting ridiculous, if Mr. Clegg
intended to take the Dome of St. Paul's
for a gasometer.
The great Napoleon laughingly remarked
of gas-lighting, " C^est une grandefolie"
and Sir Walter Scott considered it a vision-
ary scheme and expressed fears that "Lon-
don would be on fire by it from Hackney
Gate, to Tyburn " [east and west extremi-
ties, then, of London].
Indeed, when the House of Commons
was first lighted by gas, the astonished
13
citizens of London were in such fear of
burning their fingers when touching the
gas-pipes for the conveyance of gas that
they first carefully put on their gloves.
When Westminister Bridge was first
fitted up for illumination by gas-lamps,
the lamplighters refused to light the
lamps. In 1815, the London Fire Insur-
ance Companies refused to insure build-
ings lighted with gas. To overcome their
prejudices, Samuel Clegg invited the Un-
derwriters to inspect the gas-works, and
after explaining to them the process of
gas- manufacture, and the method of stor-
ing the gas at the gasometer, he quickly
took a pick and cutting a hole in the dome
of the gas-holder, lighted the escaping gas
without danger or explosion, and thus
demonstrated to their satisfaction the com
parative safety of the new light.
ADVANTAGES OF GAS.
Many are the advantages of gas for
household purposes, and its disadvantages
are comparatively few, and for this reason
14
It is prooably more used in houses at the
present day than any other form of artificial
illumination.
Gas-light is relatively cheap, although
kerosene oil per se, is probably cheaper.
But, in comparing gas and oil, one should
not forget the additional cost caused by
wear and tear and breakage of oil-cans,
glass-chimneys and shades of oil-lamps.
Gas-light is convenient, and saves domes-
tic labor by being always ready for instant
lighting, whereas lamps require preparation
in filling and in trimming the wicks, while
time and labor are consumed in procuring
candles or oil.
GasJight is superior in point of cleanli-
ness to oil-lamps and candles, because there
is no spilling of oil, no dropping of candle-
grease, no greasy or oily hands from the
cleaning of lamps; there is no smoking of
candles and no offensive odor such as
attaches to oils and fats.
Gas-light is brilliant, yet easily con-
trolled, readily increased or diminished,
and not difficult to manage by persons of
ordinary intelligence.
15
Gas-light is comparatively much safer
than candles or lamps in which colza oil or
kerosene is burned. The carrying about
of candles or lamps, with the unavoidable
danger from fire or from lamp explosions,
is rendered unnecessary, as only a match is
required to light the gas at the burner.
Gas-light, finally, creates in proportion
to the light developed less disagreeable
heat and is less unhealthful than candles
or oil-lamps, where proper ventilation of
rooms is provided. The increased illumi-
nation by gas-light in our streets, squares
and parks, as compared with the former
semi-darkness, has been a great protection
to property and life, and the parks and
alleys of our cities are not so much as
formerly the haunts of the vicious and the
criminals, for efficient public lighting is
the best safeguard against the commit-
ment of crimes.
With the advent of gas-light an entire
revolution in social life has taken place,
and civilization owes not a little of its
progress to the increased illumination of
16
the streets as well as of buildings for
amusement, worship and education.
Incidentally I would call attention to
the many other uses to which coal or
illuminating gas has in recent years been
put. Gas is used for heating rooms, heat-
ing sadirons, heating water; gas is em-
ployed for cooking, roasting, baking, steam-
ing, frying, boiling and broiling; gas is
adopted as fuel to drive small domestic
motors, gas-engines of various kinds, gas
and caloric pumping-engines, also for heat-
ing soldering-irons, and for various other
industrial purposes, and, finally, it is ex-
tensively employed for artificial ventilation
by means of gas-jets burning in exhaust-
flues, or by the use of sun-burners.
More recently, with the arrival of the
incandescent electric glow-lamp, much has
been said about the injurious influence of
gas-lights upon health, of the vitiation of
the atmosphere of rooms, and of the des-
tructive effects of gas, when imperfectly
consumed, upon the furniture and decora-
tions of a room, to say nothing of the
smoking-up of ceilings and walls.
E
But notwithstanding the rapid develop-
ment of domestic electric-lighting, and not-
withstanding also the recent return in
dwellings to the use of oil-lamps, which on
account of their softer and steadier light,
are by many preferred for reading and
sewing, and to the use of extensive and
costly paraffine and wax candles in luxu-
rious gilt or silver candelabras and sconces,
a use dictated by the ruling fashion on
account of the beautiful soft and mellow
illumination obtained, the use of gas in
dwelling-houses, offices and stores is un-
doubtedly so convenient and comparatively
safe, that for many years to come it will
constitute the chief means of artificial
illumination.
To quote from R. H. Patterson's article
on " Gas-burners and the Principles of
Gas Illumination " in King's " Treatise on
Gas ": " Any one who learns from the ex-
perience of human customs and affairs,
will feel assured that gas-light, although
perhaps with shorn honors, has still a long
career of usefulness before it, and that
the admirable improvements in its ap-
18
pliances made within the last twelve 01
fourteen years, will not be robbed of their
usefulness by a shunting aside of the illu-
minant to which they have given a new
economy and additional brilliance, and
which still, as of yore, is of such vast and
ever-ready service to mankind.
" Gas-lighting has undoubtedly been
the most beautiful, arid well-nigh the most
useful triumph which human invention
has yet achieved in the present century.
For marvellousness it cannot vie with the
electric telegraph ; for utilitarian value it
cannot rank with the steam locomotive and
railways. Nevertheless, but for its com-
monness, even poetic genius would find a
congenial theme in the process which
evokes the * spirit of coal,' and, convert-
ing it into a spirit of light, conveys it as
an invisible fluid under our streets rising
from below, wherever required, in pil-
lared jets, to displace the darkness of the
night hours, and flood our roads and streets
with a warm and comely radiance. No
spirit of the mine, even in fairy tale, has
so blessed mankind. Passing from our
19
streets it enters our dwellings, both rich
and poor, as an ever welcome and valued
visitor, giving to the word * home ' a new
attraction, brightening the dwelling, and
enabling us to pursue our work, and to
taste the enjoyments of common life, as it
we could cpmmand the sweet daylight to
attend us at our pleasure. Thanks to gas-
light, there is no night in our dwellings
save such as we choose for our own com-
fort. It has illumined the former darkness
of our halls and crooked staircases. From
the gaselier in the dining-room it has made
sparkling the glass and silver on the fes-
tive board, and lit up the kind and jovial
faces of the company, making banquet or
homely board lightsome and merry ; while
in drawing-room or * assembly' it has
flooded the room or hall with a radiance
but for which the dance would lose much
of its gaiety, and beauty with its bright
costumes would be shorn of its brilliance.
In the bed-room, too, still more where
there is helpless infancy or sickness
where child has to be watched, or some
sore-pained and weary-hearted invalid has
20
to be tended, longing at times for light to
break the dull, drear monotony of night's
darkness there, too, has the ' spirit of
coal ' been a priceless boon ; existing when
not wanted, as a mere speck of light with-
in the mellowed globe through which it
shows softly as a spot of luminous haze;
yet ever ready, on the mere turning of a
tap, to spring instantaneously into full illu-
mination "
I do not propose to treat in these pages
of the various processes used in the manu-
facture of coal or illuminating gas, nor of
the proper distribution of gas through the
streets of a city, nor shall I discuss the
public lighting of streets, alleys, squares
and parks.
I shall take up the subject of gas from
the point when it is brought to the con-
sumers' premises, and shall endeavor to
explain how gas may advantageously be
employed in the illumination of our dwell-
ings, incidentally mentioning other do-
mestic uses of coal gas.
My book will not give detailed technical
or workshop instruction regarding the
21
practical work of the gas fitter in piping a
house for gas, from the gas-fitter's point of
view only.
The following pages are intended chiefly
for the instruction of the gas consumer, the
householder, but incidentally they will
contain much information useful to those
contemplating the building of a house,
and to architects, builders, gas engineers
and gas-fitters as well as sanitary inspectors,
enabling them to acquire a better knowl-
edge as to how best to introduce, dis-
tribute and utilize gas and gas-lights in
buildings.
USUAL DEFECTS OF GAS-LIGHTING AND
GAS PIPING.
It is, unfortunately, true that, as a rule,
not much attention is paid by architects
and builders in the erection of new build-
ings to the means required for artificial
lighting by gas. In the case of ordinary
dwelling houses and stores the whole matter
of gas distribution is left to the gas-fitters,
many of whom employ either incompetent,
inexperienced or careless mechanics, the
architect concerning himself chiefly with the
selection of ornamental gas fixtures which
form a part of the interior house decora-
tion. The details of gas-piping and gas-
fitting are seldom looked into, except in
the case of large and important structures,
such as churches, halls of audience and
theatres.
Wherever gas-light illumination is de-
ficient, laymen are generally inclined to
grumble about the gas-works, attributing
the cause to the poor quality of the gas
furnished by gas companies or to lack of
pressure in the pipe system. There is, of
course, occasionally good reason for the
complaint that the gas supplied to con-
sumers falls far below the standard, but in
the majority of cases the chief causes of
bad illumination may be looked for in the
gas apparatus of dwellings, in other words,
in defective gas-fixtures, gas-burners, gas-
globes and gas-piping.
The general public is usually ignorant
and indifferent about the subject. The gas
companies, with few exceptions, do not
23
keep the householder or gas consumer in-
formed about the ic mysteries" of the
subject, although it would be to their in-
terest, without doubt, to enlighten the
public, and to help them in every way
possible to get the maximum amount of
light and illumination from the consump-
tion of a given quantity of gas.
Next to plumbing, heating and ventila-
tion, there is no part of interior house con-
struction requiring as much attention as
the gas piping and gas fitting.
Gas piping in buildings should be done
according to carefully drawn specifications,
experienced gas fitters should be employed
in the work, no part of the work should be
"skimped," and the distribution system
with its numerous connections should re-
ceive a proper amount of attention on the
part of the superintendent of the building in
order to insure that the gas fitting is done
right and that there are no defects. The gas
fitter should work from a carefully drawn
sketch plan, showing the run and distribu-
tion of all gas service pipes in the build-
ing, showing location of the gas meter, or
the several gas meters (where the building
is subdivided into suites of rooms, each
suite having its separate meter,) also the
location of the main gas cock, or of the
several shut offs, in the case of large build-
ings. The plan should also indicate the
precise location of the gas risers, and the
size of the same, and in each room and in
the halls the side or bracket lights and the
drop or centre lights should be clearly
marked. The number of outlets on each
floor, the number of burners at each out-
let and the sizes of pipes should also be
indicated, and the superintendent should
allow no deviation from the sizes specified.
But, let us inquire what the usual prac-
tice in this respect is ? A brief specifica-
tion calls for "the house to be piped for
gas in the best manner, and according to
the rules and regulations of the gas com-
pany which is to furnish the gas to the
house." The work is, as a rule, given out
by contract to the lowest bidder. In the
majority of cases the gas fitting of a build-
ing is included in the plumber's work, and
in estimating for both plumbing and gas
25
fitting a small amount is usually allowed
for the gas fitting work. If the contractor
has put in a low bid for the whole work to
cut out more honest competitors, the gas
fitting work is usually the feature most
readily neglected. Gas companies do not,
nowadays, exercise a general supervision
over the piping, and rarely send a gas in-
spector when the pressure test is being ap-
plied. The gas fitting is not looked after
by the architect, and in order not to lose
money on his contract, the contractor buys
an inferior quality of gas pipes and fittings,
reduces the sizes of all service pipes and
puts in a much larger amount of the
smaller sizes of pipes than is allowed. The
jointing is done in a slovenly manner, and
the whole work is usually put up in a great
hurry, the gas fitter being notified at the
last moment that the lather and plasterer
are waiting. The pipes are covered up,
permanently hidden from sight, and buried
in plastering as soon as put in place. The
testing of the pipes cannot be done in a
thorough manner, because the gas fitter is
hurried, and the result is necessarily that
26
instead of obtaining a system of gas pipes
of proper size, properly run, properly
graded, and perfectly tightened, the work
is more or less defective, containing pipes
of too small calibre, which soon choke up
with rust and obstruct the flow of gas, split
pipes, fittings full of sand holes, loose and
leaky pipe joints, drops taken out from the
bottom of running lines, bracket lights
run from overhead instead of from below,
condensation running into fixtures instead
of into risers, nipples not at right angles
to the wall or ceiling from which they
project, distributing pipes trapped by sag-
ging, etc. All such errors in the gas pip-
ing often lead to an inadequate supply of
gas and subsequent trouble with bad light.
Of course, it is supposed to be the archi-
tect's or superintendent's duty to see that
all this does not happen, but there are in
house-building so many other important
matters of detail to be looked after, that
the gas fitter is allowed to do as he pleases,
except as to the exact location of side
lights and chandeliers, which are laid out
by the architect. Even where a careful
gas-fitting specification has been drawn,
irresponsible gas fitters will pay little at-
tention to its requirements, unless carefully
and continually watched.
Since there is no official inspection of
gas piping in most cities, smaller towns,
villages and particularly in the case of iso-
lated country residences, the house owner
has to rely almost entirely upon the honesty
of the gas fitter, hence there is wisdom in
employing only first-class firms in this
work.
Aside from the obvious necessity of doing
gas piping in the best manner in order to
obtain good illumination, defects in gas
piping should be avoided to guard against
unhealthf ul influences, such as gas leaks, to
which we shall refer hereafter. A strict
inspection and supervision is, therefore,
much to be desired from a health point of
view, and the whole subject is properly
deserving the attention of those who make
a specialty of sanitary house construction.
28
GAS SERVICE PIPES AND GAS METERS.
The gas service pipe by which gas is
" laid on to a house " is always put in by
the gas company. The size of the service
pipe is governed by the number of burners
to be supplied, but the rule should be laid
down that no service, even for the smallest
house should be less than one inch inside
diameter. While this size is slightly
larger than called for by the requirements
of small dwellings, it will prove more satis-
factory in the end, as such pipe is not so
liable to stoppages, and the cost of using
the larger pipe is but a trifle more. Be-
sides, it often happens that additions are
subsequently built to the house, and the
pipes of such houses often become insuf-
ficient and inadequate for the service
which they have to perform unless allow-
ance is made in the beginning for a pos-
sible increase in the number of lights. In
determining the sizes of service pipes
and this refers to the distributing pipes in
the house as well it should be borne in
mind that where water gas or naphtha gas
is used, the sizes should be increased 15 to
20 per cent, over those required for coal
gas.
The material for the main service pipes
from the street into the house is either
lead or wrought iron. Cast iron pipes
with lead caulked joints are used only for
very large buildings, i. e., those requiring
gas pipes, four inches in diameter and up-
ward. As a rule, wrought iron screw-
jointed service pipe is preferred to lead,
at least in America, probably because lead
pipe is liable to sag in the trench and thus
create dips in the pipe, which would accu-
mulate water of condensation and thereby
become the cause of the flickering of lights,
or may even cause the gas to cease flow-
ing. Certain precautions must, however,
be observed, in the use of wrought iron
service pipes, such as laying the pipes in
trenches with a firm bottom and protect-
ing the outside of the pipes with asphalt
or coal tar, where they are laid in soils
containing acid or alkaline residues, or
mixed with ashes, cinders, furnace slag or
chemical refuse, which cause a quick cor-
rosion and destruction of the pipe.
30
The service pipe should preferably rise
from the street gas main toward the house, in
order to allow all condensation to run back
into the mains. This, however, cannot
always be accomplished, owing to the rela-
tive levels of the street main and the gas
meter in the house. The latter should be
placed in a cool, easily accessible and well-
lighted place at the lowest point at which
gas is to be burned, usually the cellar,
which in city houses is below the level of
the street gas main. It, therefore, be-
comes necessary to carry the service pipe in
a descending line towards the house, and a
drip pipe, usually called a " siphon " by
gas-fitters, is put in the cellar, and left
capped. When water accumulates at this
point, the cap is removed and the pipe
drained. Under no circumstances should
there be a trapped gas service pipe between
the house and the street main. The gas
company supplies and sets the gas meter,
usually a " dry " meter, which is preferred
in America, because it registers more
accurately, requires less attention and is
not as liable to be injured or deranged in
31
frosty weather than a wet meter. The dry
meter is apt to give trouble only where the
gas is very impure and contains large
amounts of naphthaline, causing the dia-
phragm in the dry meter to stick. Tlie
size of the meter must, of course, be in
proportion to the total number of lights
supplied, and it is well to obtain a gas meter
of ample capacity. Occasionally the cause
of bad illumination may be found in a gas
meter of insufficient capacity.
The gas company usually places a stop
cock or valve turned by a long key on the
service pipe near the curb, in order to be
able to control and shut off the gas from
each building separately. This is always
done on service pipes IK inches and larger,
and it is insisted on by building laws in the
case of theatres, but it is well not to omit
the shut off, even in the use of smaller
services.
The meter is connected with both the
service pipe and the main house pipe by
means of short connections of extra heavy
lead pipe. A gas cock is placed near the
meter, and in large buildings this is
32
arranged so that a lock may be attached
to it, when the gas is shut off, the com-
pany retaining the key to the lock. Globe
valves as well as stop cocks do not open to
the full capacity of the service pipe, hence
straight- way or gate valves on gas service
pipes which give an unrestricted flow of
gas are much to be preferred.
GAS DISTRIBUTING PIPES.
The gas pipes inside of a house are,
as a rule, wrought iron pipes, except
where carried exposed in offices, or on
walls lined with enameled brick or tiles,
when copper or polished brass pipes are
sometimes used. In England and on the
Continent lead and composition pipes are
much used, occasionally even block tin
pipes, but in America, all soft metal pipes
are considered objectionable for the same
reasons which in plumbing work govern the
preference of heavy iron to lead soil and
waste pipes. All soft metal pipes, if used
for gas, are liable to sag and have depres-
sions, accumulating water of condensation.
When carried under floors or buried in
33
walls or in partitions, they are very liable
to have picture or other nails driven into
them by careless workmen. In places
acessible to, or frequented by rats, exposed
lead pipes are liable to be gnawed, and
finally they melt quickly during a fire,
thus adding fuel to the flames.
The chief requirements of plain wrought
iron pipes for distributing gas are that
they are carefully welded and that they
are perfectly round and regular in section.
The fact that gas pipes often split in cut-
ting or threading them on the pipe bench,
and that in testing gas piping, lengths are
occasionally found with flaws at the weld,
will be better understood when it is con-
sidered how such wrought iron pipes are
manufactured at the mills.
Long strips of wrought iron varying
slightly in thickness and of different
widths corresponding to the diameter of
the pipes, are bent into a circle. When
the two ends or butts of the iron meet, the
same are, while still hot, welded together
under pressure. It is, therefore, apparent
that the weld is the weakest part of the
34
pipe and that it must be done with partic-
ular care and skill. Where pipes are re-
quired to stand a great internal pressure,
as when used to convey water or steam
under pressure, the welding is rendered
stronger by overlapping one butt over the
other, and the pipe is accordingly called
" lapwelded " pipe. Gas pipes are not re-
quired to withstand any strong internal
pressure; nevertheless the welding should
be perfect, and hence it is better to use,
at least for sizes above \/i inch, lapwelded
gas pipe. The smaller sizes, from % inch
up to 1/4 inch are buttwelded. Pipes
should be examined for such defects by
hammer test and sounding.
