GIFT OF MICHAEL REESE THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK CONTAINING FULL INSTRUCTIONS / t- FOR THE ALLOYING AND WORKING OF GOLD THE ART OF ALLOYING, MELTING, REDUCING, COLOURING, COLLECTING, AND REFINING ; THE PROCESSES OF MANIPULATION, RECOVERY OF WASTE, CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GOLD ; WITH A NEW SYSTEM OF MIXING ITS ALLOYS ; SOLDERS, ENAMELS, AND OTHER USEFUL RULES AND RECIPES. BY GEORGE E. GEE,' GOLDSMITH AND SILVERSMITH, AUTHOR OF "THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK" SECOND EDITION, CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED LONDON CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 1881 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. HAVING been frequently applied; to by gold- workers and others, with reference to certain difficulties relating to their trade, which they were unable to overcome^ ihechanicall^ii the idea pre- sented itself to the mind of the Author, that a work practically treating on the " Uses and Appli- cations of Gold/' having special regard to the business of the goldsmith and jeweller, would be a useful auxiliary to the artificer also, by affording him a constant means for consultation and instruc- tion. From an intimate connection with this craft or art, of a very practical nature, extending over a period bordering upon twenty years ; and having held during nearly the whole of that time a IV PREFACE. position of trust and responsibility with several leading manufacturing firms ; also from his expe- rience as a jeweller's manager, he is not only enabled to place before the reader the results of his own personal experience, but also that of others who have been under his direction and control. Arid further, having given considerable attention to the intricacies of the trade generally, he has, as a natural consequence in common with others met with many difficulties connected with it ; besides other obstacles which are to be found in the path of the younger craftsmen. These however have been ultimately overcome by the exercise of patience, careful observation, and perseverance. To guide, therefore, the workman and young apprentice, and, as far as possible, to prevent them from experiencing similar perplexities by pointing out their chief causes and the remedies, as well as to supply some additional information which will, it is hoped, contribute both to their effi- ciency and advancement, is the aim of the writer. Directions for mixing gold, solders, enamel, &c., are here given of a thoroughly experimental character. The processes of colouring, collecting, PREFACE. V refining, and some other modes of treatment of the precious metal are also described, and for accuracy they can be safely depended upon. The Author has endeavoured to avoid, as much as possible, technical expressions ; having regard all through to the main object of this little volume, namely, the benefit of that class of practical gold- workers who take an interest in the daily business of their life, to which, perhaps, chance or choice has called them ; but who unfortunately may be unable to improve their position^ from the want of a higher and more comprehensive knowledge of their calling. He has, therefore, tried to make the matter plain and intelligible to all who may give it their attention. Especially does he desire that such of his fellow workmen who are steadily devoting their energies to this art, in any of its several branches, may through this instrumentality acquire a knowledge of facts, and a set of useful rules with which they have, perhaps, hitherto been unacquainted. It only remains to be added that the greater portion of this work has appeared in the form of articles in the Jeweller and Metal-worker, a well- VI PREFACE. known and valuable journal, published in the interests of the trade indicated by its title. Much additional matter has however been here intro- duced, and the whole carefully revised ; so that it may become, as it were, a manual of reference and a guide to the jeweller's workshop. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION THE Author, in presenting a second and enlarged edition of this work to his readers, has much plea- sure in stating that the additional information, as given in the form of an Appendix, is thoroughly sound and practical, and that good commercial successes may be accomplished by following the directions therein given. The new matter consists partly of the results of some of the Author's numerous experiments and researches into the subject upon which he writes, and partly of the details of modern processes of working in daily practice in his manufactory, such processes having been rendered perfectly successful ; and a hope is here indulged that such knowledge will be found available for service in assisting the Vlll PREFACE. labour and promoting the interests of the melter, the colourer, and the gold-worker generally. The title of the work, too, has been changed from " The Practical Gold-worker," to " The Goldsmith's Handbook," in order to make it uniform with its companion volume, " The Silversmith's Hand- book." G. E. GEE. 58, TENBY STREET NORTH, BIRMINGHAM, July, 1880. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. History and Sources of Supply. Page Introductory ...... * Colour of pure Gold 2 History of Gold . 2 Scriptural References . . 3 Ancient Jewish works of Gold . . 4 Gold known and valued by all nations . . 5 Sources of Gold ... 5 America 6 Australia 7 Asia 8 Africa ... Europe ... 9 Great Britain ... .10 03 X CONTENTS. Page Gold Supply of Great Britain . . .11 Native Gold 1 1 Gold found in various mixed states . . 12 Separating Gold from the Ore . . .13 South American System . . .14 Australian System 15 Russian System 1 6 Crushing Machines 17 CHAPTER II. Properties of Gold. Specific Gravity of Gold . . . .18 Pure or fine Gold 20 Table of Substances with their Symbols used by Jewellers 2 1 Equivalent Chemical Weight Explained . 22 Malleability of Gold 23 Gold-Beaters' Gold 24 Various Uses of Gold 25 Ductility of Gold 26 Indian Filigree 27 London and Birmingham Filigree . . 27 Ancient Jewish Method of Working Gold . 28 Tenacity of Gold 29 CONTENTS. xi CHAPTER III. Various Qualities and Alloys of Gold. Page Table of Qualities and Values . . .30 Purchasable price of Gold . . . .31 22-Carat Gold 32 English Gold Coins 33 Trial of the Pyx ...... 34 Quality and Weight of the Guinea . . 35 Australian Sovereign . . , . 35 Old Method of Coining 36 Wedding-ring Manufacture . . . -37 Duty on Wedding-rings . . . .38 2o-Carat Gold 39 i8-Carat Gold 40 Various Colours of Gold, Tables of . . 43 i5-Carat Gold ...... 44 i3-Carat Gold 45 i2-CaratGold ...... 47 lo-Carat Gold 47 9-Carat Gold 48 8-Carat Gold . 49 7-Carat Gold ....... 50 Pure Silver 50 Pure Copper 5 1 Composition -51 Hard Gold 5l Spelter 2 CONTENTS. Page Table of Alloys ...... 52 Table of Specific Gravities . . . 53 Table of Weights ...... 54 CHAPTER IV. Melting and Rolling. Copper used by Jewellers . , , 57 Purchasable price of Copper . . . -57 Materials for Alloying 58 Treatment in the crucible . . . -59 Tough Gold 60 Jewellers 3 Furnace 60 Best flux for Gold 61 Melting Scrap Gold . . . . .62 Fluxes employed in Removing various im- purities ....... 62 Loss in re-melting ...... 63 How prevented, Table of Calculations . . 63 Reducing the Quality of Gold ... 64 Improving the Quality of Gold . . '65 New System of mixing Gold . . . .66 A practical explanation of . . -67 Locket-makers' Bars of Gold .... 68 Chain-makers' Bars of Gold .... 69 CONTENTS. xiii Page Preparing strips of Gold .... 70 Cost of Gold-rolling 71 CHAPTER V. Coming. Manufacture of Coins 72 Process in Operation at the Mint . . 73 Size of Mint Bars 74 Cutting-out Presses 75 Defects in the Process, how remedied . . . 76 Brightness of the Sovereign . . . 77 Weight of the Sovereign . . . 78 Remedy for Wear 79 CHAPTER VI. Manufactured A r tides. The Jeweller's board 80 Modern Improvements . . . . 81 Locket-making 82 The process of 83 Soldering the Joints 85 Common Lockets 87 Wrought Work .... 88 XIV CONTENTS. Page Press Work 88 Jewelling . 89 Taking impressions from Jewellers' work . 9 1 Fusing Points of the Principal Metals . . 92 Fusing Points of the Various Qualities . 92 Darnell's Table 92 Our Table ....... 92 Annealing different Qualities ... 93 Silver Solders . . . . -93 Fusing Point 94 Zinc in Silver Solders 94 Advantages and Defects of , . 95 CHAPTER VII. Solid Wire- Drawing. Wire-Drawing . . . . . .96 Ancient Method . . . . . 97 Draw-plate 97 Alloys of Gold for Chain-making . . .98 Preparing Wires for Chains . . . 99 Our System 100 Preparing Various Shapes . . . . 101 Square Wire . . .... 102 Oblong Wire .... .103 Hollow Wire-drawing 103 CONTENTS. XV Page Hollow Half-round Wire . . . .104 Hollow Fancy Wire 105 Hollow Square Wire 106 Ornamental Wire 106 Gold Chain-making 107 CHAPTER VIII. Manufacturing Processes. Gold-plating 108 Sweating Process 109 Soldering Process 109 9-Carat Plating . . . . . .109 Round Wire-plating no Polishing .in Water-of-Ayr Stone 112 Washing out the Work . . . . .113 Enamelling . 113 Arrangement of Colours . . . .114 Properties of Enamels 115 Fritz or Flux 115 various . . . . . . ' . 116 Enamel Colours, several . . . . .118 Deep Colours 119 Preparing the work to receive Enamel . .120 Degree of heat for Opaque Colours . .121 Finishing Enamel-work 122 Diamond- work 123 xvl CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. Engraving and Chasing. Page Engraving . 124 Niello Engraving 125 Engraving of the Sixteenth Century . .126 German Art of . . . . . .126 English Engravers . . . , . .127 William Hogarth 127 Draper 127 Process of the Engraver 129 Engravers' Cement . , . . . .129 Removing Articles from the Cement . .131 Chasing .... . 131 Benvenuto Cellini . . . . . -133 Electro-Gilding 133 CHAPTER X. Solders and Soldering. Hard Solder 135 Coloured Gold Solders 136 Pallions of Solder 137 Soft Solder . . . . . . .137 Treatment of work containing Soft Solder . 138 Composition of Soft Solder . . . .138 Method of Melting 139 CONTENTS. XV11 Page Removing Dross from the Molten Metal . 14 Soft-Soldering Fluid 140 Preparation of 14 l Dissolving Soft Solder 142 Difficulty of Treatment . . . . .142 New and Effective Process . . 143 Our Secret Mixture . ... 144 Preparation Described 144 CHAPTER XI. Various Processes of Colouring and Finishing. Dry-Colouring . . . . . .146 Introduction into the Trade of Coloured Gold 147 Ingredients Employed in Colouring . .148 Qualities of Gold for Dry-Colouring . . 148 Original Process of Dry-Colouring . .149 London Process of Dry-Colouring . . -151 Preparing the work . . . . 153 Finishing the work 155 New Process of Dry-Colouring . . .156 Wet-Colouring 158 General Principles 159 Deposition in Wet-Colouring . . .161 French Process of Wet-Colouring . . .162 London Process of Wet-Colouring . . .165 xvill CONTENTS. Effects of Colouring on the Operator Birmingham Process of Wet-Colouring Preparing the work Finishing the work .... German Process of Wet-Colouring Frosting the work .... Lapping Composition of the Lap . Heading-in the Lap Square Lapping .... Removing the Gold from Lap CHAPTER XII. Collecting and Refining waste Gold. Precipitating Gold in Colour- Water General Treatment of Colour- Water Mixture for the Crucible Collection and Treatment of Jewellers 5 Lemel Responsibilities of Workmen Burning of Jewellers' Lemel . Mixture of Lemel for the Crucible . Treatment in the fire ..... Bad Workable Gold . . . . Recovering Jewellers' waste .... Proportions of Mixture prepared for the Crucible CONTENTS. XIX Page Fluxes Employed .191 Effects of Saltpetre . . . . .191 Separate Methods of Treatment . . .193 Refining Lemel . . . . . .193 Granulation of Gold 195 Mixture of Nitric Acid 195 Jewellers' waste waters . . . . -197 Recovering Gold from 197 Various Methods Employed . . . -199 Precipitating Gold in these waters . .201 Jewellers' Sweep . . . . . .202 General Treatment 203 CHAPTER XIII. Tables of Specific Gravities, Alloys, &c. Specific Gravity of a Sovereign . . .205 Various Qualities of Gold . . . .206 Composition of the Sovereign . ., .206 22-Carat Reduced to i8-Carat . . . 206 18 16 ... 206 18 15 ... 207 18 14 ... 207 18 13 ... 207 18 s> ,, i2j ... 208 22 16 ... 208 XX CONTENTS. Page i6-Carat Reduced to i5-Carat . . . 208 1 6 14 209 16 13 ... 209 16 \2\ ... 209 22 15 ... 210 15 14 ... 210 15 J 3 ... 210 15 I2| ... .211 22 14 ... 211 H 9, 13 211 14 I2j ... 212 22 13 ... 212 13 I2j . . 212 Wet-Coloured Solder 213 Chief Places of Jewellery Manufacture . .213 Reducing Standard Gold to Various Qualities 214 Reducing Fine Gold to Various Qualities . 214 Table of Alloys with Standard Gold . .215 Table of Alloys with Fine Gold . . .215 Table of Alloys for Parting . . . .216 Table of Gold Values 216 Table of Coloured Gold Alloys . . .217 Table of Coloured Gold Solders . . .217 Table of the Duty on Gold . . . .218 Table showing the easiest Method of reduc- ing Gold 218 Assayers* Weight 219 Assay ers* Report 219 CONTENTS, XXI CHAPTER XIV. Useful Hints. Lemel 220 Hand- washing 220 Gold-cutters 220 Workpeople's Aprons 220 Shop Floors * .221 Testing Gold 222 Conclusion 223 APPENDIX. Resitlts of Experiments and Researches. Details of Modern Processes. Paragraph Page 1. Oxidation in Gold-melting . . . 225 2. Serrated Edges in Gold Bars . . .227 2. Defects in Ingot Moulds . . .228 3. New Ingot Moulds, Treatment of . . 228 4. Porous Irregularities in Gold Bars. . 228 5. Gold Alloys, over-heating of and mixing 229 5. Position of Ingot Mould while pouring in the Gold 229 6. Blue Gold, how to prepare it . . .229 6. Blue Gold, alloying and treating . . 229 7. Pale Yellow Gold 231 8. Grey Gold . . . . . .232 xxii CONTENTS. Paragraph 9. Dr. Wagner's Gold Colour 10. Gold and Silver Renewer, or Anti- oxide 1 1. Gold-colouring with Sulphuric Acid 12. Copperas in Waste Waters 1 3 . Sulphate of Iron and its Action with Soda 14. Test for Iron or Steel Tools . 15. Test for Gold 1 6. Colouring Gold, a useful mixture . 17. Ditto, ditto, new method 1 8. Ditto, ditto, another mixture 19. Dissolving Copper from Gold Articles . 20. Tarnished Gold, to restore it again 21. Mixture for soldering Gold without changing its Colour .... 22. Ditto, ditto . 23. Gold Solders of various qualities, &c. 24. Lemel, its Treatment with Iron Filings . 25. i8-carat Alloys, finishing bright . 26. Silver Solder, removing from Coloured Gold 27. Iron, dissolving from Gold Articles 28. Gold-melting, Difficulties in . 29. Pale Lemon-colour for i8-carat Gold 30. Pure Acids, c THE PRACTICAL GOLD-WORKER. CHAPTER I. Gold ; its History and Sources of Supply. To aid the advancement of scientific knowledge, and to give assistance to the manipulator or worker in the precious metal, is the object of the writer of this book ; as well as to enable the artisan and the uninitiated to acquire a general knowledge of the history, and useful appliances of the chief material connected with the goldsmith's art. In the first place, with the idea that the subject may be in- teresting to the general reader as well as to the practical man, we propose to review the ancient history of gold, together with its modern progress and usefulness as regards ornamental art. The last-mentioned matter will be amply discussed hereafter, when the processes and treatment of the precious metal will be explained, together with all that can, in common fairness to the trade of a B 2 HISTORY AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY. manufacturing goldsmith, be published. This in- formation will be derived both from actual expe- rience, and from the study of the works of most of the leading authors who have written upon the subject. Gold of all metals is the most imperishable, and consequently the most noble and beautiful. It is, therefore, identified with everything that is intrin- sically valuable and outwardly rich. It is the most solid of all the metals, and when in a state of perfect purity consists of particles so fine in the grain and so closely united, that they can hardly be separated. When unalloyed it does not suffer any diminution or loss by melting ; it does not tarnish in the air, neither is it subject to rust if laid by, but always retains its natural appearance ; no acid or salt of any kind will affect it in the least degree ; it has moreover a beautiful characteristic yellow colour, and is justly distinguished from all other minerals by the name of "the king of metals," or the " royal metal." The history of gold abounds in so much that is interesting, that we have thought it worth while to trace a little of its ancient production and applica- tions. Gold has been known from the remotest age. The sacred writers used to identify it with everything that was precious, and speak of it as REFERENCES IN SCRIPTURE. 3 the metal of supreme excellence. The first mention of it in the pages of the Old Testament is in the Book of Genesis (chap. ii. 10 12): "And a river went out of Eden to water the garden ; and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads. The name of the first is Pison : that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold ; and the gold of that land is good/' The Book of Genesis is supposed to have been written by Moses about 1,500 years before the birth of Christ ; gold, then, upon the evidence of Scripture, has been used upwards of 3,300 years. The first mention of its being employed for the purposes of ornamental art is found in the same book (Genesis chap. xxiv. 22): "The man" (this was Abraham's servant) " took a golden earring of half a shekel weight, and two bracelets for her (Rebekah's) hands of ten shekels weight of gold." A golden skekel, according to our present currency, would be worth about i i6s. bd. The same book also informs us that articles or ornaments of jewellery were worn by the Jews, of almost every description now to be seen in the nineteenth century. In Genesis also (chap. xli. 42) we read of other things of the same kind, the manufacture of which was known to the ancients : " And Pharaoh took off his ring from his hand, and put it upon Joseph's hand, and B 2 4 HISTORY AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY. arrayed him in vestures of fine linen, and put a gold chain about his neck." As far as we have been enabled to ascertain by reference, gold is mentioned in the Bible in all upwards of three hundred times, in connection with various things with the manipulation of which the old Jewish patriarchs must have been tolerably conversant; for we read of jewels, crowns, bowls, knops, bars, pillars, hooks, flowers, rings, chains, bells, plates, tablets, ouches, and talents of gold ; also cherubims, candlesticks, mercy-seats, ephods, breast-plates, and calves, all of which were of gold ; there were besides settings of gold, tables covered with gold, houses embellished with gold, while the throne itself is said to have been overlaid with pure gold. Further, all Solomon's drinking vessels were made of this metal (i Kings x. 21): "And all king Solomon's drinking vessels were of gold, and all the vessels of the house of the forest of Lebanon were of pure gold ; none were of silver : it was nothing accounted of in the days of Solomon." So abundant does it appear to have been in his time, that it is reported that he received 666 talents of gold (equal to about 27 tons) in one year. Gold has been known and used by every nation, both uncivilised and civilised, from the earliest period down to our own time. Among the old AMERICAN GOLD FIELDS. 5 Egyptian monuments it is found, and semi-bar- barous nations also used it in the form of dust as the principal medium of exchange. When America was discovered by Columbus, gold was well known to its inhabitants ; the Chinese have used it from time immemorial ; the Medes and Persians were remarkable, even more than other Asiatics, for their love of gold ; jewels of costly descriptions were employed to indicate the rank of the wearer, and this custom is still continued in the East at the present day. Africa too has long been cele- brated as the land of gold-dust, and it is supposed that the Ophir whence Solomon obtained so much was a country on that coast. To show the sacred value, in ancient times, the Egyptians placed on gold, it was represented by a circle with a dot in the middle : this circle, amongst that nation, being the symbol of divinity arid perfection. Gold is found in America, and mines exist in California, Mexico, Brazil, British Columbia, Peru, Central America, Granada, and several other localities in South America. At present the United States of America contribute more than one-third of the total supply of gold. The metal is never met with in a pure state in nature, being always alloyed with silver and some- times with copper ; the proportion varying greatly 6 HISTORY AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY. in the different gold mines of the world. In Cali- fornian and some other mines of America, the purity is not quite equal to our standard; nevertheless, this does not alter the fact that America is the richest gold-producing country of the whole world at the present time. California is the largest field in America, pro- ducing gold to the value of 13,000,000 per annum ; Mexico and South America contribute i ,000,000. (We are indebted for these statistics to " Cassell's Technical Educator Mineral and Commercial Products.") Previous to 1847 (the year of the dis- covery of gold in California) the average produce of the whole world was far short of that now yearly produced by California. Professor Tomlinson, in his " Useful Arts and Manufactures," said : " Yet so comparatively small were the gatherings of the precious metal, that in reckoning the average produce of all parts of the New and Old World for a series of years previous to 1847, i fc did not amount to the annual value of five millions sterling." In Australia, gold is found in New South Wales, Victoria, Melbourne, Sydney, Reedy Creek, Gee- long, and numerous other places ; but the places just mentioned are the most important and exten- sive producing districts in that country. New Zealand is also a gold-producing country. That AUSTRALIA AND ASIA. 7 of Australia and New Zealand is remarkable for its pureness, being considerably above our present English standard, and containing only about three per cent, of alloy, or fifteen grains to the ounce. The year 1851 was a year of special interest to the English people, and memorable to this country in more respects than one. It was in that year that the first International Exhibition of Industry was opened in Hyde Park, and it was in that year also that Australia first began to reveal her long-hidden treasure. The first discovery in our Australian possessions was made near Bathurst, situated about one hundred miles west of Sydney, New South Wales. A gentleman of the name of Hargraves, who had for some considerable time been familiar with the geology of the district, by way of experiment, took several baskets of soil from the ground and washed the contents, when they were found to contain gold. The experi- ment was repeated with the assistance of a body of men, and the result fully justified his expecta- tions and rewarded him for his labours. This brilliant discovery soon however became known, and gold-digging became a flourishing industry. Mining operations were carried on by emigrants from all parts of the world, and in a short space of time similar results to those already achieved in 8 HISTORY AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY. California followed. At the present time the gold- producing districts of Australia, with New Zealand, contribute one-third of the total supply. The purity of the Australian gold as taken from the bowels of the earth, as we have already remarked, is greater than that of any other country in the world. In Asia, the Ural Mountains contain some rich gold districts ; they are situated on the borders of Asiatic Russia. Tibet, in the Chinese Empire, also furnishes gold. The islands of Sumatra and Ceylon, in the Indian Ocean, likewise contribute to our store; so do Borneo and Japan, in the Pacific Ocean. Other parts of Asia yield small supplies, such as the rivers of India, China, Sumatra, and Asia Minor, but the total supply is not very important when compared with other places, the annual value not exceeding half a million sterling ; the chief districts being the Ural Mountains and the East Indies. In Africa, gold seems to have been found from the very earliest ages ; and along the coast of Caf- fraria the sands abound in gold-dust. This district is reputed to be the oldest and richest of the sources known to the ancients ; it is supposed, as already mentioned, that the Ophir of the ancients was part of this coast, the place where King Solomon obtained so great an abundance of gold AFRICA AND EUROPE. 9 (i Kings x. u): "And the navy also of Hiram, that brought gold from Ophir." The chief sources here are Guinea and the Gold Coast; the latter includes the district between Darfur and Abyssinia, where the principal portion is found. A small quantity is found in the sands of the rivers Gambia, Senegal, and Niger ; " and although," says Pro- fessor Tomlinson, "Africa is at once pointed out by her 'Gold Coast* as yielding the precious metal, the whole supply from that continent is not esti- mated at more than 5,000 Ibs. weight annually." The value then of the whole produce of this conti- nent will not exceed a quarter of a million sterling per annum. Africa, in this respect, has lost her ancient position and has become the poorest quarter of the hemisphere in the yield of the pre- cious metal. Having now spoken of most of the gold dis- tricts we come nearer home, and it will, no doubt, be interesting to our readers to know, not only what are the gold-yielding localities of Europe, but also in our own country. In Europe, the Ural Mountains, dividing Asiatic from European Russia, furnish the largest quanti- ties of gold. It is also to be found in the sands of the Rhine (in Prussia), the Rhone (in France), the Tagus (in Spain), the Danube (in Turkey), and B 3 10 HISTORY AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY. many other rivers, but it is rarely considered worth working, because it exists in these respective places in too small a quantity to pay expenses. The provinces of Asturias and Granada, in Spain, formerly furnished a large amount, the mines being very rich and valuable, but they are now entirely neglected. Italy is not altogether destitute, for it is known to exist in the neighbourhood of the Alps, and in the sands of some of the rivers. At Edelfus, in Sweden, it has also been found. The Carpathian Mountains, in the Austrian Empire, also furnish the precious metal. The richest and largest mine on the continent of Europe, with the exception of Russia perhaps, is in Hungary : this and the Ural Mountains furnish the chief European supply. Our own country is not without her gold dis- tricts, for small quantities have been found in Cornwall. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth exten- sive washings for gold were carried on at Lead- hills, Lanarkshire, Scotland. It has also been found at Glen Turret in Perthshire, at Cumberhead in Lanarkshire, and more recently large quantities have been found in Sutherlandshire. Ireland, towards the close of the last century, supplied a large quantity of gold, but the yield lasted only for a short period ; it was found at Arklow, in VARIOUS DEPOSITS. II the county of Wicklow. Pieces were found by the people varying from the smallest particle to twenty ounces in weight. Gold has also been found at Dolgelly, in North Wales, and energetic proceedings have been carried on there. Never- theless, we shall have to look in the future, as in the past, to the great gold-producing countries of America and Australia for a sufficient supply of the precious metal for the use of our artistic workers. The total annual gold supply of Great Britain and Ireland would not be sufficient to keep ten of the largest Birmingham firms fully employed manufacturing their usual 9 -carat quality of goods for one week. We have said that in ancient times Africa was the great gold country of the world. In more modern times, till as recently as the year 1847, Mexico, in North America, and Chili, Peru, and Brazil, in South America, produced most of the gold used for the currency and in the gold- smith's art; but the discoveries in California and Australia have established a field, the productions of which will not for a considerable time, at least, be exhausted. Gold always exists in nature in the metallic state, there being no evidence to the contrary. It is found in the form of gold-dust and nuggets in earth deposits ; these deposits being formed by the 12 HISTORY AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY. breaking-up of old rocks containing gold, under the influence of storms and torrents, which have swept the metal, together with soil and other matters, into deep receptacles, leaving it often at the bottom of rocks and in the bends of rivers. The lowest of these deposits are generally the richest on account of the specific gravity of the metal ; but it is sometimes found upon the surface of the earth, and the Californian gold was dis- covered in this way. The metal is found in veins, in pyrites (firestone), in granite rocks, and in layers or strata of clay, gravel and pebbles, sometimes at a considerable distance below the soil. It is also obtained in considerable quantities mixed with sand and gravel on the surface. In North America it exists in loose deposits in beds of gravel from nine inches to three feet in thickness, and from three to six feet from the surface of the ground. In California, it consists chiefly of alluvial gold y to which reference has already been made. In Australia gold quartz (a semi-crystallised rock, chemically termed hy- drate of silicon) is more common, the precious metal in these lumps of rock appearing in the form of branchlike fragments. Here it is also found in some abundance in various-sized nuggets, and more plentifully in the form of gold-dust. SEPARATING GOLD FROM THE ORE. 13 Gold-dust abounds chiefly in the sands and beds of rivers. On the coast of Africa, it is said that the negroes dig out the earth, rich in gold-dust, to a great depth. In Ireland gold has been found in masses, some lumps being of great size. The nuggets found in Australia often exist in large masses, one specimen having been found weighing 46 ozs. The mines of Russia contain large masses of gold ; on the southern portion of the Ural Mountains (Asiatic side),4n 1842, sands of immense richness were discovered ; and at the period of which we speak, an enormous mass of gold was dug up weighing about eighty English pounds. This splendid mass was afterwards placed in the collections of the Corps des Mines, at St. Peters- burg. Some six years previous to this a large piece of this metal was found in the same neigh- bourhood, weighing upwards of 22 Ibs. troy. According to some writers upon this subject, it is not, however, a usual thing to find masses of such proportions in the Ural districts of Asia or Europe ; the metal more commonly existing in small grains or fragments, and the yield averaging from thirty to seventy grains of gold per ton of soil. We have already said that in Australia, one of the great modern gold-producing countries, massive lumps are to be found in considerable quantities ; 14 HISTORY AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY. only the other day a friend showed us a beautiful nugget which he himself had discovered in that place, which is now worn as a scarf pin, and the purity of it no jeweller could dispute. There are several ways of separating the gold from the ore at the different mines throughout the world. The most simple method is that of washing the sands of rivers, that is the alluvial deposits which have been washed by floods and storms into deep gullies. There are numerous processes of washing in vogue, and these are adopted to suit the resources of the gold-diggers. In South America, and other countries having sands rich in gold-dust, this washing is performed in shallow iron or zinc pans ; the earth being put in and well stirred up with water, the light earthy matters suspended in the water being afterwards poured away from the gold. This process is re- peated until all the particles of earth are removed, leaving the gold-dust visible to the naked eye in minute grains at the bottom. Another method which has found some favour amongst gold-diggers, is the employment of shallow wooden troughs, lined with coarse cloth at the bottom; these troughs, which are of some length, must be placed in a slightly-inclined position ; the auriferous sands are then thrown into the trough, a gentle stream of DIFFERENT METHODS. 15 water is allowed to run in, and from its inclined position, the fine sand is washed away, leaving behind the small particles of gold in the tissues of the cloth, which are recovered by washing in water. In other cases, ordinary sloping boards, of common deal in its rough state, are taken, and shallow grooves made across them ; the soil is then thrown upon the planks, the coarseness of which, together with the grooves, form collecting -places for the gold, which, on account of its very high specific gravity, sinks into the crevices thus provided, while the lighter matters are washed away by the stream of water employed for the purpose. At the gold-diggings of California and Australia, where these rich sands and alluvial deposits exist to a great extent, a rocker commonly called the "Burke rocker," or cradle, has been generally employed ; this rocker will wash from seven hun- dred to one thousand bushels of gravel or sand a day ; the cost of the machine complete being about twenty-five dollars (English money, ^5- 45-. 2d.} Most of the gold of the United States is worked up into jewellery, and not in the coinage ; a large trade being done at Newark, Philadelphia, Provi- dence, Rhode Island and numerous other places. Professor Bloxam, in his work on metals, thus describes the cradle used at the Californian gold- 1 6 HISTORY AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY. diggings : " This is a wooden trough about six feet long, resting upon rockers, and at the head of it is a grating upon which the alluvial deposit to be washed is thrown. This end of the cradle is about four inches higher than the other, so that a stream of water entering it flows through and escapes at the lower end, left open for this purpose, carrying the earthy substances with it, and leaving the par- ticles of gold, with a small quantity of earthy matter, in the trough. These are swept out into a pan, dried in the sun, and freed from the lighter matters by blowing upon them." It must be understood that these are not the only methods of gold-washing, the process being slightly dif- ferent at nearly all the gold mines. At the mines in Russia iron sieves are most generally used, fitted upon sloping boards upon which cloth, or some other substance, is placed ; these receive the deposit and are placed under a gentle current of water, which, being well stirred, the fine sand and gold-dust fall through on to the cloth beneath, and are thus recovered. These processes cannot be employed when the gold exists in iron pyrites, quartz, or other similar rock, being only adapted to the washing of alluvial deposits, sands, &c. In any of the previous operations the digging for gold is attended with little expense; RUSSIAN METHOD. 17 but where it is disseminated through auriferous iron pyrites, quartz rock, &c., a considerable outlay generally attends the operation. Expensive crush- ing machines and stampers have to be employed for the purpose of breaking up the rough hard material which contains the gold. Sometimes the ore is very hard; so that before submitting it to the action of the stamping or crushing machine, it has to be well burnt and quenched in water, in order to render it more brittle, and consequently easier to crush. The stamping and crushing is done in water, and is continued until the ore is reduced to a very fine powder, when the gold is separated by one or other of the processes already explained ; or, it may be extracted by amalgama- tion with metallic mercury, which dissolves and collects it. The surplus mercury may be removed by putting the amalgam into a coarse flannel bag and well squeezing it, when a great portion of the mercury will run out, leaving the remainder a solid mass in the bag. The remaining mercury may be got rid of by placing the substance in an iron pan or box, and heating it over a gentle charcoal fire, which renders it volatile. CHAPTER II. Properties of Gold. HAVING now pointed out the places where gold is to be found, and the way in which it is extracted or separated from the ore, we leave this part of the subject, and purpose in what follows to deal with the precious metal as a commercial product. In this we hope to give some practical information which will no doubt be useful to our readers, more particularly to working jewellers. Pure gold, on account of its very rich colour and non-liability to tarnish in air or water, either by oxidation or from the action of sulphuretted hydro- gen, is used for a variety of commercial and ornamental purposes. Being very solid it has a high specific gravity, one other metal only being superior ; this metal (platinum) being the heaviest known substance ; it is, however, not much em- ployed in commerce. The specific gravity of gold is 19-2, but by hammering it becomes 19*5. It will PURE OR FINE GOLD. 1 9 be well to explain, before proceeding further, the meaning of the term specific gravity ; in order to remove from the minds of those of our readers who are unacquainted with chemical phraseology and technical expressions, any doubt which may exist as to the true nature of its meaning. The specific gravity of a substance is the proportion it bears in weight to that of an equal bulk of water. Specific gravity is, then, the difference subsisting between the weights of equal bulk, or given dimen- sions, of liquids or solids. For example, if we take two pieces of gold wire, each of exactly the same size and length, and place them separately in the opposite pans of a pair of scales, the scales will exactly balance, the gold wire being identical in weight, and therefore of the same specific gravity. If we now remove one of the pieces of gold wire and substitute one of silver of exactly the same size and length, by balancing the scales again we shall at once see that the gold wire is much the heavier; and the difference between the two metals shows their relative specific gravity. Water, in consequence of its lightness in com- parison with the metals, and the ease with which it is obtained pure, is adopted as the standard of specific gravity. Taking \vater as the unit, we write after it the figure i, or 1,000 ; these numerals 20 PROPERTIES OF GOLD. may represent grains, pennyweights, or ounces. The metals employed by the jewellers in the manufacture of their articles or wares would be numerically expressed thus : Water, sp. gr. (specific gravity) I or 1,000 Spelter do. 7' 2 or 7,200 Copper do. 8-96 or 8,960 Silver do. 10- 5 or 10,500 Gold do. 19- 5 or 19,500 The weight of gold is nineteen and a half times that of water of the same bulk, silver ten and a half times heavier, and copper nearly nine times, as indicated by the above table. Perfectly pure gold, or fine gold, as it is more generally called, cannot be procured in commerce, in consequence of the long chemical refining process which would make it too expensive for manufac- turers of jewellery, according to present competing prices. The different qualities are expressed in carats ; the finest gold, which should be quite free from any alloy, is commonly expressed as 24, but the fine gold of commerce consists only of about 23! to 23! carats, and this is quite good enough for ordinary practical purposes. Fine gold consists of irregular minute grains of a dull yellow colour, but it can be made bright by heating and boiling in hydrochloric acid ; however, this is only a matter ATOMIC WEIGHT. 21 of taste, and does not make the slightest difference to the working of the metal ; in fact, some masters give a preference to the dead colour. So far as our own experience goes, we unhesitatingly say that for manufacturing purposes the one is quite as good as the other. The melting point of -fine gold is 2,016 Fahrenheit, and it appears of a greenish shade when fused in the pot ; when heated to the above degree it reflects like a mirror. Fluxes will change the colour of gold ; borax makes the colour rather paler, whilst saltpetre deepens it. The chemical nomenclature of fine gold, and of the other metals used in jewellery with it, are repre- sented as follows : Name of Element. Symbol. Equivalent. Gold (aurum) Au. I97-0 Silver (argentum) Ag. 108-0 Copper (cuprum) Cu. 317 Spelter (zinc) Zn. 32-6 Hydrogen (a gas) H. i-o These various elementary bodies have symbols of a very simple character, which are generally formed by taking the initial of their names ; but in cases where two or more elements are the same, some other letter must be taken for distinction ; the symbols, therefore, of metals represent or express their chemical names. 