The other requirement, namely that the
pipe should be perfectly circular in sec-
tion, is equally important. All gas pipes
are put together with screw joints, a
thread being cut upon the outside of the
pipe. Where the pipe contour is irregular
the threading will be more or less imper-
fect, and as a result there will be defective
joints. A good gas-fitter must, therefore,
examine all gas pipes as delivered at the
35
building, and observe either by the eye or
by means of calipers the regularity of the
section. In some cases it is advisable to
cut test threads. All defective pipe,
whether imperfect in welding or in con-
tour, should be rejected and at once re-
moved from the building. In this as in so
many other matters, the contractor can
protect himself, at least to a certain extent,
by buying his pipe from reputable firms
only, who are known to be reliable, and by
insisting that all pipes be tested under
hydrostatic pressure at the pipe mills be-
fore being delivered at the building.
Plain wrought, iron pipe is liable to
corrode and to rust on the inside, especially
where the gas supplied is imperfectly puri-
fied, and the smaller sizes are particularly
liable to become obstructed. At the foot
of vertical risers and branches the iron
scale is very apt to lodge, and hence it
may be advisable to use, under certain
conditions, pipes made rustless, either by
the Bower-Barff process or by galvanizing
in the best possible manner. In practice it
is found that the danger of rust is confined
36
to the smaller sizes, hence it is not neces-
sary to use pipes protected against rust,
for the main riser and the larger distribu-
tion pipes. Still, where economy is no
object, it seems to me to be preferable to
use rustless gas pipes throughout, and I
have had many first-class residences piped
in this manner with the best results.
PIPE FITTINGS AND PIPE JOINTS.
In joining together lengths of wrought
iron gas pipes, certain fittings are used, for
instance sockets or couplings for straight
runs, and elbows, tees and crosses for
changes of direction and for taking out
branch pipes. Other fittings not so ex-
tensively used, are the union, the flange
union, the running socket and the right
and left couplings, the latter used whers
pipes can be sprung. These fittings are
either of cast iron, or of malleable iron, the
latter preferred for the smaller sizes. Fit-
tings may be galvanized or made rustless
by the Bower-Barff process, and it is par-
ticularly necessary that sandholes be
avoided in all cast fittings.
37
In making pipe joints the gas fitter
should make use of red lead or red and
white lead mixed on all joints to make up
for any possible imperfections in the
threads; but I may here remark that I
consider the dipping into, or filling of
fittings with, red lead objectionable as
having a tendency to reduce the full bore
of the pipe. The use of gas fitters' cement
on pipe joints should be absolutely pro-
hibited. It is also important that each
length should be screwed entirely home
before the next length is put on. It is al-
ways a wise precaution, in putting the
gas-piping together, to examine every
length of pipe carefully to make sure
against any obstructions on the inside of
the pipe.
How TO RUN GAS PIPES IN BUILDINGS.
The proper manner of running the gas
distributing pipes in a building is suf-
ficiently explained in a subjoined " Spec-
ification for Gas Piping," and a few hints
given here may suffice.
38
It should be the rule to keep all large
gas risers exposed, instead of burying them
in the walls or plaster, and to arrange the
piping as much as possible so as to be
readily got at. All horizontal distributing
pipes must run with an even, though slight
pitch toward the riser, and all depressions
in such pipes must be avoided as tending
to collect water and forming traps, hence
pipes should be firmly supported at fre-
quent intervals, particularly the smaller
sizes which are not as stiff and easily sag
or bend in the middle. Floor boards over
all horizontal gas pipes should prefera-
bly be fastened down with brass screws
to admit of easy removal for alterations,
inspections or repairs. When it becomes
unavoidable to trap a pipe, a drip with
drain cock must be put in, but this should
be avoided under floors, and always put
in an accessible position, for occasional re-
moval of the condensed water or deposit
of pitch which collect in the drip. The
gas litter must use his best judgment in
substituting at suitable points cross pieces
instead of Tee branches, and closing the
39
opening of the cross opposite the branch
by means of a plug forming a cleaning
cap. All these precautions are particularly
necessary where the gas is apt to leave de-
posits of tarry matter or naphthaline in
the pipes which cause obstructions and re-
quire in their removal the use of a force
pump.
The proper size for all distribution pipes
should be regulated by a table of sizes,
one of which is given in the appended
specification, while another may be found
in the Munich gas rules at the end of the
book. Both tables, which the writer has
applied in many cases in his own practice,
give sizes slightly larger than required for
coal gas, but it is always poor economy to
use pipes of too small calibre, which soon
become insufficient to furnish the quantity
of gas required at burners, particularly at
chandeliers and Argand burners. It should
be a rule that no pipe for a drop light
should be less than ^ inch in diameter,
and no pipe for side lights less than %
inch.
40
TESTING GAS PIPES.
As soon as the gas piping is completed
it should be tested by means of a as fit-
J o
ter's pump and manometer or mercury
gauge. Before proceeding with the pipe
testing all deviations from the true position
of nipples for brackets or centre lights
must be rectified. In the case of large
buildings, the gas fitter should preferably
test the pipe system in sections, one iioor
at the time, and afterwards, when all floors
are connected with the main riser or risers,
the whole system should be subjected to a
final strong test in the presence of the
architect, engineer or a gas company's in-
spector, who furnishes a certificate to the
owner. All leakage reveale.d by the test
should be at once repaired, avoiding en-
tirely the use of gas fitter's cement, which
cracks and breaks off very easily, or melts
from heat where gas-pipes are located in
close proximity to steam-pipes. The test
must then be repeated until the whole sys-
tem is perfectly air tight under an air pres-
sure of from 15 to 20 inches of mercury.
This testing of gas-pipes is of the utmost
importance to prevent subsequent annoy-
ance, trouble and danger from gas leaks,
resulting from pin holes in pipes, sand
holes in fittings, split pipe, loose joints, im-
perfect threads, or outlets carelessly left
without capping.
Regarding the careful proving of gas-
piping in buildings in course of erection,
as well as in buildings already completed
and occupied, I cannot do better than quote
the following clear description, given in
the Sanitary Engineer and Building Rec-
ord, Vol. XL, May 14, 1885:
" If the house is in progress of construc-
tion, see that all the outlets are carefully
closed with caps, and that the foot of the
rising line is stopped. Then at any con-
venient side-light attach the ordinary gas-
fitters' pump, which is simply an air-pump.
To the same side-light, or an adjacent one,
attach the mercury-column gauge used by
gas-fitters with a column from fifteen to
twenty inches in length.
" Great care must be now taken to prove
that there are no leaks in the gauge or its
connections or cock, and in the pump and
hose connection, and a good cock should
be used between the permanent gas-pipe
and any temporary connections to pump,
so that it may be closed immediately after
the pumping stops, to prevent back-leak-
age of air through the pump-valves or
hose-joints.
. " When all is complete, pump the pipe
system in the house full of air until the
mercury rises at least twelve inches. Then
close the intermediate cock before men-
tioned, and should the mercury column be
found to " stand " for five minutes, it is
reasonable to assume that the pipes are
sufficiently air and gas tight for any pres-
sure they can afterwards be subjected to.
But it is the rule in the most carefully
done gas-pipe work to find the mercury
will not " stand," as there will be leaks
that would escape the most careful work-
man, it is necessary then to locate them.
" Should there prove to be a very large
leak, it will be apparent at once, as it will
be impossible to get a pressure worth con-
43
sidering, the mercury simply bobbing up
and down in the tube.
"It may be an outlet that has been
neglected to be closed, or it may be a long
split in the pipe. If the former, and very
close to the pump, the mercury will not
respond; but should it be far away, with
considerable length of pipe to cause resist-
ance, the mercury will jump and return as
suddenly. But should there be a split pipe
ov an aggregation of small leaks, the mer-
cury will run back steadily, though slower
than it rises, between the strokes of the
pump. Should it rise well in the glass
and sink at the rate of about one inch in
five seconds, small leaks only in fittings or
joints may then be anticipated. Of course?
there are exceptions to these rules, which
are only for general guidance.
" To locate a leak, then, that cannot be
heard blowing, strong soap water applied
with a brush or sponge may be used. The
liquid is rubbed over suspected joints or
fittings and air-bubbles are blown by the
escaping air.
44
" Sometimes it becomes necessary to use
ether in the pipes in locating leaks, if the
pipes are under floors or in partitions. The
ether is put into a bend of the hose or into
a cup attached to the pipe and blown into
the pipes with the air. By following the
lines of the pipes the approximate position
of a leak may then be determined by the
odor of escaping ether.
" In very large work it is well to prove
a floor at a time, and when all are done,
connect them with the riser and prove as a
whole.
u The best thing for making pipes tight
for coal-gas is gas-fitters' cement, which is
a common grade of sealing-wax. The
threads of the pipes should be immersed
in it when warm and let drain, and the
fittings also are sometimes so treated. To
put the pipes and fittings together both
are warmed and screwed tightly and
allowed to cool. Porous places incidental
to malleable iron or shrinkage-cracks in
malleable iron fittings are generally
stopped with this cement, but a split or
45
crack should never be so mended, as it will
be an element of danger.*
" For naphtha-gases some of the heavy
body asphaltum varnishes are considered
best, such as black air-drying japan, or
black baking japan, but paraffirie varnish
should not be used. To use the japans
both threads of pipes and fittings should
be dipped in them and drained, and the
japan should be applied with a brush when
putting them together, the same as using
lead. Red and white lead are also good,
but are with more difficulty made air-tight.
" If the house is an old one, or has been
finished, and you have to test for leaks,
take off the meter and cap the bottom of
the riser; also unhang the gas-fixtures and
remove the brackets, and cap all outlets
carefully. Then use ether and locate
leaks before tearing up floors or breaking
plaster.
* The author cannot endorse this recommendation of
the use of gas-fitters' cement. He, on the contrary, con-
sult rs it a dangerous practice, which should be prohibited
strictly, for such cement is liable to crack and break when
cold, and when exposed to the heat of steam-pipes it is apt
to melt at any time, and hence joints made tight with gas-
fitters' cement cannot be relied upon to remain so.
46
" The mercury should be made to stand
remain stationary in the glass if pos-
sible, before the work is passed, but a fall
of one inch of mercury in an hour would
indicate a comparatively tight job.
" Occasionally, when a gas-fitter cannot
get a job tight, there is a possibility he
may cut off the part or floor of the build-
ing he cannot get sufficiently tight to suit
the inspector's idea of perfection. The in-
spector can only prove such practice by re-
moving or slacking off a cap here or there
about the house if he suspects such an at-
tempt. If no air escapes, then he has the
dead end."
Mr. William Eassie, the well known
English sanitary expert, writes on this sub-
ject in his " Sanitary Arrangements of
Dwellings " as follows :
" In England as a rule, we are culpably
careless about our gas supply. A gas com-
pany, for instance, receives notice that the
service of such and such a house is ready
to be connected with their main, and when
they have obtained a signed agreement
setting forth who is responsible for pay-
ment, the meter is connected forthwith,
and there is an end of it. The gasfitter
may have done many things badly, and
not done some things at all, but the gas
company seldom, very rarely ever, exer-
cises any jurisdiction. The gasfitter next
sends in his account, which is paid, and
when the smell of escaped gas from some
faulty portion of the pipes has become un-
bearable, he is sent for to remedy it, and
charges for the rectification. The work-
man may be thoroughly incompetent, as
gasfitting is not, as it should be, a separate
trade. Indeed, the artisan who performed
the work may be a blacksmith, whitesmith,
glazier, brazier, plumber, bellhanger, and
gasfitter all rolled into one.
" A gas-titter who is a gas-fitter, and who
understands his business, will never take
leave of a house until he has tested the
pipes for leakage. Where this trouble is
taken, the ordinary practice among us is as
follows: When the pipes have been laid
throughout the house, and the company's
main connected to the meter, a temporary
burner is fixed to each floor of the house,
48
and the gas is turned on. The gas is now-
ignited at these trial jets and allowed to
burn for some little time. The main is
then turned off, and at the same time the
exact reading of the index is taken. When
the gas left in the pipes has burnt uut, the
taps of the experimental lights are turned
off, and if, after the lapse of an hour or so,
the dial of the meter continues to indicate
a consumption of gas, it is plain that it
somewhere escapes, and the leak is searched
for by the sense of smell, &c., and remed-
ied."
The same writer describes his own prac-
tice of testing gaspipes as follows :
" Before the gas-fitter asks the gas com-
pany to make the connection with their
main, he sets about proving the pipes. He
stops up, with one exception, all the out-
lets which have been left for brackets and
pendants with plugs or with screwed caps.
On the one not so stopped he attaches a
force-pump, into the interior of which has
been put a few drops of sulphuric ether.
This pump is now connected with a gauge,
and it is then set to work, generally until
49
a high pressure is registered. A high
pressure in a gas-pipe at first appears un-
necessary, but gasfitters know very well
that iron pipes have many latent weak-
nesses, so to speak seams just ready to
open, pinholes filled with grease, <fec.,
which might not drop out for years, and
a good pressure exerted would rip up the
one and cause the others to fall out. When
the gauge indicates a certain figure, there-
fore, the pumping ceases, and if the mer-
cury falls, it is evident that there is one or
more palpable leaks, which are at once
sought for, The escaped ether will guide
the fitter to these, and the defaulting pipes
are replaced by others. The pumping is
now continued, and the same routine re-
commences. If the mercury still descends
and it cannot be detected, even by the
sense of smell, the joints are separately
lathered over with soap, whereupon the
weak places will be indicated by bubbles.
These parts are then marked, heated by
means of a portable spirit lamp, made for
the purpose, and covered over with an ap-
proved and durable cement. When the
50
Inspector arrives, the pump Is once more
set in action, and as the pipes are now
tight, he has simply to cast an eye upon
the gauge, the column of which no longer
shows signs of sinking; examine, as be-
fore mentioned, how the pipes have been
laid, and sign the requisite order."
GAS LEAKS.
We must now consider more in detail
the injurious effects of gas leaks in dwell-
ings. Leakage of gas may be caused either
by defective gaspiping or by worn out
burners, or by badly jointed fixture con-
nections, or finally by imperfect, loose or
worn stops or keys of gas fixtures. The
first cause has been discussed in detail
heretofore, and of the latter causes and the
best way to avoid them we shall speak
more fully hereafter.
Escape of coal gas into houses also takes
place from broken or defective gas mains
in the streets, particularly in winter time
when the road surface is frozen hard, and
when owing to the heating of the houses
these act like chimneys, as it were, draw-
51
ing gases from the soil upwards into the
living rooms. Many cases of poisoning by
coal gas and not a few cases of gas ex-
plosions due to this cause are on record,
but we must dismiss the subject with these
few words as we have reference here only
to gas leaks existing inside of a building
owing to one or the other of the above
mentioned defects.
All gas leakages must be looked upon
as harmful from three different points of
view. First, as regards the pocketbook of
the consumer, for all gas escaping unburnt
through leakages is registered at the gas-
meter. Hence arise frequent complaints
of exorbitant gas bills and the general and
often unjustified distrust of householders
against the meter.
Fortunately, larger leaks, especially at
the gas fixtures are soon announced and
easily detected owing to the well-known
pungent odor of the escaping gas. Not
so, however, with small hidden leaks
which may go on unperceived, often for
years, being comparatively odorless and
causing not only a useless increase of gas
bills, but what is much more important, a
steady and injurious contamination of the
air of rooms. We must, therefore, regard
gas leaks, second, in their injurious effects
on the health of human beings.
It should be remembered that carbonic
oxide forms one of the components of illu-
minating gas. This gas is well-known to
be a deadly poison, causing asphyxia and
death if enhaled in large quantities, while
if present in the air we breathe in smaller
volume, it is the cause of headache, nausea
and giddiness, and will in course of time
show its steady and injurious influence up-
on those members of the household who
live the greater part of their lives indoors.
In" coal gas the percentage of carbonic
oxide averages 7 to 8 per cent, while in
water gas the proportion is much higher,
being in the average about 25 per cent.
This explains the greater danger incident
to the more recently introduced water
gas. *
* For a very interesting account of the relative poisonous
effects of coal and water gas, the reader is referred to tho
investigation of Profs. W. T. Sedgwick and W. Ripley
Nichols, published in the Sixth Annual Report of the
Massachusetts State Board of Hcal.h (1885).
53
Long ago, Mr. Wm. Eassie, the well-
known English sanitary engineer, stated
that if it were a rule in all towns to have
the gasfitters carry a certificate of com-
petency much sickness, according to many
eminent physicians, would be prevented.
Dr. B. W. Richardson, a well-known Eng-
lish sanitarian and authority, called atten- '
tion to this matter by stating that wher-
ever carbonic oxide becomes diffused in
small quantities either through leaky pipes
or defective burners and gas fixtures into
the air of badly ventilated rooms or work-
shops, it becomes a common cause of ner-
vous derangement and dyspepsia.
More recently, Prof. W. H. Corfield, at
a meeting of the London Society of Medi-
cal Officers of Health read a very interest-
ing paper entitled " Outbreaks of sore
throats caused by slight escapes of coal
gas," an abstract of which is given in the
May 16, 1887, issue of the London Sanitary
Record.
He pointed out first that in considering
the deleterious effects of escapes of coal
gas into dwelling rooms, attention has
54
hitherto been almost entirely directed to
cases of poisoning by asphyxia, due to the
carbonic oxide contained in the coal gas.
Prof. Corfield next stated that during the
past few years his attention had been gradu-
ally arrested by cases of illness and more es-
pecially of relaxed and even of ulcerated
sore throats, occurring in persons sleeping in
rooms in which there were defective gas
burners or pipes, but living in houses of
which the sanitary condition was otherwise
as perfect as the application of modern
sanitary knowledge could make them.
That the slight escapes of coal gas were
the cause of the sore throats was proven by
the fact that the persons attacked became
quite well on the defects in the gas bur-
ners or pipes being remedied. He, there-
fore, had no doubts that the cause of the
sore throats was the breathing for weeks
or months, especially at night, of air con-
taminated with a small proportion of coal
gas, and believed that the effective agents
in producing the irritation in the throat
were the bisulphide of carbon and other
sulphur compounds contained in the gas.
He was convinced that in numerous
instances these ulcerated throats were
thought to be due to foul air from drains
when they were really due to escapes from
gas pipes or gas fixtures.
In the discussion which followed the
reading of this paper, Mr. Rogers Field,
M. Inst. C. E., referred to numerous cases
in his practice as sanitary engineer, where
offensive smells attributed to defective
drainage, were found to be due to escapes
of gas. He, therefore, made it a practice
always to have the gas pipes tested and
made thoroughly sound after the drainage
of a house had been reconstructed. He
found the only effectual method of testing
the gas pipes and fittings to be to attach a
pressure gauge and then pump air into the
pipes. If the gauge stood the pipes were
sound; if it fell, there was a leakage which
had to be found out and remedied, and the
work was not left as completed until the
pressure gauge would stand.
The writer could quote several instances
from his own practice where plumbing
work thought to be defective was found
56
after careful inspection to be tight and in
good condition, whereas the bad odors
complained of were traced to leakage from
furnace smoke flues, or to leakage of illum-
inating gas. It is somewhat unfortunate
that of late years it has become customary
to raise the cry of " sewer gas " whenever
any contamination of the house air is
noticed. While it is true that defective
plumbing work is, in many instances,
without doubt, the cause of bad odors in
houses, the contamination of the air and
noxious smells are also not infrequently
traceable directly to other sources, such as
leaks in the joints of furnaces, or leaks
in brick smoke flues, or finally leaks in
the gas piping, or at the gas burners and
fixtures.
Thirdly, gas leaks become objectionable
owing to the accompanying danger of an
explosion. When illuminating gas escapes
unburnt from a gas burner, or from a
leaky pipe- joint or defective fitting, it
mixes with the air in the room and when
this mixture reaches a certain proportion it
becomes explodible. Hence the rule should
always be observed when an escape of
gas is noticed, never to search for the
leak with a light. A gas meter has often
slight leaks at the couplings, and, there-
fore, a meter should never be examined
except in day light. It is astound-
ing how often in every day life these
plain rules* are violated even by intelligent
mechanics. Gas explosions often occur
with very fatal results to life and property.
Many fires owe their origin to such ac-
cidents, and the greatest care should there-
fore, be observed to prevent them by avoid-
ing all leakages.
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST DANGER FROM FIRE.
Much ignorance prevails among the pub-
lic as well as among builders as to certain
precautions which must be observed to
render gas lighting safe from the point of
view of fire. A few hints regarding pre-
vention of fires from this cause may not
seem out of place here.
First, the house owner or householder
should ascertain that the system of gas
piping is perfectly sound and tight, and
58
kept as much as possible accessible for
occasional inspections, also that the burn-
ers and fixtures do not leak.
Next, great care should be exercised in
every household in the use of matches for
lighting the gas. Matches should always be
kept in closed earthen or metallic vessels
or boxes, and it is a wise precaution to
provide a second receptacle to receive
burnt matches. Matches must be kept out
of reach of children, as well as rats and
mice, which latter seem to have a special
preference for phosphorus and often carry
matches into hiding places under floors or
behind baseboards or wainscoting and
ause the matches to ignite by gnawing at
them. So-called parlor matches of wood
or wax are particularly dangerous, as they
easily ignite by friction. Safety matches 1
such as the Swedish, which can only be
ignited on specially prepared surfaces are
much better. For lighting chandeliers
wax tapers are preferable to matches. A
still better, more convenient and safer ar-
rangement for lighting up gas consists in
the use of portable safety-lighters, either
59
mechanical or electric torches. The best
method is, undoubtedly, a well arranged
system of electric gas lighting with au-
tomatic or pull-burners, and it is to be re-
commended, in building new houses, to
wire all gas outlets for it.
Other precautions against fire relate to
the construction and location of gas
fixtures. All side or bracket lights should
be kept at a safe distance from windows,
doors or other inflammable woodwork, and
from curtains, portieres, lace work or other
hangings. Lights in exposed positions
should always be enclosed in glass globes
because strong draughts of air will some-
times blow unprotected flames sideways
very far endangering combustible objects
near by. Swinging or folding bracket-
lights are particularly dangerous and
should be avoided wherever possible, par-
ticularly on stud partitions or cabinet wood-
work, and rigid brackets should be used
instead. If swinging gasbrackets must be
used they should be fitted with guardrings
of large diameter. Even fixed bracket-
lights should never be so placed that an
60
opening door would come into contact with
the gasjet.
Portable gas fixtures, connected with rub-
ber tubing to a wall gas outlet or to a chan-
delier are also, to some extent, dangerous
and must be handled with care.
There should always be a distance of
three feet between all burners and the
ceiling or woodwork, and in places having
low ceilings metal, glass or porcelain bells
or shields should be hung over the flame
tu protect inflammable ceilings, and in-
cidentally to prevent the ceiling from be-
coming smoky owing to accumulations of
small particles of unconsumed carbon. If
shields are used the minimum distance be-
tween burner and ceiling should be 18
inches.
In basements, and in the servants' de-
partment of a house generally, such as
the kitchen, laundry, ironing room, linen
closet, wardrobes, and all other places where
inflammable articles of wearing apparel
may come into contact with gas jets, or
where in stores or warehouses much ma-
terial of a combustible nature is handled,
61
strong and large round metal wire cages,
guards or screens, at least 10 inches in dia-
meter, and with close meshes, and so
shaped and constructed that any com-
bustible material coming in contact there-
with shall be out of reach of the flames,
should be fitted and attached to the gas
brackets in a firm manner, preferably sold-
ered.
In case many lights are suddenly turned
out it often happens, especially on the
higher floors of buildings of many stories,
that a single flame left burning jumps up
or flares, generally with a whizzing or
singing noise, due to the temporary excess
of pressure, to such a height that it may
set woodwork on fire. The same sudden
flaring up of a gas jet may occur when a
lava tip cracks or breaks off. As we will
see later on pressure regulators, or better
still, governor burners will prevent this oc-
currence.
After this slight digression relating to
fires directly or indirectly caused by gas
lighting apparatus in houses, we will con-
tinue our consideration of the proper means
for obtaining a satisfactory gaslight illu-
mination.
GAS BURNERS.
We have given, heretofore, as concisely
as possible, the requirements of a good gas
piping system. The next point requiring
attention is the burner at which the gas
distributed by the pipe system, is ignited
and consumed, giving off light. In order
to have a better understanding of the re-
quirements of a good burner, it is neces-
sary to say a few words relating to the
composition of illuminating gas and the
mode in which by combustion it is turned
into a light giving flame.
Lighting gas is a very complex mixture
of gases, of which various chemical com-
pounds of carbon and hydrogen the hy-
drocarbons form the chief light-giving
constituents. Gas always contains more or
less impurities, the principal ones being
carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, ammonia,
sulphuretted hydrogen and bisulphides of
carbon. These are partly removed by
63
purifying processes before the gas leaves
the works.
When the gas jot is ignited the inflam-
mable hydrogen is consumed in the lower
part of the flame, producing sufficient heat
to render the infinitesimal particles of car-
bon incandescent. The hydrogen in the
process of 'combustion combines with oxy-
gen from the air forming an invisible va-
por of water, while the carbon unites with
oxygen forming carbonic acid. Hence we
see that water and carbonic acid are the
products of combustion of perfectly puri-
fied gas when perfectly consumed, but
in reality it is seldom that gas is so
perfectly purified and that combustion
is perfect. The carbonic acid of unpuri-
fied gas reduces its illuminating power,
and the other gaseous admixtures (chiefly
compounds of sulphur) are converted by
combustion into harmful vapors injurious
alike to the human system when inhaled,
to house plants, and finally to the interior
decoration of houses.
Various reasons tend to render combus-
tion incomplete. There may be excessive
64
pressure of gas, and there may also be
lack of air to the flame, and finally the
burners may be defective. The pressure
in the street mains must necessarily be
somewhat higher than required in the
house services on account of the differences
in the street levels of a district. An excess
of pressure at the burners causes a reduc-
tion of the amount of illumination, and it
becomes desirable to reduce the pressure
which can be accomplished by several
means, to which we shall refer below. On
the other hand it may happen that the
pressure is insufficient, and in that case the
heat of the flame will not reach a degree
sufficient to raise the carbon to white heat,
and as a result the flame will smoke. It
follows that for every burner there is a
certain amount of pressure and correspond-
ing flow of gas which will cause the
brightest attainable illumination. It is
found by experience that gas should be
burnt at the lowest practical pressure con-
sistent with adequate supply, and where
the size of the meter and the diameter of
the house distributing pipes and of the tub-
65
ing of gas fixtures is ample, the intensity
of illumination will depend chiefly upon
the conditions under which gas is burnt.
As a rule the gas pressure at the burners
is excessive, particularly in the upper
stories of houses, located on high ground.
Too much pressure is readily detected by
the hissing or roaring sound of the gas
flame. The result of incomplete combus-
tion is a waste of gas, it being stated by
good authorities that as usually burnt from
20 to 50 per cent, of the gas registered at
the house meter, is actually wasted. This
waste is very objectionable, first because
it causes high bills to the consumer, second
and this is of vastly more importance
because it contaminates the atmosphere of
the house, and thus injures the health of
the inhabitants, thirdly, because the injuri-
ous compounds of sulphur due to incom-
plete combustion of gas are destructive to
furniture, bookbindings, wall papers, pic-
ture .frames, decorations and gilt work,
while the smoke incident to imperfect
combustion blackens ceil ings and walls.
It seems deplorable, that the gas com-
66
panies, with perhaps a few exceptions, do
not show any interest in making efforts to
stop the waste of gas in houses. What
they are chiefly concerned in are the gas
leaks at the works, in the street mains and
at the connections of the house services
with the main, and the fact that all such
leaks constitute a direct loss to the com-
pany and not to the consumer, may per-
haps be taken as a sufficient explanation.
The waste of gas due to incomplete
combustion is still further increased by the
use of defective burners, the best of them
after some years' use becoming worn out
and imperfect. It is, therefore, desirable
to use the greatest care in the selection of
proper burners, by paying clue regard to
their construction, material, shape and
size. It has been ascertained by carefully
conducted experiments that poor burners
give only from 20 to 50 per cent, of the
light which can be obtained by the con-
sumption of a given quantity of gas under
proper conditions. .
It would require more space than is at
my disposal to describe and explain in de-
67
tail the construction and working prin-
ciples of the many kinds of burners in-
vented and put on the market since the
introduction of lighting gas into dwellings.
Broadly speaking, we may distinguish six
principal types of burners, viz. :
1. The Single Jet Burner.
2. The Fishtail Burner.
3. The Batswing Burner.
4. The Argand Burner.
5. The Regenerative Burner, and
6. The Incandescent Burner.
The single jet burner is the simplest
kind of burner, having only one small
hole from which the gas issues. It is only
suitable where a very small flame is re-
quired.
The batswing or slit burner has a hem-
ispherical tip with a narrow vertical slit
from which the gas spreads out in a thin
flat sheet, giving a wide and not very high
flame, resembling in shape the wing of a
bat (hence the name). The common kind
of slit burners are not suitable for use with
globes as the flame is liable to crack the
glass.
68
The union-jet or fishtail burner consists
of a flat tip slightly depressed or concave
in the centre, with two small holes drilled
under a certain angle to each other. Two
jets of equal size issue from these holes,
and by impinging upon each other produce
a flat flame, longer and narrower in shape
than the batswing, and not unlike the tail
of a fish, wherefrom the burner derives its
name.
The gas consumption of the fishtail
burners in cubic feet per hour is stamped
on them, while on all slit burners the
number of cubic feet of gas consumed per
hour are indicated by the number of rings
on the outside of the tip, each narrow ring
indicating one cubic foot, while a broad
ring stands for four cubic feet. But, in-
asmuch as the volume of gas consumed
depends on the pressure of gas at the burn-
ers not less than upon the size of the open-
ing or slit, this method of designating the
burners is obviously unreliable. Both kinds
of burners require no chimney, but the
flames are usually encased with glass
globes.
69
The argand burner consists essentially
of a hollow ring of metal, connected with
the gas tube and perforated on its upper
surface with' a series of fine holes from
which the gas issues, forming a round
flame. This burner requires the use of
a glass chimney, properly proportioned in
diameter and height, to induce perfect
combustion by increasing the air supply to
the flame.
The above are the principal burners
more commonly used in domestic gas-
lighting. The argand as well as the bat-
swing and fishtail burners have recently
been much improved by Messrs. Sugg,
Broenner, Bray and Silber, prominent
European manufacturers of gas-lighting
apparatus. Further vast improvements in
the shape of gas-burners have been effected
since the introduction of the incandescent
electric light threatened to revolutionize
domestic lighting. Not only have fish'tail
and batswing burners been much im-
proved, but more recently burners con-
structed upon entirely new principles have
70
been introduced, namely the regenerative
and the incandescent gas burners.
In all regenerative burners, such as those
of Siemens, Grimston, Bower, Wenham,
Lungren, Sugg and Bray, the high temper-
ature due to the combustion in a gas flame
is directly utilized to raise the temperature
both of the gas before ignition and of the
air before combustion, the result being an
intensified combustion and a vastly in-
creased illuminating power. These power-
ful burners are in successful use for light-
ing up streets and squares, stores and halls
of audience.
In the incandescent burners, finally, the
heat of the flame is applied to raising to
incandescence some foreign material,
either a basket of magnesia (Lewis burner),
or wires of platinum (Clammond lamp), or
a funnel shaped asbestos wick or mantle,
treated chemically with sulphate of zir-
conium and other rare chemical elements
(Welsbach incandescent light). The latter
burner gives a particularly brilliant and
white light when used in connection with
water gas unmixed with naphtha gases, but
71
the mantle is very fragile, and soon loses
its incandescence, particularly when ex-
posed to an atmosphere containing much
dust.
Attempts have also been made in the
so-called Albo-Carbon light to obtain a
greater brilliancy and increasing illumin-
ating power by enriching ordinary coal
gas with the vapors of naphthaline con-
tained in a metal reservoir connected with
the gas-burner.
The brilliancy of all kinds of gas flames
is reduced, as we have explained hereto-
fore, when gas issues under too great a
pressure, and also when the passages for
gas, the pipes, the gaskeys and the holes
or slits in the burners become obstructed.
An intense heat of combustion being favor-
able to increased luminosity of the flame,
it is desirable that the latter should not be
unduly cooled. The incandescence of the
carbon is the more perfect the higher the
temperature of the flame. Hence it-follows
that the burners or burner tips should not
consist of a material which cools the flame.
Metal tips for gas-burners, and iron or brass
72
burners are, on this account, inferior to
burners or tips made of some non-conduct-
ing material, be this soapstone, steatite,
lava, adamant or enamel. Metal tips are,
furthermore, objectionable, because they
rapidly corrode and thus obstruct the free
flow of gas at the burner, and this is a sec-
ond reason why burners made of non-cor-
rosive material should be preferred. Nick-
eled tips are said to be somewhat better
than iroa or brass tips, especially for wa-
ter-gas, but soapstone or steatite tips are
undoubtedly superior. But even non-cor-
rosive tips clog up in the course of time
with incrustations of carbon, causing badly
proportioned flames of irregular shape and
leading to a waste of gas. Burner tips
may and should be cleaned from time to
time, but this should be done with care so
as not to enlarge unduly the slits of the
batswing or the holes of the fishtail burners.
Occasional renewal of burners will often
help to improve gas-light illumination.
GAS PRESSURE REGULATORS.
A good remedy for places where exces-
73
sive gas pressure prevails consists in the
use of pressure governors or regulators,
placed on the main house gas pipe near
the meter.
Oftentimes governors are combined with
the gas-burners in the shape of so-called
governor burners, which will prevent the
jumping or flaring up of flames on upper
floors of high buildings (the gas pressure
increasing with the numbers of stories)
more effectually than any pressure governor
at the meter. Both kinds of regulators
prevent the waste of gas, give a more uni-
form and steady gas-light and secure
economy by reducing the gas bills, but
they should not be used together, and at
least in the case of high buildings the
governor burners are preferable to pres-
sure regulators.
VENTILATING GAS BURNERS.
The excessive heat caused by the com-
bustion of gas, and the resulting impurities
contaminating the air, are often causes of
annoyance, discomfort and occasional
suffering. To remedy this several forms
74
of ventilating gas-lights have been pro-
posed from time to time and introduced
to a limited extent, such as the sun-burner,
the globe light and others. They are
designed and constructed in such a man-
ner as to remove at the ceiling the surplus
heat and the incidental impurities of air
due to gas illumination, by having outlets
in the ceiling or over the gas flame con-
nected with properly constructed vent
flues in the walls.
Some of the above mentioned regenera-
tive gas-burners are at the same time
ventilating burners. All the various types
of ventilating gas-fixtures, whether chan-
deliers or sidelights, are desirable from a
sanitary point of view. In using them
attention should be paid to the proper
protection of woodwork in ceilings coming
in contact with the tin branch vent flues,
as the temperature of the escaping air may
be quite high. It is desirable that the
products of combustion be removed from
near the level of the burners which may
be accomplished by arranging metal bells
over the name^ ;ind connecting them with
75
the vent flues. It is also necessary in
order to accomplish good results, as
regards ventilation, that the tin vent
flues in the ceilings be made as large as
possible.
GAS GLOBES AND GLOBE HOLDERS.
Next to the burners the shape of the
glass globes or shades surrounding the
flame has much to do with proper illumi-
nation. The unsuitable arrangement of
glass globes constitutes another factor
contributing a share to the gas wasted by
imperfect combustion. In order to obtain
the maximum degree of light and also to
avoid an unsteady and flickering light, the
flow to the flame of the air necessary for
combustion should be slow and regular,
steady and uniform. Where the air sup-
ply is insufficient the flame is apt to smoke,
blackening ceilings and contaminating the
air. Where, on the other hand, a violent
current of air rushes to, and impinges
upon the flame, the light flickers in an
annoying manner and the flame looses
some of its heat and brilliancy by cooling.
76
The old-fashioned styles of glass globes
were made with very narrow openings at the
bottom (often but 2 or 2J in. diameter)
and complaints of unsteady lights were
common. Such globes with narrow bottom
openings are objectionable and should be
entirely discarded, and globes with bottom
orifices four inches or more in diameter
should always be used.
All glass globes absorb more or less light
and hence cause a loss of illuminating
power and a waste of gas. Experiments
show that, according to the thickness and
opacity of shades the light is obstructed as
follows :
By clear glass globes, from 1015 per
cent.
By slightly ground globes, about 21 per
cent.
By globes ground all over, from 25 40
per cent.
By opal glass globes, from 35 GO per
per cent.
By colored or painted globes, about 64
per cent.
It follows that clear glass globes are
77
much to be preferred and more economical,
although where softness of light is par-
ticularly desired the use of opal globes is
rendered necessary. The globe holders,
too, should be as little light-obstructing as
possible. An incidental advantage of glass
globes of large bottom diameter is that a
portion of the light falls directly into the
room without being obstructed.
GAS FIXTUKES.
I must, in conclusion, offer a few remarks
as regards the selection and construction
of proper gas fixtures. Many times poor
illumination is caused by ill-contrived,
poorly constructed or defective chandeliers
and bracket fixtures. Gas fixtures are,
almost without exception, designed solely
from an artistic point of view and without
any regard to the proper conditions which
alone enable us to obtain a maximum
degree of light. Fixtures having an over-
abundance of meaningless scrolls or spirals
may, in the case of imperfectly purified
gas or improperly run gas-pipes, accumu-
late a large amount of tarry deposit which
78
in time hardens and obstructs the passages
for gas.
Another fault is the use of too small
tubing for the gas fixtures. Having taken
pains to pipe a house with adequate sized
pipes, it is equally necessary to have the
passages for gas in the fixtures of ample
bore, in other words, the main tube of the
chandelier should be proportioned to the
total number of lights which the chandelier
carries, and the side tube for each light as
well as the orifice of its gas key should be
made ample in size to supply each burner
with the requisite volume of gas.