22 PROPERTIES OF GOLD. The equivalent of a metal is only another name for atomic weight : and these equivalents are at present practically recognised by the principle of the atomic weight of hydrogen being taken as the standard unit of i. In order to assist the reader we will illustrate this. It is well known that pure water consists of two elements or bodies, hydrogen and oxygen, and that these ingredients or gases do not exist in equal or variable, but in quite fixed, proportions ; every atom of water con- tains eight times the amount of oxygen to that of hydrogen therefore, hydrogen being the lightest, it is taken as i. Equivalent chemical weight, then, expresses the different proportions, by weight, in which substances, whether solids or fluids, chemi- cally unite with each other. For example, one part by weight of hydrogen, goes as far in com- bining with eight of oxygen to form an oxide, as 108 of silver, or 197 of gold; and these equivalents will not neutralise the eight of oxygen more effectually than the one of hydrogen does, but just the same, and produce a similar com- pound. The same remarks apply to all the other equivalents of elements. If we take, to show this more clearly, one grain of hydrogen and eight of oxygen, exactly nine grains of water are formed ; but if we were to take two grains of hydrogen and GOLD-BEATERS' eight of oxygen, and submit them to the same treatment, the same amount of water would be formed as before, and the surplus hydrogen found uncombined. So it is with gold : if we were to take more than the 197 equivalents of gold to eight of oxygen to form oxide of gold, the surplus in this case, as in the above, would be found uncombined ; therefore to form oxide of gold we say eight oxygen, 197 gold. Fine gold is of a very malleable temper. It spreads under the hammer more than any other metal, and may be worked into almost any form or design by the hand of a skilful workman. There is no metal that can be extended so much by hammering or rolling, as pure gold. " One ounce," says Smith in his " School of Arts," " beaten into leaves, would cover ten acres of ground." " It will so yield to mechanical force," says Lutschaunig, u that it may be reduced to the 2OO,oooth part of an inch in thickness." For manufacturing purposes these extremes are seldom or never reached. Prac- tically the limit to which fine gold is now reduced as regards thinness is in the gold-beater's art, Where it is so wrought that a hundred square feet of it weigh only one ounce, and this would cover only the 48oth part of the space mentioned by Smith. The metal employed by the gold-beater 24 PROPERTIES OF GOLD. should be pure, or very nearly so, but it generally consists of about 23 carats. The various colours which this kind of gold presents, are obtained by alloys with silver and copper in different propor- tions. The pale leaves consist of twenty-three parts of fine gold and one part of silver ; the deep- coloured leaves, approaching to a tint of red, con- tain twenty-three parts of fine gold and one part of best Swedish copper ; the fine orange-coloured more commonly met with, contain half-part of silver, and half-part of copper to twenty-three of fine gold. Too much silver in the alloy is an obstacle to the gold-beater, in consequence of its hardening properties, therefore its use should be avoided as much as possible. Gold-beaters' gold is prepared by taking the right proportions of fine gold and alloy, and melt- ing the mixture in a crucible ; it is then cast into small oblong ingots, each about three-quarters of an inch in width, and one and a half inch in length, and weighing about two ounces. Each ingot is afterwards rolled very thin between two reversible polished steel rollers, the gold being often annealed in order to render it soft, as it has a 'tendency to become hard under this process ; by this means it can be reduced with little expense into a very fine riband, of not more GOLD-BEATERS' GOLD. 25 than one-eight-hundredth of an inch in thickness. It is then cut into lengths about one inch square. A number of these are taken and secured by a most useful contrivance. With a sixteen-pound hammer, having a smooth convex face, the gold is then beaten until its dimensions are considerably extended, when it is cut as before, hammered again, and if necessary the process repeated until it is of the proper thinness for transfer to the books in which it is sold to the public. These usually consist of twenty-five leaves each, when trimmed being about 3! in. square, and costing to the trade from is. to is. $d. the book. The uses to which this gold is now put, even in everyday transactions, are more numerous pro- bably than the majority of workmen through whose hands it regularly passes in the different stages of manufacture contemplate ; suffice it to say, that almost every article, both in business enterprise and domestic life, is beautified and enriched by its application at the hands of studious and skilful artisans. Even the paper upon our walls, our china, tea-trays, book-edges, and covers, signboards, sewing machines, and in fact, almost every article and trinket of our household, is de- corated more or less with this metal. We have also printing in letters of gold, gold lace, and by no c 26 PROPERTIES OF GOLD. means the least, our best picture-frames are all embellished with it ; and although the various uses thus described may appear to the uninitiated as rather comprehensive and costly, the gold would not indeed, if recovered from a whole host of such articles and trinkets, and melted, amount to more than two pennyweights, or of the value of 8s. bd. We have deemed it desirable to supply this infor- mation, which may, perhaps, be considered beside the chief branch of our subject, viz. the uses of gold and its connection with the jewellery trade and the money or currency, in order to show the widespread usefulness of the precious metal ; and the very extreme of malleability to which it is reduced in order that it may be applied to so vast a circle for purposes of ornamentation, and that at a comparatively reasonable cost. Fine gold is quite as remarkable for its ductility as its malleability. The ductility of a metal is the possession of that property of yielding to mechanical force which renders it capable of being drawn into wire successively through a series of graduated holes in a steel plate, called by wire- drawers, a draw-plate ; if the metal be perfectly ductile, wire of almost any thinness may be thus obtained. Pure gold is at the head of all metals for ductility ; it is stated that wire-drawers have DUCTILITY OF GOLD. 27 extended from an ounce of gold, a thread 230,800 ft. long. The inlaid vessels, and work in gold filigree from India, are examples of the great ductility and admirable mechanical qualities of this noble metal. In India the greatest perfection seems to have been attained to in the art of drawing gold wire, as witness the gold-embroidered housings of the elephant and howdah, as exhibited by Her Majesty in Hyde Park, 1851. And further, this filigree is produced so fine in that country, that in England there are no competitors in the market as manu- ] facturers of so fine and real wire-work. The vast j majority of London and Birmingham filigree is 1 not at all similar to the real filigree-work of India : (the London and Birmingham wire being thicker, ; round wire, flattened, with a milled or serrated \ edge, and afterwards so placed upon the different i designs for the filigree of the edge to show itself; : whilst the Indian is wire considerably thinner, doubled and twisted into a fine cord of extreme \ delicacy. The extreme point of ductility is never practised in England, there being no advantage gained in the commercial world, the finest wire required for manufacturing purposes being either for the purpose of filigree, or gold lace. For the latter it is drawn very fine, and afterwards flat- c 2 28 PROPERTIES OF GOLD. tened between a pair of steel rollers to any size, to suit the object in view. There is reason to believe that the ancient Isra - elites had some knowledge of the ductility of this metal, and that the art of making round wire was known to them (Exodus xxxix. 3) : " And they did beat the gold into thin plates, and cut it into wires, to work it in the blue, and in the purple, and in the scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning work." It is not said to what extent these wires were reduced in thinness, and no object but 'one purely experimental would aim at the extension of an ounce of fine gold into a wire the length we have mentioned ; indeed we much question whether the most experienced wire-drawer of the present school would accept an order such as the above, even at his own price. The drawing of a pennyweight of gold by mechanical force into a wire 11,540 ft. long, and a single grain into a wire 480 1 ft., is a difficulty not to be easily overcome. We have some practical knowledge of the art of wire-drawing, and we distinctly say, that unless the wire was previously coated very strongly with silver, any attempt on the part of the workman to produce such a length must result in failure. If the object can be attained, which we much ques- tion, then the silver may be removed from the TENACITY OF GOLD. 29 surface of the wire, by dissolving with nitric acid ; and although the acid has no effect upon pure gold, still, in consequence of the thread of gold being so extremely fine and delicate, it must be done with very great care to prevent the wire becoming dis- united. The tenacity of a metal is its strength and toughness that property which prevents, when mechanical power is exerted, the easily tearing asunder of the metal, the separation of the particles when excessive force is applied, and the giving way when supporting any particular weight. In this respect gold is not at the head of the list ; for while a piece of gold wire of the thickness of No. 14 size Birmingham wire gauge will support a weight of 150! Ibs. avoirdupois, a wire exactly the same dimensions in silver will support 187 Ibs., and a similar one of iron 549 Ibs. Thus, the posi- tion that gold occupies with regard to its tenacity and toughness, is not equal to that of its ductility and malleability. CHAPTER III. Various Qualities and Alloys of Gold. FINE gold is too soft to stand the wear and tear of ordinary use, hence arose the necessity for the incor- poration of some other material to give it increased hardness. The following table gives the relative value of the different carats, and the proportion of alloy to be added, taking 24 as the unit of fine gold : Qualities of Gold. , JT. d. Alloy to be added. 24 carats. 450 None. 23 4 i Si i carat. 22 3 i7 ii 2 21 3 H 4s 3 2O 3 10 10 4 19 3 7 3s 5 l8 339 6 17 3 o 2k 7 16 2 16 8 8 15 2 I 3 II 9 14 2 9 7 10 .. 13 2 6 0* ii ,, 12 226" 12 II 18 ni 13 10 15 5 14 9 ii ioj 15 8 8 4 16 7 4 9^ 17 )> 6 i 3" 18 ,, 5 o 17 8| 19 4 O 14 2 20 3 o 10 7| 21 2 o 7 i 22 I 3 6 s 23 PURCHASABLE PRICE. 31 The above value represents the ounce troy, and is quoted at the mint price of purchase. The purchasable price ol fine gold from refiners will be a little higher than that given in the above table, on account of the expenses in re- fining; in large quantities, say over 10 ozs., it will cost from ^4 5^. $d. to 4 $s. bd. per ounce; in smaller quantities, it will cost from ^4 5.?. >d. to ^4 6^. per ounce; therefore, if i oz. of fine gold be required, it will cost ^4 6s. nett, from all houses. In judging of a piece of work of alloyed gold, the value (if with a view of sale) must not be calculated merely upon the amount of fine gold the piece of work contains ; for, in that case, the calculation as to the real value will be wrong and misleading ; because in the alloy there is a certain proportion of silver, and as this metal is rather expensive, a loss would occur by the transaction. For example, if we take the proper proportion of fine gold existing in an ounce of 1 8-carat gold, at the mint value as given in the table, ^3 35-. 9^., to obtain that amount of gold from the refiner in the best market it will cost 3 4^. 3^. (the increase being due to the expenses in refining), in order to produce that fine state of division required for alloying. Now, in order to produce 1 8-carat gold, 32 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS. 5 dwts. or 6 carats of alloy, must be added to the quantity of fine gold of the above value ; if we say half silver and the other half copper, at the lowest trade price it will cost gd. ; so to practi- cally produce an i8-carat alloy of gold it will cost ^3 5-y. per ounce to the manufacturer of jewellery before he actually introduces it into his workshop. All other alloys should be calcu- lated after the same manner, and we should say an ounce of 8-carat gold is worth i los. The use of 2 2 -carat gold as our national standard of value for the coinage is well known, but a few additional particulars will not be irre- levant to that branch of the subject upon which we are now entering. Gold coins, when first intro- duced into the currency of England by Henry III., were of fine gold, that is to say of 24 carats. Edward III. was the first English king who used gold coins of an inferior standard, in the form of 6s. pieces, nearly equal in size to the present sovereign, and consisting of 23! carats. A coin called a noble followed, worth 6^. 8d. Edward IV. reduced the standard to that of 18 carats. The next change was made by Henry VIII. raising it to 22 carats. From that time until the reign of Queen Elizabeth the currency underwent various changes; but it was then again fixed at 22 carats, THE COINAGE. 33 and it has so continued with about one exception down to the present time. All English gold coins are nominally and intrinsically worth the sums they represent. This is so when they leave the Mint, and have not been subjected to the wear and tear of circulation. Besides the standard fineness for coins, there is also a legal weight, fixed according to the regula- tions of the Mint. Thus in England a pound troy of the standard metal is worth ^46 15^., so that if a single pound troy of standard gold were taken to the Mint to be coined, after forty- six sovereigns and one half-sovereign had been manufactured out of it, a portion of gold of the value of 55-., not used up in the coins, would remain. The same quantity will coin 44 J guineas, of the value of 215-. each; hence the value of standard gold is ^3 17^. i id. per ounce. The coinage of gold is conducted with great exactness by the officers of the Mint, with respect to weight ; and the extreme accuracy with which they are compelled to work will be shown by the following extract from the first schedule of the Coinage Act, 1870. The imperial weight in grains only is here given : Coin. Weight. Remedy. Sovereign . . . 123-27447 0-20000 Half-sovereign . . 61-63723 OTOOOO C 3 34 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS. The remedy is the difference allowed to the Deputy-Master of the Mint, between the standard and real weight of the manufactured coins ; which in a sovereign is only one-fifth of a single grain ; and to this limit he has invariably confined him- self, as the trial of the Pyx fully proves. This test, which is one of the most ancient customs (the first-known writ for a trial of the Pyx dating from the reign of Edward I.), was made on Wed- nesday, July 21, 1875, at the Goldsmiths' Hall, according to the provisions of the Coinage Act, 1870. Although this is a trial of great importance to the authorities at the Mint, and also to the public, especially to the manufacturing goldsmiths, who are constantly melting up the coin of the realm for manufacturing and commercial purposes, it is a matter in which the latter take little or no interest. To the former the verdict is of great interest, because, if favourable, it is an honourable commendation of the officers of the Mint, for the faithful performance of their onerous duties during the past year; and also a perfect guarantee to the public and the goldsmiths, that the large amount of additional gold coinage annually manu- factured and circulated is fully up to the legal standard, both as to fineness and weight. The standard fineness for gold coins is u-i2ths AUSTRALIAN COINS, 35 fine gold and i-i2th alloy, or millesimal fineness 916*666, the remedy being millesimal fineness 0-002 = i~5ooth of a grain. The guinea is of the same standard as the sovereign in fineness, but differs in weight, hence its value of 2 is. A guinea weighs 5 dwts. gj grs. ; and a sovereign 5 dwts. 3j grs. and a fraction of a grain ; of which 4 dwts. 22f grs. and 4 dwts. 17 grs. respectively are fine gold. Since the reign of George III. guineas have not been coined for circulation. There is also a difference in the colour. Guineas look yellow, while the modern sovereign shows a deep red tint. This denotes an alloy of silver in the former, and one of copper in the latter. Our gold coins are now always alloyed with copper, with the excep- tion of those manufactured by the colonial mint at Sydney, in Australia, for which silver is employed. These can easily be distinguished from English coins by their greenish-yellow cast, even without a close inspection of the impression of the die, which is slightly different upon the obverse side; whilst upon the reverse, besides other distinctive features, it has the ^md. Australia stamped upon it. These coins are of the same standard in fine- ness, weight and value as English coins, and usually pass without observation among commer- 36 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS. cial men. We have heard some persons express doubts as to the genuineness of a coin the colour of the Australian sovereign, as regards its value ; but they have been those through whose hands no large number of coins have passed, and who are unacquainted with the variety of colours gold may be made to present to the eye ; if there be any real difference between the Australian and English sovereign, the former has -the advantage on account of the extra silver it contains ; silver being more expensive than copper. That charac- teristic deep red colour to be seen in a new English gold coin, is produced when it is sub- mitted to the very highly-polished dies of the coining-press, when it comes out perfectly bright and of a beautiful lustre. Previous to the reign of Charles II. all the coin of the realm was made by hand by forging or hammering pieces of gold to the proper thick- ness required for the coins, then cutting squares a little larger than required for the different sizes. The corners were afterwards removed from the squares, and rounded to the size, when they were adjusted to the weight of the money desired to be put into circulation. These round blank pieces were then placed between two hardened and tempered steel dies, containing the pattern TWENTY-TWO CARAT. 37 of the intended coin ; the upper die being struck with a hammer, the impression was produced. This method of making the coins was far from perfect, in consequence of the difficulty in placing the dies exactly opposite each other, and also from the uncertainty of the blow producing a perfect impression on the blank piece of gold intended for the coin. The coining-press, introduced into England in the beginning of the last century, remedied this long-experienced defect. Our present gold coins are as nearly perfect as possible as regards artistic design, taste, and workmanship, and as such, are well known all over the world. 4 Twenty- two- carat gold, besides being made into coins, is very largely used in the manufacture of wedding-rings, which must be of this quality. So keen is the competition in this branch of industry that a wedding-ring may now be purchased from the manufacturer for a very little above its real value in gold ; and it is by no means an unusual thing at Mr. Aston' s manufactory in Birmingham, when trade is busy, to work up in this manner a thousand pounds' worth of gold per week. This quality of gold is very expensive to use for such a purpose; consequently the working loss would be very great in a manufactory carrying on business 38 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS. to the above extent ; indeed, it could not possibly be estimated at less than ^2,000 per annum. Of course, we mean that this amount goes into the polishing dirt, floor sweep, washing waters, &c. However, there is one decided advantage which the wedding-ring makers have over other jewellers, viz. that the material the coin is sent with the order, and no doubt the manufacturers in several other branches of jewellery not to say all would like the same system or custom of trade esta- blished with them. Wedding-ring makers have to pay a duty upon their manufacture of 17^. per ounce, i-6th being remitted for loss in finishing ; because it is com- pulsory that this quality should, when made into wedding-rings, be Hall-marked, and this has to be done when the articles are in a half-finished state ; therefore, for every six ounces you pay for five, and so on. For this reason it is usual to melt down the coin of the realm, and for more purposes than one it is an advantage to wedding-ring manufacturers to do so, for they can then depend upon the quality, and also effect a saving of from 4^. to $d. per oz. a gain to a large firm not to be lost sight of, in these days of eager compe- tition. Twenty-two-carat gold is also used in the manufacture of mourning-rings, but to a more TWENTY CARAT. 39 limited extent than the above. In some instances, watch-cases are made of 2 2 -carat gold ; but English watch-cases more commonly consist of i8-carat gold. Watch-cases (English) bear the mark of Goldsmiths' Hall as a guarantee of their quality, and are manufactured duty free. Twenty-carat gold does not occupy a very promi- nent position in the jeweller's workshop, the demand for it being so limited that it is rarely if ever asked for. As a consequence, it is not largely manufac- tured into articles of jewellery. Sometimes, how- ever, this quality of gold is used by coloured gold- workers, when different colours or shades are required in decorative designs, and when these colours cannot be produced in inferior gold. For this purpose it is both elegant and ornamental. Brown gold may be made by taking twenty parts of fine gold and four parts of copper ; puce gold by taking twenty parts of fine gold and four parts of silver; these ingredients must be well incorporated. In Ireland 2O-carat gold is a legal standard, and has been so from the year 1784, in the reign of George III. This standard was esta- blished, principally, to encourage the manufacture of watch-cases and jewellery, it being at that time illegal to manufacture articles of this description inferior to 2 2 -carat gold. 40 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS. Eighteen-carat gold is the second English stand- ard, and of this quality all our best jewellery is made. It is largely manufactured into all kinds of personal ornaments, as it is an alloy rich in quality ; the beauty of its colour moreover not being much altered by wear. In England this standard is used in the manufacture of watch-cases, which, if of proper fineness, bear the Government hall-marks. There is now no duty on the manufacture of watch- cases of any description. Mourning-rings too are made somewhat extensively of this quality ; wed- ding-rings also to some extent. Mourning and wedding-rings, if of i8-carat gold, or of the higher standard to which we have already referred, must pay duty upon the manu- facture of 175. per oz., i -6th part, as usual, being remitted for waste in finishing. It is compulsory that these articles should be hall-marked, and bear the stamp of the properly-authorised officials of the town in which they are made. In Birming- ham the title of the guild is "The Guardians of the Standard of Wrought Plate." It has exclu- sive jurisdiction over all the gold made into the above articles in the town of Birmingham, or within 30 miles of it. Eighteen-carat gold, from the peculiar nature of its alloy, can be wrought into almost any EIGHTEEN CARAT. 41 article of exquisite beauty and delicate work- manship ; if properly cast, it is both malleable and tenacious. It is also exceedingly ductile. A hardness is imparted to this quality of gold which admirably adapts it to the manufacture of jewellery of the highest order. There is, perhaps, a difficulty in preparing i8-carat gold, not experi- enced in some other alloys ; this defect soon shows itself when submitted to the breaking-down mill, by little cracks all over the surface of the bar of gold ; and when this appearance presents itself, it is by far the most economical plan to re-melt it at once, than to go on with the breaking-down; for when the process of slitting is attempted, the gold will all fly into little fragments, and the pro- bability is that some will be lost. The prevailing opinion in the trade is, that this want of unity or amalgamation of the particles of the gold and alloy is due to the copper which is employed. Our experience teaches us having tried every kind of copper, from the bean-shot down to the best refined Swedish wire, for the purpose of producing i8-carat gold rather cheaper that we have invari- ably found that there is not so much in the quality of the copper as in the quantity used. This we wish to state for the benefit of the goldsmiths' trade. Formerly we used a rather 42 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS. large proportion of copper, in order to effect a saving of about $d. per oz., but the misfortune to which we have just alluded sometimes pre- sented itself, and after trying all sorts of cop- per, with no certainty of permanent success, we thought of the plan of alloying with more silver and less copper. In this we succeeded, and now never meet with a bar exhibiting the defects after rolling just described. It is the most economical plan, when these defects appear, to reduce the bar to the regular 9-carat quality. It is only right to state that we always found 1 8-carat gold, alloyed with bean-shot copper, a more difficult and harder alloy to work with than when the refined wire was used. One great drawback in shot copper (which is very injurious in alloying, particularly in this quality) is, that it may contain lead or tin ; and half a grain of either in an ounce of this gold will prevent it from working. This quality of gold is now always manufactured fully up to the standard fineness, every design pos- sible being hall-marked ; and where this is not possible, the guarantee of the manufacturer is given with the article, who, if a respectable person, can be thoroughly depended upon. Previous to the year 1798 it was illegal to manufacture from this quality of gold ; now, however, some thousands of COLOURS OF GOLD. 43 ounces are made annually into all sorts of articles. Some of these are ornamented with a variety of colours, which may be produced by the following methods of alloying : Colours of Gold. Yellow Gold pure or fine gold, 24 parts. Red Gold*fmQ gold 1 8 parts, copper 6 parts. Green Gold fine gold 1 8 parts, silver 6 parts. Blue Gold fine gold 18 parts, iron 6 parts. White 6W fine gold 1 2 parts, silver 1 2 parts. Platinum, or fine silver, may be employed for white gold. Red and white are generally employed for flowers, green for leaves, while the stems or sprays may be made of yellow or fine gold. Blue gold may be used for special purposes of ornamen- tation. This latter alloy requires great practical knowledge, as it presents many difficulties in its preparation ; these are best overcome first by melt- ing the gold, and then introducing some iron wire into the molten mass, until the proper quantity of alloy is formed. Then the crucibles must be with- drawn, and the composition poured out into an in- got-mould prepared for its reception. This alloy must not be quenched in water, but allowed to cool; the ingot of gold to be perfect should exhibit no signs of porosity ; if it turns out of the ingot-mould 44 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS. in proper condition, it must be well hammered upon the edge, and annealed, in order to render the grain more close and prevent it cracking in the rolling- mill. This process may be wisely repeated upon the surface, and the ingot again put through the fire. The gold is then ready for the breaking-down mill, and may be safely wrought into wires or sheets of different sizes. Fifteen-carat gold is another alloy largely used in the manufacture of coloured jewellery. This quality, to our mind, is second to none with re- spect to works of art in jewellery, both in regard to taste and appearance, as well as durability. It can be made to look quite equal to the finest gold, and in addition it is easy of manipulation; almost any article can be easily made from it, whilst the hardness which nine parts of alloy imparts, is not such as to prove a hindrance or a difficulty in the manufacture, but unites with it that amount of strength and durability which is so essential in costly articles of jewellery. These advantages make articles of this gold wear much better than when made of a softer material ; they also keep their form and shape a considerable time longer. According to the provisions of the Assay Act of 1854, i5-carat gold can now be assay-marked as a guarantee of proper fineness, but it is not compulsory THIRTEEN CARAT. 45 unless requested by the purchaser. There is no duty on its manufacture, neither is there on that of i8-carat gold into chains, studs, lockets, charms, fancy rings, &c. Purchasers of i5~carat goods should beware of an inferior quality of gold intro- duced into the trade and called 15 -carat, bearing a stamp something similar to the hall-mark ; however, this is not the hall-mark, but the private mark of the manufacturer. Nevertheless, the general public who are conversant with the prices at which these articles are sold, will at once see that this is not done with the intention of representing the quality as equal to 15 -carat, by a glance at our table of values for the various qualities. We shall now give an account of the different qualities in general use. Thirteen-carat gold is called common when speaking of coloured golds, for the reason that it is about the lowest quality that can be conveniently coloured to look rich and beautiful. A slightly inferior quality (i2j-carat) can be coloured, but i3-carat is about the usual kind employed in all respectable coloured-gold houses. In Birmingham a very large quantity of gold . is weekly employed in manufactures of this quality. Some firms manufacture nothing else. It; is largely made into chains, lockets, pins, studs, 46 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS. sleeve-links, solitaires, pendants, bracelets, rings, brooches, and filigree ornamentation. In fact, almost every article we can mention has it in some part of its composition. If the reader were to take a walk down any of the principal streets of Bir- mingham, viz. New Street, Bull Street, or High Street, the vast majority of articles of coloured gold jewellery exhibited in the shops that met his eye would be of this quality, and marked as i5-carat fine gold. The retail purchasers are, of course, in most instances, ignorant of the true value of gold and the art of alloying ; and some, on the representations of the shopkeepers, who often know no better, believe that they are buying full i5-carat gold of the proportion expressed in the Act of 1854. It is a difficult matter, too, even in this enlightened age, in which the secrets of the goldsmith's craft are freely and openly expressed, to convince them of the error of their belief. Some manufacturers profess to have secrets in the art of producing good colours for their wares ; and there is, no doubt, a motive for this, namely, the produc- ing a demand for the articles of special firms, well known for excellence of finish, over all others. To understand perfectly the art of alloying gold and silver is of very great importance, and an advantage to manufacturing goldsmiths, besides having a ten- TWELVE AND TEN CARAT. 47 dency to produce profitable results, more than any thing (if the practical part be understood properly) connected with the art of the goldsmith. Twelve-carat gold is the best of the bright golds, and is so called to distinguish it from the coloured; although any of the qualities that are described in speaking of coloured gold may be made bright by a little variation in the mixture of alloy. The demand for articles in this gold is not at present of an extensive nature ; no doubt because the finish of coloured gold looks more costly and beau- tiful. No gold inferior to i2-carat will colour to present that appearance which characterises the higher qualities. Twelve-carat gold finished bright has a fine rich sparkling appearance, and when the workmanship is good is very imposing ; it is a good quality to work upon, being tolerably soft and ductile, as well as possessing good malleable properties. The quality generally manufactured is a little under the standard fineness, and therefore cannot be hall-marked. Gem, fancy, and other rings, when made of the full standard quality, bear the government stamp as a guarantee of its purity. Ten-carat gold sustains all the characteristics of the former quality, both as regards facility of manufacture and finish; there are no hall-marks for this kind of gold, and it is very seldom manu- 48 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS. factured fully up to the standard, unless specially asked for. A large quantity of goods is made of this quality in Birmingham. Nine-carat gold is regularly manufactured into all kinds of bright goods, and this quality, when made fully up to the standard of fineness, is hall- marked. The demand for it is largely increas- ing. It is chiefly employed in the manufac- ture of keeper and fancy rings. A good trade has recently sprung up in the manufacture of solid gold chains of this class of gold. After all, the quality which is most extensively employed in every possible description of manufacture, is usually below this standard, probably it is about 8 \ carats ; and if alloyed according to the following table will stand the aqua test perfectly well. Nine- carat of the mixture of alloy we have given in the table, will stand more than ordinary treatment from the hands of the workman, and may be touched and removed from the annealing-pan while still red hot, without injury to any subsequent manipulation of it ; it may also be quenched at any degree of heat in pickle or water, if any advantage is likely to accrue from it ; but we strongly object to the continuous quenching of gold alloys at every subsequent process of anneal- ing partly because every time the metal is NINE AND EIGHT CARAT. 49 quenched in sulphuric acid pickle a portion of alloy in these low qualities is dissolved. This improves the quality of the gold, by which the manufacturer does not receive any benefit, but is actually a loser. Moreover we shall see that, when we come to the processes of soldering, this pickling or boiling-out is perfectly indispensable. Nine-carat alloys, if alloyed with too much spelter, will not present the characteristics we have just named in respect to treatment ; if shaken or touched while hot, they are very brittle and dif- ficult to work; consequently they take longer in working, and therefore the same quantity of goods cannot be produced in a given time with these alloys, as with those we have just described. The great point in the manufacture of gold articles should be to get the greatest amount of real work out of the smallest amount of material, so as to make the least possible waste or scrap for remelt- ing ; for this reason we say that the alloys which mostly tend to this object are the best for jewellers to use in their manufactures. Eight-carat gold is sometimes used in the manu- facture of jewellery, and is often styled g-carat No. 2, in some of the workshops where this quality is somewhat extensively employed. In order tc stand the aqua test it must be alloyed with more D 50 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS. silver than ordinary g-carat gold, and when finished appears rather paler to the eye ; this may be a partial guide as to quality, but not always a sure one ; if properly alloyed it works exceed- ingly well in any process of preparation, from the ingot bar down to the finished articles ; but, of course, judgment must be used by the workman as to the proper periods for annealing ; if this be neglected the gold will become hard and brittle, and, as the process of preparing proceeds, it will break and fall to pieces. Seven-carat gold is generally termed common gold, and is about the lowest quality manufacture^ ; it requires extra care in working, on account of the very large proportion of silver it contains, which increases the fusibility of this alloy. Care must necessarily be taken in annealing and soldering. The increased proportion of silver is requisite to enable the articles manufactured from it to stand the gold test of aqua-fortis. Gold chains of this quality are now very seldom made. It is mostly used by Locket makers in cheap work, where the backs and fronts are gold, and the edges, &c., are plated. The common alloys of gold have a much lower fusible point than those of a superior quality. Pure silver has a brilliant white colour, and is the whitest of all the metals ; none surpass it in lustre ; and in hardness it ranges between pure ALLOYS. 51 gold and pure copper. It is more fusible than copper or gold, melting at a bright red heat or at 1,873 Fahrenheit. It is commonly used for the purpose of alloying gold in its pure state, but if too much be added it makes the gold pale. Pure copper has a reddish appearance, and is the only metal of that colour ; it is both malleable and ductile, hence it is used as an alloy for gold. In fusibility it stands between silver and gold. It is a very useful metal, a large number of cheap alloys being manufactured from it. Composition is a mixture of copper and zinc, and is used by jewellers in alloying. Some of them profess to have secrets with regard to colour, which is produced by different proportions of the composition. When it is necessary to form hara gold, this metal may be safely employed, although it will not be wise to use too much, about 4 dwts. to the ounce of fine gold being ample; if, as we have already observed, too much be added, it will make the gold brittle and unworkable. With less silver and more composition an alloy is formed equal in appearance to one of 2 or 3 carats higher, but it is very difficult to work, and after being some time in wear it changes colour. This alloy cannot be attempted in very inferior qualities as it will not stand the acid. D 2 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS, Spelter is another name for zinc, and is so-called because it is supposed to be deprived of its impuri- ties. It is a bluish-white metal, highly crystalline and brittle; melting at about 773, and at a red heat, rises into vapour. As it burns it is converted into a white flock-like substance. This is the pro- toxide of zinc, which is carried up in the current of warm air. The employment of zinc in gold alloys should be sparing, and must be added when the other metals are in a state of fusion, first heating it with the tongs over the crucible. Spelter does not harden gold, if used as we have recommended. It is generally purchased in cakes, and when required for use pieces are chipped oif with a cold chisel. We shall now give a table of the proportions of the various metals incorporated in the gold alloys used by jewellers : Table of Alloys. 23 carat, part copper, ^ part silver, 23 parts gold. 22 i i ,, 22 20 2 2 20 18 3 3 18 15 6 3 15 13 8 3 13 12 8 2 3* 12 10 10 , 4 10 9 I0.| 4^ 9 8 10} 5-i 8 7 9 8 7 Compo. 16 , 8 parts spelter. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 53 The above table represents the full standard quality of every alloy ; if it be needful to make an inferior alloy, which is often the case in the manu- facture of jewellery, the same calculation in respect to J:he inferior metals will do, but a small portion of fine gold must be deducted till it brings the alloy down to the value required. We have been at some trouble in order to make our information complete, and have carefully arranged the following table : Specific Gravity Table. Qualities. Alloy. Gold. Total. 24 carat 23 None 40 18-68 19- 5 19-08 22 81 17-87 18-68 20 1-62 16-25 17-87 18 2'43 14-62 17-05 15 13 3'55 4-29 12-18 10-56 1574 14-86 12 4-70 975 I4-45 IO 5'48 8-12 I3'6 9 5-88 7-3i I 3 - 2 8 6-32 6' 5 12-82 *7 / 6-86 5*64 . 12- 5 Silver, pure io- 5 Copper, pure Composition _ 8-96 8-37 Spelter ~~ "" 7- 2 It is our intention to continue this matter a little further, so as to render these details as complete as possible for the workshop, in case the above 54 QUALITIES AND ALLOYS. differences in weight should not be understood by some. When a piece of work is desired of a cer- tain size and weight, of a different quality to that usually worked up, the following table of weights will be found useful : Table of Weights. Qualities. Oz. Dwts . Grs. 24 carat of given dimensions will weigh . i 23 . 19 12 22 . o 19 20 ,, . 18 18 . o 17 12 15 . 16 13 . 15 12 ,, ,, . 14 12 10 . H 9 . 13 12 8 . 13 7 >, . o 12 12 Silver ,, 10 12 Copper . o 9 Composition . o 8 12 Spelter . 7 12 These relative weights are sufficiently near for every practical purpose, and it is hoped, intelligible enough to be of assistance to such as deal with these valuable alloys. The last-mentioned table will, it is hoped, prove of special service, not only to the practical gold- worker, as a safe guide in the production of correct weights in the various qualities ; but likewise to WEIGHTS. 55 the manufacturer and the merchant, by affording them an easy method of estimating the value of an article required to pattern, in any of the qualities manufactured. For example, an article weighing in g-carat gold i oz. would in 1 8-carat gold weigh i oz. 4 dwts. ; thus showing conclusively that the extra quantity of raw material imparted to an article under the above conditions, must be taken into consideration when giving a quotation of cost. The principles which govern the above table, when fully comprehended, will be found both simple and advantageous. CHAPTER IV Melting and Rolling. HAVING described the specialities of gold, and the qualities used in its manufacture, we have now reached a point very important and interesting to the jewellery trade ; and we may as well state that it is our desire to go through a kind of apprentice- ship in respect to the processes employed in the manufacture. We hope that the information thus afforded, besides being valuable to the practical workman, by giving him facilities which will result in the more successful performance of his work, will prove useful to the manufacturer also by im- parting to him that with which he has been hitherto unacquainted. We shall lay most stress upon those processes of Art-workmanship and manage- ment, in which we venture to believe we have been more successful than most of our compeers. In order to describe minutely the processes or methods of working with the precious metal, we shall commence with the first proceeding in the MATERIALS FOR ALLOYING. 57 course of the manufacture, viz. the preparation of the alloy and its subsequent treatment 'in the crucible. The state of purity of gold and silver, when purchased from the refiner for the purpose of alloying, has already been sufficiently explained in this volume. The copper used is various. In the jewellery trade the refined grain-copper is com- monly preferred, costing 2$. per lb., a prejudice existing against the employment of the bean-shot : but this is not altogether warranted, as bean-shot copper may be safely used in all the varieties of bright gold alloys. As regards the workable qualities of its alloys, they are all that could be desired, therefore we cannot understand this pre- judice. From an economical point of view its use is a saving, its cost being about ^5 12^. per cwt., or is. per lb. In purchasing the materials for alloying, where a fair average trade is being carried on, there is an advantage in purchasing copper in large quantities ; but in gold and silver the reverse is the case. Irrespective of the disadvantage of the cash lying idle, gold being always bought for cash, some of its particles are so fine and minute, that every time it is touched or moved about, some portion is sure to be lost; the portion may, per- haps, be very small indeed, but when we take into B 3 58 MELTING AND ROLLING. consideration the extremely valuable nature of gold in the above state, the loss in the course of a year may be something amazing. For these and other reasons which could be adduced, we recom- mend the purchase of gold at the time it is needed, and sufficient only for the purposes required. In preparing the mixture of gold, silver, and copper for the crucible, care should be taken in weighing them accurately, in order to prevent improvement or deterioration in the qualities of gold constantly in use. In melting all qualities it is a wise plan to place the lightest of the metals to be melted at the bottom of the crucible viz. the copper first, the silver next, and the gold last ; by so doing the melter is more likely to get a perfect amalgamation of the metals, as the gold, being the heaviest, is sure to find its way towards the bottom of the pot. When spelter is employed it must not be put in until the other metals are melted ; being of so volatile a nature, it would be all evaporated before the mixture of alloy was properly incorporated, consequently the bar of gold would fall short of its original weight, the quality would be improved, and the manufacturer would be unable to compensate himself without re-melting with an addition of alloy. Plumbago crucibles are the best for all practical TREATMENT IN THE CRUCIBLE. 59 melting purposes, and with care will last from twenty to fifty times ; if new, a very small quantity of charcoal powder should be put into the pot with the mixture of alloy. This coats the surface of it, and prevents the metals from adhering to it. When the gold is at the point of fusion, fling on to it about a table- spoonful of pure and perfectly fine vegetable charcoal. The layer of charcoal which forms upon the surface of the gold in the crucible protects the mixture from the action of the air, which would refine the gold, by destroying some of the alloy. When perfectly fused, the mixture must be well stirred with an iron stirrer (consisting of a long round piece of iron sharpened at the point), which should previously be made red hot, to render the whole mass uniform in quality. The pot is then quickly withdrawn, and its contents poured into a suitable ingot-mould, previously warmed and greased to prevent adhesion. The warming of the mould is quite indispensable ; but if made too hot, the metal on being turned into it will spit and fly about ; besides incurring great loss of gold, dangerous results may thereby happen to the per- son in charge ; the same remark applies when the ingot-mould is cold; therefore, this part of the process must not be neglected, but carefully at- tended too. The ingot-mould, we may state, is 60 MELTING AND ROLLING. hot enough when it will just stand touching with the hand for a second or so. In nine cases out of ten, if the gold is properly heated in the melting and cast all right with the charcoal flux we have recommended, the working qualities in its subse- quent treatment will be found all that could be desired for any purpose whatever. When it is desired to produce very tough gold, use as a flux a table-spoonful of charcoal as before, and one of sal-ammoniac, adding it to the gold on the eve of melting; the sal-ammoniac burns away while toughening the gold, leaving the char- coal behind to perform the functions already indi- cated. The employment of the mixture of sal- ammoniac will bring the ingots of gold up bright and clear ; it will also prevent them from splitting or cracking at the rolling-mill, and in subsequent working ; if proper attention has been paid to it, the gold will then be found tough and pliable. This does not, however, apply to every kind of alloy, but it may be affirmed of those we have described, and can be safely and thoroughly de- pended upon. The furnace used by most jewellers is the ordinary wind furnace, built of brickwork, which is admir- ably suited for such purposes ; a size convenient for every requirement is of the following dimen- TREATMENT IN THE CRUCIBLE. 