A still more serious defect consists in the
many leaky stop-cocks of gas fixtures caused
either by defective workmanship or by
keys becoming worn or loose. It is very
rare indeed, to find a house piped with gas
where the pressure test could be success-
fully applied without first removing the fix-
tures. It is an almost universal experience
that the joints of folding brackets, of
extension or telescopic pendants, and the gas
keys leak much more than the system of
piping, hence all chandeliers and bracket
79
fixtures should always be proved and tested
before being hung and their keys made
tight-fitting.
It is equally important that the mechanic
who hangs fixtures (usually not the gas-
fitter) should use particular care in making
the joint w.here the fixture is attached,
perfectly tight.
Another point of importance, to which
the writer has frequently drawn attention
in his practice as well as in his writings,
is the use of old-fashioned gas fixtures
with so-called " all-round " cocks, i. e.
cocks not provided with stop pins. Such
worthless fixtures are oftentimes the cause
of gas leaks and become dangerous, par-
ticularly in hotels, apartment and lodging
houses, when the gas key is incompletely
closed, or by the accidental turning on of
the gas after the key has been turned off
and the light extinguished, causing fre-
quent cases of death by inhalation during
sleep of escaping coal gas or of the much
more fatal water gas.
The use of cocks without check pins or
stops should, in my judgment, be pro-
80
hibited by act of legislature. In fixtures
of modern manufacture pin stops are al-
ways provided, but here we often find
another defect, the metal of which they
consist, being much too light and cracking
or bending out of shape with repeated
use. It cannot be too strongly insisted
upon that all check pins attached to gas
keys should .be of good size and made
extra strong.
Waterside chandeliers or waterjoint pen-
dants, which are extensively used in Eng-
land and on the Continent, are another
fruitful source of gas leaks, owing to the
evaporation of the water in the joint.
This can be avoided by frequent additions
of water, or better still by using a table-
spoonful of sweet oil or glycerine which
retards the evaporation of the water.
Fortunately, such waterjoint pendants are
not much used in the United States, being
replaced by the much to be preferred ex-
tension joint chandelier with packed stuf-
fing-box joints.
When we consider the many deaths
81
caused by inhalation of illuminating gas,
and the injurious influence upon health, of
slight gas leaks and of noxious compounds
due to imperfect combustion of gas, it
seems highly desirable that some kind of
official and periodical supervision, similar
to the one now exercised over the general
construction of buildings, and over the
plumbing and drainage in particular,
should be carried out concerning the
arrangement and quality of gas-piping and
gas-fixtures in buildings occupied as resi-
dences or as offices.
Until such official inspection will be
secured it becomes the householder's duty
to ascertain the tightness of gas-pipes and
pipe joints and soundness of fixtures and
fixture keys.
With advancing interest in this im-
portant and hitherto somewhat neglected
subject, we shall hear in the future less
complaints about vitiated air, destructive
gas-light fumes, immoderate heat, un-
steady, flickering or poor light, blacken-
ing of ceilings and destruction of decora-
ations, picture frames and bookbindings.
HINTS TO GAS CONSUMERS ON
THE PROPER USE AND MAN-
AGEMENT OF GAS.
The following hints to householders and
to gas consumers generally on the manage-
ment, the proper application and the eco-
nomical use of gas for lighting and other
purposes, will prove to many interesting
and useful.
They are derived partly from personal,
practical experience and observation, and
partly gleaned and compiled from various
sources.
ADVICE TO PERSONS BUILDING A HOUSE AS
TO SIZE OF SERVICE PIPE AND HOUSE
PIPING, GAS METER, GAS BURNERS, GAS
FIXTURES, GAS GLOBES AND PRESSURE
REGULATORS, SUPPLY TO GAS LOGS AND
GAS STOVES.
As soon as your house plans are ready,
determine and locate on the floor plans the
exact location of all outlets for both side
83
and drop lights. Next ascertain the num-
ber of lights or burners in the house, and
O 7
secure from the gas company a correspond-
ingly ample size service pipe, never less
than 1 inch in diameter. See that the gas
service pipe is laid at a depth of 4 feet be-
low the surface, and that it is not exposed
by crossing* open areas. Where it must
unavoidably pass through these, the gas
pipe should be well protected by some non-
conducting covering to prevent the watery
vapor in the pipes from congealing and
freezing in winter.
The service pipe should be laid with a
pitch towards the street main, or where
this is impracticable, the service pipe should
be graded towards the cellar, where a proper
emptying pipe and cleanout plug should be
provided. It is also desirable to have an
outside gas shut-off cock or valve, located
near the curb in the sidewalk.
The shut- off cock in the cellar near the
gas meter should be a roundway cock, to
insure a full supply of gas. Obtain from
the gas company a gas meter of ample size,
never less than of 5 -light capacity for the
84
smallest house. For medium sized houses
take a 10-light meter, and for larger houses
at least a 20-light meter. Place the gas
meter in a cool, well lighted, easily acces-
sible place.
Make sure that the distribution pipes are
properly and amply proportioned to the
number of lights which they have to sup-
ply, and that the pipes are well run, well
supported, free from traps or low places,
and have a continuous pitch to the gas riser
or the gas meter. Do not allow the gas Jit-
ter under any circumstances to use gasfit-
ter*s cement to tighten joints or to close up
sand-holes.
Be sure to have the whole gas piping rig-
idly inspected and tested with force-pump
and mercury gauge under a heavy air press-
ure, before the gas-fixtures are hung or
screwed on.
Purchase only properly constructed, test-
ed gas-fixtures, of first-class quality, with
large supply tubes, and with proper heavy,
tight- closing gas keys with strongly made
pin stops. Make sure that when the fix-
ture man hangs the fixtures, all fixture joints
85
that is, the places where the fixtures are
secured to the gas outlets are made abso-
lutely tight.
Provide the very best quality burners, of
large size, with lava or enamel tips. Buy
only the best kind of shadowless wire prong
holders, and enclose the flames with glass
globes with" wide bottom openings of 4 or
5 inches in diameter, and of thin and clear
glass.
On the main supply pipe near the gas
meter fit up a proper gas pressure regula-
tor, or else in large houses and in buildings
of many stories, use on the side brackets and
chandeliers volumetric governor burners.
Keep a plan showing the location of the
meter, of the gas riser and of the distribu-
ting gas-pipes. Such a record will be use-
ful for relerence in case of future alterations,
or in case of hidden leakages, especially in
large buildings, and by its aid much unnec-
essary cutting up of walls and floors in the
search for pipes may be avoided.
For all outside lights on porches, veran-
das, and for places not readily heated in
winter time, provide a separate supply with
86
shut-off located inside of the house, so as
to enable you to shut these lights off in se-
vere cold weather.
Keep bell wires away from gas pipes,
particularly from lead or composition pipes.
Cases are on record where such wires, in
constant contact with a gas-pipe during
years of use, have acted like a saw in grad-
ually cutting the pipe, finally causing a
hidden leakage of gas, which to find and
locate is often an extremely difficult mat-
ter. As a measure of precaution it is ad-
visable to keep gas pipes away from steam,
hot water or hot air pipes, also from elec-
tric light wires.
Should you build additions to your house,
or should you add to the number of lights
in- your office building, or manufacturing
establishment, make sure that your gas ser-
vice pipe and riser, as originally put in,
are ample in size to supply the additional
lights. It is far better, however, in order
not to impair the illumination of the origi-
nal lights, to run a separate service pipe to
supply the extension or addition. Where
87
this is done, have the gas meter replaced
by one of larger capacity.
If you introduce gas logs in fire-places, or
contemplate the use of gas heating stoves,
or of gas cooking ranges, always supply
these from a separate service pipe starting
at the house side of the meter between the
same and the gas pressure regulator, and
make the pipes of ample size to supply the
requisite volume of gas.
Be sure to provide an outlet flue for the
gases of combustion where gas-stoves are
used for cooking or heating, or for warm-
ing the bath water.
MAINTENANCE OF GAS FITTINGS.
Be sure to have the gas keys at your gas
fixtures tightened by screwing them up
when they become loose in time.
Under no circumstances tolerate gas keys
without proper and secure pin stops.
If gas keys turn too hard have them
properly greased from time to time so as to
work easily and smoothly. A good key
grease is made by melting together one
part of beeswax and two or three parts of
tallow, the mixture to be well strained
after melting.
When a pin becomes defective or breaks
have it replaced at once.
All types of gas burners should be exam-
ined from time to time, and kept clean and
unobstructed. When a once well shaped
gas flame becomes ragged and uneven, the
burner needs cleaning.
In cleaning the slits of batwing and the
holes of Argand and fishtail burners by
means of the tools sold for this purpose, be
careful not to injure the burners. For slit
burners the cleaning is readily accomplished
with a thin strip of brass with handle at-
tached. For union jet burners a small awl
is made for the purpose.
Worn out burners should be removed
from time to time, and it is well to make it
a rule to replace all burners in constant
use in a dwelling house with new ones
about once a year, as gas burners, no mat-
ter how well made, will not last forever.
Cracked or split lava burner tips should
at once be replaced to avoid any danger
from fire.
Glass chimneys of Argand burners, the
globes or shades of all gas fixtures, and
mica protectors and metal reflectors must
be kept scrupulously clean and bright to
avoid loss of light.
All low places or drips in a gas-piping
system should be cleaned and the accumu-
lated water and naphthaline removed from
time to time.
Chandeliers must be inspected, and, if
necessary, taken down and to pieces, and
all stoppages in the tubing removed.
MANAGEMENT OF GAS.
Householders are sometimes advised, as
a matter of precaution, to keep the gas
turned off during the night at the meter.
It is much safer, in my judgment, to keep
the gas permanently turned on at the main,
during the day and night, while a dwelling
house is occupied. In the first place, a gas
light is frequently wanted during the night
time, and it is an incidental advantage of
buildings to which gas has been laid on,
that a light may always be had whenever
wanted, by simply turning a fixture tap and
90
applying a match, without the necessity
and the inconvenience of having to go down
to the cellar to open the main stop-cock.
Second, and this is more important, escapes
of gas and subsequent explosions may oc-
cur in dwelling houses where the practice
prevails of turning off the gas at night at
the main stop-cock, before all burners are
turned off. On turning open the stop-cock
at the meter the next morning, gas may
escape at some burner left open the previ-
ous night, in considerable quantities, before
the fact is discovered.
On the other hand, in unoccupied build-
ings, and in all buildings closed from Sat-
urday until Monday, or on holidays such
as factories, workshops, stores, office build-
ings, theatres and other large establish-
ments the gas should always be turned
off at the main after first shutting off all
the burners.
In all large buildings the janitor, or the
engineer or a foreman should have a proper
supervision of the gas arrangements.
Never examine a gas meter with a candle-
light, owing to the danger of a gas explo-
91
sion, unless you have ascertained before-
hand that the meter itself and all its piping
and connections are absolutely tight.
For the same reason it is well to be care-
ful not to use near a gas meter tools or in-
struments causing flying sparks,
Never use the heat of a flame to thaw
out a frozen wet gas meter. Use warm
bags of sand or cloths dipped in hot water.
Draw off some of the water and substitute
alcohol* or glycerine.
See that your gas service main from the
street to the meter is protected against
freezing wherever exposed, by felting or
other non-conducting material. Otherwise
it may happen in very cold weather that
your gas flames will burn very badly, or
may suddenly go out altogether, owing to
the freezing of the watery vapor in the
pipe. If a service pipe in the street freezes,
an excavation must be made and heat ap-
plied to the earth.
In lighting gas-burners, gas-lamps, gas-
stoves and gas-logs, always apply the match
or the taper simultaneously with the turn-
ing of the gas key or gas valve. If the
92
cocks are turned on first, and the light ap-
plied after the lapse of more or less time,
a puff of unburnt gas escapes, causing waste
of gas and a bad smell, or in the case of
gas-logs and cooking- stoves a small explo-
sion, and sometimes more or less injury.
Never use candles to light gas, as the
melting wax or tallow easily chokes up the
holes or slits of the burners. Wax matches
should always be avoided, and if wax ta-
pers are used great care should be exer-
cised. Better means of lighting gas flames
are the electric and dynamic portable gas
torches, or the electric gas-burners.
In using portable or desk gas-lights, con-
nected with a fixed light or gas outlet by
means of rubber tubing, always close the
fixture key when turning out the light,
before closing the key at the portable
lamp, for otherwise the rubber tubing
remaining full of gas after some use
becomes saturated with gas and ill-
Fmelling.
Never keep a gas flame turned down
low in bedrooms. Many people are so
sensitive to light that they cannot obtain
93
perfect rest where even a dim light burns
in a sleeping apartment. Again, it should
be borne in mind that, owing to the result-
ing imperfect gas combustion, the air of
the bedroom must necessarily become con-
taminated. Moreover, there is a possibility
of the pressure in the street mains becom-
ing reduced temporarily to such an extent
as to extinguish the flame. When the
pressure is afterwards increased, illumina-
ting gas would escape unburnt at the bur-
ner, exposing sleeping persons to the
danger of being asphyxiated by gas.
Finally, a flame turned down low is liable
to be put out with a sudden puff or draught
of air, the result being an escape of un-
burnt gas, causing possibly asphyxia or
the death of persons occupying the room.
Precautions in this respect are particularly
necessary where water gas or a mixture of
water gas and naphtha is supplied to
consumers.
Ignorant people and persons unaccus-
tomed to the use of gas often, on retiring,
blow out the gas. In hotels and lodging
houses this is a frequent cause of death
94
from the inhalation of water or coal gas.
A measure of safety consists in putting up
appropriate signs over all gas flames of bed-
rooms, warning people of the danger.
Hotel proprietors should exert constant
watchfulness on all bedroom floors during
the night. Some recently introduced safety
devices or so-called " automatic " gas bur-
ners, which shut off the gas supply auto-
matically as soon as the gas is blown out,
offer a valuable remedy.
In the older hotels, and in many lodging
houses, old-fashioned fixtures are often
found which have no stops on the gas-
keys, and with these it frequently happens
that the stop-cock is turned too far in
putting out the gas-light. It also some-
times happens that the stop pin, not being
durable, breaks. In both cases a dangerous
escape of gas may follow. The remedy is
to provide all gas keys with strong metal
stop pins.
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TREATMENT OF PER-
SONS OVERCOME BY THE INHALATION
OF GAS.
In regard to the treatment of persons
95
overcome with gas either coal gas or
water gas (the latter being far more
dangerous) either in the trenches when
laying gas mains, or by escape of gas into
bedrooms through leaky fixtures, or when
the gas is " blown out," or from escape of
gas into houses from breaks in street
mains, the following are a few suggestions
offered by prominent physicians.
Take the person at once into a place
where the air is pure and cool. Don't crowd
around him. Keep him on his back. Don't
raise his head or turn him on his side.
Loosen his clothing around the neck and
remove all tight clothing. Give a little
brandy and water (not more than four
tablespoonfuls of brandy). Give the am-
monia mixture 1 part of aromatic am-
monia to 16 parts of water in small
quantities at short intervals (a teaspoon-
ful every two or three minutes). Slap
face and chest with the wet end of a
towel. Apply warmth and friction if the
body or limbs are cold. If the breathing
is feeble or irregular, artificial respiration
should be used, and kept up until there is
96
no doubt that it can no longer be of use.
Administer oxygen.
Another physician advises giving a table-
spoonful of olive oil, or of common sweet
oil, where a man is able to swallow. Then
give him a little milk) or some brandy,
whisky, or other stimulant on hand.
Loosen his garments, place him in a half
reclining position so he may breathe
easily, create a circulation of air by fan-
ning, or placing him in a draught. Place
a sponge with strong vinegar under his
nose, wash the forehead with it, and the
temples. Rub the body. Apply means
for restoring respiration. When conscious-
ness returns, wrap the person in blankets
and allow free perspiration, sleep and rest.
GAS LEAKS.
Gas leaks and escapes of illuminating
gas may be the cause of accidents such as
gas explosions or fire, besides the above-
mentioned poisoning or asphyxia from gas
inhalation.
Gas leaks arise either from defects in the
street mains, the gas penetrating in many
i
97
cases through the soil and foundation walls,
particularly in winter time ; or they may
be caused by imperfections in the gas
meter and its connections, or in the gas
pressure regulator, or in the house pipe
system or, finally, they are due to bad
fixtures, bad burners, or defective gas
heating and cooking stoves.
In case a gas leak is discovered in a
room, open at once the windows and the
doors, in order to let the gas escape into
the open air. Coal gas being lighter than
air, the escaping gas will accumulate at
the ceiling, and hence the upper sash should
be let down. Under no circumstances use
any light nor search for the leak with
mutches. The utmost care is to be ob-
served in this respect, as the mixture of
atmospheric air with illuminating gas in
certain proportions, forms a very explosive
compound, which, if brought in contact
with a flame, will cause much injury and
damage by gas explosion. If a burner is
found to be accidently left open, or only
partly turned off, the key should be at
once closed. If the escape of gas is due
98
to a hidden leak, close the main gas cock,
then locate the leak, and having found it,
take at once and without delay the neces-
sary steps to have it stopped and repaired.
Make it a rule never to allow any body
to sleep in a room in which the faintest
odor of illuminating gas is perceptible.
Avoid lead or composition gas-pipes
which, in hidden places, are easily gnawed
by rats, causing gas leaks, explosions or
fire.
PKECAUTIONS AGAINST FIEE.
In order to guard against all danger
from fire, see that all gas-fiames are at a
safe distance from woodwork or inflamma-
ble material.
Where ceilings are low, and where the
distance from the gas-light to the ceiling
is less than three feet, provide metal or
glass shields or bells as a protection, and
have them hung so that they swing freely.
Enclose lights in positions exposed to
drafts of air with glass globes. A draft of
air may blow a gas jet as much as twelve
inches sideways, and thus cause the scorch-
99
ing ot woodwork or the blazing up of cur-
tains, etc.
Avoid swinging gas brackets in danger-
ous positions, such as near doors, windows,
blinds, curtains, portieres, or shelves. Rig-
id gas brackets are much safer and better.
Swinging bracket lights should be fitted
with metal guard rings of large diameter
to act as stop in preventing a gas jet from
coming in contact with inflammable ma-
terial.
In basements, cellars, in the servants' de-
partment of a house, particularly in the
laundry, ironing room and in linen closets
and in wardrobes, protect the naked gas-
flames with securely fastened large, round
metal wire cages, guards or screens.
Paper or cardboard reflectors on gas-
lamps should be avoided. It is better and
safer to use only metallic reflectors.
Where ventilating or regenerative gas-
burners or " sunlights" are used, care should
be taken to have the ventilating flues well
constructed of metal and free from contact
with woodwork.
Set the gas meter in a well ventilated
100
place, having, if possible, communication
with the outside air.
Gas jets often blaze up from a temporary
excess of pressure or from a lava tip crack-
ing or jarring off, where a heavy weight is
dropped on the floor overhead.
In lighting the gas-fixtures care should
be observed in the use of matches. Parlor
and wax matches are dangerous, and the
use of "safety" matches, lighting by fric-
tion on specially prepared surfaces only, is
recommended.
Provide metal or earthen boxes for the
common kind of matches, and have also
a second receptacle to receive the burnt
matches. Matches, tapers or fuses should
not be thrown on the floor unextinguished.
The common phosphorous matches are hard
to extinguish, and the practice of smokers
of carelessly throwing them on the floor tin-
extinguished is exceedingly reprehensible.
Keep matches out of reach of mice and
rats, and do not leave them where they are
exposed to the rays of the sun. Full boxes
of matches are sometimes ignited by fric-
101
tion by the sliding motion of the boxes, in
opening or shutting.
In large establishments the general light-
ing up should be made the duty of a spe-
cial employee. He should either use a wax
taper, or better, portable electric torches.
Alcohol torches are dangerous.
The " matchless " burners may be used
in halls, toilet rooms, etc., and at these
places one may thus dispense with the use
of matches.
IRREGULARITIES IN THE GAS SUPPLY.
When householders experience trouble
with the burning of gas lights, the irregu-
larities may, in general, be looked for as
being due to one or several of the follow-
ing causes, viz. :
(1.) To defects in the gas fixtures and
gas burners.
ts.) To defects in the house pipes be-
tween the gas meter and the gas burners.
(3). To defects in the gas meter, particu-
larly where wet gas meters are used.
(4.) To defects in the service pipe, be-
tween the street gas main and the meter.
10S
(5.) To defects in the system of street
mains.
(6.) To defects or troubles at the gas
works.
Whan the gas lights of neighboring
houses, or of houses in the same street,
show more or less the same troubles as
those you experience in your house, the
cause may with certainty be attributed to
either (5) or (6), or to both.
If the trouble does not exist in adjoining
houses, but is confined to your own house,
you may be sure that it can only be due to
one or more of the causes (1), ("2), (3) or (4).
In that case inquire and examine into the
four points named to find out if one or
more of these are the cause. In doing this
remember that if all gas flames in your
house are equally aifected, the trouble must
be due to causes (2), (3) or (4), and it will,
in most cases, be found to be due to defect
(2), usually in the house pipes between the
gas meter and the first branch or to irregu-
larities in the meter (3).
The following detailed explanations will
be helpful in remedying the defects.
103
(a.) If a once satisfactory gas flame is
found to be burning with inferior light, the
cause is either an obstruction in the burner,
or else accumulation of rust at the foot of
vertical gas pipes, or the service pipes are
partially choked with tar or naphthaline,
or condensed watery vapor. When the gas
flame is " ragged " the burner tip is par-
tially stopped up, and the burner should be
cleaned, or a new burner should be substi-
tuted. If this does not remedy the trouble,
rust accumulations may be the cause. Re-
move these by blowing out the service pipe
by means of a service force pump. If con-
densed gas vapor or naphthaline obstructs
the pipes, remove same at the drips or si-
phons. The meter, if a wet one, may have
too little or too much water, or in winter
time, the water collected in siphons or in
the meter, may be frozen, and the pipes or
the meter need thawing out.
(b.) If a gas flame goes out suddenly,
this will be found to be due either to air in
the pipes, or it may be due to accumula-
tions of condensed vapor in the house pipes.
Remove the same by opening the main
104
drip or plug of the service main, near the
gas meter, and when doing so be sure not
to have any light anywhere near you.
Where a wet meter is used, and the gas
goes out suddenly at all the fixtures lighted,
it may be caused by a deficiency of water
in the meter, or else by an excess ^f water.
In winter time it may be due to the freez-
ing of the gas meter, or of the service pipe
from the street to the house.
Where the lights in several houses go
out suddenly, the trouble is either in the
street mains or at the gas works.
(c.) If a certain number of gas lights are
burning, and upon lighting several more
either on the same or on other floors, the
former flames are unfavorably affected, that
is, if they show a reduction in size or in
brilliancy, it may be taken as an indication
that the house pipe system has pipes of in-
sufficient calibre to supply all the lights.
This trouble can only be remedied by re-
piping the house with larger gas pipes.
(d.) If gas, upon being ignited at a
burner, burns with a bluish flame, this is a
sure indication that there is air in the house
105
pipes. This is liable to happen where it is
made a rule although it is a bad practice
to shut off the main gas cock over night.
Air then fills the pipes through leaky joints
in the pipe system, and upon again turning
on the gas, air is driven out at the burners.
The remedy is to search for the leaks and
to make the piping and the gas-fixtures ab-
solutely tight.
(e.} If one or more gas lights bob up and
down or flicker, it is an indication that water
has accumulated in the branch pipes supply-
ing these lights. If all lights flicker the trou-
ble may be looked for in the main house
service pipe. The water should be removed,
either at the fixture keys, or else at low
places where siphons" are provided in
the distribution system.
Where a wet meter is used, this bobbing
up or down is sometimes caused by there
being either too much or too little water
in the gas meter.
Where the gas lights, as sometimes hap-
pen, flicker in several adjoining houses, the
cause is, obviously, not to be looked for in
the house service, but in the street mains,
106
and in such a case the gas company should
be notified,
(/.) It sometimes happens that the gas
consumer cannot get sufficient pressure to
supply his burners, and an insufficient illu-
mination is the result. The trouble is usual-
ly, by laymen, attributed to the poor qual-
it} T of the gas, whereas the real source of the
difficulty will, in most cases, be found in
(1.) Insufficient pressure at the gas
works, or
(2.) Too small or obstructed gas mains
in the street, or in siphons in street mains
which have become filled with water; but,
if confined to a single house, the trouble
is due to
(3.) Insufficient or obstructed house
service pipes.
(4,) To gas meU-rs of insufficient size or
capacity, or to an obstruction in the meter.
(5.) To insufficient capacity or obstruc-
tion of the house pipes.
(6.) To obstructions in the tubing or
keys of gas-fixtures,
(7.) To defective, obstructed or in-
sufficiently large burners.
107
Sometimes the trouble is due to the use
of bad pressure regulators, or to the use
cf pressure regulators in districts where
the gas pressure at best is poor.
(g.} The roaring or hissing sound of a
gas jet indicates that the trouble lies in
the opposite direction, viz. : That there is
too much pressure in the house pipes or at
the burners, and that the consumer is pay-
ing for gas wasted.
The best results in gas illumination are
always obtained when gas issues at the
orifices of the burners with a slow velocity,
through large burner slits or holes. This
pressure of illuminating gas is measured in
tenths of inches of a column of . water, and
the rule is that the pressure at the gas
meter should not exceed six tenths or
seven-tenths of an inch; the loss in pass-
ing through the meter amounts to one-
tenth to two-tenth inches, the loss through
friction in the pipes, if these are properly
adjusted in calibre, one-tenth of an inch,
leaving a pressure of gas at the burners of
four-tenths to five-tenths of an inch.
The consumer should rejnilale and re*
108
duce any excessive pressure. This may,
to some extent, be accomplished either by
partly closing the main stop cock at the
gas meter, or by partially turning off and
adjusting carefully the taps at each bur-
ner. Both methods are imperfect as far
as the regulation of the pressure is con-
cerned, because the pressure continually
varies. The better remedy consists in the
use of either pressure regulators, attached
to the main service pipe at the house side
of the meter which regulate the pressure
in the pipes automatically, or, in the use of
check burners, or better, volumetric gover-
nor burners.
(h.) If a dwelling adjoins a theatre ?
hall of amusement, or a large store or
manufacturing establishment, where a
great number of lights are kept burning,
the gas jets will often jump up suddenly
owing to an increase in the gas pressure
caused by the sudden turning off of a large
number of lights when the above establish-
ments are closed.
For all dwellings so located, a gas
governor attached to the house pipe near
109
the gas meter, or on every floor, will be
of much usefulness.
(i.) The smoking of walls and ceilings
can be avoided by the use of improved
burners. It can also be remedied by the
use of mica smoke catchers, attached to
the top qf globes, or of chimneys of
Argand burners, or by smoke bells or
shields of glass or metal, hung twelve to
eighteen inches above the gas jets.
CONSUMPTION OF GAS AND CJNTKOL AND
REDUCTION OF GAS BILLS.
Assuming the average burner consump-
tion to be 5 cubic feet per hour, the cost
of a single gas-light per hour, taking gas
at its present price in N. Y, City and
in Brooklyn, viz , $1.25 per 1,000 cubic
feet, would be
5 X 125
-3^oo" := ' 625 cents '
Assuming the average number of hours
per year for each gas flame to be 1,500,
which corresponds to the time from sunset
until ten o'clock each night during the en-
tire year, we have
110
1,500 X .625 = $9.37K cents
as the average yearly cost of each gas
flame.
When the gas flames are kept burning
on the average from sunset until midnight,
the average annual number of hours is
2,250, and therefore we have
2,250 X .625 = $14.06Ji cents
as the yearly cost of each burner.
For gas jets burning constantly, day and
night, such as are used in connection with
ventilating gas jet burners in vent flues of
water closets or toilet rooms, the annual
cost of a gas flame would be approximately
24 X 5 X 1.25
1,000 * X 365 = $54 ' 75 '
If the burner consumes 3 and 4 instead
of 5 cubic feet per hour, the cost would be
reduced to $32.85 and $43.80 respectively.
The following useful Table I., compiled
by a German gas engineer, gives the hours
of burning gas at different seasons of the
year, for the latitude of Dresden :
0?
9
' "' o x to en to Si o o to- S
;al Consum
nb. Ft. per ^
om sunset
12 P.M.
I s
iijjJMiil
1;:!
g tOK-O
P
r.
liiiiisiiisis
E
p S g S
M
giillliilips
P*
to to to i
OO X ^ O
P
M
h^
2 .0 g o x 3 w 5 2 ^ oo
S
Solo
O 1
N ^ . w. ^
to K) H* ^
g
O^Ci-^ltO^loCW X~3CS
|
IIII
O
. n
Ml^*M
*w
H-H-r*
?
in^S?S
^
^x-^^-3cr.^ o oorf-^^
1
1
iii3
1
M
c_,
^\^^!^
NCo&gsoSatcooi
OS to O O -3 W X ^ W CT cs CtO
1
p
iisg
IH
p
( _ l
i^SSS2SSS2"*S8ft
1
to to eo os
*- *- cc to
H
^
ii2iiii"iiii ?
I
01 tO O
OQ
02
?i-7*j~i-ir-
GO
S o o o
i
to to i > 1-1
|
lllilESIis
R
tO 10 1C h-
f ; _ _ /
en o o c
2
^"l-ti-il-i^bOh-l-ih-i
ilslliigisgli
.3
i|||
u
P
I
o en x S
?*
112
The daily, weekly, monthly and yearly
gas consumption may also be approximate-
ly calculated by recording the number of
gas lights in the occupied rooms of a house
and the respective hours during which they
are kept burning each evening. Of course,
it is necessary to know the consumption
of gas at the various gas burners, and
where volumetric gas burners are in use,
this is an easy matter. With these data
on hand, the monthly gas bill can be
checked very nicely within certain limits.
See the following example:
1=
o .
d
CM
I
Si
|i
I Number of
|BurnersLight<
Consumption
each Burner
Number of
hours for
each Burner,
Gas consume
per day.
Ju
Kitchen,
1
3!
2
7 cub. ft.
Dining room,
2
5 2
M
15
Library,
3
4
3
36
Hall,
1
3
2
6 ;
Bedroom No. 1
1
4
1
4 '
No. 2
1
4
1
4 '
No. 3
1
4
1
4 <
Bath room,
1
4
*
2 *
Per night, 78 cub. ft.
113
Or 30 X 78 = 2,340 cubic feet, at $1.25 =
$2.93, as the monthly gas bill.
It is recommended to gas consumers to
keep a small book in which the gas con-
sumption and the gas bills are regularly
entered from month to month. A simple
schedule for such a book is the following:
"3
^j
5
.
bo g
OD ^^
In ^
+3 3
Date.
o IB
ft^-
1 "
a ^
fl o
8 o
s S)
H
.2
3
January 1st,
8760
January 31st,
12540
3780
$1.25
$4.73
February 28th,
14970
2430
1.25
3.04
March 31st,
16990
2020
1.25
2.53
Again, the consumption of the corres-
ponding months of successive years may
be compared in a summary like the follow-
ing:
Month of Year.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
Etc.
January
Cubic
Feet.
Cubic
Feet.
Cubic
Feet.
Cubic
Feet.
Cubic
Feet.
February
March
April, etc
114
Table II. (see page 111,) is also useful in
comparing the proportionate consumption
of gas during the different months of one
year. In this table it is assumed that the
same number of gas-lights is kept burning
regularly in a house during successive
months, the number of hours per month
varying as per Table I.
The use of Table II. will be readily
understood from the following example:
During the month of June the consump-
tion of gas in a dwelling amounted to
2,700 cubic feet of gas; what will the con-
sumption in the same house be in Decem-
ber, if the same number of burners are in
use? Answer: The consumption in De-
cember would be
t) 9Ji
2,700 X = 6,050 cubic feet.
Or, if the consumption of gas for the
month of September is equal to 3,000
cubic feet, what would be the annual con-
sumption ? Answer:
12,618
3,000 x 1 QQQ ^ 37,854 cubic feet.
115
In large establishments it is suggested
to keep a daily record of the gas meter*
readings. This will not only enable one
to detect wasteful use of gas and leakages,
but it will also show whether the meter
continues to work properly.
A foreman should be entrusted with
this matter and with the keeping of a
monthly gas consumption account book.
This man should also have charge of the
gas meter or meters, of the gas pressure
regulator, and of the burners. It should
also be his duty to attend to the periodical
cleaning of the burners, shades, chimneys
and globes, and he should renew defective
and worn out burners, or broken, cracked
or split lava tips.
How TO REDUCE HIGH GAS BILLS.
In order to reduce high gas bills the
householder should endeavor to follow the
hints given above.
He should above all make sure that his
gas-pipes and gas-fixtures are absolutely
tight and that there is no leakage and
waste of gas anywhere on his premises.
116
He should endeavor to obtain a maxi-
mum amount of illumination with a mini-
mum gas consumption by using only the
best kind of gas-burners and the most
improved forms of glass globes, with
shadowless holders.
He should, moreover, use either pressure
regulators or governor burners, in case of
excessive gas pressure.
Finally, he should read the index of his
gas meter frequently to make sure that
there is no wasteful use of gas by children
or servants, and also to control approxi-
mately the gas consumption.
How TO READ THE INDEX OF THE GAS
METER.
Every gas consumer ought to be able to
read the index of his own gas meter, in
order to be able to tell how much gas he
consumes per month, or to very if y the
monthly account rendered by the gas
company, and to check at once any waste-
ful consumption in his household.
117
Different gas meters vary slightly in the
arrangement of the dials. In larger meters
there are four or even five dials, but those
in general use for dwelling houses and
stores have only three dials. Fig. 1 is an
CUBIC
FEET.
1OO Thousand 1.O Thousand 1 Thousand
Fig. 1 Read 48.7OO Cubic F,.wU
illustration of the index of a dry meter as
commonly used. The small index hand D
at the upper dial is not taken into consid-
eration by the meter inspector when taking
his monthly record of the state of the me-
ter. Each complete revolution of this in-
118
dex hand (usually a smaller one) is equiva-
lent to a consumption of two cubic feet.
This index is intended merely for testing
purposes, and it is useful for ascertaining
the rate of consumption of gas, or for de-
tecting leaks in the gas pipe or gas-fixture
system, as will be explained below.
The three dials which record the con-
sumption of gas are marked A, B and C,
and each complete revolution of their in-
dex hand denotes 1,000, 10,000 and 100,000
cubic feet respectively. It is important to
note that the index hands on the three di-
als do not travel in the same direction, for
index A and C move from left to right
(same as the minute hand of a watch), while
index B moves from right to left.
When a new gas meter is set in a house,
and before any gas is burnt, the three in-
dex hands point to zero. When gas begins
to pass through the meter, index A moves
first toward the right. When it reaches
the figure 1 it signifies that one hundred
cubic feet have passed through the meter
(whether consumed, wasted, or lost by leak-
age). As the consumption increases index
119
A passes successively the figures 2, 3, 4^
etc., up to 9, and when it again reaches the
zero point 1,000 cubic feet have passed
through the meter, and index B, on the
middle dial, will now stand at figure 1, de-
noting that one-tenth of 10,000, or 1,000
cubic feet haye been used. When index A
completes its second revolution, index B
will have moved to figure 2 on the central
dial, and so on.
When index B has completed a whole
revolution, arriving back at zero, it denotes
a total consumption of 10,000 cubic feet,
and now index C will have moved from zero
to 1, indicating one-tenth of 100,000 as the
consumption. When the hand C has made
a complete revolution, the consumption will
be 100,000, and the three hands will again
stand at zero, and in taking the next read-
ing it is necessary to add 100,000 to the
new reading of the meter.
Take, for instance, the position of the
three hands as shown in Fig. 1. The read"
ing would be 40,000+8,000+700=48,700.
Suppose that after the lapse of three months
the meter should indicate as in Fig. ^.
320
The reading, in this case, would be 60,000
+ 4,000 + 900 = 64,900. Therefore, if we
CUBIC
FEET.
1OO Thousand 1O Thousand 1 Thousand
Fig, 2 Read 64.,9OO Cubic Feet.
subtract the second from the first reading,
we have
64,900
less 48,700
= 16,200 cubic feet
as the gas consumption during the period
of three months.
It will be seen from the preceding, that
121
ordinarily the reading of the index of a gas
meter presents no difficulty. There occur,
however, certain positions of the hands on
the dials which to the inexperienced may
be puzzling, such, for instance, as shown in
Fig. 3. A person would be very apt to
1OO Thousand 1O Thousand 1 Thousand
Fig. 3 Head 9Q,9OO Cubic Feet.
make a mistake here in taking the reading
down as 91,900. If this were correct, in-
dex B should stand very near to figure 2
instead of at figure 1. By referring to dial
A it is evident that index B has not yet
122
reached figure 1, as index A stands at 9 ?
and the correct reading is therefore 90.900.
It is easy to avoid such errors by remem-
bering the rule to take the figure on the
index which the hand has passed, and not
the figure which it is approaching. If the
reading is difficult because the index hand
is almost over a figure, the correct reading
can be decided by referring to the next
dial to the right, on which the hand will
be between and 1 if the figure in ques-
tion has been passed, whereas it will stand
between 9 and if the figure has not yet
been reached.
A little practice will soon enable anyone
to read his gas meter as easily as he reads
the time on his watch, and it is well to
make it a rule to do so, for misunderstand-
ings with gas companies, and complaints
about exorbitant gas bills, are sure to grow
less wherever the consumption of gas is
ascertained and checked by the consumer
at frequent intervals.
123
How TO ASCERTAIN THE QUANTITY OF
GAS CONSUMED*
The small dial of the gas meter is useful
for ascertaining, with a reasonable degree
of accuracy, the consumption of gas from
one or more burners in various parts of a
house, or the hourly consumption of a
gaslog, or fire-place heater or a cooking
gas stove.