6 1 sions : eight inches square inside, and sixteen inches deep from the grate which supports the fire. For producing tough gold, the employment of common salt as a fluxing agent is sometimes strongly recommended. There is not, however, much to be said for its use, as it produces a very liquid flux, and is not half so clean as the one we have recommended. In the casting, unless very great care is exercised, it runs into the ingot-mould with the gold, producing a brittle-like substance, and this forces itself into the bar of gold, the surface of which becomes irregular and full of holes ; on this account alone, in preparing clean and smooth bars of gold, it is objectionable. The same may be said of borax, but that is still largely used in the jewellery trade for melting purposes. Nevertheless we are confident, from long practical experience (the result of many years' study and practice, during which time we have worked up many thousand ounces of gold), that there is no better flux than the mixture of sal-ammoniac and % charcoal, for every possible purpose required, in the subsequent treatment of the different qualities of gold; and that for toughness, cleanliness, and producing good workable properties it cannot be surpassed. In melting scrap-gold from the workshop, care 62 MELTING AND ROLLING. should be taken to see that it is quite clean, and free from organic matter, wax, &c. To effect this it is a good plan to heat the scrap in an iron ladle until all wax or grease is removed ; this should be done before the workman weighs his scrap into the warehouse, and should be a special rule of every establishment. It has a great tendency (with other things of which we shall speak hereafter) to reduce the working loss which is almost unavoidable. This kind of scrap is best re-melted by itself, and the same flux may be employed as has been recom- mended for new gold; if the bar of gold should split in rolling, it is due to the presence of some foreign metal, such as lead or tin, or it may be iron or steel. Then remelt the bar with two parts carbo- nate of potash and one part of nitrate of potash (saltpetre) ; the saltpetre will draw the iron or steel into the flux, leaving the alloy of gold free. If lead or tin should get into the gold, very serious results follow a very small portion being sufficient to split a large bar and render it totally unwork- able and exceedingly brittle ; when broken the grains appear close and pale. Bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) is the best flux to use when these defects make their appearance ; in the proportion of two parts charcoal to one of corrosive sublimate, when all will go right again. THE TREATMENT OF SCRAP. 63 Sandiver is also a very useful flux when iron or steel gets in the gold. Such gold, when re-melted, always loses in weight, some of the alloy being lost on account of the many small pieces of gold of which the scrap consists. This, of course, im- proves the quality; therefore, it is necessary, in order to keep the gold of one standard, to add some small portion of alloy, either silver or copper; but as the scrap may contain a little solder, copper will be the best to use. The follow- ing calculations may be relied upon for the different qualities : Table of Calculations. Wet-coloured scrap, 3 grs. of copper per ounce 12-carat scrap 6 M 10 9 9 > I2 > Hall-marked make no addition whatever All qualities of scrap should be well sorted and undergo the action of a magnet before re-melting, and the greatest care exercised in keeping every quality separate. Sometimes in re-melting scrap-gold it is neces- sary to make some addition, either in fine gold or alloy, for the purpose of improving or reducing the quality. This happens when different qualities of goods are required on the spur of the moment, and 64 MELTING AND ROLLING. it may not be convenient to procure fine gold at the time sufficient for the purpose ; this is very often the case with beginners who have embarked in business with a limited capital, which may already be partially invested ; to such persons the advice we now give may prove serviceable. There may be possibly existing at the time in the workshops, a large quantity of scrap of the regular quality ; and if the proper rules for alloying, in reference to reducing and improving the qualities, were under- stood thoroughly, use might be made of it in the above direction ; not only to the pecuniary interest of the man of business, but also to the advantage of all parties concerned. We shall be as simple and as concise as possible in our modes of calcula- tion, and will employ the usual arithmetical signs. In preparing the scrap for reducing, great care must be taken in selecting it free from solder or other impurities, otherwise the calculation, as regards extreme accuracy, will be thrown out ; and sometimes this is of importance, but more com- monly speaking, when the quality is not for hall- marking, the difference likely to be made is of very little importance. The numeral 20 in the following tables will always be consonant, because it represents the number of pennyweights in an ounce of gold, The multipliers and divisors will REDUCING THE QUALITY. 65 be different, and will vary with the quality of gold required. As an example, suppose we want to find how much pure gold will be required to be added to i oz. of Q-carat scrap, in order to raise it to i5-carat gold, we should proceed thus : 20 x 15 = 300 20 X 9 = 1 80 300 180 = 120 120-7- 9 = r 3 dwts. 8 grs. Therefore to every ounce of g-carat scrap we shall have to add 13 dwts. 8 grs. of fine gold to make i5-carat gold. The divisor 9 does not represent the quality of scrap about to be improved, but is the difference between the quality manufactured and the numeral 24, which represents the number of carats in an ounce; consequently, when it is desired to improve the scrap, the divisor will always repre- sent the difference between the quality as improved by the addition of fine gold and 24. When it is desired to reduce the scrap, the reverse will be the case ; the divisor will always indicate the quality to be made. In order to prove the accuracy of the above mode of calculation, we will give the following proof : oz. dwts. grs. i o o of 9-carat scrap will be worth 13 8 of fine gold @ 85 j. td. will cost , 1 13 8 66 MELTING AND ROLLING. oz. chvts. grs. ' i, d t i o o of 15-carat gold is worth, with alloy , 2 i \ o 10 o .170 038 .090 1 13 8 4 10 o Let us take another case as an illustration of what we mean. Suppose it is desired to reduce some scrap in quality, no alloy being suitable to be found in the alloy-book, we shall have to make a sort of guess-work, or haphazard calculation. If we adopt the system we are recommending, it will become very simple. To reduce 1 8-carat scrap in order to make 1 5-carat gold, we shall proceed as follows : 20 x 18 = 360 20 x 15 = 300 360 300 = 60 60 -7- 15 = 4 dwts. To every ounce of 1 8-carat scrap must be added 4 dwts. of alloy. This case clearly illustrates the difference in the divisor between reducing and im- proving the quality. If it is of importance to know how much mixture of alloy should be added to an ounce of fine gold in order to produce qualities of inferior standard, the numeral 24 becomes conso- nant, thus to produce 1 8-carat : 20 x 24 480 20 X 18 = 360 480 360 =120 1 20 -j- 18 ~ 6 dwts. 1 6 grs* NEW SYSTEM OF MIXING. 67 Therefore, in making i8-carat gold, to every ounce of fine gold a mixture of alloy consisting of 6 dwts. 1 6 grs. must be added. The above ex- amples represent almost every case, and any others which may arise out of them may be safely calculated, taking these as the basis or starting- point. Practically, this system of mixing gold alloys presents a feature of considerable importance to manufacturing goldsmiths; where time and ac- curacy are valuable principles of business ; as it possesses all the advantages of simplicity, correct- ness, and expedition combined. To avoid misconception, and therefore, if possible, to prevent mistakes, by those adopting this system in the preparation of their various qualities, we have considered it desirable to extend our re- marks, by giving a more comprehensive view of the principles which govern this method of cal- culation ; because it may be assumed the numeral 120 divided by 9 produces 13 dwts. 3 grs. Now this is erroneous, as the following tables fully prove : 480 x 15 = 7,200 480 x 9 = 4,3 2 o 7,200 4,320 = 2,880 2,880 -f- 9 = 320 grs. 68 MELTING AND ROLLING. 20 x 15 = 300 20 X 9 = 1 80 300 180 = 120 120 -f- 9 = 13! dwts. 20 X 15 = 300 20 X 9 = 180 300 180 120 120-7- 9 = 13*333 d wts. The first of these three examples is calculated in grains, the second in pennyweights and frac- tions, and the third in decimals ; but in each calcu- lation the effect is precisely the same, being equivalent to 13 dwts. 8 grs., as shown in our first example, and thereby proving most conclu- sively that the remaining 3 after division is not grains, but a fraction of a pennyweight ; in order to reduce the remainder to grains multiply by 24, and again divide by the divisor 9, when the proper solution of the problem will be effected In all these examples, whether calculated in grains, fractionally or decimally, the principle is unalterable. When the mixture of gold and alloy is properly incorporated (to effect which a good white heat is essentially necessary), it must be carefully cast into bars of gold, the sizes of which vary accord- ing to the branch of the jewellery trade in which they are used. Locket-makers usually cast their PREPARING STRIPS OF GOLD. 69 bars broad and thin, so as to get as large a surface as possible ; and experience has taught the necessity of this, in order to avoid a large amount of waste in outsides and edges. Chain- makers generally cast those which they use long and tolerably thick, which when rolled, produce long strips of wire, and these are admirably adapted in every way to the art of chain-making. They are, perhaps, as much prized by the workman who operates upon them, as if he had the satis- faction of knowing that they were a part of his accumulated wealth. The pouring of the gold into the ingot-moulds is an art which requires some little skill and practice. The flux floating upon the surface of the gold in the crucible, may be prevented from passing into the ingot-mould with the gold by using a thin piece of flat wood held in the left hand? poplar wood is the best, because it burns very slowly. After the process of melting, the bars of gold should be accurately weighed, in order to ascertain how much has been lost in performing the work. If this operation should prove satisfactory, they must next be well filed upon the edges and corners to remove all loose and scraggling pieces, which would otherwise, in the subsequent process of 70 MELTING AND ROLLING. rolling, be lost. After the completion of this latter process, the bars are again placed in the scales, and their weights entered in the mill-book, for the purpose of being sent to one of the rolling-mills to be rolled into sheets or wire, as may be necessary. This is effected by submitting them to the action of large steel rollers moved by steam power. As the bar passes through, the rollers are pressed closer together by powerful screws ; it is again passed through many times, with an additional pressure of the screw every time, until the gold has become hard and requires anneal- ing. This process is performed by placing the metal upon a movable sheet of iron in a muffle, or oven, heated by flues ; after this operation the bar is submitted to the same pro- cess of rolling, changing the rollers until the desired thinness is obtained. Such are the pro- cesses for the reduction of the bar into flats or sheets. In producing strips of gold, previous to their manufacture into wire, the bar is first rolled to about No. 10 or n of the Birmingham wire-gauge, annealed, and then submitted to the action of a pair of circular, cutting-rollers, having a number of regular-sized grooves in each roller; the project- ing portions overlap each other, so as to form COST OF GOLD-ROLLING. knives or cutters. The size of the strips thus produced corresponds exactly with that of the grooves in the rollers. These strips may be severed from the bar with a pair of vice-shears, but it is not so clean and regular as the above method. The following table shows the cost of gold-rolling : Ozs. s. d. Ozs. s. d. Ozs. *. d. 3 < D 6 39 2 II 70 5 2 9 < > 9 40 3 o 71 5 2 10 < D 10 4i 3 o 72 5 3 ii ( 3 II 42 3 i 73 5 3 12 < D II 43 3 i 74 5 4 r 3 44 3 2 75 5 4 H 15 I 2 45 46 3 3 3 4 76 77 ! 2 16 3 47 3 5 7S 5 6 17 4 48 3 6 79 5 7 18 4 49 3 6 80 5 8 19 5 50 3 7 81 5 9 20 6 5i 3 8 82 5 i 21 22 I 52 53 3 8 3 9 11 5 IX 23 9 54 3 10 85 6 o 24 25 10 ii H 3 ii 4 o 86 87 6 I 6 I 26 2 57 4 i 88 6 2 2? > I 5* 4 2 89 6 3 28 ! 2 59 4 3 90 6 4 29 5 3 60 4 4 9i 6 4 30 ' 4 61 4 5 92 6 5 31 2 ! 5 62 4 6 93 6 6 32 J ! 6 63 4 7 94 6 6 33 , 6 64 4 95 6 7 34 4 ! 7 65 4 9 9 b 6 8 35 5 8 60 4 10 97 6 9 36 2 5 9 67 4 ii 98 6 10 37 * 9 68 5 o 99 6 ii 38 J 10 69 5 i IOO 7 o Above loo ozs, 6s. 3^, per 100 023, CHAPTER V. Coining. THE finest or richest alloy of gold is employed by the gold-beater in the preparation of leaf-gold, and also by the artificer in artistic embroidery, massive ornamental work, and, in fact, in every work of art which can be improved in beauty by the addi- tion of this highly-prized metal. The chief uses of leaf-gold have been already explained; therefore the next quality of fineness, to -which we shall direct particular attention, is the national, standard of value in this country the circulating medium of exchange, or our coinage, the manufacture of which consists principally of sovereigns and half- sovereigns ; and as the processes employed in this branch of metallurgy are instructive and interest- ing, we will briefly describe the work carried on at the Royal Mint. First of all, the gold is sent from the Bank of England to the Mint in ingots of about- 180 oz. each. Every ingot is tried by the Bank assayer, and also by the Mint assayer, in order to ascertain PROCESS IN OPERATION AT THE MINT. 73 how much each bar differs from the standard (22-carats) of absolute purity or fineness. When the proper fineness has been ascertained, and the mixture of alloy prepared (which is now always copper), the total quantity of gold and alloy, in proper proportions, is taken and divided into lots of 1,200 oz., for the purpose of being melted into bars. The crucibles used by the master melter are about nine inches deep, by seven inches across the mouth ; and are made of graphite or plumbago. These are well heated previous to the introduc- tion of the .ingots of gold and alloy, in order to prevent cracking or flying, which, should it happen, would be serious, when so large a quantity of metal had been added. To ascertain whether a pot is cracked or not, it is well to introduce a cold bar of iron and let it touch the bottom, when if any crack exists it will at once be visible. If the heat- ing of the crucible has produced no ill effects, the bars of gold and alloy, which have already been prepared, are put in, and thoroughly melted, being finally well stirred with an iron stirrer ; the whole mass is then poured into ingot-moulds, sixteen being placed side by side in a frame ; the pot will hold sufficient metal to fill four ingots holding 300 ozs. each ; consequently, four pots of gold will fill the whole of the ingot-moulds. E 74 COINING, When the ingots have become cold, either by quenching or in the ordinary way, they are stamped with certain letters or figures, and two pieces for assay are cut from each. These two pieces are sent to different assayers, the result of the test being afterwards given to the Master of the Mint, and if found correct, the master melter-has properly discharged his duty. The sizes of the bars are about 24 in. long by 1-375 broad, and about i in. thick. When the Master of the Mint is satisfied as to the correctness of the test, they pass into the hands of the weighers. The scales employed are so strong, and at the same time so delicate, that a single grain will give the turn, even when loaded with 1,000 ozs. The bars of gold, when thus accurately weighed, are rolled at the rolling-mill in the manner previously described, then cut into lengths of 1 8 in. each, again rolled until they are 1-829 inches in width, and 0-053 in thickness, being then equal to rather less than 2 in. in width, and i-igth of an inch in thickness. This process must be carried out with great care, it being very necessary that all the bars should be of the exact size. The long flat strips of gold thus made are cut up into circular blanks of the size and dimensions of sovereigns and half-sovereigns, by the cutting-out PROCESS IN OPERATION AT THE MINT. 75 presses. At the Mint twelve of these presses are in daily operation, the mechanism of which is extremely accurate. Some of the blanks are taken occasionally and tested as to the proper size and weight, in order to see if the cutting-out presses are properly doing their work ; and if they are correct, the cutting-out proceeds. Subsequently, about 720 oz. of blanks are taken and put into a bag, and carried into the weighing room, where can be witnessed at work several machines of truly marvellous beauty in construction, and of extreme accuracy. They weigh every blank separately, and even go so far as to separate the lighter or heavier coins, in a manner one would suppose the intelligence of man alone could effect throwing those of the proper weight into one receptacle, those too heavy into another, and those too light into a third. These machines are fed by a workman, whose duty it is to place a pile of gold blanks in a kind of trough made on purpose to receive them, and then leave the machine to discharge the other duties attendant upon the process ; the blanks fall one by one into little slits at the bottom of the machine. There are three provided, and to determine which of the three slits shall receive the coin, the machine previously weighs it. These machines will weigh E 2 76 COINING. and separate about twenty-three blanks in a minute. The heavy ones are afterwards passed through another wonderful machine, which files away the edges until the proper size and weight are pro- duced. The next process is the testing, in order to ascertain whether there are any cracked ones among the bulk (a result of air-bubbles, caused through imperfect melting). A boy performs this operation. He grasps two handfuls of blanks, and rings each one on a block separately ; by the nature of the ring or sound he can at once tell whether it is defective. If so, it is placed aside with the light blanks for re-melting. Those which are good are then submitted to the action of an edge-compress- ing machine, at the rate of about 700 per minute ; where they are slightly reduced in diameter, and thickened at the edge. By this time they have become hardened and require annealing; after this is done, they are boiled out in diluted sul- phuric acid pickle (oil of vitriol), in the proportion of one of acid to fifteen or twenty of water, and this produces a fine rich gold colour, by removing the black oxide of copper from the surface ; after rinsing well in clean water, they are dried in box- wood sawdust. The principal part of the business then takes place the coining by which is pro- WEIGHT OF THE SOVEREIGN. 77 duced the design upon the obverse and reverse sides ; and also by which that beautiful bright colour to be seen upon a new sovereign is effected. The sulphuric acid pickle leaves a dead or matt appearance, and the parts which appear so bright when the coin is newly circulated are made so by the pressure of two highly-polished steel dies, one for each side of the coin ; the blank being placed between the dies, one blow is sufficient to stamp the whole of it, including the two surfaces and the edge. All the gold coins now issued from the English mint bear a milled or serrated edge, which is pro- duced by ridges on the inside of the collar holding the blank, when it is being struck between the dies. This milling is so true that it would be a very difficult task for the counterfeiter to imitate it by filing. It is further adopted to afford an immediate detection of any attempt to deteriorate the coin by clipping or filing; and the greatest attention is consequently paid by the Mint autho- rities to this part of the work, in order to baffle the ingenuity of the would-be tamperer with the coinage. During the stamping the coins fall from the coining-press into a tray underneath, where they are again examined one by one, to pick out defaulters. The good ones are then removed 78 COINING. to another room, where a small number of sove- reigns or half-sovereigns are indiscriminately se- lected, weighed, and assayed, as a final test of the thorough accuracy of the whole manufacture. The sovereign, when completed and ready for circula- tion, is almost exactly *868 of an inch in diameter ; 1,869 sovereigns standard gold (22 carats) weigh exactly 40 Ibs. troy weight; the. legal weight of each can thus be very easily determined. Reduce the 40 Ibs. to dwts., and divide the product by 1,869; if we then reduce the remainder to grs. and again divide, we shall have the weight of 5 dwts. 3 H 3 grs., which is equivalent to 123-27,447 grs., the exact weight of a sovereign. It is calcu- lated that there are in circulation in the United Kingdom sovereigns and half-sovereigns to the value of 100,000,000 sterling. As coins are subjected to considerable wear, through frequently passing from hand to hand, the amount of loss occasioned is worthy of some little consideration. Of course this amount will be in proportion to the length of time the coins have been in wear. To provide against this, the English Government allows a sovereign to be a legal tender till it is reduced not below 122-5 " rs - (5 dwts. 2\ grs.), the difference between this and the full standard weight being the remedy allowed by WEIGHT OF THE SOVEREIGN. 79 English law for abrasion or loss by wear. Con- sequently, when English gold coins fall below this standard, they cease to be a legal tender. The depreciation of a coin depends upon its hardness, wearing much more when soft, and also upon the rapidity of its circulation. The above law, how- ever, is not strictly carried out. The remedy for abrasion would be a little more than three-quarters of a grain for each sovereign, or decimally '774 grain. CHAPTER VI. Manufactured Articles. Locket-Making. THK next branch of the subject, in treating of the uses of gold, we have to notice, is that relating to the jeweller, which includes the various works of art connected with the trade of a manufacturing goldsmith. One of the first things that would be likely to strike the stranger in visiting a jeweller's work- shop, would be the methodical manner in which it is fitted up. He would also probably observe the neat and compact arrangements provided for the workmen, consisting of convenient tables or benches for the easier performance of the work. The jeweller's board commonly provides sittings for four workmen, the outline of which is nearly half- circular; holes are sawn or scooped out from the semicircular side to form places for the requisite number of men, and these hollowed places, with their appendages, form what is technically termed the jeweller's " skin." This " skin " consists of a THE JEWELLER'S BOARD. 8 1 piece of leather fastened securely underneath the two arms of the board, and round the semicircle, so as to form a receptacle into which the filings or articles accidentally dropped by the workmen may fall ; and also to serve as a convenient place for tools. Many master-jewellers have now substituted iron pans or trays for these leather skins, which, in many cases, are better, as the lemel can easily be separated from the scrap. This is done by means of a small movable box provided in the bottom of the pan, with a perforated top, through which the lemel can at any time be swept by the workman ; the lemel, to a considerable extent, where these trays are in use, being prevented from getting too much upon the tools ; as a few seconds now and then, will suffice to sweep it through the perforated part of the tray into the box underneath. No con- trivance of this kind is attached to the ordinary leather skin, and the lemel continually accumu- lating upon the handles, and in the crevices, of the tools (which are sometimes rendered moist through constant handling) is a source of incon- venience to the workman and a loss to the em- ployer. In the centre of this hollowed place there is secured, in the woodwork of the board, a small E 3 82 MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. wedge-shaped, projecting piece of hard wood called the " peg ; " and upon this the artisan performs all his work ; and beneath this peg is the skin or tray of which we have spoken. Each workman sits at one of these peculiar-shaped places, and in close proximity to him is a bent gas-pipe, filed slanting at the mouth, and working upon a swivel. This is constantly burning, the flame being indis- pensable in the jeweller's art, for soldering pur- poses. These peculiar-shaped benches are gene- rally arranged down one side of the workshop, and the heavier tools, lathes, rollers, draw-benches, &c., down the other side and middle; but where a separate shop can be provided for these latter, it is generally done. We shall now endeavour to explain, from prac- tical knowledge, the processes employed for pro- ducing modern jewellery of various kinds, com- prising the personal ornaments of the rich, and such as is stored in the warehouses of the mer- chants and manufacturers who trade in it. The qualities of the gold used in the manufacture of jewellery having been previously described, we shall at once proceed to allude to the manufacture of lockets, a branch of industry finding employment for a great number of hands ; and, considering the rapidity with which orders are now executed PROCESS OF LOCKET-MAKING. 83 compared with what they were a few years ago, an account of the work cannot, we think, fail to be interesting to the reader. A very large quantity of what are generally termed gold lockets consist of gold only on the tops and bottoms, or fronts and backs ; and this is so delicate that it has to be strengthened underneath with base metal ; in some cases it is as thin as No. i wh^n doubled in the jeweller's metal-gauge. Being so, thin, of course great care is required in manipulation, especially when the graver is being used. The rims are made of plating, as also are ^Ji loops and rings, the fronts and backs being j all* the gold they contain. These lockets are being made by the workman at about is. 3^. to is. bd. eacfe. This is, undoubtedly, caused by the low prices at which manufacturers find it necessary to sell them. The prices quoted above include every- thing incidental to the complete locket plating, polishing, glasses, engraving, &c. except the two blanks of gold to form the front and back of the locket. To form lockets of this description, plain, oval, or other shaped blanks are cut out by the press : these are prepared in large quantities, and kept in stock ready for the different workmen to make use of at any time. The blanks, before going into the 84 MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. hands of the regular locket-maker, have to be stamped into shape : this is done by submitting them to the action of a pair of dies, which form the requisite design. The dies are strongly secured in the stamping-press, and the striking- up, as it is called, is generally entrusted to a jeweller's stamper, who performs the work at so much per gross. These blanks being slightly raised, are now ready for the workman, who generally performs his work in a very dexterous manner. We have as yet only spoken of the fronts and oacks of lockets; but there are also the rims, rings, flats, and other parts, which we must now describe. These latter parts, as we have already stated, consist of "gold plating," and they are purchased in the form of wire from the plating warehouses. The rims are made by cutting the wire into lengths (the preparation of this will be referred to hereafter) suitable for the different sizes of the lockets required. They are made by boys, in large quantities, so that they may be ready to hand at any moment. When the wire has been cut into lengths, the ends of the pieces are turned together and soldered, and afterwards shaped as desired upon a mandrel ; they are then ready to receive the prepared gold SOLDERING THE JOINTS. 85 parts. Each workman has a heap of fronts, backs, rims, &c., upon the board before him. He then begins to put the locket together ; and it is almost marvellous to see how skilfully the operator handles his tools, and the rapidity with which the work is executed. One of the most delicate operations to be per- formed in locket-making, is the preparing and fixing of the hinges, or joints. To do this pro- perly and neatly is the aim of a good workman ; but the appliances being numerous, the skill of the artisan is promoted. To adjust the hinges two rims are selected, care being exercised to see that they fit closely together, without which it would be impossible to make a nice-fitting joint. Small lengths of tube having been previously prepared, of different sizes suitable for hinges, the workman now takes a small round file (rat's-tail) about the size of the tube which is to form the joint, and makes a little groove with it in the centre of the edge of the two rims ; this files away the sub- stance of the two rims to where the gold fronts and backs go on; and the groove or hollowed surface is afterwards filled up by the hinge itself. It is then filed until the tube fits it nicely, when the proper length is cut off with a fine saw; a piece of steel wire is next put through it, and it 86 MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. is again sawn into three pieces. These pieces are then laid in the groove, and soldered, two pieces to one side of the rim, and one to the other ; this is the work almost of an instant, so expert do the workmen become at this branch of the trade. The soldering of the hinges, to prevent filling, or tacking, requires great practical know- ledge and judgment, in its execution ; to the inex- perienced, jeweller's rouge, or some whiting (a little of either), when put inside the tube, and where the saw has gone through, will prevent the solder flow- ing in those parts ; but the most practical solderers perform their work without these precautions. Having now performed the work of making rims and joints, the next process is the fastening on of the rings, which is a very simple operation, and can easily be effected even by a boy. A piece of steel wire (called in the trade a "spit ") is taken, of the size required, and the rings wound upon it ; this may either be done in the lathe, or at the peg : if the latter operation is resorted to, the spit must be held in a pair of hand-vices ; the coil, or lap, as it is more commonly termed, is then sawn through on one side only, longitudinally. A. large number of rings are thus very soon pre- pared ; they are then closed with two pairs of pliers, and slightly filed at the joints. They are COMMON LOCKETS. 87 now ready to be soldered upon the rims, which is done either by securing them in their place with binding-wire, or by arranging them upon a slab of pumice-stone, in half-dozens or dozens at a time. This latter plan is certainly the quickest, when a proper piece of pumice-stone is provided for the purpose ; a little pallion of solder is given to each, and a keen blast of the blow-pipe fastens securely a large number in a few minutes. ' The flats, and other parts of the inside of the locket, are prepared after the manner just described. We now come to that part which completes the process of putting together, in these cheap lockets viz. the adjustment of the fronts and backs to the already prepared framework. This is done with soft solder, and is performed in the following- manner : The flats of the rims, and the edges of the gold plates that are to come in contact, -are slightly rubbed on the file, or stone, to provide a level and clean surface ; the workman then takes up a back or front, and, with careful precision, secures it to a rim. This may be done with very fine binding-wire, or otherwise, as desired. When a quantity of these have been fitted, they are placed upon a bunch of matted wire (old binding- wire, and called the "devil "), ready to be soldered ; a solution of chloride of zinc is then put round the 88 MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. part to be united, and also a few pallions of solder, when a gentle blast from the soldering-jet com- pletes the operation. The better class of work, however, is hard-soldered, that being wholly com- posed of gold ; but the processes of the metallurgy are similar to those we have described. The lockets, after being touched up a little by the workmen, are ready for the polisher, whose work we shall consider under another branch of this subject. Common lockets have generally plain or en- graved surfaces ; but in the better class, the orna- ments in the centre are raised, and diamonds and other precious stones are sometimes set in them ; and in some cases also extend round the borders of the lockets. In order to vary the designs as much as possible, ornamentation is now produced by the " stamp/' as well as by " hand ; " and it is chiefly due to this advantage that the locket manu- facturers are enabled to display such a variety of patterns. The parts made by hand are called settings, and are all " wrought," with the exception of the teething, this of late being more commonly performed by the press, instead of by the hand as formerly. These settings are placed upon the lockets according to the designs required, a number at a time, and then hard-soldered, a pro- JEWELLING. 89 cess which firmly secures them in their places. In the manufacture of bright gold lockets, where hard-soldering is adopted, silver solder is now always used. The process is performed in this way : The parts to be united are made quite clean, free from grease or oxide ; and a solution of borax being prepared by rubbing a piece upon a slate, to which a few drops of water have been added, the ornaments or settings are dipped into this solution, and at once transferred to their proper place upon the article in process of manu- facture; and while others are being prepared in the same manner, these will have become dry. This operation tends to prevent moving during the process of charging, and also acts as a pre- ventitive to rising in soldering ; we may add that a little sandiver rubbed in the borax solution will prove an unfailing precaution against the latter. A quantity of very small pellets, or pallions, of solder are then cut, which, being picked up one by one on the point of a camel-hair pencil mois- tened in the borax solution, are put in their proper places, and the flame directed by the blowpipe from the gas-jet, soon unites the joints as firm as a rock. The ornaments, or, more properly speaking, settings, which are to receive precious stones or 90 MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. other jewels, are placed upon the lockets, with their teeth uppermost, the gems most suitable to form the designs being put in proper order between them. The tops of the teeth are so bent or turned over, that they fully encircle the stone, and thus hold it securely in its place. This system is called " colleting," and by it, beautiful effects are often produced. The best method of setting, or the one most admired, is called " fancy setting." It con- sists in drilling holes for the gems, and then with the scorper hollowing away a portion of the metal around the holes to fit the stones, and also in the direction the gems are to extend ; at the same time the bringing up of four little beads or caps is effected, which act as claws, and form an efficient security for each gem. This kind of setting, as applied to lockets, is very beautiful. We have partially described the duties of the " setter," and if he can perform the latter process satisfactorily for a first-class jeweller, he is considered a work- man of no mean order; it is not at all unusual to meet with good collet-setters, who are also good makers, but a maker is very seldom met with who can fancy set. There is another method called Roman setting, but it is not ap- plicable to this branch of the trade. The processes adopted by modern jewellers SOLDERS. 91 in manufacturing ladies' gem - rings, bracelets, brooches, seals, &c., are, in their general detail, analogous to those already described certain parts being raised by the stamp, and others being wrought, or made by hand ; these are all put together piece by piece by the workman, until the article is completed. A very good impression of a locket, or any other article with a flat orna- mental surface, may be taken by the workman (and the design kept for future reference) in a few minutes, by wetting some note-paper with the tongue and smoking the article over a gas-flame ; when it must be pressed upon the paper, and a perfect impression will thus be produced, fully showing the nature of the ornamentation, &c. ; the impression can further be made permanent by drawing it through milk, and afterwards drying the paper. It will now be necessary (in order to proceed step by step) to give some information respecting solders, which will enable the workman neatly to execute his work, for a great deal depends upon the solder, as well as on the skill of the artisan, in producing clean and invisible joints. Some jewellers know but little of the degree of heat necessary to melt the various metals and their alloys. As a table supplying this information will no doubt be wel- 92 MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. come, the following is given of the standard metals : Daniell's Table. Fine gold will melt at 2,016 deg. Fahr. Pure copper 1,994 Fine silver 1,873 , Pure spelter 773 The next table, prepared from Daniell, will corre- spond with the alloys we have previously given, and thus supply a want long felt by the goldsmiths ; not only for the treatment in the crucible, but more particularly in the subsequent manipulation ; whilst in the processes of annealing this table will also prove of some practical advantage, by showing that it is essentially necessary to vary the heat in some of the qualities to prevent scorching while they are upon the fire : Our Table. 23-carat gold will melt at 2,012 deg. Fahr. 22 2,009 20 2,002 18 1,995 T 5 1.992 1,987 1,982 1,979 1,973 1,960 1,587 Composition This table clearly demonstrates the fact that SILVER SOLDERS. 93 it is unwise to place metals upon the annealing- pan without careful attention being paid to them, when their points of fusion are widely at variance with each other. If a piece of i8-carat wire and one of y-carat, of exactly the same description, were placed upon the pan in the muffle, without due regard to the above facts, and left until the i8-carat had acquired a good red heat, upon the withdrawal of the pan it would be found that the 7 -carat had been overheated, and the nature perished, so as to render it further unworkable. The list of silver solders as expressed below will in practice be found to answer admirably for every purpose with the alloys we have recommended. When using y-carat or common gold, a very easy one is required; this has been considered, and every reliance can be placed on the solders here given, and their suitability approved, by their point of fusion to the qualities under manipula- tion : Silver Solders. Description. Fine Silver. Copper. Spelter. Hard solder . . Medium solder . 1 6 parts 3 i parts 4 i part Easy solder . . 14 Common hard . 6 Common easy . 6 2 i 94 MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. Fusing Point. No. i. Hard solder. . 1,866 deg. Fahr. No. 2. Medium solder . 1,843 > No. 3. Easy solder . .1,818 ,, No. 4. Common . . 1,826 No. 5. Common easy . 1,802 The fusibility of these solders will be a little higher than those given, because of the volatility of the zinc in melting, which increases the point of fusion when being used, for which allowance should be made. Any of them may either be used in pal- lion or filed into dust, as may be preferred. The former is more extensively employed by jewellers ; and the latter by gold chain-makers, for which pur- pose it is more suitable, as it enables those who use it to get through more work in a given time. The pallion may be also used in the manufacture of chains in fact, it is commonly preferred by curb- makers; and in the manufacture of Brazilian or snake chains its employment is compulsory. The object of zinc in silver solders is to increase their fusibility; it also, by its evaporation in the pro- cess, increases the strength of the joint by tough- ening the solder ; but the use of too much is an obstacle in the way of the workman, and ulti- mately proves far from satisfactory to the pur- chasers of that class of jewellery : firstly, by the FUSING POINT, 95 addition of too large a proportion of spelter to silver solders, they become brittle and partly un- workable, especially when the parts united with it have to bear a strain, as they break easily, and consequently have to be re-soldered. This may happen several times over ; when this is the case it operates injuriously to the interest of the work- man. Secondly, the above description in time eats away, and articles that have been soldered with it become disunited. We have seen chains, after having been some time in wear, sent to be repaired, without a particle of solder upon the joints. This was caused by the solder having contained too much spelter in the first instance ; and even where this is not the case, the soldering places are liable to go black whilst lying in manufacturers' or merchants' stocks, if allowed to get damp or exposed to the acid vapours of their places of business ; this kind, there- fore, proves very unsatisfactory, and no possible advantage can be gained by any one from its use. CHAPTER VII. Solid Wire-Drawing. ONE of the most important applications of gold is in connection with the art of chain-making 1 ; and there being in that branch of manufacture an unusually large amount of gold employed, it will be necessary to enlarge upon it, especially as it comprises the whole art of wire-drawing, the prin- ciples of which, when fully comprehended, are a source of assistance to the workman so engaged. When this wire-drawing, as applied to the manu- facture of gold chains, is properly executed, there is every reason for the expectation of the best work throughout, at least so far as some patterns are concerned. In Birmingham wire-drawing is exten- sively practised, and that town is justly celebrated for it. Perhaps it will not be out of place to give here a short history of it and a few facts bearing upon the process. THE DRAW-PLATE. 97 The malleability of gold must have been known long before its ductility, for we never read of the ancient gold-workers turning to any account this latter property. It has been suggested by Beckman, a German chemist, that gold and other wire were first formed by beating out the metal, and then cutting it into thin strips, which process is entirely borne out by Scripture, in the account of the preparation of the sacerdotal dress of Aaron, for which see Exodus xxxix. 