Note the exact number of burners
lighted, make sure that no others are put
in use during the test, and note either the
number of cubic feet consumed during a
measured period of time, say a quarter of
an hour, or an hour, or else see how much
time in minutes it requires for the small
index hand to travel from one cubic foot
mark to the next full foot. From these
data the actual consumption is readily
ascertained by a simple calculation.
How TO DETECT GAS LEAKS OR ESCAPES
OF GAS.
There is a very simple and effective
method by which every consumer may
134
readity and with very little trouble ascer-
tain whether there is any escape of gas on
his premises. Make sure that none of the
burner keys are open, and with the main
stop cock at the meter open, notice care-
fully for some length of time the position
of the index hand on the small upper dial
of the meter index. If it moves, it is a
sure indication that there is either a gas
escape or a leak somewhere. By noting
the time required for the index hand to
travel once around the small dial, the
actual quantity of gas escaping, in other
words, the extent of the leak, may be
ascertained with accuracy.
It is equally feasible to detect an escape
of gas by the sense of hearing. Place
your ear on the meter casing, and if you
notice a rumbling sound, it is a sign that
gas is passing through the meter and that
there is a leak somewhere.
THE USE OF GAS FOR COOKING AND
HEATING.
For many years after the invention of
gas-lighting, coal gas was regarded only
125
as a useful medium for obtaining artificial
light. But, besides serving the purpose of
lighting our streets, parks and squares, and
our dwelling?, stores, offices, workshops
and places of amusement, there are many
other uses to which coal gas can be put, in
dwellings as well as in workshops.
Coal gas is, beyond doubt, eminently
adapted as a fuel for cooking and for
heating, and gaseous fuel has more re-
cently begun to be recognized as playing
an important role in promoting domestic
comfort and rendering household duties
pleasant.
Cooking as well as heating by gas is
rapidly extending and becoming more
popular as its many advantages are be-
coming recognized. Moreover, each year
witnesses new and successful applications
of gas, such as heating laundry irons,
heating water for bath purposes, not to
mention an almost endless list of industrial
and commercial purposes in which gaseous
fuel is employed as a source of heat.
" It is only a question of time," says C.
W. Siemens, the famous inventor, " when
126
the solid fuel will be replaced by gaseous
fuel, particularly by the coal gas whereby
the present enormous waste of fuel will be
effectually prevented."
Indeed, it does not require a prophet to
foresee that in the same manner as gas-
light, although more costly, replaced the
illumination by candles or by oil lamps,
so will gaseous fuel in time replace the
solid fuels, such as wood and coal.
It is but natural that at first many
deeply rooted prejudices had to be over-
come, which greatly retarded the extended
application of gas as a source of heat. One
serious objection to the use of gaseous fuel
was the high price of the gas, but with the
general and considerable reduction made
recently in the price charged by gas com-
panies, cooking and heating by gas have
become more economical, and now it may
be truthfully asserted at least of cooking
by gas that it is cheaper than cooking with
coal.
As the many merits and advantages of the
new method became more widely recogniz-
ed and the value of gaseous fuel more ap-
127
predated, the popular prejudice that cook-
ing and heating by gas are only adapted
for the rich, was gradually overcome, until
now it is sufficiently demonstrated that g-is
as a fuel is, on the contrary, especially
adapted to the needs of small household.
For cooking with gas, small, simply con-
structed appliances for conveniently and
quickly heating water or warming food by
attaching same directly to illuminating fix-
tures were first brought out. Then came
the cheaper forms of portable gas cooking
stoves, which are plain in arrangement and
may be set on the kitchen range and con-
nected by a flexible gas tube to the nearest
gas pipe. More recently elaborate, com-
pact, convenient and more or less costly ap-
pliances have been perfected for the com-
plete preparation of all food, and these are
usually connected with the gas supply
pipes in a permanent manner.
For heating by gas various appliances
have likewise been devised, giving quickly
an intense and direct radiant heat, suita-
ble for warming rooms, in the shape of
128
gas stoves, gas radiators, gas logs and gas
grate fires.
Enterprising manufacturers are now do-
ing excellent work in getting up an end-
less variety of pleasing as well as useful
designs of well constructed, efficient cook-
ing and heating stoves and ranges, in which
gaseous fuel, the " fuel of the future," as it
is so aptly termed, is employed, in prefer-
ence to the solid and liquid fuels employed
in the past, such as coal, wood, peat, coke,
oil, gasoline, alcohol, etc.
There have been so many improvements
in these apparatus that cooking by gas will
soon become common in all kitchens, while
the use of gas heating stoves, or of gas grate
fires and gas logs will likewise increase.
While much progress has been attained
in the past, much more may be accom-
plished in the future, if gas companies
would offer to their consumers all possible
encouragement and all reasonable facili-
ties for using gas as a fuel. Inasmuch
as the use of coal gas as a source of
light is at present somewhat in danger
of suffering seriously by competition with
129
the electric light, gas companies should
welcome and promote all efforts tending
to increase the day use of gas. They
should try to popularize the use of gas-
not only by exhibitions of proper light,
ing appliances, improved gas burners and
gas lamps, but also by exhibiting to the
public at their offices a suitable collec-
tion of gas cooking and gas heating ap-
paratus, and enlightening the public as to
the use of the same by lectures and prac-
tical demonstrations on cooking, and by dis-
tributing practical and popular pamphlets
on the subject.
It is, furthermore, desirable that gas com-
panies should encourage the use of gaseous
fuel by establishing a lower price for gas
consumed in cooking and heating stoves, as
is already done in many cities of Europe
and in a few places in the United States.
Furthermore, gas companies may increase
their revenues by the renting out of gas
cooking and gas heating appliances to peo-
ple of small means.
With the increased use of coal gas in the
household gas works would become central
130
stations, as it were, for the production and
distribution of heat as well as light.
Owing to the cheaper price at which the
non-luminous water gas can be manufac-
tured, some have proposed to utilize it for
cooking and heating purposes, but this
would require a double system of gas mains
in our streets, and as this obviously would
add complication without opening up new
uses for the coal gas employed in lighting,
the proposition has been rejected as im-
practicable.
Of course, it is necessary, in arranging
for a supply of coal gas in dwellings for
cooking or warming purposes, that inde-
pendent and separate lines of gas distribu-
ting pipes from those for the lighting of the
premises be put in, and these lines from
the house side of the gas meter to the gas
heating and gas cooking appliances should
be proportioned ample in size for the ser-
vice which they have to perform.
The branch supply pipe to small gas
ranges, gas stoves and gaslogs should not be
less than one-half inch bore. A gas riser
from which two gaslogs are supplied, should
131
be % inch in diameter, and where three DA-
more gaslogs are supplied it should be
increased to 1 inch. Larger gas cooking
ranges require supply pipes from % to 1M
inch in size, according to the number of
burners and the estimated consumption of
each of these.
The same gas service pipe from the street
main to the house will usually answer the
purpose, but a gas meter of larger capacity
generally becomes necessary. It is even
better to have a separate gas meter, or at
least an intermediate meter on the fuel
supply line, to keep a proper control and
to prevent wasteful use of gas cooking
appliances, and also to ascertain by com-
parison with coal the cost of cooking and
heating by gas.
Another caution of equal importance
which should be observed is that wherever
gaseous fuel is used for cooking, heating or
warming bath water there should be an
outlet flue provided for the complete re-
moval of the products of combustion, and
no gas stove should be considered safe
without such a flue.
132
Finally, although gas cooking and heat-
ing appliances require a stronger pressure
of gas than is best adapted for gas burners
for lighting, this gas pressure should be
uniform and not excessive ; and in order to
control same it is advisable to place on the
fuel gas service pipe a good pressure regu-
lator to maintain a constant and equable
pressure in the gas supply.
COOKING BY GAS.
In the majority of dwelling-houses we
find gas cooking stoves used as an auxili-
ary means for preparing the food during
hot weather, or else they are brought into
use when extra meals are required.
It is a common experience that wherever
servants once get used to gas cooking stoves
in this way, they will thereafter prefer this
method to the coal range or the oil stove.
The modern improved gas cooking
ranges are so perfect in construction and
equipment as to form complete substitutes
for the cumbersome coal ranges. They en-
able the cook to perform all the numerous
cooking processes, such as boiling and roast-
133
ing, stewing and frying, broiling, toasting
and baking, and they also heat the water
in the house boiler. Their efficiency is
largely the result of the adaptation of, and
improvements in, the atmospheric or non-
luminous burner which gives little light but
an intense, . even and readily controlled
heat. While it is true that some excellent
cooking ranges are made in which the lum-
inous flame is retained, the majority of
gas cooking appliances have atmospheric
or Bunsen burners adapted for cooking, and
it must be conceded that the latter class of
burners have the practical advantage that
cooking utensils are kept more free from
soot.
It would be impossible, in a general arti-
cle on this interesting subject, to give a
detailed description of the construction of
modern gas cooking apparatus, and I must
refer the reader in search of such informa-
tion to the many well illustrated catalogues
of the manufacturers.
Not only in private houses are gas cook-
ing ranges found useful and convenient,
they have been fitted up in large establish-
134
ments, such as restaurants, oyster and chop
houses, club houses and hotels, in hospitals
and public institutions, in prisons and mili-
tary barracks, in seminaries, cooking-
schools, and in manufacturing establish-
ments, and the general experience has
been that they work very successfully and
that the cooking is done economically.
I will briefly state a few of the principal
advantages of cooking by gas.
Cooking by gas is less expensive and less
troublesome than by coal or wood, oil
or gasoline, and it is more healthful on
account of the absence of waste heat, of
smoke, dust and smell.
A gas cooking range is always ready for
use, even at unusual hours. There is no
loss of time in starting the kitchen fire.
No carrying of coal and kindling wood is
necessary, because gaseous fuel is readily
conveyed in small, tight pipes to any place
in the house where wanted, and is at once
ready for use.
The gas range is instantly lighted by
applying a match to the burner; there is
no waiting for the fire to burn up briskly
135
or the oven to get hot; no delay of any
kind; the fire when lighted is at once capa-
ble of doing its full work, any degree of
heat can be almost instantly had and the
flame is just as quickly extinguished when
the work of the cook is done and fire is
not wanted, and from this moment all con-
sumption of fuel ceases.
Any food wanted in case of emergency,
or for a large party can be gotten ready
in a short time at all hours of the day or
night, and no extra fire need be maintained
for such exceptional cases.
A gas range is more easily kept clean
than a coal range. No poking of the fire,
no cleaning and shaking of the grate, no
knocking off of clinkers is required. There
is no dirt, no smoke, no soot, and no carry-
ing away of ashes.
Gas ranges are, for all these reasons, a
source of great comfort and convenience to
the housewife, and a saving of labor to the
domestic or the cook. In the absence of
servants the cooking can be performed by
the housewife without much trouble or dis-
comfort.
136
A gas cooking range is better and more
easily controlled and regulated than a coal
range, and the cooking is performed quicker.
The combustion in the gas range is perf ect>
the heat of the fire is even and uniform,
and can be adjusted perfectly and at will.
The fire needs no constant watching or fre-
quent looking after and replenishing, and
it is, of course, perfectly safe as regards
danger from fire.
Above all, there is no discomfort in sum-
mer time from the overheating of the kitch-
en due to a coal range. When a fire is not
wanted, it is at once put out by the simple
turning of the gas key or valve. The ex-
act consumption of fuel is recorded by the
gas meter, and any useless waste can be
readily checked. Hence, if properly man-
aged, there is in a gas range absolutely no
waste of fuel as in the case of coal or wood
kitchen ranges, while the room remains
cool and comfortable, because as soon as
the gas is shut off there is no further radi-
ation of heat.
Moreover, food cooked on gas ranges be-
comes more palatable and nutritious . there
137
is less loss of weight, and the meats and
roasts remain more juicy, while all cooking
operations are performed more quickly.
Cooking by gas also requires no storage
or handling of solid or liquid fuel.
Again, gas cooking ranges are simple in
construction and very durable and require
few if any repairs, and the expensive and
annoying frequent relining of the fire pot
with fire bricks, as in coal ranges, is done
away with.
Compared with oil cooking ranges, gas
ranges are far superior in management.
There is 'no handling of the oil fuel, no fill-
ing of oil reservoirs, with its incidental bad
smell, soiling of hands and danger from
fire. There is, furthermore, no adjustment
or trimming of wicks, no oil smoke and no
disagreeable odor.
It is, moreover, true that in a given space
one can do more work on a gas range than
on a coal range of corresponding size, and
finally it may be worth while to mention
that where the larger sizes of gas ranges are
installed, these are always so arranged that
each burner can be lighted separately, thus
138
enabling the cook to prepare food on one
and the same apparatus economically, for
a few as well as for a great many persons.
It follows from the above that the use
of gas in the preparation of the dishes is
valuable to rich and poor alike, and if gas
is only carefully used, cooking by gas will
be found quite as economical in the case
of small households as it has proven to be
in large institutions.
It remains to discuss a few objections
often heard against the new method of
cooking by gaseous fuel.
One objection to gas cooking appliances
often made by householders is that, in win-
ter time the kitchen is not heated, because
in the construction of the better class of
gas ranges every precaution is taken to pre-
vent undue loss of heat by radiation. This
objection is readily met in steam heated
dwellings and apartment houses by provid-
ing a steam radiator in the kitchen, and
where steam is not available for heating, a
small gas stove maybe put up alongside of
the gas range, or sometimes a gas grate is
139
combined for this purpose with the gas
range.
To meet a second objection sometimes
raised, viz., that in using gas ranges we
rmist do away with the convenient hot wa-
ter boiler, a water heating attachment with
separate gas burners has been devised which
may be connected with the gas cooking
range, or else fitted up separately. A some-
what different apparatus, the instantaneous-
water heater, with gas fire, may be used in-
stead in the kitchen, bathroom or the house-
maid's closet, and offers the advantage that
hot water may be had almost instantly with-
out lighting up the kitchen fire. To pro-
vide for hot dinner plates, simple gas plate
warmers, or hot ovens, with gas burners
are obtainable, which may be fitted up
either in the kitchen or in the pantry.
A third objection, often heard and made
by persons inexperienced and not accus-
tomed to cooking by gas, is that viands so-
cooked acquire a certain objectionable taste-
of gas. This statement, is not, however,,
founded on facts. On the contrary, scien-
tific cooking experiments have demonstrat-
140
ed that the quality of cooking is rather
improved, and that there is less loss in
weight of the prepared food.
Enough has, I believe, been said to show
that the advantages and conveniences of a
gas cooking range are so many as to ren-
der it obviously desirable that every house-
hold should be provided with this modern
appliance, and no kitchen can be consid-
ered fully equipped without at least one of
the smaller portable gas cooking stoves.
Those who have had experience in this ex-
tremely useful application of gas will be
able to confirm these statements, and the
comforts and convenience of cooking by
gas will be thoroughly appreciated by
them.
HEATING BY GAS.
The method of warming apartments by
the combustion of coal gas as fuel is of
comparatively recent origin. Gas as fuel
has not been utilized to any large extent,
its application having been generally con-
fined to the heating of single rooms. Very
few attempts have been made to heat entire
141
buildings' with gas. One reason for this is
that, unlike cooking by gas, a gas fire is
not as cheap as a coal fire when kept con-
stantly going. In other respects, heating
with gaseous fuel is just as effective and
quick as cooking with gas, and for heating
smaller apartments, or rooms where heat
is only occasionally wanted, and then only
for brief periods of time, it is well adapted
and offers many advantages. For instance,
to heat bed-rooms, bath-rooms or dressing-
rooms and nurseries, a gas fire is preferable
to other modes of warming and fully as
economical in use.
Heating with coal gas is effected by
means of fire place gaslogs made of metal
or terracotta and asbestos; by asbestos in-
candescent grate fires; by gas-stoves with
brightly polished corrugated copper re-
flectors and by gas radiators. Quite
recently a warm-air furnace has been de-
vised with coal gas or natural gas as a
source of heat instead of the usual coal fire
pot.
Heating by gas is, without doubt, des-
tined to come into more general use as
142
the advantages of the method are becom-
ing recognized.
It may be used, on very cold winter days,
as a supplementary source of heat in houses
heated by stoves or by furnaces. Again
the gas fire may be utilized as a substitute
for the regular heating apparatus in a house
in the spring or in the autumn, when the fire
in the furnace or steam boiler has not yet
been started.
A gas fire is frequently of use as an aux-
iliary heater to counteract the chilling ef-
fects of very large window surfaces. It is
largely employed as the only means of
heating smaller bedrooms, guest rooms,
bathrooms, rooms in hotels, or other rooms
not constantly occupied. Gas fires and gas
stoves are now much used, particularly in
Germany, for the heating of church build-
ings, and of guests rooms in hotels which
do not require a continuous heat.
Very often portable gas stoves are put
up to heat rooms in which a stove cannot
be set because no chimney flue is available.
But this practice cannot be recommended
on sanitary grounds, because under all cir-
143
cumstances the removal of the unhealthful
products of combustion must be attended
to. It is equally obvious that where there
is a smoky chimney flue, or a flue with
constant down draught, or a flue in any
way defective, gas stoves or gas fires
cannot be successfully used.
In briefly enumerating the advantages of
heating by gas, a repetition of much that
has been said in reference to cooking by-
gas cannot well be avoided.
First, all types of gas heaters have the
advantage of not requiring a large annual
outlay in advance for the purchase of coal
and wood, and of not requiring the space
for the storage of such fuel in the cellar.
The user of gas for warming purposes finds
the fuel conveyed or u laid on " to his
house, ready for immediate use by the
lighting of a match or torch or wax taper,
and the gaseous fuel is sold to him on a
thirty days' credit, the gas bills being usu-
ally rendered at the end of each month.
All gas stoves or heaters save much work
to the servants of the household, and there-
by simplify to some extent the servant girl
144
question. He*'e, as with the gas cooking
range, there is no filling of coal scuttles, 1 no
carrying of coal or wood up stairs, and no
carrying away of coal or wood ashes. Gas
iires require no servants or attendants, no
troublesome lighting of the fire, no delay
or waste of time until the fire burns briskly ?
no watching of the fire, no poking or shak-
ing of the grate, no putting on of new fuel.
There is no smoke, no soot and no dust, no
fenders or pokers to be polished, no chim-
ney flues to be swept.
The lighting of the fire is conveniently
and quickly done, a glowing fire is obtained
almost instantly, the heat is easily con-
trolled, and can be increased or diminished
to suit the conditions of the weather by the
mere turning of a gas shut off valve. The
consumption of fuel is under full control,
and useless waste may be checked by fre-
quently reading the gas meter.
The fire can be instantly put out when
not wanted, and all waste of fuel, as in the
case of coal fires, is thus avoided.
All gas fires are clean and smokeless. If
provided with outlet flue and connection to
145
a chimney they are without odor, and there
is considerably less danger from fire than
with other heating apparatus.
If gaseous fuel would be universally a-
dopted for heating instead of the solid
fuel, the smoke nuisance in large cities
could be almost abolished.