3. Wire-work seems to have been rarely practised by the ancients, and their mode of making it was upon the anvil. It seems to be seldom mentioned in their writings ; there is no allusion whatever to the draw-plate^ the principal tool of the modern wire-drawer, even in later works upon the subject. The persons who fabricated wire by means of the hammer were termed wiresmiths. The introduction of the draw- plate for wire-drawing purposes, was made about the year A.D. 1350. It is said to be the invention of one Richard Archal, a Frenchman, but it was long before the ancient method of the hammer and anvil was entirely superseded. In England wire appears to have been made by hand, or wrought, until the year 1565 ; at that time a Saxon (Christopher Schultz) came to this country, and introduced the draw-plate and its 98 SOLID WIRE-DRAWING. applications for making iron wire, which had pre- viously been introduced from the continent. The alloys of gold for chain-making purposes should be exceedingly malleable and ductile, and the tougher the gold is, the better will it be able to stand the kind of treatment to which it will be sub- jected. According to the modern process, when it is ready for the wire-drawer, it is in the form of square strips, of the sizes Nos. 10, n, or 12 of the Birmingham wire -gauge, unless otherwise ordered. The preparation of these strips has been explained when describing the process of rolling. The wire-drawer, in the ordinary performance of his work, submits them (after removing any rough surface left in the process of slitting) to the action of a pair of wire-rollers moving by hand power : these have nearly half-round grooves in them, and are diversified in size ; during the revolution of the rollers, the grooves in the upper barrel meet those of the lower, so that when a strip of gold has passed through them, a piece of wire is at once produced almost round. This process is repeated until it has passed through all the grooves, the latter being regulated by screws ; the gold has then become hard, and requires annealing: when this has been done the wire is pointed, and then comes the operation of the draw-plate, which PREPARING WIRE FOR CHAINS. 99 usually consists of a piece of steel about 10 in. long, ij in. broad, and J in. in thickness. These plates are the best for all practical purposes, but others will do for small operations. They contain about 10 conical holes of different sizes, and fol- lowing each other very regularly. By passing the metal through these holes successively, a wire of any size can easily be obtained. We are now speaking of round wire ; but there are other kinds used by chain-makers, which will be considered in their order. In the preparation of round wire, and also of some others, when different sizes are required in the manufacture of an article, it is advantageous to cut off certain lengths equal to the quantity of material required for it. During the process of drawing the gold, it is a very convenient method, and at the same time one which presents a great advantage to the workman, not only by enabling him to prepare the whole of his work at one time, which saves labour ; but by giving him the oppor- tunity to utilise the whole of his gold profitably if at piece-work. By way of example, we will give a practical account of the matter, which will be well under- stood by the trade. If we were going to make a graduated curb Albert, the old plan would be to F 2 100 SOLID WIRE-DRAWING. draw down the wire until the largest or centre size was reached, wind off the links, draw it again to the next size and again wind off, and so on until all the sizes had been prepared. To wind the wire properly it would require annealing between every size, and to do this after every hole would be a continual source of hindrance to the workman. According to the method we suggest (and we believe we were the first to introduce it into the Birmingham trade), this inconvenience would be dispensed with, because we should draw all the wire first and so dispose of that branch of the business. This would be done in the following manner. Presuming there would be five sizes in the chain, that would be two inches to each size. When the wire had reached in dimensions the largest size, cut off a length of nine inches ; after- wards cut off all the other wires in the same manner, as the drawing proceeds ; nine inches of wire makes two inches of chain, consequently, in the above example, all the wires will be required of equal length ; but when seven sizes are put in a chain, six inches will suffice for the first size, and seven inches in the subsequent ones. On a large scale a decided advantage is gained by this method, both in time and patience. Most other chains may be prepared upon this principle ; and PREPARING WIRE FC'R CHAINS. ID I besides being found more convenient to the work- man, a greater number of articles will be obtained out of the same material. These wires are wound upon oval steel spits of various sizes, to form links, and afterwards, on being put into proper shape by the workman, become that well-known article, the " graduated curb/* The holes in the draw-plates are regulated when worn, by hardened steel punches of a conical form; they must not taper too suddenly, but gradually down to the point ; if they are pointed too sharply they will leave no bearing on the draw-plates, the holes will pull out, and the wire will be very irregular in size, in some cases varying more than a size in one piece of wire ; therefore the more gradual the taper of the punches the better, and the more certain will be the wire produced from them. Wire is drawn by the wire-drawer into various shapes, the principal of which are hollow for jewellery and gold chain-work ; these will be duly considered. Primarily the solid wires claim our attention, all of which can easily be pre- pared, far more so than the hollow ones, for the latter at times present features of great difficulty ; and the best workman is often subjected to a good deal of trouble and annoyance in their manu- facture. 102 SOLID >VIRE-DRAWING. Square wire is prepared in a similar way to round in the first process by the wire-drawer the break- ing-down ; and afterwards, by submitting it to the action of the draw-plate ; here the first difference in its form or shape commences to take effect. The plate through which the wire has to pass contains square holes instead of round, as in the previous case ; these holes may be made of any size, regulat- ing them by a steel punch, which, of course, must also be square. The exact size of the wire is obtained by knocking the punch into the plate from the back side of it, so as to open or enlarge one of the holes of the draw-plate, and afterwards by draw- ing the wire through it. When the holes are too large, the draw-plates are battered upon the front with a convex-faced hammer, and the punches applied from the proper side to regulate them, in the way just described ; a bearing is thus produced upon the surface of the plates which protects the holes, and this renders the wire regular in size. The plates in use for these purposes being always soft, by constant wear and a continual alteration of the holes, the draw-plates will in time become hard and require annealing, after which process they should be allowed to cool gradually, by cover- ing them with ashes. Solid oblong and half-round wires, as well as OBLONG WIRE. 103 several other fancy wires, are all similarly pre- pared, with this exception, that each wire has its own draw-plate, corresponding exactly with the form required. In the preparation of oblong and half-round wires it is usual to pass the wire through a pair of flattening rollers, so as to enable it the more easily to take the first hole of the draw-plate to which it is then submitted; by these means both wires are more quickly prepared. Oblong wire is some- times made by square drawing, and then flattening it by the rollers ; there is one advantage gained by so doing, namely, an oblong of almost any shape can soon be effected, and that without the use of numerous draw-plates of that pattern. Hollow Wire-drawing. The process of hollow wire-drawing is more complicated than that of solid, consequently, more than usual care is required in its production. Solid wire can easily be reduced in size by means of the draw-bench, a contrivance working with a wind- lass. In the case of hollow wire, it is commonly pulled through the draw-plates, by lapping it once round the person of the operator, and then swing- ing the body forward in the opposite direction of 104 HOLLOW WIRE-DRAWING. the draw-plate ; this method prevents plier-marks, and also preserves the shape of the wire intact, by dispensing with the use of draw-tongs, and this is of some importance in fancy wire-drawing. Another good plan is to run the wire, as it leaves the draw-plate, upon a drum, turned with a per- pendicular handle, which is secured to it hori- zontally. The wire is drawn through the draw- plate and wound upon the drum by a rotary action; whilst for facilitating its removal, the drum is slightly conical in form. After this proceeding, if the wire remains unfinished, it is at once transferred to a skeleton frame, correspond- ing with the outer dimensions of the drum, and revolving upon a perpendicular pin ; the process is repeated as many times as circumstances permit, or until the proper size is produced. The wire requires annealing repeatedly in all the processes of drawing, but experience and judgment will dictate how often it should be done ; some golds will stand much rougher treatment than others, therefore, there are no fixed periods for this proceeding. In preparing hollow half-round wire, the process commences according to the principles already laid down for round wire. Small half-round wire, in hollow may be first drawn two sizes smaller HOLLOW HALF-ROUND WIRES. 105 in the round than required when finished in half- round ; that is to say, if the half-round were re- quired to finish 1 8 size in the jeweller's metal-gauge, it should be drawn to 16 round wire in the same gauge, and subsequently flattened to size 3 by passing it repeatedly through a small pair of jewellers' flattening rollers ; it is then well annealed, and greased ready for the application of the draw- plate. The gold (being now in the form of a flat narrow strip or riband) is pointed by cutting it with a pair of hand-shears, a little from each side of the strip at the end, so as to form a point for admission into the draw-plate; the wire is then pulled through a round hole, large enough to admit the point of a small steel punch, which acts as a doomer to the wire in its passage through the hole of the plate. One half-round plate is next taken, and the wire drawn successively through it until the desired size is made ; though usually two holes are sufficient to obtain good half-round wire of the hollow kind. Fancy wires of other descriptions are prepared in the first instance exactly as we have de- scribed ; but there is a change of the process in finishing. Oblong wire would only require a very slight draught in the half-round draw-plate, just sufficient to make a set upon the edges of the wire ; * 3 106 HOLLOW WIRE-DRAWING. it is then consigned to the oblong draw-plate. In its passage through the latter, it is supported by a small tapered punch of the same dimen- sions as the aperture in the plate ; this produces a wire exactly the same shape as the aperture, only hollow instead of solid. Oblong wires will require to be of the same size in the round, in order to produce a tolerably sharp impression when they are finished. Hollow square wire is made by taking two oblong wires and drawing them through a plate containing square holes, between which is inserted a round piece of steel wire, which keeps them in their proper places, and renders their impres- sions sharp and equal. Square wire must be two sizes larger in the round than is required in the square, as it finishes two sizes smaller in the latter ; this is everywhere the case in the prepara- tion of plain square wire. These observations also apply to fluted wire made in hollow ; and other fancy wires may be obtained by carrying out the general rules here laid down. Ornamental wire is produced by the flattening rollers bearing various patterns of artistic work, all of which have been originated in the modern school of goldsmiths. The subsequent processes of manipulation are precisely similar to those already GOLD CHAIN-MAKING. 107 given as regards general detail ; and include the chief features in the art of wire-drawing as it per- tains to the precious metal. For the purpose of making gold chains any of the above wires may be taken and wound upon pieces of iron or steel, of different forms and shapes, accord- ing to the contemplated design ; the iron or steel being removed, the coil of gold is sawn longi- tudinally, to form links, and these when put together in a multitude of ways, and soldered, complete the operations of the person called the " maker." Chains, like all other work, require to be repeatedly boiled in diluted oil of vitriol dur- ing the processes of soldering, in order to remove the black surface, or oxide, which is continually presenting itself; and which would operate inju- riously in any additional soldering, if not removed, as the borax forms itself into a hard, glassy flux, and so becomes objectionable. In concluding these remarks upon the manufac- ture of gold wire, we will give an explanation of the method adopted by "plating" manufac- turers, but as this is not essential to our present subject, we shall only briefly refer to it. CHAPTER VIII. Manufacturing Processes. Gold-plating. GOLD-PLATING, like gold itself, consists of various qualities, and is valued at from two to fifteen shillings per ounce. It is commonly prepared in the following manner: a bar of gold of the quality desired and one of metal (composition or gilding metal will do) are taken and made perfectly flat under the stamp or press ; when this is done, the two bars are cleansed, by scraping or filing the surfaces .which will subsequently come in contact ; this process is of importance, and must be con- tinued until every particle of black is entirely re- moved. Of the two, filing is to be preferred, because the file-marks have a tendency to assist the complete amalgamation of the metals. Some thick borax is next prepared, and well rubbed over the surfaces. The two bars are well secured together by strong iron wire, and are then ready to be united into one. There being several methods of effecting this, it will be necessary to describe them. First, NINE-CARAT PLATING. IOQ the process known as sweating should be ex- plained. The two metals, when perfectly secured, are placed in a " muffle/' and made red-hot ; the heat is increased until they are almost at the point of fusion. At this period the operation requires very careful watching, and when the metals have become united, the whole is withdrawn, and the amalgamation is complete. The second and best method, the one also, as far as we know, most adopted, is that of joining the two metals together by soldering. The whole process previous to the soldering is exactly as before. The metal bar being larger in every respect than the one of gold, the extended surfaces, therefore, of it provide a support for the pallions of solder, which are placed along one side and half-way along each end. The whole is then subjected to a powerful heat in the muffle, and the solder flows between the bars, thoroughly cementing them together. When this is seen to run down the side and ends not charged, the operation is complete, and the gold can be rolled, hammered, or otherwise mani- pulated. For the purpose of making g-carat plating, such as is used by locket-makers, a bar of Q-carat gold would be selected. The relative thickness of the two metals would be, perhaps, in the proportion of 1 10 GOLD-PLATING. i to 20, and would cost about 2s. per oz. To pro- duce wire, flat, tube, &c., the metal is all rolled flat, when it may be stamped, spun, cut into strips, suaged, or doomed, and thus made into wire, or otherwise attenuated to any extent. In any of these processes the gold will follow the reduction of the baser metal, still retaining to a considerable extent the relative proportion of thickness between them. In the case of wire-drawing, we may remark that the holes of the draw-plates must be closely watched, in order to detect and remove scratches, &c., which would be a serious obstacle in the manufacture of good gold-plating. Round wire-plating is made by cutting flat strips from the rolled metal, then by suaging or dooming, and afterwards drawing them until the outer edges meet. A thin riband of pallion solder may then be placed inside the joint and cemented, when the surplus solder must be removed ; a continuation of the drawing process will render the wire fit for every purpose that may be needful. Some gold-plating, however, is left with the joints of the wire unsoldered. In using wire of this kind much care has to be exercised, in order to prevent the joint being seen on the surface of the work, which would spoil the sale of it. With this class of goods the process of polishing is POLISHING. 1 1 1 a very delicate operation, and must not be entrusted to an inexperienced workman. Leaving this branch of the subject, we shall now extend our remarks in the direction of those pro- cesses which come immediately after the making of the articles, the first of which is polishing ; and this will only be dealt with as it applies to the manufacture of real gold jewellery. No doubt, those who manufacture plated wares will glean sufficient information from the description here given, to be of some service to them. Polishing. Polishing is usually done by girls at the lathe, with a circular brush made of stiff bristles, and revolv- ing upon a horizontal spindle. The brush finds its way into the small interstices of the work, and, if skilfully employed, does not injure the most deli- cately-constructed articles. All polishing is com- menced in the first instance by rubbing down, or smoothing the surface of the work, with some kind of hard material, which entirely obliterates all file- marks, all roughness of workmanship, and other imperfections left by the maker. The substance employed by the polishers in effecting the above object, is a mixture of pumice, emery, and crocus, prepared with oil to the consistence of a thick paste, 1 1 2 POLISHING. and applied in very small quantities to the revolving brush and also to the work. If the work is re- quired to be very finely polished, after the first coarse marks have been removed, another mix- ture must be used, consisting of finely-powdered rottenstone and oil : this preparation removes the polishing-marks produced during the first opera- tion, A special brush must be used with the last mixture. If a higher degree of polish is required, still finer materials must be employed, but such is very seldom the case in the jewellery trade. Touching the work upon the buff, to which a little rouge and brown candle-grease have been added, after the former processes have been employed, produces a high degree of polish. In fact, the whole process consists in entirely removing scratch after scratch, until nothing in the shape of marks is visible to the naked eye. Some kinds of jewellers' work have to be ex- ceptionally treated, on account of the extreme delicacy of make. The Water- of- Ayr stone is very commonly employed by jewellers in polishing. The inside of rings is polished upon a "chuck/* tapered down almost to a point ; and the applica- tion of a small portion of cotton-wool to hold the mixture makes an effective polishing-tool. Threads are also somewhat largely used in this process ; ENAMELLING. 113 for the inside of the links of chains they are highly advantageous, and, indeed, cannot be surpassed. The work should be well boiled in diluted sul- phuric acid, in the proportion of one part of acid to twenty parts of water, previous to polishing ; so as to render it quite clean, and, being bright at the commencement of the latter process, it will continue so throughout; a slight rub now and then with a piece of cotton waste will remove the grease enveloping it, and thus inform the workman as to the necessity of continuing the operation. When the polishing is completed the work is washed out in a hot solution of soda, soap, and water, and dried in warm boxwood sawdust. The common washing soda is used on account of its cheapness, its cost being about 2d. per Ib. ; and i oz. of it to a pint of water will be found in almost every case sufficiently efficacious. Enamelling. Enamelling is much practised in this country, and as the application of this art to jewellery heightens its beauty, a few details connected with it may be necessary to complete the account of the various processes employed in the production of the jeweller's work. The artistic work of the goldsmith is also considerably enhanced by the 114 ENAMELLING. use of enamel ; and much skill and taste are abso- lutely requisite on the part of the workman, not only in the mechanical processes, but likewise in the preparation and arrangement of his colours, in order to produce the highest possible hue or tint. In fact, it is almost requisite that he should be an artist as well as a workman, to properly carry his craft to perfection. It has been much more extensively employed since the year A.D. 1800, owing to the discovery of gas. This, and as a consequence, the use of coke, have given rise to improved appliances, rendering the operation less costly, and easier to perform. The extent of the patronage which the art has received has also tended to this result. We shall refrain from going into the history of ancient enamelling and painting as it was formerly practised in Italy, where art study was almost a fundamental principle of education, and confine ourselves to simply giving an outline of the mysteries of the craft, and its adaptation to the present school of enamellers. Our remarks, there- fore, being purely descriptive, are more particularly intended for that class of gold- workers which we shall call the "uninitiated," or non-practical 'in this art. It is almost impossible for a good gold- worker to FRITZ OR FLUX EMPLOYED. 115 be also a good enameller ; yet it is necessary that the former should understand in some measure the principles of the craft of the latter. Enamels are vitreous or glassy substances, used by metal-workers for producing various designs for useful or ornamental purposes. They are of two kinds, opaque and transparent, and have cer- tain conditions to fulfil, viz. they must preserve a hard glassy appearance after fusion ; they must adhere very firmly to the gold ; they must fuse at a temperature below that of the substances to which they are applied ; they must be insoluble in water and the ordinary acids, and remain un- affected by the action of the atmosphere ; lastly, they must stand annealing and colouring, without becoming injuriously affected. Enamels as applied to metals have a transparent colourless base, called fritz, or flux, and when required for use a colour is readily given to it by the addition of metallic oxides, of which the follow- ing formulas have been selected as the most useful : Fritz No. i. Red lead . 10 parts Flint glass . 6 Saltpetre . 2 Borax . 2 Fuse this mixture well in a clay crucible for Il6 ENAMELLING. some time, then pour it out into a jar of water, collect the residue and afterwards reduce it to a powder in an agate-ware mortar, and preserve for future use. Fritz No. 2. Metallic tin . 8 parts Metallic lead . 4 Fuse this composition in an iron ladle at a dull red heat ; carefully remove the oxide which will form upon the surface, taking care also to obtain it quite free from the pieces of metal which have escaped oxidation, and reduce as before to a fine powder. Then take of this : Calcine . . 4 parts Silica . . 8 Saltpetre . . 2 Common salt . 2 Well mix and partly fuse in a clay crucible ; the fewer number of times this is fired the firmer it will be Fritz No. 3. Broken crystal goblets . . 12 parts Calcined borax . . . 4 Glass of antimony . 2 Saltpetre . . . I Melt this mixture after the manner recommended for No. i . Break up and again melt, as this flux improves by repeated meltings. The above enamel FRITZ OR FLUX EMPLOYED. 117 fluxes are admirably adapted to form the bases of enamels for gold-work. They may be made more fusible by increasing the proportion of borax ; and by the latter substance the fusibility of all enamels may be increased at pleasure ; but too free a use of it is an obstacle to the work of the artist. Fritz No. 4. Flint glass powdered . . 16 parts Pearl-ash . . . . 6 Common salt . . . 2 Calcined borax . . I Let these ingredients be well melted together, and afterwards finely broken into powder, and pre- served ready for the additional colouring mixture of enamel. Fritz No. 5. Silicious sand Calcined borax Glass of antimony Saltpetre Chalk . . 12 parts . 12 4 . i o Mix and fuse as before explained, grind into very fine powder and re-melt ; this operation may be judiciously repeated several times. We have only at present described enamels, and given directions for the bases of them ; variety of design in colour is produced by the addition of some metallic oxide, Il8 ENAMELLING. which effects the change according to the kind employed. These oxides should be used as sparingly as possible, because some of them will not stand the chemical process of colouring or even boiling without a bloom coming over them. A good black enamel may be made by taking the following ingredients : Black Enamel. Fritz or flux No. 5 . .14 parts Peroxide of manganese . 2 Fine Saxony cobalt . . I Blue Enamel. Fritz or flux No. 4 . .24 parts Fine Saxony cobalt . . . 5 ,, Saltpetre I Red or Crimson Enamel. Fritz or flux No. 3 ... 8 parts Purple of cassius . . . . I ,, Or red oxide of copper . . I White Enamel. Oxide No. 2 .... I part Fine crystal . . . . 2 Peroxide of manganese . . - X 1 6 - ,, Green Enamel. Fritz or flux No. I . . . 36 parts Oxide of copper . . 2 Red oxide of iron . , -A- , PREPARING THE WORK TO RECEIVE ENAMEL. 1 19 Yellow Enamel. White lead 2 parts White oxide of antimony . . I ,, Sal-ammoniac . . . . I ,, Alum I For the last-mentioned, pound each of the in- gredients separately in a mortar and well mix together; then carefully submit them to a heat sufficient to decompose the sal-ammoniac (chloride of ammonia) ; this colour can be tested in the melting, and will do when the yellow is properly brought out. Enamels may be made deeper in colour by a further addition of oxide, than that given for pro- ducing the respective tints. For instance, if a very intense blue is required, add half a part of zaffre to the other ingredients. For black the same of protoxide of iron, zaffre, or black oxide of copper ; but the latter is not so good as the others. For red, the red oxide of copper may be employed ; and in yellow, the oxide of lead must be used. For green the protoxide of iron, and oxide of chromium may be sparingly added to the trans- parent flux. Enamels may be prepared and kept ready for use by grinding them in an agate mortar, and then placing them under water in a covered vessel. Or, 120 ENAMELLING. if preferred, they may be preserved until required, in the lump, as they are formed after the crucible operation ; if the last-mentioned plan is adopted, then they must be broken with a rather sharp- faced hammer, and pulverised by means of the aforesaid pestle and mortar. When this has been done they are well washed in clean water, and this washing is continued until all extraneous matter has entirely disappeared. They are then ready for use. The work which has to receive enamel has to be specially prepared : this is done in the following manner : The pattern desired is first drawn on the work by the graver ; the groundwork or part to receive the enamel is cut down very evenly, and this helps to heighten the effect ; in the case of transparent enamels the groundwork should be extremely smooth and bright. After the work has been well cleaned by washing in a hot solution of soda, soap, and water, and dried, the enamel is applied in very delicate cases with the point of a pen, in others a knife or spatula may be substi- tuted with advantage ; the work is then fired, and the enamel is laid on again as many times as required. When the enamel is sufficiently fused the surplus part is rubbed off, the article is rinsed, and again FINISHING ENAMEL- WORK. 121 fired in order to close the pores. Great judgment is required with regard to this operation, as too long an exposure to the heat of the furnace would completely ruin the entire work. Different shades of colour require different degrees of heat, and a knowledge of this can be acquired only by con- tinual practice ; such knowledge, however, is of the highest importance, because in some of the lower qualities of gold, the fusing point of enamel is so very near that of the gold that there is great danger of fusing the one along with the other. As we have said before, when the workman finds himself beset with these difficulties, a small ad- dition of borax to the enamel will remove these defects in the operation. Opaque colours require a slower and longer-con- tinued heat than transparent ones, because the base generally contains lead, tin, or antimony. In transparent colours a sharp quick heat is most suitable, which must be proportioned to the extent of brilliancy required. Opaqueness may be given to black enamel by heating the work to a dull red after it has passed through the usual process of cleaning: the oxide which forms upon the surface being black, imparts a kind of darkness to the colour. In the case of transparent enamels, the ground- G 122 ENAMELLING. work must be clean, smooth, and quite bright ; the grooved surface being commonly run over with a polished, half-round scorper, to make the effect more intense and beautiful, the latter quality depending to a considerable extent on this being properly performed. By varying the alloys of gold a great alteration may be made in the brilliancy of enamel ; for example, in transparent yellow and green, the alloy of gold should be rather pale ; in the case of red, the reverse should be the case. The vertical lapidary's wheel is now much used by the artificer for the purpose of removing the surplus enamel; and by the application of wet emery it is rendered clear and smooth : this is much quicker and better than the old method. It is finished upon the buff by an application of putty- powder (oxide of tin), as it is both smoother and cuts faster than most other polishing mixtures. In England the enameller's is a separate and distinct craft, and is altogether an art in itself; never having been found to answer well where tried by ordinary manufacturing goldsmiths, the designs and colours having in their hands too much of same- ness, when compared with those produced under other circumstances. The enameller, to take high rank in the art, must have some knowledge of FINISHING ENAMEL-WORK 123 designing, engraving, and chemistry ; he must like- wise understand the alloys of gold and their points of fusion, and the effects of colouring the work ; he must also be tolerably conversant with the nature of the workmanship that is continually coming under his charge ; and all this knowledge may be considered quite sufficient to raise the art to a dis- tinct branch of study and practice. In closing our remarks on the preparation of enamels, colours, and fluxes, and their mode of application to gold alloys, we desire to say that the rules or directions here given have been selected from very high authorities in the trade, and we trust they will be found equally serviceable to those desirous of gaining information concerning enamels and the art of enamelling. The exact work cannot well be described, and thorough success is to be achieved only by the exercise of good taste, and by long-continued practice and attention to the craft. Where diamonds and other precious stones are employed as well as enamel, work pertaining to the latter is performed first. Engraving, chasing, colouring, and lapping, are all subsequent pro- cesses of the goldsmith's art. G 2 CHAPTER IX. Engraving and Chasing. Engraving. THE art of engraving on stone and metals by incised lines is so ancient that we cannot trace the historic period when it was not practised ; suffice it to say, that among the collections of antique art in the British Museum, there are numerous examples of engraving, the work of the ancient Egyptians and other nations, executed on fine marble and also on precious stones. Besides, we know that engraved stamps or seals were used as official signatures in the very earliest times, for which we have only to refer the reader to the first books of the Holy Scriptures. Again, during the wander- ings of the Israelites in the desert, we read that Bezaleel, of the tribe of Judah, and Aholiab, of the tribe of Dan, were set apart specially for the pur- pose of " devising and executing curious works in gold, silver, and brass, and in cutting of stones to set them, and in carving of wood," for the service of the tabernacle of Moses ; and it is also written ENGRAVING. 125 that God "filled them with wisdom of heart, to work all manner of work of the engraver, and with knowledge of all manner of workmanshiD of the cunning workman" (Exodus xxxi. i 6). The process of engraving is of ancient origin, and is one in which the fine arts and the workman's skill are equally brought into operation. The making of images, some of which existed in the time of Abraham, was a work of great antiquity, though they consisted merely of rude outlines on flat sur- faces. This may claim to be the nearest approach to engraving of which we have any knowledge. In the middle ages, niello engraving held an itn- important place among metal-workers ; it consisted in making fine incisures on works of gold, silver, copper, &c., and filling them with a black enamel, and was called working in niello a process which had a very important effect. This invention is ascribed to a native of Florence, who was de- servedly celebrated for his genius and skill in the art, at the period of which we speak the fifteenth century. To the same artist, whose name was Maso Finiguerra, is given the credit of having employed copper plates for engraving from which impressions were subsequently taken ; and he also tried printing from engraved metal plates in this way. 126 ENGRAVING. Immediately the discovery became known in Italy, other goldsmiths and artists followed Fini- guerra in his new handicraft, and the art of en- graving was soon extensively practised. Through- out the sixteenth century it was considerably improved, and the skill of such artists as Botticelli, Marc Antonio Raimondi, and Benvenuto Cellini, the celebrated Italian goldsmith (who was called the prince of gold-workers), did much to raise the fame of the Italian engravers to a high standing, and to bring the art to a greater pitch of public appreciation than it had ever attained before. At first it was usual in Italy, Germany, and elsewhere, for the same person to prepare the design and afterwards engrave it ; but afterwards, when the art became more mechanical, the two branches of it were divided : and, strange to say, that method has been somewhat extensively practised down to the present day. It would be interesting enough to inquire into the history of the art, and dwell upon the progress that has been made down to our own time; but our present observations being limited, we shall avoid a lengthened description and come at once to the period of its introduction into England for com- mercial purposes ; this will carry us about one hundred years back ; and we wish it to be borne ENGLISH ENGRAVERS. 127 in mind, that the engraving of writing was the only branch of the art that had arrived at anything approaching excellence up to that period of time. This is fully proved by numerous specimens of mediaeval work to be seen at the present day. A great and powerful impulse was given in England to the art of wood-engraving by Thomas Bewick, who led the way to that success which has since crowned the efforts of its followers in our own country. To William Hogarth is due the credit of being the founder of the modern English school of painting ; but our present mission being uncon- nected with that art, as such, we shall now proceed to point out its application to the useful arts, especi- ally to gold jewellery. The honour is also given to Hogarth of being the founder of the present school of gold- engravers ; but it was left to others to de- velop the art, and to them is due the present exalted position of the craft principally to one Draper, a London apprentice, who was long familiarly known as the "father of engravers." One of the great aims of Draper was to make those who were under his tuition more skilful, if possible, than himself, a characteristic rarely found in the modern school of practical goldsmiths; but then we will not say how far the workmen themselves are to blame in the matter. 128 ENGRAVING-. The trade is much indebted to Draper for im- proved methods of sharpening the gravers ; and various other introductions of his have considerably aided the workman by simplifying the appliances, thus rendering the art more simple and its effects more beautiful. For more than one hundred years engraving has been more or less practised for trading purposes in England. Notwithstanding this, however, it is by no means common to meet with a first-class Work- man ; for, to reach this point, he must be an artist as well as a mechanic. This is not perhaps impera- tively necessary to the ordinary practice of the art ; but, as the embellishments produced on works of jewellery by the graver are added for purposes both artistic and ornamental, there is ample rcope for the display of a considerable amount of know- ledge as well as skill in the execution of his task. It will at once therefore be perceived that the engraver, to become a high-class workman, should not only have a natural ability for design, and a tolerably correct idea of the different periods and styles of ornamentation, but must also be pos- sessed of great taste and judgment, as well as a delicacy of touch and acquired patience, to ensure reputation and success. The process, or mod^i,s qperandi, of the engraver PROCESS OF THE ENGRAVER. I2Q is as follows : The workman, for the most part, uses only the ordinary burin or lozenge-shaped graver invented by Draper, together with several small gouges and needles for scooping out hollows or making very fine tracery, a sharp-edged scraper similar to a small three-square file sharpened at the point, for removing the burr raised by the graver, and a Turkey-stone upon which he sharpens his tools. He also uses a kind of cement, in which he secures the work previous to its manipulation, consisting of a mixture of Burgundy pitch, plaster-of- Paris, resin, and beeswax in the following proportions : Burgundy pitch .... 4 parts Resin 4 Plaster-of-Paris . . . . 2 Beeswax 2 Place these articles in an earthen pipkin, or other suitable vessel, and melt carefully, stirring the mixture well until thoroughly incorporated; then pour into a vessel of cold water already provided ; when the mass is cool enough to touch with the hands, it should be pressed, rolled, and kneaded together, in order to discharge the water con- tained therein. Should it turn out brittle, return it to the pipkin, and add more beeswax; put it through the same process as before, and work it <* 3 130 ENGRAVING. well together, for the more it is worked the better it will be for use. When the proper degree of elas- ticity has been obtained, it is then ready for use, and any surplus mixture may be placed aside for a future time. In common engraving a portion of this cement is fixed upon various-sized blocks of wood, to which it strongly adheres by heat. The article to be manipulated upon is affixed to one of these, and embodied in the cement ; and when properly set, the block is fastened in the vice, and the engraver performs the task allotted to him. Best work is engraved in a somewhat different manner. The article is secured to a little stand, which moves upon a ball placed in a leathern socket, and fastened to a handle or other suitable piece of wood ; the ball having a double rotatory action, the workman is enabled to bring it into any required position. The engraver has only the eye to guide him in the various devices of his art, and as the result depends upon the skill of the operator, that eye should be a pretty correct one. Good light is very necessary in engraving ; gaslight being extremely tedious and trying, globes, filled with water, are used, which, being placed between the workman and the gas-jet, steady the light, and throw it more clearly upon the work. CHASING. 131 The articles are taken from the cement by gently heating them. The cement adhering to them may be removed by spirits of turpentine, or by heating and boiling out ; but most jewellers object to the latter, their reason being, that it destroys the sharpness and brightness of the engraving ; whether so or not, it is usually done in preparing for the chemical process of colouring. The bright- ness may, however, be preserved by a good coat- ing of borax to the engraved parts. Chasing. Chasing, like engraving, to be performed well, requires considerable knowledge and practice ; un- like engraving, however, the ornamental devices produced upon the surface of the work are all raised or embossed, and are effected in the follow- ing manner : The method of the chaser for one kind of work, is to go over the article with suitable tools, consisting of various - shaped punches, a large quantity being kept in readiness, of different sizes and patterns. These, on being applied to the sur- face of it in proper order, and tapped with the hammer, produce a slightly-raised figure, corre- sponding with that of the punch. If these punches have well-executed designs upon them, their im- 132 CHASING. pressions will be strikingly sharp and clear. Chasing is resorted to a great deal for solid work, and when effectually done it gives it a very artistic appearance; when applied to gold chains of this description, they look rich and beautiful. Much of the work of chasing on common or cheap articles of jewellery, such as scrolls, leaves, &c., is in imitation of engraving. The chaser, in order to give life and effect to the design he has in hand, should have a real artistic taste and feeling, as it is generally to his judgment that the matter is left. In performing his task, he takes a kind of wooden bowl, and fills it with cement; this is then fitted into a suitable leathern socket, and placed upon a strongly-fixed table, by which means his beautiful manipulations are performed with interesting effect. There is another kind of chasing, the work pro- duced being almost a facsimile of stamping by the press, but utterly devoid of the roundness which it produces : the hammer and the punch imparting a crispness and sharpness of design, if skilfully treated, not to be equalled by any other method. Chasing appears to have been known to the old masters, for Benvenuto Cellini is said to have prac- tised the art with wonderful skill and precision. A design may be rendered more distinct after the pattern has been greatly brought out in relief, by BENVENUTO CELLINI. 