It is, therefore, obvious that gas as a
source of heat is destined to come into
much more general use, and it is safe to
assert that, if gas stoves or gas grate fires
are applied with discrimination and used
with a reasonable degree of intelligence and
care, they will in practice be found to be
economical, and the many other advantages
enumerated may often be taken as counter-
balancing the slight increase in the cost of
the gaseous fuel over the price of coal or
wood.
In a recent publication on " Gas as Fuel
in the Household " an experienced gas engi-
neer has given the following comparisons
between the new method of cooking and
heating by gaseous fuel (coal gas or natu-
ral gas) and the old method in which other
146
fuel materials (such as coal, wood, oil, gas-
olene are employed).
Although some of his remarks and criti-
cisms do not apply to American conditions
of household management, his summary as
a whole is interesting and instructive.
Procuring the fuel. The inspection,
selection and purchase of the fuel for the
household at places of sale, which are often
located at an inconvenient distance, and
can only be visited during business hours,
is done away with entirely, because the
gaseous fuel is ever ready in the gas service
pipes for immediate use at all hours of the
day as well as during the night.
The troublesome and annoying negotia-
tions regarding the price of coal or wood,
which fluctuates according to market rates,
according to season, and according to quan-
tity and quality of the material to be bought,
drops out, because price and quality of gas
is regulated and fixed generally for a num-
ber of years in advance, sometimes by
contract agreement and of tener by act of
legislature.
All contract agreements as to the man-
147
ner of delivering and breaking up the fuel
material, taking same into the cellar bins,
etc., are rendered unnecessary because gas,
as delivered by gas companies, is always
ready for immediate use in the gas cooking
and heating appliances.
The control and inspection of the coal or
wood fuel, while it is being broken up or
cut to the size required, or while it is
weighed, delivered and carried into the cel-
lar and stored in the various bins is done
away, because the consumers of gaseous
fuel are simply charged the quantity of
gas actually consumed as recorded by the
monthly readings of the index of the gas
meter.
All insurance against fire, by spontane-
ous combustion or otherwise, of the fuel
stored in the cellar, is done away with be-
cause gaseous fuel cannot become ignited
in the pipes.
Securing the fuel from being stolen (as
in cellars of apartment houses) is rendered
unnecessary because gas cannot be readily
carried away.
The daily trips to the cellar to take up-
148
stairs the quantity of fuel needed, and car-
rying same in coal scuttles to the kitchen
range, the laundry range, the stoves and
fireplaces, are rendered entirely unneces-
sary, because the gaseous fuel is carried in
tight service pipes of ample size to all the
places where it is burnt, and because gas
is ready and forever available in any de-
sired volume, as soon as the gas service
pipe is connected with the street main.
All risks to workmen while loading the
coal or wood trucks, all interruption of
public traffic in carting the materials
through streets with steep grades, or at
street intersections, all perils to pedestrians
from open coal shutes in the sidewalk,
all danger from open cellar gratings, and
all danger of fire in dwelling houses from
thb storage of coal, oil or gasoline is done
away with, because the gasworks where an
inexhaustible supply of gaseous fuel is pro-
duced are brought into direct communica-
tion with the houses of the consumers
through the network of underground tight
gas mains, and because the only operation
necessary to make gaseous fuel available,
149
consists in merely turning a small tap pro-
vided at the gas-cooking range, at the gas
logs and fireplace heaters and at gas stoves
of all descriptions.
The unavoidable loss of coal or wood
during loading, carting, unloading and
storing, and the waste of fuel as occuring
in coal ranges, with clinkers and ashes, is
avoided where gaseous fuel is used, because
even the smallest quantity of gas can be
immediately lighted and is always entirely
consumed.
The loss of one or several months' inter-
est on the sum invested in the purchase of
the supply of fuel is avoided, because gas
bills are rendered monthly and the gas con-
sumed is not to be paid for in advance.
The extra fees for laborers hired for
breaking up the fuel to the size required,
or for cutting and sawing wood, or for put-
ting the fuel into the cellar bins is done
away with where gaseous fuel is used, bo-
cause the price to be paid for gas consumed
refers to the finished product of the gas
works as delivered through the gas service
pipes into the dwellings of the consumers.
150
All incidental expenses, such as rent of
cellar for storage of fuel, and premium for
insurance against fire, fall out because for
gaseous fuel no cellar or storage place and
no insurance are needed.
Application of the Fuel. The loss
in the kitchen of valuable space re-
quired for the cooking ranges, which are
often large and cumbersome, is avoided
where gas cooking ranges are used, be-
cause even the most complete gas ranges
are somewhat smaller, and because the
smaller sizes suitable for the cooking of a
small household can be placed almost any-
where on any kind of support.
With coal or wood ranges, the lighting
and getting ready of the fire is troublesome
arid consumes much time; the filling and
lighting of oil or gasoline ranges may
become dangerous owing to the easily ex-
plosive character of the liquid fuel, where-
as the gas in gas ranges can be readily and
safely lighted by the application of a match
to one or more of the burners, and the
lighting is rendered equally easy by the
151
pilot lights for the gas ovens and gas
broilers.
While the management and control of a
coal fire in the ordinary kitchen range is
troublesome, on account of the necessity of
frequent lifting of covers to put fresh fuel
into the fir.e pot, on account of escape of
unhealthy gases, and the incidental un-
avoidable loss of heat, the gas burners of a
gas cooking range give their full heat ef-
fect almost from the instant when the gas
is lighted, and the control of the heat is
easy because the size of the gas flame can
be regulated to a nicety simply by the
turning of the gas cock or gas valve.
In the coal range we have a continual
setting away and moving of the cooking
vessels to prevent the overflowing of boil-
ing liquids and the burning of thick dishes,
whereas in the gas cooking range the in-
tensity of the heat of each separate burner
flame can be instantly adjusted and regu-
lated according to the amount of heat
which the dishes may require.
On a coal range the preparation of a
larger meal occasionally required for visit-
ors or for dinner parties, demands difficult
and troublesome preliminaries, whereas in
a gas range a larger number of gas burners
can be lighted as occasion may require, each
burner being separate arid controlled by its
own independent gas shut off.
As regards the finishing up of the family
washing, the maintenance of a large fire in
the kitchen range or in a separate laundry
range for ironing purposes only, is expen-
sive and wasteful of fuel, and where iron-
ing is done in a room separate from the
kitchen, and where there is no separate
laundry stove 3 the exchange of sadirons is
troublesome and involves loss of time,
whereas where gaseous fuel is used to heat
sadirons, these are directly heated by the
steady gas name conveniently placed in the
laundry where required, and can be ex-
changed without loss of time.
Dishes often acquire a disagreeable taste
from the smoke of a coal or wood range.
Heating rooms where no chimney flue is
available to take away the smoke from the
burning coal or wood is difficult to accom-
plish. Curtains are rendered dirty by the
153
smoke from a grate fire; furniture, drape-
ries, pictures and gilt picture frames are
quickly destroyed. The breathing organs
become affected by the continuous cloud
of smoke from stoves, fireplaces, ranges
and furnaces of your own and neighbor-
ing houses^ but all this is obviated where
gaseous fuel is used, because this does not
produce smoke or soot during its com-
bustion, particularly where non-luminous
atmospheric burners are used.
The quantity of solid fuel, coal and wood
needed for heating and cooking, cannot
of ten be accurately determined beforehand,
because unforeseen circumstances, such as
unusually mild or very severe winter weath-
er may arise, but where gaseous fuel is
used the required volume of gas can be
readily computed, and it is always con-
trolled by the simple reading of the ga?
meter.
In houses or apartments fitted up with
coal ranges and with coal grate fires or
stoves, the services of a servant girl are in-
dispensable for cooking, ironing and at-
tending to the fires, and all this work is
154
performed slowly and requires much time,
and on account of the trouble involved the
housewife cannot devote herself so well to
her other duties, especially to the care and
education of the children, which should be
the highest aim of every family, whereas
in using gas as a fuel every one of the op-
erations named requires only about one
half of the time, whir 1 ! is usually necessary^
All annoyances are done away with, owing
to the cleanly, sure and effective method
of regulating the fires. The preparation
of savory and nutritious meals become a
pleasure, and not as heretofore a burden, in-
terest in cooking is awakened or promoted,
while at the same time the housewife is
enabled to devote her time not only to the
household but to the family and children
as well.
SPECIFICATION FOR GAS PIPING.
General Conditions. The gas fitting
work must conform to the general rules
155
and regulations of the gas company sup-
plying the district in which the building
is located, with gas.
The plumber is to notify the gas com-
pany and is to obtain a proper and large
gas service pipe, of ample capacity to sup-
ply all present and future gas outlets, run
by the company into the cellar of the
building.
The supply pipe leading from the street
main shall be provided with a stop valve
placed in the sidewalk' near the curb, so ar-
ranged that the gas may be turned off at
this point from the building.
The gas company will furnish and set
the gas meter, which is to be located in
cellar where directed. The meter to be
placed where it will be convenient for the
consumer to turn off the gas, and for the
meter inspector to read the index, or the
employees of the gas company to put me-
ter in order when repairs are required.
In no case shall the gas meter be set
where it will be exposed to damp or frost,
or liable to injury from any cause.
The gas company shall make the connec-
156
tions of the meter with the street service
and with the house pipe.
The plumbing contractor shall pipe the
whole building for gas in the most ap-
proved manner, and all his work must be
in strict accordance with the following de-
tailed specifications. The whole piping is
to be completed before plastering is com-
menced.
The contractor shall be responsible for
all his work and material, and shall replace
without extra charge any thereof which
may have become stolen, damaged, broken
or otherwise found deficient.
He is to clean out all pipes which may
be found stopped up, and he shall deliver
the entire gas piping work throughout in
good order, whole, clean and perfect, and
guarantee the entire work and all its parts,
and keep same in repair for the period of
one year from the date of the final certifi-
cate.
Pipes. Best quality wrought iron weld-
ed gas pipe of sizes to conform to the scale
given below shall be used. All pipe up to
1 inch diameter to be butt welded, larger
157
pipes to be lap welded. All pipe to be
free from splits, flaws or other defects, and
to be of a true and uniform section. All
pipe must be tested at the mills by hydro-
static pressure.
[State if pipe is to be of plain wrought
iron, or galvanized, or made rustless by the
Bower-Barff process.]
Fittings. All fittings, such as sockets,
elbows, bends, tees, crosses, reducers, etc.,
under two inches diameter shall be extra
heavy malleable iron fittings; fittings of
larger diameter to be cast iron fittings.
[State if fittings are to be plain, or
galvanized or Bower-Barffed.]
The use of galvanized malleable iron
fittings is recommended, the coating of
zinc if properly applied effectually cover-
ing up all blowholes, and thereby avoiding
the temptation of using the perishable gas-
fitter's cement.
Joints. All piping and fittings are to be
put together with screw joints and red lead,
or red and white lead mixed. All joints
are to be made perfectly gastight. The
use of gas-fitters' cement in the making of
158
pipe joints will not, under any circum-
stances, be permitted. Care to be taken
not to put too much white or red lead in
the fitting or on the pipe which, when
pipes are screwed together, might obstruct
the clear bore of same.
Valves and Stopcocks. In smaller build-
ings use brass lever handle stopcocks to
shut off gas at meter. In larger buildings
use full way brass finished stop valves on
all rising lines and on each floor to control
and shut off separately the flow of gas to
the various floors and to the separate
wings of the building.
Sizes of Pipes. All rising and distribu-
ting pipes and all branches to bracket and
centre-lights, shall be of ample and suffi-
cient size to supply the total number of
burners indicated on plans.
In determining the sizes of pipes do not
confound outlets and number of lights.
The pipe should correspond to the greatest
number of lights or burners it supplies irre-
spective of the number of outlets.
No pipe shall be less than % inches in
diameter, and this size shall be used only
159
for not more than one or two brackeo-lights.
No pipe for chandeliers shall be less than
y* inch inside diameter up to four burners,
and it shall be at least % inch in diameter
for all chandeliers with more than four
burners.
The gas-fitter shall proportion the sizes
of risers, distributing lines and service
branches by the following scale for gas
piping, which scale calls for piping slightly
larger than that ordinarily put in.
TABLE.
Size of Pipe.
Greatest Length
Allowed.
Greatest Number of
Burners to be
Supplied.
% inch
20 feet
2
X "
30 <
4
X "
50 <
15
1
70
25
1 1 A
100 <
40
1& "
150
70
2 "
200 <
140
2^ "
300 <
225
3 "
400 c
300
4 "
500 <
500
160
Main Pipe and Risers. Run main iron
service pipe exposed at cellar ceiling wher-
ever best or where directed, and put up as
many gas risers as may be necessary for
the proper distribution of gas piping in the
building. Risers shall not be run along
outside or exposed walls. If this cannot
be avoided the pipes shall be protected
with some approved non-conducting cov-
ering.
Outlets. Provide all outlets for gas
where shown on gas-fitter's plans. The
foreman gas-fitter must verify the exact po-
sition of all outlets for brackets, mirror
and center lights.
Note. Here insert a detailed list of out-
lets to be provided in each room, also a list
of burners at each outlet, and give key ex-
plaining the different marks used on plans
showing location of outlets.
Location and Manner of Running Dis-
tribution Pipes. All main risers are to be
carried exposed, wherever practicable, and
where concealed in wall recesses or in stud
partitions they should preferably be ren-
dered accessible. All other service and
161
distribution pipes are to be carried in walls
and partitions and between floor beams.
No gas pipes are on any account to be
placed at the bottom of floor beams which
are to be lathed and plastered, where they
would be inaccessible in case of leaks or
alterations. All piping is, as far as prac-
ticable, to be laid so as to be got at in case
of repairs.
Where gas pipes under floors run across
wooden beams, the latter are to be cut,
notched or bored, at no greater distance
than two feet from their bearings, and on
no account shall pipes be let into the beams
more than two inches in depth. All the
cutting which the gas-fitter needs shall be
done for him by the carpenter.
Running lines shall not be placed under
tiled or parquet floors, under marble
platforms or under hearth stones, where
this can be avoided. Wherever practicable
the running lines shall be kept accessible by
screwing down the floor boards over the gas
pipe with brass screws.
Drop-lights must in all cases be supplied
162
from special branches taken from the run-
ning lines.
All pipes shall be run as direct as possi-
ble, and with a true grade and fall toward
the rising lines arid the gas meter (or the
gas generator where the house is supplied
with an air gas machine), so as to prevent
the accumulation of condensed vapor or
water and consequent trapping.
The inclination of the pipe to be deter-
mined by the use of a spirit level, and all
sags in the pipe to be done away with.
Where needed special drip- pipes, closed
tightly with screw plugs, must be pro-
vided. Long runs of horizontal distribu-
tion pipes are to be firmly and strongly
supported, at short intervals so as' to pre-
vent the pipe sagging in the centre and be-
coming trapped by water from condensa-
tion.
Outlets, Bracket Pipes and Drops. All
branch outlet pipes shall be taken from
the sides or tops of running lines, never
directly from below. Bracket lines shall
always run up from below, and must not
163
be dropped from overhead except in the
cellar or lowest floor of a building. Drop-
lights shall have branches taken from the
side or top of the pipe, never from the bot-
tom of a running line.
The foreman gas-fitter must pay particu-
lar attention to these requirements, and
must constantly bear in mind that the
whole pipe system shall be free from any
low places or traps, and that every pipe
in the building shall be so inclined that
all condensation will flow back to the ris-
ing pipe or pipes and thence to the gas
meter or the gas generator.
Before any pipe is put into position, it
should be blown and looked into as a pre-
caution against obstructions.
Method of Fastening Outlet Pipes.~A\\
outlet pipes shall be securely and rigidly
fastened in position with gas-fitter's hooks,
galvanized iron straps or holdfasts secured
with screws, so that there will be no possi-
bility of any portion of the pipe settling
and forming traps, or of the pipes moving
when the gas fixtures are attached.
Centre pipes shall rest on solid supports
164
or cleats fastened to the floor beams near
their top. The pipes shall be securely fas-
ened to the support in such a manner as to
prevent any lateral movement.
All drop-pipes shall be perfectly plumb
and shall pass through a guide fastened
near the bottom of the floor-beams, in order
to be well stayed at both top and bottom
of floor joists.
Height of Bracket or Side lights. Out-
lets for bracket lights shall be placed 5' 6"
high from finished floor in rooms, 6' 6"
high in halls, and 6' 0" in bathrooms, un-
less otherwise directed. Mirror light out-
lets shall be 8' 0" above finished floor, ex-
cept where such lights are to be droplights.
Length of Nipples and of Drops. All
upright branches shall be plumb and the
nipples projecting from walls or partitions
shall be perfectly level or perpendicular to
the wall from which they project. All
nipples shall be of the exact length for
putting on fixtures, and shall project not
.more than %-inch from the face of the
plastering.
Outlets which come in connection with
165
any cabinet work are to be made tempo-
raiy, and must be brought to their exact
position at such time as the cabinet work
is put up.
Drop centre pipes shall project IK inches
below the furrings where no stucco or cen-
tre pieces are used. Where the latter are
used the drop shall be left about one foot
below the furring. All drops must be ex-
actly perpendicular.
Pressure Test and Inspection. When
piping is completed, and before plastering
is commenced, all gas outlets shall be tight-
ly capped and the whole system of gas pip-
ing shall be tested by a low pressure spring
gauge or better, a mercury gauge and
forcepump, and proved to be air and gas
tight under a pressure of air that will raise
the column of mercury eighteen inches in
the glass tube, equal to about 9 Ibs. pres-
sure per square inch. The system of pip-
ing shall remain under test at least one
hour, and any leaks indicated by the fall-
ing of the mercury in the glass gauge
must be at once repaired and made good,
and the test repeated until all leaks have
166
been repaired and the whole made abso-
lutely and perfectly gas tight.
No split pipe or broken or defective
fitting repaired with gas-fitter's cement or
with solder will be permitted.
In the stopping of leaks at joints, or of
sand holes in fittings, the use of gas-
fitter's cement will not be permitted, for
when cold it is liable to crack off, and
when near hot air flues or steam pipes it is
liable to melt.
When the pressure test has proved the
system to be tight, the caps should be
removed from the gas outlets in different
parts of the building, to observe if the
whole of the system has been under pres-
sure. This test wil] at the same time re-
veal if all pipes and branches are clean
and free from obstruction.
After the test, all outlets are to be left
capped and tight at the completion of the
work.
When running extra outlets or making
changes in new buildings after the original
work is completed and tested, the gas-
fitter shall again put on the gauge and
167
test the altered work in the same manner
as above described.
Gas Fixtures. It is understood that the
gas fixtures are not to be furnished by the
party contracting for the gas piping.
Test of Piping to be Repeated before the
Fixtures are hung. Before the gas fixtures
are hung or put up, the gas-fitter shall re-
peat the air pressure test in the presence of
the owner or the contractor for the gas fix*
tures, and shall demonstrate to their satis-
faction that the whole gas piping is abso-
lutely tight.
The gas-fitter shall do this for his own
protection so that when the gas is turned
on at the fixtures and any escape of gas is
subsequently noticed, it is obvious that the
leak is at the fixture joint for which the
gas fixture man and not the gas-fitter shall
be solely held responsible,
Gaslogs and Gas Fire Place Heaters.