133 simply matting the ground. This plan was adopted by Cellini, and performed by him as follows : A highly-hardened piece of steel was taken and broken through with one sharp blow of the ham- mer, when, if the break was even, and the texture or grain regular in the composition of the steel, an effective matting-punch was at once produced. This matting-tool appears to have been greatly used by the mediaeval gold-workers in their pro- cesses of art-manufacture. Articles of jewellery which have passed through the various branches of workmanship connected with the " making department " satisfactorily, are next transferred to the hands of the " electro- gilder," who deposits upon their surface a very thin film of pure gold, by means of electricity. Electro-gilding being a distinct branch of business, and usually carried on in premises apart from those of the manufacturing goldsmith, we shall for the present refrain from going into the subject, at least so far as concerns the general details of the process ; being an entirely separate art, it requires different treatment. Howeve'r, we may just ex- plain the process in a few words. A solution of cyanide of gold is prepared in cyanide of potas- sium, and heated either in an enamelled saucepan, or stoneware jar, placed inside a pan containing 134 CHASING. water. The gold solution should not be allowed to boil, acting best at about 160 Fahr. To produce this heat the outer solution, when it is employed, must be boiling. The galvanic battery is next brought into requisition, and when ready for use, an " anode/' consisting of a plate of pure gold, is fastened to the end of the wire issuing from the carbon or other negative element of the battery, and dipping into the preparation; the articles to be gilt are hung on the wire issuing from the zinc of the battery, and upon immersion in the solution, a film of pure gold will be almost instanta- neously deposited upon them. The articles should be scrupulously clean, otherwise the operation will not take effect, and the solution becomes spoiled. CHAPTER X. Solders and Soldering. Hard Solder. PROPERLY speaking, solder is employed for the purpose of uniting the edges or surfaces of metals less fusible than itself, by means of heat ; it may, therefore, be justly defined as a metallic cement used to unite different substances together. In connection with jewellery the pieces of material and the solders which join them together should agree as nearly as practicable in hardness and fusibility ; for it is always the safest plan to employ the hardest solder, which the material in course of manufacture will possibly bear. This is nowhere more apparent than in the manufacture of gold chains, particularly those of the curb pattern. There are many varieties of gold solders, of different degrees of softness and hardness ; which qualities are produced by the addition of the more fusible metal, silver, in variable proportions to the gold itself. It is customary with most jewellers to pre- pare their solders from the alloy of gold to which 136 SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. they are afterwards to be applied, many having secret methods proportioning them. Coloured gold solders may be made by taking one part of fine silver to four, five, or six parts of alloyed gold, according to the quality and the degree of hardness required. These should not be made too poor in quality, for if they are, they will not colour properly. The more common forms of solder have been amply discussed in another part of this volume, together with their mode of application to the goldsmith's work. Great cleanli- ness is required both in regard to the solder and the surfaces of the work which are to be united together ; otherwise, however excellent the solder may be, no junction can take place. For the use of those who prefer making their solders from unadulterated materials, we have com- piled the following table, having fine gold as their basis : Coloured Solders. Description. Fine Gold. Fine Silver. Copper. Best solder . . Medium solder . Common solder 12- parts 10 8^ 44 P arts 6 6J 3 parts 4 5 These solders may be rolled flat and cut with SOFT SOLDER. 137 the shears or press into "pallions;" or if preferred, filed into dust, their suitability being adapted to either process. Throughout the whole of this treatise we have purposely omitted mentioning any- thing concerning the uses and applications of "soft solder," a term which has no reference to either the softer or harder solders of the same material of which we have been speaking ; but to a totally different solder altogether, commonly called in the jewellery trade " soft tommy." Perhaps it would have been more correct, and we should have been better understood, if we had defined the former solders, of a more fusible nature, as "easy" in order to distinguish them. The time has, however, now arrived when we should say something con- cerning this " soft tommy." Soft Solder. It is called soft partly because it is used to unite much harder substances than itself, and partly because it can be applied to finished work without changing its colour, the melting point being so very low compared with the others of which we have previously spoken. It is largely employed by country jewellers and watchmakers ; but in the manufactory it is almost scorned, and is one of the greatest drawbacks and troubles practical I3 8 SOFT SOLDER. workmen have to encounter in dealing with job- repairs; it so adheres to the gold when once applied, that it is with the greatest difficulty it can be eradicated ; and then sometimes it is even at the expense of the gold itself, into which it pene- trates so deeply, that the slightest application of heat causes the gold to become perishable. Coloured articles cannot be re-coloured with this solder on them, neither can articles of jewellery be "hard- soldered " without its previous entire removal. And to do this is a very difficult task indeed, inasmuch as there are no methods known as yet, in the trade, whereby it can be removed effectually from the different qualities of gold. To supply this desideratum, we have long set ourselves the task, and we have now succeeded in introduc- ing a plan into the trade, which will act as an effectual destruction of the evil ; by this method, which we shall explain hereafter, soft solder can easily be removed from any quality of gold, silver, &c. The composition of soft solder, and the exciting liquid employed in its application, have a prior claim on our attention, as we believe such infor- mation to be interesting and useful. The following is the best for all purposes connected with the jewellery trade, care being taken to procure the METHOD OF MELTING. 139 materials as pure as possible ; if this is omitted it is liable to be bad ; take Pure grain tin . 2 parts Pure lead I In melting this composition, caution must be exer- cised so as not to overheat it ; the process may be conveniently performed in an iron ladle, instead of the common crucible hitherto employed in preparing the other solders ; and, in order to keep the mixture as near the same proportions as possible, the lead, which has a higher fusing point than tin, should first be melted, and the tin afterwards added ; first heating it by holding it over the ladle (or other ves- sel employed in the operation) previous to its intro- duction, so as not to chill the lead. Lead fuses at a temperature of about 612 Fahr., and tin at a tem- perature of about 442 Fahr. When the two metals have become properly incorporated, the facility of which can be increased by gently stirring, the mixture must be withdrawn from the fire and poured either into a small ingot for rolling them flat, or cast into strips by pouring along the grooves of an old grate; for this latter purpose, it should not be poured from the ladle until it is beginning to cool a little. This may easily be ascertained by 140 SOFT- SOLDERING FLUID. taking a piece of paper and dipping it into the heated mass, when, if it does not ignite, the mixture is in a proper state for casting. Dross, and other organic matter upon the surface, may be kept back from mixing with the solder, by the timely applica- tion of a piece of wood, held with the left hand to the mouth of the ladle. Even in this operation good solder can only be produced by careful atten- tion to these principles. In soft-soldering, an entirely different stimulant to that employed in hard-soldering has to be used ; this we shall desig- nate as Soft-soldering Fluid. This fluid is well known to all jewellers, but it bears various names in the different workshops, such as " monkey," " fake/' &c. ; its true chemical name, however, is chloride of zinc, and it is com- posed of a mixture of hydrochloric acid (spirits of salts) and metallic zinc, in the following propor- tions : Spirits of salts . . .2 parts Metallic zinc . . . I This solution is employed to dissolve or prevent oxidation of the surface of the joints about to be united, and it also acts as a stimulus to the flow of SOFT-SOLDERING FLUID. 141 the solder; of course the joints should be quite free from dirt or grease, otherwise it cannot per- form its proper functions. One of the best ways of preparing it, is to procure an earthen pipkin, and put into it two and a half ounces of spirits of salts and one ounce of metallic zinc in small pieces. The action of the acid upon the zinc at first will be ener- getic ; the latter will become dissolved, with an evolution of hydrogen gas. When the zinc has dissolved, or the effervescence has partially ceased, the temperature .may conveniently be increased by placing the pipkin with its contents upon a sheet of iron over a gas-jet ; the extra half-ounce of spirits of salts will allow for loss by evaporation when this plan has to be resorted to. Sometimes it will be found necessary, especially when the acid is not good, to increase its temperature in order to effect its thorough saturation, for the more neutral the mixture the better it acts. The solution may be allowed to settle when sufficiently acted upon, and the supernatant liquor poured from the sediment into a bottle ready for use. This mixture or pre- paration will keep any length of time in a corked bottle. When this is employed in soft-soldering iron or steel, the addition to it of a small portion of powdered sal-ammoniac is a great improve- ment ; a quarter of an ounce to the proportion of 142 DISSOLVING SOFT SOLDER. solution given above, will form a very good mixture ; a tougher and more durable joint is produced by it; in cutting up small links by means of steel cutters, we have found its use a wonderful acquisition. Dissolving Soft Solder. Generally speaking, old work, which has to be repaired, re-gilt, or coloured, contains soft solder, the result of being mended by inexperienced persons ; all this must be removed or destroyed before the articles can be properly repaired. It is a general belief among workmen that annealing and boiling out will destroy it, but it really has a contrary effect, the heat thus given tending only the more closely to amalgamate the solder with the gold. We have often tried to remove the solder after the annealing process by scraping and filing, and have always found that it had penetrated so deeply into the gold, that it would be utterly impossible to eradicate it by any such means. One of the common methods of treating this class of solder in the workshop, is to remove whatever you can by means of the scraper (which consists of a three-square file sharpened at the point), and then to place the article in tolerably strong muriatic acid for some time. Nitric acid is a much quicker way, but it cannot be safely NEW AND EFFECTIVE PROCESS. 143 applied to articles of inferior qualities of gold, as the acid would act upon the alloy of which they are partly composed ; but for coloured gold it may be used with advantage and safety. From a long practical experience in the matter of soft solder, we have arrived at the conclusion that there is no better way of treating it than that which we are about to point out. Before, however, describing our hitherto secret method of treatment, it is desirable that we should explain (for the benefit of those workmen who are continually meeting with this kind of solder in their daily work, much to their annoyance) another system for its removal; one, we believe, solely prac- tised by ourselves in Birmingham, for we have never yet met with a person who knew anything about it. The solvent employed was a mixture of muriatic acid and crocus (jeweller's polishing material), and prepared as follows : To eight ounces of muriatic acid add one ounce of crocus, and well shake it, in order that it may become perfectly mixed ; of this mixture take one ounce, and add to it four ounces of hot water, place it in a pipkin, and keep up the heat by means of a gas-jet ; put the articles con- taining the soft solder into it, and soon the desired result will be achieved. But the plan most to be recommended, because the best of all we have been enabled to bring to 144 DISSOLVING SOFT SOLDER. bear upon this subject, is one which occupied us a long time, both in its consideration and accom- plishment, and may therefore be safely applied to all classes of work, irrespective of quality. It can be adopted in the case of silver goods if desired, and that without any injurious effect whatever, whilst the time it takes to do the work is reduced to the minimum. The destruction of the solder under this plan is effected as follows. Take Proto-sulphate of iron . . 2 ozs. Nitrate of potassa i Water ro 13 ozs. Reduce the proto- sulphate of iron (green copperas) and nitrate of potassa (saltpetre) to a fine powder, then add these ingredients to the water, and boil the preparation in a cast-iron saucepan for some time ; afterwards allow the liquid to cool, and in doing so it will shoot into fine crystals ; if any of the liquid should remain uncrystallised, pour it from the crystals and again heat it, when, on cooling a second time, it will all have become crystallised. The crystallised salt should then be taken and dissolved in muriatic acid (spirits of salts), in the proportion of one ounce of salt to eight ounces of NEW AND EFFECTIVE PROCESS. 145 acid. Now take of the latter preparation one ounce, and add it to four ounces of boiling water in a pipkin, keeping up the heat by the means al- ready stated. In a short space of time the most obstinate cases of soft solder will be cleanly and entirely removed, and without the work changing colour, if these instructions are properly carried out in preparing the mixture, &c, 1L CHAPTER XL Various Processes of Colouring and Finishing. Dry-Colouring. BEFORE entering upon an examination of this process, by which the surface of alloyed gold is changed into a rich and beautiful yellow colour ; presenting, in goldsmith's work, a strikingly characteristic and most pleasing appearance, we desire to express the hope that we are not laying ourselves open to the charge of betraying trade secrets, our aim simply being to render a service which will prove useful to jewellers generally, as well as to manufacturers and workmen, by endea- vouring (from a practical point of view) to explain in detail the real nature of a process little under- stood, and one which enriches and puts a finish upon their work. Colouring, to the goldsmith, is strictly a trade term, and means, the giving of colour to an article after every other process of workmanship has been completed, and it is restricted by him to this par- QUALITIES OF GOLD FOR DRY-COLOURING. 147 ticular process, which is one entirely chemical in its nature; its effect is to give to gold of inferior standard all the appearance of fine gold itself. This appearance is not an imaginary one, nor is it a mere superficial coating of the surface with gold of a higher quality, similar to gilding ; but a peculiar and exact process of removing the base or inferior metal from gold articles, and leaving a film of gold behind of a deep rich colour, which no other process can equally effect. The simple fact is that gold-colouring is an effective process for refining the whole surface. It is now about sixty years since coloured gold was first introduced into the English market, in its manufactured state as an article of commerce. At that time, and previously, the English gold-workers were " bright- workers " only. The goldsmith's work of that period had a red-looking appearance, very similar to the now well-known Albion gold in point of colour ; the finish produced then was dif- ferently effected from that of the present day, being due solely to polishing ; and upon the artificer in that branch, depended the beauty and excellence of finish which the work possessed. Articles of this description which are met with in the present day, are designated as articles made with the old red gold. 1 48 DRY-COLOURING. It has been said that the goldsmith who, by submitting his work to a chemical preparation, first produced a colour never before obtained by any process, was a Frenchman. Since the intro- duction of the art as a French invention, it has seen many changes, both English and German, not only in the mode of its application and the shades of colour produced, but also in the qualities of the gold operated upon. There are two methods of colouring gold, called respectively the dry colouring and the wet colour- ing; the materials employed are nearly the same in all cases : they are i part of salt 1 part of alum 2 parts of saltpetre Dry-colouring cannot be performed upon gold inferior to i8-carats. We shall give several pro- cesses for wet - colouring, with their respective qualities of gold, as arranged and practised by ourselves. But we now proceed to the details of the process of dry-colouring, and shall give our information in a methodical manner, in order to be the more plain and intelligible, and shall describe the various operations generally em- ployed, upon each of which depends failure or ORIGINAL PROCESS. 149 success. Among those that take precedence will be found the Original Process of Dry-Colouring. This process for colouring superior articles of gold has been extensively practised by goldsmiths ; it is not so complicated as many, and therefore may be performed with less skill. This is decidedly the original one ; it requires the following materials : Nitrate of potassa . 8 ozs. Common salt . . . 4 ,, Alum . . . . 4 ,, 16 ozs. The mixture should be reduced to powder and placed in a colour-pot, or common earthen pipkin, and allowed to dissolve slowly ; this should be done over a fire that can easily be regulated, a gas furnace being the best for the purpose. The pot need only be large enough to give the work full play without allowing it to touch ths bottom or sides, which would mark the articles dipped. It should be sufficiently filled with colour, so that when it rises it would come to the top. While dissolving, the mixture should be well stirred with an iron stirrer; it will then rise, and the work must at once be suspended in it by means of fine 150 DRY-COLOURING. silver or platinum wire, and kept in continual motion until the liquid is about to sink in the pot, when the work must be taken out and at once immersed in clean muriatic acid pickle, which will remove the adhering colour. The colour in the pot will rise again after the withdrawal of the work, and of this opportunity advantage must be taken for a fresh dip. For plain work, generally two of these dips will be sufficient, but for hollow work three will be necessary. No description can give the exact time or explain the incidents connected with colouring; sometimes it will be produced as quickly again as others, and this knowledge can be acquired only by actual practice. In this process there is not so much danger of spoiling the work as in the subsequent ones we shall refer to, for so intense a heat not being re- quired, it can safely be left in the mixture for longer periods. Moreover, if preferred, the quenching directly after the stated periods of withdrawing the work from the colour, may be dispensed with alto- gether. The articles may be removed occasionally to ascertain if the mixture has operated sufficiently, and when this is made evident, they should be allowed to cool gradually, and afterwards immersed in perfectly clean sulphuric acid pickle, which will LONDON PROCESS. 151 remove the adhering flux. After this is done, the articles must be rinsed in a weak solution of soda or potassa, then washed in hot soda and water, and finally rinsed well in clean boiling water and placed in clean warm boxwood sawdust to dry. Articles coloured by this process may be bur- nished if deemed necessary ; but the above mode of permanently finishing seems to have been for- merly practised and to have found favour with many. London Process of Dry-Colouring. This process of colouring is far superior in point of richness to wet-colouring ; it cannot, however, be employed for gold of inferior qualities. The new standard of 1 8- carats can be subjected to the action of the mixture successfully, and this is about its utmost limit. It is performed in the following manner. Take Nitrate of potassa 8 ozs. Common salt . . 4 ,, Alum . . 4 ,, 16 ozs. Reduce these to a fine powder in a wedgwood- ware mortar, and well mix together ; then take a blacklead or iron-colour pot, about four inches high, 1 52 DRY-COLOURING. which place in the fire upon a forge, or in a gas- furnace, and make red-hot. This may soon be done if placed upon the forge, by blowing with the forge-bellows ; then put the above mixture into the pot, and thoroughly well fuse, stirring it with a thin iron rod. The heat given cannot be too strong, but it must be very carefully watched, and advantage taken of the proper opportunity for the immersion of the work. When the mixture is pro- perly fused it will begin to assume a brown-yellow flame ; when this yellow flame presents itself, the preparation is quite ready for the reception of the work, which must be suspended in bunches upon fine platinum wire and dipped into the mixture for a few seconds only, when it must be instantly withdrawn and plunged into boiling nitric acid pickle; if the exact colour required is not then produced, another dip, and sometimes a third may be necessary (especially in hollow work), to give the articles a fine rich appearance. The quench- ing in nitric acid removes any colour that may adhere to the work; but unless it is dried each time between the subsequent dips, the colour will fly about. This is caused by the articles being immersed wet, and the scald or burn from the mixture is particularly prominent. The drying out between each dip is not only tedious, but if PREPARING THE WORK. 153 minute portions of sawdust are left in the interstices of the work, the result of a second immersion would be little black patches upon the surface of the articles, considerably impairing their colour. In performing this latter process, it is advisable to wear an old glove to save the hand during manipu- lation. In colouring in this way it is always im- perative that the operation should be quick, whereas in wet-colouring time is required. The gold lost by this method is very trifling, and it is therefore altogether unnecessary to preserve sepa- rately the spent colouring-mixture and dipping- acids ; they may be thrown into the waste water-tub, or, if otherwise desired, into the floor-sweep. We shall have occasion hereafter to speak of another method of dry-colouring which we have success- fully employed, so will now proceed to explain the modes of Preparing the Work. Before submitting the work to the action of the colouring preparation just described, it should be very carefully examined, in order to detect and eradicate marks or scratches ; and this part of the process should not be overlooked, as it is of great importance in dry-colouring; in fact, the work cannot be too highly polished. This process has H 3 154 DRY-COLOURING. been already amply explained. Afterwards the work will require to be well washed out in a hot solution of soda, soap, and water, and dried in clean boxwood sawdust. According to one of the methods of preparation, it is then taken and covered with a layer of borax, which is best used for this purpose by taking it in the form of powder suf- ficient to complete the operation, and making it into a thick paste with water. The work may then either be dipped into this mixture or brushed over with it, and heated upon a clean fire until it turns nearly black, when it may be placed aside to cool; then boiled in clean diluted sulphuric acid pickle ; rinsed well in clean water, and finally dried as before. A very excellent plan, and one we have found to answer better in preparing the work for dry-colour- ing than the above, is to well buff it upon a soft piece of felt, such as is used by lappers in putting that exquisite finish upon bright gold chains. This must be done after the washing out subsequent to the polishing. When a high degree of brightness is produced by this means, it will require to be again washed out ; for perfect cleanliness is of the utmost importance in carrying out this process, as well as the minor ones. Everything prepared in this manner takes an exceedingly high and bright FINISHING THE WORK. 155 colour, and is characterised by its general rich- ness. Old work, or work to be re-coloured, must be annealed before the process of polishing, and carefully all stones, &c., removed to avoid injury to them, in any of the operations attendant upon this or any similar proceeding. The following are the different modes of Finishing the Work. After the proper colour has been obtained and the work removed from the nitric acid dipping solu- tion, it should be rinsed in a very weak solution of potassa made hot ; in order to neutralise the acid upon it, which otherwise might be the means of the colour becoming inferior after a time. It is then again rinsed in boiling water, and dried in clean warm boxwood sawdust, which should be as fine as possible, and which must on no account what- ever be allowed to char or burn, or the beauty of the colour will be impaired. A camel-hair pencil is a tolerably good instrument for removing traces of sawdust from articles so finished ; and it is of the utmost importance that the work should not be marked or scratched during the processes of colouring and finishing. This kind of finishing is much admired by many, although burnishing is greatly preferred by others. This is done by rub- 156 DRY-COLOURING. bing the whole surface with tools suitable for the different classes of goods, which comprise various- shaped steel and agate burnishers ; when any of these best suited to the work, are dipped in a solu- tion of weak ale, or soap and water, repeatedly, and applied skilfully to all the surfaces of the work, a fine rich and brilliant colour will be the result. New Process of Dry-Colouring. Superior articles of gold as regards quality, may be made to assume a beautiful deep colour, pos- sessing all the appearance of fine gold itself, by immersing them for a few seconds in the following mixture, which must, however, be carefully pre- pared. To effect this, take Sal-ammoniac . . 4 ozs. Saltpetre . . . 4 Borax . . . . 4 12 ozs. Reduce them all to a fine powder and well mix together; the preparation may then be treated exactly as those before recommended, with the exception that dilute sulphuric acid should be em- ployed for dipping, instead of nitric or muriatic. For dry-colouring the solder used for the articles tnsrvsfc NEW PROCESS. \v Qtir vI 57 must be good ; and the mixture of alloy of which they consist should have a preponderance of copper, the proportion of two parts copper to one part silver being a very convenient and useful amalgam to employ. Some gold-colourers perfer simply to anneal, and boil the work in aquafortis pickle only, in prepar- ing it for colouring. No doubt this is a good plan, but it produces a dead appearance; the main object to be attained is thorough cleanliness, and this to a considerable extent depends upon the intricacy or simplicity of the work in hand. The simplicity of the modes of preparation which we have de- scribed are preferable, especially the one of buffing the work previous to its immersion in the colour- pot; as thorough cleanliness is first obtained, and a subsequent brightness imparted, which is not lost in the colour produced upon the work. We have invariably found a richness of colour to result, unat- tainable by any other means ; and we know further that it is always practised by an eminent London firm of goldsmiths. The brighter and cleaner the work, before submitting to this process of dry- colouring, the richer and more beautiful will be the colour effected by the chemical manipulation of this important art of the goldsmith. 1 58 WET-COLOURING. Wet-Colouring. In dealing with the, comparatively speaking, minor process which, however, is much more extensively employed commonly known in the trade as " wet-colouring/' it will be best to inform the reader concerning the first, or theoretical prin- ciples, and then their useful application to this beautiful art, so as to render the information more perfect as regards practical utility. Formerly it was an established principle, that to every ounce of work to be coloured there should be one pound of colour, composed of the following ingredients : 4 ozs. of salt 4 ozs. of alum 8 ozs. of saltpetre. Here it is evident that there was much misconcep- tion prevailing, the main supposition being that the amount of colour required should be strictly in pro- portion to the amount of work in "weight, and cor- responding with the proportions we have given. Now this idea is erroneous. It is not in proportion to the weight of work that the colour should be taken, but to the amount of surface presented to the action of the colouring mixture. For example, half-a-dozen solid gold chains might weigh as much GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 159 as a dozen hollow ones, and yet the solid ones can be more effectually coloured in half the mixture in the same time, because of the difference of surface in the two "batches" of work, and the quicker action of the colour on plain surfaces. Therefore, the above rule is clearly wrong in practice. Formerly, before the common qualities of gold articles were chemically treated for the purpose of imparting a fine rich colour to them, the pro- cesses employed were French. The original pro- cess of wet-colouring could not be used for a lower standard of gold than i6-carats, but now any quality above i2-carats can be coloured, and we have actually coloured n -car at gold; the process, how- ever, is a very delicate and skilful one, and one that could not be adopted from a monetary point of view. Since the adoption of this beautiful French art, numerous improvements have been brought to bear upon the subject, both from English and German workmen, and we may now almost con- sider that it has arrived at the point of maturity and perfection, It has extended gradually in the direction of the lower qualities until the supposed utmost limit has been reached ; and in that direc- tion the aims and successes of our own Workmen have not been behind those of the foreigner. There are various methods employed by different firms, 1 60 WET- COLOURING. almost every one having a special mode of mixing, and thus a particular shade of colour is given tc the manufactures of each, according to taste or instructions ; and the distinctive feature introduced is then considered a speciality of manufacture of the firm practising it. On the first introduction of this art it was imagined that the presence of fine gold suspended in the colouring mixture would facilitate its action ; accordingly, plates of that material were suspended with the work, in the colour, and the workmen were sometimes charged by their employers to give the articles an extra dip or two into it, in order to in- crease the richness by a thicker deposit of pure gold. By others 1 8-carat gold wire was always used to sustain the work whilst colouring by the wet pro- cess. Happily for the trade, all these conflicting ideas are dead and gone. The ingredients employed in wet-colouring are all powerful agents in the dissolution of the baser alloy upon the surface of gold articles submitted to their action, and while dissolving this they have also a weaker action upon the gold itself ; therefore this colouring should not be carried too far. The correct- ness of these remarks is fully borne out by the pro- portion in weight lost in colouring, being greater in proportion as the quality becomes lower. We believe DEPOSITION IN WET-COLOURING. 161 that by very skilful management it is quite possible to utilise a portion of the dissolving gold again ; for we have ourselves coloured the commoner quali- ties with a loss of only three grains to the ounce. This we have done repeatedly, and our opinion is to some extent corroborated by the quickness of colouring produced by the application of old colour, and the small percentage of loss sus- tained from the work. And further, if this old colour is taken after having been several times employed, the amount of gold recoverable will be found to be very small indeed. To show that the gold dissolving from the surface of the work operated upon has an inclination to deposit a * percentage of itself upon the same work again, we may mention that we have deposited a thick coat- ing of fine gold upon the platinum wire with which we suspended the work whilst colouring. This is the result, no doubt, of some chemical phenomenon of which we cannot properly explain the cause ; but when we witness the beautiful colour, clear and quite smooth within itself, produced upon very common qualities, we cannot but surmise that something of this sort must be really going on during the action of the colour upon the work ; otherwise these low qualities must appear very frost-bitten, and present quite an irregular surface. 1 6 2 WET-COLOURING. Having now laid down the general principles of ths process, we shall at once proceed to details, taking the methods as they have been introduced into the trade since the commencement of the art in this country. French Process of Wet-Colouring. Among the many methods for giving colour to gold at the earliest period, for commercial purposes, was the following, which was decidedly the original wet process, introduced into England from France. The work should be annealed on a clear fire, boiled out in aquafortis pickle, and suspended in bunches upon fine silver or platinum wire ; a quan- tity of boiling water should be' provided before commencing the operation. When this is done, take Nitrate of potassa . . 16 ozs. Common salt . . 8 ,, Alum . . . 8 32 ozs. Reduce the above ingredients to a fine powder in a mortar, and well mix them together ; then place the mixture in a good-sized pipkin or crucible, to which add sufficient hot water until it has the consistency of a thick paste ; it should be heated FRENCH PROCESS. 163 very slowly, and must be well stirred with a wooden spoon, when it will soon boil up. The work must then be immersed and left suspended for several minutes, when it should be withdrawn and plunged into a portion of the boiling water, which will remove the colour and show the progress of the operation. If the mixture should, during the time occupied in colouring, show a tendency to boil dry, an occasional spoonful of hot water must be added to thin it, but this should not by any means be added while the work is suspended in it. The colour should be permitted to boil very slowly and steadily, and the work should not be allowed to remain in it too long at one time six minutes at the most, and that only at the commencement ; the subsequent dips should be more frequent, and the colour thinned during the process. The latter, however, can be properly regulated only by prac- tice, the best of teachers. On the introduction of the work it will become nearly black, and at each successive immersion it will be lighter, until the well-known colour of fine gold is attained. The work should, in all cases, be allowed to remain in the colour certainly not longer than twenty minutes ; the time must be regulated according to the shade of colour required ; and the nature of the alloy acting more quickly when the proportion of 164 WET-COLOURING. copper is greater than that of silver, this should especially be the case, when the above mixture is employed. When the operation is completed, the surface of the work will be perfectly uniform, though dull, but it may be made brilliant by burnishing or scratch- ing. Previous to every dip the work should be well rinsed in fresh boiling water, and at the conclusion it should be swilled in the same manner, and dried in boxwood sawdust. Scratch- ing coloured work is a delicate operation, and requires care. It is done by the application of a fine brass wire brush and a solution of weak ale. Large plain surfaces should be very carefully scratched, but never crossways ; if this is allowed to be done, little marks will be visible, and the beauty of workmanship and finish considerably impaired. This method should not be employed for a lower standard than i6-carats. Ten ounces of solid work with plain surfaces, and five ounces of hollow, can be effectually coloured in the above mixture. The average loss in this process will exceed one pennyweight per ounce. London Process of Wet-Colouring. Gold alloys of not less than 15 carats in quality may be made to assume the appearance of very LONDON PROCESS. 165 fine gold of a beautiful straw colour, by boiling in the following preparation for a short time. Take Nitrate of potassa .... 15023. Common salt . . . 7 ,, Alum 7 Spirits of salts I ,, 30 ozs. Reduce the above salts as in the preceding cast' to a fine powder; then take a large blacklead colour-pot about eight inches high, and seven inches across the top, No. 16 size of Doulton's make; put about two spoonfuls of water at the bottom ; then add the saltpetre, alum, and salt ; place on the fire and very slowly dissolve and boil up, stirring well with a wooden spoon. Take the work, which has been well prepared by annealing and boiling out in aquafortis pickle, and suspended upon fine platinum wire ; put it into the mixture for five minutes, and at the expiration of that time with- draw and rinse well in clean boiling water, then add the spirits of salts to the mixture in the pot ; when it again boils up, put the work in for four minutes longer, and again rinse in fresh boiling water. Now add one spoonful of water to the mixture, and when it boils up again put in the work for three minutes, and again rinse. Next 1 66 WET-COLOURING. add two spoonfuls of water to the mixture in the pot ; when it boils put the work in for two minutes, and again rinse. Lastly, thin the colour with about three spoonfuls of water, and when it boils up again, put in the work for one minute longer, well rinse in plenty of clean boiling water ; the work is then done, and of a beautiful colour. Finish as usual. This process is recommended when it is required that the colour should wear well ; it will also pro- duce a beautiful colour if properly attended to, and these instructions are carefully carried out. It was regularly practised in London by most gold- smiths for a number of years with great success. It should not, however, be used for a lower standard of gold than 15 carats. The proportions given will colour ten ounces of solid gold chains, and about five ounces of jeweller's work, which latter is generally of a bulky nature having large surfaces. The solder used upon the work must be very good to be nicely coloured by this process. Some gold- smiths have strongly recommended the employ- ment of common salts for plunging the work into, after the last dip in colouring, as a means of neu- tralising the effects of any acid likely to be retained upon the articles. Others have advised the use of soda and potash solutions as substitutes for ale, in BIRMINGHAM PROCESS. 167 scratch-brushing. We may remark that we have tried these things, as well as several others we could mention tending in the same direction, but cannot say that we ever derived any great advan- tage from the use of them. The loss by this process of colouring will average about one penny- weight per ounce of work submitted to the action of the mixture. Time occupied in colouring, fifteen minutes. Gold-workers are exposed to several pernicious vapours in the exercise of their trade, by far the worst being that which arises during the process of wet-colouring; from the action of the spirits of salts upon the work and the other ingredients. The effluvia arising therefrom, in badly-constructed workrooms, produces great distress to the operator, affecting the head, the stomach, and the whole nervous system. When the above symptoms pre- sent themselves, a good drink of new milk will counteract the evil, and act as a complete antidote to the mischievous effects of the poisonous and other noxious vapours, taken into the stomach during the performance of any of these processes. Birmingham Process of Wet-Colouring. Some time after the introduction of the art into this country, attention began to be directed to the I 68 WET- COLOURING. application of the process to qualities inferior to those already named ; and it was found that by the addition of small quantities of spirits of salts to the ingredients already in use it was possible to adapt it ; and in attempting this experiment Birmingham was not backward, for it was one of the first towns which successfully accomplished it. Of the follow- ing ingredients take Nitrate of potassa . . 14 ozs. Common salt . 7 Alum . . 7 Spirits of salts . . 2 30 ozs. Pound them all fine and mix well together ; then take a blacklead colour-pot about eight inches high and seven inches across the mouth, and put the mixture (acid excepted) into it, which must dissolve very gradually. It should on no account be hurried or forced, for if it burns the colour will be spoiled, and consequently unfit for the work. As the heat increases the whole will begin to dis- solve; then stir well with a wooden spoon, and, when the colour boils up, add the spirits of salts (muriatic acid), when the mixture will sink ; stir it again, when it will soon boil up. Immediately take the work which has been properly prepared for the purpose, and fastened in bunches with fine BIRMINGHAM PROCESS. 169 silver or platinum wire, and immerse it in the colour for four minutes, keeping it well on the move all the time, so that all parts may be acted upon alike ; this must be done in such a manner as to prevent scratches and marks, by its touching the bottom or sides of the pot. At the end of the above time, take out the work and rinse it well in quite clean boiling water, of which a copious supply should be provided. Next place it in the colour for a minute and a half; remove it again, and rinse well in fresh hot water. Now add two ounces of hot water to the preparation in the pot, when it will sink but soon rise again. When this takes place put in the work for one minute ; it must then be withdrawn, and rinsed in fresh hot water. It will by this time begin to show the right colour, if all things have gone on properly. Lastly, dip the work in the mixture again for half a minute longer, finally rinsing for the last time in two vessels of fresh hot water, and then it should possess a. very beautiful colour. This colouring mixture should be used in pro- portion to the amount of surface the articles pre- sent to its action. The proportions given will be amply sufficient to colour effectually ten ounces of gold chains with plain surfaces, or five ounces of jeweller's work ;. and, if skilfully managed during 170 WET-COLOURING. the operation, it will never prove a failure. This method will colour gold alloys very richly and evenly, if not below 14 carats ; it may therefore be used advantageously to such as are not inferior to this quality. The average loss in taking all kinds of work will be about one pennyweight for every ounce submitted to its action. Nevertheless in wet-colouring it sometimes hap- pens, even under the most skilful management, that the colour burns, which gives the work a dead- brown appearance ; if also the colour-pot has not been properly cleansed after a previous operation this effect will also be produced; so that in this process everything should be kept quite clean and free from grease or iron of any kind, as these are most injurious to the production of the fine, rich results which are sought for. Preparing the Work. There are several methods, as we have already remarked, of preparing the work for wet-colouring ; each operator adopting the one which suits him best, and appears to claim an advantage over the others. We do not intend to assert that there is any particular advantage likely to accrue from the adoption of any particular process in the prepara- tion of the work. The main principles are, thorough METHODS OF PREPARING THE WORK. 171 polishing (though this need not be so much the case as for dry-colouring, but still it is of great importance) and cleanliness, the latter element being very essential in the production of a good colour. The operator cannot be too careful in enforcing these two conditions. Some persons prefer to colour from the black anneal; others to boil for a time in nitric acid pickle ; others again, after the work has been well annealed, boil out in sulphuric acid pickle, and afterwards in clean water. In adopting any of these plans, the method is that, after the work has been well polished by means of the finest materials, and washed out, it must be placed upon an iron or copper pan and heated to redness upon a clear fire, the latter proceeding being of importance. If it appears greasy in the interstices, and it is desired to colour it black, it should be boiled out and again annealed ; it may then be placed aside to cool, and afterwards suspended upon the wires usually employed for this purpose. In the work of re- colouring articles, it is by far the best plan to anneal them. Where this can be done, boil them out, and again anneal them, which process is easily performed. It is an economical plan to re-colour this description of goods in old colour, which should always be preserved for the purpose. If 1 72 WET- COLOURING. this appears dry or nearly so, when put into the pot, add one ounce of acid and one ounce of water ; if tolerably liquid, make no addition whatever, for, in some instances, and especially where the alloys contain a great proportion of copper, the weaker the preparation the better and brighter is the colour produced upon the work. Finishing the Work. After the process of wet-colouring it is abso- lutely necessary that the work should go through another operation, that of " scratching ;" which consists of submitting it to the revolving action of a circular brush of fine brass wire, mounted upon a lathe, after the manner of the round hair brushes used in polishing, and upon which a solu- tion of weak ale is allowed to run from a small barrel with a tap to it. This removes any dull colour that may be upon the work, and gives it a perfectly bright and uniform surface. Frosting is effected by keeping the points of the wires of the brush quite straight, and running the lathe very fast, just letting the ends touch the surface of the work ; to do this accurately requires great practice. After this process has been performed, the work must be well rinsed in either hot or cold water, GERMAN PROCESS. 173 and finally dried in warm boxwood sawdust, which must not be allowed to burn or char in any way : if so the colour of the work will be much damaged, and part of the beauty destroyed. A soft brush will remove all traces of sawdust from the interstices of the articles which have passed through this operation. German Process of Wet-Colouring. The German process of colouring gold articles can be applied to that metal of a still inferior standard ; and if carefully operated upon, even i2-carat gold may be made to assume a beauti- ful rich yellow, possessing all the appearance of fine gold, by immersion in the following chemical preparation until the desired colour has been obtained. It consists in some cases of a reduction of the salts usually employed, the abolition of the alum altogether, whilst a double proportion of spirits of salts (muriatic acid) is added to supply the place. A very good mixture, to which we have just referred, is prepared as follows, one which is especially recommended for large work. Take Nitrate of potassa . . 14 ozs. Common salt . 7 ,, Muriatic acid . . 5 ,, 26 ozs. 174 WET-COLOURING.. Reduce the above salts to a fine powder in a mortar, keeping them perfectly clean all the time ; well mix them together; then take a blacklead colour-pot about seven inches high and six inches across the top, place it on the fire and well dry ; when this is done put into it the colouring-salts, stirring them well with a wooden spoon ; when thoroughly dried fine and hot, add the muriatic acid (spirits of salts) ; the colour will then soon boil up. Now take the work which has been pre- viously prepared quite clean and free from grease, and also suspended upon fine silver or platinum wire, and place it in the preparation for three minutes, keeping it slightly on the move during this period, when it must be withdrawn and instantly plunged into a vessel of clean boiling water, and then into a second vessel of the same. Next add two ounces of hot water to the colour, and when it boils up, again place the work in the mixture for one minute longer ; rinse in fresh boil- ing water as before stated. It will then be done, and of a fine colour if all things have been care- fully attended to ; dry in clean boxwood sawdust as usual. The work must be well and carefully scratched in weak ale, which liquid is perhaps the best for all practical purposes, or burnished with a proper burnishing- chain if desired; we FROSTING THE WORK. 175 much prefer the latter, because of the very rich colour it produces. After the work has been well rinsed in clean water subsequent to these opera- tions and dried as before pointed out, it is then ready for the transactions of the commercial world. The drying of the salts at the commencement is to remove the water taken up during their crystal- lisation, which operates injuriously where so large a proportion of muriatic acid is employed. A colouring is given to jeweller's work by this pro- cess in a much quicker time than could possibly be "done by any of the preceding ones, but it is nevertheless much more difficult to perform. It takes considerable practice to become a good colourer ; for, if not very skilfully treated, the large proportion of muriatic acid has a ten- dency to rot the work, as well as to reduce it to a honeycombed state, which latter condition would render it quite unsaleable. The time occu- pied by this process is four minutes, and the loss occasioned thereby will average about eighteen grains per ounce of the work under manipulation. The Birmingham process occupies about seven minutes, with a greater proportion of loss of ma- terial. Gold alloys to be effectually coloured by the German process should contain rather more 1 7 6 WET-COLOURING. silver than has been recommended for the others of which we have treated ; because by this process a clean, deep, and smooth colour cannot be pro- duced under any other circumstances. The work would otherwise be frosted or sweated ; and a very inferior colour would be the result, if these or similar instructions were not carried out. It is well to avoid as much as possible the intro- duction of wet articles into the colour without previously shaking the surplus water from them. Neither should the colour be thinned until the articles submitted to its action begin to show in an unmistakable manner the appearance of gold ; for if this should be done, they are sure to come from the colour-pot in a very rough state. This appearance of the work in the German process has successively baffled the skill and ingenuity of several gold-colourers of the old school in this country; and we have often smiled at the argu- ments in favour of the addition of water when the colour of the work could not be properly effected in the given time, but came out black, which was probably due to the weakness of the acid employed, as it is liable to lose its strength if the mouth of the bottle be not sufficiently secured. The addition of water at such a time as this would certainly be fatal to the excellence of the finish ; the proper FROSTING THE WORK. 177 remedy would be an increase of muriatic acid to the colouring mixture, an extra dip into which would soon produce the desired colour. This should always be done before the weakening or watering process commences. Articles of the commoner qualities, to be effec- tually treated by this process, must not under any considerations whatever (as we have pre- viously remarked) contain too much copper; for this is the cause of many failures. Under other circumstances, where a large proportion of copper is employed, this weakening process seems to facilitate the object to be achieved; and where a much smaller proportion of muriatic acid is mixed with the other ingredients its addition is both practicable and advantageous. By the addi- tion of water to the German mixture before the colour has been brought up, upon a second immersion of the work a violent attack is made upon it, which, instead of producing colour, acts as a solvent on the metals ; and so powerful is this, that a few minutes' immersion would result, if the articles were thin, in their utter destruction. In concluding our observations on gold-colouring we have simply to remark that the whole process is nothing less than an abstraction of the baser alloy from the surface, which leaves the gold behind with I 3 1 7 8 WET-COLOURING. a full, rich colour; its effect being to add richness to the colour given to the surface of gold articles of inferior standards, and being nearly perfect in its resemblance to fine gold itself. Lapping, This is a distinct process of finishing jewellery- work. It is not much resorted to in coloured work, and when it is employed, it is sometimes performed before the articles are coloured, and sometimes after, according to choice. It is distinguished from scratching, by the evenness of surface, and the lustre, it leaves upon the parts to which it has been applied ; and this can be ascertained by an exami- nation of the work after this operation. It is prin- cipally confined to bright gold chains and ear- rings, a class of jewellery to which its adaptation is most suitable, as it enhances the beauty of their appearance very much. The lapper produces the plain and diamond-shaped surfaces by the rotary action of the lapidary's wheel, which consists of a specially-prepared composition disc, secured in a lathe vertically upon a horizontal spindle. This has a shoulder in the middle, against which the disc of metal is firmly held by a nut and screw from the other side. This lap or disc weighs about five pounds, and is made of a mixture of two LAPPING. 179 parts pure grain tin to one part of pure lead ; to which, for edge-laps, may be judiciously added one pennyweight of fine copper to every pound of the mixture. To effect a complete amalgamation of the component parts, the lead, being the least fusible metal, should be first melted and the tin afterwards added, first well heating it, to prevent too sudden a chill of the lead. If necessary to add the copper, it should be melted separately, and added to the other ingredients when in the liquid state, and be well stirred. Care should be exercised in the casting, in order to prevent waste. The lap having been properly adjusted by skim- ming, it is then " headed in," a process performed by the application of flour emery, by means of a brush, to the right-hand side of the lap, and pressed in with a hard flint stone. In heading-in a lap, the emery is used in the wet state. This done, the gold-cutter, as he is familiarly called, takes his work, and submits it to the revolving lap or disc ; but before doing so, he submits it to a preparation he has by the side of him, which is used for protecting the gilding or surfaces not subjected to his particular work. He dips the articles into a liquid mix- ture of gum arabic, two parts, and gamboge, one part ; they are then well dried, but must not be overheated; this has a tendency to protect the 1 80 WET-COLOURING. gilding whilst under the manipulative skill of the gold-cutter. This gum or cement is soluble in hot water ; consequently, in washing out, it parts from the gold, and leaves a colour upon the work. The lapping process is a curious one, and it is truly marvellous to see the skilful and practised workman turning the links of gold chains between his thumb and finger with great dexterity and accuracy ; and \vhile to all appearance it seems as if they are being presented in a haphazard fashion to the lap, the most perfect-shaped diamonds are being produced. This is called faceting. Square-lapping is now extensively practised ; it adds a sharpness and lustre to the work not equalled by any other means. The gold taken from articles during the process of lapping remains the greater portion of it, at least upon the lap. The emery cuts and retains the gold upon it ; this, however, is prevented from interfering with the process, by wiping the side of the lap with a tow of cotton waste, damped with oil. This cotton waste must be strictly preserved, and subjected to a special mode of treatment for the recovery of the metal. CHAPTER XII. Collecting and Refining Waste Gold. IN wet-colouring, the waste water in which the work has been rinsed, as well as the exhausted colouring-salts, should be carefully preserved, by pouring them into a large stoneware jar kept for the purpose, as they all contain gold; and with- out such precautions, where a large manufacturing trade is being done, the loss in the course of a year would be very great. All the gold can be recovered from these waste waters by a very simple and at the same time effective process, entailing little or no expense, such as the following method. Take Proto-sulphate of iron , . , . 2 ozs. Boiling water about , . . . 16 1 8 ozs. Mix together, and when the salt is all dissolved add it to the solution in the jar, and stir it well ; the gold will then begin to precipitate ; this must 1 82 TREATMENT OF JEWELLER'S COLOUR WATER. be repeated each time after colouring, and as the jar becomes full a little more proto-sulphate of iron (copperas) must be added, and the contents well stirred. If this produces no effect upon the solu- tion, the gold has all been precipitated. It should then be allowed to settle, when the supernatant water may be decanted or poured away ; but care should be taken not to disturb the precipitate, which consists of a dark spongy mass at the bottom. The sediment must then be well washed several times with hot water to free it from the acid; thoroughly dried in an iron pan or ladle, and after- wards melted with a quantity of dry carbonate of potash and common salt, with a proportionate part of common bottle glass, in a crucible. The ingre- dients may be prepared as follows. Take Prepared sediment . . 8 ozs. Carbonate of potash . 4 ,, Common salt . . 2 Common bottle glass . 2 ,, 1 6 ozs. Reduce all the ingredients to a fine powder, and well mix them together; great heat will be required in the fusion of tKe" mixture, in order to effect the complete reduction of the gold ; to assist which, a small portion of saltpetre may be occa- sionally added to the contents in the pot ; but REDUCING TO THE METALLIC STATE. 183 this must be done with care. Sal-enixon, or san- diver, may be used in the reduction of the above mixture, if preferred, to refine it more thoroughly, as either will draw the iron or other impurities into the flux, leaving the button of gold at the bottom of the crucible. Collection and Treatment of Jeweller's Lemel. Having comprehensively described the art pro- cesses, mechanical and chemical, comprised in the business of a goldsmith, we shall now proceed to explain with some amount of detail the economical processes of a jeweller's establishment. The prac- tice of economy, strictly enforced, is the only true safeguard of the goldsmith against misfortune. His trade reminds us somewhat of the professional money-changer, who exchanges 195-. \\\d. for a sovereign. The goldsmith or jeweller, however, has not only bad debts to guard against, but also the serious item of waste of material. For in all the various processes through which the precious metal has to pass ; with every touch of the file, of the lapidary's wheel, and each application of the polishing mixture, every revolution of the drill, and stroke of the various tools employed, as well as each time the work is annealed and boiled out, minute portions of gold according to the 1 84 TREATMENT OF JEWELLER'S LEMEL. quality of the alloy are detached. Waste there- fore is one of the chief features to be seriously considered and avoided in every jewellery esta- blishment. To begin, we shall say a word or two about the economy of jeweller's lemel, which consists of the very small particles of gold - dust re- moved from the various articles under process of manufacture by means of the file, turning - tool, graver, &c. It is almost impossible to keep this lemel or gold-dust free from organic matter and impurity ; and the consequence of this is fully apparent in the loss occasioned in its collection, although it is always done separately and with care. Workmen have the gold weighed out to them, each one being responsible for his own portion; and the operatives employed in its manufacture have to account for, and weigh up to within a grain of, the quantity given out to them; always deducting therefrom the usual allowance for waste or loss in working, which commonly amounts to six grains to the ounce, in the making department. This allowance constitutes or forms another kind of waste, of which we intend to speak hereafter. For the scrap, dust, and refuse of every kind, is carefully swept up from the floor of the work- RESPONSIBILITIES OF WORKMEN. 185 shop twice a day, sifted and well searched for the purpose of detecting any small portions of gold which may be visible to the naked eye. When this is done, the refuse which remains is scrupulously taken care of and sold to the refiner who will give the most for it. Lemel is subjected to various kinds of treatment in the different workshops of this country, every- one claiming to employ the best method for its recovery. There is, however, a great deal yet to be learnt before the economical processes (as we call them) belonging to the jewellers' trade, have attained perfection ; at least, so far as some houses are concerned. In some establishments the work- men are allowed to weigh-in their lemel in a most dirty state, that is, containing a consider- able amount of organic matter; the usual allow- ance for loss in working being granted, it operates injuriously against the economy of the business arrangements. Such conditions are certainly in favour of the workmen, but they encourage a ten- dency to exercise less care than is right for the property and welfare of their employers. There are, however, better methods than these, which may be put into operation without in- convenience, and should commence in the first instance with the workmen. By the adoption 1 86 TREATMENT OF JEWELLER'S LEMEL. of the following plan, the operation commonly attendant upon the employer or his manager (such as sifting and examining the lemel for the detec- tion of iron and steel filings, organic matter, &c.) should be performed by the workmen before weighing it into the warehouse, where their re- sponsibility ceases. This may be very simply performed by providing an iron ladle, and the lemel should then be treated as follows : Sift it well through a fine sieve to separate the small portions of gold from the dust, letting the lemel fall on to a clean sheet of paper provided for the purpose; this should then be carefully put into the iron ladle, and heated until all the organic matter is entirely destroyed. When the burnt lemel has sufficiently cooled, put the magnet through it in order to collect and remove what- ever iron or steel filings may be contained therein. This should be a part of the responsible duties of each workman, and ought to be strictly en- forced. The scrap should be always separated from the lemel. Its treatment has been already spoken of. There are two methods in use for the collec- tion of the lemel ; the first is performed in the following manner. Take MIXING FOR THE CRUCIBLE. Lemel or gold-dust . 12 ozs. Carbonate of potassa . 2 ,, Common salt . . i ,, 1 5 ozs. Well mix the lemel with the salts, and then place the preparation in a skittle-pot, after which place a layer of common salt on it, and transfer it to the furnace. A greater proportion of the mixture should not be put into the crucible than will fill it to within one inch of the top, to be safe, as it rises in the furnace and may .overflow. When the fire is at its height, the heat must be continued for half an hour longer ; the pot, at the expiration of that time, must be carefully withdrawn, and placed aside to cool, when it may be broken at the bottom with a hammer, and the gold will then be found in a button. A little nitrate of potassa (saltpetre) may be added occasionally when it is in a state of fusion, in order to refine the mass more thoroughly ; but the saltpetre must be added with very great care; for if too much be put in, and organic matter be still present, it will rise above the top of the melting-pot, and carry some portion of the precious metal with it. This may be prevented, however, by the timely application of a little extra dry common salt, in powder, and, if added at the proper moment, no 1 88 TREATMENT OF JEWELLER'S LEMEL. evil consequences will result. The button of gold, which will consist of an alloy of gold, silver, and copper, may again be melted with a little potash, borax, or charcoal as flux, and poured into an ingot-mould ; it may then again be worked up, if of proper quality after assay (there is no advantage in this), or granulated and refined as may be desired. The reducing, or collecting salts should be used in proportion to the lemel sought to be recovered, and in about the quantities we have given. We have used sal-enixon instead of the saltpetre as the refining agent, and prefer it for many reasons ; first, it is considerably cheaper and answers quite as well perhaps better; and, in the second place, it keeps the flux and lemel towards the bottom of the crucible, which the saltpetre does not. Another good plan, and one which has found great favour with some manufacturers, is to put the lemel in an ordinary melting-pot, with a very little flux, such as carbonate of potash or soda; and when it is well melted the crucible must be withdrawn and the contents poured into a cast- ing-mould. The lemel bar may at once be sent to the refiners for sale, or may be exchanged for new gold. By adopting this plan goldsmiths are BAD WORKABLE GOLD. 189 lot subjected to so much loss through having lad an indifferent working gold, as no lemel will oe in these bars. Lemel is the principal cause of Dad gold, the unworkable qualities of which are to oe adjudged more from the presence of this, than any other reason. Recovering Jewellers' Waste. The sediment which accumulates in the scratch- brush and polishing-boxes, lappers' cotton waste, and all other waste of a similar description, should be carefully collected and thoroughly burnt in a closed iron pan, or other suitable vessel. This process will considerably reduce the bulk of it, and also destroy any organic matter that may be present. The burning must be cautiously effected, to prevent the light particles of gold from going with the draught up the chimney; and for this same reason, it is advisable to employ for such purposes a strong iron pan with a lid to it. When the burning has been carried far enough which, with a steady fire, will occupy a whole night for each panful of waste, refuse, &c.- and the operation is finally completed, the remaining ash must be put through a fine sieve ; the refuse which remains in the sieve should be pounded, and again sifted, when 1 90 RECOVERING JEWELLER'S WASTE. the waste is what is called good, and is then ready for the refiner's test. If it is desired to collect the gold from the above (and sometimes such is the case), the following plan should be resorted to. Take Polishings, &c. . . 8 ozs. Carbonate of potash . . 4 ,, Common salt . . . 2 ,, Sal-enixon . . . I 15 ozs. The above salts should be reduced to powder, and well mixed with the polishings, in the propor- tion stated. The substance to be operated upon in this case being of a much drier and lighter nature than lemel, a greater proportion of salts is necessary, in order to bring down the gold into a button. After being carefully prepared, place the mixture in a crucible, called in the trade a "skittle- pot " (from its resemblance to a skittle), and treat as has been recommended for collecting lemel only, with this difference as the mixture sinks towards the bottom of the pot in this process, more of the mixture of polishings must be added from time to time, until the crucible has received as much as it will conveniently hold. When perfectly fused a very few crystals of saltpetre must be added occa- EFFECTS OF SALTPETRE. 191 sionally during the operation, as a quicker fusion is obtained by imparting moisture or liquidness to the preparation. The action of the saltpetre on the mixture must at first be closely watched, and if it is at all likely to overflow, a small quantity of dried common salt (which should always be provided in case of emergency) should at once be thrown in, as it has a great tendency to force the flux downwards. If sufficient saltpetre has been added to the fused mass it will remove from the gold whatever iron, steel, zinc, and even brass and copper, may be present; leaving the gold in a button at the bottom of the crucible, which should subsequently be broken at the base for its recovery, after standing a sufficient time for cool- ing. Sandiver, bichloride of mercury, brown potash, and sal-enixon are all useful fluxes, having a tendency to destroy the impurities in precipitates of this kind. It is never worth while to collect the gold from the polishings, lappings, &c., in the manner just described, only simply for the sake of experiment. It is unprofitable to the manufacturing goldsmith, considering the cost of materials, firing, and work- men's time in effecting it. The safest and most economical plan is to sell all such waste contain- ing gold, to the refiner, after a test has been 1 92 RECOVERING JEWELLER'S WASTE. made (the quantity required for that purpose being two ounces) in the same manner as for floor-sweep ; the full value is then sure to be realised. Some persons in the trade have strongly re- commended mixing this class of waste with the ordinary floor-sweep a system to which we strongly object, because this description of waste is generally very rich in gold; and it would be a difficult task to incorporate it properly with so large a quantity as the ordinary sweep usually consists of, so as to realise its utmost value. Hence we say that a part of its value would be lost to the manufacturing jeweller and goldsmith ; and we venture to say that we are not expressing idle or theoretical opinions, for we have had consider- able experience, and paid more than ordinary attention to this point, with a view to economise and reduce the waste to which jewellers are subjected. We must, therefore, contend, in the interests of the trade, that there should be three separate and distinct processes of treatment for the recovery of gold from this waste, refuse, &c. The first should have reference to lappers' cotton waste, and the sediment which accumulates in the polishings and scratching-boxes, with all other waste of a similar description. The second should relate to the wash-hand SEPARATE METHODS OF TREATMENT. 193 waters, old pickling solutions, spent colouring mixture, and rinsing waters (for we prefer these going into the general waste-water tub), together with the washing and swilling waters, employed in the establishment for every purpose, and of every possible description. The third should comprise the general sweep- that is, the sweepings from the floors of the different workshops in the manufactory, the old worn-out crucibles, the ashes and cinders from the various fires employed, and the dirt and refuse of every conceivable kind which is at all worth preserving. The dross from the fluxes employed in melting should be separately preserved. This may again be put through the fire when a sufficient quantity has been collected, and a compact little lump of gold will invariably be the result. If preferred, instead of troubling with the latter process, it may be sold to the refiner separately. The waste pro- ducts of manufacturing jewellers are usually collected and treated in this manner quarterly or half-yearly. Refining Lemel. This branch of the art, which is more chemical than otherwise, is not practised by gold-workers on a large scale, for manufacturing or commer- cial purposes ; neither would there be any advan- K 194 REFINING LEMEL. tage by its adoption from a pecuniary point of view, for it would entail a considerable outlay of capital for the apparatus which is indispensable to the operation ; without yielding any appreciable return, and would probably be only so much capital unnecessarily sunk in the business. Besides, the refiner and assayer, whose special business it is, and who has every appliance at his command, can do it so much better and cheaper, that manu- facturers have, for this reason also, never intro- duced it as a practical part of their trade. To those unacquainted with the process of sepa- rating gold from the other metals with which it might be alloyed, the following information will be useful : The lemel must first be collected in the usual way, according to the principles already laid down. To separate the alloy from the gold, the composition will have to be submitted to the action of nitric acid; but as the alloy of gold consists probably of such proportions that the nitric acid cannot effectually do its work (too great a proportion of gold resists the influence of nitric acid), therefore it will be necessary to re-melt the bar of lemel gold, and to add to it, if of g-carat quality, one-half of its weight of silver, a little potash or charcoal being used as a flux. When GRANULATION OF GOLD. 195 the mixture is properly incorporated, to effect which it should be well stirred, it is poured from some height into a deep vessel of water, being briskly stirred in a circular direction during the operation. The granulation of the gold can be performed skilfully, by the operator standing upon a stool and carefully pouring the molten metal into a vessel beneath. The alloy of gold will then be found at the bottom of the water in small grains, which must be carefully collected in order to avoid waste. However, a little is almost sure to happen, even with the greatest care. These grains are then taken and placed in a suitable German flask, which should be quite free from lead, and treated with nitric acid in the following manner. Take Alloy of gold . . . i oz. Nitric acid . . . i Water . , . . 2 This mixture should be allowed to stand for several hours. Towards the end of the operation it will be necessary to raise its temperature, in order to promote the requisite chemical action. All the ingredients, excej t the gold, will become dissolved, and the latter will be in the form of a dark-brown powder at the bottom of the glass. It will be advisable, in order to effect the entire K 2 196 REFINING LEMEL. removal of the baser alloys, to pour the solution of nitric acid, containing the silver, copper, &c., into another vessel, for subsequent treatment. Fresh nitric acid should now be added to the gold and heat applied, in order to remove any percentage of base alloy, which would be the means of making the gold brittle. When the acid is found to have no action of any kind upon the gold, it must be again poured off, and the gold well washed with hot water, to remove any trace of alloy that may be discovered in its inter- stices. At this stage the gold is pure, or at all events sufficiently pure for every practical pur- pose, requiring now only to be melted with borax or potash. Unless every particle of alloy is removed from the gold, it is very likely to be brittle when it comes to be worked up again ; for that reason, if for no other, it is better to entrust it to the practical refiner, for, as we have already said, it never pays the working jeweller to do it himself. Even refiners' best gold from the lemel bar never works up like the refined native gold. Gold collected from the other waste material of jewellers may be treated in this manner if pre- ferred. JEWELLERS' WASTE WATERS. 197 To Recover Gold from the Waste Waters of the Jeweller, There are various methods in operation among jewellers for the recovery of the gold from -their waste waters, &c., a few of which we think it necessary to describe. The old plan of dealing with these waste waters was very unsatisfactory in a pecuniary sense. It consisted merely of a moderately-sized tub for the collection of liquid substances of every kind em- ployed in the manufactory ; this tub was fitted with a wooden tap about one-third from the bottom ; precisely under this was placed a circular frame- work of wood, of sieve-like form, with a rather closely-fabricated piece of felt or flannel attached loosely to the rim, so constructed as to form a cavity in the centre for the collection of the liquid, as it issued slowly from the tap immediately above it. This, after filtering through the above appa- ratus, was allowed to run away, no more notice whatever being taken of it. Now this liquid carried along with it a con- siderable portion of gold, as we shall show pre- sently. But before doing so, we desire first to allude to improvements subsequently effected, or rather, presumed improvements ; of which the fol- 1. 9 8 JEWELLERS' WASTE WATERS. lowing is one of several which found much favour some years ago, when jewellers began to pay special attention to the economy of their establishments, with the view of reducing the working loss to the lowest extent possible, compatible with safe work- ing. This loss was considered excessive, in pro- portion to the quantity of manufactured articles produced out of a given quantity of material ; and a comparison of weights showed such to have been actually the case. To economise, therefore, the fol- lowing method of treatment was strongly recom- mended at the time, and was supposed to deal effectually with the liquid substances used in the different stages of manufacture, both chemical and mechanical. Several large tubs were to be provided differing in sizes, and placed in a row, each succeeding one to be smaller than the preceding. In each of these tubs taps were to be fitted, which could be turned at any time. First of all the water would have to be conveyed by lead piping, from the several work- shops connected with the manufactory, into the largest tub ; when this had become full, the tap could be turned on and all the surplus water carried over into the next, and so on, until the last in the row was reached ; and in this, a piping in place of the tap must be firmly secured, to convey VARIOUS METHODS EMPLOYED. 199 the whole of the liquid, after its passage through the row of tubs, into a large tank of deal sawdust as a final protection to the whole process. The latter part could be conveniently performed by placing the sawdust in the yard or some out- building belonging to the premises, where the surplus water might drain away. It was supposed that by this means the whole of the gold would be recovered, on the ground that the passage of the water through the tubs would be so checked, and so slow, that the small particles of gold would all sink to the bottom, and thus be eventually saved. Unfortunately such could not be the case. In the jewellers' pickles and other waste liquids, there are minute pieces of gold, which no amount of filtering, or passing through a series of tubs of stagnant water can possibly recover, unless some chemical ingre- dient be added thereto, which has the power of reducing the gold to its metallic state. For it should be understood that the dissolved gold (and there is a considerable quantity in the waste waters of jewellers) passes through the filter as freely as the liquid itself. Therefore, unless this is acted upon chemically, no hope can possibly be entertained of its ultimate recovery by the jeweller. 200 JEWELLERS' WASTE WATERS." But the best method of all for collecting the gold from these waters, is to provide three large tubs of different sizes, placing them in a row ; into the largest or first tub is put the exhausted pickling solutions, the water in which the workpeople have washed their hands, that in which the work has been washed out, the exhausted colouring-salts and rinsings, and the swilling waters of every descrip- tion. Into this tub is fitted a tap level with the top of the second, and one in the second level with the top of the third, to allow the liquid to run from one to the other in rotation. A quantity of proto-sulphate of iron (green copperas) is dissolved in boiling water and added occasionally to each of the three tubs, more especially the largest, which is the final receptacle for all the used-up liquids. The proto-sulphate of iron precipitates the dis- solved gold held in solution to a metallic state, and so purifies and clears it, that by the time it leaves the last tub every particle of gold will have become precipitated, and the water appear per- fectly clear; so clear in fact that it cannot be distinguished from clean spring water. The sediment at the bottom of the tubs, after the clear water has been withdrawn from them (which is best done with a syphon), may be well mixed with deal sawdust in order to dry up the remaining PRECIPITATING GOLD. 2OI liquid, and afterwards well burnt and sifted as fine as possible. Instead of taps (which are liable to become corroded or destroyed) being employed for the conveyance of the water into the various tubs, stout glass syphons may be successfully used, and are more economical, the different chemical agents in the liquid having no action on them, while they have upon the others. It is a very good plan when these syphons are used to allow the water to run, as it leaves the last tub, upon a filter placed on a cane-bottomed sieve ; the very clearest water then only can run away. By such a method the sediment in the tubs is in no danger of being disturbed. It may, instead of being mixed with the sawdust, be placed on several of these filters, and the moisture being gradually with- drawn, the substance remains well dried, and can afterwards be reduced to powder. If the proto-sulphate of iron be added judiciously and at the proper times, such precautions as subse- quent filtering, &c., will not be necessary ; for every particle of gold will be precipitated in a manner so truly effective, that no further attention will be required. We have had several trials made by refiners and assayers, of the waste waters, after the above chemical has been added, and their inves- tigations have always resulted in not a particle of K 3 202 JEWLELERS' SWEEP. gold visible to the naked eye being found in the samples. The gold may be collected into a button by the means which have been already described, using sandiver as one of the principal refining agents ; it does not, however, pay, and it would be far better to abandon any attempt at it. It may be put into the ordinary floor-sweep if preferred, or kept sepa- rate and a trial made by the refiners ; the latter plan is much the better one, where a large manu- facturing trade is being done. Oxalic acid will also precipitate gold from its solution, but it is considerably dearer than the salt of iron we have recommended; but if it be desired to precipitate it without the addition of another metal, then this acid may be used with advantage. Jewellers' Sweep. Jewellers' sweep constitutes the whole of the sweepings from the floors of the workshops in the manufactory, which should in a well-regulated place be swept twice a day, and the refuse preserved and carefully sorted every morning with the view of gathering up the small particles of gold visible to the naked eye, which have been dropped during the work of the day. After this has been done, and TREATMENT. 203 the gold removed, the sweepings must be well burnt, and as much of the organic matter destroyed as possible. They must then be well pounded in a large cast-iron mortar, and preserved for the refiner. This latter plan may be dispensed with, if found inconvenient in the working department of the establishment; the whole refuse should then be sent periodically to a grinding-mill where steam power is employed, where a large quantity of sweep can be reduced to powder in a very short time. It should of course be previously well burnt, to facili- tate the action of the rollers upon the material. The old melting-pots of every description, and the burnt cinders and ashes from the furnace and muffles, should also be collected with the sweep ; in fact, everything at all worth preserving should be taken care of and sold to the refiner ; for it is the attention given these matters in the course of production that constitutes the greatest amount of success in the manufacture of goldsmith's work. In concluding our subject, we shall 'give some valuable tables of alloys and solders, prepared and used by ourselves, together with other infor- mation which will be equally useful to the trade. CHAPTER XIII. Tables of Specific Gravities, Alloys, &c. THE specific gravities of the various metals and their alloys, as given in this work, have all been calculated arithmetically. Perhaps the more cor- rect method would be, to do so by means of the hydrostatic balance. This consists of an ordinary balance, of which the pans are suspended by strings of unequal length. The shorter pan has a hook attached to its under side, to which the substance should be suspended by a hair or fila- ment of silk. In ascertaining the specific gravity of any material by these means, it is necessary to find out first its weight, when weighed in air, and secondly to learn how much that weight is reduced by weighing in water. The second weight thus obtained is deducted from the first, and then the specific gravity required is at once obtained by dividing the first weight, or weight in air, by this difference. To conduct this operation with nicety requires great care, and a very delicate balance SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF A SOVEREIGN. 205 must be employed in the test, in order to arrive at strictly accurate results. The water in such cases is commonly preferred at a temperature of 60 Fahr. The following example will render our meaning tolerably clear, and convey a better idea of the process. Presuming that the substance in question is a sovereign, it would be represented as follows : A sovereign weighs 123-27 grains in air. A sovereign weighs 116-67 grains in water. 123-27 116-67 = 6-60 123-27 -H 6-60 =1 18-67 The specific gravity therefore of a sovereign, which consists of 22-carat gold, is 18-67, an d closely approximates to our calculated tables. The specific gravity of bodies may be conveniently ascertained by either of these means. 206 COLOURED GOLD ALLOYS Different Qualities of Gold reduced to various Standards, so as to suit the several COLOUR- ING PROCESSES mentioned underneath. Composition of a Sovereign. oz. dwts. grs. Fine gold, per oz o 18 8 Refined copper o i 16 22-carat reduced to i8-carat, cost 64^. bd. per oz. oz. dwts. grs. 4 sovereigns I o 12 Fine silver 020 Swedish copper o 2 12 i 5 o s Suitable for the dry- colouring process. i8-carat reduced to i6-carat, cost 58^. per oz. oz. dwts. grs. i8-carat scrap i o o Fine silver 005 Swedish copper 02 7 i 2 12 Suitable for the French colouring process. COLOURED GOLD ALLOYS. 207 i8-carat reduced to i5~carat, cost 545-. 6d. per oz. oz. dwts. grs. i8-carat scrap i o o Fine silver 0018 Swedish copper 3 6 i 4 o Suitable for the London colouring process. i8-carat reduced to i4-carat, cost 5 is. per oz. oz. dwts. grs. i8-carat scrap i o o Fine silver 014 Swedish copper o 4 14 1 5 18 Suitable for the Birmingham colouring process. i8-carat reduced to i3-carat, cost 475. bd. per oz, oz. dwts. grs. i8-carat scrap . , , . , i o o Fine silver o i 18 Swedish copper .....060 i 7 18 Bsssasa Suitable for the German colouring process. 208 COLOURED GOLD ALLOYS. i8-carat reduced to i2|-carat, cost 455. per oz. oz. dwts. gis. i8-carat scrap i o o Fine silver 02,0 Swedish copper 070 9 = Can be coloured by the German process only. 22-carat reduced to i6-carat, cost 58^. per oz. oz. dwts. grs. 4 sovereigns I o 12 Fine silver 026 Swedish copper 5 6 Suitable for the French colouring process. i6-carat reduced to 15-carat, cost 545. 6, 14 14 8 ,, 13 > 13 , 9 >i 12 12 , 10 ,, II ,, II i II sj 10 10 , 12 ,, 9 9 ,, 13 ,, 8 8 7 7 5 15 !,' REDUCING FINE GOLD TO VARIOUS QUALITIES. TABLE FOR MIXING. Qualities. Fine Gold. Mixture of Alloy. 24 carats. 24 parts. None. 23 ,. 23 i part. 22 22 2 21 21 3 ,, 20 20 4 19 >, 19 ,, 5 18 18 6 , J7 >, 17 7 51 16 16 8 15 ii 15 , 9 14 14 > 10 13 .-; 13 , ii ,, 12 12 , 12 ,, II ,, II , 13 10 10 , 14 9 9 , 15 11 16 * jj ' i 1U 7 ,, 7 i r 7 TABLES OF ALLOYS. 215 TABLE SHOWING THE PROPORTION OF ALLOY TO BE ADDED TO ONE OUNCE OF STANDARD GOLD IN MAKING THE FOLLOWING QUALITIES. Qualities. Standard Gold. Alloy to be added. Total. Carats. oz. dwts. grs. oz. dwts. grs. o . dwts. g''s. 21 O O o o 23 o 23 20 O 2 O 2 I C) 034 3 4 18 o o o 4 10 4 10 17 o o 0521 5 21 16 o 7 12 7 12 15 098 9 8 14 o o on 10 II 10 12 o 13 20 o 16 16 13 20 16 16 II o o I O O 200 10 140 240 9 I 8 21 2 8 21 8 i 15 o 2 15 7 2 2 20 3 2 20 TABLE SHOWING THE PROPORTION OF ALLOY TO BE ADDED TO ONE OUNCE OF FINE GOLD IN MAKING THE FOLLOW- ING QUALITIES. Qualities. Fine Gold. Alloy to be added. Total. Carats. oz. dwts. grs. oz. dwts. grs. oz. dwts. grs. 23 20 20 22 I 18 I 18 21 O 2 2O 2 20 2O 040 4 o 19 056 5 6 1 8 o 6 16 6 16 17 O O 085 8 5 16 O O 10 10 15 12 12 14 o 14 6 14 6 13 O O O Ib 22 16 22 12 O O I 200 II i 3 15 2 3 15 10 i 8 o 2 8 C 9 o o i 13 8 2 13 8 8 200 300 y 2 8 12 3 8 12 2l6 TABLES OF ALLOY FOR PARTING, ETC. TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF SILVER TO BE ADDED TO THE UNDERMENTIONED QUALITIES IN THE REFINING OF GOLD ALLOYS. Qualities. Amount of gold alloy. Silver to be added. 