Where fire places are to be fitted with gas-
logs or gas grates separate rising lines not
less than three-quarter inches in size are to
be run for same from the cellar upward.
For each gaslog provide a half-inch
168
branch gas supply with plated wheel-
handle valve placed in floor where
directed.
Gas Cooking Range. Where gas cook-
ing ranges are to be fitted up provide a
a separate service pipe of sufficient size (at
least three-quarters of an inch for small gas
cooking stoves and from one to one and
one-half inches in diameter for the large
gas cooking ranges). Provide in kitchen a
gas outlet for gas range, about two feet
from floor, properly capped.
Gas Heating Stoves, Gas Plate Warmers,
Instantaneous Water Heaters^ etc. Where
rooms are to be heated by eras stoves, or
where gas plate warmers or gas water
heaters are to be set up, provide separate
service pipes of ample size, and provide
outlets where wanted, and leave same
properly capped.
Gas Main for Cooldng or Heating.
The rising lines for gaslogs, gas stoves, gas
ranges or gas plate warmers may be con-
nected together in the cellar into a large
main, of sufficient size, determined by the
hourly consumption of the gas appliances
169
to be fitted up. This main must begin at
the gas meter and shall be arranged with
separate shut off or gate valve.
MUNICIPAL RULES AND REGULA-
TIONS "REGARDING GAS PIPING
AND GAS FITTING IN THE CITY
OF MUNICH, GERMANY.
Obligations of Gas-fitters. All persons
carrying on the trade of gasfitting must be
licensed, and must give a bond to the
city for the faithful performance of all
their work, in accordance with the rules
and regulations given below. No person
will be permitted to do gas piping or fitting
without having obtained such a license.
Rights of Gas-fitters. Gas-fitters may
undertake the furnishing and constructing
of all new gas piping, including gas-fixtures,
and also the alteration or extension of ex-
isting gas pipe and gas-fixture systems,
whether for lighting, cooking, heating or
other purposes.
170
The furnishing and laying of the gas
service pipes from the street mains to the
gas meters, the furnishing and putting in
of main shut off cocks or valves on the ser-
vices, the fitting up of main as well as in-
termediate gas meters, and the connection
between the gas meters and the service and
house pipes by licensed gas-fitters will not
be permitted. This work shall be done by
the gas company. Gas-fitters and house
owners are also prohibited from disconnect-
ing gas meters and service pipes, which
work shall only be performed by the gas
company.
Rights of the Gas Company. The lay-
ing of gas services, by which term are des-
ignated those pipes which convey the un-
measured gas from the street mains to the
main gas meter, and the putting in of all
main shutoffs on the services can only be
done by the gas company, who also fur-
nishes the necessary materials and fittings
for this work.
The owner of a building must notify the
gas company in writing whenever he wishes
such work done.
171
The ownei may obtain the main gas
meter and all needed intermediate meters,
either from the gas company or from gas-
fitters, but in the latter instance the gas
company shall have a right to have such
gas meters as are furnished by gas fitters,
tested by.the official meter inspector and
examined as to their construction and dur-
ability. The gas company shall have the
right to condemn all gas meters which the
written report of the inspector declares
to be for any reason unfit or unsatisfac-
tory s
Owners must pay the gas company for
all work performed and material furnished
in the laying of service pipes and fitting
up of gas meters.
Gas Meters. Only such gas meters,
which have been examined and tested by
the official meter inspector and provided
with his official seal, are permitted to be
used.
The size or capacity of the gas meters
depends upon the number of lights which
they are to supply, or upon the consump-
tion of gas, corresponding to the number of
172
lights, including all outlets for gas cooking
and heating appliances.
The largest number of lights which can
be supplied from a gas meter of a certain
capacity is given in the following table:
TABLE I.
Size of Meter.
Number of
Lights Supplied
With a Total Consump-
tion per hour of.
3 lights.
4 lights.
21,2 cubic feet.
5
6
31,8 <
u
10
12
63,6
It
20
24
127,2 <
30
36
190,8
u
40
48
254,4 <
(I
60
72
381,6 <
80
96
508,8 <
u
100
120
636,0 <
(I
150 "
180 "
954,0 <
a
200 "
240 "
1272,0 "
Where still larger sizes of gas meters are
required, the municipal department deter-
mines the size of the gas meter, basing the
calculation upon a minimum consumption
of five cubic feet per hour for each light.
173
Wherever new buildings are piped for
gas, and it is contemplated to use tempora-
rily only a part of the lights or of the pipe
system, the owner may apply for a tempo-
rary gas meter of smaller capacity sufficient
to supply the number of temporary lights,
but in alLsuch cases the gas piping or gas
service shall conform in size to the require-
ments of the whole building.
All gas meters must be protected by the
owner from damage of any kind and must
be kept in a good condition.
All main gas meters and shutoffs shall
be placed and fitted up in an easily acces-
sible, well lighted position near the front
wall of the house and at the point of en-
trance of the main gas service.
All intermediate gas meters shall be so
placed as to be easily accessible, and where
they cannot be set directly upon the floor,
the bottom of the meter shall not be
elevated more than eight feet from the
floor,
Wherever this appears impracticable, or
where the gas company and the gas-fitter
or the owner cannot agree as to the best
174
position for the meter, the same shall be
decided by the municipal department.
Gas meters shall not be placed in rooms
which cannot be entered with an open light,
or where explosive substances are stored or
manufactured.
Gas Piping in Buildings. All gas pipes
inside of buildings shall be wrought iron
pipes and must be put together in an abso-
lutely tight manner.
Lead pipes can only be used when
approved in writing by the municipality.
Rubber tubing will only be permitted for
single portable lights or for connections
with portable gas cooking or heating
appliances. The metal pipes to which
the rubber flexible tubing is connected
must be provided with a tight shutoff cock.
The inside diameters of the gas service
pipe, of the inlet and outlet supply pipes
at gas meters, of the inlet and outlet
couplings of gas meters, and of the gas
distributing pipes in all buildings shall
be determined according to the number of
lights to be supplied, by the following
table of pipe sizes:
175
TABLE II.
Length of Gas- I]
pipe in Meters
(approx. yards).
%inch
=9, 5mm.
J^inch
= 12 5mm.
g
1
5
o
H
o oo
.2 H
l^inch
38mm.
is
f3
ft.
2
4
6
8
10
15
30
25
30
35
3
3
2
2
1
1
10
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
18
16
13
10
8
5
5
4
4
3
30
25
20
15
13
9
8
7
6
5
60
50
40
32
25
20
17
15
12
11
120
100
80
64
50
40
35
30
25
99,
180
150
120
100
80
60
55
50
45
40
400
320
260
220
180
155
132
120'
112
103
40
4
10
35
9ri
45
2
9
1)
30
88
50
1
3
8
17
28
80
60
1
3
7
16
26
70
70
2
6
15
24
65
80
2
5
14
22
60
90
1
4
13
20
55
100
1
3
12
18
50
150
9,
9
15
43
200
1
8
13
36
'250
/
12
30
300
11
176
In still larger buildings the dimensions
of gas pipes will be determined by the
municipal department.
No pipe shall under any circumstances
be smaller than % inch = 9.5 mm - inside
diameter.
In the case of larger buildings con-
taining rooms devoted to different pur-
poses, such as school-rooms, work-rooms,
halls for amusement and living rooms,
there shall be several sub-divisions with
separate gas meters and separate shut offs.
Before commencing the gas piping in
such buildings the gas-fitter or architect
shall notify the municipal department,
and if required must file detailed plans of
the proposed gas piping for approval.
Pipe Joints. All pipes and fittings
shall be connected by screw joints. In
special cases, other joints will be permitted
only upon the approval of the municipal
department.
All pipe threads shall be covered with
thin layers of hemp dipped in or saturated
with white lead or red lead, or a mixture
of both.
177
All joints which are not tight, shall be
at once repaired, or removed and replaced
by tight joints.
The covering of leaky joints with putty,
gas-fitter's cement or similar material is
unreliable and will not be permitted.
Covering joints with paint before the
gas piping has been tested, is forbidden.
All fittings must be either of wrought
iron or of malleable iron.
Grade and Position of Pipes. All gas
distributing pipes must be laid with a
uniform fall towards the gas meter, must
be kept easily accessible, and where carried
exposed must be protected against acci-
dental injury.
At all places, where the continuous grad-
ing of the pipes must be interrupted, or
where pipes pass from a warm room into a
cold place, siphons must be provided in
order to remove all water from condensa-
tion accumulating at these points.
Gas pipes must never be carried under
fire places or under kitchen ranges, nor
through chimney flues or other inaccess-
ible places.
178
Where pipes have been covered over,
they can only be tested and put to use if
the inspector has previously inspected the
same and has approved of their being
covered up.
Wherever gas pipes are carried through
exposed or open ground they should have
at least three feet of covering.
Fastening and Support of Pipes and
Gas Fixtures. Dropells fastened to the
ceiling beams and Tees or ells with lugs
screwed to the wall furring or studding
shall in all cases be used for attaching the
oeiling and wall fixtures.
It is not permitted to hang chandeliers
to curved pipes. The fastening of chande-
liers must be sufficiently strong to carry
four times the weight of the fixture with-
out loosening any joint. All chandeliers
weighing more than 22 Ibs. shall be hung
with ball and socket joints.
Only such gas keys shall be used at
fixtures which shut off the gas by a
quarter turn, which are provided with
strong stop pins and cannot be pulled out.
All gas keys and movable or swing
179
joints must be ground so as to be perfectly
gas tight. All fixtures shall be connected
with the gas pipes by perfectly tight
joints. All joints of extension pendant
fixtures must be absolutely gas tight.
So-called Cork Joint Pendants are pro-
hibited ?
The hydraulic seal of sliding chandeliers
must be filled instead of with water with
glycerine or with some oil which does not
evaporate, does not thicken and set hard>
and does not freeze.
Protection of Gas Flames. In all
rooms, where the use of an open light is
prohibited, open or unprotected gas flames
shall not be used, and in all places where
explosives are either manufactured or
stored, gas-lights shall not be used at all.
Wherever a gas flame is nearer than
(io cm. = 2 inches to the ceiling or to
any inflammable material, the gas flame
shall be protected by a suspended metal
shield placed at least 2/4 inches from the
material to be protected.
Wherever swinging gas brackets would
come in contact with inflammable material
180
the gas flames must be surrounded with
wire globes or cages, or else the bracket
lights must be made rigidc
All gas-fixtures must be so fastened or
hung as not to be liable to injury by ordi-
nary use, or so as to come into contact
with inflammable objects.
The fitting up of sunburners requires the
special approval of the municipal depart-
ment.
Notices to the Department. Every gas-
fitter shall report in writing at the muni-
cipal department, when a gas piping job
which he is doing in new buildings as well
as in extensions, additions or alterations of
existing buildings, is completed. He will
then be informed as to the method and
time for the test of the completed work.
The necessary blanks for such notices
may be obtain 3d at the municipal depart-
ment.
In the case of older buildings the gas
-piping must be gotten ready for the test
before such notice is sent. Covering up
any gas pipes, or connecting up the gas
meter before sending such notice is pro-
181
hibited. All gas outlets and the end of
the main distributing line or riser are to
be capped perfectly air tight, and the gas-
fitter must provide the gas testing appar-
atus', force pump, rubber tubing, connect-
ing nipples and the pressure gauge.
The same requirements as to testing shall
be observed in the case of additions or al-
terations of existing buildings, provided
more than 30 feet of gas piping and more
than two gas outlets are put in.
Small jobs of gas piping, requiring not
more than 30 feet of pipe, or not more
than two gas outlets, or both, may be con-
nected to the existing gas piping without
official testing, but a notice of such work
must be sent in every case to the municipal
department. This notice shall contain :
1. The full name and business of the
owner.
2. The name and number of the street
in which the building is located.
3. The number of gas lights or the ex-
pected consumption of gas for which the
piping to be tested is to serve.
Such notice blanks must be filled in and
182
signed by the gas-fitter who has the order
or the contract for the work.
The municipal department fixes the date
of the test which must take place within
24 hours after receipt of the notice.
At the date set for testing the gas-fitter
must personally be present at the building
the gas piping of which is to be tested, and
he must give to the inspector such infor-
mation about the work as the latter may
require. He shall give all necessary assist-
ance in the test, and must remain present
during the whole test.
Test of the Gas Piping. Before apply-
ing the pressure test, the whole gas piping
job shall be thoroughly inspected as re-
gards the position and run of the gas pipes,
as regards pipe sizes and pipe joints, as re-
gards quality of the pipe and fittings, and
as regards the proposed location of the gas
meter.
If no defects are found the inspector
shall proceed to test the gas pipes. The
test is usually carried out with a water
pressure gauge or manometer,
For the purpose of testing the pipes and
183
the pipe joints the whole gas piping system
shall be put under air pressure correspond-
ing to a column of water 10 inches high
equivalent to about % inches of mercury).*
Should the column of water in the gauge
keep its level or drop not more than three-
sixteenths inches per minute, the piping
will be considered tight. Should it fall
more than this amount, the test will be in-
terrupted, and will only be resumed after
the gas-fitter has sent a second notice stat-
ing that the existing defects have been re-
moved.
In the case of extensive gas pipe systems
the test shall be made in sections.
Filling gas pipes with water, in order to
detect defective joints or other leaks, is
strictly prohibited. Any gas piping so
treated shall remain excluded from the
test until all the pipes which have been
* This test is less severe than the test usually applied in
the American practice of gas piping. The usual height of
the column of mercury is five to six inches, but the better
class of work is tested under a pressure of a column of mer-
cury from 10 to 15 inches in height. The writer has found
it expedient to call in his specifications for a column of 18
inches of mercury. W. P. G.
184
filled with water, are taken apart, cleaned
and dried.
In case of temporary gas piping for a
circus or other show, or for halls arranged
for festivals, if the conditions relating to
dangers from fire will permit, the inspector,
with the approval of the owner, may give
a written permit to connect the gas pipes
with the gas service for the purpose of
testing the pipes with the gas turned on
(either by watching the small index of the
gas meter or by looking for leaks by the
sense of smell).
If no defects of importance are dis-
covered, the inspector may permit the gas
to be left turned on.
Gas Inspectors Certificate. -If the test
of a system of gas piping in a new build-
ing turns out satisfactorily, the gas- titter
receives from the inspector a certificate in
duplicate, in which the number of lights,
or else (where gas is to be used otherwise
than for lighting) the consumption of gas
is stated. In this certificate the inspector
is also to state whether or not there are
any objections on technical grounds to the
185
putting of the gas service or main supply
with its shut-off, and to the setting up of
the gas meter.
If the certificate relates to additions or
enlargements of the gas piping in an old
building, the same must also state the
number of additional lights put in or the
capacity -to which the system has been
increased. The certificate must further
state whether the main gas meter is of
sufficient capacity for the total number
of lights or for the increased consumption,
or whether a new larger meter must be
substituted.
One copy of the certificate, which also
contains the application for a gas service
and a gas meter, shall be filled out and
signed by the owner, and then handed to
the gas company, and thus serves as a
written order for the work which the gas
company is to perform for the owner.
The gas company shall fill the order
within the following three days (except
where the ground is frozen in winter) or
in case of alterations or additions, the gas
186
company must exchange and set the neces-
sary main or intermediate meters.
Without such official certificate the gas
company will not be permitted, either in
new buildings or in alterations, to set up or
exchange gas meters and to turn on the
gas.
Maintenance of the Gas Lighting System.
The owner shall in all cases be respon-
sible for the maintenance of the gas pip-
ing system.
In cases where the municipal department
discovers that a gas piping system, either
in a new or in an old altered building, has
been put in use without first obtaining the
certificate prescribed by law and without
the piping having been tested, or in cases
where there are serious defects in the gas-
piping of old buildings, the department
has the right to order the owner to have a
proper test applied by a licensed gas-
fitter. Should the owner refuse to do so,
the further use of the gas piping system
may be prohibited and the gas may be
turned off from the building.
187
Should the gas meter be suspected of
registering incorrectly, the gas company
shall, upon [an order from the municipal
department, exchange the gas meter and
test the suspected meter in the presence of
an inspector.
Should the test prove the meter to be
correct, the expense of the test must be
be borne by the complainant who re-
quested the making of the test. If the
meter is found to register incorrectly, the
same shall be repaired, re-tested or replaced
by a new one at the expense of the owner,
who shall also pay for the testing of the
defective meter.
Penalties. Any person violating this
ordinance shall pay a fine up to fifteen
dollars, or shall be sentenced to imprison-
ment up to two weeks.
Fees. For each official inspection and
test the owner of the building shall pay to
the municipal department a fee, the amount
of which is calculated according to the
number of gas outlets in the building, viz. :
188
For 4 outlets $0,50
From 5 to 10 .75
11 " 20 " ,...o ... 1.00
21 " 30 " 1.25
" 31 " 50 " 1.50
51 100 " 2.00
More than 100 " ...2.50
For the inspection of gas piping put in
without the outlets being used, or for the
examination of plans for additions or altera-
tions, or for tests of gas piping suspected to
be defective, a fee is charged in proportion
to the time spent, each hour of the official
inspector being charged at fifty cents,
and each hour of his assistant at twenty-
five cents.
In case the first test proves the gas pipe
system to be leaky and defective or not in
accordance with the above regulations, the
defects are to be repaired, and for each
additional test one-half of the above fees
is charged.
189
INDEX.
PAGE
Preface 5
Artificial Illumination 7
Historical Notes on Gas Lighting 11
Advantages of Gas 13
Usual Defects of Gas Lighting and Gas Piping 21
Gas Service Pipes and Gas Meters , 28
Gas Distributing Pipes 32-
Pipe Fittings and Pipe Joints 36
How to run Gas Pipes in Buildings. 37
Testing Gas Pipes 40
Gas Leaks 50
Precautions against Danger from Fire 57
Gas Burners 62
Gas Pressure Regulators 72
Ventilating Gas Burners 73
Gas Globes and Globe Holders 75
Gas Fixtures 77
Hints to Gas Consumers on the Proper Use
and Management of Gas 82
Advice to Persons Building a House on Service
Pipe and House Piping, Gas Meter, Gas
Fixtures, Gas Globes and Pressure Regu-
lators, Supply to Gas Logs and Gas
Stoves , 82
190
INDEX continued.
Maintenance of Gas Fittings 87
Management of Gas , 89
Suggestions for the Treatment of Persons over-
come by the Inhalation of Gas 94
Gas Leaks 98
Precautions against Fire 98
Irregulari ties in th e Gas Supply 101
Consumption of Gas and Control and Beduc-
tion of Gas Bills.. 109
How to Eeduce High Gas Bills 115
How to read the Index of the Gas Meter 116
How to ascertain the Quantity of Gas Con-
sumed 123
How to detect Gas Leaks or Escapes of Gas. ... 123
The Use of Gas for Cooking and Heating 124
Cooking by Gas ^132
Heating by Gas 140
Specification for Gas Piping 154
Municipal Eules and Kegulations regarding
Gas Piping and Gas Fitting in the City of
Munich 169
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