02. dwts. grs. 02. dwts. grs. 22 carats. I O 2 I 3 8 20 I O O 2 6 16 18 I 2 o 16 I 1 O 13 8 15 o 10 14 O o 6 16 13 3 8 12 O o o o II 16 16 10 O 13 8 9 o o o 10 8 O 6 16 7 o j 3 8 6 o TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT QUALITIES. Qualities. ^ s. d 23 -carat gold is worth 4 2 6 per ounce. 22 ,, 3 19 o 21 3 15 6 20 3 12 19 3 8 6 IS 3 5 o I/ 3 i 6 i 2 18 15 2 14 6 H 2 ii ,, 13 2 1 6 12 2 4 ,i H 2 o 6 IO ., I 17 V 9 M I 13 6 > 8 I IO o 7 I 6 6 TABLES OF ALLOYS AND SOLDERS. OT rt rt rt rt rt .~5 rt rt 03 rt rt 'rt 00000 O Ql CO O U-) ^f f ^ O H-l "o O O O O ~ w fn .2 "^\O O M rf- r^- w o IS HH M HH P-H g Q M M M M W o 1 O M 00 S 1 | Td-r-CQ O n B 1 C/3 g O O O O O B 1/3 C/3 C^" C^! Fine Silver. si o MO o oo g "> rj C4 f o ^ "^~ 3 g O O O O O SOLDER PROCES , p T3 ,00000 O 'o O ^ o o o o o p j c rQ w t>jo CJ * ' * .S * , W) b/3 Description, 1 Dry Colouring French Colouring London Colourin Birmingham Cole German Colourirj TABLE Q O O o c O 1 t,' ir 01 O ^3 ~* t " H *""* rt S?M a N " O O o N o o *rt p "" )O N "- M H r-J W o M M N C) Cl rO 1 o I 00 O O O U w & ^-t> ^ M O | goo o O M u o & 2 o O W "gooo M Cl rn _, o T3 M w *"* S goo HH 13 Ei ^ o o 'o O | Q I ns to rt u l| ^ 1 am Colourii n a _0 fl || c o I TJO d 1 rt a :_ W tS ff a s O J c., &"C* C3~ " WEALE'S SERIES includes Text-Books on almost every branch of Science and Industry, comprising such subjects as Agriculture, Architecture and Building, Civil Engineering, Fine Arts, Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering, Physical and Chemical Science, and many miscellaneous Treatises. 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Imp. 8vo, with 21 Folding Plates and numerous Wood Engrav- ings, 305. cloth. "The estimation in which Mr. Simms' book on tunnelling has been held for over thirty years cannot be more truly expressed than in the words of the late Professor Rankine : ' The best source of information on the subject of tunnels is Mr. F. AV. Simms' work on Practical Tunnelling.' " Architect. "It has been regarded from the first as a text-book of the subject Mr. Clark has added immensely to the value of the book." Engineer. " The additional chapters by Mr. Clark, containing as they do numerous examples of modern practice, bring the book well up to date." Engineering: Statics, Grraphic and Analytic. GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS, in Theory and Compari- son : Their Practical Application to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Solid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and Piers, and other Frameworks. To which is added a Chapter on Wind Pres- sures. By R. HUDSON GRAHAM, C.E. 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" The author has had a wide experience in hydraulic engineering, both in South America and in InrMa, and has been a careful observer of the facts which nave come under his notice, as well as a painstaking collector and critic of the results of the experiments of others ; and from the great mass of material at his command he has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a trust- worthy guide to this branch of the engineer's profession. We can heartily recommend this volume to all who desire to be acquainted with the latest development of this important subject." Engineering. " The most useful feature of this work is its freedom from what is superannuated, and its thorough adoption of recent experiments ; the text is, in fact, in great part a short account of the great modern experiments." Nature. Trannvays and their Working. TRAMWAYS : THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. 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Engineer, "A compact, succinct, and handy guide to lathe-work did not exist in our language until Mr. Hasluck, by the publication of this treatise, gave the turner z true vade-mecum." House Decorator. Metal Turning. THE METAL TURNER'S HANDBOOK. By PAUL N. HASLUCK. With over 100 Cuts. Crown 8vo, is. cloth. Iron and Steel. 11 IRON AND STEEL : A Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containing ready, useful, and trustworthy Information for Iron- masters and their Stock-takers ; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills ; Iron and Metal Founders ; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders ; Mechanical, Mining, and Consulting Engineers ; Architects, Contractors, Builders, and Professional Draughtsmen. By CHARLES HOARE, Author of " The Slide Rule," &c. Eighth Edition, Revised throughout and considerably Enlarged. With folding Scales of "Foreign Measures compared with the English Foot," and " Fixed Scales of Squares, Cubes, and Roots, Areas, Decimal Equivalents, &c." Oblong 32010, leather, elastic band, 6s. For comprehensiveness the book has not its equal." Iron, One of the best of the pocket books, and a useful companion in other branches of work, tha iron and steel." English Mechanic. 8 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> CO.' 5 CATALOGUE. Stone-working Machinery. STONE-WORKING MACHINERY, and the Rapid and Economi- cal Conversion of Stone. With Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone Works. By M. Powis BALE. M.I.M.E., A.M.I. C.E. With numeious Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, 95. cloth. "The book should be in the hands of every mason or student of stone-work." Colliery Guardian, Engineer's Reference Book. THE WORKS' MANAGER'S HANDBOOK OF MODERN RULES, TABLES, AND DATA. For Engineers, Millwrights, and Boiler Makers; Tool Makers, Machinists, and Metal Workers; Iron and Brass Founders, &c. By W. S. HUTTON, Civil and Mechanical Engineer. Second Edition, carefully revised, with Additions. In One handsome Volume, medium 8vo, price 155. strongly bound. Q ust published. Contents : Wheels Wanning and Ventilating Weight of Iron, Steel, Brass, and various Metals and Materials. Also, The Indicator and Indicator Diagrams Various Memoranda for the Foundry and Workshop Rules for the Weight of Castings The New Patent Law and Costs of Patents Legal Memoranda List of French Words for English Engineering Terms French and English Weights and Measures And a variety of Modern Practical Information for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. "The volume is an exceedingly useful one, brimful with engineers' notes, memoranda, and rules, and well worthy of being on every mechanical engineer's bookshelf. . . . There is valuable information on every page." Mechanical World. "The information is precisely that likely to be required in practice. . . . The work forms a desirable addition to the library, not only of the works manager, but of anyone connected with general engineering." Mining Journal. "A formidable mass of facts and figures, readily accessible through an elaborate index . . . . Such a volume will be found absolutely necessary as a book of reference in all sorts of ' works ' connected with the metal trades. . . . Any ordinary foreman or workman can find all he wants in the crowded pages of this useful work." Ryland's Iron Trades Circular. Proportions and Rules for Modern Stationary and Locomotive Engines Lancashire, Cor- nish, Vertical, Return Tube, and Portable Engine Boilers Chimneys Water- Wheels, Pumps, Pipes, Girders, Gearing, Shafting, and Millwork Iron Foundry Work and Brass Work Rules and Practical Data relating to the Strength and Weight of Metals and Materials Iron and Brass Casting Cutting Metals- Wheel Cutting Screw Cutting Wheel Gear- ingRope Gearing Pulleys Weight of Pul- leys-Weight of Spur, Bevel, and Mortice Engineering Construction. PATTERN -MAKING : A Practical Treatise, embracing the Main Types of Engineering Construction, and including Gearing, both Hand and Machine made, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns, Screws, Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in Loam and Greensand, &c., together with the methods of Estimating the weight of Castings ; to which is added an Appendix of Tables for Workshop Reference. By a FOREMAN PATTERN MAKER. With upwards of Three Hundred and Seventy Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. \_Just published. Smith's Tables for Mechanics, etc. TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS, FOR MECHANICS, ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, etc. Selected and Arranged by FRANCIS SMITH. Third Edition, Revised and En- larged, 250 pp., waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. limp leather. [Just published. " It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book selection of notes and formulae to suit ALL engineers as it would be to make a universal medicine ; but Mr. Smith's waistcoat- pocket collection may be looked upon as a successful attempt." Engineer, *' A veritable pocket treasury of knowledge." Iron. The High-Fressnre Steam Engine. THE HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM-ENGINE : An Exposition of its Comparative Merits and an Essay towards an Improved System of Construc- tion. By Dr. ERNST ALBAN. Translated from the German, with Notes by Dr. POLE, M. Inst. C.E., &c. With 28 Plates. 8vo, i6s. 6d. cloth. "Goes thoroughly into the examination of the high-pressure engine, the boiler, and its append- ages, and deserves a place in every scientific library." Steam Shipping Chronicle. MECHANICS & MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. g Steam Boilers. A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS: Their Strength, Con- struction, and Economical Working, By ROBERT WILSON, C.E., late In- spector, Manchester Steam Users' Association. Fifth Edition. i2mo, 65. cloth. "The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers." Engineer. "The author shows himself perfect master of his subject, and we heartily recommend all em- ploying steam power to possess themselves of the work," Ryland's Iron Trade Circular. Boiler Malting. THE BOILER-MAKER'S READY RECKONER. With Ex- amples of Practical Geometry and Templating, for the Use of Platers, Smiths and Riveters. By JOHN COURTNEY, Edited by D. K. CLARK, M.I.C.E. Second Edition, revised, with Additions, izmo, 55. half-bound. " A reliable guide to the working boiler-maker." Iron, " Boilcr-makers will readily recognise the value of this volume. . . . The tables are clearly printed, and so arranged that they can be referred to with the greatest facility, so that it cannot be doubted that they wifl be generally appreciated and much used/ '-^Mining Journal. Steam Engine. TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. By T. M. GOODEVE, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Author of "The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Sixth Edition. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. "Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steani engine which will beqr comparison witli anything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no higher praise," -Engineer. Steam. THE SAFE USE OF STEAM. Containing Rules for Un- professional Steam-users. By an ENGINEER. Fifth Edition. Sewed, 6d. " If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would become sen- sations by their rarity." English Mechanic. Coal and Speed Tables. A POCKET BOOK OF COAL AND SPEED TABLES, for Engineers and Steam-users. By NELSON FOLEY, Author of " Boiler Con- struction." Pocket-size, 35. 6d. cloth ; 45. leather. Contents : Table i. Decimals of Tons in cwts., qrs., : and Cumbrae). Table 9. Decimal Equivalents Ibs. Table 2. Consumption per Day per I. H. P. of Time. Table 10. Knots per Hour in ft. per Table 3. Consumption per Hour per I.H.P. min. Table n. Constants for I. H. P. Table -Table 4. Consumption per Day per sq. ft. ! "--'- - -' "- -- - "--^ "-- grate. Table 5. Consumption per Hour per Table 5. q. ft. grate. Table 6. Stowage of Coal and Composition. Table 7. Knots per Hour (Mea 12. Decimals of Cwts. in Ibs. Table 13. Mea- sures of Weight ; also Miscellaneous Results Combustion, Air required, Stoking, &c. Time and Speed Examples* sured Mile). Table 8. Knots per Hour (Cloch fire Engineering. FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE-BRIGADES. With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management ; Re- marks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire ; Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire Brigades, &c. &c. By CHARLES F. T. YOUNG, C.E. With numerous Illustrations, 544 pp., demy 8vo, i 45. cloth. " To such of our readers as are interested in the subject of fires and fire apparatus, we can most heartily commend this book. It is really the only English work we now have upon the subject." Ji>i ineering. " It displays much evidence of careful research ; and Mr. Young has put his facts neatly together. It is evident enough that his acquaintance with the practical details of the construction of steam fire engines, old and new, and the conditions with which it is necessary they should comply, is accurate and full." Engineer. Gas Lighting. COMMON SENSE FOR GAS-USERS: A Catechism of Gas- Lighting for Householders, Gasfitters, Millowners, Architects, Engineers, etc. By ROBERT WILSON, C.E., Author of " A Treatise on Steam Boilers." Second Edition. Crown 8vo, sewed, with Folding Plates and Wood En- gravings, 2S. 6d. " All gas-users will decidedly benefit, both in pocket and comfort, if they will avail themselves of Mr, Wilson's counsels. "Engineering, io CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.' 5 CATALOGUE. THE POPULAR WORKS OF MICHAEL REYNOLDS. (Known as " THE ENGINE DRIVER'S FRIEND "). Locomotive-Engine Driving. LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING : A Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of_ Locomotive Engines. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS, Member of the Society of Engineers, formerly Locomotive Inspector L. B. and S. C. R. Sixth Edition. Including a KEY TO THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. With Illus- trations and Portrait of Author. Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth. "Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently recommend the book, not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance of locomotive engines." The Engineer. "Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of the day. Of the practical utility of Mr. Reynolds's book we have to speak in terms of warm commendation." AthencEitm. "Evidently the work of one who knows his subject thoroughly." Rail-way Service Gazette. " Were the cautions and rules given in the book to become part of the every-day working of our engine-drivers, we might have fewer distressing accidents to deplore." Scotsman. The Engineer, Fireman, and Engine-Boy. THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, and ENGINE-BOY. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive Engines and their Inventors, with a project for the establishment of Certifi- cates of Qualification in the Running Service of Railways. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS, Author of " Locomotive-Engine Driving." With numerous Illus- trations and a fine Portrait of George Stephenson. Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth. "From the technical knowledge of the author it will appeal to the railway man of to-day more forcibly than anything written by Dr. Smiles. . . . The volume contains information of a tech- nical kind, and facts that every driver should be familiar with." Knglish Mechanic. "We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine." Iron. "Replete with information and graphic detail for the railway man." Railway Sen'ic: Gazette, Stationary Engine Driving. STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING : A Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of Stationary Engines. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Second Edition, Enlarged. With Plates and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth. "The author is thoroughly acquainted with his subjects, and his advice on the various points treated is clear and practical. ... He has produced a manual which is an exceedingly useful one for the class for whom it is specially intended." Engineering. "Our author leaves no stone unturned. He is determined that his readers shall not only know something about the stationary engine, but all about it." Engineer. " An engineman who has mastered the contents of Mr. Reynolds's book will require but little actual experience with boilers and engines before he can be trusted to look after them." English Mechanic. "The book should be possessed by every intelligent and ambitious engineman." Builder. Continuous Railway Brakes. CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES : A Practical Treatise on the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom ; their Construction and Performance. With copious Illustrations and numerous Tables. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Large crown 8vo, gs. cloth. " A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance in forming public opinion, and will be studied with benefit by those who take an interest in the brake. . . . It is a clear exposition of the brake question as it relates to the rival systems." English Mechanic. "Written with sufficient technical detail to enable the principle and relative connection of the various parts of each particular brake to be readily grasped." Mechanical IVorld. " May be recommended to all who desire to study the subject of continuous brakes." Iron. Engine-Driving Life. ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE; or, Stirring Adventures and Inci- dents in the Lives of Locomotive-Engine Drivers. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Eighth Thousand. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. "The book from first to last is perfectly fascinating. Wilkie Collins' most thrilling conceptions are thrown into the shade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every page." .\orth British Mail. " Anyone who wishes to get a real insight into railway life cannot do better than read ' Engine- Driving Life' for himself; and if he once takes it up he will find that the author's enthusiasm and real love of the engine-driving profession will carry him on till he has read every page." Saturday flcviciv. ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc. ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc. Construction. THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construction. By E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Architect. Second Edition, Revised, with 58 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. " A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students." Builder. " No architectural student should be without this handbook of constructional knowledge." Architect. Villa Architecture. A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE: Being a Scries of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Outline Specifications and Estimates. By C. WICKES, Architect, Author of "The Spires and Towers of England," &c. 30 Plates, 410, half-morocco, i is. ;;.* Also an Enlarged Edition of the above. 61 Plates, with Outline Speci- fications, Estimates, &c. 2 2s. half-morocco. " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive." Building' News. Useful Text-Book for Architects. THE ARCHITECTS GUIDE: Being a Text-Book of Useful Information for A rchitccts, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c. &c. By FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect, Author of " Specifica- tions for Practical Architecture," &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. " As a text-book of useful information for architects, engineers, surveyors, &c., it would be hard to find a handier or more complete little volume." Standard. "A young architect could hardly have a better guide-book." Timber Trades Journal. Taylor and Cresy's Home. THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF 'ROME. By the late G. L. TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.I. B.A., and EDWARD CRESY, Esq. New Edition, thoroughly revised by the Rev. ALEXANDER TAYLOR, M.A. (son of the late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and Chap- lain of Gray's Inn. Large folio, with 130 Plates, half-bound, 3 35. _ N.B. This is the only book which gives on a large scale, and with the pre- cision of architectural measurement, the principal Monuments of Ancient Rome in plan, elevation, and detail. "Taylor and Cresy's work has from its first publication been ranked among those professional books which cannot be bettered. ... It would be difficult to find examples of drawings, even among those of the most painstaking students of Gothic, more thoroughly worked out than are the one hundred and thirty plates in this volume." Architect. Drawing for Builders and Students in Architecture. PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING, for the Operative Builder and Young Student in Architecture. By GEORGE PYNE. With 14 Plates, 4to, 75. 6d. boards. Specifications for Practical Architecture. SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE: A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder; with an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. By FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect. With numerous Illustrations, demy 8vo, 155. cloth. %* A volume of specifications of a practical character being greatly required, and the old standard work of Alfred Bartholomew being out of print, the author, on the basis of that work has produced the above. Extract from Preface. The House-Oivner's Estimator. THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR ; or, What will it Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price Book adapted to the Use of Unpro- fessional People, as well as for the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By the late JAMES D. SIMON, A.R.I.B.A. Edited and Revised by FRANCIS T. W. MILLER, A.R.I. B.A. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised*. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. " In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over." FieM. " A very handy book." English Mechanic. 12 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.' S CATALOGUE. Civil Architecture. THE DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. By Sir WILLIAM CHAMBERS, F.R.S. With Illustrations, Notes, and an Examination of Grecian Architecture, by JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A. Edited by W. H. LEEDS. 66 Plates, 4to, 2is. cloth. Designing 9 Measuring, and Valuing. THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEASUR- ING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS. Containing Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the respective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and Joiner, Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 8 Plates and 63 Woodcuts. Originally edited by EDWARD DOBSON, Architect. Fifth Edition, Revised, with considerable Additions on Mensuration and Construc- tion, and a New Chapter on Dilapidations, Repairs, and Contracts, by E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A. Crown 8vo, gs. " Well fulfils the promise of its title-page, and we can thoroughly recommend it to the class for whose use it has been compiled. Mr. Tarn's additions and revisions have much increased the usefulness of the work, and have especially augmented its value to students." Engineering. "The work has been carefully revised and edited by Mr. E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., and com- prises several valuable additions on construction, mensuration, dilapidations and repairs, and other matters. . . . This edition will be found the most complete treatise on the principles of measur- ing and valuing artificers' work that has yet been published." Building Newt, " Might be read and studied with advantage by almost everyone having any connection with building operations, from the architect downwards." Building IVorld. Pocket Estimator. THE POCKET ESTIMATOR for the BUILDING TRADES. Being an Easy Method of Estimating the various parts of a Building collec- tively, more especially applied to Carpenters' and Joiners' work. By A. C. BEATON, Author of "Quantities and Measurements." Third Edition, care- fully revised, 33 Woodcuts, leather, waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. "Contains a good deal of information not easily to be obtained from the ordinary price books. The prices given are accurate, and up to date." Building News. "This book is as complete as it is possible to make it." Building- and Engineering Times. Builder's and Surveyor's Pocket Technical Guide. THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE AND MEASURER FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS. Containing a Complete Explana- tion of the Terms used in Building Construction, Memoranda for Reference, Technical Directions for Measuring Work in all the Building Trades, with a Treatise on the Measurement of Timber, Complete Specifications, &c., &c. By A. C. BEATON. Second Edition, with 19 Woodcuts, leather, waistcoat- pocket size, is. 6d. "An exceedingly handy pocket companion, thoroughly reliable." Builders ]Veekly Reporter. " This neat little compendium contains all that is requisite in carrying out contracts for ex- cavating, tiling, bricklaying, paving, &c." British Trade Journal. Handbook of Specifications. THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS; or, Practical Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent Architects and En- gineers. By Professor T. L. DONALDSON, P.R.I. B.A., &c. New Edition, in One large Vol., 8vo, with upwards of 1,000 pages of Text, and 33 Plates, 1 us. 6d. cloth. " In this work forty-four specifications of executed works are given, including the specifica- tions for parts of the new Houses of Parliament, by Sir Charles Barry, and for the new Royal Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.P. The latter, in particular, is a very complete and remarkable document. It embodies, to a great extent, as Mr. Donaldson mentions, 'the bill of quantities with the description of the works.' ... It is valuable as a record, and more valuable still as a book of precedents. . . . Suffice it to say that Donaldson's ' Handbook of Specifications ' must be bought by all architects." Builder. Boiler and Factory Chimneys. BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS: Their Draught-power and Stability; with a Chapter on Lightning-Conductors. By ROBERT WIL- SON, C.E., Author of "Treatise on Steam Boilers." Cr. 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. " A most valuable book of its kind, fujl of usefu} information." Local Government Chronicle, DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 13 DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. Woods and Marbles (Imitation of). SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R. VAN DER BURG and P. VAN DER BURG, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, i8 by 12^ IB., Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates ; also 12 plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures, price 2 125. 6d. List of Contents Introductory Chapter Tools required for Methods of Working Yellow Sienna Marble Wood Painting Observations on the different Process of Working Juniper : Characteristics species of Wood : Walnut Observations on of the Natural Wood : Method of Imitation- Marble in general Tools required for Marble Vert de Mer Marble : Description of the Mar- Painting St. Remi Marble : Preparation of the ble : Process of Working Oak : Description of Paints : Process of Working Wood Graining : the varieties of Oak : Manipulation of Oak- Preparation of Stiff and Flat Brushes : Sketch- painting : Tools employed : Method of Work- ing different Grains and Knots: Glazing of ing Waulsort Marble: Varieties of the Marble : \Vood Ash: Painting of Ash Breche (Bre - Process of Working The Painting of Iron with cia) Marble: Breche Violette: Process of Work- Red Lead: How to make Putty: Out-door ing Maple : Process of Working The different Work : Varnishing : Priming and Varnishing species of White Marble : Methods of Working : Woods and Marbles : Painting tn General : Ceil- Painting White Marble with Lac-dye : Painting ings and Walls : Gilding : Transparencies, Flags White Marble with Poppy-paint Mahogany : &c. List of Plates. i. Various Tools required for Wood Painting j Finished Specimen 19. Mahogany: Spec! 2, 3. Walnut : Preliminary Stages of Graining of various Grains and Methods of Manipul tnd Fin 5. .6-. Fmi: ry Stages of Graining ished Specimen 4. Tools used for Marble Painting and Method of Manipulation . St. Remi Marble : Earlier Operations and ished Specimen 7. Methods of Sketching different Grains, Knots, '} found to contain the most useful tables and formulae required by shipbuilders, carefully collected from the best authorities, and put together in a popular and simple form." Engineer. "The professional shipbuilder has now, in a convenient and accessible form, reliable data for solving many of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work." Iron. "There is scarcely a subject on which a naval architect or shipbuilder can require to refresh his memory which will not be found within the covers of Mr. Mackrow's book." English Mechanic. PocJtet-Book for Marine Engineers. A POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FOR- MULM FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. By FRANK PROCTOR, A.I.N.A. Third Edition. Royal 32010, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 45. " We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt want." Na-val Science. "A most useful companion to all marine engineers." United Service Gazette. t- Grantham's Iron Shipbuilding. ON IRON SHIPBUILDING. With Practical Examples and Details. By JOHN GRANTHAM, M. Inst. C.E., &c. Fifth Edition. Imp. 4:0, boards, enlarged to 40 Plates, including the latest Examples. Together with separate Text, also considerably enlarged, izmo, cloth limp, price 2 2s. complete. " Mr. Grantham's work is of great interest. . . . It is also valuable as a record of the pro- gress of iron shipbuilding. ... It will, we are confident, command an extensive circulation among shipbuilders in general. . . . The text-book on which the examination in iron ship- building of candidates for promotion in the dockyards will be mainly based." Engineering: Liylithouses. EUROPEAN LIGHTHOUSE SYSTEMS. Being a Report of a Tour of Inspection made in 1873. By Major GEORGE H. ELLIOT, Corps of Engineers, U.S.A. Illustrated by 51 Engravings and 31 Woodcuts, 8vo, 2is. cloth. Navigation (Practical), with Tables. PR A CTICA L NA VIGA TION. Consisting of the Sailor's Sea- Book, by JAMES GREENWOOD and W. H. ROSSER ; together with the requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, by HENRY LAW, C.E., and Professor J. R. YOUNG. Illustrated. i2mo, 75. strongly half-bound. Storms. STORMS : Their Nature, Classification, and Laws; with the Means of Predicting them by their Embodiments, the Clouds. By WILLIAM BLASIUS. With Coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, IDS. 6d. cloth. "A very readable book. . . . The fresh facts contained in its pages, collected with evident care, form a useful repository to meteorologists in the study of atmospherical disturbances . . . The book will repay perusal as being the production of one who gives evidence of acute observation." Nature. The following books on NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, etc., are published in WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. MASTING, MAST-MAKING, AND RIGGING OF SHIPS. By ROBERT KIPPING, N.A. Fourteenth Edition. i2mo, 2s. 6d. cloth boards. SAILS AND SAIL-MAKING. Tenth Edition, Enlarged, with an Appendix. By ROBERT KIPPING, N.A. Illustrated. 12010, 33. cloth board?. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. By JAMES PEAKE. Fourth Edition, with Plates and Diagrams, izmo, 45. cloth boards. 20 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> CO.'S CATALOGUE. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE. Electricity. A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY: Including Galvanism, Mag- netism, Dia-Magnetism, Electro-Dynamics, Magno-Electricity, and the Electric Telegraph. By HENRY. M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Fourth Edition. With 500 Woodcuts. 8vo, i 45. cloth. "The accounts given df electricity and galvanism are not only complete in a scientific sense. but, which is a rarer thing, are popular and interesting 1 ." Lancet. "Among the numerous writers on the attractive and fascinating subject of electricity, the author of the present volume has occupied our best attention. It is worthy of a place in the library of every public institution, and we have no doubt it will be deservedly patronised by the scientific community." Mining journal. Text Book of Electricity. THE STUDENTS TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. By HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. New Edition, carefully Revised. With an Introduction and Additional Chapters, by W. H. PREECE, M.I.C.E., Vice-President of the Society of Telegraph Engineers, &c. With 470 Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo, T.ZS. 6d. cloth. "The original plan of this book has been carefully adhered to so as to make it a reflex of the existing state of electrical science, adapted for students. ... . Discovery seems to have pro- gressed with marvellous strides ; nevertheless it has now apparently ceased, and practical applica- tions have commenced their career ; and it is to give a faithful account of these that this fresh edition of Dr. Noad's valuable text-book is launched forth." Extract from Introduction by W. U. Preece, Esq. ''We can recommend Dr. Noad's book for clear style, great range of subject, a good index, and a plethora of woodcuts. Such collections as the present are indispensable." Athenceitm. "An admirable text-book for every student beginner or advanced of electricity." Engineering. " A most elaborate compilation of the facts of electricity and magnetism." Popular Science Review. "Dr. Noad's text-book has earned for itself the reputation of a truly scientific manual for the Student of electricity, and we gladly hail this new amended edition, which brings it once more to the front. Mr. Preece as reviser, with the assistance of Mr. H. R. Kempe and Mr. I. P. Edwards. has added all the practical results of recent invention and research to the admirable theoretical expositions of the author, so that the book is about as complete and advanced as it is possible for any book to be within the limits of a text-book." Telegraphic Journal. Dr. Lardner's ScJiool HandbooJcs. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. LARDNER. 328 Illustrations. Sixth Edition. One Vol., 35. 6d, cloth. " A very convenient class-book for junior students in private schools. It is intended to convey, in clear and precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions of Physical Science." British Quarterly Review. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. LARDNER. With 190 Illustrations., Second Edition. One Vol., 35. 6d. cloth. " Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated." Gardener's Chronicle. Dr. Lardner's Electric Telefjrapli. THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. By Dr. LARDNER. New Edition. Revised and Re- written by E. B. BRIGHT, F.R.A.S. 140 Illustra- tions. Small 8vo, 2$. 6d. cloth. "One of the most readable books extant on the Electric Telegraph." English Mechanic. Field Fortification. A TREATISE ON FIELD FORTIFICATION, THE ATTACK OF FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, AND RECONNOITRING. By Colonel I. S. MACAULAY, late Professor of Fortification in the R.M.A., Wool- wich. Sixth Edition, crown 8vo, cloth, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, i2s. complete. lAghtning. THE ACTION OF LIGHTNING, and the Means of Defending Life and Property from its Effects. By Major A. PARNELL. R.E. izmo, 75. 6rf". cloth. "Major Parnell has written an original work on a scientific subject of unusual interest ; and ho has prefaced his arguments by a patient and almost exhaustive citation of the best writers on the subject in the English language. Athenautu- NATURAL PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE. Geolof/y and Genesis. THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION ; or, Geology and Genesis : their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By GEORGE W. VICTOR LE VAUX. Numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, 55. cloth. "A valuable contribution to the evidences of revelation, and disposes very conclusively of the arguments of those who would set God's Works against God's Word. No real difficulty is shirked, and no sophistry is left unexposed." The Rock. "The remarkable peculiarity of this author is that he combines an unbounded admiration of science with an unbounded admiration of the Written Record. The two impulses are balanced to a nicety ; and the consequence is that difficulties which to minds less evenly poised would be serious find immediate solutions of the happiest kinds." London Review. The Xttoivpipe. THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, AND GEOLOGY. Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut.- Colonel W. A. Ross, R.A., F.G.S. With 120 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 35. 6rf. cloth. Contents : CHAP. I. Manufacture of Blowing 1 Apparatus. II. Construction of Pyrological Lamps. III. Supports and Apparatus. IV. On Auxiliary Apparatus. V. On the Structure and Manage- ment of Pyrocones. VI. On Pyrological Re- agents. VII. On Reagents and Simple Mineral Analyses. VIII. First Operations : Aluminium- Pyro! Grav plate Reactions of Metals and Alloys. IX. On rological Mineralogy and a New Specific _ avitometer. X. Inner Calcium-pyroborate Balls, "Chemical Water," &c. XI. Rationale of Outer and Inner Ball Formation in Boric Acid before the Blowpipe. XII. Frieberg Qualitative Examples. "The student who goes conscientiously through the course of experimentation here laid down :_ _ u~^ : :~u.. ..._ . :_ - n emistry and mineralogy than if he had 'got up' any of d any number of examinations in their contents." C/temi- The Military Sciences. AIDE-MEMOIRE TO THE MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the different Ser- vices. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers. Second Edition, most carefully revised by an Officer of the Corps, with many Additions; containing nearly 350 Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. Three Vols., royal 8vo, extra cloth boards, and lettered, 4 los. " A compendious encyclopaedia of military knowledge, to which we are greatly indebted." t-.dinbiirgh Review. " The most comprehensive work of reference to the military and collateral sciences.' Volun teer Service Gazette. Astronomy. ASTRONOMY. By the late Rev. ROBERT MAIN, M.A., F.R.S., formerly Radcliffe Observer at Oxford. Third Edition, Revised and Cor- rected to the present time, by WILLIAM THYNNE LYNN, B.A., F.R.A.S., formerly of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, izmo, 2s. cloth limp. " A sound and simple treatise, very carefully edited, and a capital book for beginners." fCno-W ledge. "The present edition seems to have been carefully and accurately brought down to the require- ments of the present time by Mr. Lynn." Edttcatiotial Times. Geology. GEOLOGY, Physical and Historical. Consisting of "Physical Geology," which sets forth the leading Principles of the Science ; and " His- torical Geology," which treats of the Mineral and Organic Conditions of the Earth at each successive epoch, especial reference being made to the British Series of Rocks. By RALPH TATE, A.L.S., F.G.S. , &c., &c. With over 250 Illustrations. i2mo, 55. cloth boards. " The fulness of the matter has elevated the book into a manual. Its information is exhaustive and well arranged." School Board Chronicle. Concholoyy. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSC A : A Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By Dr. S. P. WOODWARD, A.L.S. With Appendix by RALPH TATE, A.L.S., F.G.S. With numerous Plates and 300 Woodcuts. Handsomely bound in cloth boards, 75. 6d. "A most valuable storehouse of conchological and geological information." Hardwicke' $ Science Gossip, CROSBY LOCK WOOD & CO. 1 S CATALOGUE. Dr. LARDNER'S HANDBOOKS of NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. *** The following five volumes, though each is complete in itself, and to be pur- chased separately, form A COMPLETE COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. The style is studiously popular. It has been the author's aim to supply Manuals for the Student, the Engineer, the Artisan, and the superior classes in Schools. THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and almost re- written by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S. With 378 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. " The perspicuity of the original has been retained, and chapters which had become obsolete have been replaced by others of more modern character. The explanations throughout arc studiously popular, and care has been taken to show the application of the various branches of physics to the industrial arts, and to the practical business of life." Alining Journal. "Mr. Loewy has carefully revised the book, and brought it up to modern requirements. ' Nature. " Natural philosophy has had few exponents more able or better skilled in the art of popu- larising the subject than Dr. Gardner ; arid Mr. Loewy is doing good service in fitting this treatise a:ut ths others of the siries, for use at the present time." Scotsman. THE HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S. With 236 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 55. cloth. " For those ' who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science without the pro- found methods of mathematical investigation,' this work is not merely intended, but well adapted "' Ch'mical News. " The volume before us has been carefully edited, augmented to near'y twice the bulk of the former edition, and all the most recent matter'has been added. . . . It is a valuable text-book." Nature. "Candidates for pass examinations will find it, we think, specially suited to their requirements.' English Mechanic. THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost entirely re written by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S., &c. 117 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. " The style is always clear and precise, and conveys instruction without leaving any cloudiness or lurking doubts behind." Engineering. "A most exhaustive book on the subject on wh ; ch it treats, and is so arranged that it can be understood by all who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science Mr. Loewy has included all the latest discoveries in the varied laws and effects of heat." Standard. "A complete and handy text-book for the use of students and general readers." E>ia-lish Mechanic. THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. By DIONYSIUS LARDNER,D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. New Edition. Edited by T. OLVER HARDING, B.A. Lond., of University College, London. With 298 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 448 pages, 55. cloth. "Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elaborately illustrated." Mechanics' Magazine. THE HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ACOUSTICS. By Dr. LARDNER. New Edition. Edited by GEORGE CAREY FOSTER, B.A., F.C S. With 400 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 55. cloth. " The book could not have been entrusted to anyone better calculated to preserve the terse and :id style of Lardner, while correcting his e J T ~ : ' cientinc knowledge." Popular Science Rev lucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and bringing up his work to the present state of tine I Dr. Lardner' s Handbook of Astronomy. THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. Forming a Companion to the " Handbook of Natural Philosophy. 1 ' By DIONYSIUS LARDNER, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. Fourth Edition. Revised and Edited by EDWIN DUNKIN, F.R.A.S., Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards of 100 Woodcuts. In One Vol., small 8vo, 550 pages, gs. 6d. cloth. "Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so compendious and well- arranged a form certainly none at the price at which this is offered to the public.' Atheneetim. "We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable manual of astronomy, and we strongly recommend it to all who wish to acquire a general but at the same time correct acquaint- ance with this sublime science." Quarterly Journal of Science. " One of the most deservedly popular books on the subject . . . We would recommend not only the student of the elementary principles of the science, but he who aims at mastering tlic higher and mathematical branches of astronomy, not to be without this work beside him." Practi cal Magazine, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE. 23 DR. LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited by DIONYSIUS LARDNER, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. With upwards of 1,200 Engrav- ings on Wood. In 6 Double Volumes, i is., in a new and elegant cloth bind- ing; or handsomely bound in half-morocco, 315. 6d. Contents : The Planets: Are they Inhabited Worlds? W'eather Prognostics Popular Fallacies in ~uestions of Physical Science Latitudes and ongitndes Lunar Influences Meteoric Q L Stones and Shooting Stars Railway Accidents motion Light Common Things : Air Loco in the United States Cometary Influences- Common Things : Water The Potter's Art- Common Things : Fire Locomotion and Transport, their Influence and Progress The Moon Common Things: The Earth The Electric Telegraph Terrestrial Heat The Sun Earthquakes and Volcanoes Barometer, Safety Lamp, and Whitworth's Micrometric Apparatus Steam The Steam Engine The Eye The Atmosphere Time Common Things: Pumps Common Things: Spectacles, he Kaleidoscope Clocks and Watches motive Thermometer New Planets : Le verrier and Adams's Planet Magnitude and Minuteness Common Things: The Almanack Optical Images How to observe the Heavens Common Things : The Looking-glass Stellar Universe The Tides Colour Com- mon Things: Man Magnifying Glasses In- stinct and Intelligence The Solar Microscope The Camera Lucida The Magic Lantern - The Camera Obscura The Microscope The White Ants: Their Manners and Habits The Surface of the Earth, or First Notions of Geography Science and Poetry The Bee Steam Navigation Electro-Motive Power Thunder, Lightning, and the Aurora Borealis The Printing Press The Crust of the Knrth Comets The Stereoscope The Prc-Ada- mite Earth Eclipses Sound. Microscopic Drawing and Engraving Loco- Opinions of the Press, " This series, besides affording popular but sound instruction on scientific subjects, with which the humblest man in the country ought to be acquainted, also undertakes that teaching of ' Com- mon Things ' which every well-wisher of his kind is anxious to promote. Many thousand copies of this serviceable publication have been printed, in the belief and hope that the desire for instruction and improvement widely prevails ; and we have no fear that such enlightened faith will meet with disappointment." Times. " A cheap and interesting publ'cation, alike informing and attractive. The papers combine subjects of importance and great scientific knowledge, considerable inductive powers, and a 1'Opular style of treatment." Spectator. "The ' Museum of Science and Art' is the most valuable contribution that has ever been made to the Scientific Instruction of every class of society." Sir DAVID BREWSTER, in the A orth British Review. " Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm of the writing 1 , or the durable interest of the matter, we must express our belief that there is hardly to be found fi'iiong the new books one that would be welcomed by people of so many ages and classes as a \ aluable present." Examiner. \* Separate books formed from the above, suitable for Workmen's Libraries, Science Classes, &c. Common Things Explained. Containing Air, Earth, Fire, Water, Time, Man, the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, Clocks and Watches, &c. 233 Illus- trations, cloth gilt, 55. The and scope, gilt, 2S. Popular Geology. Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes, the Crust of the Earth, &c. 201 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 25. 6d. Popular Physics. Containing Magnitude and Minuteness, the Atmo- sphere, Meteoric Stones, Popular Fallacies, Weather Prognostics, the Thermometer, the Barometer, Sound, &c. 85 Illustrations, cloth gilt, zs. 6d. Steam and its Uses. Including the Steam Engine, the Locomotive, and Steam Navigation. 89 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2S. Popular Astronomy. Containing How to observe the Heavens The Earth, Sun, Moon, Planets, Light, Comets, Eclipses, Astronomical Influ- ences, &c. 182 Illustrations, 45. 6d. The Bee and White Ants : Their Manners and Habits. With Illustra- tions of Animal Instinct and Intelligence. 135 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. The Electric Telegraph Popidarised. To render intelligible to all who can Read, irrespective of any previous Scientific Acquirements, the various forms of Telegraphy in Actual Operation, 100 Illustrations, cloth gilt, is, 6rf. 24 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.' S CATALOGUE. MATHEMATICS, GEOMETRY, TABLES, etc. Practical Mathematics. MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN. Being a Com- mon-place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the Use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and Surveyors. Part I. PURE MATHE- MATICS : comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Mensuration, Trigono- metry, Conic Sections, Properties of Curves. Part II. MIXED MATHEMATICS: comprising Mechanics in general Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydro- dynamics, Pneumatics, Mechanical Agents, Strength of Materials. With an Appendix of copious Logarithmic and other Tables. By OLINTHUS GREG- ORY, LL.D., F.R.A.S., Enlarged by HENRY LAW, C.E. 4th Edition, care- fully Revised by J. R. YOUNG, formerly Professor of Mathematics, Belfast College. With 13 Plates, 8vo, 1 is. cloth. " The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand rules for solving nearly every mathematical difficulty that may arise in his practice. The rules are in all cases explained by means of examples, in which every step of the process is clearly worked out." Builder. "One of the most serviceable books for practical mechanics. . . . Professor Young has modernised the notation throughout, introduced a few paragraphs here and there, and corrected the numerous typographical errors which had escaped the eyes of the former Editor. The book is now as complete as it is possible to make it. It is an instructive book for the student, and a Text-book for him who, having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally to refresh his memory upon them. Building News. "As a standard work on mathematics it has not been excelled." Artisan. Metrical Units and Systems, etc. MODERN METROLOGY: A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the Present Century. With an Appendix containing a proposed English System. By Lowis D'A. JACKSON, A.M. Inst. C.E., Author of " Aid to Survey Practice," &c. Large crown 8vo, I2S. 6d. cloth. " The author has brought together much valuable and interesting information. . . . The main object of the work appears to be the discussion of a remedy for the evils of the complex systems of weights and measures which are unfortunately still in use in this country. To provide such a remedy is a serious task, and one well worthy of the attention of a great statesman such as Mr. Gladstone, to whom the work is inscribed. . . . We cannot but recommend the work to the consideration of all interested in the practical reform of our weights and measures." Nature. " For the large collection of measures brought together, the author supplies the French scientific equivalents, in terms of the metrical system. He also gives throughout a double set of Knglish equivalents, the first of which he calls the 'Commercial Measures,' and the second the ' Scientific Value.' . . . There is no doubt as to the great amount of labour that must have been devoted to the calculation ; and the juxtaposition of the two values affords an easy means of check- ing the work by comparison." Athentziim. "For exhaustive tables of equivalent weights and measures of all sorts, and for clear demonstra- tions of the effects of the various systems that have been proposed or adopted, Mr. Jackson's treatise is without a rival." Academy. The Metric System. A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British Stand- ard Measures and Weightsare compared with those of the Metric System at present in Use on the Continent. By C. H. DOWLING, C.E. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, IDS. 6d. strongly bound. " Their accuracy has been certified by Professor Airy, the Astronomer- Royal." Builder. "Mr. Bowling's Tables, which are well put together, come just in time as a ready-reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other." Atlienceum Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, etc. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer and Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. TARN, M. A., Architect, Author of "The Science of Building," &c. Second Edition. With Appen- dices on Diagrams ot Strains and Isometrical Projection. With 172 Illus- trations, demy 8vo, 95. cloth. " No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory." Scotsman. " This is a manual for the practical man, whether architect, engineer, or mechanic. . . . The object of the author being to avoid all abstruse formulae or complicated methods, and to enable persons with but a moderate knowledge of geometry to work out the problems required." English 'Mfchanic, MATHEMATICS, GEOMETRY, TABLES, etc. 25 Comprehensive Weight Calculator. THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR. Being a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at One Reference the exact Value of any Weight from i Ib. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from id. to i68s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their Combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being calcu- lated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By HENRY HARBEN, Accountant, Sheffield, Author of "The Discount Guide." An en- tirely New Edition, carefully revised. Royal 8vo, strongly half-bound, i 55. "A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally ; it is the best of the kind we have seen. We have frequently been asked if such a work as this could be obtained, and therefore refer to it with pleasure." Ironmonger. "Of priceless value to business men. Its accuracy and completeness have secured for it a eputation which renders it quite unnecessary for us to say one word in its praise. It is a necessary book in all mercantile offices." Sheffield Independent. "An enormous amount of labour must have been bestowed upon the preparation of the tables, but the result is a series which gives the answers sought more readily than any of its predecessors." Alining Journal. Comprehensive Discount Guide. THE DISCOUNT GUIDE. Comprising several Series of Tables for the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others, by which may be ascertained the exact Profit arising from any mode of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any required profit after allowing one or more Discounts : to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from i to go per cent., Tables of Discount from ij to g8f per cent., and Tables of Com- mission, &c., from f to 10 per cent. By HENRY HARBEN, Accountant, Author of " The Weight Calculator." New Edition, carefully Revised and Corrected. Demy 8vo, 544 pp. half-bound, i 5$. " All these tables are well arranged and clearly printed ; and the collection will be found of great value in those businesses for which the book has been especially compiled." Engineering. " A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time .ns saving of money. We have the high authority of Professor J. R. Young that the tables throughout the work are constructed upon strictly accurate principles. The work is a model of typographical clearness, and must prove .of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and general traders. " British Trade yo " Much time and labour will be saved by the use of this book even to the most expert arith- metician. The great practical utility of the 'Discount Guide' will no doubt make it a standard work of reference." London Commercial Record. Iron and Metal Trades 9 Calculator. THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION. Being a Calculator, containing a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, for expeditiously ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, from is. per cwt. to 1125. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one shilling per pound. Each Table extends from one pound to 100 tons. To which are appended Rules on Decimals, Square and Cube Root, Mensuration of Superficies and Solids, &c. ; also Tables of Weights of Materials, and other Useful Memoranda. By THOMAS DOWNIE. Strongly bound in leather, 396 pp., gs. " A most useful set of tables, and will supply a want, for nothing like them before existed." Building News. "Will save the possessor the trouble of making numerous intricate calculations. Although specially adapted to the iron and metal trades, the tables contained in this handy little companion wi 1 be found useful in every other business in which merchandise is bought and sold by weight." Railway Nevis. Practical Geometry. THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES; or, Problems Resolved by the mere Description of Circles and the use of Coloured Diagrams and Symbols. By OLIVER BYRNE. Coloured Plates. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. "A very useful work, which will be valued by all who are pursuing the useful and fascinating study of geometry." Iron. "The treatise is a good one, and remarkable like all Mr. Byrne's contributions to the science of geometry for the lucid character of its teaching." Building News. "The problems in this useful book are cleverly worked out by beautifully coloured and uncoloured diagrams. It will no doubt be extensively circulated, We highly recommend it," Cambridge Express, 26 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.' S CATALOGUE INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. Soap-snaking. THE ART 'OF SOAP-MAKING: A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, &c. Including many New Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of "Electro-Metallurgy Practically Treated," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, gs. cloth. "The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical soapboiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art." Chemical News. "It is really an exrellent example of a technical manual, entering, as it does, thoroughly and exhaustively both into the theory and practice of soap manufacture. The book is well and honestly done, and deserves the considerable circulation with which it will doubtless meet." Knowledge. "Mr. Watt's book is a thoroughly practical treatise on an art which has almost no literature in our language. We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavour to fill a void in English te hnical literature." A attire. Clearly and concisely written, and appears to be comprehensive and complete." Leather Manufacture. THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. Being a Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Ex- plained, and many Recent Processes introduced; as also Methods for the Gut sctro- cloth. [Just published. "Every item of use and interest to the leather trade has been touched upon, and the descrij. tions and explanations of the various processes are exhaustively given." Tanners' and Currier? Journal, "A most lucid and readable book upon difficult and intricate subjects. Every known process of tanning, from the most primitive to the most recent, is fully and accurately described." Scottish Leather Trader. Boot and Shoe Making. THE ART OF BOOT AND SHOE-MAKING. A Practical Handbook, including Measurement, Last-Fitting, Cutting-Out, Closing and Making, with a Description of the most approved Machinery employed. By JOHN B. LENO, late Editor of St. Crispin, and The Boot and Shoe-Maker. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 55. cloth. [Just published. "A very complete account of the art and science of bootmaking, which includes all that need be said about leathers and other materials, as well as about hand-tools and the various machines that have latterly been introduced to supplement or supersede the old-fashioned handiwork." U'eekly Dispatch. Dentistry. MECHANICAL DENTISTRY : A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Comprising also Use- ful Formula?, Tables and Receipts for Gold Plate, Clasps, Solders, &c. &c. By CHARLES HUNTER. Second Edition, Revised. With upwards of 100 Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. "The work is very practical." Monthly Revieiu of Dental Surgery. " An authoritative treatise. . . . We can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter's treatise to all s'udents preparing for the profession of dentistry, as well as to every mechanical dentist." Dublin Journal of Medical Science. " A work in a concise form that few could read without gaining information from." British Journal of Dental Science. "The best book on the subject with which we are acquainted." Medical Press and Circular. A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG BREWERS. By HERBERT EDWARDS WRIGHT, B.A. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. " This little volume, containing such a large amount of good sense in so small a compass, ought to recommend itself to every brewery pupil, and many who have passed that stage. "---Brewers' " The book is very clearly written, and the author has successfully brought his scienti ge to bear upon the various processes and details of brewing. To the young student of the reading of such a book as this is calculated to do good, for it will lead him to inquire not only INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. _ 27 Electroplating, etc. ELECTROPLATING : A Practical Handbook. By J. \V. URQU- HART, C.E. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 55. cloth. "The volume is without a rival in its particular sphere, and the lucid style in which it is written commends it to those amateurs and experimental electrotypers who have but slight, if any, know- ledge of the processes of the art to which they turn their attention." Design and HorK. " The information given appears to be based on direct personal knowledge. ... Its science is sound and the style is always clear." Athenaum, Electrotyping, etc. ELECTROTYPING : The Reproduction and Multiplication of Print- ing Surfaces and Works of Art by the Electro-deposition of Metals. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E. Crown 8vo, 55. cloth. "The book is so thoroughly practical that it assumes to start with an entire ignorance on the reader's part of electricity. He is, therefore, conducted through its leading laws, then through the metals used by electrotypers, the apparatus, and the depositing processes, up to the final prepara- tion of the work." Art Journal. " In this work the author enters systematically and thoroughly into every department of the process, in the style of one who combines theory with practice. We can recommend this treatise, not merely to amateurs, but to those actually engaged in the trade." Chemical Aeilfs. Electric Liyhtitiy. ELECTRIC LIGHT : Its Production and Use. Embodying Plain Directions for the Treatment of Voltaic Batteries, Electric Lamps, and Dynamo-Electric Machines. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E., Author of " Electro- plating: A Practical Handbook." Edited by F. C. WEBB, M.I.C.E , M.S.T.E. Second Edition, revised, with large Additions and 128 Illusts. 75. 6d. cloth. " The book is by far the best that we have yet met with on the subject.";- Athenaum. " It is the only work at present available which gives, in language intelligible for the most part to the ordinary reader, a general but concise history of the means which have been adopted up to the present time in producing the electric light. ... A chapter on the comparative cost of the electric light and gas contains much valuable and interesting information." Metropolitan. " The book contains a general account of the means adopted in producing the electric light, not only as obtained from voltaic or galvanic batteries, but treats at length of the dynamo electric machine in several of its forms. . . . An important addition to the literature of the electric light. Students of the subject should not fail to read '&." Colliery Guardian. Electro-Metallurgy. ELECTRO-MET A LL URG Y ; Practically Treated. By ALEXANDER WATT, F.R.S.S.A. Eighth Edition, Revised, with Additional Matter and Illustrations, including the most recent Processes. i2mo, 3$. 6d. cloth boards. "From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the successful prosecution of electroplating." Iron. "A practical treatise for the use of those who desire to work in the art of electro-deposition as a business." English Mechanic. 8 liver smiths' Work. THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK. Containing full In- structions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, including the different modes of Refining and Melting the Metal, its Solders, the Preparation of Imi- tation Alloys, Methods of Manipulation, Prevention of Waste, Instructions for Improving and Finishing the Surface of the Work, together with other useful Information and Memoranda. By GEORGE E. GEE, Jeweller, &c. Second Edition, Revised, with numerous Illustrations, izmo, 35. 6d. cloth boards. [just published. The chief merit of the work is its practical character. . . The workers in the trade will dily discover its merits when they sit down to study it." English Mechanic. " This work forms a valuable sequel to the author's 'Goldsmith's Handbook,' and supplies a " ' speedily discover its merits when they sit down to study it." English Mechanic. " This work forms a valuable sequel to the author's 'G' want long felt in the silver trade." Silversmiths' Trade Jou Goldsmiths' WorJc. THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK. Containing full Instruc- tions in the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Colouring, Collecting and Refining. The processes of Manipulation, Recovery of Waste, Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold, with a New System of Mixing its Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other useful Rules and Recipes, &c. By GEORGE E. GEE. Second Edition, considerably enlarged. lamo, 33. 6d. cloth boards. "A good, sound, technical educator, and will be generally accepted as an authority. It gives full particulars for mixing alloys and enamels, is essentially a book for the workshop, and exactly fulfils the purpose intended." Horological Journal. "The best work yet printed on its subject for a reasonable price. We have no doubt that it wi'l speedily become a standard bpok which few will care to be without." Jeweller and Metal- worker. 28 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & CO. '5 CATALOGUE. CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES & COMMERCE. Alkali Trade, Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, etc. A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE, including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. By JOHN LOMAS, Alkali Manufacturer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and London. With 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings, and containing 386 pages of Text. Super-royal 8vo, 2 I2S. 6d. cloth. *** This work provides (i) a Complete Handbook for intending Alkali and Sulphuric Acid Manufacturers, and for those already in the field who desire to improve their plant, or to become practically acquainted with the latest processes and ^developments of the trade : (2) a Handy Volume which Manufacturers can put into the hands of their Managers and Foremen as a useful guide in their daily rounds of duty. Synopsis of Contents : Chap. I. Choice of Site and General Plan of Works. II. Sulphuric Acid. III. Recovery of the Nitrogen Compounds, and Treatment of Small Pyrites. IV. The Salt Cake Process. V. Legislation upon the Noxious Vapours Ques- ipour _ tion. VI. The Hargreaves' and Jones' Pro cesses. VII. The Balling Process. VIII. Lixi- viation and Salting Down. IX. Carbonating or Finishing. X. Soda Crystals. XI. Refined ;hmg. li. XII. Alkali. XII. Caustic Soda. XIII. Bi-carb< ate of Soda. XIV. Bleaching Powder. XV, Utilisation of Tank Waste. XVI. General Re- marks Four Appendices treating of Yields, Sulphuric Acid Calculations, Anemometers, and Foreign Legislation upon the Noxious Vapours Question. " The author has given the fullest, most practical, and, to all concerned in the alkali trade, most valuable mass of information that, to our knowledge, has been published in any language." En- gineer. "This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details of ^he most approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 232 wood en- gravings, all of which may be used for the purposes of construction. Every step in the manufac uire is very fully described in this manual, and each improvement explained. Everything which tends to introduce economy into the technical details of this trade receives the fullest attention." Athenetttm. "The author is not one of those clever compilers who, on short notice, will 'read up 'any conceiv- able subject, but a practical man in the best sense of the word. We find here not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of the trade, but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing on the successful conduct of alkali works, but which are generally overlooked by even the most experienced technological authors." Chemical Review. Commercial C'Jiemical Analysis. THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL AN- ALYSIS; or, Practical Instructions for the determination of the Intrinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. NORMANDY, Author of "Practical Introduction to Rose's Che- mistry," and Editor of Rose's "Treatise on Chemical Analysis." New Edition, Enlarged and to a great extent re-written, by HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, I2S. 6d. cloth. "We recommend this book to the careful perusal of everyone ; it may be truly affirmed to be of universal interest, and we strongly recommend it to our readers as a guide, alike indispensable to the housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner." Medical Times. "Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results are given, and the work is well edited and carefully written." Nature. Dye-Wares and Colours. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE- W A RES : Their Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications. For the use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. SLATER. Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vo, js. 6d. cloth. *** This book contains a description of about Six Hundred Colours, Chemi- cals, and Drugs used in the Tinctorial Arts, and their Sources, Applications, and possible Impurities. " A complete encyclopaedia of the materia tinctoria. The information given respecting each article is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value of articles such as these, so liable to sophistication, are given with clearness, and are practical as well as valuable." Chemist and Druggist. " Practical dyers, &c., will welcome the work in its improved form. There is no other work in the language which covers precisely the same ground. To technological students preparing: for examinations in dyeing and printing it will prove exceedingly useful," Chemical News, AGRICULTURE, LAND MANAGEMENT, etc. 29 AGRICULTURE, LAND MANAGEMENT, etc. Youatt and Burn's Complete Grazier. THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE- BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium of Husbandry; especially in the departments connected with the Breeding, Rearing, Feeding, and General Management of Stock ; the Management of the Dairy, &c. With Directions for the Culture and Management of Grass Land, of Grain and Root Crops, the Arrangement of Farm Offices, the use of Implements and Machines, and on Draining, Irrigation, Warping, &c. ; and the Application and Relative Value of Manures. By WILLIAM YOUATT, Esq., V.S. Twelfth Edition, very considerably enlarged and brought up to the present requirements of Agri- cultural Practice by ROBERT SCOTT BURN, Author of " Outlines of Modern Farming," "Landed Estates Management," "Farm Management," "The Lessons of My Farm," &c. One large 8vo Volume, 860 pp., with 244 Illustra- tions, i is. half-bound. " The standard and text-book with the farmer and grazier." Farmers' Magazine. "A treatise which will remain a standard work on the subject as long as British agriculture endures." Mark Lane Express (First Notice). " The book deals with all departments of agriculture, and contains an immense amount of valuable information. It is, in fact, an encyclopaedia of agriculture put into readable form, and it is the only work equally comprehensive brought down to present date. It is excellently printed on thick paper, and strongly bound, and deserves a place in the library of every agriculturist." Mark Lane Express (Second Notice). " Of great value to the farmer, more especially to the young cattle breeder and feeder. . . . This esteemed work is well worthy of a place in the libraries of agriculturists." North British Agriculturist. "A valuable repertory of intelligence for all who make agriculture a pursuit, and especially for those who aim at keeping pace with the improvements of the age. . . . The new matter is of so valuable a nature that the volume is now almost entitled to be considered as a distinct work. ' Bell's Messenger. Modern Farming. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. SCOTT BURN. bound, profusely Illustrated, 125. " The aim of the author has been to make his work at once comprehensive and trustworthy, and in this aim he has succeeded to a degree which entitles him to much credit." Morning Advertiser. "Eminently calculated to enlighten the agricultural community on the varied subjects of which it treats, and hence it should hud a place in every farmer's library." Citv Press. " No farmer should be without this book." Banbicry Guardian. A gricultural Engineering. THE COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK OF FARM ENGINEERING. Comprising Practical Treatises on Draining and Embanking; Irrigation and Water Supply; Farm Roads, Fences, and Gates; Farm Buildings, Barn Implements, and Machines; Field Implements and Machines; and Agricul- tural Surveying, Levelling, &c. By Prof. JOHN SCOTT, Editor of the Farmers' Gazette, late Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, &c., &c, In One Vol., 1,150 pages win 600 Illustrations, I2S. half-bound. [Just published. " A copy of this work should be treasured up in every library where the owner thereof is in any way connected with land." Farm and Home, "Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and ability. The author has done his work well ; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. 1 he volume will be of great value to agricultural students, and we have much pleasure in recom- mending it." Mark Lane Express. r /^!r, a y un s: agriculturist we know of no handy volume so likely to be more usefully studied." Bell's Weekly Messenger. Amateur Farming. THE LESSONS OF MY FARM : A Book for Amateur Agri- culturists. Being an Introduction to Farm Practice. By ROBERT SCOTT BURN. With numerous Illustrations. [A New and Enlarged Edition in preparation. 30 CROSBY LOCRlVOOD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. A. Text-Book of English Agriculture. THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN : A Text-Book ot Agriculture, adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department. For Elementary and Advanced Students. By HUGH CLEMENTS (Board ot Trade). i8mo, as. 6d. cloth. 'A most comprehensive volume, giving a mass of information." Agricultural Economist. ' " It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or which contains such a vast and useful fund of knowledge." Educational Times. Agricultural Data. NOTE BOOK of AGRICULTURAL FACTS and FIGURES, for Farmers and Farm Students. By PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, Fellow of the Highland and Agricultural Society; late Professor of Agriculture, Glasgow Veterinary College. Royal samo oblong, leather, with strap, 45. " It is full of very valuable information. Farmers' sons and other youths who wish to become farmers at home or abroad, might, even before their school education is completed, become familiar with the facts and figures furnished in this interesting and valuable little book." Aberdeen Free Hudson's Land Valuer's Poc7cet-Boo7c. THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT: Being Tables on a very much Improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of Estates. With Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute Measure, &c. By R. HUDSON, C.E. New Edition. Royal 32010, leather, gilt edges, elastic band, 45. JS wart's Land Improver's Pocket-Book. THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK OF FORMULAE, TABLES and MEMORANDA required in any Computation relating to the Permanent Improvement of Landed Property, By JOHN EWART, Land Surveyor and Agricultural Engineer. Royal 32010, oblong, leather, gilt edges, with elastic band, 45. "A compendious and handy little volume." Spectator. Complete Agricultural Surveyor's Pocket-Book. THE LAND VALUER'S AND LAND IMPROVER'S COM- PLETE POCKET-BOOK. Consisting of the above Two Works bound to- gether. Leather, gilt edges, with strap, 75. 6d. " We consider Hudson's book to be the best ready-reckoner on matters relating to the valua- t'on of land and crops we have ever seen, and its combination with Mr. Ewart's work greatly enhances the value and usefulness of the latter-mentioned. . . . It is most useful as a manual for reference." North of England Fanner. Potato Culture. POTATOES : How to Grow and Show them. A Practical Guide to the Cultivation and General Treatment of the Potato. By JAMES PINK. With Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. " A well-written little volume. The author gives good practical instructions under both divisions of his subject." Agricultural Gazette. GARDENING, FLORICULTURE, etc. Early Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables. THE FORCING GARDEN : or, How to Grow Early Fruits, Flowers, and Vegetables. With Plans, and Estimates for Building Glass- houses, Pits and Frames. Containing also Original Plans for Double Glazing, a New Method of Growing the Gooseberry under Glass, &c., &c., and on Venti- lation, Protecting Vine Borders, &c. With Illustrations. By SAMUEL WOOD. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. A. good book, and fairly fills a place that was in some degree vacant. _ The book is written t deal of valuable tes with great care, and contains a great deal of valuable teaching." Gardeners' Magazine. " Mr. Wood's book is an original and exhaustive c Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables?'" Land and Water. Mr. Wood's book is an original and exhaustive answer to the question 'How to Grow Early GARDENING^ FLORICULTURE, etc. 3i Good Gardening* A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING ; or, How to Grow Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers. With Practical Notes on Soils, Manures, Seeds, Planting. Laying-out of Gardens and Grounds, &c. By S. WOOD. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 55. cloth. " A very good book, and one to be highly recommended as a practical guide. The practical directions are excellent." Athcncziim. " May be recommended to young- gardeners, cottagers, and specially to amateurs, for the plain, simple, and trustworthy information it gives on common matters too often neglected." Gardeners C-hroniclc. Gainful Gardening. MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING; or, How to make One Acre of Land produce 620 a-year by the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables ; also, How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses, so as to realise 176 per annum clear Profit. By SAMUEL WOOD, Author of "Good Gardening," &c. Fourth Edition, revised. With Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 2S. cloth. "We are bound to recommend it as not only suited to the case of the amateur and gentleman's gardener, but to the market grower." Gardeners' Magazine. " Of all the practical guides to the amateur, as well as being invaluable to most gardeners, Mr Wood's book is the most accurate and concise." Horticultural Record. Gardening for Ladies. THE LADIES' MULTUM-IN-PARVO FLOWER GARDEN, and Amateur's Complete Guide. With Illustrations. By SAMUEL WOOD. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. "This volume contains a good deal of sound, common-sense instruction." Florist. " Full of shrewd hints and useful instructions, based on a lifetime of experience." Scotsman. ~] lleceipts for Gardeners. GARDEN RECEIPTS. Edited by CHARLES W. QUIN. i2mo, is. 6d. cloth limp. " A useful and handy book, containing a good deal of valuable information." Athenaeum. Kitchen Gardening. THE KITCHEN A ND MA RKET GA RDEN. By Contributors to "The Garden." Compiled by C. W. SHAW, Editor of " Gardening Illus- trated." i2mo, 35. 6d. cloth boards. " The most valuable compendium of kitchen and market-garden work published." Farmer. Cottage Gardening. COTTAGE GARDENING; or, Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables for Small Gardens. By E. HOBDAY, 12010, is. 6d. cloth limp. " Definite instructions as to the cultivation of small gardens." Scotsman, " Contains much useful information at a small charge." Glasgow Herald. ' AUCTIONEERING, ESTATE AGENCY, etc. Auctioneer's Assistant. THE APPRAISER, A UCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE AND ESTATE AGENT AND VALUER'S POCKET ASSISTANT, forthe Valua- tion for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities and Reversions, and of property generally; with Prices for Inventories, &c. By JOHN WHEELER, Valuer, &c. Fifth Edition, Re-written and greatly Extended by C. MORRIS, Surveyor, Valuer, &c. Royal 32010, 55. cloth. " A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearly-arranged list of prices for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, &c." Standard " Cram full of valuable information of practical value. It is a trustworthy and compendious guide to all sorts of valuation." Insurance Agent. Auctioneering. AUCTIONEERS: Their Duties and Liabilities. By ROBERT SQUIBBS, Auctioneer. Demy 8vo, los. 6d. cloth. "The position and duties of auctioneers are treated compendiously and clearly." Builder. "Every auctioneer ought to possess a copy of this excellent work." Ironmonger. "Of great value to the profession. . . . We readily welcome this book." Estates Gazettt. 32 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> co.*s CATALOGUE. House Property. HANDBOOK OF HOUSE PROPERTY : A Popular and Practical Guide to the Purchase, Mortgage, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale of Houses and Land. By E. L. TARBUCK, Architect and Surveyor. Third Edition, i2mo, 35. 6d. cloth. "The advice is thoroughly practical." Laiu Journal. "This is a well-written and thoughtful work. We commend the work to the careful study of al] interested in questions affecting houses and land." Land Agents' Record. Imvood's Estate Tables, TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING OF ESTATES, Freehold, Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, &c., and for the Renewing oi Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other Corporate bodies, for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives; also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next Presentations, &c. : together with SMART'S Five Tables of Compound Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate Rates. By W. INWOOD. 22nd Edition, with considerable Additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest of Money, Discount, Annuities, &c. , by M. FEDOR THOMAN, of the Societe Credit Mobilier of Paris. I2mo, 8s. cloth. "Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will mid the present edition of eminent service." Engineering. " ' Inwood's Tables ' still maintain a most enviable reputation. The new issue has been enriched by large additional contributions by M. Fedor Thoman, whose carefully arranged Tables cannot fail to be of the utmost utility." M ining Journal. Hoiv to Invest. HINTS FOR INVESTORS : Being an Explanation of the Mode ; of Transacting Business on the Stock Exchange. To which are added Com- ments on the Fluctuations and Table of Quarterly Average prices of Consols since 1759. Also a Copy of the London Daily Stock and Share List. By WALTER M. PLAVFORD, Sworn Broker. Crown 8vo, zs. cloth. "A clearly-written book, by one who evidently knows the sort of information which the Investor is likely to want." Lloyd's Neivs. " An invaluable guide to investors and speculators." Bullionist. A Complete Epitome of the Laivs of this Country. EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER: A -Handy-book of the Principles of Law and Equity. By A BARRISTER. Twenty-second Edition. Carefully revised and brought down to the end of the last Session, including Summaries of the Latest Statute Laws. With Notes and References to the Authorities. Crown 8vo, price 6s. 8rf. (saved at every consultation), strongly bound in cloth. Comprising THE RIGHTS AND WRONGS OF INDIVIDUALS MERCANTILE AND COM- MERCIAL LAW CRIMINAL LAW PARISH LAW COUNTY COURT LAW GAME AND FISHERY LAWS POOR MEN'S LAWSUITS THE LAWS OF BANKRUPTCY BETS AND AVAGERS CHEQUES, BILLS, AND NOTES CONTRACTS AND AGREEMENTS COPYRIGHT ELECTIONS AND REGISTRATION INSURANCE LIBEL AND SLANDER MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE MERCHANT SHIPPING MORTGAGES SETTLEMENTS STOCK EXCHANGE PRACTICE TRADE MARKS AND PATENTS TRESPASS NUISANCES, &c. TRANSFER OF LAND, &c. WARRANTY WILLS AND AGREEMENTS, &c. &c. Also, Law for Landlord and Tenant Master and Servant Workmen and Apprentices Heirs Devisees and Legatees Husband and Wife Executors and Trustees Guardian and Ward- - Married Women and Infants Partners and Agents Lender, Borrower and Sureties Debtor and Creditor Purchaser and Vendor Companies and Associations Friendly Societies Clergymen- Churchwardens Medical Practitioners, &c. Bankers Farmers Contractors Stock and Share Brokers Sportsmen Gamekeepers Farriers and Horse Dealers Auctioneers House Agents- Innkeepers, &c. Bakers Millers, &c. Pawnbrokers Surveyors Railways and Carriers Con- stables Seamen Soldiers, &c. &c. Opinions of the Press. " No Englishman ought to be -without this book. . . . Any person perfectly uninformed on legal matters, who may require sound information on unknown law points, will, by reference to this book, acquire the necessary information, and thus on many occasions save the expense and loss of time of a visit to a \xvyvt. Ettfituer, "It is a complete code of English Law, written in plain language, which all can understand. . . . . Should be in the hands of every business man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers' bills. Weekly Times. "A useful and concise epitome of the law, compiled with considerable care." Law Magazine. " What it professes to be a complete epitome of the laws of this country, thoroughly intelli- gible to non-professional readers. The book is a handy one to have in readiness when some knotty point requires ready solution." Belfs Life. J. OGDEN AND CO., PRINTERS, 172, ST. JOHN STREET, E.G. RETURN TO DESK FROM BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or oo the date to which renewed. Renewals only: Tel. No. 642-3405 Renewals may be made 4 days prior to date due. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. /Z 2 U 1977 o REC. ILLJUN 151978^ LD21A-20m-3,'73 (Q8677slO)476-A-31 General Library University of California Berkeley n^noi-al T.ihrarv 4 r